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Cyclopædia of Political Science, Political Economy, and the Political History of the United States
NOTE, Diplomatic. In diplomatic language the written communication which takes place between accredited agents of different powers is called note. The different kinds of notes are distinguished as follows: The official note, ordinarily signed by an ambassador, a minister plenipotentiary, a chargé d'affaires; in a word, by the diplomatic agent. The verbal note, not signed, either because the diplomatic agent does not wish to assume responsibility in a definitive way, or because there is need simply to recall the essential points of a political conversation upon questions which have been treated viva voce. The secret note, which has been introduced into diplomatic usage to furnish a more complete understanding of the state of affairs and the probabilities of their solution, outside of the official correspondence.
Return to top | <urn:uuid:885c0ca2-3dd0-422c-a01d-42e7ec53e297> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Lalor/llCy769.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00102-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942925 | 179 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Physicists have demonstrated how a molecule's symmetry can be broken.
Reinhard Dörner of Johann-Wolfgang-Goethe University in Frankfurt, Germany, and his colleagues began an experiment with a single, symmetrical molecule made of two hydrogen atoms. They then fired a single photon at the dumbbell-shaped molecule to split it. The photon's energy caused one of the hydrogen molecule's two electrons to peel away.
However, the ejected and the stay-at-home electrons maintained a lingering interdependence, as the laws of quantum physics dictate. Accordingly, when the researchers measured the ejected electron's path, that measurement influenced the behavior of the other electron, they say.
When the molecule subsequently fell apart into a single hydrogen atom and an H+ ion, the process of dissociation wasn't symmetrical, Dörner's team reports in the Feb. 2 Science. The paths of the atom and the ion weren't random with respect to that of the emitted electron. | <urn:uuid:7f63ff8d-64ee-4e4f-9db4-92dd1ea60f04> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.sciencenews.org/article/breaking-molecules-mirror-image | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00021-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933184 | 202 | 4.09375 | 4 |
To many people, the concept of Bitcoin as a whole is incredibly difficult to grasp. It all comes down to how one looks at Bitcoin, as there are various angles to this technological marvel. A lot of people see Bitcoin as just another form of money, which begs the question as to how they can use this innovative payment over IP tool to their benefit. Consumers can benefit from digital currency in multiple ways, and will gladly tell them how to do so.
Bitcoin is A Protocol Of Value
Unlike what most people tend to believe, Bitcoin is a protocol in its own right. Not only because this system allows for financial transactions around the world without interference from banks or requiring access to financial systems, but also because it lets users send funds using an Internet connection. Online payment methods are nothing new under the sun these days, but Bitcoin is a completely different creature altogether.
Bitcoin effectively created a way for consumers to send money over IP, similar to how tools such as WhatsApp allow for text messaging over IP, and Skype allows for voice over IP. In saying that things are “over IP”, it means they can be done completely free of charge as long as there is an internet connection available to the user.
Translating the concept of money – cold hard cash, in nearly every country in the world – to something that does not exist in a tangible form, has proven to be quite a challenge. That may seem odd, considering how people in the Western world have been able to use online banking and plastic card payments for quite some time now.
To some people, digital currency is the next logical evolutionary step in the world of payments and internet connectivity. Technology allows us to achieve many great things, and with the payment sector seeing little to no innovation in several years, it was only a matter of time until both worlds collided. Bitcoin provides a trustless decentralized network that is not controlled by banks or governments and removes the need for third-party service providers.
Despite all of the positive aspects provided by Bitcoin – such as secure financial transactions, a global currency, and an ecosystem with no entry barriers – the digital currency has still not been fully embraced. While the number of merchants accepting Bitcoin transactions keeps growing, very few consumers seem to be joining the ranks.
But What Can it Do For Me As A Consumer?
This is one of the age-old questions by novice users: What can Bitcoin do for me? First of all, the popular digital currency lets anyone in the world transfer funds cheaply and in real-time to anyone else in the world. This is especially of value for users who enjoy splitting bills with friends or send money back to family members when working abroad.
Secondly, Bitcoin provides a way for anyone in the world to store wealth on a distributed ledger, regardless of whether or not they have access to a bank account. Anyone with an Internet connection can become their own bank, by storing Bitcoin in a wallet they fully control at all times. Being able to access one’s funds at any given time is unlike anything traditional finance has to offer right now.
Moreover, this is one of the very few payment methods that is available on any device, ranging from smartphones to computers and even a Raspberry Pi. This powerful payment protocol transcends the artificial borders of traditional finance and uses the power of the Internet to do so. With the smartphone business exploding all over the world, mobile payment solutions are direly needed, and Bitcoin is in a prime position to offer millennials the services they crave.
But there is even more, as Bitcoin removes payment fraud from the equation completely. Even though mainstream media has been largely focusing on the negative sides of Bitcoin throughout the years, they are starting to run out of ammunition quickly. The possibilities are endless where the popular digital currency’s protocol is concerned while traditional finance is confined to its very tight quarters. | <urn:uuid:e03d95c5-1452-43af-977f-b775e4045fd0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.newsbtc.com/2016/01/25/mainstream-media-will-not-tell-bitcoin/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00003-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957741 | 779 | 2.609375 | 3 |
|(Permission is granted to print and redistribute this material
as long as this header and the footer at the end are included.)
1) TWO DEATHS OR TWO KORBANOS
QUESTION: The Gemara says that Shmuel learns the concept of Chiluk Melachos (that doing multiple Melachos on a single Shabbos will be Mechayev him to bring multiple Korbanos) from the verse "Mechaleleha *Mos Yumas*" -- "He who desecrates Shabbos *shall die, he shall die*" (Shemos 31:14), which implies that one who desecrates Shabbos is Chayav more than one death. This means, according to Shmuel, that one is Chayav more than one *Korban* for desecrating the Shabbos inadvertently, by doing multiple Melachos. The Gemara points out that even though the simple meaning of the verse is that he is Chayav more than one death for desecrating Shabbos intentionally, we may nevertheless use this verse to teach us about inadvertent desecration, because there is another verse that teaches us the Chiyuv for one who desecrates Shabbos intentionally.
70b2) IF ONE FORGOT BOTH SHABBOS AND MELACHOS
OPINIONS: Rav Nachman and Rav Ashi argue in case where a person forgot both that it was Shabbos and that this act is forbidden on Shabbos. Rav Nachman says that he is Chayav only one Korban, because it was his Ha'alamah of Shabbos that caused him to sin, while Rav Ashi says that it depends on what we determine his Ha'alamah to have been; if he ceases from doing the transgression when we tell him that today is Shabbos, then he is Chayav only one Korban (because his sin was done in He'elem Shabbos). If he ceases when we tell him that what he is doing is a Melachah, then he is Chayav to bring a Korban for each Melachah that he did (He'elem Melachos).Next daf(a) RASHI (DH Iy) explains that if we tell him that it is Shabbos and as a result he stops doing Melachah, then that shows that he was acting in He'elem Shabbos, and he is Chayav to bring only one Korban. Similarly, if we tell him that performing the Melachah on Shabbos is forbidden and as a result he stops doing Melachah, we know that his Ha'alamah was He'elem Melachah and he is Chayav to bring two Korbanos (or a Korban for every Melachah that he performed)..
Shema Yisrael Torah Network
In the U.S.:
Tel. (908) 370-3344
Fax. (908) 367-6608
Toll free line for dedications: 1-800-574-2646 | <urn:uuid:15631d6f-5ffe-4ce5-b685-77689f32ef19> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.shemayisrael.co.il/dafyomi2/shabbos/insites/sh-dt-070.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00081-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953971 | 661 | 2.9375 | 3 |
SALT LAKE CITY - After New Year’s Day, the Catholic Church celebrates the Feast of the Epiphany, which traditionally is celebrated on Jan. 6.
Most of the Hispanic world celebrates the feast as El Día De Reyes, (the Day of Kings) remembering the three wise men who followed the star to Bethlehem and arrived at the manger bearing gifts of gold, frankincense and myrrh for the baby Jesus.
Three wise men, or magi as they also are known, aren’t named in the Bible but tradition has given them the names Gaspar, Melchior and Balthazar.
In the Hispanic celebration of the feast, on the night of Jan. 5, the figurines of the three wise men are added to the nativity scene. Before going to bed the children place their old shoes under their bed or in the living room, where the wise men will leave them their presents. Some also place hay and a bucket with water outside the house for the animals, and even some cookies and milk for Melchior, Gaspar and Balthazar.
"We always celebrate this day with our kids; I simply love this celebration," said Marina Cruz, a parishioner from the Cathedral of the Madeleine who always has a special meal to celebrate the kings.
The Merienda de Reyes (picnic of kings) is a multicultural event. The Spaniards brought the tradition of celebrating the Epiphany and sharing rosca (a bagel-type bread) to the New World. The rosca is served along with tamales and hot chocolate.
Corn, from which the tamales are made, and chocolate came from the native peoples of the New World.
Hidden inside the rosca is a plastic figurine of the baby Jesus, symbolizing the need to find a secure place where Jesus could be born, a place where King Herod would not find Him.
During the meal, each person cuts a slice of the rosca. The knife symbolizes the danger that the Baby Jesus was in. One by one the guests inspect their slice, hoping they didn’t get the figurine.
Whoever gets the baby figurine becomes the host of a new celebration on Feb. 2, Candelaria or Candlemas Day, and also buys new clothing for the Baby Jesus of the Nativity scene.
In the Catholic Church, Candlemas Day celebrates the Feast of the Presentation of Jesus in the Temple.
"I love rosca; I am always waiting for this season so I can eat some," said Fernando Ruiz, Our Lady of Guadalupe parishioner. | <urn:uuid:8e1a2118-894b-48db-af6c-7004724df27f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.icatholic.org/article/lets-celebrate-the-day-of-the-three-wise-men-1553316 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00189-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.934462 | 545 | 2.671875 | 3 |
The simple answer: Because mandatory harvest reports don't give the DWR any better information.
The long answer:
A few points by the article: http://www.mnr.gov.on.ca/MNR_E005349.pdf
1) Mandatory reporting does NOT ensure 100% reporting or 100% accuracy...in fact, sometimes hunters perceive an incentive to actually lie about their success or lack thereof--" Gamesmanship, or perceived dangers from giving true information may cause people to misrepresent the truth (i.e. lie), especially about killing an animal. This might be more prevalent for...hunters who may believe tag numbers would go down if kill rates are high or among individuals who might believe that reporting the harvest of an animal could lower their personal chance of getting a tag in future."
2) Costs--"When all costs are considered, mandatory reporting may cost about nine
times as much as an equal size voluntary sample and six times as much per report (see “The costs of big game harvest assessment”, page 9). Optimal sampling within the deer or moose programs would produce statistically valid harvest estimates with about 30 per cent of hunters sampled. In these cases mandatory reporting from all hunters could cost as much as 23 times more than optimal voluntary programs." Also, "Statistical methods operate on the principle that a representative sample can provide information which is as good as a complete count, but less (often much less) expensive. In many cases, a complete count is not possible. Mandatory reporting ignores the economic savings which optimal sampling could provide. It should be necessary to demonstrate that the economic efficiency of mandatory reporting exceeds that of optimal sampling (i.e. that a 300 per cent increase in costs produces at least a 300 per cent improvement in information value)."
3) Hunter surveys tend to overestimate harvest which errs on the side of conservation--"“Statistical Estimates” of harvest are not expected to be perfectly accurate. They depend on an assumption that the activities of hunters who report are similar to those who do not report or those who are not sampled. This is not always true. Voluntary sampling tends to overestimate harvest because hunters who feel they have something important to report (i.e. a harvested animal) tend to respond at a higher rate than those who do not harvest game. This error is on the side of conservation, but can be corrected, again by statistical techniques. Generally, statistically estimates may be either higher or lower than the true
harvest, but they are correct “on average”."
4) Mandatory harvest reports tend to underestimate harvest--"Mandatory reports would likely underestimate harvests. Few people would be expected to report killing an animal if they did not and more advantages might be gained by not reporting actual kills. Because harvest information is “added” for mandatory reports rather than “projected”(as with sampling), every animal which is not reported represents an underestimate of the true harvest."
5) A wealth of information aside from harvest is needed to best control big game populations--"Many factors influence the abundance of game and the allowable harvest.
These include habitat quality, productivity, predation, accidental mortality, as well as subsistence harvests and recreational hunting. Each of these differ geographically, probably annually, and they may interact in complex ways. The important point is that most of these factors are measured crudely or not at all. The value of obtaining extremely high quality harvest information at relatively high cost is undermined by having little or no information on other factors."
6) Mandatory harvest reporting rarely gives drastically different information than samples--"If all other things are equal and unbiased, a proper statistical interpretation of the harvest estimate for a hypothetical WMU would state that “the harvest was probably between 95 and 105 animals, and averaged 100 animals over the past three years.” Mandatory reporting would state “the harvest was 96 in year 1, 106 in year 2, and 98 in year 3.” There is no reason to believe that mandatory reporting would provide a totally different answer (like the harvest was 50 or 150 animals) and clearly the management decisions from both voluntary and mandatory assessments should be identical." | <urn:uuid:d9ede778-c078-4e33-b1b6-60b0fffd0604> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://utahwildlife.net/forum/12-big-game/23000-mandatory-harvest-reporting.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00092-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951606 | 857 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Joseph the Seer—or Why Did He Translate With a Rock in His Hat?
[To the left] The manner of translation was as wonderful as the discovery. By putting his finger on one of the characters and imploring divine aid, then looking through the Urim and Thummim, he would see the import written in plain English on a screen placed before him. After delivering this to his emanuensi,[sic] he would again proceed in the same manner and obtain the meaning of the next character, and so on till he came to the part of the plates which were sealed up.1
Truman Coe, Presbyterian Minister living among the Saints in Kirtland, 1836
[To the right] I cheerfully certify that I was familiar with the manner of Joseph Smith’s translating the book of Mormon. He translated the most of it at my Father’s house. And I often sat by and saw and heard them translate and write for hours together. Joseph never had a curtain drawn between him and his scribe while he was translating. He would place the director in his hat, and then place his [face in his] hat, so as to exclude the light, and then [read] to his scribe the words as they appeared before him.2
Elizabeth Ann Whitmer Cowdery, Oliver Cowdery’s wife, 1870
These two descriptions of Joseph Smith translating the golden plates paint radically different pictures of the same event. It easy to accept the finger-on-the-plates translation, but the rock-in-the-hat feels completely foreign. Nevertheless, it is a much better attested description of the process than the first.
Why do we have both of these pictures if the second better fits the majority of descriptions? To answer that question, there are two stories that must be told: first–why would anyone think of translating with a rock in a hat?–and second–why we are so surprised at that?
Why Do You Look At Rocks in Your Hat?
When the English left their villages and emigrated to the New World, they brought their customs and beliefs with them. Along with the hopeful, the adventurers, and the farmers,-—cunning men and wise women disembarked in the New World.3 To be a cunning man or a wise woman was to play a well defined and important role in pre-industrial villages. Keith Thomas, retired Professor of Modern History at Oxford University, wrote what has become the principle history of folk magic in England from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries. He tells how, in the villages, contemporary medicine drove people to the cunning men and wise women who understood herbs. The lack of local police forces made the community depend on cunning folk to find lost or stolen goods.4 These village specialists performed such important functions that Thomas notes that the community was “likely to believe that the cunning folk were taught by God, or that they were helped by angels, or even that they possessed some divinity of their own. The common people, wrote Thomas Cooper, assumed that the power of these wizards came by ‘some extraordinary gift of God’.”5
The cunning men and women exhibited their extraordinary talents in many ways, but there is one that provides the backdrop against which young Joseph Smith is more clearly defined. He belonged to a class of cunning men whose specialty was scrying, or seeing the hidden. It was a specialty with a very long and almost universal history.6 Anthropologist Andrew Lang, writing in 1905, describes the tools of their trade:
Not only is the plain crystal, or its congener the black stone, used, together with its first cousin the mirror, and the primitive substitute of water, but almost any bright object seems to have been employed at one time or another. Thus we find the sword among the Romans; and in mediaeval Europe polished iron . . . lamp-black is sometimes smeared on the hand, or. . . a pool of ink poured into it; visions are seen in smoke and flame, in black boxes, in jugs, and on white paper. . . .7
All of these methods sound strange to our modern ears, but they were not only accepted but revered for most of human history. By the time we find scryers or seers in England between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries, their tools were often stones and their functions had evolved into two general forms; seeing a hidden future, and seeing the hidden location of things that were lost (or the thief who made them get “lost”). The conservative nature of such practices dictated that when the traditions of the cunning men and wise women are found in the Palmyra area of the 1820s they still performed their traditional functions of telling fortunes and seeing things that were lost, hidden, or stolen.8
Young Joseph Smith was a member of a specialized sub-community with ties to these very old and very respected practices, though by the early 1800s they were respected only by a marginalized segment of society. He exhibited a talent parallel to others in similar communities. Even in Palmyra he was not unique. In D. Michael Quinn’s words: “Until the Book of Mormon thrust young Smith into prominence, Palmyra’s most notable seer was Sally Chase, who used a greenish-colored stone. William Stafford also had a seer stone, and Joshua Stafford had a ‘peepstone which looked like white marble and had a hole through the center.'”9 Richard Bushman adds Chauncy Hart, and an unnamed man in Susquehanna County, both of whom had stones with which they found lost objects.10
There are some reminiscences that tell us how the village seers operated before modern history either forgot or dismissed them.. Lorenzo and Benjamin Saunders gave interviews in 1884 remembering their dealings with the Palmyra seer, Sally Chase. Lorenzo reported:
I tell you when a man willme that anyone can get a stone, & see knowledge of futurity, I say that he is a liar & the truth is not in him. Steve Mungou lost his pocket book in the road with some $50 in money in it. He went right to Sally Chase to get her to look & see where it was; She went & looked. He was drawing wood out of the woods. She said that pocket book lays right at the side off a log in the woods where you loaded that wood. It lays right at the side of the log well we went & hunted & raked the ground over where she said but could not find it. It past along & finally one night got a paper from Canadagua [Canandaigua, New York], & in it was that a pocket book was found & taken to an old Ontario Bank[.] Took it there & the owner could come & describe his book. And he went & found his pocket book at the bank. I lost [a] drag tooth out of my drag, dragging on my brothers premises there; I says: Sally, tell me where is that drag tooth? She told me “it lays in a log heap.” She says I think it lays a little past you will find it.
I went & hunted & hunted but could not find it there. I afterwards found it away over in one corner of the field.11
Benjamin provided a similar story: “My oldest Brother had some Cattle stray away. She claimed she could see them but they were found right in the opposite direction from where she said they were.”12 These accounts portray the way Sally Chase functioned in the community. When things were lost, you went to the seer who consulted her seer stone and described how to find the lost item. The Saunders brothers could have been describing events from an English village of over a hundred years earlier. In the brief descriptions that have survived, we know that Lorenzo consulted her at least twice himself, once to find the drag tooth and once to find lost cattle. He also tells us of another client, Steve Mungou. Both brothers, however, found it necessary to append that, of course, Sally was mistaken in the location she gave, a qualification that apparently didn’t stop them from consulting her again.
Joseph Smith, long before golden plates complicated his position as a local seer, appears to have functioned just as Sally Chase did. Quinn reports that: “E. W. Vanderhoof [writing in 1905] remembered that his Dutch grandfather once paid Smith seventy-five cents to look into his ‘whitish, glossy, and opaque’ stone to locate a stolen mare. The grandfather soon ‘recovered his beast, which Joe said was somewhere on the lake shore and [was] about to be run over to Canada.’ Vanderhoof groused that ‘anybody could have told him that, as it was invariably the way a horse thief would take to dispose of a stolen animal in those days.'”13 While Vanderhoof reported a positive result of the consultation, it is interesting that his statement includes a qualifier that has the same intent as those added by the Saunders’ brothers. By the end of the century, one wouldn’t want to actually credit a village seer when describing their activities. Nevertheless, it isn’t the effectiveness that is important—it is the nature of the consultation. Sally Chase’s clients consulted her to find things which were lost, and Joseph Smith had at least one client who did the same.
The social expectations of the village seer also explain two contradictory statements about what Joseph Smith did as a village seer. The first statement comes from Henry Harris in 1833: “Joseph Smith, Jr. the pretended Prophet, used to pretend to tell fortunes; he had a stone which he used to put in his hat, by means of which he professed to tell people’s fortunes.”14 Compare that statement to a story Lorenzo Saunders told to Edmund L. Kelley during his 1884 interview:
We went to Smiths one day, it was a rainy day; We went into the old mans shop, he was a cooper, and the old man had a shirt on it was the raggedest & dirtyest shirt, and all full of holes. & we got Jo. Smith to look & tell us what color our Girls hair was. well you see by & by some of them says go to Jo. says he Jo. come look into futurity & tell us how it is there? Jo. says I can not do that, I can not look into futurity I can not look into anything that is holy. The old man stood there and says: “I guess he can not look into my shirt then.15
Both Henry Harris and Lorenzo Saunders expected that Joseph Smith told fortunes. Of course they would have that expectation, because everyone knew that was one of the typical functions of the seer. However, where Harris may simply be repeating the assumption, Saunders describes what happened when he asked Joseph to act on that assumption. At least in this case, Joseph refused. The fact that the joke in the account depends upon young Joseph’s comment about not looking at that which is Holy and his father’s holey shirt suggests that this was a remembered incident and that Joseph Smith, Jr. actually had refused. I suspect that the refusal tells us about the spheres in which Joseph believed that particular talent operated. That refusal suggests Joseph made a distinction between that which was holy (which I believe he classified as religion) and his other functions (which I believe he classified as a talent).
What the modern world tends to know about the village seers is the result of only one of the ways in which their talents were put to use. Since they could see that which was hidden, local seers became involved in the mania of digging for lost treasure. As with the other functions of the cunning men and wise women, the idea of digging for treasure traced its roots to England, including much of the accompanying lore. In England, the semi-scientific root of treasure seeking was the habit of the wealthy burying their goods for safe-keeping in the absence of a deposit banking system.16 In the New World, the plausible explanation was based on the riches reputedly buried by Spaniards or pirates. It is probable that everyone could cite cases of people who had struck it rich through their digging, though none of them had, nor anyone they personally knew.17
In English tradition, seers were invited to assist the diggers in locating the buried goods. As Thomas explains: “There was not necessarily anything magical about the search for treasure as such, but in practice the assistance of a conjurer or wizard was very frequently invoked. This was partly because it was thought that special divining tools might help, such as the ‘Mosaical Rods’ for which many contemporary formulae survive.”18
It is therefore no surprise that we see the Palmyra seers engaged in the local mania for treasure digging. As with the English practice, however, it is important to note that money-digging didn’t require the seer. They were simply seen as useful. Note the relationship of the diggers to their guides in this series of descriptions Ronald W. Walker compiled:
The adepts often played a major role in money digging. The two men who in 1827 sought neatly boxed Spanish dollars below the old pier at New London, Connecticut, were directed by an elderly wise woman. Seeking pirate treasure in Maine, three men imported from Connecticut, a “far-famed and wonderfully skillful rodsman” to assist them. In turn, treasure-hungry farmers of Rose, New York, sought the help of a “medium,” while the 1825 expedition to the Susquehanna hills began with a “peeper” named Odle, whose power of “seeing underground” piqued William Hale’s interest. Moreover, the longtime diggers around Bristol, Vermont, made use of expert advice. They consulted a series of “prophets,” including two women, an “old Frenchman” east of the mountains, and finally a conjuror who promised that by removing a few rocks and “shunning the solid ledge” the long-sought cave might be entered.19
This places an important context around the best-known case of Joseph Smith, Junior’s participation in treasure-digging. Josiah Stowell, Sr., believed that he had found a lost Spanish silver mine and had his hired hands dig for it in 1825. When they were unable to find it, he hired Joseph Smith, Jr. to help them find what they had dug for and missed.20 This incident was the reason that in 1826, Stowell’s wife’s nephew took Joseph to court as a “disorderly person,” a term that was then defined in such a way that we might consider it a case of fraud.21 Presumably, Peter Bridgeman believed that Joseph had defrauded his uncle because he used a seer stone. This would not be the last time that Joseph’s activities with a seer stone were described as fraud. In terms coined only later, Joseph would be accused of being a “confidence man.”22 One of Joseph Smith’s biographers, Dan Vogel, picks up and continues this theme. As Vogel describes the reason why one might see Joseph as a con man, he also provides the information that allows us to see the important ways in which that label is a distortion of the actual historical situation:
A typical confidence scheme in Smith’s time involved a transient who entered an area that was known for its tales of lost treasures and the charlatan’s magical powers could be put to good advantage. Using a “peep” stone or mineral rod, he would lead the credulous to a remote spot where he had previously deposited a few coins and was able to impress them by “finding” the coins. In the ensuing excitement, he would ask to be paid for his services or, more boldly, suggest that a company be established and that shares be sold. Thereupon, he would disappear with the money. On the other hand, he might string the people along by leading them to subsequent spots, then offer magical explanations for the failure to locate or secure the treasure. For instance, he might tell them that the treasure was protected by an evil spirit or that they had not precisely followed the magical formula he had given them. Eventually he would suggest that the undertaking be abandoned, whereupon he would slip out of town with the money.23
The implication is that since Joseph used a peep stone, he must be seen in the same category as those who ran a scam with one. Clearly the 1826 court appearance tells us that some contemporaries considered him in that category. However, although the evidence is complex, it appears that Joseph was acquitted of the charge at that time.24 Should he also be redeemed from the continuing charges?
Undoubtedly there were those who preyed upon the folk beliefs of the too-trusting rural communities. However, the fact that the communities would be willing to follow the confidence scheme simply tells us that there was an existing belief system in which seer stones were considered effective and acceptable. The confidence men played off inherited traditions. Nevertheless, the fact that there are dishonest pretenders in any profession does not suggest that the entire profession is designed for dishonesty. Scams were run concerning seer stones not because seer stones were novel, but precisely because they were a traditional and respected method of finding that which was hidden.
There are two critical differences between the con men and the village seers. First, the charlatans were transients and the village seers were residential. The second is that the con man elicited money for his talents, and the village seers were consulted. We have at least three descriptions of how Joseph related to his clients, including Josiah Stowell, and in each case the client came to him with their problem.25 The con men created the scam for money and left so they would not have to deal with the consequences. The true village seers were part of the community, and remained so through success and failure. Their clients came to them because of a cumulative reputation. Against the records of a few scam artists we have the long tradition of village seers stretching back to England and covering hundreds of years of respectable service in their communities.
It is this traditional context of a finder of lost things, a see-er of the unseen, that explains how rocks in the hat figure in to the story of Joseph Smith and the translation of the Book of Mormon. The plates were accompanied by the Nephite Interpreters, which were two stones set in a silver bow.26 These stones appear to have functioned in a way Joseph understood from his experience with a seer stone. Although he began translation with the Nephite Interpreters, the record indicates that he changed to using his own seer stone. Why put the stone in a hat to translate? That part of the picture is easy. That was how such a stone was used. For Joseph’s community, that aspect was not unusual at all.27
Why translate with a stone? The conceptual link in Joseph’s mind would have been that he had been able to see that which was hidden, and the meaning of the script on the plates was certainly hidden to understanding. Nevertheless, this wasn’t a simple transition from seer to translator, even for Joseph. Joseph’s talent was for the mundane, but his gift was for the Holy. Joseph understood the difference between the two when Benjamin Saunders wanted him to see into futurity. Joseph understood that when he was asked to translate, he was being asked to do something very different from what village seers did. He was being asked to do something very different from what learned men did (2 Ne. 27:15-18).
Joseph learned from his community how to operate as a village seer, but he didn’t begin to understand how to be God’s seer until Moroni appeared to him. He did not fully make that transition until the sacred interpreters helped him move from finding lost objects to finding a lost people and lost gospel. Then, having learned to see that which was Holy, Joseph never returned to the mundane functions of the village seer. Eventually, he learned that he could use a seer stone just as well as the Interpreters. Only when he learned to see that which was Holy could he translate–and then it didn’t matter the lens through which he saw.
It is at this point that some might wonder if I believe that all seers saw things in their seer stones. I believe that seers believed that that they saw things in their seer stones. Do I believe that the seer stone prepared Joseph to translate?28 Only in that it allowed him to believe that he had a God-given talent that could be used for the purpose. Nothing in the world view of the seers prepared him for translating. He didn’t originally believe that his secular stones could translate, only the sacred interpreters. Even later when he learned that he could also translate through his own seer stone, he consistently said that the translation was done through the gift and power of God, not through any kind of rock. He knew that no other village seer could do it; he knew that he could not do it, save God alone intervened. Translating the plates was beyond the realm of the village seer and firmly and exclusively in the realm of God’s Seer.
Why Are We Surprised that Joseph Used a Rock in His Hat to Translate?
If we can find a context in which Joseph translating with a seer stone makes sense, why do we have to look so hard to find it? Why isn’t it as natural for us as it was for Joseph? That story also requires that we delve into history; in this case, the history of the interconnections between what we understand to be religion and what we understand to be magic.
Judeo-Christian religion shared the cultural cradle of the ancient Middle East. Dr. Shawna Dolansky, Assistant Professor of Religious Studies at Northeastern University, notes: “Evidence from ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia suggests that the dichotomy between magic and religion that is the starting point for many discussions of magic by contemporary scholars was not necessarily evident in biblical times. The fact is, in these civilizations that were contemporary with biblical Israel, magic and religion were only beginning to be differentiated. Evidence especially from Mesopotamia shows that this dichotomy is not an inherent one, but one that gradually develops over a period of time and is intimately tied to increasing social complexity.”29
Many of the Old Testament stories that we accept as religion have much in common with magical practices. They are difficult to separate because their differentiation depended not upon the things that were done, but the way those things were perceived. Sarah Iles Johnston, professor of Greek and Latin at Ohio State University explains:
The modern scholarly quest to establish a division between magic and religion does have some roots in antiquity, insofar as both ancient and modern discussions hinge on terminology: what one chooses to call any particular activity (and, it follows, who is doing the choosing) determines whether the activity is understood as acceptable or discredited, pious or blasphemous, religion or magic. In antiquity, magic (a term that I use as a shorthand way of referring to a variety of ancient Mediterranean words) almost always referred to someone else’s religious practices; it was a term that distanced those practices from the norm–that is, from one’s own practices, which constituted religion.30
Stated simply, “what I do is religion, what you do is magic.”31
Although it is difficult to see without close examination, the Old Testament exhibits this internal/external dichotomy between religion and magic. On the one hand, it is clearly antagonistic to people who perform certain acts. For example, we find in Exodus 22:18 the verse that underlay so many later tragedies: “Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live.” Deuteronomy 18:10-12 provides a list of magical practices that should be avoided: “There shall not be found among you any one that maketh his son or his daughter to pass through the fire, or that useth divination, or an observer of times, or an enchanter, or a witch, or a charmer, or a consulter with familiar spirits, or a wizard, or a necromancer. For all that do these things are an abomination unto the Lord.”
In spite of these obvious prohibitions, Dolansky notes that when you examine the nature of the practices, it isn’t the magic but the magician that is the problem. She concludes that “magic in the Hebrew Bible refers to the mediation of divine power; and in the hands of priests and prophets it is perfectly legal.”32 It is not the act, but the actor that creates the separation between religion and magic.33 David Frankfurter, Professor of Religious Studies and History at the University of New Hampshire, notes that: “people in their own cultural systems use such descriptive labels for political, sectarian, or simply taxonomic reasons, even with little reality behind the labels. Practically any practice, that is, might be labeled ‘magical’ or ‘sorcery’ under certain conditions.”34
Because these terms and concepts were socially constructed, they played an important role when social relationships changed. The division between religion and magic that affected Joseph Smith’s world (and which is perpetuated in ours), followed the tremendous social disruption of the Protestant Reformation and the Age of Enlightenment. As the Western world emerged from the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church had become the sole repository of answers to questions about how the world worked. As the Church had grown and conquered new territories, it often incorporated local religious practices into its own doctrines and understandings. In particular, local concepts of sacred space and sacred ritual often retained their sacrality while nominally moving from pagan to Christian spheres.35 The Protestant Reformation changed the definition of what was to be considered religion and what was deemed magic, and with that change, triggered massive social realignments—first in England and later in the Americas.
Where the Catholic tradition had accepted all types of sacred place and practice, the Reformation severely limited both. In redefining religion, it labeled as magic many of the aspects of Catholic sacred space and ritual.36 Richard Bushman has noted that “The Enlightenment drained Christianity of its belief in the miraculous, except for Bible miracles. Everything else was attributed to ignorant credulity.”37 Nevertheless, Jon Butler of the Department of History at Yale University points out:
By traditional accounts, magic and occultism died out in the eighteenth century: the rise of enlightenment philosophy, skepticism, and experimental science, the spread of evangelical Christianity, the continuing opposition from English Protestant denominations, the rise in literacy associated with Christian catechizing, and the cultural, economic, and political maturation of the colonies simply destroyed the occult practice and belief of the previous century in both Europe and America. Yet significant evidence suggests that the folklorization of magic occurred as much in America as in England. As in England, colonial magic and occultism did not so much disappear everywhere as they disappeared among certain social classes and became confined to poorer, more marginal segments of early American society.38
It is precisely this folklorization that created the social dichotomy in practices that were accepted by, in Butler’s terms, the more marginal segments of early American society. This separation with parallel persistence is what anthropologist Robert Redfield of the University of Chicago called a Little and Great Tradition. He explained:
Let us begin with a recognition, long present in discussions of civilizations, of the difference between a great tradition and a little tradition. . . In a civilization there is a great tradition of the reflective few, and there is a little tradition of the largely unreflective many. The great tradition is cultivated in schools or temples; the little tradition works itself out and keeps itself going in the lives of the unlettered in their village communities. The tradition of the philosopher, theologian, and literary man is a tradition consciously cultivated and handed down; that of the little people is for the most part taken for granted and not submitted to much scrutiny or considered refinement and improvement.39
Although some aspects of Redfield’s separation of the traditions have been criticized,40 the basic idea of the two separate but interrelated aspects of religion in a culture has great explanatory power. Irving Hexham, professor of Religion at the University of Calgary, describes the complex modern religious history of Korea in terms of the intertwining of a Little and Great Tradition:
When a Great Tradition is in decline its Little Tradition can continue with a vigorous religious life until another Great Tradition seeks to impose its beliefs as the religion of the people. This situation of religious change is well illustrated by the course of religious history in Korea, where the shamanism of the Silla kings was officially replaced by Buddhism. But with the decline of Buddhism and the imposition of Confucian rituals by the Yi Dynasty shamanism once more emerged as the enduring Little Tradition. Later in the nineteenth century when Confucianism declined, Christianity entered Korea and shamanism once more reasserted its traditional role.41
It is this ability to persist parallel to and intertwined with the Great Tradition that tells us how the social complex of the cunning men and wise women not only crossed the ocean from England, but formed a vibrant part of a defined segment of American society. The duality of traditions also explains the mutual antagonism between them. As competing explanations of reality, the two are uneasy bedfellows at best and feuding relatives at worst. D. Michael Quinn noted this division in approaches to the Little and Great Traditions: “Early Americans who did not share the magic world view condemned such beliefs and practices as irrational and anti-religious, but intelligent and religious Americans who perceived reality from a magic view regarded such beliefs and practices as both rational and religious.”42
Almost by definition, we perceive history through the eyes of the Great Tradition; the tradition with the greater social and economic standing and the tradition with greater ability to create a written legacy through the Enlightenment’s association with education. The Great Tradition writes the history that colors our perception of the Little Tradition. In the case of what we call magic, the anti-magical stance of the Great Tradition makes the folk magic Little Tradition an embarrassment. Andrew Lang, a British anthropologist of the last generation, provides a fascinating example of what happens when the Great Tradition expectation meets the Little Tradition reality: “‘I am glad to say my people are not superstitious,’ said a worthy Welsh clergyman to a friend of mine, a good folklorist, now, alas, no more, and went on to explain that there were no ghosts in the parish. His joy was damped, it is true, half-an-hour later, when his guest inquired of the school children which of them could tell him where a bwggan was to be seen, and found there was not a child in the school but could put him on the track of one.”43
The disdain of the Great Tradition for the Little Tradition is evident in an account of a trial for fraud, held in Kent, England, in 1850: “The defendant, who had the appearance of an agricultural labourer, resided at Rolvenden, where he enjoyed the reputation of being ‘a cunning man’, able to cure diseases, to explain dreams, to foretell events, to tell fortunes, and to recover lost property. He was resorted to as a wizard by the people of miles around, principally by the ignorant, but also by parties who might have been expected to know better.”44 The facts of the case are that many in the community consulted this cunning man. Of course, they had to have been ignorant folk. Nevertheless, there were some who didn’t appear so ignorant, although even they–should have known better.
Alan Taylor, a fellow at the Institute of Early American History and Culture, Williamsburg, Virginia, and an assistant professor at the College of William and Mary, explains the chasm between the Great and Little Tradition by focusing on Martin Harris:
[Martin Harris] was an honest, hard-working, astute man honored by his townsmen with substantial posts as fence-viewer and overseer of highways but never with the most prestigious offices: selectman, moderator, or assemblyman. In the previous generation in rural towns like Palmyra substantial farmers like Harris would have reaped the highest status and most prestigious offices. But Harris lived in the midst of explosive cultural change as the capitalist market and its social relationships rode improved internal transportation into the most remote corners of the American countryside. The agents of that change were the newly arrived lawyers, printers, merchants, and respectable ministers who clustered in villages and formed a new elite committed to “improving” their towns and their humbler neighbors. The village elites belonged to a new self-conscious “middle class,” simultaneously committed to commercial expansion and moral reform. Because of their superior contacts with and knowledge of the wider world, the new village elites reaped higher standing and prestigious posts from their awed neighbors.
Utterly self-confident in their superior rationality and access to urban ideas, the village elites disdained rural folk notions as ignorant, if not vicious, superstitions that obstructed commercial and moral “improvement.” Through ridicule and denunciation, the village middle class aggressively practiced a sort of cultural imperialism that challenged the folk beliefs held by farmers like Martin Harris. Harris’s material prosperity was comparable to the village elite’s but, because of his hard physical labor and limited education, culturally he shared more with hardscrabble families like the Smiths. A village lawyer needed only scan Harris’s gray homespun attire and large stiff hat to conclude that a farmer had come to town.45
We should not expect that because the Little Tradition is associated with the less educated that they were therefore simple or naÔve. Martin Harris might have been a participant and believer in the Little Tradition, but that doesn’t mean that he threw caution to the wind. The new elite might have seen Martin Harris as an ignorant and credulous farmer, but he would have seen himself as a cautious believer. His credulity allowed for true seers, but his caution told him that there were charlatans abroad. He pointedly told Joseph: “I said, Joseph, you know my doctrine, that cursed is every one that putteth his trust in man, and maketh flesh his arm; and we know that the devil is to have great power in the latter days to deceive if possible the very elect; and I don’t know that you are one of the elect. Now you must not blame me for not taking your word.”46
To resolve his question of whether or not he should support the Book of Mormon, Martin tested Joseph. When a pin Martin was using to pick his teeth fell into straw around his feet, he first attempted to find it. Not succeeding, he asked Joseph to use his seer stone to find the pin. Joseph did, bolstering Martin’s confidence that Joseph had the talent he professed.47 I find it particularly apt that the nature of the test was to find something lost. That is, of course, what a seer did.
Nevertheless, believing in Joseph as a true prophet and true seer had Martin straddling two traditions. The village seer belonged to the Little Tradition and a true prophet belonged the Great Tradition. Those in the Little Tradition understood that their quotidian practices were not religion (though they certainly didn’t consider them un-Christian). They even understood that their village practices were not respected by the Great Tradition. This is the reason that so many of those who participated in the Little Tradition attempted to separate themselves from it when they were later part of the Great Tradition, or when an interviewer from the Great Tradition asked about the old days. Richard Bushman demonstrates how this pressure affected the reminiscences of some of Joseph Smith’s neighbors:
The forces of eighteenth-century rationalism were never quite powerful enough to suppress the belief in supernatural powers aiding and opposing human enterprise. The educated representatives of enlightened thought, newspaper editors and ministers particularly, scoffed at the superstitions of common people without completely purging them. The scorn of the polite world put the Palmyra and Manchester money diggers in a dilemma. They dared not openly describe their resort to magic for fear of ridicule from the fashionably educated, and yet they could not overcome their fascination with the lore that seeped through to them from the past. Their embarrassment shows in the affidavits Hurlbut collected. William Stafford, who admitted participation in two “nocturnal excursions,” claimed he thought the idea visionary all along, but “being prompted by curiosity, I at length accepted of their invitations.” Peter Ingersoll made much more elaborate excuses. One time he went along became it was lunchtime, his oxen were eating, and he was at leisure. Secretly, though he claimed to be laughing up his sleeve: “This was rare sport for me.”48
Not only does understanding the Great and Little Traditions explain the antagonism we see in the Great Tradition histories, but the dual traditions also help explain one of the features or a Little Tradition religion when it is transformed into a Great Tradition religion. That shift in social acceptance and expectation triggers a responsive shift in the way the new religion sees itself and its history.
Morton Smith, a professor of History at Columbia University, examined this tendency in early Christianity, which began as a Little Tradition religion, but became a Great Tradition religion. Smith notes that the earliest forms of Christianity had a strong affinity with magical practices—practices that remain in descriptions of the healing miracles and turning water to wine. By the time of the gospels, however, that history was being written to remove references to magic. He concludes:
What evidence did the Christian tradition, as presented in the gospels, have in common with the picture of Jesus the magician? Since the authors of the gospels wished to defend Jesus against the charge of magic, we should expect them to minimize those elements of the tradition that ancient opinion. . . would take to be evidence for it, and to maximize those that could be used against it.
This expectation is, in the main, confirmed. The evangelists could not eliminate Jesus’ miracles because those were essential to their case, but John cut down the number of them, and Matthew and Luke got rid of the traces of physical means that Mark had incautiously preserved.49
The New Testament presented its message to, and participated in, a Great Tradition that Morton Smith notes was: “hostile to magic.”50 So also did the modern Saints tell their story within and to a Great Tradition that was hostile to magic.
As the early saints transitioned from a collection of believers into a formal religion, they began to see themselves within the Great Tradition. As with early Christianity, the stories they told of themselves naturally were recast to distance themselves from their Little Tradition heritage and provide an acceptable Great Tradition history. One of the obvious places to see this process in action is with the tools of the translation. We all know that Joseph used the Urim and Thummim to translate the Book of Mormon—except he didn’t. The Book of Mormon mentions interpreters, but not the Urim and Thummim. It was the Book of Mormon interpreters which were given to Joseph with the plates. When Moroni took back the interpreters after the loss of the 116 manuscript pages, Joseph completed the translation with one of his seer stones. Until after the translation of the Book of Mormon, the Urim and Thummim belonged to the Bible and the Bible only.51 The Urim and Thummim became part of the story when it was presented within and to the Great Tradition. Eventually, even Joseph Smith used Urim and Thummim indiscriminately as labels generically representing either the Book of Mormon interpreters or the seer stone used during translation.52
The Urim and Thummim were traditionally divinatory rocks, but most importantly, they were biblically acceptable divinatory rocks.53 From the Great Tradition perspective, their presence in the Bible made them religion, not magic. I suspect that the two interpreters made a natural comparison to the two stones, one Urim and one Thummim, from the Bible. Calling the biblical divinatory tools “rocks” instead of Urim and Thummim seems to demean them. The reverse process, calling the interpreters and seer stones Urim and Thummim, places them in a more appropriate religious category where they belong because of the sacred use to which they were put in translating the Book of Mormon.
This recasting of history was a story the Saints told themselves as much as what they presented to the world. I doubt that there was any conscious attempt to reconcile their history with Great Tradition expectations, let alone any attempt at deception. It was simply the natural response to their self-definition as a religion rather than a folk belief. It was a story told in a way that they subliminally knew was appropriate for a Great Tradition religion. The new history did not deny the past or alter the facts, but recolored them with a new vocabulary.54
Why, then, are we so surprised to learn that Joseph translated with a rock in his hat? That is a Little Tradition description and we are now firmly in the Great Tradition. We share the Great Tradition antipathy to those elements of the Little Tradition. Time has made the gap even greater than it was in Joseph’s day. Why do we have the two pictures with which we began? The more accurate, but more uncomfortable picture is a Little Tradition image. The other is a Great Tradition image. We have both because we can tell the story from two different perspectives.
Regardless of the perspective from which we tell the story, the essential fact of the translation is unchanged. How was the Book of Mormon translated? As Joseph continually insisted, the only real answer, from any perspective, is that it was translated by the gift and power of God.
1 Truman Coe to Mr. Editor, Hudson Ohio Observer, August 11, 1836 cited in Dan Vogel, Early Mormon Documents, 5 vols. (Salt Lake City: Signature Books, 1998), 1:47.
2 Elizabeth Ann Whitmer Cowdery, “Elizabeth Ann Whitmer Cowdery Affidavit, 15 February 1870,” in Early Mormon Documents, ed. Dan Vogel, 5 vols. (Salt Lake City, UT: Signature Books, 1870), 5:260.
3 Catherine L. Albanese, A Republic of Mind and Spirit: A Cultural History of American Metaphysical Religion (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007), 68. Also Jon Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith: Christianizing the American People (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), 67.
4 Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1971), 649-50.
5 Ibid., 266.
6 Deanna J. Conway, Crystal Enchantments: A Complete Guide to Stones and Their Magical Properties (Berkeley. Calif.: The Crossing Press, 1999), 291-3.
7 Andrew Lang, Crystal Gazing: Its History and Practice, with a Discussion of the Evidence for Telepathic Scrying (New York: Dodge Publishing Company, 1905), 32.
8 For the practices, see Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, 656. Herbert Passin and John W. Bennett, “Changing Agricultural Magic in Southern Illinois: A Systematic Analysis of Folk-Urban Transition,” (reprint of a 1943 article) in The Study of Folklore, edited by Alan Dunces (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1965), 316-17, discuss agricultural magic in an Illinois town as collected in 1939, when the practices were beginning to fade. They note that they were practices that followed the Old English pattern.
9 D. Michael Quinn, Early Mormonism and the Magic World View (Salt Lake City: Signature Books, 1987), 38.
10 Richard L. Bushman, Joseph Smith and the Beginnings of Mormonism (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1984), 70.
11 Lorenzo Saunders, “Lorenzo Saunders Interview, 12 November 1884,” in Early Mormon Documents, ed. Dan Vogel, 5 vols. (Salt Lake City, UT: Signature Books, 1884), 2:154-55.
12 Benjamin Saunders, “Benjamin Saunders Interview, Circa September 1884,” in Early Mormon Documents, ed. Dan Vogel, 5 vols. (Salt Lake City, UT: Signature Books, 1884), 2:139.
13 Quinn, Early Mormonism and the Magic World View, 39.
14 Henry Harris, “Henry Harris Statement, Circa 1833,” in Early Mormon Documents, ed. Dan Vogel, 5 vols. (Salt Lake City, UT: Signature Books, 1833), 2:75.
15 Lorenzo Saunders, interviewed by E. L Kelley, 12 November 1884, “Miscellany,” E. L. Kelley Papers, RLDS Church Library-Archives, Independence, Missouri, p. 11, in Early Mormon Documents, ed. Dan Vogel, 5 vols. (Salt Lake City, UT: Signature Books, 1833), 2:155.
16 Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, 234.
17 Ronald W. Walker, “The Persisting Idea of American Treasure Digging,” BYU Studies, 24, no. 4 (Fall 1984):433, notes: “The reality of actual treasure finds hardly explains the power and tenacity of the reassure myth “Finds’ were never commensurate with actual digging and were more a matter of accidental discovery than conscious magical enterprise. Even the discovery of mines, allegedly the most successful of the diggers’ pursuits, evoked skepticism and lacked documented results.”
18 Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, 236.
19 Walker, “The Persisting Idea of American Treasure Hunting,” 439-40.
20 Richard L. Bushman, Joseph Smith: Rough Stone Rolling (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005), 48.
21 Bruce A. Van Orden, “Joseph Smith’s Developmental Years, 1823-29 (JS ñ H 50-67),” In Studies in Scripture, Vol. 2: The Pearl of Great Price, edited by Robert L. Millet and Kent P. Jackson, (Salt Lake City: Randall Book, 1985),373.
22 Dale R. Broadhurst, “Joseph Smith: Nineteenth Century Con Man?” accessed July 2009 from http://sidneyrigdon.com/criddle/Smith-ConMan.htm, provides a long and nicely documented piece that clearly argues that Joseph Smith was precisely a con man, and was described as one. That he would have been seen as a con man by the writers from the Great Tradition is certainly understandable (see later in this paper). However, seem from inside his own social and economic class, the term is unwarranted and inaccurate. It is a historically accurate misrepresentation, but a misrepresentation nonetheless.
23 Vogel, Joseph Smith: The Making of a Prophet, xiv.
24 Previous records of what happened at the hearing have been supplemented by the discovery of court documents that have allowed a more complete legal analysis of the conclusions. The discussion of what happened at this hearing is beyond the scope of this papers. Sources to be consulted are: Marvin S. Hill, “Joseph Smith and the 1826 Trial: New Evidence and New Difficulties,” BYU Studies 12, no. 2 (1972):223-33, Gordon A. Madsen, “Joseph Smith’s 1826 Trial: The Legal Setting,” BYU Studies 30, no. 2 (1990):91-108, “Just the Facts: The 1826 Trial (Hearing) of Joseph Smith,” Accessed July 2009 from http://www.lightplanet.com/response/1826Trial/facts.html.
25 Vanderhoof’s grandfather came to Joseph to ask about the lost mare. Josiah Stowell came to Joseph to hire him to help find the silver mine. Martin Harris asks Joseph to find the pin he dropped in the straw (discussed below).
26 J. W. Peterson, “William Smith Interview with J W. Peterson and W. S.Pender, 1890,” in Early Mormon Documents, ed. Dan Vogel, 5 Vols., vol. 1 (Salt Lake City, UT: Signature Books, 09/03/23 1890), 508. A. W. Benton, “Mormonites,” Evangelical Magazine and Gospel Advocate 2:15 (April 9, 1840), 201, as quoted in Stephen D. Ricks, Joseph Smith’s Means and Methods of Translating the Book of Mormon (Provo, UT: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1986), 3.
27 “Palmyra Reflector, 1 February 1831,” in Early Mormon Documents, ed. Dan Vogel, 5 vols., (Salt Lake City, UT: Signature Books), 2:243, “‘Peep stones’ or pebbles, taken promiscuously from the brook or field, were placed in a hat or other situation excluded from light, when some wizzard or witch (for these performances were not confined to either sex) applied their eyes, and nearly starting [staring?] their [eye] balls from their sockets, declared they saw all the wonders of nature, including of course, ample stores of silver and gold.” Bracketed text retained from Vogel.
28 Mark Ashurst-McGee appears to see a developmental path from Joseph’s use of folk magic into his abilities as a prophet. Clearly there is a connection, but I seem to see a greater separation than he does. Mark Ashurst-McGee, A Pathway To Prophethood: Joseph Smith Junior As Rodsman, Village Seer, And Judeo-Christian Prophet, Master’s Thesis (Logan, Utah: Utah State University, 2000), iii, “For the most part, I present Joseph Smith’s divinatory development as he himself experienced it. Dowsing with a rod, seeing things in stones, and receiving heavenly revelations were as real to Smith as harvesting wheat. In order to understand his progression from rodsman to seer to prophet, one must first understand his worldview. The mental universe of early American water witches and village seers forms one of the historical and cultural contexts in which Joseph Smith developed his divinatory abilities.” Reacting specifically to this statement, my objection would be that Joseph Smith did not “develop his divinatory abilities,” but rather that they were bestowed upon him a s a gift from God, leveraging a talent he already had into the confidence to do what otherwise he would never have believed he could have done.
Alan Taylor also indicates a developmental path: Taylor, “Rediscovering the Context of Joseph Smith’s Treasure Seeking,” 21, “Indeed, I would argue that Joseph Smith, Jr.’s transition from treasure-seeker to Mormon prophet was natural, easy, and incremental and that it resulted from the dynamic interaction of two simultaneous struggles: first, of seekers grappling with supernatural beings after midnight in the hillsides, and, second, of seekers grappling with hostile rationalists in the village streets during the day.” Although these factors certainly contributed to the development of Joseph Smith the person, I do not see them as foundational for Joseph the Prophet. I see Moroni’s visit as creating a fundamental shift in his worldview, requiring that he relearn his place and reassign his talent to the Lord. It may not have been world-wrenching, but it still was dramatically different from the context of his daily life prior to that event.
29 Shawna Dolansky, Now You See It, Now You Don’t: Biblical Perspectives on the Relationship Between Magic and Religion (Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 2008), 21.
30 Sarah Iles Johnston, “Magic,” in Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide, ed. Sarah Iles Johnston (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004), 140. Dolansky, Now You See It, Now You Don’t, 15, “In the case of the ancient world, it is difficult to find firm divisions between magical and religious activities until the time of classical Greece, and then those categories refer to social rather than substantive distinctions.”
31 Dolansky, Now You See It, Now You Don’t, 4: “The problem of differentiating between actions that are magical and those that are religious is important in the fields of anthropology and religious studies. Both magic and religion claim access to realms outside of ordinary reality and attempt to manipulate supernatural forces for desired outcomes in the natural world. Scholars have approached the categories of magic and religion from a variety of perspectives, distinguishing them on the basis of their techniques, social effects, and the status of their chief proponents. Some have suggested that there is no real difference, that the categories merely denote social conventions (“what I do is religion, what you do is magic”) and that the terms themselves should be dissolved altogether.
“The problem of defining magic has been a major portion of most LDS responses to the accusation that Joseph Smith participates in magic or the occult. In all cases, the problem is not with the facts, but with the connotations of the labels. See the following discussions of the use of the term “magic,” and to what it might apply: John Gee, “Abracadabra, Isaac and Jacob,” A review of “The Use of Egyptian Magical Papyri to Authenticate the Book of Abraham: A Critical Review” by Edward H. Ashment, FARMS Review, 7, no. 1, (1995): 47-67, John Gee, “Early Mormonism and the Magic World View, revised and enlarged edition,” A review of “Early Mormonism and the Magic World View, revised and enlarged edition” by D. Michael Quinn, FARMS Review, 12, no. 2, (2000):2-6, William J. Hamblin, “That Old Black Magic,” A review of “Early Mormonism and the Magic World View, revised and enlarged edition” by D. Michael Quinn, FARMS Review, : 12,no. 2 (2000 ): 3-9, Rhett S. James, “Writing History Must Not Be an Act of ‘Magic,'” A review of “Early Mormonism and the Magic World View, revised and enlarged edition” by D. Michael Quinn, FARMS Review, 12, no. 2 (2000):2-4.
32Dolansky, Now You See It, Now You Don’t, 99.
33 Ibid., 99-100.
34 David Frankfurter, “Dynamics of Ritual Expertise in Antiquity and Beyond: Towards a New Taxonomy of “Magicians”,” in Magic and Ritual in the Ancient World, ed. Paul Mirecki and Marvin Meyer (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2001), 159.
35 Karen Louise Jolly, “Magic, Miracle, and Popular Practice in the Early Medieval West: Anglo-Saxon England,” in Religion, Science, and Magic: In Concert and in Conflict, ed. Jacob Neusner, Ernest S. Fredrichs and Paul Virgil McCracken Flesher (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 176, “Although there was conflict in early medieval society between the extremes of magic and religion–a product of the Christianizing process in which the converted and the church hierarchy redefined the acceptable and unacceptable–there were also gray areas of assimilation in which practices stemming from a similar outlook were transformed into something acceptable. The Christian Church, though openly countering magic with miracle, was not blind to this assimilation process as another means of conversion.
“The extremes of magic and religion or science, although well defined in most cultures, would necessarily have such gray areas between them, a product of the influences of change over time, as the acceptable and the unacceptable were redefined.”
36 Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, chapter 3, “The Impact of the Reformation,” provides extensive examples of the way in which this process moved through the Protestant rejection of Roman Catholicism. He concludes (75-76): “Protestantism thus presented itself as a deliberate attempt to take the magical elements out of religion, to eliminate the idea that the rituals of the church had about them a mechanical efficacy, and to abandon the effort to endow physical objects with supernatural qualities by special formulae of consecration and exorcism.”
37 Richard L. Bushman, Joseph Smith and the Beginnings of Mormonism, 7.
38 Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith, 83
39 Robert Redfield, The Little Community and Peasant Society and Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960, rpt 1989.), 41-42.
40 Edith Badone, “Introduction,” in Religious Orthodoxy and Popular Faith in European Society, ed. Edith Badone (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), 6: “Redfield’s work is in the tradition of the “two-tiered” models of religion that Brown seeks to escape. Like the term popular religion itself, the great tradition-little tradition distinction has helped to perpetuate the misconception that popular religion is always rural, primitive, unreflective, and traditional, as opposed to the urban, civilized, intellectual, and modern religion of the elite.” Stanley Brandes, “Conclusion: Reflections on the Study of Religious Orthodoxy and Popular Faith in Europe,” in Religious Orthodoxy and Popular Faith in European Society, ed. Edith Badone (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), 187: “Despite these theoretical advances, Redfield and his followers–like the evolutionists before them–implicitly denigrated the religion of the masses. Not only did they view popular religion as less reflective and creative–in other words, more reactive–than that of the elite but they also believed that popular religion lagged behind elite religion temporally; elite beliefs and practices of one century might be discovered among the peasantry of the next.”
41 Irving Hexham, “Modernity or Reaction in South Africa: The Case of Afrikaner Religion,” in Modernity and Religion: Papers Presented at the Consultation on Modernity and Religion Held at the University of British Columbia, Dec. 15-18, 1981, ed. William Nicholls (Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1988), 81.
42 Quinn, Early Mormonism and the Magic World View, 225.
43 Lang, Crystal Gazing, 1.
44 David Vincent, Literacy and Popular Culture: England 1750-1914, Cambridge Studies in Oral and Literate Culture, ed. Peter Burke and Ruth Finnegan, vol. 19 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 172.
45 Alan Taylor, “Rediscovering the Context of Joseph Smith’s Treasure Seeking,” Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, 19, no. 4 (Winter 1986):21. Internal references silently removed.
46 Martin Harris interview with Joel Tiffany, Tiffany’s Monthly, V , 169.
47 Ibid., 164.
48 Bushman, Joseph Smith and the Beginnings of Mormonism, 71-72.
49 Morton Smith, Jesus the Magician (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1978), 92.
50 Ibid., 146. As might be expected, Morton Smith’s presentation of Jesus as a magician is even more controversial than calling Joseph Smith a magician. John Gee, “‘An Obstacle to Deeper Understanding’.” Review of D. Michael Quinn, Early Mormonism and the Magic World View, revised and enlarged edition, in FARMS Review of Books, 12 no. 2 (2000):188 notes that Morton Smith’s idea that there were itinerant Greek magicians has been discredited. Gee does note (p. 186), “If Jesus can be seen in such a context [as a magician], why not Joseph Smith?”
51 J. V. Coombs, Religious Delusions: Studies of the False Faiths of To-Day (Cincinnati: The Standard Publishing Company, 1904), 61-62, “Dr. Wyl says that the name Urim and Thummim was first used by W. W. Phelps about the time of the publication of the Book of Commandments. This is ten years after Moroni’s visit. In the interim the work of translating is done by seer stones and stone spectacles! What a blessed thing it is that the more dignified instrument came soon enough to get into the second edition of the revelations, at the same time belated Moroni makes his advent!”
52 Richard Van Wagoner and Steve Walker, “Joseph Smith: ‘The Gift of Seeing'”, Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought vol. 15, no. 2 (Summer 1982):62, “These stones could not have been the Nephite interpreters, yet Joseph specifically calls them ‘Urim and Thummim.’ The most obvious explanation for such wording is that he used the term generically to include any device with the potential for ‘communicating light perfectly, and intelligence perfectly, through a principle that God has ordained for that purpose,’ as John Taylor would later put it.” See also Mark Ashurst-McGee, “Moroni as Angel and as Treasure Guardian,” FARMS Review 18, no. 1 (2006):42.
53 This is an intentional distillation of the tradition, which would never have accepted the crude designation of “rocks” for the tradition stones the Urim and Thummim represented. There is a long tradition that they were associated with the gems on the ephod. See Cornelis Van Dam, The Urim and Thummim: A Means of Revelation in Ancient Israel (Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbruans, 1997), 16-23, 27-31.
54 The saints themselves would not have perceived a great division in their participation in the two cultural spheres. For them, the transition was likely imperceptible, even though they began to see themselves from the perspective of the religion they had joined. Bill Hamblin notes that they never did label themselves with any of the terms that the Great Tradition would have used to describe their Little Tradition practices. William J. Hamblin, “That Old Black Magic,” Review of D. Michael Quinn, Early Mormonism and the Magic World View, revised and enlarged edition, in FARMS Review of Books 12 no. 2 (2000): 233, makes this point in reference to Quinn’s association of the terms with Joseph Smith and his peers: “Joseph Smith never called himself a magician, sorcerer, occultist, mystic, alchemist, kabbalist, necromancer, or wizard. He did not ’embrace’ this ‘self-definition.’ Nor did any of his followers.” | <urn:uuid:feffdfaf-df44-4814-89be-5e26c931b6b9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.fairmormon.org/perspectives/fair-conferences/2009-fair-conference/2009-joseph-the-seer-or-why-did-he-translate-with-a-rock-in-his-hat | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9662 | 13,388 | 2.890625 | 3 |
PreK and up Winter Holiday Crafts
Wreath ornaments decorate your Christmas tree and act as a fun sensory craft for preschoolers. Make wreath ornaments with your child this holiday season.
This Play-Doh counting game will improve your little one's math skills and the hanging Christmas trees will make great decoration.
Kids have permission to get messy (just a little bit!) as they create a decorative candy cane mosaic from red and white handprints.
With a little guidance from parents, youngsters can create a Christmas tree using their thumb as a stamp.
Here's a green arts and crafts activity that will get your preteen into the holiday spirit: transform an old magazine into a miniature Christmas tree!
Celebrate the holidays with this festive reindeer color by number coloring page.
This printable holiday candy cane maze is sure to get your kindergartener in the holiday spirit.
This fun printable lets your child practice shapes, counting, and cutting skills while doing a fun holiday-themed craft project.
Christmas sudoku lets your child exercise his brain while cutting a pasting festive holiday images. Play Christmas sudoku with your child this holiday season.
Kids use their cutting skills to build a cool snowman on this prekindergarten worksheet. This worksheet helps build fine motor skills and shape recognition. | <urn:uuid:4b4ab343-397c-4df6-8a4f-af3df991a009> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.education.com/collection/Christine%20Selna/prek-winter-holiday-crafts/?page=2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00178-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.884297 | 278 | 3.15625 | 3 |
TRUSTS AND TRUSTEES:
It has been shown under Guardian and Ward and under Community how the Jewish law took notice of the various powers and duties of those to whom the property of orphan children or of the community was entrusted for management. But a fiduciary relation might also be sustained toward other parties, as, for instance, a betrothed or married woman; and then the trustee was known as (lit. "a third man"). There is, however, no wide development of the law of trusts, such as is found in modern, especially Anglo-American, law.
The Mishnah (Ket. v. 8) puts the case of a husband who maintains his wife in food and clothing through a trustee, and prescribes the least amount of food, raiment, and pin-money which he must furnish annually. A much more important passage for this purpose, however, is Ket. vi. 7, which presents a case like that of a trust for the separate use of a married woman under the English equity system:
"When one puts money in the hands of a trustee for his daughter and she says, 'I have full confidence in my husband,' the trustee should nevertheless carry out the trust placed in him [that is, he should disregard her wish and invest the money in land for the daughter's use]. Such is the opinion of R. Meïr; while R. Jose says, even if the field has been already bought and she is willing to sell it, it is sold right then. When does this apply? In the case of an adult woman; but the wishes of an infant amount to nothing."
In the Talmud (Ket. 69b), on the basis of a baraita, the position of the sages is thus explained: A betrothed damsel may not, according to R. Meïr, turn the trust fund over to her betrothed. R. Jose says she may. Both, however, agree that, when actually married, the wife, if of age, may turn the fund over to her husband. Later authorities (see Bertinoro ad loc.) hold that the Halakah is with R. Meïr.
In Giṭ. 64a a trustee () is entrusted by the husband with a bill of divorcement, and a dispute arises between the husband and the trustee as to whether the bill was merely deposited with the latter, or was given to him for delivery to the wife, to dissolve the marriage bond. Two amoraim differ on the point whether the husband or the trustee should be credited in his assertion in such a case; but the question is broadened to apply to the more frequent case in which a bond or deed for money or property is deposited with a trustee for both parties to the instrument. The conclusion arrived at is that the word of the trustee must be taken, without any oath, against the assertion of either of the parties who appointed him; for by making him their trustee they have vouched for his truthfulness. It is so ruled in the codes; e.g., in Maimonides, "Yad," Malweh, xv. 8; Shulḥan 'Aruk, Ḥoshen Mishpaṭ, 56, 1. | <urn:uuid:d7d55e6c-bea1-436f-813f-9c4197fc890f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14532-trusts-and-trustees | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00182-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97724 | 676 | 2.515625 | 3 |
If something is untenable, you can't defend it or justify it. If your disagreement with your teacher puts you in an untenable position, you better just admit you made a mistake and get on with it.
When untenable entered English in the 17th century it meant "unable to be held against attack." That sense still holds true: you can use the adjective untenable to describe any situation, position, or theory that simply can't be defended. Untenable is a great word to use when you want to criticize something, whether it's a flawed system or a referee's bad call. | <urn:uuid:e167c38d-d4ad-416d-bfb3-55ad24b03a84> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/untenable | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00086-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947333 | 122 | 2.578125 | 3 |
FILE- This Friday, March 31, 2006 file photo shows Pat Boyden, owner of the Green Mountain Clock Shop in Williston, Vt., as he sets the time forward on one of the hundreds of clocks in his shop in preparation for daylight saving time which went into effect at 2 a.m. Sunday, April 2, 2006. This year, daylight saving time will go into effect Sunday, March 13, 2011. (AP Photo/Rob Swanson, FILE)
Residents of Newfoundland and Labrador are reminded that Daylight Savings Time comes into effect overnight.
At 2 a.m. clocks should be moved ahead one hour — essentially eliminating an hour from the day. While it will prolong the morning darkness, it extends the daylight at day's end.
When adjusting clocks, residents are encouraged to take the opportunity to check the batteries in smoke alarms and carbon monoxide detectors. | <urn:uuid:211688a6-7baa-40ef-897d-78aa736e3706> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thewesternstar.com/News/Local/2014-03-08/article-3642373/March-9-marks-beginning-of-Daylight-Savings-Time/1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00169-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940228 | 177 | 2.6875 | 3 |
On October 20, 1836, Joseph Batt, his wife Barbara, and their children left their homeland in Alsace-Lorraine and departed for America. According to historic records the Batt family booked passage on a ship named The Mary Ann. The ship set sail on November 11, 1836. On November 29th a significant occurrence took place, which had a direct bearing on the establishment of the Shrine of Maria Hilf Zu (the German words for Our Lady Help of Christians) and its subsequent establishment as a parish. On that day the ship encountered a tremendous storm of hurricane intensity, and was severly damaged. Joseph Batt, a man of deep faith, turned to our Blessed Mother, to safe-guard the voyage of his family. He invoked the name of Our Lady Help of Christians, Star of the Sea. Mr. Batt made a solemn promise to Our Lady that if he and his family arrived safely in America he would build a chapel in honor of the Blessed Mother of God. The storm subsided, and the ship drifted to Ireland, where it was repaired. The ship sailed again, and arrived in America on February 2, 1837, Candlemas Day - which is the Feast of the Purification of Mary.
It took Joseph Batt several years to begin to fulfill his solemn promise. This allowed time to establish himself financially, acquire the land, and very importantly to acclimate himself to the American culture and language. On July 17, 1852 his promise began to be realized. Bishop Timon granted permission for the construction of the Chapel, which was completed in 1853. From its very inception the Chapel saw a steady stream of pilgrims coming to venerate the Blessed Mother. The Pilgrimage to the Chapel in Cheektowaga had its origins inspired by the great Alsatian Pilgrimages of the village of Marienthal, Alsace. At Cheektowaga the first inclination to make the pilgrimage was prompted by the cholera epidemic in 1854. Medicine at that time did not have much to offer, so the pilgrims turned to the Blessed Mother for help and protection. These pilgrims were primarily Alsatians, Bavarians, Swiss, and Rhinelanders from Cheektowaga, Williamsville and Lancaster. Buffalo pilgrims soon joined them in this devotion to Mary.
In 1854 the Chapel was not yet established as a canonically erected parish. The Batt Family were members of Sts. Peter and Paul in Williamsville. In 1864, asking for divine intervention to end the Civil War, Fr. Joseph Zoegel, the Williamsville pastor, formally declared the journey to Our Lady Help of Christians Shrine a pilgrimage.
Pilgrims continued to come to the Chapel, now taking on an international flavor. The shrine was most revered by the German, Polish and Italian immigrants. It was a sacred place where they offered thanksgiving to Our Lady Help of Christians for their own safe passage to America. Here, too, the afflicted also sought relief from various trials and tribulations. In 1894, the Buffalo Courier Express called the Chapel the second Lourdes.
The turn of the century brought trolley service from Buffalo to the Chapel. In 1924 the service to Cheektowaga was discontinued. Service terminated at the city line. This was the beginning of the walking pilgrimage to the Chapel, with the Cheektowaga/Buffalo city line as the starting point. Many of the devout faithful walked from all parts of Buffalo. The largest recorded pilgrimage took place on V-J Day (August 15, 1945), which ended World War II. On this day the line of pilgrims extended along Genesee Street well into downtown Buffalo.
Two American saints figure prominently in the heritage of the Chapel. The stones used to enlarge the Chapel came from the Williamsville church where St. John Neumann was pastor. St. Frances Xavier (Mother) Cabrini made a pilgrimage to the Chapel early in the 20th century. Msgr. Nelson Baker, already designated "Servant of God" in the cause for his formal canonization, was always concerned about the Chapel and its continued growth. He also laid the corner stone for the Chapel school in 1924. Msgr. Baker adamantly opposed the proposal to demolish the Chapel and build a new church. He recognized that the small chapel was too precious and must be preserved forever. The original Chapel remains intact to this day.
Preserved it has been. During the early months of the Jubilee Year 2000, the parishioners and friends of the parish rallied with the pastor, Fr. Richard Jesionowski, to restore the Chapel. Much of its former decor was restored, using old photos submitted by long-time parishioners. There is a continuing effort to maintain and preserve this pearl as a place to honor Our Lady, and to worship her Son, Jesus Christ Our Lord.
Our Blessed Mother will not abandon us. She is, after all, Our Lady, Help of Christians! | <urn:uuid:50e2c4be-742d-4601-9039-3fd7b26a6cca> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.ourladyhelpofchristians.org/pb/wp_b7d63c46/wp_b7d63c46.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00108-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973804 | 1,017 | 2.546875 | 3 |
French sociologist and one of the founding fathers of modern sociology.
After he graduated from the École Normale Supérieure in Paris, Durkheim taught sociology first at the University of Bordeaux and then, from 1902 until his death, at the Sorbonne. His aim was to discover the nature of society and thus the values and principles upon which education should be based; many of his views, and those of his followers, were published in the journal L'Année Sociologique, which he founded in 1896.
In his first major work, De la division du travail social (1893; translated as The Division of Labour in Society, 1933), Durkheim rejected the ideas of the English utilitarians and proposed the theory that social structures influenced individual behaviour, not vice versa. He conceived an image of social solidarity and at the same time was able to define the proper task of sociology as the study of social rather than individual facts. In his Les Règles de la méthode sociologique (1895; translated as The Rules of Sociological Method, 1938), Durkheim went on to enlarge upon this concept and successfully laid down a methodology for the science of sociology. Durkheim then focused on the ‘collective currents’ that he had suggested influenced the conduct of individuals in society, and embarked upon a major empirical investigation published as Le Suicide (1897; translated as Suicide, 1952). In this pioneering study of social statistics, Durkheim distinguished between three kinds of suicide and was able to associate each with different aspects of the social order. Durkheim gave the name ‘anomie’ to individual behaviour or the state of a society lacking moral or social standards. In his final work, Les Formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse (1912; translated as The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, 1915), he interpreted the religious bond as a type of social bond expressed through ritual and defined God simply as Society. Throughout all his writings he never diverted from his collectivist point of view and his work was thus in striking contrast to that of many of his contemporaries, including Max Weber.
Subjects: Social Sciences — Arts and Humanities. | <urn:uuid:5289b663-ccdd-4de8-98d4-755b7683daf9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095736538 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00049-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.956017 | 460 | 3.203125 | 3 |
Here’s how I typically explain the explanatory 「の」 when I teach it to my students.
Question: I don’t understand the difference between the two:
I fire back with another question: How would you say, “Isn’t there class today?”
「今日は授業がありませんか？」 simply means “Is there no class today?”
“Isn’t there class today?” sounds like the speaker is expecting to have class today and is surprised that that may not be the case. That’s what we call seeking an explanation, which requires using 「の」.
So the answer is:
The simple answer to such a question would be:
Similarly, 「今日は授業があるんです。」 is saying that there is class today as an explanation for something. For example, maybe you want to explain why you can’t go to lunch.
It helps to figure out the difference by looking at a situation where you have to use 「の」 to say something. There is no way to say things like, “Isn’t there class today?” without using 「の」. | <urn:uuid:88c1cee4-6fd5-49af-b709-e980215d223b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.guidetojapanese.org/blog/2011/07/27/explaining-the-explaining-%E3%81%AE/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00166-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.773465 | 273 | 3.546875 | 4 |
These titles look at the science behind the development of storms and other weather phenomena, the economic and human impacts, and the abilities to predict and mitigate future occurences.
This article was published in School Library Journal's November 2014 issue. Subscribe today and save up to 35% off the regular subscription rate.
Few authors have taken on environmental issues as effectively as author Paul Fleischman. In his recent Eyes Wide Open, he has penned an empowering call to action, stirring young people to challenge assumptions and think for themselves.
This article was published in School Library Journal's October 2014 issue. Subscribe today and save up to 35% off the regular subscription rate.
Exploring the impact of human activity on the environment provides high school students with an opportunity to understand ecological issues from the inside out. By conducting hands-on research, teens have the opportunity to interact with their surrounding environment, collect evidence, and analyze results—and the implications for their community.
Force of Nature: The David Suzuki Movie. DVD. 93 min. Prod. by Entertainment One and National Film Board of Canada. Dist. by Bullfrog Films. 2012. ISBN 1-93777-234-9. $295.
Gr 10 Up–Scientist and TV personality David Suzuki is well known in Canada where he is revered as the host of the long running science program, Nature of Things, and as an environmental activist. This film honors his career by weaving together the story of his life with his last lecture outlining the […]
If a Tree Falls: A Story of the Earth Liberation Front. DVD. 85 min. Prod. by Marshall Curry Prods. Dist. by Bullfrog Films. 2011. ISBN 1-93777-21-9. $295.
Gr 10 Up–This fact-filled program utilizes archival footage, interviews, and commentary to relate the story of one man’s involvement in the Earth Liberation Front (ELF), an organization described by law enforcement as a domestic terror organization. It traces the evolution of Daniel McGowan from city resident to environmental activist, chronicling his involvement in property […] | <urn:uuid:663e6336-6098-463a-98f0-e5c4010306b3> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.slj.com/tag/environment/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00086-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94485 | 428 | 2.9375 | 3 |
By MEAGAN STILP
HOUGHTON - Community members got the opportunity to learn a bit more about the lakes they live near Tuesday evening. In an event co-sponsored by Michigan Technological University's Great Lake Research Center and the Portage Lake District Library, attendees participated in multiple stations focused on the Great Lakes, including a ride aboard Michigan Tech's research vessel, the Agassiz.
Meagan Stilp/Daily Mining Gazette
Community members take a ride aboard the Agassiz, a Michigan Technological University research vessel, to learn how scientists assess the health of lakes Tuesday night. The ride was just one of five evening activities aimed at Great Lakes education. The event was co-sponsored by Michigan Tech and the Portage Lake District Library.
"We plan events to bring youth and community members out," said Joan Chadde, education program coordinator at Michigan Tech. "We have five different stations that the students and their parents can participate in and they can stay for as long or short as they like."
The stations included a visit to a GLRC lab, where participants looked at organisms under a microscope and even dissected a fish to find out what was in its stomach. At the PLDL, children were encouraged to use their creative side in boat building and mural-making stations.
"They draw something from the Great Lakes that will go on our mural wall," said Chris Alquist of the Portage Lake District Library. "The mural is going to be posted on the library windows here."
Outside the library, students from Dollar Bay High School's Student Organization for Aquatic Robotics (SOAR) team showed off their remotely-operated vehicles. They created the ROVs as part of a class but their purpose goes beyond the classroom while helping combat invasive species, such as zebra mussels, at Isle Royale National Park.
"We're using it to find zebra mussels on the bottom of boats and docks since they're an invasive species," said Lance Kangas, Dollar Bay High School student and SOAR member. "...We're helping spread ideas and get more people interested. We're trying to get little kids curious about it so they can do it later."
The final station was perhaps the most popular as attendees lined up to get a chance to ride aboard the Agassiz to learn how scientists assess the health of the Great Lakes. The Agassiz took them from the PLDL to the GLRC, with a van shuttling them back to the beginning.
"The idea is to get a lot of people out on the water and give them an overview on how scientists assess health of lakes. It's been interesting to see how interested people are. At Strawberry Festival we start at 1 p.m. and people are still there at 5 or 6 waiting in line to get their turn," Chadde said. "I don't think it's just about the boat ride because people are only out there for half an hour but we do surveys and people really appreciate the opportunity to learn and interact with the scientists."
Tuesday's was one of many events planned for the summer as part of GM's "Ride the Waves" grant to Michigan Tech. People will also be able to ride on the Agassiz from noon to 3 p.m. Friday at the Lake Linden Marina, July 12 during Strawberry Festival in Chassell and July 20 during Lake Superior Day in Copper Harbor. Those interested are encouraged to call (906) 487-3341 to sign up for a spot as space is limited.
There are also many more events in the future at the PLDL as part of their science-themed summer reading program. For more information on those visit www.uproc.lib.mi.us/newpldl/ or stop in. | <urn:uuid:8a5c55f9-09ba-4c3a-8414-6b8db15ed395> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.mininggazette.com/page/content.detail/id/535361/Learning-on-the-lakes.html?nav=5006 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00038-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.975693 | 776 | 2.734375 | 3 |
From the very beginning of the League in Ohio, the leaders communicated with the public through the printed word. This continued as the League grew and became national. The first periodical published in 1893 was called The Anti-Saloon. In 1896 The American Issue appeared in Ohio. In 1907 it became the national voice of the League with headquarters in Chicago.
By 1909, with demands for printed material escalating, the American Issue Publishing Company headquarters was moved to Westerville, Ohio. From this printing headquarters, a river of 40 tons of anti-alcohol material poured every month. Ernest H. Cherrington became the general-manager of publishing interests of the Anti-Saloon League of America and editor-in-chief of all publications of the League.
The League had grandiose plans for its Westerville site. The leaders were going to build an elaborate Lincoln Memorial which would house their temperance library. A grand celebration and ground-breaking took place but the planned building never was erected.
The finances of the League improved through the early years of the 20th century. It was able to attract some wealthy patrons - John D. Rockefeller and Sebastian Kresge. Prominent community leaders, including governors, mayors and police chiefs, express their support for the cause.
By the Ohio League's second year of operation in 1894, John D. Rockefeller and Howard Hyde Russell had established a relationship that led to many donations through the years. However, the bulk of the League's financial support came from the pledges of money subscribed to by the rank and file members from its base of support in the churches.
Proof of support from prominent community leaders. Read the full pamphlet.
Note: A hard copy of this pamphlet can be found at the Anti-Saloon League Museum: ID Number: Memo.
9 a.m. - 9 p.m.
9 a.m. - 6 p.m.
9 a.m. - 6 p.m.
1 p.m. - 6 p.m. | <urn:uuid:4296500e-0f51-481f-bb96-ba78a79f0c83> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://westervillelibrary.org/antisaloon-pledges/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396029.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00151-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.976777 | 411 | 2.828125 | 3 |
An organism is healthy thanks to a good maintenance system: the normal functioning of organs and environmental exposure cause damage to tissues, which need to be continuously repaired. This process is not yet well understood, but it is known that stem cells in the organs play a key role, and that when repair fails, the organism ages more quickly. Researchers from the Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO) have "discovered one of the key genes that make up the maintenance mechanism for tissues" says Miguel Foronda, the first author of the manuscript.
This image depicts stem cells from adult mouse epidermis (green, Cytokeratin 6; blue, cell nucleus); Sox4 protein maintains tissue homeostasis in these cells.
The study is published this week in the journal Cell Reports. The authors believe that it adds another piece to the ageing, stem cells and cancer puzzle, made up of three main elements that are known to be related, but no one knows exactly how. By understanding this relationship throughout identification key regulatory genes, we could have a different, perhaps more unified, vision of these three areas with enormous implications for health.
The target of this research, the Sox4 gene, is expressed during embryonic development -it contributes, for example, to the development of the pancreas, the bones and the heart, and to the differentiation of lymphocytes. It is also active in the adult organism, but in a very limited way, being mainly restricted to some stem cell compartments.
Furthermore, when Sox4 malfunctions it becomes an oncogene. Practically all human cancers have too much Sox4, which translates into more cellular proliferation and less apoptosis - programmed cell death; a mechanism that protects against cancer. It is also known that Sox4 plays a role in metastasis.
Both of these facts - that Sox4 is expressed only in some cells in the adult organism, and that it favours cancer development when there is too much of it - indicate that Sox4 is a powerful gene, with important consequences if it is not properly regulated. The CNIO group, therefore, wanted to study more in depth the role of Sox4 in the adult organism.
It was not an easy task, because mice in which Sox4 had been eliminated die before birth. The authors' working strategy consisted of generating a line of mice that do express Sox4, but at lower quantities than normal.
These animals survive and are fertile, but they have several peculiarities: they are smaller than normal, age earlier and do not have cancer. Conversely, they do develop other age-related illnesses.
As stated by the researchers, the mice with less Sox4: "show signs of premature loss of tissue homeostasis (maintenance), shorter telomeres, and, as a consequence, accelerated ageing and the appearance of pathologies associated with ageing, as well as cancer resistance."
The mice deficient in Sox4 have, for example, little bone regeneration and lots of osteoporosis, indicating that this gene is important for the bone tissue maintenance mechanism.
But the authors wanted to especially investigate whether stem cells were the key actors in these consequences of lowering Sox4 levels. To this end, they created more mice in which this gene was completely deactivated in hair follicle stem cells; those responsible for the regeneration of the epidermis. In these mice, precisely, the skin repair mechanism did not work, the skin aged prematurely and they did not develop skin cancer.
The puzzle has not yet been solved: why these animals are less likely to have cancer?. One possible explanation is that a lower rate of tissue regeneration - given than the stem cells are less active in the absence of Sox4 - is a cancer-inhibiting mechanism.
As Maria Blasco, the co-author, says: "this would imply that the origin of cancer is associated to regeneration errors, and if there is less regeneration there is also less cancer. The negative side is that less renewal also means more ageing. It is a complex balance, which we will only understand with more research." | <urn:uuid:c54aa9ae-132d-4220-a55f-a5cf94f68b6b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/279866.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396147.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00146-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964205 | 828 | 3.453125 | 3 |
Joined: Oct. 2006
Ever hear of the Bacterial Flagellum? Upon electron microscope examination, it looks very much like a machine!
In fact, it bears a strong resemblance to an outboard motor, you know, the kind you see on the back of those small aluminum-fishing boats.
Any way, the Bacterial Flagellum is what scientists call an “irreducible complex system”. An irreducible complex system is made in such a way that if you take away any one part of the system, the system ceases to function. A good example of this is the common mousetrap. Take away any one part, and it ceases to function. In the case of irreducibly complex organisms, taking away any one part causes it to die.
Question #6 The theory of evolution says that less complex organisms evolved into more complex life forms. How could the Bacterial Flagellum have evolved from a lower life form? What is its' transitional fossil? | <urn:uuid:c1391cbb-57aa-4110-a9de-c245060ffe9d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.antievolution.org/cgi-bin/ikonboard/ikonboard.cgi?s=50c559a01accb1e4;act=ST;f=2;t=3557 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00040-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.921631 | 212 | 3.796875 | 4 |
vol. 14 no. 1, March, 2009
Information sharing is closely related to development practices in communities that experience constraints in social and economic progress. Usually, development projects that aim to improve people's livelihoods focus on the introduction of appropriate information and techniques (know-how) that can be implemented to address these problems. The sharing of information is either carried out by officials involved in specific development projects, or it can take place by means of information products or services offered by governmental authorities to provide local access to information for these communities.
In rural communities, where a large component of the people originates from traditional societies (hereafter referred to as indigenous people), developers tend to introduce information products or services that have been implemented successfully in other contexts. Underlying the sharing of such information or technologies is the belief that they could be applied to solve or alleviate similar problems in rural areas equally well.
Very often the context from which the information products or services originated differs from the cultural context of the target groups. Information sharing under these new circumstances then takes place across cultural boundaries.
In the case of information sharing across cultural boundaries, the process can be affected by a variety of factors. Some of them are not easily detected, because they are of a tacit nature. However, their impact can be observed through the outcomes of development projects. One such factor is the information behaviour of people when it comes to the acceptance of newly introduced information.
Although developers are aware that information can build the receiver's understanding of a newly introduced product or service, their focus seems to be more on the acceptance of the product or service itself than on information as its tacit component. Whether developers are aware that people's preferences in terms of information use can play a role in their acceptance or rejection of the newly introduced products or services is not known. Unfortunately there is also little evidence of information scientists, who are knowledgeable about the information behaviour of different user groups, being involved in the type of development projects that address socio-economic problems in developing communities.
In an age dominated by information technology (IT) it is understandable that many developers who aim their development operations at indigenous people in rural communities will turn to IT in an effort to share information. In the developed world, the convenience of remote access to, and dissemination of, information has shaped users' expectations in terms of the increasing availability of information. More users and a wider variety of user groups have evolved. Their diverse demands have stimulated the design and development of new products and services (Barry 1997; Hepworth 2007; Dyson et al. 2007)
It is therefore not surprising that community informatics evolved as a set of practices that are concerned with the use of information and communication technologies for personal, social, cultural or economic development within communities, in order to enable these communities to participate in a larger social, economic, cultural and political environment to achieve their collective goals. For similar reasons governmental authorities view the implementation of such technologiess as an ideal solution to bring information for development purposes closer to their target populations (McIver 2003). The main reason is that it enables the delivery of and access to information with virtually no restrictions in terms of distance and time.
However, investigators and fieldworkers involved in community development projects are increasingly becoming aware of the limited acceptance of modern IT-based information products and services available to indigenous people in rural communities. In a South African context Snyman and Snyman (2003) reported that IT-driven information provision in developing communities did not live up to expectations. IT-driven multipurpose community centres (MPCCs) seem to have fallen into disuse. Others (e.g. Rhodes 2003, Van Belle & Trusler 2005) showed that despite the introduction of IT-driven information services, such as telecentres, users tend not to use these to satisfy their specific information needs.
Given that a large component of developing communities in remote rural areas in South Africa comprises indigenous people the above reports regarding their non-use of technology-based information services raise concerns about the successful harnessing of technology for information provision to indigenous people. Considering that they (especially the older generation) are often poor and lack the necessary education and literacy skills to use such technology, it is perhaps not surprising that they will demonstrate an attitude of indifference towards technology-driven information services as a resource that can meet their information needs. Such information systems require electricity, electronic devices, hardware and software and the appropriate knowledge and skills to access electronic information.
Viewing the problem from this perspective, it seems possible that there could be a misalignment between delivery of technology-driven information services and a demand for these services among the indigenous user groups in rural communities. The poor response of these potential user groups raises the suspicion that information behaviour could be an underlying factor, which contributes to the failure to use such information services in this particular context.
Considering the problem identified above, the purpose of this article is to argue whether information behaviour could be a determining factor in information sharing across cultural boundaries in development contexts.
To come to an understanding of the influence of information behaviour in information sharing, it is necessary to consider the concept of information behaviour and the cultural context of indigenous people, as well as criteria to access information through IT-driven services.
The word behaviour refers to a person's response when he or she comes into contact with a particular phenomenon. Responses are activated by the inner emotions, feelings, or perceptions people experience as a result of a particular phenomenon. In the case of information behaviour, it can be assumed that these inner emotions and feelings, actions and reactions will be displayed when people deal with information or when they are exposed to information. People's responses to a particular phenomenon may differ, depending on their cognitive state of mind, their experience and their levels of knowledge and skills at the time of the encounter. The latter are some of the basic elements that determine how a person will respond when he or she is exposed to incoming information. Repetitive encounters under the same conditions may result in the development of a certain pattern of response which will eventually develop into habits when information is used, or it may reflect attitudes when incoming information is received. Originally Davenport (1997) defined information behaviour as 'how people approach and handle information'.
Literature on information behaviour (e.g., Kuhlthau 1988, Savolainen 1993, Ingwersen 1996, Davenport 1997, Vakkari 1997, Sonnenwald 1999, Wilson 1997, Wilson 1999) reveals that the concept has developed over time and that there still is much debate on what exactly it entails and what factors influence it. Many of the definitions of information behaviour are often too restrictive and deal with only one or two categories of factors, such as cognitive or affective factors. Courtright (2007: 277) points out that current research moves beyond cognitive and affective factors, and claims that context plays a role in information behaviour.
The fact that context is identified as one of the main categories of factors that determine information behaviour necessitates its conceptualisation. In terms of information practices, Vakkari et al. (1997) refer to context as a frame of reference. Others see it as a setting, background or environment. Contexts can be formal or informal and may even be of a temporary nature (as identified in the research of Chatman (1999) or Savolainen's (1995) model for everyday life). Authors such as Courtright (2007) and Hepworth (2007) discuss the diversity of contexts. They argue that contexts can include cultural environments, organisations, tasks, circumstances, systems, technology, and formal or everyday settings. The commonality that runs through all of them is that they have boundaries that exercise some form of control regarding the flow and use of information or the extent of interaction that is allowed between the context and the outside world. Within the boundaries, sets of rules regarding standards, norms and values govern the handling of information (Audunson 1999), and determine what type of information is acceptable or whether resistance towards information will take place.
A prominent feature of contexts seems to be the interaction between the information users and contextual elements within the context in which they operate (Courtright 2007: 288-9). Some of these contextual elements include power structures and the hierarchical nature of society (Hepworth 2007), as well as social forces in communities where knowledge, characteristics, expectations and norms are internalised to varying degrees in the individual (Olsson 1999). The impact of the interplay between these contextual elements manifests itself in the way in which information users are motivated to take action, or the way in which their actions are shaped or constrained by phenomena such as IT and organisational practices that reside within the context. Lievrouw (2001) refers to IT as phenomena that can become either bridges or barriers in information practices. In this regard Courtright (2007: 290) refers to studies which found that context is a dynamic construct, and that information users are not only shaped by context but also shape it in turn. Products and services that originate from elsewhere are often introduced to users in a developing context where different criteria for information usage apply. In such a case it is possible that the users' information behaviour will determine how the shaping takes place.
Of interest for the sharing of information across cultural contexts is the development context that is temporary in nature. Information users in developing communities are not necessarily homogeneous as far as information practices are concerned. A certain percentage of users are either illiterate or only functionally literate. Usually, indigenous people belong to this group. They are, to a large extent, dependent on indigenous knowledge systems and oral communication to access and use information. It can therefore be assumed that the oral culture remains evident in developing communities and will probably manifest in the information behaviour of indigenous people. It seems therefore that conditions present in a development context are ideal for information users to be shaped by context or can shape context in turn. For example, Ikoja-Ondongo and Ocholla (2003) refer to circumstances in rural communities such as poverty, illiteracy and lack of infrastructure. Observations by Hepworth (2007), Courtright (2007: 290), Meyer (2003), and Ikoja-Ondongo and Ocholla (2003) imply that the impact of these conditions on the information behaviour of users in a development context could render newly introduced products and services less useful.
From the literature it has been learnt that over generations, indigenous people developed specific mechanisms such as storytelling, memorising, repetition, dancing, acting, observing and demonstrations to collect, store and share information (Aboyade 1984; Botha 1991; Goody & Watt 1963; Olson 1994; Ong 1982). In addition, information flow in an oral context is controlled by attitudes, perceptions, norms, values and belief systems inherent to indigenous people. For example, when people experience an information need, they will approach a knowledgeable person whom they trust. They are hesitant to take individual decisions, unless these have been sanctioned by the group, or the headman of the community. Information messages in recorded format (books, documents, etc.) have less credibility than spoken messages.
Underlying information sharing between people used to modern information practices and between indigenous people used to oral communication practices are two different information resource systems that the respective groups rely on to meet their information needs. These are the information resource systems of recorded information of the modern society, and the indigenous knowledge systems of traditional societies stored in the collective memory of the people in these communities. A study of the communication mechanisms of these two societies proved that those of the traditional (oral) society differ markedly in many ways and are not easily compatible with modern systems (Meyer 2001; 2003). Considering information sharing across cultural boundaries, the incompatibility of the two systems can have serious implications for information sharing for development purposes.
In the oral tradition various control mechanisms are used to enable access to information. Usually the hierarchical structure (headmen or other community leaders) determines who is allowed to have access to what type of information. This is a typical example of the power structures and hierarchical nature of society in cultural contexts to which Hepworth (2007) referred.
Among indigenous people, an authority figure whom the group respects has more credibility than an impersonal and abstract document that contains information. Written or concrete information is often seen as undermining the authority of leaders (Olson 1994). If the headman or the leader accepts incoming information as true, the group will accept incoming information more readily. The extent to which authority figures understand a particular type of information or topic can also play a crucial role in the sanctioning of incoming information. In general, newly introduced information, ideas, processes and procedures are not easily adopted. Although people may understand them, the concepts will remain on the outskirts of their mind maps.
Norms and value systems also play a role in the way in which incoming information is perceived, or whether it should be accepted or rejected. Incoming information is more readily accepted if the messenger has credibility among the group. The user group to a large extent determines whether incoming information will be accepted. Group dynamics also play an important role in the acceptance of incoming information. If the group thinks the incoming information, product or technology is a viable option, the individuals in the group will accept it more readily. It seems that individuals do not feel confident enough to take decisions in isolation. When decisions that are taken by the group, individuals do not have to take the blame if something goes wrong. This is different from modern societies, where people tend to take individual decisions that are supported by evidence.
As far as the dissemination of information in traditional societies is concerned, verbal communication is used to emphasise meaning. Metaphorical speech is used to link incoming information with existing knowledge and enhance understanding. Live demonstrations are often used to explain processes or procedures. In the absence of the means to record information outside the memory to be retrieved when needed, repetition is used to strengthen memories and to let ideas sink in.
Considering that the information behaviour of groups of people emerged as a response to their information needs, how they make sense of incoming information, and how they seek and use information (Courtright 2007), all the above mentioned aspects will influence the information behaviour of indigenous people. They will be reflected in responses such as acceptance, resistance, beliefs, motivation, relevance, trust, learning and thinking.
The convergence of information and communication technologies was an enormous leap for people of the modern information society. There is no doubt that, with the advances in these technologies, the landscape of information practices changed significantly. The technologies became an integral part of the information context (Lievrouw 2001). Perhaps their most outstanding characteristic is their use in the provision of access to large volumes of information at high speed over space and time.
According to Lievrouw (2001), information technology not only forms an integral part of information contexts but also makes them more complex. Therefore, the argument that information and communication technologies can become either bridges or barriers seems to be valid. They can be a shaper of information practices or be shaped by other contextual factors and by the users themselves (Courtright 2007: 285).
The provision of information and information products and services in community development has recently received much attention from government authorities involved in the socio-economic wellbeing of all their citizens. Concerted efforts are undertaken to share with developing communities the advantages that have been reaped from knowledge and experience in developed sectors of society. It is perhaps only natural that people involved in development would like to share these benefits with people in developing communities. The underlying assumption seems to be that appropriate information can contribute significantly to development.
In a development context, information and communication technologies are considered advantageous in terms of saving time and providing access to
Understandably, many of the information provision services in rural communities in South Africa are offered in telecentres. A multipurpose community centre is a specific type of telecentre, which can be defined as a physical space which provides public access to information and communication technologies for educational, personal, social and economic development (Gomez et al. 1999).
Developers who are involved in information sharing in developing communities seem to be more interested in the capabilities of technology-driven services than in the impact of information behaviour on these services (McIver 2003). Therefore, it is quite possible that developers do not always keep in mind that community development among groups of traditional or indigenous people takes place across cultural boundaries, where different rules apply in terms of information practices.
However, in order to benefit from IT-driven services users need to comply with their prerequisites. Apart from prerequisites in terms of electricity, electronic devices, hardware and software, and the appropriate knowledge and skills to access electronic information, these technologies make demands with which indigenous people in developing communities cannot easily comply. They require not only the establishment of sophisticated infrastructure, which raises costs, but also that users should have the knowledge and skills to access information. User groups that are unable to comply with these demands are deprived of information which is only available in electronic form. As a result, they fall prey to the ever-widening digital divide.
In line with the concern about indigenous people's ability to use technology-driven information services, Hepworth (2007), is of the opinion that there is an awareness that in terms of the impact of information and communication technologies in the wider cultural context, little has been done to accommodate cultural differences when designing information products and services. On the other hand, there is evidence of attempts to adapt information technology to incorporate or support indigenous cultures and social practices, rather than forcing indigenous peoples to adapt to IT (Dyson et al. 2007). Unfortunately factors such as poverty, illiteracy, a lack of infrastructure and oral traditions that are omnipresent in development contexts remain hurdles to overcome (Daly 2007; Ikoja-Odongo 2004; Meyer 2003).
Taking into account that cultural contexts as well as information products and services play significant roles in people's information behaviour, it seems obvious that information behaviour becomes a factor to be reckoned with when information sharing is planned across cultural boundaries.
To establish how information behaviour can influence the sharing of information across cultural boundaries in a development context, this study is based firstly on the findings of a historical case study on information transfer to traditional farmers (Meyer 2001). Secondly, the outcomes of the case study are compared to evidence found in the literature indicating that people's information behaviour can be shaped by contexts, of which IT is a contextual factor.
Sharing information in the broadest sense implies that both the sender and the receiver of information must have more or less the same understanding of a concept or topic. The act of understanding is made possible through the ability to link incoming concepts with existing knowledge or with understanding of the concept. More value is added when information is linked to real-life experiences or situations. People's understanding or sensemaking is further influenced by their norms, values and beliefs. Hepworth (2007) refers to these as the affective factors that influence information behaviour.
When information sharing takes place across cultural boundaries between people originating from literate and oral cultures, the chances are good that the information behaviour of the receivers may determine to what extent the messages will be accepted. Then sharing of information for development purposes is no longer a simple act of passing on factual information and leaving it to the receivers to make sense of it.
The following case serves as an example of information sharing that took place with the receiver's world-view in mind. Its outcome proves that the desired goal of the development project was successfully achieved. That is, the newly introduced information was accepted and implemented by the target group.
The Phokoane case deals with the role that information sharing played in the training of traditional farmers to improve their maize growing practices. The background to the case is that a development official succeeded in introducing destitute traditional farmers to modern farming practices in such a way that they became sustainable maize growers. A study (Meyer 2001) of the training methods proved that the trainer focused on indigenous information practices of the traditional farmers instead of the conventional development practices of that time. As a result, the farmers could easily relate to the method and style of communication.
In his approach, the trainer applied behavioural practices typical of the indigenous cultural contexts. These were: their trust in and respect for knowledgeable people and the elderly; dependence on the group's opinion; belief in knowledge and experience passed on through generations; memorising information; respecting the hierarchical and power structures of the family and the community; oral communication to exchange information; using acting, dancing and rhymes to memorise new concepts; using metaphorical speech and real life demonstrations to associate with existing understanding of a concept; associating abstract concepts with real life objects; lack of literacy; lack of numeracy; lack of abstract thinking; and lack of formal education.
By skilfully integrating these elements into the training sessions, the trainer succeeded in sharing information on a level that made sense to the particular group. His honesty, dedication and ability to introduce the right information at the time it was needed enhanced the understanding process. With this particular approach he won the trust and confidence of the group, and persuaded them to accept the new way of farming. Eventually they produced enough maize to combat hunger and still had a surplus to sell. Once word of the successes of the first group of farmers reached their fellow farmers, the news spread like wildfire and more and more came to be trained in this way. Over a period of five years more than five thousand farmers were trained to become sustainable maize growers (Adendorff 1991).
Revisiting the viewpoints that information behaviour is formed through circumstances present in cultural environments (Hepworth 2007) and that rules, standards, norms and values govern handling or information (Audunson 1999), they compare favourably with what was observed in terms of the information practices of indigenous people in an oral culture (Meyer 2003). The difference is that circumstances, standards, rules and norms that govern information behaviour in a literate culture are of a different nature to those of an oral culture.
Considering how information behaviour evolves, it is understandable that the information behaviour of indigenous people evolved over time because of the socioeconomic conditions of the traditional culture. In the absence of a literate culture, people drew on information exchanges in everyday life and the information that was available in the indigenous knowledge systems. As a result, information practices were developed to collect, store, access, analyse, apply and communicate information according to the requirements of the oral tradition. These practices are primarily based on repetitive patterns to memorise; verbal communication; body language; visual images and real-life demonstrations to communicate; and understanding through association with real-life objects, prior knowledge and experiences. Information mechanisms used by indigenous people to control information flow have everything to do with affective responses such as beliefs, motivation, trust, acceptance or resistance.
By comparing information behaviour practices of oral and literate cultures it seems clear that the influence of textual records and people as sources of information is different in the two cultures. In literate cultures information is stored as records, while in oral cultures it is primarily captured and stored in the collective memory of communities. Usually elderly or knowledgeable people are respected for their insight and experience. The opinion of knowledgeable people is trusted and viewed as authoritative. Information originating from outside the oral cultural context is not easily trusted, unless sanctioned by a trusted person. Group opinion also plays an important role, because users are hesitant to apply outside information if positive outcomes cannot be guaranteed. In contrast, in literate cultures the validity of information is based on the correctness of facts and is subject to scrutiny by experts in a particular field of interest. Individuals are expected to take informed decisions and not to rely on the (possibly) subjective opinions of others.
In oral cultures, information access is possible through means of one-on-one communication over short distances. In literate cultures, information is primarily captured in textual or digital records outside the human memory. Access to information is obtained through the use of different records or retrieval tools in which the information is captured. Reading, including interpretation of the contents, is the main means to select only what is required for a specific purpose. Literacy, more specifically information literacy, is a prerequisite to access information resource systems. Access to information extends over space and time.
Information in an oral context resides in the collective memory and is passed on from one generation to the next. Experience and viewpoints of trusted people are accepted and no clear distinction is made between factual information and subjective opinions. In literate cultures, vast stores of information exist in the information resource systems of modern society. The onus is on the users to select, interpret and apply only what is required to accomplish a task. Information technology is becoming more and more an integral part of the information provision process. It has its own criteria that demand certain competencies from users, thereby shaping their information behaviour.
As indicated above, a development context can be viewed as a temporal context ( Courtright 2007) where information sharing takes place to improve existing situations. In a development context where the improvement of indigenous peoples' livelihoods is at stake, information sharing takes place between groups of people originating from different cultural contexts – usually people from a developed society wishing to share information with target groups in a developing community. When the receivers or beneficiaries of the development action are indigenous people, two different sets of information behaviour come into play. This is reminiscent of Courtright's (2007: 281) argument that institutional practices can shape information behaviour, but that users can also influence the context through their social practices. Given that the information practices of literate and oral cultures have developed along completely different lines (Meyer 2003), with different communication mechanisms and tools that helped to shape information behaviour, it can be expected that the boundaries of the two cultural contexts will be fairly impenetrable. When boundaries of cultural contexts become impenetrable as a result of incompatible information systems, the chances are good that sharing of information will become extremely complex.
In the case of indigenous people, the information sharing process becomes even more complex when IT-driven services are offered as the only means of access to formal types of information. For such services to be effective, users need to be computer literate and able to access electronic information. Considering that indigenous people turn to people for advice when in need of information, and that they lack literacy and skills to access electronic information, it is possible that they will tend to avoid using these services. Under such conditions the technology becomes a barrier rather than a bridge in information practices (Lievrouw 2001).
From what has been learnt about indigenous people's information behaviour, approaching telecentres to obtain information seems, in the first place, not to be an established information seeking habit of indigenous people. Secondly, indigenous people typically turn to a trustworthy person when they need information for a particular purpose. IT-driven services do not interpret information. They only provide access to information.
When one compares the traditional mechanisms that indigenous people use to access information with technology as a mechanism to access information, it seems obvious that there will be a mismatch between the search and delivery mechanisms at the disposal of these particular user groups. It becomes clear that the inability of the information service to provide mechanisms familiar to the users will result in disinterest. The negative response of the indigenous user towards IT-related information services in the development context is thus evidence of the influence of information behaviour on information sharing across cultural boundaries. In such a case, it can be argued that information behaviour eventually becomes the underlying factor that impacts upon the effectiveness of the information and information services provided to improve the livelihoods of people in developing communities.
The provision of development information concerning markets, health services, legislation and policies to developing communities through IT-driven services is evidence of how a temporal context evolves within a larger cultural context. Without consideration of potential users' information practices, their information behaviour becomes the factor that will determine the effectiveness of information services in the development (temporal) context.
Considering that investments in IT-driven information services have cost implications for developers, failure to use IT-driven information services can have far reaching implications for developers in terms of poor returns on their investments in infrastructure and for building social capacity. On the side of the target groups it implies that individuals do not benefit from the investments as anticipated by developers, and that possibly no significant improvement will be achieved in terms of the livelihoods of participants. It is presumed that developers would be keen to avoid or to redress the problems that are causing mismatches between users and services.
Revisiting the core question raised in the problem statement, the discussion with regard to the interplay between the factors operating in the respective information contexts proved that information behaviour evolves as a result of conditions inherent to a particular context. A comparison of information practices within the two cultural contexts showed how information behaviour becomes the factor that can influence the sharing of information across cultural boundaries.
It appeared that development activities in rural communities create a temporal context within a larger cultural context. The comparison between the prerequisites of information technology and the information behaviour of indigenous people showed that technology has a shaping effect on their access and information use patterns. The use of IT in a development context, without considering the impact of information behaviour of the respective user groups, can result in the non-use of information. The fact that development workers are seemingly unaware of the role that information behaviour can play in the use of information remains a concern.
Hopefully, insights obtained through this comparative study can serve as a point of departure for further research to establish how widespread the influence of information behaviour is on the provision of technology-driven information services to rural communities in development contexts.
Although information behaviour is a tacit dimension, it can play a powerful role in sharing information across cultural boundaries in development contexts.
Hester Meyer is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Information Science, University of South Africa, South Africa. She received her DPhil in Information Science (Speciality: information for development) from the University of Pretoria in South Africa. Her research focuses mainly on the influence of information behaviour where information is exchanged across cultural boundaries for development purposes. She can be contacted at [email protected]
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This family (Mustelidae
) includes minks
, and otters
. They are small to medium-sized. Their long tails are never banded.
, Mustela vison
, is found in coastal habitats along the Gulf Coast south to Hernando County and along the Atlantic Coast south to Matanzas Inlet. It is glossy, blackish brown with a long (20-24"), slender body, short legs and a long (7-8") bushy tail. It has small rounded ears and a white chin.
It is active primarily at night, foraging for food in the water and along the banks. Diet consists of mammals, frogs, insects, birds, reptiles, and fish.
Breeding season is from late winter to spring. Litters of 3-4 kits are born about 50 days later.
** PROTECTED **
The Everglades Mink
, Mustela vison evergladensis
, is found in shallow freshwater marshes of the Everglades and Big Cypress Swamp. It is similar in appearance to the mink described below but a darker brown.
Its diet is primarily crayfish, fish, and small mammals.
There is evidence that the breeding season is from September to November.
** PROTECTED **
The River Otter
, Lutra canadensis
, is found in most freshwater habitats in the panhandle and peninsula. It is glossy brown with a paler or gray tan underside. It has an elongated 35-43" body with a long (12-16") muscular tail. It has a small, flattened head, small, rounded ears, short legs, and webbed toes.
It swims at about 6mph and can remain underwater 3-4 minutes. It tends to be nocturnal and lives in bank burrows under tree roots or in dense vegetation.
Diet is mainly fish and crayfish but may include turtles, frogs, snakes, salamanders, clams, birds, rodents, and fruit (such as hawthorn
fruit). It caches food.
The river otter breeds in late summer or fall. The litter of 1-6 kits is born about 11 months later. They will stay with the mother about a year.
Predators are alligators and humans.
The Striped Skunk
, Mephitis mephitis
, also known as the "polecat", is found statewide except in the Keys. It is black with two white stripes down the back though the stripes vary from not being present to the entire back being white. It has a small head, short legs, and a plumed 8-14" tail. Its body length is 23-28".
The striped skunk has scent glands that can spray up to 15 feet. The smell can be detected as far as 1.5 miles away.
It is a slow-moving animal that seldom climbs. It can swim short distances. Usually solitary, it digs its own den or uses the den of an armadillo, fox, or gopher tortoise. During cold weather, it sleeps for extended periods of time.
An omnivore, it eats mostly insects, but also reptiles, amphibians, rodents, crayfish, birds, eggs, roots, nuts, seeds, fruit such as persimmons
, grass, and mushrooms.
Breeding occurs once a year in the spring, with a litter of 2-10 kits born about 65 days later. The kits stay with the mother until late summer.
Its primary predator is the great horned owl which is oblivious to the skunk's spray.
It can carry rabies and leptospirosis.
The Eastern Spotted Skunk
, Spilogale putoriur
, is found in dry prairies, fields, and brush statewide except for the Keys. It is also commonly called "civet cat" and "weasel skunk". It is black with white spots and wide, wavy stripes, and a bushy 6-8" tail. It has small eyes and ears and short legs. There is a white spot on the forehead and in front of each ear. It is 16-21" long.
It has musk glands which can spray 12-15 feet. It does a series of handstands before spraying.
The Eastern spotted skunk is nocturnal, spending the daytime sleeping in an underground den. Dens are often dug under buildings, logs, woodpiles, and brush piles. It is an excellent climber.
An omnivore, it primarily eats insects but also reptiles, amphibians, rodents, birds, eggs, fish, roots, and nuts.
It breeds in late winter and may breed again in late summer. A litter of 2-9 kits are born after a gestation of about 60 days.
Primary predators are great horned owls and barred owls. Other predators include bobcats, foxes, coyotes, and dogs.
It may carry rabies and leptospirosis.
The Long-tailed Weasel
, Mustela frenata
, is found in nonaquatic habitats statewide. It is rich dark brown with a white underside, a long (14-18") body, long neck, and a long (6-7"), black-tipped tail. It has a pointed nose and small eyes.
Diet consists primarily of rodents, reptiles, rabbits, frogs, and birds. They are especially fond of poultry.
While normally quite shy, a cornered weasel can become very aggressive.
The Southeastern Weasel
, Mustela frenata olivacea
, is found in northern Florida and the panhandle. It is chestnut brown with a yellowish white underside. The end of the tail is black.
It dens in hollow trees and burrows, including gopher tortoise and pocket gopher burrows.
Its diet is primarily rodents but includes other small animals.
One litter is born in late fall or early winter.
The Florida Weasel
, Mustela frenata peninsulae
, is found in a variety of habitats in central Florida. It is similar in all respects to the Southeastern Weasel, except slightly larger with coarser fur.
[ Mammal Index | Protected Mammals ] | <urn:uuid:7f7b32d9-a432-4c29-8dfa-cddd231013a9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nsis.org/wildlife/mamm/weasel.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00048-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947855 | 1,306 | 3.40625 | 3 |
Climate Change Causes Algae to Grow Faster
Jan 18, 2014 08:21 AM EST
A new study found that climate change affects the growth of algae in the temperate coastal waters in the Pacific Ocean.
The study focused on the crustose coralline algae, a species of algae found in the waters of Tatoosh Isalnd in Washington. Corraline algae's skeletons are made of calcium carbonate, just like the skeleton of other marine species like oysters and mussels. The researchers have been studying the marine ecosystem in Tatoosh Island for decades and they have gathered extensive ecological data on the site.
For this study, the researchers transferred the species of crustose corraline algae to their test sites to discover how increased salinity affects their growth and how they compete with each other.
Their experiment revealed that as the water absorbs more amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, the acid levels of the water also increases. Once this happens, species of shellfish and algae will find it hard to build their skeleton and shells. This phenomenon could be clear indication on how increased levels of acid in the water affect the marine ecosystem.
"Coralline algae are one of the poster organisms for studying ocean acidification," said PhD candidate in the Department of Ecology and Evolution at the University of Chicago and lead study author Sophie McCoy, in a press release. "On one hand, they can grow faster because of increased carbon dioxide in the water, but on the other hand, ocean acidification makes it harder for them to deposit the skeleton. It's an important tradeoff."
On the other hand, results for showing the competition among different species showed that Pseudolithophyllum muricatum is no longer the dominant species. McCoy's experiment reflected that P. muricatum won less than 25 percent of the time and no other species were found to be dominant.
McCoy explains this by the thinning of the skeleton of the P. muricatum. Before, data showed that P.muricatum was the dominant species due to their thick skeleton but according to McCoy's experiment, P.muricatum's skeleton is now half as thick as they were years ago. According to the researchers, this might be likely due to the decreasing pH levels of the waters recorded for over the last 12 years.
"The total energy available to these organisms is the same, but now they have to use some of it dealing with this new stress," she stated. "Some species are more affected than others. So the ones that need to make more calcium carbonate tissue, like P. muricatum, are under more stress than the ones that don't."
McCoy said that it's important to continue studying the effects of increased ocean acidification in a context like the one found in Tatoosh Island instead of artificial study sites in laboratory.
The study was published in the Jan. 15 issue of Ecology Letters.
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catechol is a valid word in this word list. For a definition, see the external dictionary links below.
The word "catechol" uses 8 letters: A C C E H L O T.
No direct anagrams for catechol found in this word list.
Words formed by adding one letter before or after catechol (in bold), or to accehlot in any order:
f - facecloth o - chocolate p - catchpole s - catechols
Words within catechol
not shown as it has more than seven letters.
Try a search for catechol in these online resources (some words may not be found):
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Some random words: mm | <urn:uuid:3a1902d3-5dd2-4c6b-a48f-2b366fbf8388> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.morewords.com/word/catechol/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395166.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00191-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.805585 | 246 | 2.515625 | 3 |
The chambered nautilus is one of Earth’s oldest animals. Now, scientists say it may be in danger.
A boat rocks gently in the warm, clear water off the coast of Lizard Island, in Australia. At night, researchers on board the boat are busy. They lower into the ocean three large iron traps with raw chicken inside. Video cameras are attached to the traps. The researchers watch and take note of how many nautiluses, attracted to the meat, swim past the traps overnight. In the morning, the team hauls the traps back onto the boat. They measure, tag and photograph captured nautiluses before releasing them. Scientist Peter Ward, of the University of Washington, is leading the study. “We need to know how many nautiluses there are,” he told TFK. “Thousands? Hundreds?”
Why does the number of creatures matter? Information collected around the world by Ward and other scientists will help to show if the nautilus is threatened and if the animal should be listed as an endangered species.
Nautiluses have survived for more than 500 million years. But some scientists fear that the animals may be in danger of disappearing. Humans have been killing the animal for its unique shell. The inside of the shell is pearl colored and forms a perfect spiral. It is used to make decorations and jewelry.
A Call to Action
At a meeting of scientists in France in 2010, Patricia De Angelis, of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, reported that between 2005 and 2008, 579,000 nautilus-shell products were imported to the U.S. from other countries.
Ward thought that number was alarmingly high. So he came up with a plan to study and count nautiluses. He began his work this summer. He is now in Australia. Four more seagoing research trips are expected to take place in the months ahead.
There is much to learn. “We’re really at the tip of the iceberg,” De Angelis says.
Kids Can Help Too
After reading an article about nautiluses and Ward’s study, Josiah Utsch, 11, decided to take action to protect his favorite sea animal. Josiah and his friend Ridgely Kelly, 10, started a website called savethenautilus.com. “We wanted to educate people,” Josiah says. Money raised by the site goes to support research.
Ward hopes more kids will pay attention to the plight of the nautilus. “I’m going to try to save this thing,” he says. Getting kids involved, he adds, is “the single best way to do that.”
Visit timeforkids.com/creatures to learn about more of Earth's oldest creatures.
To access the digital edition of TIME For Kids, go to timeforkids.com/digital. | <urn:uuid:59cd5abf-ebc3-4d2c-befc-40006495a89b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.timeforkids.com/node/25911/print | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00186-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.957013 | 614 | 3.890625 | 4 |
What is a watershed?
Simply said, a watershed is a drainage basin or area of land where water from rain and melting snow or ice drains into a nearby waterbody such as a stream, pond, river, or lake. It includes both the streams and rivers that convey the water as well as the land surface from which the water drains. In a sense, it acts as a large funnel, collecting rainwater from an extensive surface area and concentrating it into one location.
Why should we care?
We must care about watersheds because as water flows over land, it collects soil, pet wastes, fertilizers, pesticides, oils, and other pollutants which then flow to a nearby waterway. A single quart of motor oil dumped down a storm drain can create a two acre oil-slick!
Even if your home is not near a stream or river, runoff from your yard will flow down your street into a ditch or storm drain, directly into a neighborhood pond or stream, and eventually reach Lake Ontario. This runoff can carry damaging and polluting chemicals with it. The Genesee River Basin covers 2,700 square miles, and all the runoff from that watershed will pass through the 500 foot wide channel between the piers at Charlotte!
What can we do to help?
Municipalities in Monroe County have formed the Monroe County Stormwater Coalition to improve water quality in a cost-effective manner.
Be an H2O Hero!
When you make wise, environmentally friendly decisions, such as using less toxic lawn care products and proper disposal of potentially damaging chemical and electronic wastes, you can protect everyone’s water quality! Better water quality means a cleaner Lake Ontario, safer drinking water and a safer environment for you and your family.
For more information about local stormwater pollution and what you can do to reduce it, visit www.H2OHero.org and become a fan of Larry the H2O Hero on Facebook!
This information is adopted from a message from The Stormwater Coalition of Monroe County and the Water Education Collaborative. | <urn:uuid:f3946649-e3c2-4065-80df-136fb3d44b5a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://cityofrochester.gov/article.aspx?id=8589946104 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00036-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940127 | 419 | 3.625 | 4 |
Gerson, Jean, 1363-1429. "De theologia mystica speculativa." "De mystica theologia practica." "De passionibus animae."
Petrus de Alliaco [Pierra d'Ailly], 1350-1420. "De districtione in nocturnis pollutionibus" (a 2-page abridgement).
Click on image to view enlargement.
The Four-Millionth Volume
The University of Pennsylvania Library acquired an important manuscript as part of its celebration of the acquisition of its four-millionth volume. Presented to the Library on behalf of the Board of Library Overseers by its Chairman, Joseph Glossberg, the manuscript is an early fifteenth-century volume comprising three key texts by the noted French philosopher and theologian, Jean de Gerson (1363-1429). Funding for the gift was generously provided by Overseer member, Lawrence Schoenberg.
Gerson was a major intellectual and religious figure at the turn of the fifteenth century. From his position as Chancellor of the University of Paris, he helped shape and direct those currents of reform and renewal that advocated a more personal, mystical mode of theology than had hitherto been taught in the schools. Eclectic in style, Gerson sought to introduce contemplation and practical piety into the university, not to replace but to supplement the intense rationalism of high scholasticism. Gerson also played a leading role in restoring unity to a Church rent by the Great Schism, which saw the Papacy temporarily in exile in Avignon, France.
The manuscript contains the texts of three of Gerson's most important works: "De theologia mystica speculativa," "De mystica theologia practica," and "De passionibus animae." The first two were probably written in 1407 and issued publicly in 1408. Together, they represent the core of Gerson's intellectual reform and epitomize the new spirituality with which the Chancellor was closely identified. The manuscript is valuable on several counts. Plain and unadorned, written on vellum in a neat Gothic text hand, it may well have been written and circulated for use by students at the university. More importantly, the manuscript was probably executed well within the lifetime of Gerson, making it a roughly contemporaneous copy of the texts. Moreoever, the texts vary substantially in places from printed versions edited in the 1960s. Such variant readings can often lead to new interpretations of works and new views of their authors. Finally, there appear to be no other manuscripts of these texts in American libraries.
This volume fits exceptionally well with Penn's superb collection of late Medieval and Renaissance manuscripts, which focus on the traditions of university intellectual life and the Aristotelian legacy that nourished them.
Lawrence J. Schoenberg & Barbara Brizdle Manuscript Initiative
The Schoenberg Center for Electronic Text and Image | <urn:uuid:e0620afd-f815-46ed-9bd9-593d371d2a89> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.library.upenn.edu/portal/Schoenberg/gerson.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00015-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942564 | 602 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Permanent URL to this publication: http://dx.doi.org/10.5167/uzh-28084
Pernthaler, J; Posch, T (2009). Aquatic microbial food webs. In: Likens, G E. Encyclopedia of Inland Waters ; vol. 3. Oxford: Elsevier, 244-251.
Freshwater pro-and eukaryotic microorganisms and viruses are interconnected by trophic interactions that form complex food webs. The labile dissolved organic carbon in the pelagic zone is consumed by bacteria which in turn are grazed by unicellular protistan predators. This results in a recycling of growth-limiting nutrients for the phytoplankton and in the transfer of particulate organic carbon and nutrients to higher trophic levels. The success of microbial populations in aquatic environments is dependent on their ability to outgrow the mortality inflicted by protistan grazing and viral lysis while competing for limited resources. Various microbial phenotypic adaptations are therefore aimed at reducing loss rates by predation. Heterotrophic protists, in turn, selectively target particular bacterial morphotypes or species. Bacterioplankton assemblages are thus composed of different genotypic populations that are particularly well adapted to cope with either top-down (predation defense) or bottom-up (resource competition) factors. Since pelagic microbial food webs are set against a background of spatial heterogeneity, the microscale patchiness of resource distribution and mortality allows for a coexistence of bacterial species with different growth strategies. The high overall stability of aquatic prokaryotic assemblages at the community level thus probably results from the variable temporal dynamics of numerous individual bacterial populations.
68 downloads since deposited on 21 Jan 2010
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|Item Type:||Book Section, refereed, further contribution|
|Communities & Collections:||07 Faculty of Science > Department of Plant and Microbial Biology|
|Dewey Decimal Classification:||580 Plants (Botany)|
|Deposited On:||21 Jan 2010 17:38|
|Last Modified:||05 Apr 2016 13:47|
|ISBN:||978-0-12-088462-9 (set) 978-0-12-370630-0 (vol. 3)|
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- Overtraining is just as harmful to our bodies as working out too little. While it`s good to push ourselves, it is possible to push too much. It isn't uncommon for athletes who are overstrained to feel depressed or experience an inability to concentrate. — “How Much Exercise is Too Much”,
- Definition of overstrained in the Online Dictionary. Meaning of overstrained. Pronunciation of overstrained. Translations of overstrained. overstrained synonyms, overstrained antonyms. Information about overstrained in the free online English. — “overstrained - definition of overstrained by the Free Online”,
- Do you feel overstrained because of the big amount of information you You have short memory or very forgetful? You just want to be more organized?. — “Yaadi-the recalling genie”,
- America's electricity grid is an engineering marvel, but it is also old, outdated, overstrained and susceptible to failure from storms, terrorism, accidents and high energy demand. — “Andy Posner: Considering All the Benefits of Residential”,
- Your abdomen probably feels like its overstrained because it is. Everytime you throw-up you constrict your abs, so in the end it does feel like a work-out. I know you do not have insurance but if you have had this condition for a month now, it. — “Feeling Sick But Don't Know What's Wrong? I dont feel myself”,
- Movie Plot : The six*** year old Craig (Keir Gilchrist) is overstrained by the stress which comes along with being a ***ager. Movie Plot : The six*** year old Craig (Keir Gilchrist) is overstrained by the stress which comes along with being a ***ager. — “Lou Myers”,
- Where the electrical grid is available, the overstrained infrastructure Where the electrical grid is available, the overstrained infrastructure. — “Doc declares man who is alive dead - ”,
- Find out what happens in an operation to treat a hernia that is in the gristle between your breastbone and your tummy button. This is called the epigastrium. Sometimes the body is overstrained by coughing, heavy work, sport, or pregnancy. — “Hernia repair – epigastric”,
- These resources were overstrained in the completion of the Grand C*** --a monumental engineering feat and in These resources were overstrained in the completion of the Grand C*** --a monumental engineering feat and in the undertaking of. — “Sui Dynasty”, polaris.gseis.ucla.edu
- Show: Description: Releted Skin ConditionFor daily care of the skin.Moisturizes, protects and is easily absorbed. For intensive care and protection of overstrained hands.Ingredients:Aloe vera, Jojoba oil, Tapioca starch, Urea,. — “Gehwol Hand Cream (75ml) | Intuition Spa Salon”,
- That harmony or moderation which affords rest for the eye; -- opposed to the scattering and division of a subject into too many unconnected parts, and also to anything which is overstrained; as, a painting may want repose. Related Definitions:. — “Definition of Repose”,
- Definition of overstrained in the Legal Dictionary - by Free online English dictionary and encyclopedia. What is overstrained? Meaning of overstrained as a legal term. What does overstrained mean in law?. — “overstrained legal definition of overstrained. overstrained”, legal-
- seminars stock footage free, stock footage royalty free, stock footage royalty, seminars, hurricane katrina live footage, death footage timothy treadwell, john f kennedy footage. — “Stock footage seminars search results - ”,
- overstrain ( ) v. , -strained , -straining , -strains . v.tr. To subject to excessive strain, especially to force beyond a natural or proper limit: See crossword solutions for the clue Overstrained. — “overstrain: Definition from ”,
- Physical therapy frequently seeks to identify and strengthen overstrained muscles. muscles and releases the contractures, thus reducing the pull on, and the pain in, overstrained muscles. — “Tandem Point-NIH Presentation”,
- Home - Forum / All posts - Overstrained. KlausDE. 4,693 post(s) #12-Sep-09 11:45. How shall I digest all that great stuff from gxdata (Metadata 1 2 3 4 5), liofr (VBA .NET COM futur) and Nick (Image-Processing-Suggestions) that hammered down in just 3 days?. — “Overstrained”,
- Kate Sherrod's ongoing experiment in producing a fresh, geektastic, sorta-Shakespearean sonnet every day by suppertime. BONUS SONNET: In Which I Consider Overstrained Emoticons. — “Suppertime Sonnets: BONUS SONNET: In Which I Consider”,
- We found 7 dictionaries with English definitions that include the word overstrained: Click on the first link on a line below to go directly to a page where "overstrained" is defined. General (6 matching dictionaries) overstrained: Wordnik [home, info]. — “Definitions of overstrained - OneLook Dictionary Search”,
- Eye Drops used in chronic conjunctivitis,conjunctival irritation,corneal opacity due to metabolic disorders caused by old age,diabetes or gouty conditions;blephartitis.Overstrained eyes, inflammatory eye disease. — “(Cineraria Maritima Eye Drops) - Dr. Reckeweg”, homeopathystore.in
- I got a GoPro Helmet HERO Wide from for testing. I was injured so some friends did some rides with the camera in Morzine. The picture quality is quite good but in the second half the camera is overstrained with the lighting. — “Portes du Soleil 2009 Helmet Camera Video on Vimeo”,
- Falls are a menace to older adults and our overstrained health care system. Falls are a menace to older adults and our overstrained health care system. — “Alliance for Aging Research: Publications: Investing for”,
- Shrinking rivers are big trouble, globally. Now the US West is experiencing conditions some of us have had for years. The big western rivers are overstrained, and drying up. It's a deadly scenario, and it affects everyone. — “The drying of the West: Water 'Armageddon' Looms as the”,
- Environmentally Controlled Fracture of an Overstrained A723 Steel Thick-Wall Cylinder A through-wall, 1.7-m-long crack grew suddenly from an outer diameter (OD) notch in a 285-mm-OD A723 steel overstrained tube that was undergoing plating operations with no externally applied loads. — “Environmentally Controlled Fracture of an Overstrained A723”,
related videos for overstrained
- Overstraind - Dawn @ Nummirock 2010 Happy ***ing Love-Metal!
- Jewgeni Plushenko at Art on Ice short video of Jewgeni Plushenko at Art on Ice in Zurich March 6th, sorry for the bad sound-quality due to overstrained photo-cam microphone
- occupation abolished court rigths for natives,and occupation abolished court rigths for natives,judges pretend with serious face we need to cassate their not observing the law-taking any claims from moslems to fabricate to us. "chechens escape Mrs.Egorova moscow city court head, from responsibility of ignoring case",blocking sev. times video about-handing appeal for her. what is the case?occupation overstrained all limits of impudence.they just do not take claim for appointing and consideration,but try to suggest that we need to cassate this:top cassate absence of point or sygnature is typical dissident status and elimination of us as other ethnic group.when i applied for court against flat theft judges were instructed to play the same,responding that there are not enough copiers or no sygnature so they do not take for appointing.who suggested to russians that it could be;that judges have right not to take any claim for consideration.fantastic double standarts when they take ANY absolutely ABSURD and UNLAWFUL CLAIMs from defendant against me like disputation of my flat owning rights through -state-owning contruct-what is absurd-and under reason to find out if if I am enough good for to be daughter of my father.west population even would not believe that such courts could exist-if i would not light all "hearings" in the internet. judges of russia have instruction not to serve russians who are about 10 times more popolation than moslmes-so they created slavery:judges have instruction from new regimne to respond any absurd ...
- Sectra PACS Supports Wide-Area Radiology Sectra featured at RSNA 2009 its latest release of Sectra PACS with RapidConnect technology. The focus of the next-generation Sectra PACS is on providing a performance solution for wide-area radiology, enabling efficient workload sharing across multiple sites, even for very large image stacks over strained networks.
- fsb ,scientology and moslems use professional programs for block of elementary video send on site GEARS insirting in youtube is not loading easy in russia as maybe in usa,but only by professional programming knoweledge.when we overstrained this,they start to use other blocks-at Be***r Bhutto videos-as i start to use any propgram moslems start to press owner or make blocks from outside
- has Sarkozi been at death line? 26th,july "crash":-I do not know what is happening with his "enegry of information insirt",but why the main cause and theme of today debosh of my husband in overstrained volume,which led me near to death-line conditions-has been because of his forbide on running?maybe it mean Sarkozi hasbeen near to death in reality but did not understand this?//---look computer salon report and all videos of 26th which are blocked now- Sarkozy falls ill while jogging French President Nicolas Sarkozy is a regular runner ================================ padlo does not give to send anything-to loeAVE HOUSE TO GO FOR SPort TO sleep to live jeer till last drop of liufe rvabn izagalaetrdelay the timwe of leaving house every day jeeriong disaconnect computer afetr that do not p[ass videos. regime state russia blow out all the life,forbide all,repressing froevery pol.eventesp.korea-arrest bsurvivle,-use sauper poisons,prison isolatioin -do not give to sleep to send anything- filling one afetr another card blocking send. -- no one video give to send fro only to abolish record of next day- 3 hours of recording tr=var-0.afetr every record dissident ban to send - only for to stop nnext day record- with all thge night jeer with switch off conmouter tvar- encounting every second under secundomer-0how to dely sleep for thejn top jeet-er fro every second of day light -send army to guard every sun plec,. by what right kremlin bans my existance. -- by what right kremlin ban my access to internet and video ...
- documentery -moscow city court moslem occupation abolished court rights for native:judges just instructed not to take applications !!the same as police-but take from moslmes any absurd not existed in code -for to fabricate to natives. slamistic occupation tried to steal this text,showed in youtube comments at saving-they can not find server. chechens and other moslems with scientology really think that we do not see: under their poisons,their impossible impudent abolishing of court rights and it is not understandable - impudent game and suggesting by hired army and judges on service at regime. what is their joilt for this text. dagestanean defendant ,served fsb jeering at us,handed any claims and judges do not see into our eyes took it for to call for hearings,collecting payed lyers for fabrications to me .they took claims which do n ot exixt in code.but my case with super sharp content: arrests with rape effort then fabrication intimidation,and blow threats they do not take because ther was not point,or sygnature. "chechens escape Mrs.Egorova moscow city court head, from responsibility of ignoring case",blocking sev. times video about-handing appeal for her. what is the case?occupation overstrained all limits of impudence.they just do not take claim for appointing and consideration,but try to suggest that we need to cassate this:look next videos for continuation-
- Need for Speed World insight HD ! I have played NFSW. Now is NFSW free!!!! Jeah. . . Its a fantastic Graphic and the highest Level is 50. But sometimes is the Server overstrained. Please subscribe me for more another Gameplays in High Definition. The Game :
- (Rare!) Willam Ewart Gladstone - The Phonograph Salutation (1888) Another real historic recording. William Ewart Gladstone, often regarded as one of the greatest British Prime Minister, recorded his greetings (Salutation) to Edison, on a Yellow Parafine Wax Cylinder (later moulded to a Blue Amberol copy), December 18th, 1888. The original Cylinder is now preserved in Edison National Historic Site in New Jersey, USA. (NHS Object Catalogue number : EDIS -SRP-39852) Here is the transcription of the recording. CHARLES GOURAUD : London, 18th December 1888. To Edison from Colonel Gouraud, introducing Mr Gladstone. The Phonograph Salutation. The latest-born of science and American genius bends its knee of steel and bows its neck of iron in reverential homage before the veteran statesman of England. Mr Gladstone, the phonograph salutes you, and through the medium of the phonograph, Mr Edison greets you. Now, Edison, listen to a voice that has electrified its generation - the voice of William Ewart Gladstone; GLADSTONE: Dear Mr Edison, I am profoundly indebted to you for, not the entertainment only, but the instruction and the marvels of one of the most remarkable evenings which it has been my privilege to enjoy. The request, that you have done me the honour to make - to receive the record of my voice - is one that I cheerfully comply with so far as it lies in my power; though I lament to say that the voice which I transmit to you is only the relic of an organ, the employment of which has been overstrained. Yet I offer to you as much as I ...
- Motor Point Therapy at Motor Point Therapy Motor point acupuncture seeks to produce an involuntary twitching from the affected muscle or muscle group. It is the best thing out there for any kind of injury. When a muscle is sore, over strained or painful, there are often tight palpable knots within it. These points can refer to other areas of the body and are called motor points. Motor point acupuncture can reset the dysfunctioning muscle spindle and to correct the abnormal muscle function and reflexive spasm. (Callison) It also helps by restoring communication between the central nervous system and the injured muscle. This treatment can greatly reduce tightness and pain, while increasing flexibility and range of motion. Tired and weakened muscles can be strengthened by directing Qi (energy) to the area.
- Horrible CATch Cat and mouse. Cat is overstrained!
- Giovanni Pacini - Cesare in Egitto - Terzetto Giovanni Pacini Opera: Cesare in Egitto, Melo-dramma eroico in two acts, first performance 26 December 1821, Teatro Argentina, Rome. Libretto: Jacopo Feretti Terzetto: O bel lampo lusinghiero Cleopatra: Annick Massis Giulio Cesare: Bruce Ford Tolomeo: Kenneth Tarver Orchestra: London Philharmonic Orchestra Conductor: David Parry The opera was met with a sufficiently favourable reception and it occupies a place of some importance in the canon of Pacinis works. Of comparatively early date, it post-dated a large number of youthful farse, but came fairly early in the great list of more ambitious opera serie that were to occupy him for the rest of his long career. It had, moreover a momentous and fraught inaugural season, since it was accidentally responsible for causing the death of one of its principal interpreters, the tenor Amerigo Sbigoli. In the second act there is a quintet, in which a particular phrase, launched by Domenico Donzelli as Giulio Cesare,earned the singer spontaneous and warm applaude. Sbigoli, in the role of Tolomeo, was apparently required to repeat the phrase. He sought to evoke the same response, but in one of the performances that followed the premiere so over-strained that he burst a blood-vessel in his throat. A doomed man from this moment, he was carried home to bed, where he seems to have lingered on for several weeks before dying in the first half of February and leaving a wafe and a son in the midst of desolation. The terzetto occurs about ...
- Waste To Watts - Dell Social Innovation Competition - HQ 480p - full credits Waste To Watts (W2W): Solution-Based Recycling Our mission is to create innovative products from re-purposed electronic waste to meet the energy dilemmas of the developing world. The Problem Imagine yourself at the hospital bed of a loved one. The doctors and nurses have rushed in to resuscitate. His or her life hangs in the balance, not because of a device malfunction or health complication, but a power outage. After volunteering as hospital technicians in Africa during the summer of 2009, James Molini, Adam Kurzrok, and Chris Hamman (advisor), who witnessed harrowing situations akin to the one previously described, were inspired to form Waste to Watts only months later. The World Bank has quantified the problem and went so far as to cite energy poverty in developing countries as one of the worlds most widespread and debilitating crises. Due to energy shortages and inefficiencies, electricity blackouts stemming from load shedding and mismanagement can blanket communities for hours every week, sometimes every day. A 2007 study of hospitals in 10 developing world nations revealed that the most common cause of failure in medical devices is an inadequate power supply. Energy poverty not only plagues hospitals, but also small businesses and households, who would never be able to afford the luxury of $300 generators or even a $70 uninterruptible power supply (UPS). Where the electrical grid is available, the overstrained infrastructure ...
- the expropriation of all contacts with edication of me overstrained all limits.kremlin ASHKE***-QUAKE AND IRAN.expression/s shut up.firm preparation of state authority- ASHKE***-QUAKE AND IRAN.expression/s shut up.firm preparation of state authority- THE horror of idepots to dissued- that they will click now in tehat ti do tno lave house deciding for me that they constructed tis by throw out from itnernet by hsuabnd interfreringion fpoims an dtalk by no covneertion. bec this they will comtuenr to su ehsuabdn an dabolishign iotf moeny for this- teh ASHKE*** CONSTRUCTION SHUT UP- STRATE DFROM KREMLIN PRINCIPAL THREATS BY MONEY FROT O SHUT UP EXPRESSION DURING-!!!I DISTUINGISH- ANDBN under teh date of his farewell date-staking much then on irna events. thsi si what abotu my night letter. I can tno and do tno want tio record only vdieos with then impounet one and teh saem model of REPRISALS WITH ME IN IMOUSDNTE CJHILDISH STAJKES ON HUSBAND POUCHIGN FROM ALL SIDES- KNOCKGION , CONSTURCTUGN AND teaching how mush exporesion they allow.
- KibaHina - Surrender *Watch in HQ!* ... by clicking at the button below the video! I´ve always wanted to create the very BEST KibaHina AMV, and I succeeded! I know, everyone has their own opinion, but in my view, I did it! ♥ I worked very hard on this and it took some effort, really! STORY: Kiba finds out about everything Hinata told Naruto when she confessed her love! So Kiba finally lets out his feelings for her and thinks about the time he spent together with her and how he kept being with her all the time. So this AMV is mainly about how he feels after the confession. He just can´t believe that he has to give her up COMPLETELY and somewhere in the middle of the video, he can´t take it anymore, but he´s still looking at her with a smile on his face. That´s when Hinata is finally listening to the song he´s been singing the whole time after her confession to Naruto who doesn´t even WANT to be with Hinata... Because of Kiba´s song Hinata begins to realize this and the song makes her fall in love with Kiba since she has big doubts that Naruto loves her, too... Naruto doesn´t even understand why she loves him that deeply and he is really overstrained with everything. Kiba stops singing; he´s surprised, but of course he accepts her feelings which are expressed through the chocolate she made for him! So they end up together... I created the story in a way that totally fits the characters and in a very realistic style, because this is something which actually CAN happen... If Kiba lets his ...
- ROBBIED ON SPORT RIGHT new snwo report-benedict;regime protests;blakcmial on sleep,food,money on direct just my picrute right in snow reports in the morning is overstrained all limits-allt he sday switch off computer-on videos send with principal provocations-fro to pull out under hight time table a by coming husband whom simult spray increase direct since snow reports make-afetr atht do nto gievt io sleep-regime state annoucne that pictur on camera is for brothels only,forbide it by rep[ressions accords.-they aboish sal;ary coputn to "take me" by food-
- moslems confirmed obama-lobbists,intmidating and poisoning record at 6a.m.regime continues to show to me false,or old site-board and switch off normal screen for i do not understand-dispute my rigth on result and contact: after'obama-lobby'video moslems start to suppress next videotalks by direct intimidations to me,that they will mutilate,fall into fury for 6a.m. training and use poisoning colouring the house again,for to compencate drugs drawing out. they block apload to linktv now again and even attaching files through yahoo-today 6a.m. videos in the forest,continue forbide and dispute right on just not distorted picture:the best videos they just do not pass on site,and show to me old board after these cadres,-before sending.i sent a letter to linktv about this.-------------------- and direct to outknock it,for to stop lighting of their false.the outvoicing and outknocking and police sygnalization are following a every overstraining of infomational dissident isolation in which chechenauthorities hold us-for every button,always count i just will not press the button. ----------------- To:Head of linkTV From:Anna Matskevch Dear sir Since i recorded video seria about "Obama-is a lobby of inside islamic double power"on 18-th,june my contact with you is blocked by regime authorities of russia,drived by do this islamic power,which uses any criminal and dirty messuares for to shut up my political expressions not admit sending of them,especially about american election:after i came home with this videorecord on 18th and tried to enter ...
- Which of these two finales works better? - Gaetano Donizetti - Zoraida di Granata - "Il silenzio in cui mi vedi" (1822 Finale) (Bruce Ford, Majella Cullagh, Paul Austin Kelly, Matthew Hargreaves, Cristina Pastorello & Dominic Natoli) - No. 2. Stretta It was with his seventh opera, "Zoraida di Granata", premiered in Rome in 1822 that the young Gaetano Donizetti made his decisive breakthrough into the career of a full time composer. Indeed, the three hour opera is strikingly complex coming from someone so young. As usual in the operatic world, the piece had to overcome several obstacles. Misfortune actually began prior to the premiere when the young tenor contracted for the role of Abenamet burst a blood vessel in his throat (singing the second tenor part in a performance of Pacini's opera "Cesare in Egitto", Sbigoli took part in a quintet with first tenor Domenico Donzelli, in the course of which Sbigoli's character was to sing a phrase "closely resembling one sung just previously by Donzelli"; attempting to match Donzelli's powerful voice, Sbigoli overstrained himself and burst a blood vessel in his neck) and died within a few weeks. With no replacement available to sing the high-lying tessitura, Donizetti hastily re-wrote the role for contralto and in doing so he had to omit several items written for the tenor. The work was further revised in 1824 and given at the same theatre; but in the revised version the role of Abenamet was actually intended for contralto, but one whose status, vocal qualities and demands were far greater than the late substitute singer of the first production, meriting two full arias. Thus, we get two works which, though sharing several pieces, are quite different from one another. I do think ...
- ILA 2010 Impressions SXF Berlin (Trade Visitor) Unfortunately most of the real interessting video's (Start/Landing of A400M, Eurofighter, Tiger) are damaged, cam was overstrained or something. Sure, quality and camera work could be better but i hope to give you little insight. Date: 2010 / June / 09; Track: Trentemöller (Moan); Location: SXF Berlin
- at days of silence:us scientology suggests to kremlin:as nuclear war goes for sure,you do not need to hide dissidents existance look other videos of this seria,which possibly blocked for your watch now.(we overstrained gears!) head line of proof of this organization is continuation of the same repressions at us.
- Dean Brooke Sam - Disintegration This is my new vid!!! I really hope you like it, because it took about 3 hours to render it!!! Please rate and comment!!! The story: Dean and Brooke were a couple in high school . Their relationship went to pieces, when Brooke tells Dean that she was pregnant. 16 years later is Dean back in Tree Hill and meets Sam by chance, without knowing that she is his daughter. On the next day Dean wants to visit Brooke and is surprised, when Sam opens the door. First he thinks he rang at the wrong door, but then he sees Brooke. He´sa little bit overstrained, when Brooke tells him that Sam is his daughter. After Dean picks up courage, he tells Brooke how sorry he is for the way he´s been acting in the past. Brooke accepts Dean´s apology. Dean and Brooke meet each other a few times and notice that the old intimateness is still there. Dean meets Sam again and tells her that he has to leave Tree Hill for a job. Sam asks if he could accompany him. Dean hasn´t anything against it and agrees. Brooke isn´t pleased when she learns that Sam wants to leave with Dean. She takes Dean to task. She tells him that Sam stays with her. Sam visits Dean and wants to know if he really leaves Tree Hill. Dean affirms it. Sam doesn´t understand what´s going on between him and Brooke. Dean tells Sam that things are complicated between him and Brooke and that it´s best when he leaves. Dean visits Brooke to say goodbye to her. Dean´s disappearance upsets Sam. Brooke tries to comfort her. A few days later ...
- 222lb Bear Hug Deadlift Like the title says, more training for the Atlas Stones - this is a ten lb PR and didn't feel overstrained
- cranq - God Will Fear This the *** experience :] Fail-distorted a kick.. but it ended quiet ***'ish.. so I decided to do a little side project in like 1 hour :D Hope ya like it ( I think the kick got to less high's, but I dont care it isnt mastered.) Offtopic: Enlightened sounds much better right now.. only the intro/ outro sounds unprofessional right now.. but i cant continue working on it because my cpu is hardly overstrained, and my project data is crashed and bugged -.- dunno why.. I will probably upload the up to date file, but i wont continue this project for now.. If I got the muse I will continue it with my new pc and cubase.
- NivelThrone - Over Strained Jaws of Eerola infernal blackmetal hell
- These days I am really obsessed w/ my weight (PLEASE READ INFO!) At time I am really obsessed with eating, thinking about food, about my weightgain, about if I should lose ... right now, I am not really happy with my body. Doesn't mean, I'm really uncomfortable with it and of course I know that are are a lot of people that have real weight issues etc. I guess it's just that I am a bit unhappy or let's say overstrained with my whole life situation. And those problems always show in my eating- and thinking-about-food-habits. Hmm.
- US Submarine Fleet Action WW2 Pt 4-5 Effects on the Japanese Army: The breakdown of the Japanese merchant marine placed grievous logistical constraints on the ability of the Japanese Empire to supply her army deployed throughout the Central and Southern Pacific. Japanese logistical problems first became apparent in 1942 during the Guadalc*** campaign, when an overstrained logistical system and relentless US air attacks resulted in frontline Japanese units receiving only 10% of the supplies comparable American units received. US submarines attacks directly affected the ability of the Japanese to move troops and supplies into important combat zones. For example, concentrated submarine attacks on shipping delivering the experienced 32nd and 35th Infantry divisions to the New Guinea theater resulted in the Japanese convoy disembarking the surviving troops over 500 miles from their destination. As a consequence, the Japanese barged ineffectual penny packets of troops to combat McArthur's forces in Biak and Hollandia. In another case, US submarines destroyed 6 transports loaded with troops destined to boost the defenses of the Marinas before the US invasion of those islands, and sank ships loaded with vital concrete and wire needed for the islands' fortification. The rate of successful delivery of military supplies to front line units averaged 96% in 1942, declining to 83% in 1943, 67% in 1944 and 51% in 1945. These statistics fail to capture the extraordinary indirect effects of both US submarine and air attacks ...
- Portes du Soleil 2009 Helmet Camera GoPro I got a GoPro Helmet HERO Wide from for testing. I was injured so some friends did some rides with the camera in Morzine. The picture quality is quite good but in the second half the camera is overstrained with the lighting conditions. Helmet camera videos should always be shot with cloudy conditions. Video presented by http
- Natural Balance of a horse Get your FREE eBook at www.academic-art-of- Welcome to Riding Academy. My name is Marijke de Jong. The topic of this video is the natural balans of the horse. In a natural state, the horse has a natural balance. When the rider doesnt change this way of going, the horse will show different symptoms when carrying a rider. By nature the horse is inclined to carry some two thirds of his weight on the front legs and one third on the hind legs. Due to the significant excess weight of head and neck, the forelegs carry a much heavier load than the hind legs. In freedom, this weight distribution not only makes it easier for the horse to feed itself by grazing, but also gives it a definite forward orientation. The body will tend with all of its mass to move toward the point where the excess weight lies. In its natural state, therefore, the horse is always able to follow its tendency toward the shoulders. All mammals have a tendency to overbalance in a forward direction or fall forward. This is adequate for the wild horse who spends a good deal of time walking about grazing. This is not harmful since the animal does not have to carry any foreign weight. The horse moves at will and has its hind legs available when needed to support the forehand. From a physical point of view the problem begins the moment the horse is required to carry weight. Under saddle the horse must additionally carry the riders weight and must take on not only certain gaits, but perform them at a ...
- Calming water (for stressed and unmotivated people) If you feel really overstrained and tired just keep an eye on the natural flow of this water and listen to the recreational sound. Settle back and enjoy.
- 83.no samurais to next video seria:"no panic.just enforce your gov.to catch scientolgoy with their vaccine'ew video seria of now,29th,november,2008,10.30 pm: "dutch-fsb infecting technologies for court fabrications and abolishing",incl.2001st memory report.send now. no panic.just enforce your government to make messuare against scientology which hunt on your rights so-thinking that they are just innocent children-if you do not catch them on spraying of poisoins and spatial flu vaccine in the air if you intend to the court. *attn. do not forget that my mother was bacalavre of micro-biology.----. however you overstrained they anyway will deprive you of your rezult.-particularly-veto on my own videos watch on site,permanent stoping watching,while accelerator works.-28th,nov.-chechen regime continues to prepare for court hearing, adjourning it -for to press for until i can not come or to speak-they take time to construct illness by heating;money cut;provocations;fsb poisoning spraying on flue immitation .theme is much more deep-you will get it later:they use special elaborate chechen-iranean poisons,immitated flue symptoms-with simultasneous makinj gof 'sell of cold"-for these poisons will start act:this are mistified illnesses-which they before every court try to suggest-preventing sport in the forest;it was sounded for my letters to british embassy,2007th,2006th.as 'iranean prison russia.
- Susheela Raman - Like A Rolling Stone Susheela Raman at MALS in Sochaux, France 08.04.09 The audience was overstrained by the performance of Susheela. India meets bourgeoisie.
- UVEX POLAVISION Welcome to TranAm TV! Check out the Uvex Polavison technology used on the new Boss Polavsion helmet coming soon RRP £179.99. This technology makes a visible difference, absorbs and filters diffuse light, eliminates annoying reflections. Harsh reflections are transformed into pleasant, perfectly dosed light. Instead of being overstrained the eye is effectively protected. The double glazed visor also has Supravision anti-fog technology.
- - WELCOME - Watch in the best quality, that's aviable ~ Third upload x__X And it's still wrong at the end Dx [About the viddy] (Manga: Pandora Hearts (Artist: Vanilla Ninja (Song: My Puzzle of Dreams (Texture: celestial- (Story Yeah, ähm: Alice likes Oz, but she doesn't know how to show it. And she's insecure and thinks Oz betrays her or doesn't like her, but she really wants that Oz understands how she feels and so on. And Oz is a little bit overstrained with all the problems and so on, but in the end everything's gonna be alright ^_~ Somewhat like that xD [Random] So, I made this, because I like Pandora Hearts so much ~ Especially Alice, but a little bit more I like Ceshire. Maybe you have noticed, that my name is weird xD It comes from the Ceshire Cat of the book Alice in the Wonderland. Dunno why I changed the e into a o_o And 3 is my favourite number, so there is three times number three ^_~ And I really adore Cats, Ceshire Cat and Ceshire *_*
- Best of Scorched Heat More fun links at www.qwe.se Classic swedish-made horror movie from 1987 with Harald Treutiger, or Harold called here. Peter Borg is directing. Plot (from imdb) Steve is a successful businessman in Dallas. One day he receives a letter from his old friend Eric in Sweden. Eric is overstrained and threatens to reveal a crime that they committed as children. Steve realizes that he has to go to Sweden and help Eric. Steve's wife Linda insists on coming too. Something she will deeply regret. When they arrive in Sweden they find Eric on the verge of insanity. He raves about their old teacher, who was burned to death in a mysterious fire many years ago. Steve and Linda become involved in Eric's world of illusions. Soon it gets impossible to distinguish between dream and reality. They are more and more affected by an evil force from the other side. The trip that should have been a vacation to Sweden becomes a one way ticket to hell.
- spying expansion of islamic occupation in the west attn.!in the main police Dep. they at first showed direct psychiatry fabrication directive-then,other officer proposed to me ,at last,contact with fsb(local office)-when i said that they repress me for information about terrorism;this could be sear for to hurry fabrication reprisal or search of compromate to me concern USA contacts:but the inforrmation is international;central fsb(lubianka) always avoided contact with me,shuting up at meeting and fabricating as i only start to speak about mayor of moscow and terracts examples. if kremlin wants to repress me by Soljenotzin model,they of course will do it,however i will speak.but i always counted on right contact and understanding-as with FSB as with british and american security.only corrupted by blood could cover and shuffle my information by cold war,by other terracts or by repressions.----- 19th,sept,2008,5p.m.,I am going now to main police office responded for appeals against policemen with application against fabrication.about 'events'will try to inform you. in general,chechen mafia overstrained all limits,just do not admit right on existance and survivle,bought police,fsb gov.----- scientology and moslems decide for boxer if he will continue fighting,sure their gorilla techniqe of interruptioon is stronger.now they tried to erase this video abnd commenst and to block it-decided for me it is tool good.it is too good for dfor them to present on west earth asnd to decide for us.
- afetr"obama-lobby"video send moslems intimidate me by blow next videos are not passing now,extorting sleep.-record of intimidation to me by blow at 6a.m. training at coming to my way to forest-scientology and chechens fury and forbiding on my sport training out from drugs and on my endurance of hight computing;not permited to me my face;do not give to load to linktv.do not give to sleep at all-second day i work without night sleep then ap to 12 ,13.now they start moslem friday terrorizing preparation,using computer disconnecting and intimidations for to abolish sleep and days with my husband. -------------------- and direct to outknock it,for to stop lighting of their false.the outvoicing and outknocking and police sygnalization are following a every overstraining of infomational dissident isolation in which chechenauthorities hold us-for every button,always count i just will not press the button. ----------------- To:Head of linkTV From:Anna Matskevch Dear sir Since i recorded video seria about "Obama-is a lobby of inside islamic double power"on 18-th,june my contact with you is blocked by regime authorities of russia,drived by do this islamic power,which uses any criminal and dirty messuares for to shut up my political expressions not admit sending of them,especially about american election:after i came home with this videorecord on 18th and tried to enter your program,it was blocked by huckers and intercepters who permanently are "attached" to my communication means from fsb and scientology-they sent to me identfication FROM ...
- Scorched Heat in the TV-show Filmkronikan -A Fantastic Horrorfilm! I give it 12 points, says the TV-Host Ronny Svensson in the TV-show, Filmkronikan. The Best Swedish Horrorfilm with a young Harald "Steve" Treutiger. The Story: Steve (Treutiger) is a successful businessman in Dallas. One day he receives a letter from his old friend Eric (Martin Brandqvist) in Sweden. Eric is overstrained and threatens to reveal a crime that they committed as children. Steve realizes that he has to go to Sweden and help Eric. Steve's wife Linda (Babs Brinklund) insists on coming too. Something she will deeply regret. When they arrive in Sweden they find Eric on the verge of insanity. He raves about their old teacher (Johnny Harborg), who was burned to death in a mysterious fire many years ago. Steve and Linda become involved in Eric's world of illusions. Soon it gets impossible to distinguish between dream and reality. They are more and more affected by an evil force from the other side. The trip that should have been a vacation to Sweden becomes a one way ticket to hell...
- Dean Brooke Ruby / Friends with Benefits Part 4 This is Part 4 of my series "Friends with Benefits" I hope you enjoy it!!! The story of Part 4: Dean is a little shocked, when Brooke confesses him, that she loves him. Brooke doesn´t know how she should deal with the whole situation and tells Dean that she doesn´t want to see him for a while. Dean decides to tell Ruby not about Brooke´s feeling for him. A few weeks later Brooke visits Dean and tells him that she misses him. Dean is glad to see her and tells her that he misses her too. Dean is overstrained when also Ruby tells him the three words. When Dean sees Brooke dancing in her store, is it all up with Dean. He realizes that the person he loves was all the time in front of him. He meets Ruby in a bar and breaks up with her without telling her the true reason. Will Dean and Brooke finally find their way to each other??? Songs: Introsong: I wanna by The All-American Rejects Song: Broken Bones by Rev Theory I own nothing, except the editing!!!
- when habbard game in mass murders clean failured --why kitaro exited phillipin/s al qaida--- for to stop documentary recorded now in "kitaro shop"and of threats by psytchiatry,police,hardship on the street,,-scientology instructed all medias sited to remove joilting plane japanese information: when it become not possible to play in white race of great hubbard Spiel in mass murders ((as you can see i sent to you even like draft video where I look for words with difficulties because it overstrained all limits!) .(i can not to say this or to be kin to say-from yahoo message)(vwhen habbard game in mass murders clean failured)
- Symptoms crookedness - crooked horses - Natural Asymmetry Get your FREE eBook at www.academic-art-of- Welcome to riding academy. In this video you''ll find out the symptoms of crookedness. The reason why I maid some videos about crookedness is that most riders have to ride crooked horses. Crooked horses show different symptoms. Let's have a look at possible symptoms of crookedness. The horse has a ''good'' side and ''bad'' side A light contact to one side of the bit and a strong contact on the other side Difficult to bend to one side Reluctant to turn Overbending to the other side Drifiting over the outside shoulder on one side Lean into the circel on the other side Hindquarters shear away Quarters fall in on the other side Imbalance Stiffness Tension Against the hand Underneck Headshaking High head Stiff in the mouth Lean on the bit Heavy in the reins Twisting the head Bad side in the mouth Tongue over the bit Bridle lameness No regularity in the movement Uncomfortable transitions Rhythm trouble Short strides Stumbling Sinking Forging Lazy No desire to go forward Too much speed Disobidience Resistance Rearing Bucking Defective gaits Pace, Rack False canter Disunited canter Saddle and rider fall to one side Back problems Neck problems Coat problems Kissing spines SI problems Overstrained frontlegs Navicular disease Lameness Pointing Crooked pelvis Mental instability Nervousness or even Panic One of the objectives of schooling horses is to cure these problems. It is important that riders understands the origins of the ...
- Surrendering You Visit ! Another song, in a strange style I think. Love simply blurs my view. *Recorded by CapK* Lyrics: The sun is setting while you are presumably running fast Forty-five hours for me to dream of you until our reunion Do you remember that night when we agreed to remain friends Because that is worth indefinitely more than love? I wish I could take your fears someday Because you´ve already smoothed mine away No matter how hard I will try- I know Surrendering you is surrendering love The deepness in your eyes appears to reveal your soul to me All those mingling scars from the past overstrained Is this a war to wage on this mid-air battlefield? By degrees we will arrange for this to be our salvation
- Growing old Equally Look at what is being done to old, disabled, sick or weak people in our societies. They are no longer "needed" and pushed away. Most of us will face these times sooner or later and then we also have to face the "other" side of the system we created and supported blindly. STOP and STAND for an Equal Money System, there will be no more need for this, because noone will be seen as a "burden" for society when every single one is equally supported. Health care nurses and workers are highly overstrained in this system and get low pays. There is a highly estimated rate of reported and unreported cases of abuse and murder by carers of old people. Consider the facts and face what we have created and supported. STOP, forgive yourselves and support a System of Equality, stand as ONE with Life in an Equal Money System.
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— Dog And Health,
“lost and hopelessly overstrained, page 1. Pages: ATS Members have flagged this thread 0 YouTube Videos in the A/UFO Forum and those who hate them. Posted 15 days ago with 156”
— lost and hopelessly overstrained, page 1,
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- triceps brachii | <urn:uuid:5dc19693-97d3-4894-95d3-1c525b6ab7cf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://wordsdomination.com/overstrained.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00067-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929562 | 11,289 | 2.984375 | 3 |
In the LFS, people are considered to be unemployed if they satisfy three criteria: they are not employed; they are available for work; and they are taking active steps to find work.
Two important measures of unemployment are the number of people unemployed and the unemployment rate. The unemployment rate, defined as the number of unemployed people expressed as a percentage of the labour force, offers an insight into the degree of 'slack' in the labour market.
Movements in the unemployment rate over the last 20 years are dominated by the economic downturns of the early-1980s and early-1990s, and the subsequent periods of economic recovery (graph 6.31). In trend terms, the unemployment rate peaked at 10.7% in December 1992, then generally fell over the rest of the 1990s and early-2000s, to 4.9% in June 2006.
Prior to 1990, the unemployment rate for men was lower than for women. However, as the unemployment rate increased sharply in 1990-91, the male unemployment rate increased to a level above the female unemployment rate. Since May 2003, the male unemployment rate has reverted to being higher than the female unemployment rate.
As graph 6.32 shows, the number of unemployed people has generally declined from the levels recorded in the early-1990s. For the unemployed seeking full-time work, the trend has generally reflected the overall impact of the economic cycle. In contrast, over the last two decades, the trend for those seeking part-time work has generally increased steadily, rising from 102,000 people (or 17% of unemployed people) in June 1986 to 158,900 people (or 30% of unemployed people) in June 2006.
In recent years the proportion of the unemployed who had experienced unemployment for less than 26 weeks has been rising steadily, while the proportion who experienced unemployment for 52 weeks and over (long-term unemployment) has declined. In 2005-06, 69% of unemployed people had been unemployed for less than 26 weeks, while the long-term unemployed made up 18% of unemployed people (table 6.33).
Educational qualifications can have a significant bearing on labour market prospects. Table 6.34 shows the relationship between the level of highest educational attainment and duration of unemployment. At July 2005, there was little variation in the proportion of people in long-term unemployment across all levels of highest educational attainment; with 18-20% across all categories.
6.33 UNEMPLOYED PERSONS(a), By duration of unemployment
|8 to under 26||%|
|26 to under 52||%|
|52 to under 104||%|
|104 and over||%|
|52 and over||%|
|(a) Annual averages.|
|Source: Labour Force, Australia, Detailed - Electronic Delivery (6291.0.55.001).|
Unemployed people encounter a variety of difficulties in finding work (graph 6.35). Women were more likely to report insufficient work experience as their main difficulty (12% compared with 9% for men), as well as difficulties that relate to concerns outside the workplace, such as 'Unsuitable hours' (9% compared with 3%) and 'Difficulties with child care, other family responsibilities' (5% compared with 1%). Men were more likely to report their main difficulty as being 'Considered too old by employers' and 'Too far to travel/transport problems' (both with 11% compared with 7% for women).
6.34 UNEMPLOYED PERSONS, Educational attainment and duration of unemployment - July 2005
|Level of highest|
Duration of current period of unemployment (weeks)
8 to under 26
26 to under 52
52 and over
|Bachelor degree or above|
|Advanced diploma or Diploma|
|Certificate III / IV|
|Certificate I / II(b)|
|Year 12 or below|
|Level not determined|
|(a) The levels of education are not necessarily listed in order from highest to lowest. For further details on how level of highest educational attainment is determined see 'Education and Work, Australia' (6227.0).|
(b) Includes 'Certificate not further defined'.
(c) Includes no educational attainment.
|Source: Job Search Experience, Australia, July 2005 (6222.0).| | <urn:uuid:7606bac8-2fc1-4dcb-9795-4c82cb6e4304> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/ProductsbyCatalogue/3EAFD8C7A43C6756CA2572360001C991?opendocument | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00121-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946822 | 907 | 3.234375 | 3 |
verb[with object] (usually as noun electroplating)
Coat (a metal object) by electrolytic deposition with chromium, silver, or another metal.
- In the second half of the 1920s he experimented with electroplating metal to a plaster core.
- Plated silver is silver that has been electroplated over another metal.
- The frequencies of chromosome aberrations, sister chromatid exchanges and micronuclei have been found to be elevated in peripheral lymphocytes of chromium electroplating workers.
- Indeed it was partly a reaction to mass-production and a decline in standards of design, in which electroplate was perceived to play a major part, that encouraged moves for design reform and the setting up of the Museum.
- Most of the Sheffield Plate that appears on the market is in relatively good condition, whereas much of the 19th century electroplate is very much the worse for wear.
- Truly revolutionary, though, are Dresser's designs for toast racks, jugs, tureens and suchlike, manufactured in electroplate and ebonised wood.
- Example sentences
- For almost four years, he had worked as an electroplater, and he had recently qualified as a forklift truck driver.
- He is listed in the Liverpool directories as a ‘working jeweller, electroplater and gilder’ with his workshop, front 1870 to 1884, in the city centre.
- This datasheet lists, in a standard format, different hazards to which electroplaters may be exposed in the course of their normal work.
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Comments that don't adhere to our Community Guidelines may be moderated or removed. | <urn:uuid:5a8711b6-bb06-47fe-89c2-0df499936b2a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/american_english/electroplate | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00146-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950601 | 375 | 3.125 | 3 |
THOMAS GARDNER, was born in England about 1592. His place of birth has been given as being Sherborne, Co. Dorset, Eng. however Anderson ascribes his origin simply as the West Country of England. He died on 29 Dec 1674 in Salem, Essex Co., MA.
There is a great deal of confusion concerning the wives of Thomas Gardner. Most older sources assign only two wives with the first, the mother of his children, given as Margaret Fryer. However Robert Charles Anderson in his highly respected "The Great Migration Begins" assigns three wives to Thomas as follows: the name of his first wife, the mother of all of his children is unknown. She came with him to New England, (while Anderson doesn't say when it probably wasn't when Thomas first arrived at the Cape Ann Colony, but later, after he had removed to Naumkeag (Salem)). Wife #1 died, probably in Salem, before 1639. Thomas married (2) Margaret (_____) by 1639; and after her death married (3) the wid. Damaris (_____) Shattuck.
Thomas arrived first on Cape Ann in 1624, as part of the Cape Anne Colony, and removed to Naumkeag (Salem) in 1626. He was an innkeeper in Salem and was apparently literate as he signed his name to several petitions and inventories. Tradition holds that Thomas was the Governor of the Cape Anne Colony, at least for a time.
Farmer confused Thomas with his son Thomas Jr. and mistakenly stated that he came from Scotland. He says of him in part, "an overseer of the plantation at Gloucester 1624, and removed thence Salem, was admitted freeman 1636, representative 1637.." "united. with the Church 1639, freeman 1641, was a selectmen, and d. 1674. His last wife was Damaris Shattuck"[5/117]
" In ordinary affairs Roger Conant next to Endecott, was perhaps still the most important,,and held a more important position in the community than any of the other old Planters, though John Woodbury, Thomas Gardner and Peter Palfrey were sent as deputies to the General Court"
Thomas was a selectman in 1636.
"In 1640 Mr. Hathorne, Robert Moulton and Thomas Gardner furnished bulls to go with the Salem Herd at 20 shillings a season."
"In 1658 Thomas Gardner was on a jury to hear complaints of a disorderly meeting at which two Quaker missionaries were present. Most of the people present were women. The Shattuck family was represented. Samuel Shattuck was fined and imprisoned. He was whipped in Boston where he was imprisoned."
1. George Gardner, b. England, m. Hannah Shattuck joined the Salem Church in 1637; selectman 1662. Hannah was presumably the "Hannah Gardner" who joined the Salem Church in 1639.
2. John Gardner, b. about 1624, poss. in Naumkeag (Salem, Essex Co, MA), and d. 6 May 1706 on Nantucket, Nantucket Co., MA. He joined the Salem Church in 1643 He married Priscilla Grafton 20 Feb 1653/54 on Nantucket.
3. Sarah Gardner , born about 1627, died 5 Apr 1686 at Beverly, Essex Co., MA. She married Benjamin Balch about 1650 as his first wife. He was the son of John Balch and Margery Lovett. Ch: Samuel, Benjamin, John, Joseph, Freeborn, Sarah, Abigail, Ruth, Mary, Jonathan, David. Benjamin married (2) Abigail Clarke on 5 Feb 1688/9 in Marblehead (she d. 1 Jan 1690), and married (3) Grace Mallett on 15 Mar 1691/2.
4. Samuel Gardner married Mary White "born ab. 1627, freeman 1675, representative, 1681 and 1682." Joined Salem Church in 1649.. selectman in 1676-77, and "Capt. Samuel Gardner" selectman "1697".
5. Joseph Gardner died on 19 Dec 1675. He married Anne Downing bef. Aug. 1656. She was born about 1634 and died on 19 Apr. 1713 age 79. She was the daughter of Emanuel Downing. Joseph and Ann had no children. Anne Downing Gardner married (2) Governor Simon Bradstreet. He was at that time a man in his late 70's. They had no children.
Joseph was involved in the civic affairs of Salem, holding a number of positions. He joined the Salem Church in 1649. He was also a large landowner, owning most of the land between St. Peter's St. and Brown St. in Salem.(4)
In May, 1672, he was appointed Lieutenant in the Company of Salem Foot, under command of Capt. William Price. Three years later in May the Salem Militia was increased to two companies and Joseph Gardner was appointed Captain of the 1st Co. of Salem Foot. During King Phillip's War he was appointed on 3 Nov. 1675 to command a company of men which was subsequently raised at Salem, Marblehead, Topsfield, Andover, Gloucester, Beverly and Lynn. They mustered at Dedham Plain on 10 Dec. following with a total force of 95 then proceeded to Wickford. During the march they were involved in a number of incidents with groups of hostile Indians losing several men. He was killed storming a breech in the Narragansett's stockaid at Swamp Fort Dec. 19, 1675, And the manner of his death was described in Church's History of the War.
"Mr. Church spying Capt. Gardiner of Salem amidst the Wigwams at the east end of the Fort, made towards him; but on a sudden while they were looking each other in the face, Capt. Gardiner settled down, Mr. Church stepped to him, seeing the blood run down his cheek lifted his cap and calling him by name, he looked up in his face but spake not a word, being mortally Shot through the head."
6. Seeth Gardner was b. 25 Oct 1636 at Salem, Essex Co., MA and was baptized on 25 Dec. 1636 in Salem. She died on 17 Apr.1707 in Salem. Savage indicated she married Joseph Grafton, however another source states that she married (1) Joshua Conant and (2) John Grafton on 1 Oct. 1659 in Salem.
7. Miriam Gardner was born in about 1632, Salem and died in about 1664 in Salem, she married John Hill.[Vitals not sourced so regard as tentative dates only]
8. RICHARD GARDNER
9. Thomas Gardner Jr. , joined the Salem Church in in 1637; selectman 1682; with his brother John was the most heavily involved in the family shipping interests. The family had "financial interest" in the Ketches 'Mary' and 'Expectation' about 1689.
Joined the church at Salem in 1643.
1. SARAH GARDNER
2. Joseph Gardner was born at Salem, Essex Co., MA and died on Nantucket, Nantucket Co., MA. He married Bethiah Macy on 30 Mar 1670 on Nantucket. She died on Nantucket. She was the daughter of Thomas Macy.[1/V2 p229]
3. Richard Gardner Jr. was born on 23 Oct 1653 in Salem, Essex Co., MA[1/V1 p230]. He married Mary Austin on 30 Mar 1670 at Nantucket.[8/Bk1 p2] She married his brother John Gardner as her (2) husband.
4. John Gardner was born on 23 Oct 1653 at Salem, Essex Co., MA. He married Mary Austin on 17 may 1674 as her second husband.
5. Deborah Gardner was born on 12 Feb 1657/58 in Salem, Essex Co., MA and died in 1712 on Nantucket She married (1) John Macy on Nantucket. John was born on 14 Jul 1655 at Salisbury, Essex Co., MA. He was the son of Thomas Macy and Sarah Hopcot.[1/V2 p299} Deborah married (2) Stephen Pease on Nantucket.[9/p67]
6. Damaris Gardner was born on 21 Jun 1662 at Salem, Essex Co., MA.
7. James Gardner was born on 21 May 1664 in Salem, Essex Co., MA. He married Mary Starbuck, the daughter of Nathaniel Starbuck and Mary Coffin, He married Patience Folger who died on Mar 1717/18 on Nantucket, the daughter of Peter Folger and Mary Morrill as her second husband. She had previously been married to Ebenezer Harker who died in North Carolina. [See "New England Marriages Prior to 1700", p. 352, 363 for order of marriages]
8. Miriam Gardner was born on 14 Jun 1665 at Salem, Essex Co., MA. and died in 1702. She married John Worth on 22 Sep 1684 on Nantucket.[1/V2 p229}
9. Nathaniel Gardner was born on 16 Nov 1669 on Nantucket and died in 1713. He married Abigail Coffin on Nantucket, the daughter of James Coffin and Mary Severence.
10. Hope Gardner was born on 16 Nov 1669 on Nantucket and died on 11 Oct 1750. She married John Coffin in 1692 They moved from Nantucket to Edgartown on Martha's Vineyard.[11/p56]
11. Love Gardner was born on 02 May 1672 on Nantucket Island. She married James Coffin as his second wife. James had first married Ruth Gardiner on 19 Mar 1691/92 on Nantucket Island. She was Love Gardiner's first cousin, the daughter of John Gardiner and Priscilla Grafton.
SARAH GARDNER b. abt. 1650 Salem Essex Co., Mass., d. 14 Dec. 1729, Nantucket, Nantucket Co., Mass.; m. ELEAZAR FOLGER 1671 Nantucket, Nantucket Co., MA. Eleazar was the son of PETER FOLGER and MARY MORRILL.
James Savage, "A Genealogical Dictionary of New England" V.2 p. 228-230
New England Historic and Genealogical Register, v.38, p. 199
Mass. Colony Records, V5 p.517
James Duncan Phillips, "Salem In the 17th Century"
John Farmer, "Register Of The First Settlers Of New England", p. 117
Robert Charles Anderson, "The Great Migration Begins," Vol. 2, pp 731-737, NEHGS, Boston, 1995.
Benjamin Church, "Diary of King Philip's War, 1675-76"
"Nantucket Town Records"
Lydia S. Hinchman, "Early Settlers of Nantucket" pp. 78-79, 260
Allen Coffin, LL.B., "YE COFFIN FAMILY", p. 56, 1962
Florence B. Anderson, "A Grandfather For Benjamin Franklin" | <urn:uuid:8adc46d9-ee57-42f9-ade5-b84e0bcf6185> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://troutwind.tripod.com/gardner.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97697 | 2,383 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Anterior tibial veins
The anterior tibial veins are deep veins that run parallel to the anterior tibial artery. Blood is carried through superficial veins near the surface of the skin and into perforating veins, which are veins that perforate the deep fascia of muscles. From the perforating veins, blood moves into the anterior tibial veins deep inside the muscles of the leg. These veins join the posterior tibial veins and cross the back portion of the knee. This forms the popliteal vein in the upper leg, which turns into the femoral vein. The anterior tibial veins join the dorsalis pedis vein in the ankle and foot.
This network of veins carries blood up the legs and into the fibula and tibia. In the abdomen, the abdominal aorta forms the left and right iliac arteries. These arteries branch out through the pelvis and turn into the femoral arteries. The femoral artery turns into the popliteal artery in the femur and branches out into the posterior and anterior tibial arteries, which supply blood to the tibialis anterior muscles. | <urn:uuid:293b0c2f-807c-4645-b61c-dabac0ea67b9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/anterior-tibial-veins | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00187-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.825797 | 235 | 3.375 | 3 |
On the Wednesday after Election Day, November 1960, I was at the front of a line marching up the stairs at Christ the King grammar school in Yonkers, New York. I was just behind the nun who was leading us up the stairs. Another nun was coming down and as they passed, one said to the other with a big grin: "Looks like we won!"
Those readers younger than I—and that makes up an awful lot of you—have little idea what it meant to Catholics when John F. Kennedy was elected president. Right or wrong, nearly 78 percent of Catholics voted for Kennedy in 1960. And right or wrong, Kennedy’s election seemed to confirm to the Catholic population that we would no longer be treated as second-class citizens in America.
The national Catholic newspaper, Our Sunday Visitor, had a circulation of well over a million when JFK ran for the presidency. OSV’s founder, Bishop John F. Noll, had long contended that there was no distinct Catholic vote—Catholics voted just like any other Americans.
To prove his point, each national election the Catholic weekly conducted a straw vote among its readers, which was released the Sunday before the election. Noll’s purpose was to show that there was not some massive Catholic vote controlled by the hierarchy (as anti-Catholic literature liked to suggest). In every election going back to the 1940s, that OSV straw vote reflected quite closely the outcome of the national election. In 1960, Kennedy won OSV readers with 78 percent of the straw vote.
Kennedy’s dominance of the Catholic vote was most assuredly the result of a Catholic desire to say, "Looks like we won!" in a presidential election. Still, Kennedy’s huge majority among Catholic voters seemed to offer evidence supporting one of the most persistent Catholic urban legends of American politics.
The Mythical "Catholic Bloc"
The urban legend of the American Catholic voter is simple, hauled out whenever necessary to avoid issues and pander to a visceral anti-Catholicism. As Bishop Noll hoped to disprove, the legend is that Catholics are a mindless horde that will vote in lockstep according to the dictates of the hierarchy. The bishops in control of this massive Catholic electorate will wield their electoral power to undermine American democracy.
The idea of a Catholic voting block that threatened the separation of church and state was an argument that arose in the early decades of the 19th century in local battles over public aid to Catholic schools. It is an argument still made today, whether the issue is abortion, euthanasia, gay marriage, or immigration. Like most Catholic urban legends, it is dusted off for rhetorical purposes to appeal to a generic anti-Catholic DNA in American culture.
Catholic urban legends always have a certain basis in fact. The trial of Galileo took place; the inquisition existed; the Crusades happened. But the history becomes entangled and eventually overwhelmed by the myths and propaganda that surround them. The trial of Galileo becomes a trump card to show that the Church opposes modern science; the Spanish-Inquisition myths created by 16th-century propagandists become a symbol of Catholic intolerance and cruelty; the Crusades are represented as a Church-controlled genocidal attack on innocent Muslims.
The same is true of the urban legend of the American Catholic voter. Catholics were—and still are to a certain extent—a distinct electorate within the American population that can be tracked by pollsters. As George J. Marlin argues in his excellent book The American Catholic Voter: 200 Years of Political Impact (St. Augustine’s Press, revised ed., 2006) Catholics have been a definable voting block in America, though less so in recent years. Like any group of voters, they cast their ballots as determined by their perceived best interests or if they were under siege. But that’s a long way from a portrait of unthinking hierarchical minions.
In fact, attempts by the hierarchy to directly sway the Catholic voter in favor of particular candidates were very few in American history precisely because the hierarchy generally feared the accusation of trying to create a Catholic voting block. Bishop John Hughes of New York, in his battle with the Democrats over the Catholic school-aid question in the early 1840s, urged Catholics to vote for a handpicked slate of Catholic candidates. They did. But this was a battle over a hard-fought local issue when Catholics were also facing organized, anti-Catholic forces.
Popish Political Plots
When anti-Catholicism began to rear its head in early America, a common understanding was that the Catholic voter could not be trusted. In America’s earliest political division between John Adams’ Federalists and Thomas Jefferson’s Republicans, one of the battlegrounds was the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798. While not aimed specifically at what was then a tiny Catholic minority, those laws did strive to curb "foreign intrigues" against the Federalist government of John Adams. The Sedition Act raised Catholic concerns when the first person prosecuted was an Irish Catholic.
By the 1830s, alleged Catholic political plots against the American government were common political fodder. In 1836, Lyman Beecher, the father of Uncle Tom’s Cabin author Harriet Beecher Stowe, argued in "The Plea for the West" that there was a Catholic political conspiracy to take over the Mississippi Valley. The argument was echoed by Samuel Morse, inventor of the first successful telegraph in the United States, when he claimed that immigration from Catholic countries was a royalist conspiracy to take over America and install the pope in the New World.
This Nativist anti-Catholic fever reached a crescendo with the Know-Nothing party of the 1840s and 1850s, built on the fear of a Catholic takeover of America through domination of the ballot box. A centerpiece of the movement was denying immigrant Catholics access to voting by requiring a minimum of 25 years’ residency before citizenship was granted, as well as various anti-papal test acts before taking political office.
After the Civil War, the fear was that Catholic voters egged on by their bishops would force state subsidies for parochial schools and destroy the public school system. In the midst of passing convent inspection laws and other anti-Catholic nuisances, numerous states would append so-called "Blaine Amendments" to their constitutions to prevent such subsidies no matter how "powerful" the Catholic voting block became. The amendments were named after Senator James G. Blaine of Maine, who had proposed a federal constitutional amendment that did not pass. A host of Blaine Amendments are still on the books.
Save Us from Foreigners . . .
The American Protective Association—while conjuring up fears of an armed Catholic uprising—argued in the late 19th century through the early 20th century for restrictions on Catholic immigration and for the closing of Catholic schools as un-American entities brainwashing the young. Its members swore never to vote for a Catholic candidate for office.
The "Goo-Goo" ("Good Government") movement of urban political reform in the late 19th and early 20th century aimed to break the power of urban political machines. It was often, however, a thinly disguised attack on the power of the Catholic city voter, allegedly controlled by neighborhood priests and bishops in cahoots with the local Democratic machine.
The 1924 Democratic presidential convention in New York City—with 103 ballots taken, the longest in history—was torn apart by the Ku Klux Klan and its fight against the nomination of New York’s governor, Catholic Al Smith. The Klan believed that Smith’s nomination would mean that the pope would run the White House. And, of course, when Smith managed to secure the nomination in 1928, he faced an electorate majority convinced that "foreign" Catholics were on the cusp of taking over America. He lost to Republican Herbert Hoover.
In the 1950s, Paul Blanshard argued in a series of bestselling books, most notoriously American Freedom and Catholic Power (1949), that the growing Catholic population would soon overwhelm the American political system. Catholic voters and Catholic politicians would be mandated by the hierarchy to destroy the public school system, ban birth control and divorce, and otherwise impose hierarchical mandates on the non-Catholic population.
Blanshard’s writings reflected the perspective of Protestants and Other Americans United for Separation of Church and State (POAU), founded by Methodist Bishop Garfield Bromley Oxnam in 1947. The POAU also warned of Catholic voting power as undermining Protestants’—and other Americans’—freedoms. The group focused on attacking Catholic schools, battling against the appointment of a U.S. ambassador to the Vatican, and arguing that ordained Catholic clergy should be denied the vote since they are subject to a foreign prince (the pope). Today’s "Americans United," which opposes any religious voice in the public arena, is the direct descendent of the POAU.
. . . and Moralists!
By 1960, that was the world Kennedy faced in attempting to be the first successful Catholic presidential candidate. That was also the reason why he spent most of the campaign denying that his Catholic faith would have any impact on his political decisions. He believed—correctly, perhaps, from a political perspective—that to win he had to calm fears that his election would mean a Catholic takeover of the United States.
Oddly enough, Kennedy’s victory in 1960 represented only a brief armistice in the battle against the Catholic urban legend of the parlous American Catholic voter. The exact same threat of the hierarchy controlling a massive Catholic electorate to undermine American rights became a staple in the pro-abortion campaign by the late 1960s. This was so successful that pro-life people would find themselves arguing the role of religion in public life more than the issue of abortion itself.
And that strategy continues today over a host of issues. Whether the matter is legalized suicide, embryonic stem-cell research, or gay marriage, the tactic is to appeal to fears of a Catholic electorate controlled by the hierarchy imposing its values on the American culture.
The Real Swingers
This is not to argue that there isn’t a "Catholic vote" at all. As Marlin observes in The American Catholic Voter, Catholic voting has always shown distinct patterns. And Catholic voters responded at the ballot box when attacked. One of the legendary moments in American politics was when in 1884 Republican presidential candidate James G. Blaine—of Blaine Amendments fame—sat idly by in New York while a minister excoriated the Democrats as the party of "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion." Insulted New York Catholics supported Grover Cleveland and gave him the state and the national election.
To point out the ridiculousness of the Catholic urban legend does not change the fact that there is a Catholic vote, just as there is a Jewish vote, an Evangelical vote, a union vote or a women’s vote. Catholics make up roughly 24 percent of the population. Both Democrat and Republican pollsters consider Catholics the last "swing" voting block—a high number of voters that can go either way in a national election.
Pollsters have also found that practicing Catholics—roughly nine percent of the total electorate—provide the identifiable swing. The non-practicing or occasional Mass-attending Catholic voters tend to vote based more on the larger group within which they live and work: Their voting patterns reflect their education, economic class, region in which they live, etc.
That is far less true of practicing Catholics. They are more likely to vote based on a distinct Catholic identity and perspective rather than class or region. In 2004 non-practicing Catholics gave Catholic John Kerry a slight edge over George Bush, 50 percent to 49 percent. Churchgoing Catholics, however, voted for Bush 56 percent to 43, and the difference gave Bush the election. There are those who argue that a Democrat cannot win the White House unless he garners at least 53 percent of the total Catholic vote.
But a mindless Catholic vote dictated by the hierarchy? That’s the stuff of Catholic urban legends. | <urn:uuid:0c3db876-de61-453f-872d-3bf4c6740e6c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.catholic.com/magazine/articles/the-not-so-mindless-american-catholic-voter | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00154-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.965988 | 2,487 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Circuit Theory/Fourier Transform
This course started with phasors. We learned how to transform forcing sinusodial functions such as voltage supplies into phasors. To handle more complex forcing functions we switched to complex frequencies. This enabled us to handle forcing functions of the form:
where s is:
And the convolution integral can do anything.
Along the way "s" began to transform the calculus operators back into algebra. Within the complex domain, "s" could be re-attached to the inductors and capacitors rather than forcing functions. The transfer function helped us use "s" to capture circuit physical characteristics.
This is all good for designing a circuit to operate at a single frequency ω. But what about circuits that operate at a variety of frequencies? A RC car may operate at 27mhz, but when a control is pressed, the frequency might increase or decrease. Or the amplitude may increase or decrease. Or the phase may shift. All of these things happen in a cell phone call or wifi/blue tooth/xbee/AM/FM/over the air tv, etc.
How does a single circuit respond to these changes?
Fourier analysis says we don't have to answer all the above questions. Just one question has to be answered/designed to. Since any function can be turned into a series of sinusiodals added together, then sweeping the circuit through a variety of \omega's can predict it's response to any particular combination of them.
So to start this we get rid of the exponential term and go back to phasors.
Set σ to 0:
The variable ω is known as the "radial frequency" or just frequency. With this we can design circuits for cell phones that all share the air, for set-top cable TV boxes that pack multiple channels into one black cable. Every vocal or pixel change during transmission or reception can be designed for within this framework. All that is required is to sweep through all the frequencies that a sinusoidal voltage or current source can produce.
Analysis stays in the frequency domain. Because everything repeats over and over again in time, there is no point in going back to the time from a design point of view.
In the Fourier transform, the value is known as the Radial Frequency, and has units of radians/second (rad/s). People might be more familiar with the variable f, which is called the "Frequency", and is measured in units called Hertz (Hz). The conversion is done as such:
For instance, if a given AC source has a frequency of 60Hz, the resultant radial frequency is:
The Fourier domain then is broken up into two distinct parts: the magnitude graph, and the phase graph. The magnitude graph has jω as the horizontal axis, and the magnitude of the transform as the vertical axis. Remember, we can compute the magnitude of a complex value C as:
The Phase graph has jω as the horizontal axis, and the phase value of the transform as the vertical axis. Remember, we can compute the phase of a complex value as such:
The phase and magnitude values of the Fourier transform can be considered independent values, although some abstract relationships do apply. Every fourier transform must include a phase value and a magnitude value, or it cannot be uniquely transformed back into the time domain.
The combination of graphs of the magnitude and phase responses of a circuit, along with some special types of formatting and interpretation are called Bode Plots. | <urn:uuid:d247ceb6-fc3a-4506-ac2e-50c823d93caf> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Circuit_Theory/Fourier_Transform | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00128-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.917255 | 728 | 4.3125 | 4 |
Carbon trading markets are controversial since they allows companies to essentially ‘pay to pollute’. However, Australia has just announced that it plans to link its carbon trading scheme with the EU’s, enabling firms to use European permits from mid-2015 to emit carbon dioxide (CO2). Despite opposition to such ‘cap-and-trade’ schemes, the carbon market is viewed by many as a significant step towards cutting greenhouse gas emissions globally.
It’s a bold move for Australia, which currently holds the distinction of being the developed world’s highest CO2 emitter per capita. While it has taken steps to prevent this by introducing carbon taxes for the heaviest polluters, joining the EU carbon market is the biggest step yet.
Currently, Australia forces polluting companies to pay a levy of $24 for every ton of greenhouse gases they produce. While this does not seem like a massive fine, it has drawn fierce criticism from certain companies, who are unhappy about being financially stung.
However by joining the EU’s carbon market, Australian firms now have more options on how they can meet their CO2 reduction targets. This has drawn mixed criticism as it would allow Australian firms to compete better internationally, but it undermines the country’s current carbon taxes.
For those of you unfamiliar with carbon trading markets, they are generally based on cap-and-trade, which forces heavy-polluting companies to buy permits if they want to go above their set emission targets. However cleaner, greener firms can sell surplus permits to heavy polluters, creating a financial incentive for industry and power generators to cut emissions.
Speaking to BBC News, EU Commissioner for Climate Action Connie Hedegaard said “we now look forward to the first full international linking of emission trading systems”. “It is further evidence of strong international co-operation on climate change and will build further momentum towards establishing a robust international carbon market,” she added.
Australia’s Climate Change Minister Greg Combet said that linking the Australian and EU systems “reaffirms that carbon markets are the prime vehicle for tackling climate change and the most efficient means of achieving emissions reductions”. Australian firms will be able to buy EU permits in advance of trading them in 2015, with the final goal to have the Australian and EU schemes fully linked from July 2018.
Via BBC News | <urn:uuid:d561cad9-0221-4414-8de4-a3f921504e46> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://inhabitat.com/australia-to-join-eu-carbon-emission-market-allowing-companies-to-pay-to-pollute/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00022-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953838 | 488 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Stedman and Hutchinson, comps. A Library of American Literature: An Anthology in Eleven Volumes. 1891. Vol. IV: Literature of the Republic, Part I., Constitutional period, 17881820
Eloquence of the Six Nations
By DeWitt Clinton (17691828)
[Born in Little Britain, New Windsor, Orange Co., N. Y., 1769. Died in Albany, N. Y., 1828. From an Address delivered before the N. Y. Hist. Soc. 1811.The Life and Writings of De Witt Clinton. By W. W. Campbell. 1849.]
THE CONFEDERATES were as celebrated for their eloquence, as for their military skill and political wisdom. Popular, or free governments have, in all ages, been the congenial soil of oratory. And it is, indeed, all important in institutions merely advisory; where persuasion must supply the place of coercion; where there is no magistrate to execute, no military to compel; and where the only sanction of law is the controlling power of public opinion. Eloquence being, therefore, considered so essential, must always be a great standard of personal merit, a certain road to popular favor, and an universal passport to public honors. These combined inducements operated with powerful force on the mind of the Indian; and there is little doubt but that oratory was studied with as much care and application among the Confederates as it was in the stormy democracies of the eastern hemisphere. I do not pretend to assert that there were, as at Athens and Rome, established schools and professional teachers for the purpose; but I say that it was an attainment to which they devoted themselves, and to which they bent the whole force of their faculties. Their models of eloquence were to be found, not in books, but in the living orators of their local and national assemblies; their children, at an early period of life, attended their council fires, in order to observe the passing scenes, and to receive the lessons of wisdom. Their rich and vivid imagery was drawn from the sublime scenery of nature, and their ideas were derived from the laborious operations of their own minds, and from the experience and wisdom of their ancient sages.
The most remarkable difference existed between the Confederates and the other Indian nations with respect to eloquence. You may search in vain in the records and writings of the past, or in events of the present times, for a single model of eloquence among the Algonquins, the Abenaquis, the Delawares, the Shawanese, or any other nation of Indians, except the Iroquois. The few scintillations of intellectual lightthe faint glimmerings of genius, which are sometimes to be found in their speeches, are evidently derivative, and borrowed from the Confederates.
Considering the interpreters who have undertaken to give the meaning of Indian speeches, it is not a little surprising that some of them should approach so near to perfection. The major part of the interpreters were illiterate persons, sent among them to conciliate their favor, by making useful or ornamental implements; or they were prisoners who learned the Indian language during their captivity. The Reverend Mr. Kirkland, a missionary among the Oneidas, and sometimes a public interpreter, was indeed a man of liberal education; but those who have seen him officiate at public treaties must recollect how incompetent he was to infuse the fire of Indian oratory into his expressions; how he labored for words, and how feeble and inelegant his language. Oral is more difficult than written interpretation or translation. In the latter case, there is no pressure of time, and we have ample opportunity to weigh the most suitable words, to select the most elegant expressions, and to fathom the sense of the author; but in the former case, we are called upon to act immediately; no time for deliberation is allowed; and the first ideas that occur must be pressed into the service of the interpreter. At an ancient treaty, a female captive officiated in that capacity; and at a treaty held in 1722, at Albany, the speeches of the Indians were first rendered into Dutch, and then translated into English. I except from these remarks the speech of the Onondaga chief, Garangula, to M. Delabarre, delivered on the occasion which I have before mentioned. This was interpreted by Monsieur Le Maine, a French Jesuit, and recorded on the spot by Baron La Hontanmen of enlightened and cultivated minds, from whom it has been borrowed by Colden, Smith, Herriot, Trumbull, and Williams. I believe it to be impossible to find, in all the effusions of ancient or modern oratory, a speech more appropriate and more convincing. Under the veil of respectful profession it conveys the most biting irony; and while it abounds with rich and splendid imagery, it contains the most solid reasoning. I place it in the same rank with the celebrated speech of Logan; and I cannot but express astonishment at the conduct of two respectable writers, who have represented this interesting interview, and this sublime display of intellectual power, as a scold between the French generals and an old Indian.
Within a few years, an extraordinary orator has risen among the Senecas, his real name is Saguoaha, but he is commonly called Red Jacket. Without the advantages of illustrious descent, and with no extraordinary talents for war, he has attained the first distinctions in the nation, by the force of his eloquence. His predecessor in the honors of the nation, was a celebrated chief, denominated The Cornplanter. Having lost the confidence of his countrymen, in order to retrieve his former standing, as it is supposed, he persuaded his brother to announce himself as a prophet, or messenger from Heaven, sent to redeem the fallen fortunes of the Indian race. The superstition of the savages cherished the impostor, and he has acquired such an ascendancy as to prevail upon the Onondagas, formerly the most drunken and profligate of the Six Nations, to abstain entirely from spirituous liquors, and to observe the laws of morality in other respects. He has obtained the same ascendancy among the Confederates, as another impostor had acquired among the Shawanese, and other western Indians; and like him, he has also employed his influence for evil, as well as for good purposes. The Indians universally believe in witchcraft; the prophet inculcated this superstition, and proceeded, through the instrumentality of conjurors selected by himself, to designate the offenders, who were accordingly sentenced to death; and the unhappy objects would have been actually executed, if the magistrates at Oneida and the officers of the garrison at Niagara had not interfered. This was considered an artful expedient to render his enemies the objects of general abhorrence, if not the victims of an ignominious death. Emboldened by success, he proceeded, finally, to execute the views of his brother, and Red Jacket was publicly denounced at a great council of Indians, held at Buffalo Creek, and was put upon his trial. At this crisis he well knew that the future color of his life depended upon the powers of his mind. He spoke in his defence for near three hours. The iron brow of superstition relented under the magic of his eloquence; he declared the prophet an impostor and a cheat. He prevailed: the Indians divided, and a small majority appeared in his favor. Perhaps the annals of history cannot furnish a more conspicuous instance of the triumph and power of oratory, in a barbarous nation, devoted to superstition, and looking up to the accuser as a delegated minister of the Almighty. | <urn:uuid:f3bdd964-32d7-48cc-815e-d238a40c2ef5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bartleby.com/400/prose/699.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00035-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974796 | 1,599 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Yes, elementary schools should to be required to serve nutritious food to children to prevent type 2 diabetes, because it influences a healthier lifestyle. If we give children nutritious food while they are young, their bodies will get used to it and react negatively towards "junk" food. Plus, children see their schools as a responsible place, so by setting this example of healthy eating, it will help them in the future.
The government should support healthy eating habits by requiring that schools serve nutritious food to children. With the amount of video games, television shows and unhealthy food being forced upon today's youth, it is no surprise that this generation has one of the highest percentages of obese and overweight children that the world has ever seen. Obesity and its associated diseases, such as type 2 diabetes, can lead to a less productive workforce and a population with many more medical needs. This can harm our economy, and is also worse for the people who have been fed unhealthy food.
I think all schools, not just elementary schools, should serve healthier food to kids to prevent a variety of health problems that are not limited to Type 2 Diabetes. I find it atrocious the types of unhealthy food that is served in our schools. Some children I have babysat for will barley eat a fruit or vegetable, and seem to exist on only chicken nuggets and McDonald's. This is not a good sign for the future health of our country.
Levels of childhood obesity in America today are much too high. As children are getting one, maybe two, meals from their schools, we need to be ensured that these meals are healthy and nutritious to prevent childhood obesity, and ensure the wellness of elementary children and their health.
When a child enters elementary schools, they are old enough to start learning the importance of good eating habits. Kids are most impressionable between the ages of 5-10, and being taught to make the right food choices is something they will carry with them their entire lives. Not only will it help prevent childhood diseases, it can potentially prevent health complications as an adult too.
It only makes sense that an institution charged with educating societies future should implement what it teaches. I remember my health classes and gym classes. They taught us to eat well and get plenty of exercise. Then we went to lunch and ate Grade D food. That's a major contradiction and conflict of interests when an institution can't "practice what it preaches". You don't even have to include the high incidence of Type 2 Diabetes in teens to argue this. It's just sound thinking and solid logic to expect a school to serve healthy food.
Exposure to poor nutrition in early life can lead to serious health problems later in life. Children who eat tater tots and brownies every day for lunch will almost certainly experience some sort of health issue when they are older. Good nutrition is a necessity for our elementary-aged children. Providing good meals for students will set them on a healthy life path.
There is absolutely no reason not to serve nutritious meals to elementary school kids. Why would anything else even be a consideration? For some kids this is the only good food they get because their parents are low income. This is a no brainer, ONLY good, nutritious food should be available to these children.
I believe schools should have healthier school lunches because, students need brain fuel to learn more and be more involved in learning and healthy foods do that.Another reason that schools should serve healthier foods is because it trains the child to eat healthy lifes. As you all can see I STRONGLY believe thats school lunches should be healthier.
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No because if they get big it is their fault along with their parents fault for letting their child eat the food in the first place. If schools are so worried then they shouldn't have started with the junk food in the first place. Therefore it is their own faults .
If you serve kids healthier foods that like telling them they are fat and thats not right . Schools should not be worried about what kids eat or if they are over weight or not. If you send kids that type of message they wont feel good about themselves at all
Junk food in excess is bad, but some foods like chocolate contain a rich amount of flavnoids, which help with a healthy heart. Also, they should eat more healthy foods than junk foods, but a little junk food is not bad and can even help you. If schools serve junk foods too they should limit the amount of it.
Kids should be free to choose what they want to eat. I know since my school started serving the more "healthy" lunches, less kids choose to eat lunch now than before. Since a lot of kids do not eat lunch, it lowers performance in school. In my opinion it is better to eat something, healthy or not, than to go hungry the rest of the day. Everyone should have a choice in what they eat.
I have only ever once had a school dinner. It taseted absolutely horrible. Kids should be able to choose their one food. If they dont like it, they wont eat it! Then they would starve and die. Thats why we need to get a little bit of sugar in them.
I'm not even sure what the burgers are made out of, the pizza tastes like cheese on cardboard, and the tater tots are probably the cheapest things you can get at the super market. So I think this proves schools should not serve school lunches in the cafeterias. No school lunches!
Elementary schools should not be required to server nutritious food to kids to prevent later incidence of Type 2 Diabetes. It should not be up to the schools to ensure that kids get the proper nutrition, it needs be left up to the parent. Parents can send their kids to school with a packed lunch that is healthy.
If you try to serve healthy food, they'll bring lunch with junk food in it. It's their choice what to eat, so even if you serve better foods they won't buy it unless they want to. It's good intentions, but won't work. At the end of the day, if someone doesn't want to do something, they won't; like eating foods.
In the constitution it states that the government should not be allowed to intrude on peoples personal life. It may cause diabetes but a healthy lifestyle should be encouraged rather than forced upon people. Also not all people require the same nutrition. There is a maximum amount of calories per meal but the amount of calories required for each person differs.
If I want my children to be healthy, then I have to take responsibility for that effort myself. I can ask my children's school to help me with that if I want, but I see no reason to force them to serve a certain type of food for my purposes. The best way to teach and raise children properly in all aspects of life is by doing it yourself, not by allowing schools and society to do it for you by force. | <urn:uuid:bef4bf49-5006-48f5-906d-6567924c9a15> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.debate.org/opinions/should-elementary-schools-be-required-to-serve-nutritious-food-to-children-to-prevent-later-incidence-of-type-2-diabetes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970738 | 1,651 | 2.9375 | 3 |
China has launched its first pilot carbon emission trading scheme in the southern city of Shenzhen.
Shenzhen is one of seven pilot cities for the scheme aimed at reducing pollution from greenhouse gases before a national program is implemented.
The seven pilots will account for 700 million tonnes of carbon by 2014.
Deputy CEO of the Climate Institute Irwin Jackson has told Radio Australia's Asia Pacific program the scheme is a significant step for China.
"China has been taking action to reduce pollution and encourage clean energy industries for a number of years now," he said.
"But this is the first time we'll actually see the emergence of an absolute cap on emissions."
Companies will be allowed a set quota of carbon dioxide emissions and they will have to buy carbon credits if they want to exceed their quota.
Reports say companies will also be able to profit from selling excess permits to other firms if they emit below their quota.
More than 600 large industrial enterprises and 200 buildings in the city will have to abide by the new rules.
Dick Gross, a tutor in climate change at Melbourne University, says this marks a shift involving several countries.
"This represents a dramatic change from 2006 when [China] did a deal with Asian Pacific neighbours to avoid Kyoto with the AP-6 partnership," Mr Gross said.
"They've gone from trying to avoid obligations under Kyoto in 2006 to being significant contributors to the future of a less carbon intensive world."
However analysts have said the scheme, which covers 38 per cent of Shenzhen's emissions, is unlikely to produce significant emissions reductions for the country.
Li Yan, head of environmental group Greenpeace's climate and energy campaign in China, says it is too early to judge the impact of the scheme on carbon emissions.
"It only covers less than half of the city's emissions, so the effectiveness in terms of carbon cuts needs to be seen," Ms Li said.
"The pilot is necessary homework to get the country prepared on its capability to manage carbon."
Due to its reliance on coal and heavy industry, China has emerged as the top producer of climate-changing carbon emissions, ahead of the United States, though its per capita emissions remain below the US.
China has no targets to reduce absolute carbon emissions and government officials have said emissions figures will continue to rise until around 2030.
Beijing is aiming by 2020 for a 40 per cent reduction from 2005 levels of carbon intensity, which is a measure of the amount of carbon produced per unit of economic output. | <urn:uuid:80b2f12a-9b25-4fa4-9351-fd6558bf4bd5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://mobile.abc.net.au/news/2013-06-18/an-china-launches-its-first-carbon-trading-scheme/4763870?pfm=sm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00169-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955496 | 506 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Most of the time, it takes decades of accumulating genetic errors for a tumor to develop. While this explains the general occurrence of cancer in adults, it leaves a gap in understanding of the cause of pediatric tumors.
In a study published in the July issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, researchers found a missing piece of the pediatric cancer puzzle. Changxian Shen, PhD, senior research associate at the Center for Childhood Cancer and Blood Diseases at The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, and Peter Houghton, PhD, director of the center, may have identified one mechanism behind the early development of some pediatric solid tumors - as well as a target for future pediatric cancer therapies.
In healthy cells, a checkpoint prompts the cell to repair damaged DNA before it replicates. Many researchers believe that cancer cells flourish when these checkpoints are skipped or inhibited, as the mutated cells can survive and rapidly reproduce. A growing collection of damaged cells can lead to the solid tumors of many childhood cancers, such as those of rhabdomyosarcoma, neuroblastoma and osteosarcoma.
In their study, Drs. Shen and Houghton found that dampening a particular feedback loop between a repair checkpoint and its controlling pathways may promote the growth of tumors.
"Our prior studies had shown that the DNA damage checkpoint protein, ATM, was very low in most pediatric solid tumors," Dr. Houghton, also a faculty member at The Ohio State University College of Medicine, said. "The question was why?"
The study revealed that a number of problems may be at play in the development of pediatric solid tumors. First, a pathway called mTOR regulates the production of a cancer-causing gene that tells the cell to produce too much of two kinds of microRNAs. These microRNAs, in turn, suppress the synthesis of ATM, which makes it hard for cells to initiate the damage checkpoint. Low levels of ATM allow the mTOR pathway to keep producing the microRNAs that further reduce the ATM-mediated checkpoint activity. When the microRNAs weaken the cell's damage checkpoint, the checkpoint cannot effectively prevent mutated cells from proliferating.
By making this connection, Drs. Shen and Houghton have identified a potential explanation for the early development of pediatric tumors as well as a potential target for new cancer therapies. Early tumor growth seems to be caused by cells' rapid bypass of the damage checkpoints instead of the gradual accumulation of damage at play in adult tumor growth. Future treatments that can help cells increase ATM checkpoint activity or fight the overproduction of microRNAs may slow or stop the growth of cancerous pediatric tumors.
"These results help us to not only understand the early genesis of some tumors in children, but also why many solid tumors are highly sensitive to drugs and ionizing radiation that damage DNA," Dr. Houghton said. "They also help explain why, in children not cured by these treatments, resistance to therapy arises - the rapid rate of mutation due to suppression of ATM. Potentially, the rate of mutations that lead to drug or radiation resistance could be slowed by targeting mTOR." | <urn:uuid:64f52ff2-49ac-437e-91c5-366003aab30a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2013-07/nch-sfm071913.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393332.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00038-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953087 | 637 | 3.234375 | 3 |
It's no secret that the Great Recession hit some people harder than others, but for blacks and Hispanics it has become the great wealth divide. Both groups have lost decades' worth of financial gains, with whites now claiming an average of 20 times the net worth of blacks and 18 times that of Hispanics.
The latest Census data confirms that high unemployment coupled with the housing crisis had the worst effect on those who didn't have the time to shore up sufficient assets to ride out the crash. Younger minorities in particular, whose main asset is their home, were severely impacted during the recession because many bought at the height of the market. Older whites, who are more likely to have retirement accounts and other stock market investments, fared better.
Stock funds, retirement accounts and savings amounted to 28 percent of whites' net worth, compared with 19 percent for blacks and 15 percent for Hispanics, leading some analysts to worry that as the stock market recovers and the housing market stalls, the wealth gap will widen even further.
According to Pew Research Center analysis, white households had a median net worth of $113,149 in 2009, compared with $6,325 for Hispanics and $5,677 for blacks -- a ratio of 20 to 1 for blacks and 18 to 1 for Hispanics. In 1995, when better economic times lifted many minorities into the middle class, the ratio was 7 to 1 for both groups.
The financial devastation of the recession will have long-lasting effects on everyone, but for some, it means starting from zero again.
Keep up with your wealth and follow me on Twitter.
Get more news, money-saving tips and expert advice by signing up for a free Bankrate newsletter. | <urn:uuid:016343a0-bbf7-42e8-a759-4e0bc613158a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bankrate.com/financing/wealth/the-great-wealth-divide/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397562.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00136-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96741 | 340 | 2.546875 | 3 |
(Last Updated on : 19/05/2012)
Samudragupta was a benevolent ruler who reigned from 335 to 380 BC. He was a great warrior and patron of arts. He was the son of Chandragupta I and probably the greatest king of Gupta dynasty. There is a detailed and authentic record of Samudragupta's reign was composed by his court poet Harisena which is found in the rock pillar of Allahabad
. He had to undergo a struggle for the throne with his elder brothers after his father's death.
Samudragupta ascended the throne and conquered almost whole of India.
Conquests of Samudragupta
In the beginning Samudragupta attacked his neighbouring kingdoms Shichchhatra (Rohilakhand) and Padmavati. He won over Bengal, some kingdoms in Nepal and put Assam
under his suzerainty. He had also conquered some tribal states like the Malwas, Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas, Abhiras and Maduras. Later Kushanas and Sakas paid him tribute. After his victory he reinstated his enemies as the tributary kings. He possessed a powerful navy along with his mighty army. Samudragupta also proceeded along the coast of Bay of Bengal
and conquered Pithapuram's Mahendragiri, Kanchi's Vishnugupta, Khosla's Mahendra and many more until he reached the River Krishna.
Samudragupta also expanded his kingdom towards west over Khandesh and Palghat. He preferred to maintain friendly terms with Vatakata in Central India. Samudragupta's sovereign extended from the Himalaya Mountains
in the north to the River Narmada in the south and from the River Brahmaputra in the east to River Yamuna in the west. He passed through the forest of Madhya Pradesh
, crossed the Orissa
coast, marched through Ganjam, Vishakapatnam, Godavari, Krishna and Nellore districts and might have gone as far as Kanchipuram. His greatest achievement was the political unification of most of the India into a unique power. Samudragupta took the title of Maha Rajadhiraja. After winning all these big battles Samudragupta performed Ashwamedha Yajna or Horse sacrifice. Many other rulers of foreign states like the Saka and Kushana kings accepted Samudragupta's supremacy and offered him their services.
Monetary system under rule of Samudragupta
Samudragupta changed the monetary system of Gupta dynasty. He began the minting of seven different types of coins which included the standard type, the battle-axe type, the archer type, the Ashwamedha type, the tiger slayer type, the king and queen type and the lyrist type. All these coins exhibited an extreme delicate sculptural and technical finesse. Much about Samudragupta is known through coins issued by him. They were made of pure gold. The coin-making expertise was acquired from his acquaintance with the Kushans.
Samudragupta was a great warrior as well as an openhearted person. He showed great magnanimousness towards the kings who were defeated in the battle. He allowed various tribal states for autonomous rule under his protection. He is known to have been a man of culture. He was a celebrated poet and a musician. His court was full of poets and scholars. Samudragupta had a keen interest in music and he himself was probably a renowned lyrist. His coins depict him playing on the Veena
. He took effective actions to propagate religious, artistic and literary aspects of Indian culture. Though he followed Hinduism
like the other Gupta kings, he was well known for his tolerant spirit towards other religions. This was proved when he gave permission to the king of Ceylon to build a Buddhist monastery for the pilgrims in Bodh Gaya
After the death of Samudragupta, his son Chandragupta II
or Vikramaditya was enthroned who reigned from 380 to 413 AD and the Gupta Dynasty still flourished with its glory and prosperity under his rule. | <urn:uuid:b4e2ee12-c728-4de0-a0bc-5a2a56403d91> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.indianetzone.com/15/samudra_gupta_king_gupta_dynasty.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00180-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.984217 | 884 | 3.515625 | 4 |
Cats of Venice
The Lion of St. Mark is Venice's mascot, at least among sculptors and decorators. In real life, the closest lion is probably at the Parco Natura Viva just outside Verona, 74 miles (118 km) away.
With no living lions to reign over Venice, the local feline population has adopted a surrogate leonine role. Back in the 1990s, when we took the photos in this article, cats were seen everywhere in the city: sunning themselves on park benches, perched on bridges, wandering the streets, and dining on leftovers at the Rialto fish market.
In a delightful book titled A Venetian Bestiary, Jan Morris wrote:
Morris's text, like the photos in this article, are a bit out of date: In recent years, stray cats have nearly disappeared from most Venice neighborhoods. Many cats have been removed to an island sanctuary, which is good news for Venice's rodent population but is a source of annoyance to rat-haters and Venetian traditionalists who lament the days when cats were seen more often than dogs.
Are Venice's few remaining stray cats dangerous? Some worry-warts might think so, for it's doubtful that any feral cats wandering the streets of Venice have had rabies shots. Still, if you leave them alone, they'll probably leave you alone--unless, of course, you're a fish or a rat, in which case all bets are off.
Venice's Oldest Cat?
The Cats of Venice
More travel advice:
Copyright © 1996-2016 Durant Imboden and Cheryl Imboden. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:8e13c541-fa46-451b-9004-dec49d405079> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://europeforvisitors.com/venice/articles/cats_of_venice.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00199-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960298 | 344 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Some 4th of July Facts You May Not Have Known
With the 4th of July on Thursday here are a few things you may not have known about our national holiday:
1. America didn’t declare our independence on the 4th of July. This is kind of a tit for tat situation because the Continental Congress declared our independence from the British on July 2 ,1776, which was the day of the actual vote, but the Declaration was published in the newspapers on July 4th, giving the people of the country their first look at it.
2. The Declaration of Independence wasn’t completely signed on the 4th of July. There were 56 delegates that signed the document and many were serving in the military, so it took some time for all of them to sign their names. The only one that actually signed the Declaration on the 4th was John Hancock. (who also had the largest signature)
3. A future President and signer of the Declaration, John Adams, thought the celebration for our freedom was going to be July 2nd. (refer to #1) In a letter to his wife he predicted that date would go down in history.
4. Today we celebrate the day with the colors red, white and blue, but the original celebrations were greener. Red, white and blue colors weren’t widely available, but greenery was so decorations were made from plants and such. In the beginning, cannons were fired to celebrate the day, but over the years cannons from the war started falling apart and were replaced by fireworks.
5. The flag we know today was designed by a high school student from Ohio. As part of a school project, his teacher assigned him the task of creating a new flag when Alaska and Hawaii were admitted to the union. He simply added two stars to the flag that had 48, the result; he got a B-minus. Not happy with the grade, Robert Heft sent his design to President Eisenhower for consideration and the President personally picked his flag for the new Stars and Stripes. His teacher decided to change his grade to an A. | <urn:uuid:47993aa2-d078-4387-bfc9-82959ebf725c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://b985.fm/some-4th-of-july-facts-you-may-not-have-known/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00143-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.991785 | 432 | 2.890625 | 3 |
We have been growing these annual vinca plants for several years by bringing their pots inside at the onset of winter. But early yesterday morning, while the outside temperature was still below freezing, the pots were taken out to allow for a house renovation project to commence. When they were brought back in several hours later, it appeared that several of the plants in the largest pot had succumbed to the elements. Those are the ones with drooping leaves in the photo.
But there were survivors. So, now the question is why some plants died and some survived.
The distribution of the survivors suggests that location within the pot was irrelevant. So we can assume that air and soil temperatures were more or less uniform. Presumably, the plants were not genetically identical; some may have descended from one plant that was the original occupant of the pot and others from other original plants that occupied different, but nearby, pots (incidentally, they do seed well). It is, therefore, possible that we witnessed a selection event: the survivors had the right phenotypes coming from the right genotypes that enabled them to survive the freezing temperatures.
We should have flowers soon. | <urn:uuid:6717dca6-42f5-49eb-bf64-7207522c2611> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://snailstales.blogspot.com/2011/01/natural-selection-in-pot.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00166-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.986797 | 231 | 3.15625 | 3 |
Flexible Glass Technology Means Lighter, Brighter Displays
The news has been buzzing with Sony's latest rollable OLED screen (note: Sony does not specify that it uses this particular technology in its organic thin-film transisters product). It's an impressive sight, but how does it work? Corning has been developing flexible substrates on which electronics can be printed. Amazingly, Corning's latest substrate is made from very pure glass (and it doesn't shatter!).
According to Carl Taussig, director of the Information Surfaces Lab at Hewlett-Packard Labs in Palo Alto, California, "Glass is a great surface for building thin-film devices on." Water can't seep into glass unlike its plastic counterparts due to glass's impermeability -- meaning that the electronics can last longer. Glass is also smoother and can therefore accommodate the building of perfectly structured electronics. Finally, glass can survive higher temperatures than plastics, meaning the electronics can be made at higher temperatures which results in faster switching electronics, producing a crisper display.
One added benefit is their low weight. The glass can be coated or treated for specific traits, meaning a more resistant surface and just as strong as current thicker displays. The impressive glass is only 75 micrometers thick. The glass also means less material waste on thicker screens, and more energy efficient than Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs).
The flexible displays can be used for a variety of products from solar cells to thin film displays. Perhaps you have seen Harry Potter read The Daily Prophet, an animated newspaper that comes to life as you read it. This might be a chance for developers to bring a Prophet-like newspaper to your hands. It could even periodically update as new stories are developed. The thin film displays could also be used in your eyeglasses so you don't have to bring an extra screen with you.
Corning has sent the glass to certain companies to test it with building products. The thin film glass may soon be used in products ranging from your 52-inch monitor to your "ultrathin no thicker than a newspaper e-reader."
[Via Technology Review] | <urn:uuid:ae8d58a1-fbda-4d2f-87b9-c1466e4462fb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pcworld.com/article/197635/flexible_glass_technology_means_lighter_brighter_displays.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00163-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951008 | 437 | 3.25 | 3 |
Throughout the year, students have the opportunity to become aware of the consequences of sexual violence, how to prevent it, and how to support victims.
Walk a Mile in Her Shoes
All across the world men gather, don women's shoes, and walk a mile. This is a unique and fun-spirited way to educate the community about the serious issue of sexualized violence. "As males, we have to show that sexual assault is not just a womens' issues," says Steve Tendall, director of St. Ambrose's Counseling Center. "We are walking on behalf of our daughters, significant others, girlfriends, wives, friends and mothers." Check out some pictures of the event here
The Clothesline Project is an opportunity for women to express their emotions towards violence against women by decorating a shirt. The shirts then hang on a clothesline to be viewed by others as a testimony to the problem of violence against women.
Take Back the Night
Take Back the Night is held to raise awareness and end violence of all forms. That includes sexual assault, sexual abuse, dating violence, and domestic violence. Take Back the night is a march around campus that empowers survivors in the healing process and inspires responsibility in all to stop violence.
Take Two: Sexual Assault Awareness and Bystander Intervention is an original play written by SAU's Theater Professor Dan Hale and is performed in the fall by SAU Theater Students. The play discusses the important issue of sexual violence and is followed immediately with a debriefing session.
BIG (Bystander Intervention Group) focuses on educating men about the importance of challenging the social norms in their community that support sexual violence. The Bystander Intervention approach focuses on young men not as perpetrators or potential perpetrators, but as empowered bystanders who can confront abusive peers and support abused ones. For more information: http://www.mvpstrategies.net/bystander-approach/
The Rape Aggression Defense System is a program of realistic self-defense tactics and techniques for women. RAD training is currently offered as a for-credit Kinesiology Department class, listed as KIN 125-M. Check the Beeline course schedule, or contact the Kinesiology Department regarding class times and availability. For more information about St. Ambrose's RAD program, contact Robert Christopher at 563/333-6258. Visit the RAD Systems website at www.rad-systems.com. | <urn:uuid:b242beac-74a9-452d-a180-05549562f094> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sau.edu/Sexual_Violence_Awareness_and_Prevention/Awareness_and_Prevention.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00123-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930271 | 497 | 2.671875 | 3 |
American income inequality, Poverty, Social welfare programs, Socio-economic inequality, Social policy, Luxembourg Income Study
Public Policy | Social Welfare
Increasingly the rich nations of the world face a common set of social and economic issues: the cost of population aging, a growing number of single parent families, the growing majority of two-earner families, increasing numbers of immigrants from poorer nations, and in particular, rising economic inequality generated by skill-based technological change, international trade and other factors. All of these nations have also designed systems of social protection to shield their citizen against the risk of a fall in economic status due to unemployment, divorce, disability, retirement, and death of a spouse. The interaction of these economic and demographic forces and social programs generates the distribution of disposable income in each of these nations. The experiences of nations in dealing with issues of economic and social inequality is the subject of this paper. Thanks to the emergence and availability of cross-nationally comparable databases, we are in a position to directly compare the experiences of rich nations in coping with the growth of market income inequality. Comparisons of these experiences may help us to understand how the United States is similar to and different from other nations. It may also help us trace these differences to their economic, demographic, and policy-related sources. The institutions put in place in other nations to help mitigate the forces of market-driven economic inequality are also of interest. Cross-national research has taught us that every nation must design its own set of social policies tempered by its institutions, values, culture, and politics. But it has also shown that we can learn important features of policy design by looking to other nations who seem to do a better job combating social injustice and the poor outcomes of market-based economic inequality than does the United States. It will be seen that policies designed to generate economic equality need not result in lower rates of economic growth or increased economic inefficiency. In fact, a set of policies to help combat growing economic inequality are available to our nation. What is needed is the leadership to make these opportunities a reality.
Smeeding, Timothy M., "American Income Inequality in a Cross-National Perspective: Why Are We So Different?" (1997). Center for Policy Research. Paper 153. | <urn:uuid:21ae442a-84fa-4910-81a8-f4b3f7a28226> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://surface.syr.edu/cpr/153/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00073-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9313 | 458 | 2.703125 | 3 |
When it comes to online security, the U.S. government is playing both sides of the cyber coin. On one end, as the NSA spying scandal has demonstrated, it wants the ability to conduct mass surveillance. On the other, it seeks an effective way to defeat online snooping, as shown by the government's early investment in "onion routing," the advanced technology for anonymizing traffic.
Tor, which stands for The Onion Router, is a DARPA-funded project that is the tool of choice for dissidents, hackers and ordinary citizens worried about privacy. "Onion" refers to the tool's ability to conceal online activities, similar to how the layers of the vegetable shroud its core.
Tor is likely
the technology former NSA contractor Edward Snowden used to cover his tracks.
Related: Innovation Myths and the Unsexy Truths About Breakthroughs | <urn:uuid:2b41d601-2fec-442c-8460-4b70b5283188> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.bloomberg.com/slideshow/9/2014-04-01/how-you-funded-some-of-the-world-s-greatest-technologies-including-fruit-ninja.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00018-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961778 | 177 | 2.703125 | 3 |
|Central coordinates||15o 30.00' West 11o 30.00' North|
|IBA criteria||A4i, A4iii|
|Altitude||0 - 5m|
|Year of IBA assessment||2001|
Site description The Ilha de Bolama is an island on the central-eastern part of the coast which lies just to the north of the mouth of the Rio Grande de Buba. The Rio Grande de Buba is unusual in Guinea-Bissau in that it mostly merges directly into dry and semi-humid forest rather than mangrove forest. Nonetheless, there are extensive mudflats and mangroves at the river mouth and around Ilha de Bolama. Immediately to the north of Bolama, extending as far as the Ilha das Areias on the southern side of the Canal do Gêba, is a large complex of intertidal flats, mostly of mud in the south, merging gradually to sandflats in the north and with many rocks in the west. The estuary of Rio Grande de Buba contains a mixture of mud- and stoneflats. The site includes 13,000 ha of rocks and mudflats and 17,000 ha of mangroves.Although the Ilha de Bolama is included in the Arquipélago dos Bijagós Biosphere Reserve, the remainder of which forms site GW007, it is here treated separately, since much of the extensive area of mudflats, which are almost contiguous with Bolama to the north, is excluded from the Biosphere Reserve. It seems more appropriate therefore to unite in one site these flats, those around the shoreline of Bolama itself together with the estuary of the Rio Grande de Buba, immediately to the east.
Key Biodiversity See Box for key species. The total number of wintering waders estimated at Ilha de Bolama and Rio Grande de Buba in 1988 were 46,970 and 30,940 respectively.
Non-bird biodiversity: The mammal Trichechus senegalensis (VU) occurs.
|Species||Season||Period||Population estimate||Quality of estimate||IBA Criteria||IUCN Category|
|Charadrius alexandrinus||winter||-||1,000 individuals||-||A4i||Not Recognised|
|Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarola||winter||-||7,200 individuals||-||A4i||Least Concern|
|Common Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula||winter||-||3,900 individuals||-||A4i||Least Concern|
|Common Redshank Tringa totanus||winter||-||6,100 individuals||-||A4i||Least Concern|
|Ruddy Turnstone Arenaria interpres||winter||-||2,200 individuals||-||A4i||Least Concern|
|Red Knot Calidris canutus||winter||-||10,000 individuals||-||A4i||Near Threatened|
|Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferruginea||winter||-||17,500 individuals||-||A4i||Near Threatened|
|A4iii Species group - waterbirds||winter||-||20,000-49,999 individuals||unknown||A4iii|
|2001||low||not assessed||not assessed|
|Agriculture and aquaculture||annual & perennial non-timber crops - small-holder farming||happening now||small area/few individuals (<10%)||slow but significant deterioration||low|
|Protected area||Designation||Area (ha)||Relationship with IBA||Overlap with IBA (ha)|
|Bolama - Bijagós||UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve||101,230||protected area overlaps with site||17,197|
|IUCN habitat||Habitat detail||Extent (% of site)|
|Land-use||Extent (% of site)|
|nature conservation and research||-|
References Zwarts (1988).
Contribute Please click here to help BirdLife conserve the world's birds - your data for this IBA and others are vital for helping protect the environment.
Recommended citation BirdLife International (2016) Important Bird and Biodiversity Area factsheet: Ilha de Bolama - Rio Grande de Buba. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 30/06/2016
To provide new information to update this factsheet or to correct any errors, please email BirdLife | <urn:uuid:e6a192de-0275-4aca-a2c0-dc5b8240c639> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sitefactsheet.php?id=6387 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00024-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.72695 | 981 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Even in the best of times the Syrian Arab Republic (Syria) has struggled with cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL). We reported previously in PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases that old world or anthroponotic CL caused by Leishmania tropica is endemic to Syria and elsewhere in the Middle East, North Africa, and Central Asia. In the ancient northern Syrian city of Aleppo CL has been present for hundreds of years (if not longer), where it is known as the “Aleppo Evil”, “Aleppo ulcer”, “Aleppo Boil”, or “Aleppo Button”. Aleppo evil is a disfiguring condition that disproportionately occurs on the face, especially of young people. It typically lasts one or two years before the lesion heals spontaneously, and is often known locally as “one-year sore”. However, in many cases specific anti-parasitic chemotherapy can hasten the healing process and improve clinical and cosmetic outcomes.
A major problem with one-year sore is that the scar can produce permanent disfigurement of the face. According to some experts working in Afghanistan old world CL is a cause of social isolation and stigma particularly among girls and young women who can be rendered unmarriageable. Mothers with CL may not be allowed to touch their children even though human to human contact does not transmit the infection. | <urn:uuid:dae3a01a-6149-47f0-92f5-aef2b5a0f200> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sabin.org/updates/news/dr-peter-hotez-describes-emerging-leishmaniasis-epidemic-syria-plos-blog?language=en | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398516.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00065-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952928 | 282 | 3.53125 | 4 |
Technique 4: Cells in Cells
The Cells in Cells technique allows you to display more summary columns than detail. Specifically, there is one column each
for quantity and dollar amount sold. But on the aggregate columns you want to show a column for the difference and the
percentage respectively. To do this, you’ll add a textbox inside each of the two data level textboxes and conditionally display no data in them.
Select your first data cell, then drop a Rectangle control into it. You’ll notice the background change from solid white to the transparent grid pattern. Next, select a Textbox control and drop this into the rectangle. You have to get it perfect and sometimes it’s a bit annoying when you don’t land exactly on the control. But if you do this correctly, you should have a display similar to Figure 3.
Figure 3. Cells in Cells Technique:
This figure shows how your display appears when you perform the cells-in-cells technique correctly.|
Next, drop in another textbox so it rests directly beside your first one. Repeat this process for the second data cell and it appears as though you have four data cells with which to work. Be aware that when you want to set properties for these
cells, your familiar point, click, edit routine leaves you within the context of the Rectangle
surrounding your cells. You will need to click twice to access the textboxes within the Rectangle
. You may need to play with the sizing a bit depending upon the width of data contained. I named the left textbox in the first rectangle QTY_COL
and the left textbox in the second rectangle LINETOT_COL
so I can access their values later for percentage calculation.
Technique 5: Custom Matrix Aggregates
From left to right each of the cells should have the following expressions listed in order in
Listing 4. Using the InScope() function you conditionally display either a simple sum or a custom calculation. In the first textbox you’ll notice the custom Sum that includes a conditional IIF() statement.
Sum(IIF(Year(Fields(Parameters!TimeSlicer.Value).Value)=Parameters!Year.Value, CDbl(Fields!OrderQty.Value) ,CDbl(Fields!OrderQty.Value) * -1 )))
Rather than a blind total of all values in the row, you want to compare the Year
. If it is the Year
selected the value aggregates with a positive value. If however the value is from the set that belongs to the prior year (Year-1
), you aggregate with a negative by multiplying by -1. Our end result is a summary that is the net effect of the two figures. Similar logic is used for the variance supplied as a percentage difference in the cells to the right of the field totals.
Since there is no variance to offer for an individual month, you simply supply a double quote “” blank value when the column is not an aggregate.
To add some visual indication to the report I have added conditional color formatting in the aggregates with
=IIF((Inscope("matrix1_SLICER") AND InScope("matrix1_ColumnGroup1")),"Black" ,IIF(Me.Value< 0,"Red","Green"))
On a standard column the font is black, but you’ll want to display positive movement in green and a decrease in business with red. You can do the same with fonts, styles and shading. After some additional formatting, my matrix looks like
Figure 4. Formatting Your Report:
You can format your report by selecting fonts, styles, and shading.
Figure 5. Visibility Tab:
You need to set the Initial Visibility to hidden and allow the toggle based upon GROUPER1.
As a last touch, go to Matrix properties and select the matrix1_Grouper2
row properties. On the Visibility tab, set Initial Visibility to hidden and allow the toggle based upon Grouper1
You’ve just added a little interactivity to the display of the matrix, which is important when real estate on the page is at a premium. | <urn:uuid:26e32bc2-88a4-4443-bce1-744d28160890> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.devx.com/dbzone/Article/37703/0/page/4 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00169-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.857366 | 883 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Public Markets Promote Public Health
Obesity-related diseases are at epidemic proportions in the U.S., hitting marginalized and disadvantaged populations especially hard. Childhood obesity, which can have grave, long-term health impacts, is especially alarming.
Public markets can play a key role in alleviating these health concerns, improving access to fresh fruits and vegetables, especially for those without grocery stores, and serving as a public gathering place that helps reduce social isolation and depression. Through a W. K. Kellogg Foundation-funded grant program, PPS supported efforts across the country to create economically sustainable markets in low-income communities. With support of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, PPS, in partnership with Columbia University, analyzed how eight of PPS’s grantee markets were serving to increase access to fresh food in their communities.
We have prepared a handbook to identify best practices for farmers markets interested in redeeming the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP/food stamps) at their markets. This effort makes markets more accessible for lower income customers who are most at risk for obesity-related disease.
In addition to offering access to healthy, fresh foods, markets can also offer critical health and wellness education and information in a friendly, welcoming public gathering space. PPS assisted Kaiser Permanente, the country’s largest HMO, make their network of farmers markets operating at hospitals and clinics more sustainable and beneficial for vendors and customers. And, through a series of grants PPS supported the Camden Area Health Education Center in Camden New Jersey, one of the poorest cities in the U.S. grow their farmers market network from one farm stand to five markets, which are all centers for health information.
Market Case Studies | <urn:uuid:01748b1f-1cb4-4292-8591-3d0040860893> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.pps.org/reference/promotes-public-health/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395613.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00161-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9385 | 348 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Asian longhorn beetle, Anoplophora glabripennis. A pest of broadleaved trees from China that is frequently intercepted on wood packaging. It has established and caused damage to trees in several EU Member States and in two cities in the USA.
Asian longhorn beetle exotic pest alert (PDF-1721K)
Emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis. A pest of ash trees from China. Although this has not been intercepted, this has established in North America where it is causing severe damage and tree mortality to native elms. (Photo: David Cappaert, Michigan State University, www.forestryimages.org)
Emerald ash borer exotic pest alert (PDF-4140K)
Phytophthora ramorum: the causal agent of sudden oak death in California. This pathogen affects understorey shrubs, such as rhododendron, where it proliferates and is easily transmitted to infect living trees in the vicinity.
Phytophthora ramorum exotic pest alert (PDF-184K)
More information about Phytophthora ramorum
Many forest pests, both insects and pathogens, have entered new lands via plants for planting (nursery stock).
At its inaugural meeting in Poland in July 2006, the IUFRO Unit decided to endorse a pathway approach to providing the scientific background and advice for regulators concerned with preventing movement of pests with live plants. This will be similar to that adopted for wood packaging material. Best management practices effective at preventing known pests will significantly reduce the risk of introducing unknown pests as well.
Recently, the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) established an expert working group to develop an international standard for plants for planting.
The IUFRO Unit believes strong control of this important and diverse pathway is only possible through international agreement. An international consensus of scientists can provide critical support to the regulatory community as technical justification is needed to support the development of effective regulation.
The IUFRO Unit has, through a small group involving:
- Kerry Britton - National Pathologist, USDA Forest Service Research & Development
- Marc Kenis - Head of Forestry and Ornamental Pest Research, CABI Europe-Switzerland and
- Shiroma Sathyapala - Team Manager, Risk Analysis, New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
prepared a concept paper on this increasingly important subject:
Please note that it is a statement of facts by concerned scientists, rather than a policy statement by any government.
How you can help
We hope you will help stem the tide of invasive forest pests. Here is what you can do:
- Help us strengthen the paper with more global examples of forest pests introduced via trade in nursery stock.
- Contribute through your research work to help develop mitigation strategies to reduce the movement of pests with plants for planting.
- Send an endorsing cover note with the concept paper to your national plant protection organization representative most likely to influence the plants for planting standard. | <urn:uuid:2c11f201-9188-4fb8-aca8-5bccda10e124> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.forestry.gov.uk/fr/INFD-6YUJRD | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396949.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00008-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.90331 | 613 | 2.6875 | 3 |
What’s the News: Scientists have discovered a new technique for linking semiconducting tubes with mouse nerve cell tendrils: They let the cells do the work for them. After creating biologically friendly semiconductor tubes, they found that nerve cells’ tendril-like axons didn’t shy away. “They seem to like the tubes,” University of Wisconsin-Madison biomedical engineer Justin Williams told Science News. This represents a step toward new technology involving computer-brain networks.
How the Heck: The trick was to create tubes of layered germanium and silicone (which insulate the nerve’s electrical signals) that were big enough for the nerve cell’s threadlike projections to enter but too small for the cell body: When seeded with live mouse nerve cells, the only way the cells could interact with the tubes was be sending tendrils into it—which is just what they did.
What’s the Context:
- This research builds upon some work done in previous studies, where researchers actively connected nerves to semiconductors.
- Science Not Fiction and 80beats have covered other methods of connecting neurons and electronics.
- Which shouldn’t be confused with the development of a brain-like chip. Or the debate over whether random data can become conscious.
Not So Fast: The researchers don’t yet know whether the connected nerves are actually talking with each other.
Next Up: Now they want to hook the tubes to voltage sensors that can “listen” to the cells communicating with each other. If successful, this could lead to new drug tests where doctors can actually measure how nerve cells respond to certain types of drugs, leading to further innovations in the battle against neurological diseases like Parkinson’s.
Image: Minrui Yu, University of Wisconsin–Madison
Reference: “Semiconductor Nanomembrane Tubes: Three-Dimensional Confinement for Controlled Neurite Outgrowth” Minrui Yu et al. DOI: 10.1021/nn103618d | <urn:uuid:ad22ed1c-82cd-4033-b679-94a66eb1cc18> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/80beats/2011/03/24/nerve-cells-reach-out-and-touch-electronic-components/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00097-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.924376 | 426 | 3.359375 | 3 |
|This article appears in the February 27, 2004 issue of Executive Intelligence Review. For additional articles and a video on José López Portillo, see Commemoration Page.
JOSÉ LÓPEZ PORTILLO (1920-2004)
An Ambitious Plan
by Dennis Small
To Industrialize Mexico
The last time that Mexico saw actual economic growth was under the Presidency of José López Portillo (1976-1982), and his Global Plan for industrial development. His government was committed to technological advance, to using Mexico's oil to trade for technology with the United States and other nations. It was committed to industrialization, to nuclear energy, to city-building; and it was committed to stopping speculation within and against Mexico, and replacing the global system of speculation and free trade with one committed to production and justice. And it imbued the nation with a sense of "can-do" optimism that it has not seen since.
At the end of 1978, the López Portillo Administration stunned the world by announcing enormous new oil finds which instantly converted the country into one of the world's major petroleum powers. Moreover, the President stressed that the oil revenues would be used to industrialize Mexico, and he appealed to the United States and other countries to aid in that process. In its Nov. 28, 1978 issue, EIR ran a cover story entitled "The Oil Giant Next Door," and called for the U.S. government to adopt Lyndon LaRouche's policy of exchanging oil for technology with Mexico, to join their ambitious development effort. That feature noted:
"The head of Pemex [Mexico's national oil company] reported that the first new 100 billion barrel field alone would require drilling 16,000 wells in the next 10 to 13 yearsquadrupling the drilling rate prevailing in Mexico since it nationalized its oil industry in 1938. These oil exploitation requirements, coupled with Mexico's firm commitment to industrialize fully in order to become a nuclear energy-based economy by the 21st Century, will make Mexico one of the world's most dynamic capital-goods importers virtually overnight.... Mexico has laid out detailed plans for vast industrialization based on the steel, petrochemical, capital goods, and nuclear sectors of its economy. In the words of President López Portillo, 'We must begin to construct the cities of the 21st Century.' "
EIR took note of some of the specifics of the López Portillo strategy:
"The commitment of Mexico's leadership is to invest the revenues from its oil boom in multiplying and self-renewing sources of wealth within Mexicothat is, in unprecedented in-depth industrialization.... The industrial boom will make production of capital goods a national priority. Mexico's 'developmentist' (desarrollista) model of the past 30 years, which is now widely repudiated throughout government circles, favored production of consumer goods at the expense of capital goods. Mexico's industrial boom will reverse this emphasis and create a fully integrated, in-depth industrial apparatus for the first time in the nation's history.
"The industrial boom will involve integrated government planning and coordination on a scale never seen before. The oil, electricity, and increasingly the nuclear programs, for instance, will provide the core demand for the capital goods industry. The national gas distribution grid, due to be completed in March 1979, will anchor new industrial centers, with special emphasis on expanding coastal industrial complexes such as the giant Las Truchas steel plant on the Michoacán coast. The need to build ports for the export of the oil is being taken as the spark for fully diversified port-industrial complexes.
"The industrial boom will increasingly shift the nation's energy perspective from oil to the atom. Precisely as the full extent of Mexico's oil potential has been revealed, López Portillo and his top ministers have stressed that a first priority for use of the oil wealth is to guarantee Mexico's advance to the energy perspective stretching beyond oilnuclear fission and fusion."
In his second State of the Union address, delivered on Sept. 1, 1978, President López Portillo underscored the role the capital goods industry would play in the development strategy his government had adopted:
"Effective use of rural manpower, employment opportunities for the growing labor force, and optimum levels of occupation for the economically active population; we must bridge the gap with the development of the steel and capital goods industries, which are the keystones of the process."
On Nov. 16, 1978, López Portillo submitted legislation to the Mexican Congress which provided for a sweeping reorganization of the private banking sector, in order to create a Hamiltonian credit system to meet the country's development needs. In the words of the bill:
"Financing will not be granted exclusively on the basis of collateral, but rather according to the economic viability of the project.... Long-term projects will be given grace and repayment periods in conformity with the nature of the projects."
A Unique Opportunity
In his fourth State of the Union address on Sept. 1, 1980, López Portillo stressed the theme of industrial development:
"By the year 2000 ... if we wish to meet the goals of the Global Plan, we shall be obliged to build at least a whole new Mexico in addition to the present one, the legacy of its entire history. That is the measure of our responsibility....
"Mexico, through a combination of favorable circumstances, has not only overcome the recession, but its economy has expanded as never before in its history. Just as was proposed in the Global Plan, for the second consecutive year, the growth of our economy has reached an unprecedented 8%, thanks to the country's vitality of all its citizens.... There are those who, because of understandable ideological paradoxes or warped intellectualism, question and criticize the economic growth we have achieved, as if it were a crime. Let them stew in their own sick juices....
"We have therefore concentrated our resources and capital goods on the most dynamic and productive strategic activities, such as petroleum, steel, chemicals, petrochemicals, fertilizers, and electricity. The facilities that we are now installing in the petroleum, electric, and steel industries are among the largest in the world....
"We cannot afford to make mistakes today. We will never have another opportunity like this one."
The Administration of José López Portillo did in fact succeed in seizing that historic opportunityall the subsequent lies notwithstanding. According to a detailed EIR study of the physical economy of Mexico over the period 1970-96, as measured in the physical production of market baskets of consumer goods, producer goods, and infrastructure, the real economy of Mexico grew in the six years under López Portillo, by about 15% per capitaincluding the last year of his Administration (1982), which was characterized by vicious international financial warfare against Mexico, which caused a significant downturn in the real economy. These results compare more than favorably with the 11% per-capita real decline under López Portillo's International Monetary Fund-run successor, Miguel De la Madrid. | <urn:uuid:89e2615a-5c72-4d25-9a42-a007758de466> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.larouchepub.com/other/2004/site_packages/jlp_death/3108jlp_indust_plan.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00131-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949486 | 1,454 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Religious traditions among Berbers. The traditions are today largely replaced by Islam, but many Berber cults still exists in one shape or another among a substantial minority among Berbers. Especially in Algeria, older cults survive to varying extents.
Berber religion has the structure of polytheism, although never formalized beyond local cults. Berbers could adhere to one of a few of the several gods of the Berber pantheon.
God of war, represented by a head of bull at the Luwata nomads. This same god is taken by Dihya in her battles against the Arabs.
God of unclear capacities. The name is from Edder, meaning "to live", and a variation of the name is Baliddir, meaning "the alive God". The latter is constructed fomr the Phoenician word Baal, meaning "god" or "lord".
Male god of the rain at Berghwata, Morocco.
Male god synonymous with rainwater. Related to the Tuareg god, Illu.
Male god influenced by Punic religon.
Ifru; Ifri; Africa
Goddess related to qualities of regulating, solving and sorting. She was included in the Roman pantheon.
God among the Amazigh, related to Punic religion.
War god among the Luwata.
Among other Berber gods are: Nabel; Suggan; Tililwa; Warsisima; Warsutima; Wihinam; Yam; Yukus; Yunan; Yur. | <urn:uuid:ffb5cd57-fdc3-4caf-a858-2fda651d3fa5> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://i-cias.com/e.o/berber.religion.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00006-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.921136 | 322 | 2.984375 | 3 |
Redirected from Cnidarian
The cnidarian body is radially symmetric and diploblastic - that is, composed of two layers of tissues, which are not differentiated into organs. These are called the ectoderm and endoderm, and are separated by a gelatinous layer called the mesoglea which contains only a few scattered cells. There is a single opening to the digestive chamber that acts as both a mouth and an anus, usually surrounded by stinging tentacles. The ability to sting is in fact what gives the group its name (Greek cnidos, nettle) and is caused by unique cells called cnidocysts which are capable of ejecting barbed hooks tipped with poison.
There are four main classes of Cnidaria:
Traditionally the hydrozoans were considered to be the most primitive, but evidence now suggests the anthozoans were actually the earliest to diverge. In these the organism is benthic or sessile, with its mouth directed upwards. This form is called a polyp. Hydrozoa have life-cycles that alternate between asexual polyps and sexual medusae, free-swimming forms where the mouth is on the bottom. The Cubozoa and Scyphozoa spend their whole lives as medusae.
The Siphonophora[?] deserve special mention. These hydrozoans form colonies which show varying degrees of specialization, so that in extreme cases individuals function essentially as organs of the whole. The Portuguese man-o'-war is probably the best known.
A small group of single-celled parasites, the Myxozoa[?], are now generally believed to be extremely reduced cnidarians. These are characterized by a stinging thread akin to that of the cnidocysts, which is used to attach themselves to their host, either a fish or some other cold-blooded vertebrate. Their exact placement within the phylum is unknown. Also, the extinct Conulariida[?] may or may not be members of this phylum. | <urn:uuid:52f02140-f7df-4371-abf6-31e6a82159cb> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://encyclopedia.kids.net.au/page/cn/Cnidarian | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398209.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00139-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966349 | 429 | 3.25 | 3 |
Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
Developmental Psychology: Cognitive development · Development of the self · Emotional development · Language development · Moral development · Perceptual development · Personality development · Psychosocial development · Social development · Developmental measures
Centration is the tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect others. A term introduced by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980) to refer to the tendency of young children to focus attention on only one salient aspect of an object, situation, or problem at a time, to the exclusion of other potentially relevant aspects.
A classic example is provided by an experiment first described by Piaget in 1941 in The Child's Conception of Number in which a child watches while a number of objects are set out in a row and then moved closer together, and the child is asked whether there are now more objects, fewer objects, or the same number of objects. Most children in the pre-operational stage of development focus on the relative lengths of the rows without taking into account their relative densities or the fact that nothing has been added or taken away, and conclude that there are fewer objects than before.
Piaget, J (1941). The Child's Conception of Number. | <urn:uuid:a7e9d614-fa0d-4ae1-a74e-27e5408ac870> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Centration | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00009-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.900636 | 270 | 3.328125 | 3 |
The new Tek Robotic Mobilization Device is designed to help people who have lost the use of their legs to stand up and move around in an upright position with seemingly little effort.
With the help of a pressurized spring similar to ones found in office chairs and car hatchbacks, users can move their bodies into the Tek device's upright frame and, once standing, navigate the device using a joystick.
Necati Hacikadiroglu, the device's inventor who specializes in robotics, said it was designed to give paraplegics independence they can't get from a wheelchair. It even comes with a remote control.
"Paraplegic people don't like to be attached to any device or a wheelchair all day long," he said. "The user can get on to the device all by himself so that he doesn't need any outside help."
Many of us may take our ability to stand for granted, but the position is actually important for health. Being confined to a seated position increases the risk of blood clots, blood pressure abnormalities and kidney and urinary problems. Dr. Peter Gorman, chief of rehabilitation medicine at Kernan Orthopedic and Rehabilitation Hospital in Baltimore, said paraplegics often lose bone mass in their legs, which puts them at a greater risk of fractures.
As important are the psychological benefits of standing along with everyone else.
"Just being at eye level with people is a human desire," Gorman said.
David Blackburn, a psychologist who works with physical rehabilitation patients at Scott and White Hospital in Temple, Texas, said giving paraplegics the same independence as their able-bodied peers vastly improves their quality of life. But he said no device is likely to fix feelings of loss and frustration for people who suddenly lose the use of their legs.
"The problem that needs to be overcome is the acceptance of their condition," Blackburn said. "But if you have a device or tool, anything that can help normalize a person's life, especially with regard to mobility, that will help them a lot."
On its website, manufacturer AMS Mekatronik, a research and development company in Istanbul, Turkey, touts the device's compact frame and the fact that paraplegics can mount it easily, unlike a wheelchair, which requires a person to essentially throw their body onto it.
Gorman said there are standing wheelchairs and other robotic devices that can keep paraplegics in an upright position. But their frames are in the back, meaning paraplegics need assistance getting in or out of them.
"The frame in the front is a unique innovation. You can get into this thing without too much hassle," Gorman said.
Hacikadiroglu said each device is custom-made according to a person's height and weight. It's designed mainly for indoor use. But at a cost of $15,000, most people probably wouldn't risk taking it for a spin in the great outdoors. | <urn:uuid:4686f80b-de71-4d5c-aaa9-44891faf474c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/health/2012/03/22/robotic-device-helps-paraplegics-stand-tall/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97378 | 604 | 2.90625 | 3 |
As I’ve been interviewing screenwriters, I typically ask what some of their influences are. One book title comes up over and over again: Aristotle’s “Poetics”. I confess I’ve never read the entire thing, only bits and pieces. So I thought, why not do a weekly series with a post each Sunday to provide a structure to compel me to go through it. That way we’d all benefit from the process.
For background on Aristotle, you can go here to see an article on him in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
To download “Poetics,” you can go here.
Part 8: Unity
Unity of plot does not, as some persons think, consist in the unity
of the hero. For infinitely various are the incidents in one man’s
life which cannot be reduced to unity; and so, too, there are many
actions of one man out of which we cannot make one action. Hence the
error, as it appears, of all poets who have composed a Heracleid,
a Theseid, or other poems of the kind. They imagine that as Heracles
was one man, the story of Heracles must also be a unity. But Homer,
as in all else he is of surpassing merit, here too- whether from art
or natural genius- seems to have happily discerned the truth. In composing
the Odyssey he did not include all the adventures of Odysseus- such
as his wound on Parnassus, or his feigned madness at the mustering
of the host- incidents between which there was no necessary or probable
connection: but he made the Odyssey, and likewise the Iliad, to center
round an action that in our sense of the word is one. As therefore,
in the other imitative arts, the imitation is one when the object
imitated is one, so the plot, being an imitation of an action, must
imitate one action and that a whole, the structural union of the parts
being such that, if any one of them is displaced or removed, the whole
will be disjointed and disturbed. For a thing whose presence or absence
makes no visible difference, is not an organic part of the whole.
Well! We are clearly into some substantial ideas here, ones that relate to the very essence of ‘story’. Let me cull out some key parts:
* As therefore, in the other imitative arts, the imitation is one when the object imitated is one, so the plot, being an imitation of an action, must imitate one action… We must not assume that unity derives from a character, assuming that since they are a single individual, the narrative arising from them will be somehow unified. No, characters, reflecting as they do the lives of human beings, have multiple aspects to their persona, experience, personal history, and so forth. Rather unity derives from “one action” and the imitation of it as represented in a plot.
An obvious question to an outsider living in the modern age [read: me] is this: What does Aristotle mean by the term action? On the one hand, it reads like an inciting incident that sets into motion a plot, and I would assume that he means only one plot is possible to derive from that initial action. But doesn’t that depend upon where the writer stands in relation to the story? If I have typed FADE OUT / THE END, I can look back at the plot and perhaps say, “Yes, this narrative is the only possible way things could have gone.” However if I stand at the front of the plotting process, there are, in fact, an endless number of plot choices I could make. Even if I was to immerse myself in the lives of the characters, the fact is they, too, would have innumerable choices.
So then I’m led to think, by action does Aristotle mean the entire plot of a story? This must be more on target, yes? For again, if I stand at FADE OUT / THE END, I have a vantage point which allows me to see the unity of the plot, having worked out its details.
Of course, Aristotle never had to work with movie studios, producers, and talent who all have ideas about what the plot should be, and frankly how unified can a screenplay be if it is written and rewritten by multiple writers?
* …that a whole, the structural union of the parts being such that, if any one of them is displaced or removed, the whole will be disjointed and disturbed. This all writers ought to be able to understand. Whether we can assess a piece of material from a vaunted perspective of Unity or a more proletariat vantage point whereby this scene leads to that scene which leads to that scene, we get that there is a flow of events that if altered runs the risk of being disrupted and become ‘disunified.’
* For a thing whose presence or absence makes no visible difference, is not an organic part of the whole. We also should be able to grasp this: If a scene or character contributes nothing to the story, it is not an inherently valuable, beneficial, necessary or “organic” part of the whole.
Therefore the whole “unity” angle is something screenwriters know and struggle with in crafting a story. However I want some clarity on precisely what Aristotle means by “action”. Is it the inciting incident? The entire plot? Or does it describe something else?
Inquiring minds want to know. Hopefully our band of intrepid Aristotelians will be able to shed some light on the subject.
A reminder: I am looking at “Poetics” through the lens of screenwriting, what is its relevance to the craft in contemporary times. And I welcome the observations of any Aristotle experts to set me straight as I’m just trying to work my way through this content the best I can.
How about you? What do you take from Part 8 of Aristotle’s “Poetics”?
See you here next Sunday for another installment of this series.
For the entire series, go here. | <urn:uuid:045dd14e-e489-40cb-82c8-dc54f3960c6f> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://gointothestory.blcklst.com/2013/09/studying-aristotles-poetics-part-8-unity.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00125-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959682 | 1,297 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Guide to Japanese Pronunciation
Japanese is not a tonal language like Chinese or Thai, and is comparatively easy to pronounce.
Japanese Pronunciation Vowels
Japanese has both short and long vowels and the distinction is often important. In romanized Japanese, long vowels are marked with a macron, so that ō represents "long O".
- a あ/ア
- like 'a' in "father"
- i い/イ
- like 'i' in "machine"
- u う/ウ
- like 'oo' in "hoop"
- e え/エ
- like 'e' in "set"
- o お/オ
- like 'o' in "rope"
- n ん/ン
- short 'n' at the end of a syllable, pronounced as 'm' before 'b', 'p' or 'm'.
Note that "u" is often weak at the end of syllables. In particular, the common endings -desu and -masu are pronounced as "des'" and "mas'" respectively.
Japanese Pronunciation Consonants
- k かきくけこ
- like 'k' in "king"
- like 'g' in "go"
- like 's' in "sit"
- like 'z' in "haze"
- like 't' in "top"
- like 'd' in "dog"
- like 'n' in "nice"
- like 'h' in "help"
- like 'p' in "pig"
- like 'b' in "bed"
- like 'm' in "mother"
- like 'y' in "yard"
- like 'r' in "row" (actually a sound between 'l' and 'r', but closer to 'r')
- like 'w' in "wall"
- (t before i) like 'ch' in "touch"
- (s before i) like 'sh' in "sheep"
- (t before u) like 'ts' in "hot soup"
- (h before u) like 'f' in "far"
- (d before i) like 'j' in "jar"
IMPROVE YOUR JAPANESE
The best way to improve your Japanese is to use it regularly. The best way to use your Japanese regularly is to talk to native Japanese who are interested in developing their English skills. This way you improve your language skills, help them with their English and make new friends at the same time.
GoJapanGo Friends is the ideal way to find language partners, both male and female. It is great to have friends in Japan so when you travel there, you can meet them and they can show you around. This way you can experience the real Japan that you would normally miss as a tourist.
(Article based on Wikitravel article by Based on work by Paul N. Richter, Keith K. Higa and Ted O'Neill and Wikitravel user(s) Jpatokal, Cjensen, っ, Sekicho, KagakuyaSan, Nickpest, Nzpcmad, Rai koku and PierreAbbat. Article used under Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 1.0.) | <urn:uuid:20a45c89-38a4-4b62-b617-20710cc604fc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gojapango.com/japanese_language/japanese_pronunciation.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00137-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.792201 | 712 | 3.65625 | 4 |
The Black Rhino is no more black, than the White Rhino is white. Alternative names such as the 'browse rhinoceros' and 'grass rhinoceros', or the 'hook-lipped rhinoceros' and 'square-lipped rhinoceros' have been used for black and white respectively. Described by Linnaeus in 1758 as the two-horned rhinoceros, (the only other known species being the Indian one horned), the Black Rhinoceros seems to have absorbed its misleading common name by contrast with the misnamed White Rhinoceros, when that species was discovered.
To this day there remains some uncertainty about whether the two species are different enough to be separated into two distinct genera. There is also disagreement over the number of subspecies of black rhino.
The black rhinoceros is separated from the white by its ecological requirements. As a browser, it is able to colonise areas of rugged hilly terrain where grass is scarce, at an altitude of up to 2 700 m (9 000 ft). It will avoid open grassland frequented by the white rhinoceros, and very dense vegetation, preferring the edges of wooded areas. Ideal black rhino habitat is adequate shrubs and young trees up to about 4 m high, including well developed woodland or thicket in which to shelter during the heat of the day. Originally its range covered the southern third of Africa, northwards between the east side of the Rift Valley and the east coast, as well as a band of open woodlands stretching from the Horn of Africa to the west coast, south of the Sahara.
As already mentioned, one of the major differences between the black and white rhinoceroses is the prehensile upper lip of the black rhinoceros: this is used to grasp twigs of the woody plants that they feed off. They also have a shorter head, longer neck, and smaller, rounded ears. The shape of the back is also slightly different, and the black rhino carries its head higher off the ground.
They manoeuvre food into their mouths with the aid of their prehensile upper lip, bite shoots off with their premolar teeth, and grind food with the massive molar teeth. Black rhino feed on an unusually wide variety of species, and they are flexible feeders, as they vary their diet according to availability.
Rhino appear heavy footed when walking, but are very agile when provoked, and can achieve impressive speeds. They can also spin around within their own length. Their sight is poor, but their senses of smell and hearing are acute.
The black rhino feeds on leaves and twigs from a wide variety of shrubs in the acacia woodland community. It will pick up fallen fruits from the ground as well as taking those it can reach from trees. In the Ngorongoro Crater, in Tanzania, black rhino have been known to pick up and eat wildebeest dung when browse was in short supply. Such behaviour might have satisfied the need for minerals and trace elements as well as the use of the sustenance remaining in the droppings.
The black rhino will range freely in the rainy season; during the dry season the rhino will stay within 5 km (3 miles) of permanent water. They require one drink a day and in especially arid conditions, they can dig for water, up to 50 cm (20 in) deep, using their forelegs to excavate the soil.
Like the elephant and the white rhino, black rhinos often take on the colour of the soil on which they live, as they wallow in mud and cover themselves with dust.
Unlike white rhinos, black rhinos tend to be solitary: the only stable bond is that formed between mother and calf, but even that is fairly temporary, lasting only until her next calf is born. Other associations, such as male-female associations or between a number of individuals of the same age, are very transitory. They are not strictly territorial (ie: they do not actively defend territories), but they do tend to remain with a specific home range, which may overlap with the home ranges of other members of the population. The size of their home ranges differ according to sex, age and the type of habitat, with immature animals usually occupying larger areas than adults. The only time they gather in groups is temporarily to wallow: five is the largest party usually seen together, though groups of as many as 13 have been recorded.
Although aggression between bulls is normal, they tend to actively avoid contact: sometimes serious fighting does occur, however, particularly over females in oestrus. Snorting and pawing are the prelude to a series of short charges, which will usually stop about 6 m (20 ft) short of impact. However, during a time of ecological stress in East Tsavo, before the drought in 1960/1, all the rhino were found to be wounded and some were killed in fights. This was evidently abnormal behavior produced by conditions of extreme hardship.
During the day they retire to the shade of thickets to sleep, either standing or lying with their legs curled under them. Black rhinos sometimes sleep lying flat on their sides; a position never adopted by the white rhino.
The black rhino seems to take a particular delight in crashing through cover; unlike the other animals of the bush in that it has no regular predators as an adult, it has no need to move stealthily. Like the white rhino the black rhino sprays urine and dung; it also leaves a scented trail consisting of flakes of mud and pieces of dead skin by rubbing against trees: this helps to communicate its presence, and possibly its identity, to the next rhinoceros who comes along.
Feeding in the morning and evening and sleeping in the heat of the day, the species has become largely nocturnal in most parts of its range. This is most likely the result of natural selection, which has eliminated the more diurnal individuals which were most likely to be shot. Wallowing plays an important part as it helps to lower body temperature, offers protection against biting insects when the mud dries, and helps with 'rhino sores', which are areas of cracked and often inflamed skin which occur most commonly in the hollow behind the elbows of the front legs.
Apart from puffing and snorting, the black rhino has few vocalisations whose function may be guessed at. The sounds made by black rhino are not as varied as those made by the white. Mother and calf communicate with a variety of squeals and when in a panic, the calf will produce a loud and penetrating squeal which will bring the males within a kilometer to investigate. Fighting adults grunt and scream at each other and upon approaching a waterhole already occupied by wallowers, they puff and gasp as a warning of their presence, in order to avoid conflict.
The most frequent signals used by the black rhinoceros are based on scent. Urine spraying is very common and bushes, clumps of grass, tree stumps and conspicuous stones are all marked regularly. Females spray when they are in oestrus but their spraying is undirected.
Use of dung as a means of signaling, is similar in both species of rhinoceros. Black rhino use communal dung heaps beside their regular tracks through the bush and, in places frequented by black and white rhino, the heaps are used by both species. The male will defaecate, stand in the faeces with his hind feet and then scrape them on his back legs so as to leave an imprint of his identity for a considerable distance on his trail. This serves very much the same purpose as urine spraying, for the benefit of later passers by.
Scenting the area in both ways provides passers by with a constantly updated record of the population present as well as the sexual condition of the females.
Black rhinos breed at any time of year. When a cow is in oestrus the bull approaches carefully, and they then spar with their front horns or nudge each other with the sides of their heads. Although most females respond violently to the male's first approaches, and she may attack him occassionally, no serious or vicious fighting takes place during courtship. In a recognisable group, it was found that one cow was courted, if not mounted, by three different bulls in eleven days. Mating lasts for 20 to 35 minutes at a time, several times a day. The first successful captive birth recorded dates back to 1941, in Brookfield Zoo, Chicago.
Gestation is between
446 and 548 days: the average seems to be 460 days or about 15 months.
Females breed only every two to five years because of the time required
to rear the calf. The newborn calf weighs between
Unlike the white rhinoceros, black rhino calves walk behing their mothers. As they grow older they have to lie down to suckle: they usually suckle for about a year. The mother and calf communicate with each other via vocalizations, and the mother will defend her calf vigourously, even from lions. Calves are rejected by their mothers when they are between 2 and 4 years of age, either when the mother is pregnant, or immediately after the birth of her new calf.
Black rhino are usually fully grown at about seven years of age and they reach sexual maturity at about six. Their life expectancy is not accurately known, but black rhino are said to live for up to 40 years; this figure has been estimated by some to be closer to 50 or 60 years .
"Rhino sores" are skin lesions caused by a filaria parasite - in visiting communal dung heaps along their trails, the rhinoceros pass the infection around the population: almost every individual has been infected by a small filariform worm called Stephanofilaria dinniki. The five other species of this genus of worm are all parasites of cattle: the intermediate host is a biting fly which breeds in dung. The sores are inflamed, often septic, patches of skin as much as 20 cm (8 in) in diameter.
Ticks, (over 20 species have been identified feeding on black rhino, some of them specific to rhino, while others are parasites on elephant too), provide a regular food supply for oxpeckers, a bird related to starlings. The birds not only remove the parasites; they also cause the rhinoceros some discomfort by sticking their sharp beaks into ears and nostrils and pecking at any open wounds or sores. Internally, the black rhino suffers bot-flies, whose larvae lives in the stomach, as well as several species of tapeworm.
With regard to predators, the black rhino has few. Lions have been known to cause fatalities amongst adults and they will take a calf if they are able to separate it from its mother, but the mothers defensive behaviour ensures that this event is infrequent. A far more serious threat is the spotted hyaena, which preys on rhino calves. Although lions and spotted hyaenas do attack fully grown rhinoceroses, the rhinos usually emerge the victor. There are several accounts of elephant killing rhino and although bull elephant will tolerate them, the female elephant simply cannot stand their presence: rhinos will normally give way to elephants, although aggressive encounters between elephant, rhinos and buffaloes have been witnessed at waterholes during drought conditions. Adult rhino exhibit no fear of the larger predators, and usually ignore other mammals.
The chief factor which makes the black rhino more dangerous than the white, is its habitat. It is more likely to be taken by surprise in thick bush than the white rhino in open grassland, and is able to charge at up to 50 km (30 miles) per hour, and attack and obliterate any identified object with its horn. People on foot in the bush are extremely vulnerable and many cars have been severely damaged by startled animals. In addition to habitat differences, the black rhino is known to be more wary, more temperamental, and more aggressive than the white rhino.
The greatest enemy of the black rhinoceros is mankind. Because its favoured habitat is fertile and well watered, it has come into conflict with humans long before the arrival of Europeans in Africa. Its uncertain behaviour made it an alarming neighbour to cattle-herders and its feeding habits did not coincide well with crop farmers. The demand for land for settlement is increasing and with it the call for control or the elimination of all rhinoceroses. The black rhino is endangered, but increased protection and anti-poaching measured have saved it from extinction. A total of 185 black rhinoceroses have been translocated from KwaZulu-Natal reserves. | <urn:uuid:0afb082a-1aa4-4c2e-a07c-ac65b375be93> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://home.intekom.com/ecotravel/Guides/Wildlife/Vertebrates/Mammals/Big_5/Rhino/Black_Rhino_Information.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397864.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00019-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.970943 | 2,666 | 3.578125 | 4 |
General Energy Saving Tips
- Install a programmable thermostat that is compatible with your heating and cooling system.
- Preprogramming your thermostat from 72° to 65° for eight hours a day while no one is home, or while everyone is tucked in bed, will cut your heating bill up to 10%.
- Use compact fluorescent light bulbs.
- If every US household replaced just one incandescent bulb with an ENERGY STAR qualified fluorescent bulb, it would save enough energy to light 7 million homes and save $600 million in utility bills.
- Air dry dishes instead of using the dishwasher's dry cycle.
- Turn off the computer and monitor when not in use.
- Plug in home electronics, such as TVs and DVD players, into power strips; Turn the power strip off when the equipment is not in use.
- The average home has 2 televisions, a VCR, a DVD player and 3 telephones. If these items were replaced with ENERGY STAR qualified models, it would save more than 25 billion pounds of greenhouse gas emissions, the equivalent of taking 3 million cars off the road for a year.
- Set your water heater thermostat at 120° (or "low").
- It's hot enough for most needs - including dishwashers, which are generally made with booster heaters - and it cuts down on energy needed to keep water hot in the tank. Lowering your water heater temperature setting from 140 F to 120 F can reduce your water heating energy bill by over 10%.
- Take short showers instead of baths.
- About 15%t of an average home energy bill goes to heating water. To save hot water, take five-minute showers instead of baths. Use cold water for laundry and save up to $63 a year – detergents formulated for cold water get clothes just as clean.
- Wash only full loads of laundry and clothes.
- Look for the ENERGY STAR label on your home appliances and products.
- Households that replace existing equipment with ENERGY STAR qualified products can cut annual energy bills by 30%, or more than $500 per year.
- Check for holes or cracks around your walls, ceilings, windows, doors, light and plumbing fixtures, switches, and electrical outlets that can leak air in and out of your home.
- Look for ways to use lighting controls, such as occupancy sensors, dimmers, or timers-to reduce lighting energy use.
- Properly caulking and weatherstripping your doors and windows can reduce heating and air conditioning usage by 10% to 20%.
- Weatherstrip your attic access door and insulate this door by attaching foam insulation or fiberglass batting to the back.
- Adequate insulation in your attic, ceilings, exterior and basement walls, floors, and crawlspaces, can save you up to 25% on home energy bills.
- Clean warm-air registers, baseboard heaters, and radiators as needed; make sure furniture, carpeting, or drapes do not block them.
- Glass fireplace doors help stop heat from being lost up the chimney. Also, close the fireplace damper when not in use.
- Replacing an old refrigerator (18 years or older) with a new unit reduces electric usage by at least 35%. Because they are more efficient than standard models, ENERGY STAR units will lower refrigeration energy usage even more - by over 45%.
- If your home has only single pane windows, consider replacing them with low-e coated or ENERGY STAR windows. Alternatively, storm windows can reduce your winter heat loss by 25%–50%. As an alternative, you can improve your windows temporarily with plastic sheeting installed on the inside.
- Have your heating system tuned and cleaned yearly for best efficiency. Fuel savings can range from 5% to 10%. For additional savings, clean or replace air filters in your forced air heating system once a month or as needed. An ENERGY STAR qualified furnace will use about 15% less energy than a standard model.
- Trees that lose their leaves in the fall give protection from the summer sun and permit winter sunlight to reach and warm your home. Plant trees on the south, east, and/or west sides of your home. Be sure to shade the AC unit. Create a windbreak with evergreen trees and shrubs to stop chilling wind.
- Improve your mechanical systems. Up to half of your energy bill goes just for heating and cooling.
- Improve your windows. Efficient windows can lower your heating and cooling bills up to 30%.
- Improve your appliances & electronics. Appliances account for about 20% of household energy use.
- Weatherize & insulate. Save up to 20% of your heating and cooling costs with proper weatherization and insulation.
- Landscape. You could save $100-$250 each year.
NH Office of Energy and Planning
Governor Hugh J. Gallen State Office Park
Johnson Hall, 3rd Floor | 107 Pleasant Street | Concord, NH 03301
(603) 271-2155 | fax: (603) 271-2615 | <urn:uuid:ff992f37-7550-46d7-96b3-4cffc12c9fbc> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nh.gov/oep/energy/saving-energy/conservation/energy-tips.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00093-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.904884 | 1,061 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Another type of mare basalt, this moon rock is of a particular type called KREEP. Such rocks are rich in potassium (represented by K in the periodic table of elements), rare earth elements (REE) and phosphorous (P). As the magma ocean solidified, these KREEP components remained in the molten portion, becoming more concentrated. This heavier KREEP magma sank to the lower crust, where it solidified, until it was melted by rising basalt lava.
Keywords: Meteorites, Astrophysics, Rare earth metals, Potassium, Basalt, Magmas, Astrogeology, Lunar geology, Phosphorus | <urn:uuid:c17ea1ed-9501-401d-8b42-e1d326c6da71> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/permanent-exhibitions/earth-and-planetary-sciences-halls/arthur-ross-hall-of-meteorites/meteorite-impacts/on-the-moon/kreep-basalt | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00098-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.823299 | 136 | 3.328125 | 3 |
The (St.) Urban Tower (Slovak: Urbanova vea) in Koice, Slovakia is originally a Gothic prismatic campanile with a pyramidal roof. It was erected in the 14th century.
A church bell installed in the tower has been dedicated to Saint Urban, the patron of vine-dressers. The bell was cast in a mould by the bell-founder Franciscus Illenfeld of Olomouc in 1557. Its weight is 7 tones.
In 1775 the pyramidal roof was constructed with annion in the Baroque style with an iron double cross. An archade passage was erected around the tower in 1912. There are 36 old gravestones (coming from the 14th and 15th centuries, one of these comes from the Roman Empire and dates back to the 4th century) bricked into the exterior walls of the St. Urban Tower.
In 1966 the tower was damaged by fire and the St. Urban Bell was destroyed as well. The reconstructed tower was reopened in 1971. The renovated bell was located in the front of the tower and a copy of the bell (made by Moravian family Dytrych in 1996) was installed in the campanile.
The East Slovak Museum set up an impressive exhibition of foundrywork in the tower after the reconstruction in 1977. It was removed in 1995. Today, there is a unique wax museum exhibition in the tower.
The city KOICE (population 235,300) on the Hornád river on the western edge of the Koická kotlina basins has a long and agitated history and its present is also dynamic. It has been the most important town of the region for centuries and a natural centre of trade, culture, and education.
The medieval town of Koice was founded approximately on the half way from the Abbey to the castle. The first written mention of its existence is from 1230. In the first historical documents it was referred to as Villa Cassa, later the in Latin Cassovia, German Kaschau, Hungarian Kassa, and the Slovak Koice.
The town citizens acquired important privileges of the royal borough in 1342. The date of 7 May 1369 is especially important for the town because it received, the document of coat of arms signed by the king as the first European town,. Today it is celebrated as the Day of Koice. In the 15th century Koice with its 7 thousand inhabitants became the second biggest town of the Kingdom of Hungary following Buda and Bratislava.
The 20th century has dramatically changed the town of Koice although the motifs were mostly political. The town was included in the new state formations: on the last day of 1918 it was included in the newly formed Czechoslovak Republic; in 1938 it was annexed by Horthys Hungary for more than six years.
In April 1945 the Czechoslovak Government met for the first time on homeland ground and issued the document known as the Koice Programme of the Government treating the after-war arrangement of the free Republic.
Critiques | Translate
aadilj (18102) 2008-06-09 0:23
This is so well bathed in sunlight. I like the impact and the way the liht highlights the tones and textures of the architecture. Great composition indeed with fine balance
vincz (19113) 2008-06-09 0:25
Very nice color and good balance in the compsotion. I lioke the bell on the floor!
mikolaj_kawa (0) 2008-06-09 0:35
Hello George! Wonderful place. Fantastic tower. Good POV, very good capture. Original work. Well done!
dareco (17134) 2008-06-09 0:39
Beautiful sharp color and lighting! A very pretty scene. I love the architecture. TFS and have a great day!
UnTrained (0) 2008-06-09 1:01
I like the good details on the architecture and the powerful tower directly inside. Good textures, colours and clarity. The composition is well planned with the trees left.
Have a nice week - Ich wünsche Dir eine gute Woche.
Lieben Gruss, Ulf
snunney (98253) 2008-06-09 1:18
A fine composition of this beautiful architecture. The tower is nicely placed in the frame; whilst the whole scene benefits much from the lovely blue sky. I like the contrast between the tower and the news kiosk on the left. Superb colours and clarity.
jlbrthnn (76037) 2008-06-09 1:29
Beautiful image and beautiful story of this church. The photograph of excellent quality is of a high degree of accuracy, and it is a pleasure of seeing it with its imposing bell. Beautiful work.
Have a nice day
Paolo (41222) 2008-06-09 1:43
Amazing view, George, with that giant tower and a colorful composition.
excellent timing, POV and quality too.
AiresSantos (56155) 2008-06-09 1:45
Fine perspective of the St. Urban Tower in Kosice city. Nice colours as ususal and excellent sharpness.
TFS and have a nice week
danos (97431) 2008-06-09 1:54
nice the view of this Gothic prismatic campanile,that is well placed in the frame.I like the vivid colors and the brilliant light of the scene as the sharpness and the clarity too.Informative your note.
Have a nice week,Danos
ChrisJ (113179) 2008-06-09 2:08
Good graphism of the dark tower against the lighter blue sky, with superb colour saturation. Wonderful sharpness & contrast also. Tfs!
carper (96) 2008-06-09 2:29
very beautiful George,
good pov, nice composition and a good contrast, the shot is perfect, good photojob, with my compliments here, have a nice day.
John_F_Kennedy (43665) 2008-06-09 2:52
What excellent light and the colours are perfect. A beautiful image of the very nice architecture. Well done.
paura (47186) 2008-06-09 3:14
Very well compose photo to show this besautiful tower. The exposure settings, as the composition, are great.
asajernigan (21427) 2008-06-09 3:24
This is an excellent shot. Your composition is great with the off center placement of the tower. The lighting and colors are fine with nice sharpness and detail. The great blue sky forms a nice backdrop for the shot.
jjcordier (79297) 2008-06-09 3:40
Quel régal de pouvoir admirer toutes ces superbes photos de cette très belle ville!
TGULUMSER (13252) 2008-06-09 3:46
You captured a nice view with beautiful colors and POV,
kermit350 (9016) 2008-06-09 4:15
Hello George, very good point of view, and especially this beautiful lighting which hold here all my attention, a superb luminosity and very beautiful colors, or the light heats the stone and dopes the colors, the photograph lets appear the small place in all its splendour, with the pretty one details as the small kiosk as well as the vegetable part that you made well include within the framework, it is the copy of the bell which one distinguishes in front of the church, it seems posed for the only pleasure of the photographers, it is of good size just like the weight of 7 tons, one does not move it every day, sincerely ................Hello George, très bon point de vue, et surtout ce bel éclairage qui retiennent ici toute mon attention, une superbe luminosité et de très belles couleurs,
ou la lumière réchauffe la pierre et dope les couleurs, la photo laisse apparaître la petite place dans toute sa splendeur, avec de joli détaille comme le petit kiosque ainsi que la partie végétale que tu as bien fait dinclure dans le cadre, cest la copie de la cloche que lon distingue devant léglise, elle semble posée la pour le seul plaisir des photographes, elle est de bonne taille tout comme le poids de 7 tonnes, on ne la déplace pas tous les jours, bien amicalement
azaf1 (15929) 2008-06-09 5:25
Very detailed note and great compo. I like the strong vivid colors and your POV. The sun light creates beautiful side lines
izmirli (3989) 2008-06-09 7:38
merhaba dear george
excellent interesting church and tower.wonderful light and colours.well done my friend.
jurek1951 (42196) 2008-06-09 7:40
Very beautiful architectural view.Great colours and perspective.Beautiful sky.Well done.
ifanik (21679) 2008-06-09 9:14
Very beautiful place my friend and a very nice photo from you
Beautiful colours and very good note
Photo65Net (43120) 2008-06-09 11:20
A nice architecture catch here.
I like how you caught the size of the tower, in a balanced compo.
capthaddock (28790) 2008-06-09 19:43
Very pretty place and nice light, I like the bell at the bottom.
Graal (102752) 2008-06-09 23:24
an interesting tower and bell from Kosice. Good reportage. I like the colours and composition. Good documental shot. Well done.
clnaef (6289) 2008-06-10 4:48
Joli cadrage qui met bien en évidence la beauté de cette tour.
siolaw (38292) 2008-06-11 2:32
You have found good light, it gave vivid colors. the compo is good with off centering of the tower balanced by the little kiosk. Good quality picture.
- Copyright: George Rumpler (Budapestman) (82620)
- Genre: Places
- Medium: Color
- Date Taken: 2008-03-23
- Categories: Architecture, Artwork
- Camera: Pentax K10D
- Photo Version: Original Version
- Theme(s): Picturesque Kosice [view contributor(s)]
- Date Submitted: 2008-06-09 0:16 | <urn:uuid:567998de-0963-44d2-91c9-046eb477e1ce> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.trekearth.com/gallery/Europe/Slovakia/East/Kosicky/photo904178.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00013-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.849365 | 2,308 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Widely used drugs cause 2,000 deaths each year. Dr Mark Porter urges caution in taking aspirin and ibuprofen
One person in every 15 admitted to hospital ends up there because of a side-effect of his or her medication. According to new research from the University of Dundee, a number of high-risk drugs are repeatedly implicated, with anti-inflammatories prescribed by GPs depressingly high on the list.
The non-steroidal anti-inflammatory family (NSAIDs) includes aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen and diclofenac and is used to treat everything from headaches and minor sprains to back pain and arthritis. Tens of millions of prescriptions are issued every year, and most people benefit tremendously. NSAIDs don’t cause drowsiness or constipation and are excellent at relieving pain | <urn:uuid:45cccf35-d812-414a-a31b-2f01c812adfa> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/health/dr-mark-porter/article3076263.ece | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00041-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.931462 | 173 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Two bison calves were born recently at the Brookfield Zoo.
Two five-year-old females each gave birth to one calf in recent weeks. Leotie had a male calf born May 31, 2014, and Lucy had a female calf born June 6. A 14-year-old bull, named Ron, is the sire of both calves according to zoo officials.
Calves typically weigh 40 to 50 pounds at birth according to the zoo’s website. They are born with a reddish coat, and it takes about 15 weeks for their coat to change to dark brown in color. The calves can stand within about a half-hour of birth, and they can run after just a few hours. They nurse for several months but also begin grazing within a week of being born.
“Some refer to bison as buffalo, which is theoretically inaccurate. True buffalo are native only to Asia and Africa. A member of the bovine family, bison are the largest land animal in North America,” according to the Brookfield Zoo website. | <urn:uuid:094e5b99-9c0c-46d7-a9b0-759074028772> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://wqad.com/2014/06/13/adorable-photos-bison-calves-born-at-zoo-in-illinois/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397842.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00179-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.990331 | 218 | 3 | 3 |
Issue 20 Ruins Winter 2005/06
Along the coastline of northern Italy lie a number of distinctive buildings, constructed during the 1930s to function as holiday hostels for the children of industrial workers who were members of the Fascist Party. This kind of building was called a colonia, which translates literally as “colony,” and its purpose was to promote health and fitness in an atmosphere of sun, sea, and regular exercise. The holidaymakers pledged love and allegiance to Mussolini at daily flag-raising ceremonies. For the purposes of propaganda, there was no higher cause than the nurture of Italy’s children and no better vision than boys and girls at orderly play in spectacular settings of modern architecture amid panoramic views. Two futures were on display here: the modernization of a nation together with its future citizens.
THE FASCIST PROJECT
Despite the lack of consensus about the root causes of Fascism, it articulated itself through a largely coherent corporate identity that ranged from logos to the design of new towns. While most of its slogans and symbols have long since been erased, its remaining architecture—varying in style from theatrical classicism to rationalism to futurism—is still recognizable as Fascist. Most common is a stripped-down classicism that recalls De Chirico’s “Piazze d’Italia” paintings, where all architectural form is simplified into disconcerting and faintly menacing scenography.
The ideology was intended to manage the population through the production of belief, a technique most effective in the young—Mussolini’s most famous slogan, “Credere, Ubbidire, Combattere,”(”Believe, Obey, Fight”) was posted in every classroom. The Opera Nazionale Balilla (founded in 1926) absorbed and unified all various youth groups into a single cohesive entity and offered Balilla Youth between the ages of eight and fourteen after-school activities including sports, gymnastics, military drills with dummy rifles, and excursions to holiday colonies by the sea or in the mountains.
Idyllic spaces and panoramic views coincided with obedience, effort, and militarism. Comradeship was instilled in the Balilla Youth—who played, ate, slept, and marched together—in an attempt to dislodge older allegiances to place, church, and family.1 Leisure time was being colonized with a view to regulating both consciousness and space.2 Everyone was to be trained in the ways of Fascism, preparing them for a world of work, war, and mass culture.
MODERNITY AND THE COLONIA
Some of the colonies were indeed designed to look nautical, through the use of portholes, decks, and streamlined profiles. A colony at Chiavari looks like a thirteen-story conning tower, while the Novarese colony (built in 1934 in just over four months) appears like a cross between a warship and a modern sphinx. “Le Navi,” designed by Clemente Busiri Vici and built in 1932, is the most explicit example of the nautical style to be found in Europe, certainly in the 1930s: four dormitory wings (only two now remain) in the shape of futuristic ships are drawn up on the sand, arranged around a central block that houses offices and a refectory.
Some of the buildings display futurist themes of dynamism either through their streamlined form or through actual dynamic elements that would be activated by the movement of children through them: the Novarese colony had two semi-spiral ramps at each end which acted like turbines as they “flushed” children from the dormitory floors and “siphoned” them up again at the day’s end. The Costanzo Ciano colony features a skeletal bridge carrying two ramps in an X configuration which made a spectacle of the movements of its inmates and ensured an impressive and photogenic scene when used for mass gymnastic displays. Despite its somewhat spectral and austere classicism, typical of late Fascist architecture, the ramp-bridge is also futurist in its triplane-like appearance. It recalls the stage-set for the musical number in Gold Diggers of 1933, “Remember My Forgotten Man,” choreographed by Busby Berkeley.3
Clearly, the intention was to integrate the theme of play into material form and to signal a distinct function that was essentially without architectural precedent. Another, no less significant, purpose of the colony was to provide a memorable and glamorous experience for the children, one that was in stark contrast to their humdrum everyday existence. The colonies were seen as instruments of modernity, not just through the socialized, robust, and disciplined lifestyle they offered, but also through their power to transform the very nature of their users. As the Italian architect Mario Labò wrote in 1942:Everything in [the colonies], from their abstract lines and volumes to their ground plans, which trace the itineraries of life in common … everything combines – canteen and washrooms, dormitory and gymnasium—to make up the plastic form and visual image with which, for ever, these children will identify the memories of periods spent in school colonies…. They will be stimulated for the first time to appreciate architectural form seen not just from the outside, but adopted for living within.”4
In the process, a new malleable citizen was supposed to emerge, conditioned to the transience of modernity and purged of traditional, vernacular tastes and habits.5
The war, which scarred many of these holiday resorts, saw some transformed into temporary barracks, hospitals, and stores; later, scavengers and vandals damaged these too. Whereas old ruins are usually photogenic—full of melancholy and absence—these modern ruins evoke a sense of failure, violence, and indifference. (As Nikolaus Pevsner points out, “Concrete structures, with walls designed to be rendered white, make bad ruins.”6) Ironically, many still operate as hostels, though the military-style dormitories have been subdivided for greater privacy. Some of the hostels operate in view of other, now-derelict colonies. In one example, these juxtapositions are combined in the same structure: the “Rosa Maltoni” colony, originally co-owned by rail and postal workers, survives, one half restored, one half disused.
Mark Sanderson is an architectural photographer and a senior lecturer in Visual Theory at University College for the Creative Arts at Maidstone. His current research is on Italian holiday resorts for children during the Fascist era and his architectural photography has been published in numerous European architecture and interior design magazines.
Cabinet is published by Immaterial Incorporated, a non-profit 501(c)(3) organization. Cabinet receives generous support from the Lambent Foundation, the Orphiflamme Foundation, the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, the Opaline Fund, the New York City Department of Cultural Affairs, the National Endowment for the Arts, the New York State Council on the Arts, the Danielson Foundation, the Katchadourian Family Foundation, and many individuals. All our events are free, the entire content of our many sold-out issues are on our site for free, and we offer our magazine and books at prices that are considerably below cost. Please consider supporting our work by making a tax-deductible donation by visiting here.
© 2006 Cabinet Magazine | <urn:uuid:20003761-1a61-4018-a7bd-12fab915acff> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://cabinetmagazine.org/issues/20/sanderson.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392527.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00053-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958954 | 1,559 | 3.125 | 3 |
The most recent addition to RUSP is CCHD.1 Congenital heart disease occurs in approximately eight in every 1,000 live births. Of these cases, approximately one quarter are considered to be CCHD, defined as requiring cardiac surgery or catheterization before age 1 year.4 Left undetected, infants with CCHD are at risk for the development of serious complications (e.g., end-organ damage, motor function impairments, and cognitive impairments) within the first few days or weeks of life. The seven CCHDs that are primary targets for screening are hypoplastic left heart syndrome, pulmonary atresia (with intact septum), transposition of the great arteries, truncus arteriosus, tricuspid atresia, tetralogy of Fallot, and total anomalous pulmonary venous return.4 In September 2010, SACHDNC recommended that screening for CCHD by pulse oximetry be included in RUSP. This recommendation was endorsed by the HHS Secretary in September 2011.1 Screening for CCHD is a point-of-care test that will occur in hospitals before an infant's discharge from the nursery, with results entered into the hospital medical record. State birth defects surveillance programs often draw from hospital medical records; therefore, these programs could assist in tracking and evaluating screening outcomes. Most state surveillance programs already collect data to calculate CCHD prevalence; however, differences exist across states in resources and case ascertainment methodologies that might affect how state programs can provide assistance with the implementation and evaluation of CCHD screening and follow-up. | <urn:uuid:53eb972e-9b87-4ffd-a65f-2be5faa9b595> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1486847 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944063 | 332 | 2.671875 | 3 |
I am trying to make a c++ program to list all possible combinations for a 4x4 sudoku square. This is how a 4x4 sudoku works (if you don't already know),
You have 16 numbers that make a square, each one is a different number 1-16. All numbers in row, column, and diagonal have to add up to 34, and the 4 squares have to add up to 34. Example:
1 4 14 15
13 16 2 3
8 5 11 10
12 9 7 6
So I'm trying to make a program that will find all the possible combinations, store them in a multidimensional array, and then print out a few of them to make sure it works.
Does anybody have any tips for me on how I could accomplish this? Or has anybody made/could make a program that already does this that I could look off of and learn from?
Thanks a lot. | <urn:uuid:8906dff4-9c65-4229-8df8-2c5089e64c1c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://cboard.cprogramming.com/cplusplus-programming/112407-sudoku-4-4-combination-lister.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00006-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955332 | 195 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Hahn, Chang S. and Lustig, Shlomo and Strauss, Ellen G. and Strauss, James H. (1988) Western Equine Encephalitis Virus is a Recombinant Virus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 85 (16). pp. 5997-6001. ISSN 0027-8424. PMCID PMC281892. http://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechAUTHORS:HAHpnas88
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The alphaviruses are a group of 26 mosquitoborne viruses that cause a variety of human diseases. Many of the New World alphaviruses cause encephalitis, whereas the Old World viruses more typically cause fever, rash, and arthralgia. The genome is a single-stranded nonsegmented RNA molecule of + polarity; it is about 11,700 nucleotides in length. Several alphavirus genomes have been sequenced in whole or in part, and these sequences demonstrate that alphaviruses have descended from a common ancestor by divergent evolution. We have now obtained the sequence of the 3'-terminal 4288 nucleotides of the RNA of the New World Alphavirus western equine encephalitis virus (WEEV). Comparisons of the nucleotide and amino acid sequences of WEEV with those of other alphaviruses clearly show that WEEV is recombinant. The sequences of the capsid protein and of the (untranslated) 3'-terminal 80 nucleotides of WEEV are closely related to the corresponding sequences of the New World Alphavirus eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV), whereas the sequences of glycoproteins E2 and E1 of WEEV are more closely related to those of an Old World virus, Sindbis virus. Thus, WEEV appears to have arisen by recombination between an EEEV-like virus and a Sindbis-like virus to give rise to a new virus with the encephalogenic properties of EEEV but the antigenic specificity of Sindbis virus. There has been speculation that recombination might play an important role in the evolution of RNA viruses. The current finding that a widespread and successful RNA virus is recombinant provides support for such an hypothesis.
|Additional Information:||Copyright © 1988 by the National Academy of Sciences Communicated by James Bonner, April 14, 1988 We thank Drs. M. Stanley and J. Hardy for the WEEV RNA used in this project. This work was supported by Grants A120612 and A110793 from the National Institutes of Health and Grant DMB86-17372 from the National Science Foundation. The sequence reported in this paper is being deposited in the EMBL/GenBank data base (IntelliGenetics, Mountain View, CA, and Eur. Mol. Biol. Lab., Heidelberg) (accession no. J03854). The publication costs of this article were defrayed in part by page charge payment. This article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. §1734 solely to indicate this fact.|
|Subject Keywords:||RNA recombination; Alphavirus; evolution of RNA viruses|
|PubMed Central ID:||PMC281892|
|Usage Policy:||No commercial reproduction, distribution, display or performance rights in this work are provided.|
|Deposited By:||Archive Administrator|
|Deposited On:||12 Sep 2006|
|Last Modified:||15 Dec 2015 22:29|
Repository Staff Only: item control page | <urn:uuid:4abcdc24-ed66-4bf2-95a1-b342ddc7895b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://authors.library.caltech.edu/4912/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402699.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00100-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.843993 | 810 | 2.546875 | 3 |
What is the Largest Whale? A Cetacea Size Comparison Chart.
How do right whales size up? North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) are big, but they're not the biggest whales. That distinction goes to the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus), the largest animal on Earth. The orca's size of up to 31 feet (9.4 meters) makes it the largest dolphin. The sperm whale, on the other hand, may not be the biggest whale, but it has the biggest brain to have ever existed on Earth. A comparison chart of whale sizes helps put it all in perspective! | <urn:uuid:a39e6991-f9df-44bd-969c-3115f0770860> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-photos/what-largest-whale-cetacea-size-comparison-chart | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00120-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.900177 | 134 | 3.703125 | 4 |
Although tennis and other physical activities are usually considered
excellent forms of stress relief, the serious competitive athlete often
experiences stress similar to an ambitious corporate executive or overworked
waitress. Too much stress can wreak havok on your mind and body. The
bottom line is a less pleasant experience, impaired performance, or even
potential health problems. This month, the spotlight is on learning to cope
with stress through relaxation.
Players who shine in practice often crumble in tournaments because they
manage stress poorly. Although an optimal arousal level must be maintained
for peak performance (See my September 1995 article on Optimizing Arousal in Tennis),
prolonged and excessive arousal is rarely positive. Failing to prepare for
stress is as unacceptable as forgetting to bring spare rackets to the match!
Still, many players never invest in stress busting tools.
There are as many relaxation programs on the market as there are diets.
Most involve some combination of deep breathing, pleasant imagery, and
muscular movements. I'll touch briefly on Progressive Muscle Relaxation
(PMR), the "gold standard" of relaxation techniques, developed in the 1930's
and aptly used to defeat a variety of physical and psychological ailments.
PMR, and its many varients, is used to help athletes prepare for competition
as well as to relax during play.
PMR trains the individual to identify the relative contrast between muscular
tension and the opposite sensation of complete calmness. By progressively
tensing various muscles and muscle groups for several seconds and completely
releasing and relaxing, the individual gradually learns to induce relaxation
on demand in periods of high stress. Recognition of the contrast between
tension and calmness is fundamental to the success of PMR.
There are two basic spinoffs of PMR that I'll recommend for tennis players.
The first involves a pre-match relaxation routine whereas the second helps
in coping with stress in the heat of battle. A warning ... these methods
will only work if regularly practiced and perfected. I'll outline them
briefly, but remember there is no substitute for the guidance of a qualified
sport psychologist in helping meet your individual needs.
10 Minute Pre-Match Routine
O.K., the big match is upon you. Before the warm-up, find a quiet place
and comfortable sitting position. Relax totally with eyes slightly closed.
Inhale for about 6 seconds deeply and slowly, then exhale for about 10
seconds. Continue this breathing pattern throughout the routine.
While inhaling, tense a muscle group and hold it tight for the duration of
the inhalation. Totally relase all tension upon exhalation. Study,
interpret, and examine the contrast between these two sensations (tension
and relaxation). Spend about two minutes for muscle groups in each major
region of the body (upper, middle, and lower). Vary the exact muscles used
as you see fit ... but focus on the difference between unpleasant and tight
tension, and its opposite, total calmness.
Now that your awareness of relaxing sensations is heightened, visualize
yourself performing to perfection (For help with this, see my August 1995 article on The Essence of Imagery in Tennis). After you are finished, stretch out and fire
yourself up for a great perfomance.
On Court Routine
Now you are deep in the heat of a match and feel that stress is intruding:
- Accept that you are "stressed" but re-interpret the sensations as normal
and exciting consequences of caring.
- In between points, breath deeply and slowly while tensing those muscles
that have been most affected by the stress (often shoulder muscles).
As before, release the tension immediately upon slow exhalation.
- Recall your pre-match routine (the pleasant sensations elicited by the
procedure) and image your next point to perfection.
Now your mental equipment includes two very simple means of coping with
stress in tennis (and other situations as well). Remember to practice these
techniques often for them to work. There are countless programs for
managing stress ... are you using only one?
Keep me informed of your favorite ways of overcoming stress and I'll see you
next month ... | <urn:uuid:4ecba261-01b5-4fe9-b5f5-d1d70ab706b0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://tennisserver.com/mental-equipment/me_97_7.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00006-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937413 | 888 | 2.546875 | 3 |
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Too Young for Treatment?
"What’s the youngest age at which a child can be diagnosed with and treated for ADHD? Like his older siblings, who have been diagnosed with the disorder, my three-year-old is hyperactive, and I worry about his safety."
It’s unusual for a child to be diagnosed before the age of five. But since your son is showing signs of ADHD (and considering the strong family history), there’s no need to wait. Have the doctor who diagnosed your other children evaluate your three-year-old, and ask about starting medication. The latest research from the National Institute of Mental Health shows that, at the appropriate dosage, stimulants are safe and effective even for preschoolers.
For more on this research and on treating preschoolers with ADHD, see
Larry Silver, M.D., is the author of Dr. Larry Silver's Advice to Parents on AD/HD and The Misunderstood Child: Understanding and Coping with Your Child's Learning Disabilities. He is also a clinical professor of psychiatry at Georgetown Medical Center in Washington, D.C. | <urn:uuid:b893c332-2177-47f7-8561-67751dd63a47> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.additudemag.com/q&a/ask_the_add_medical_expert/1721.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00111-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.840053 | 470 | 2.625 | 3 |
perjury (pûrˈjərē) [key], in criminal law, the act of willfully and knowingly stating a falsehood under oath or under affirmation in judicial or administrative proceedings. If the person accused of perjury had any probable cause for his belief that the statement he made was true, then he is not guilty of perjury. In U.S. federal law, and in most states, a false statement must be material to a point of inquiry in order to constitute perjury. Perjury is a crime and may be punished by fine or imprisonment. One can retract false testimony in the course of a criminal procedure without committing perjury. The crime of inducing another person to commit perjury is called subornation of perjury.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:135381ae-0882-42cd-811d-4dc9b07e9d66> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.factmonster.com/encyclopedia/society/perjury.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00026-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.928897 | 168 | 3.125 | 3 |
The highest development of the long-wire antenna is the RHOMBIC ANTENNA (see figure 4-37). It consists of four conductors joined to form a rhombus, or diamond shape. The antenna is placed end to end and terminated by a noninductive resistor to produce a uni-directional pattern. A rhombic antenna can be made of two obtuse-angle V antennas that are placed side by side, erected in a horizontal plane, and terminated so the antenna is nonresonant and unidirectional.
Figure 4-37. - Basic rhombic antenna.
The rhombic antenna is WIDELY used for long-distance, high-frequency transmission and reception. It is one of the most popular fixed-station antennas because it is very useful in point-to-point communications.
The rhombic antenna is useful over a wide frequency range. Although some changes in gain, directivity, and characteristic impedance do occur with a change in operating frequency, these changes are small enough to be neglected.
The rhombic antenna is much easier to construct and maintain than other antennas of comparable gain and directivity. Only four supporting poles of common heights from 15 to 20 meters are needed for the antenna.
The rhombic antenna also has the advantage of being noncritical as far as operation and adjustment are concerned. This is because of the broad frequency characteristics of the antenna.
Still another advantage is that the voltages present on the antenna are much lower than those produced by the same input power on a resonant antenna. This is particularly important when high transmitter powers are used or when high-altitude operation is required.
The rhombic antenna is not without its disadvantages. The principal one is that a fairly large antenna site is required for its erection. Each leg is made at least 1 or 2 wavelengths long at the lowest operating frequency. When increased gain and directivity are required, legs of from 8 to 12 wavelengths are used. These requirements mean that high-frequency rhombic antennas have wires of several hundred feet in length. Therefore, they are used only when a large plot of land is available.
Another disadvantage is that the horizontal and vertical patterns depend on each other. If a rhombic antenna is made to have a narrow horizontal beam, the beam is also lower in the vertical direction. Therefore, obtaining high vertical-angle radiation is impossible except with a very broad horizontal pattern and low gain. Rhombic antennas are used, however, for long-distance skywave coverage at the high frequencies. Under these conditions low vertical angles of radiation (less than 20 degrees) are desirable. With the rhombic antenna, a considerable amount of the input power is dissipated uselessly in the terminating resistor. However, this resistor is necessary to make the antenna unidirectional. The great gain of the antenna more than makes up for this loss.
Figure 4-38 shows the individual radiation patterns produced by the four legs of the rhombic antenna and the resultant radiation pattern. The principle of operation is the same as for the V and the half-rhombic antennas.
Figure 4-38. - Formation of a rhombic antenna beam.
The terminating resistor plays an important part in the operation of the rhombic antenna. Upon it depend the unidirectivity of the antenna and the lack of resonance effects. An antenna should be properly terminated so it will have a constant impedance at its input. Terminating the antenna properly will also allow it to be operated over a wide frequency range without the necessity for changing the coupling adjustments at the transmitter. Discrimination against signals coming from the rear is of great importance for reception. The reduction of back radiation is perhaps of lesser importance for transmission. When an antenna is terminated with resistance, the energy that would be radiated backward is absorbed in the resistor.
The TURNSTILE ANTENNA is one of the many types that has been developed primarily for omnidirectional vhf communications. The basic turnstile consists of two horizontal half-wave antennas mounted at right angles to each other in the same horizontal plane. When these two antennas are excited with equal currents 90 degrees out of phase, the typical figure-eight patterns of the two antennas merge to produce the nearly circular pattern shown in figure 4-39, view A. Pairs of such antennas are frequently stacked, as shown in figure 4-40. Each pair is called a BAY. In figure 4-40 two bays are used and are spaced 1/2 wavelength apart, and the corresponding elements are excited in phase. These conditions cause a part of the vertical radiation from each bay to cancel that of the other bay. This results in a decrease in energy radiated at high vertical angles and increases the energy radiated in the horizontal plane. Stacking a number of bays can alter the vertical radiation pattern, causing a substantial gain in a horizontal direction without altering the overall horizontal directivity pattern. Figure 4-39, view B, compares the circular vertical radiation pattern of a single-bay turnstile with the sharp pattern of a four-bay turnstile array. A three-dimensional radiation pattern of a four-bay turnstile antenna is shown in figure 4-39, view C.
Figure 4-39. - Turnstile antenna radiation pattern.
Figure 4-40. - Stacked turnstile antennas.
A vertical quarter-wave antenna several wavelengths above ground produces a high angle of radiation that is very undesirable at vhf and uhf frequencies. The most common means of producing a low angle of radiation from such an antenna is to work the radiator against a simulated ground called a GROUND PLANE. A simulated ground may be made from a large metal sheet or several wires or rods radiating from the base of the radiator. An antenna so constructed is known as a GROUND-PLANE ANTENNA. Two ground-plane antennas are shown in figure 4-41, views A and B.
Figure 4-41. - Ground-plane antennas.
When a unidirectional radiation pattern is desired, it can be obtained by the use of a corner reflector with a half-wave dipole. A CORNER-REFLECTOR ANTENNA is a half-wave radiator with a reflector. The reflector consists of two flat metal surfaces meeting at an angle immediately behind the radiator. In other words, the radiator is set in the plane of a line bisecting the corner angle formed by the reflector sheets. The construction of a corner reflector is shown in figure 4-42. Corner-reflector antennas are mounted with the radiator and the reflector in the horizontal position when horizontal polarization is desired. In such cases the radiation pattern is very narrow in the vertical plane, with maximum signal being radiated in line with the bisector of the corner angle. The directivity in the horizontal plane is approximately the same as for any half-wave radiator having a single-rod type reflector behind it. If the antenna is mounted with the radiator and the corner reflector in the vertical position, as shown in view A, maximum radiation is produced in a very narrow horizontal beam. Radiation in a vertical plane will be the same as for a similar radiator with a single-rod type reflector behind it.
Figure 4-42. - Corner-reflector antennas. | <urn:uuid:74a08045-1f98-45e8-80f9-0b601d4d85e9> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.tpub.com/neets/book10/42o.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00048-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.921821 | 1,512 | 4.15625 | 4 |
Some forty years in the making, start-stop technology has arrived on your smartphone. Volkswagen launched an app that stops YouTube videos automatically when you look away from the screen. And it starts again, when you look back. The app uses facial recognition technology to capture when the viewer is looking away, only to resume when eyeballs are back on screen. PWHS (People With Heightened Sensitivities) will not like it: Averting your eyes during a shocking scene on YouTube won’t help anymore. The price of progress, I guess.
But what are the origins of this startling technology?
Start-stop technology has come a long, long, very long way. One of, maybe the first start-stop systems was invented by Toyota. In October 1974, the first oil crisis was in full swing, Bob Dunham reported in Popular Science and from Tokyo that “Toyota has developed an automatic engine stop-start system that is likely to become available as an option if fuel shortages continue.” The system would shut off the ignition if the car would be stopped for longer than 1.5 seconds. It was available on a six cylinder Toyota Crown, where it would “restart when the driver pushed out the clutch.” Four decades ago, the system gave the writer “10-percent better fuel economy,” along with a reduction of CO2 emissions, which “are highest when the engine is idling.”
In 1979, there was a second oil crisis. This one looked like it was here to stay. Volkswagen introduced a start-stop system in the early 80s, on the Volkswagen Santana and its sibling, the Passat. Volkswagen insisted on calling it a “Stop-Start-Anlage (SSA),” because first it stops the car, then it starts. The discussion about what comes first, the start or the stop, rages on until today.
In the first iterations of the SSA, the engine had to be stopped with the push of a button. When gas and clutch were engaged, the engine did start. Later, it stopped automatically, like with the Toyota gizmo ten years before. The SSA did sound like a good idea, but it was rarely used. As a standalone option, it was nearly never ordered. Santana historian Tilman Grund thinks that by 1986, the SSA may have “existed only in the catalog.” People were scared to use it. The few that bought it did so as placebo sedative for the green conscience, but left it switched off. Not coincidentally, by 1986, oil prices were down to pre-1974 levels, and two golden decades of cheap black gold ensued, stunting the growth of the gizmo.
Zooming oil prices after the turn of the millennium, along with progress in electronics and mechanics, and the rising acceptance of hybrid systems helped the start-stop, stop-start, or idle stop systems become mainstream – despite its occasional critics. And now, it’s available on your phone. Where do you think the fortunes of the start-stop system and the futures of oil are going? | <urn:uuid:1acf1c6d-6f24-4251-b8d9-dc969891ba1b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thetruthaboutcars.com/2013/05/start-stop-system-now-available-on-your-smartphone-or-is-it-a-stop-start-system/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396100.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00061-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968298 | 646 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Amateur Plays - Lighting
( Originally Published 1923 )
IT has been rightly urged that recent inventions and discoveries in lighting constitute the greatest contribution to the modern art of the theater. This manual is intended primarily to help the producer and the actor, but the present short chapter may assist the former or his associates in their effort to improve the physical conditions of the stage.
The prevalent system of using footlights and border lights is on the whole bad, because it is false, unnatural, and above all unnecessary. Says Moderwell (pages 107-108, in " The Theatre of Today ")
" Before we can begin work in artistic lighting we must do some destroying. One element in the old lighting must go, and go completely. We can say this with careless ease now that the Fortuny system has given us a better way. But even before this invention was made known, the case against the footlights must have been obvious to any sensitive man of the theatre; that the ` foots' continued as long as they did indicates the stagnation of the old theatre in all but purely literary art.
" The footlights, with their corresponding border lights from above, give a flat illumination. They make figures visible, but not living ; they destroy that most precious quality of the sculptor, relief.. . It is the shadows, the nooks and crannies of light and shade, that show a figure to be solid and plastic."
The Fortuny system mentioned is a device by which light is reflected and diffused : " An arc-lamp and several pieces of cloth of various colours ó these comprise the Fortuny apparatus in its simplest form." While only an expert electrician and, if the effects are to be artistic, an artist, can erect and manipulate a system built on Fortuny's principles, still amateur electricians and directors should do their best, by means of experimentation, to use indirect lighting.
Just how this can be done must rest with individuals, but two or three experiments may be briefly described.
Suppose that the cyclorama, or the hangings masking the back of the stage, are made of white or light-colored cloth. In this case, an arc lamp or ordinary calcium light can be placed up in the loft, above the top of the cyclorama, and behind it. A little experimenting will reveal many striking light effects. If one light or lamp is not sufficient, others can be placed in various positions to reŽnforce it. As conditions vary so greatly, it is impossible to supply more concise directions.
Where box sets are used in which there is at least one window, and provided the scene does not take place at night, it is much better to have all, or at least an appreciable portion of the light come in through one window. In the second act of Charles Klein's " The Music Master " played by David Warfield and produced by David Belasco, the stage was at one time brilliantly lighted, supposedly by sun-shine from the outside, from the two opposite sides of the stage ! If, however, screens and curtains are used (see chapter on " Scenery and Costumes "), then it is best to introduce some sort of central reflected light. To station lights on all sides of the stage will first of all make the stage too bright, and furthermore produce unnatural and distorted shadows : there is no chance for effects of relief or any illusion of plasticity. If possible, the foot-lights should be entirely eliminated if not, then most sparingly used. Our stages are for the most part overlighted.
The production of Lady Gregory's " The Rising of the Moon " by the Irish Players was one of the simplest and at the same time most effective of stage pictures. The following diagram will show in a rough way the general disposition of the settings :
The back of the stage (the shaded area) was flooded with white light to suggest moonlight. There were no " foots " or " borders" ; any-thing besides the single light would have ruined the effect of perfect placidity. | <urn:uuid:e2c0ef7c-bded-436a-aa49-71dac3f3133e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.oldandsold.com/articles24/plays-19.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00054-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960213 | 836 | 2.84375 | 3 |
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Native to Africa, the Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis) plant now grows in the Caribbean, Latin America, some Mediterranean regions, and southern portions of the United States. Nicknamed “the burn plant,” it has been used for millennia to soothe and stimulate the healing of burns, rashes, and minor skin abrasions. Aloe vera, a perennial member of the lily family, has fibrous, grayish green leaves resembling spears. The edges of the leaves are serrated. Outdoors, aloe vera plants attain an average height of 2.5 to 3 feet (80 to 100 cm). Indoors, potted versions are considerably smaller, growing to about 12 inches (30 cm) tall.
The most widely used portion of the aloe vera plant is the gel, which is found in the succulent leaves. Tinged pale green, the clear gel of the aloe plant may be rubbed directly on the skin from the cut leaf. Principally composed of water, the gel also contains compounds called polysaccharides and glycoproteins. It is believed that these substances may have anti-inflammatory properties and may aid in the reconstruction of skin cells after an injury, thus contributing to the healing process. Recent research suggests that one such compound found in aloe vera, called acemannan, may have the ability to stimulate the immune system.
The skin-soothing merits of aloe vera gel are believed to be useful in relieving symptoms of dry skin. To this end, aloe vera gel is often added to body lotions, hand creams, shaving creams, and other cosmetic balms as an emollient. Eczematous rashes and some forms of acne may benefit from the application of aloe vera gel.
Aloe vera may be grown quite successfully as a houseplant, providing a ready source of the gel. The aloe vera plant will grow happily in light soil with good drainage, provided it has access to full sun. A sunny windowsill is an ideal location. To use, simply cut off a section of leaf, cut the leaf in half lengthwise, and rub the cut halves directly on the affected area. Make sure to cleanse the area well prior to applying the aloe vera gel.
In the past, aloe latex and aloe juice—substances derived from the leaves of the plant—were widely used to treat constipation. Although they are considered effective, they may produce side effects such as intense cramping and diarrhea, and so have fallen out of favor. Pregnant women and nursing mothers especially should not consume aloe latex or aloe juice.
There is some evidence that aloe vera gel applied to deep or surgical wounds may actually inhibit healing, so the gel should be applied only to injuries on the surface of the skin, such as minor burns and sunburn, rashes, insect bites, and abrasions. Further scientific study is under way in the exploration of the potential benefits of aloe vera in treating a host of additional ailments, including genital herpes, dermatitis, psoriasis, and type 2 diabetes.
Although the use of aloe vera gel topically is considered to be safe, people who are sensitive to plants in the lily family may be allergic to it. If a rash develops on contact, use should be discontinued. It should be noted that all herbs and plants contain substances that may cause undesirable side effects or interact with medications. Anyone interested in using aloe vera orally should do so only with a physician’s consent and under the supervision of a knowledgeable and reputable practitioner of homeopathic medicine.
I have just been introduced to aloe vera product packaged by "forever".
Another great thing about aloe vera is its benefits for the immune system. The daughter of a co-worker was on steroids for 13 years for an auto-immune disease. Her mom, a nurse practitioner, did a lot of research and worked with the doctors at the Denver Children's Hospital. They put her on a pure form of aloe vera juice four times a day for 6 months. She was then able to get off of the steroids! I wouldn't suggest this unless you are working with a practitioner who is familiar with this, but it is definitely worth looking into if you have an auto-immune problem.
One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK! | <urn:uuid:cbf6eecd-bd5a-47e6-bad4-0932c19f98c1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-the-health-promoting-properties-of-aloe-vera.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00072-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949024 | 964 | 2.875 | 3 |
Matthew Grinnell (abt. 1590-1642)
Rose French (1605-1672)
Since the beginning of the twentieth century, Grinnell family histories have built upon early work that claimed that American Grinnell lines were connected to French nobility.
This may have been due to the temptation to read coincidence as fact. As is the case with other surnames, the late Victorian period in America saw the emergence of newly created families of wealth with their preoccupation of seeking family links to European royalty. The consequence of this was that in genealogical research questionable data was often accepted as fact when it seemed to support that goal.
The American Grinnell family line may have carried such a burden with its reported connection to the Grenelle family, Lords of Pimont in Burgundy, France.
While the Grinnell family surname is now traced back to England, the progenitors could well have been French. The surname spelling, the time and the setting could have made it possible. The late sixteenth century was a period of religious unrest in France. Many became disillusioned with the ruling establishment, both civil and religious. The Catholic church and the bishopric were the power structure, reaching down to all levels of government. Thousands rebelled, forsaking the Catholic religion of their ancestors and becoming Protestants, or Huguenots as they were called in France. This act of heresy was vigorously prosecuted by the Catholic majority, ultimately causing the new Protestants to leave France for Holland and England, as many other Huguenots had done since the horrible massacres of the late sixteenth century.
So, was our Grinnell family a part of this? There is no proof.
Matthew Grinnell was born ca. 1590, probably in or near Colchester, Essex County, England. He is known to have married on 27 August 1615 "Rose ffrench" in St. Leonard's Church (Anglican) in Lexden, a short distance west of Colchester.
Matthew, Rose and their children came to America around 1631 or '32 following the birth of their son, Thomas. They arrived first in Massachusetts. Matthew was then about 40 years old.
Establishing a homestead was difficult enough, but life was compounded by religious strife in New England. This seeming contradiction requires explanation, for, after all, hadn't the Pilgrims fled to America seeking a place of "religious freedom?"
It is an undoubted fact that in those years Rhode Island was a haven for dissenters from the religious views of the day, especially those of Puritan Massachusetts. During these years, a small band of men, driven from Massachusetts by religious persecution and intolerance, had established a new colony on the island of Aquidnexk, later to become Rhode Island. The Rhode Island colony of Roger Williams and associates permitted "free thought," meaning the liberty of a person to choose not to affiliate himself with a religious congregation, and thus to escape the strict controls which, at that time the Puritans of Massachusetts exercised over all aspects of life. A free-thinker believed that a man's religion was nobody's business but his own. This was in sharp contrast to the Puritan view that everyman's religion was a vital community concern, and anyone not controlled by a religious congregation was a threat to the community. There was no special liberal denomination originating in Rhode Island. All the usual denominations of the day were represented there, all living in relative harmony, but the man who chose to have no religion at all was rare. As a result, the concept attracted persons of an independent turn of mind, often in politics as well as religion.
Landing first in the vicinity of Portsmouth, the majority of the settlers proceeded to the southwesterly part of the island, and there founded the tiny colony of Newport on the simple tenets of public rights to fishery and tolerance for doctrine. The small communities rapidly attracted newcomers, among whom was Matthew, who was "admitted" to the settlement of Newport as a freeman on 6 August 1638.
Clearing a homestead was not easy in Newport. The site was a thickly wooded swamp, with tall trees growing on the surrounding hills. These had to be cut away leaving a thick growth of underbrush. Indians were hired to help clear the land and burn the slash. In addition, much sand and gravel had to be laboriously hauled in to fill the swamp.
The life was hard, and Matthew died between 1638 and 1642, when he was about 50, leaving the widow and children. This is known, as Rose signed a prenuptial agreement with her second husband, Anthony Paine in 1643.
Matthew and Rose's children were:
Rose Grinnel bpt. 21 May 1616, St. Leonard's, Lexden. No further record; she may have died young, or married early and remained in England. Matthew Grinnell bpt. 18 July 1619, St. Leonard's, Lexden. Died young, buried 26 May 1620. Mary Grinnell bpt. 15 May 1622, St. Leonard's, London. She came to America with her parents, and married John Manchester Matthew Grinnell born after 1620. Came to America with his parents, and married Mary (?); resided in East Greenwich RI. Thomas Grinnell bpt. 30 Jan 1630 in St. Botolph's Church, Colchester. Came to America with parents but no further record. Daniel Grinnell born ca. 1636, probably in MA; died 1703. He married Mary Wodell.
Rose married (2nd) 10 November 1643 Anthony Paine, a widower with three
children. Anthony died in 1649. Rose, widowed first at about 35 with four small
children, was now widowed again at age 45 with seven children, and with only a
tiny farm for sustenance. Within a year she married (3rd) James Weeden. All
this is not surprising and not uncommon, considering the living difficulties at
Daniel Grinnell (ca. 1636-1703)
Mary Wodell (1640-1702)
Daniel as a young man lived with his mother and step-father, who was a maltster. He learned the trade, and became a maltster as an adult. A maltster was a maker of malt, hence beer or ale.
In 1656, Daniel bought thirty acres of land in Portsmouth, and at a town meeting that year was received formally into the community. He continued to live in Portsmouth for more than twenty years.
He took an active interest in public affairs, serving on the petit and grand juries, and for several years was constable. The constable was an important man in those days, collecting taxes or "rates", acting in the capacity of trial justice and as conservator of the peace.
About 1679, Daniel left the island. He moved to the mainland settlement of Little Compton, to which had also come a number of settlers from the northeast, some of them descendants of the Mayflower Pilgrims. Intermarriages soon took place between the newcomer families and the Rhode Island families.
Daniel and Mary both died in 1702-'03. Their known children were:
Daniel Grinnell 1664-1740 m. Lydia Pabodie Richard Grinnell 1669-1725 m. Patience Emery Jonathan Grinnell 1670-? m. Rebecca Irish
Of these, Daniel married Lydia, the granddaughter of John Alden and Priscilla
Mullins, legendary characters of the Pilgrim saga. Our line, however, is
Richard Grinnell (1669 - 1725)
Patience Emery (1682-1749)
Richard was born in Portsmouth, Rhode Island, as determined by his grave marker, which also notes that he died 1 July 1725 in his 56th years.
At about age 35 he married Patience Emery, daughter of James Emery and Elizabeth Washburne Emery on 25 May 1704, probably in Little Compton RI. She was a descendant of Anthony Emery, a 1635 settler of Kittery ME.
Richard and Patience spent the rest of their lives in Little Compton, Although he died rather young, he had accumulated a fair sized estate, which included two slaves.
Patience died 10 March 1749, aged about 67 years. She is presumably buried with Richard in the Commons at Little Compton, but there is no marker.
They had nine children:
George Grinnell 1704-1768 m. Mercy Sanford. Family narrative follows this section. William Grinnell b. 19 Mar 1707 in Little Compton; married Mary Sanford, sister of Mercy on 18 Sep 1726. They had seven children. William served in the American Revolution, and died in January 1778. Rebecca Grinnell b. 15 Dec 1710 in Little Compton. She married 4 May 1736 Roger White. Her death date is unknown. Elizabeth Grinnell b. 21 May 1713 in Little Compton. Apparently never married. Patience Grinnell b. 24 Apr 1715 in Little Compton. Married 30 Nov 1735 to John Woodman Richard Grinnell b. 8 Mar 1717 in Little Compton. Known as "Pirate Dick", Richard married first, Alice Church and second, Comfort Bailey,daughter of Richard and Sarah Billings and widow of William Bailey. They had twelve children. Richard also served in the American Revolution. He died 1 Mar 1789 in Little Compton. Ruth Grinnell b. 3 April 1719 in Little Compton. She was married 19 Jan 1738 to Oliver Paddock. She died 9 years later in 1747. Daniel Grinnell b. 20 April 1721 in Little Compton. He married 11 Jan 1747 Grace Palmer, daughter of John Palmer and Elizabeth Church Palmer. They had nine children. Sarah Grinnell b. 6 May 1723 in Little Compton. She married Thomas Woodman on 11 Jan 1747.
George Grinnell (1704- 1768)
Mercy Sanford (1704-?)
George was born 25 Jan 1704, as recorded in the Little Compton Town Hall records.
Mercy Sanford, born 19 Jan 1704 was a daughter of John Sanford and Content Howland Sanford.
George and Mercy were married in Portsmouth RI. The Portsmouth Town Hall record reads in part that, George Grinnell and Mercy Sanford, both of Little Compton, -- came into the Town of Portsmouth and on the third day of the fifth month (Old style) 1726 and in the evening of said day were lawfully joyned together in marriage before me, signed by William Sanford, Justice. His relationship to Mercy is unknown.
George died in 1768, leaving a will drawn the 11th day in the 32nd year of our sovereign Lord, George the 2nd (i.e. 1758). The date of her death is unknown, as is the place of burial.
They had seven children:
Lydia Grinnell b. 7 Dec 1726. She married John Simmons Aaron Grinnell b. 4 Jun 1728 in Little Compton. He married first, Elizabeth Peckham Coe on 4 Jun 1748, second, Margaret Taylor, and third in his old age, Lois Church on 3 April 1800. There were three children by Elizabeth and six by Margaret. Aaron died 18 Sep 1804 in Jamestown RI. Jemina Grinnell and Kezia Grinnell Twins born 18 Jan 1730. Jemina married John Taylor on 3 Dec 1747, and Kezia married Job Cook on 30 Sep 1755. Isaiah Grinnell b. 24 Dec 1732 in Little Compton. He married 30 Jun 1757 in Newport RI Katherine Hill. She apparently died by 1759 since he married, second, Sarah Austin in that year. This family narrative follows. Eunice Grinnell b. 2 Mar 1735 in Little Compton. No further record. Malachi Grinnel b. 2 Jan 1737 in Little Compton. He married 10 May 1760 Lydia Coe. He is recorded as dying aboard a prison ship in 1789 during the Revolution. Malachi and Lydia had seven children.
Isaiah Grinnell (1732- ca. 1780)
(1) Katherine Hill | <urn:uuid:69e0a870-a8f0-4190-b604-4b237f9503bd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://home.earthlink.net/~geneals/grinnell.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00164-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.977949 | 2,547 | 3 | 3 |
Last Updated: May 30, 2014
Precautions and facts regarding toxic algae at Nebraska Lakes
A Joint Publication from the
Nebraska Department of Health and Human Services and the
Nebraska Department of Environmental Quality
What is a toxic blue-green algae Health Alert?
The Health Alert designation means that the state believes that the level of toxins in the water make it potentially unsafe for full-body recreational activities, such as swimming. The toxin being measured is microcystin, which is generated from certain strains of blue-green algae.
What is toxic blue-green algae?
During a Health Alert at a public lake, signs will be posted advising the public to use caution. Affected swimming beaches will be closed. Boating and other recreational activities will be allowed, but the public will be advised to use caution and avoid prolonged exposure to the water, particularly avoiding any activity that could lead to swallowing the water.
The level to trigger a Health Alert declaration is 20 parts per billion of the toxin microcystin. Lakes under Health Alert will be sampled weekly, and the Health Alert will stay in effect until the level stays below 20 parts per billion for two consecutive weeks.
Although it technically is not a true algae, what is commonly referred to as toxic blue-green algae refers to certain strains of cyanobacteria that produce toxins. These toxins were found in a number of Nebraska lakes in 2004 through 2013.
What should I look for to avoid toxic algae?
Toxic blue-green algae can dominate the algal populations of a lake under the right combinations of water temperature, low water depths, and nutrients (such as, high nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations from wastewater discharges and runoff from agricultural land and communities).
The toxic strains of blue-green algae usually have heavy surface growths of pea-green colored clumps, scum or streaks, with a disagreeable odor. It can have a thickness similar to motor oil and often looks like thick paint in the water. Algae blooms usually accumulate near the shoreline where pets and toddlers have easy access and the water is shallow and more stagnant. It is important to keep a watchful eye on children and pets so that they do not enter the water. Aspects to watch out for include:
What are the risks and symptoms?
- Water that has a neon green, pea green, blue-green or reddish-brown color.
- Water that has a bad odor.
- Foam, scum or a thick paint-like appearance on the water surface.
- Green or blue-green streaks on the surface, or accumulations in bays and along shorelines.
Pets and farm animals have died from drinking water containing toxic blue-green algae (or licking their wet hair/fur/paws after they have been in the water). Blue-green algae toxins have been known to persist in water for several weeks after the bloom has disappeared.
Are some people more at risk?
The risks to humans come from external exposure (prolonged contact with skin) and from swallowing the water. Symptoms from external exposure are skin rashes, lesions and blisters. More severe cases can include mouth ulcers, ulcers inside the nose, eye and/or ear irritation and blistering of the lips. Symptoms from ingestion can include headaches, nausea, muscular pains, central abdominal pain, diarrhea and vomiting. Severe cases could include seizures, liver failure, respiratory arrest – even death, although this is rare. The severity of the illness is related to the amount of water ingested, and the concentrations of the toxins.
Yes. Some people will be at greater risk from toxic blue-green algae than the general population. Those at greater risk include:
Here are some tips on what you can do, and things to avoid:
- Children. Toddlers tend to explore the shoreline of a lake, causing greater opportunity for exposure. Based on body weight, children tend to swallow a higher volume of water than adults, and therefore could be at greater risk.
- People with liver disease or kidney damage and those with weakened immune systems.
Is it safe to eat fish from lakes that are under a Health Alert?
- Be aware of areas with thick clumps of algae and keep animals and children away from the water.
- Don’t wade or swim in water containing visible algae. Avoid direct contact with algae.
- Make sure children are supervised at all times when they are near water. Drowning, not exposure to algae, remains the greatest hazard of water recreation.
- If you do come in contact with the algae, rinse off with fresh water as soon as possible.
- Don’t boat or water ski through algae blooms.
- Don’t drink the water, and avoid any situation that could lead to swallowing the water.
Although research is limited, most information to date indicates that toxins do not accumulate significantly in fish tissue, which is the meat that most people eat. At this time, fishing is permitted at lakes that are under a Health Alert. This issue is continuing to be studied, and this web site will be updated if more conclusive information becomes available.
Where can I find out more information about lake sampling for toxic algae?
The Nebraska Department of Environmental Quality (NDEQ) is conducting weekly and twice-monthly sampling at select public lakes that are either popular recreational lakes, or have historically had toxic algae problems. For more information, go to Environmental Alerts.
If I think a public lake has a toxic algae bloom, who do I call?
Please contact NDEQ’s Surface Water Unit at (402) 471-0096, or (402) 471-2186.
If I am experiencing health symptoms, who do I call?
If you experience health symptoms, notify your physician, and also report it to the Nebraska Department of Health and Human Services at (402) 471-8880. You can also contact the Nebraska Regional Poison Center at 800-222-1222 for more information.
Nebraska Department of Environmental Quality
1200 "N" Street, Suite 400
P.O. Box 98922
Lincoln, Nebraska 68509 | <urn:uuid:a3b35ed0-3579-4f70-a113-e89b55bbc96a> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.deq.state.ne.us/press.nsf/pages/ENV042607 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00115-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943468 | 1,274 | 3.328125 | 3 |
The Chronicles of Narnia, a seven-volume saga for children by C. S. Lewis, reveals a world that exists parallel to our own, populated by men and women, dwarves and talking animals, giants and merpeople, centaurs and fauns, and ruled by a kind but awesomely ferocious and gigantic lion named Aslan. Lewis, who died on the same day as JFK, November 22, 1963, combined the three passions of his life—classical mythology, medieval lore, and Christian-based philosophy—to create in Narnia a microcosm of the moral struggles our own world faces.
Characters and plot
Along with Aslan himself, the heroes of the Narnia books are the four Pevensie children, Peter, Susan, Edmund, and Lucy. Taken away from their London home to avoid the Nazi bombings, they are boarded with an elderly bachelor professor in his rambling mansion in the country.
While playing hide-and-seek, Lucy, the youngest at age 8, hides in an old wardrobe filled with racks of overcoats. Moving farther back to escape detection, she pushes her way past the coats, expecting to hit against the back of the wardrobe at any moment. Lucy feels instead the boughs of evergreen trees, hears the crunch of snow at her feet, and sees in the distance the glow of a lamppost just like those she had seen many times back in London.
This marks the beginning of the four siblings' many adventures in Narnia. Each of the books, though loosely connected to the others, can also stand alone. Eventually we learn where the lamppost came from and how the wardrobe became a portal. We also learn more about Aslan, what it takes to be his friend, and who his enemies are.
The deeper meaning
For those who know to watch for it, Lewis has filled Narnia, not only with interesting characters, majestic scenery, and exciting action, but also with Christian allegory. Aslan himself represents Jesus Christ, "the lion of the tribe of Judah" (Revelation 7:14). The Pevensie children eventually become so much at home in Narnia that they see it as their native land and this world as the place where they are visitors. Lewis, in his books on Christian apologetics, describes the spiritual world as existing parallel to the physical one, having the quality of being, not shadowy and insubstantial as compared to physicality, but more real, more colorful, and much, much more alive.
As Paul explains,
...many live as enemies of the cross of Christ. Their destiny is destruction, their god is their stomach, and their glory is in their shame. Their mind is on earthly things. But our citizenship is in heaven. And we eagerly await a Savior from there, the Lord Jesus Christ.... --Philippians 3:18-20 (see also Hebrews 11:13-16).
The Disney movie
The first book of the seven, The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, is now the subject of a major motion picture produced by Walt Disney Pictures & Walden Media and directed by Andrew Adamson. At the climax of the story is a beautiful sacrifice, Lewis's pictures the death of Christ.
If you go to the movie, watch for the breaking of the Stone Table, which symbolizes how Christ's death and resurrection brought about the end of the Law of Moses by meeting its demands for blood atonement. Watch also for the role Susan and Lucy play in witnessing the death and revival of Aslan, corresponding to the historical role women played as mourners at Jesus' death and burial and as the first witnesses of His resurrection.
The professor helps Peter and Susan to sort through how to receive Lucy's testimony about Narnia: if she's not a liar and she's not crazy, then logically, she must be telling the truth. This corresponds to the testimony Jesus gave about His own identify, and the testimony His follows gave about Him—what Lewis elsewhere describes as the trilemma about Jesus: is He Lord, Liar, or Lunatic?
Another significant parallel is this: Aslan's loyal followers play a significant role in the battle against the White Witch. Like our own spiritual warfare, Christ ensures the final victory, but calls on His followers to engage personally in the fight. For passages relevant to that conflict, see Ephesians 6:10-18; 2 Corinthians 10:3-5; 1 Timothy 1:18-20; 1 Timothy 6:12; and 2 Timothy 4:7).
Plans are for six more movies to follow this first one, in which the rest of the history of Narnia unfolds. If they are as faithful to the books and well-conceived and produced as this one was, all of us diehard Lewis fans welcome them as an introduction of Narnia to a jaded world. We hope that viewers will grasp and appreciate the allegorical features as much as they do the surface story. The goal is not only to know about Aslan and Narnia, but to become His friend and subject and to live in His realm forever.
Want to go deeper?
You can do a search for papers going into more detail on the allegory of Narnia, including these three: "The Lion, the Witch, and the Allegory," "The Wardrobe as Christian Metaphor," and "Myth Made Truth: The Origins of the Chronicles of Narnia."
If you want to purchase and read your own copy of The Chronicles of Narnia, they are available in a variety of editions, from the one-volume edition in softcover to the seven-volume boxed set in either hardback or softcover. Available also is the Official Illustrated Movie Companion for The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, with photos from the movie and interviews of the director and cast members, as well as E. J. Kirk's Beyond the Wardrobe: The Official Guide to Narnia. (My blog provides links to all of these, enabling you to access substantial discounts, from 24% to 33% off the retail prices.)* * *
Copyright © 2005 Steve Singleton.
You may freely reprint this article, provided you do not change it and that you reproduce this copyright notice and the information below unaltered.
Steve Singleton has written and edited several books and numerous articles on business management as well as many of interest to Bible students. He has been a book editor, newspaper reporter, news editor, and public relations consultant. He has taught Greek, Bible, and religious studies courses Bible college, university, and adult education programs. He has also conducted seminars and workshops in 11 states and the Caribbean.
Go to his DeeperStudy.com for Bible study resources. Explore "The Shallows," plumb "The Depths," or use the well-organized "Study Links" for original sources in English translation. Sign up for Steve's free "DeeperStudy Newsletter" or subscribe to his DeeperStudy Blog. | <urn:uuid:aeb8b49a-7455-4a09-a94c-8984baaa5e3e> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.friendsofvista.org/articles/article69307.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959029 | 1,447 | 3.140625 | 3 |
The honeycrisp is a hybrid apple developed for cold climates. The University of Minnesota holds a plant patent on the apple and controls its propagation and sale. The Fuji apple was developed in Japan and is popular in Asia. Most of the Fuji apples in the United States are grown in Washington state. Both apples are sweet, crisp and juicy. They both store well.
The honeycrisp apple is a 1960 hybrid of Macoun, a Canadian apple similar to the McIntosh, and honeygold, a cross between the golden delicious and the Haralson. Horticulturalists developed the honeycrisp at University of Minnesota. It is illegal to propagate or sell the honeycrisp trees without the permission of the Minnesota Department of Horticultural Science.
The Fuji apple was developed in the 1930s at the Tohoku Research Station in Fujisaki, a small town in Aomori Prefecture, the Japanese apple-growing region in the central part of Honshu. A cross between the red delicious apple and the Virginia Rawls Genet apple, the Fuji appeared on the American market in 1962 and is the fourth-most popular apple in the United States, after red and yellow delicious and the gala apple. China has overtaken the United States as the world’s largest producer of apples, and 80 percent of its apples are Fujis.
The honeycrisp was developed to be cold hardy and do well in the northern tier of states that have harsh winters. The skin of the honeycrisp is mottled red over a yellow background. The honeycrisp has coarse, cream-colored flesh and a mild flavor. It can last up to six months in refrigerated storage. It grows well when it is grafted into dwarf rootstock. The apples ripen evenly and can be harvested at once or over an extended period.
The Fuji has a pink, speckled flush over a greenish-yellow background. It is a sweet, juicy apple with a crisp, dull white flesh, good for both eating and cooking. The Fuji has the outstanding quality of remaining crisp, sweet and juicy for weeks without refrigeration and for five to six months if it is refrigerated. This makes it a favorite for commercial growers and retail outlets.
The tasters at Pick Your Own reviewed the qualities of 35 popular varieties of apples. They concluded honeycrisp makes the best apple juice and Fuji makes the best applesauce. | <urn:uuid:68a2fda1-ae4a-486b-95b4-00d819d27893> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.gardenguides.com/124226-honey-crisp-vs-fuji-apples.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00143-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943975 | 502 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Office of Planning, Environment, & Realty (HEP)
The White Earth Nation is a federally recognized tribe located in northwestern Minnesota. The tribe’s reservation is the largest in the State, encompassing all of one county and portions of two others. The White Earth Nation’s transportation and public works director is Burny Tibbetts, who oversees the tribe’s transportation planning activities, the tribe’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP), and individual project budgets. Mr. Tibbetts also oversees the tribe’s transit system, White Earth Transit.
This section describes how the White Earth Nation goes from project identification to the creation of a TIP, and the tools the tribe uses to help with that process.
The first step for financial planning at the White Earth Nation is project identification. Mr. Tibbetts and his staff identify projects through the transportation planning process. Many of the identified projects are either roadway issues or serve new developments. The tribe is currently finishing its first long-range transportation plan, which will help to identify longer-term needs for the reservation. After projects are identified, the Tribal Council prioritizes the list of projects and passes a resolution showing the tribe’s Priority List.
The White Earth Nation also has a Tribal Transportation Advisory Committee that includes representatives from MnDOT, the county engineers for the three counties with tribal land in them, and the township road boards. The committee holds an annual meeting to discuss the needs and priorities for all these groups. By discussing their various plans for the upcoming year(s), the committee tries to integrate their respective projects into one another’s TIP and priority lists. According to Mr. Tibbetts, “the group is helpful for planning future projects that we might want to cooperate on.”
Mr. Tibbetts then estimates future IRR funding. As is the case for many tribes, IRR funds are the primary source of transportation funding for the White Earth Nation. When projects are funded from other sources, such as grants or through a partnership with another agency, the portion of the project paid for by funds the tribe receives are added to the TIP.
Once projects have been prioritized, Mr. Tibbetts estimates project costs. The cost estimate can often be based on how much similar projects have cost.
All estimates include a standard percentage for planning, engineering, surveying, other preparatory work, and construction monitoring. For projects that are not comparable to past ones, there are tools available from the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and the Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE) to help with estimating construction engineering and design costs. However, a more general percentage can often be used instead. As an example, for a roadway reconstruction project, Mr. Tibbetts has found that design is usually 10-15% of total project costs, while construction monitoring can be up to 20% of total project costs. Planning and administration costs are matched to what is needed to cover salaries for the appropriate staff.
Looking at the tribe’s priorities, the cost for each of those projects, and available funding, Mr. Tibbetts matches projects to funding so that as many priorities as possible can be built over the next four years. When prioritizing projects, the Tribal Council focuses on the tribe’s transportation needs, with less attention to the likely cost of a project. Mr. Tibbetts’ challenge is to find a way to meet the greatest needs over the next four years given the amount of funding the tribe expects to have. The resulting list of projects then becomes the TIP. The TIP identifies how much funding each project gets and what work will be done each year. The TIP is then sent to the Tribal Council for approval.
During the matching process, the information on project costs is entered into a tribal project control schedule. The tribal control schedule is “an accounting and project management tool that contains detailed project and tasks information for all projects identified in the tribal TIP.” The White Earth Nation has a four-year control schedule. After the TIP is approved, Mr. Tibbetts is able to use the TIP and control schedule information to send an annual budget for transportation projects to the budget office.
The White Earth Nation has identified funding streams in conjunction with MnDOT to share costs on three projects. In one project, MnDOT was completely reconstructing a road between two reservation communities. The tribe paid the costs for the project to include a bike land and lighting. Another project was the renovation of a historic train depot to serve as a hub for tribal transit, regional bus service, and Amtrak, including a park-and-ride lot.
The tribe has also partnered with other agencies by working with the townships to take over the maintenance of roads serving tribal members. The tribe only takes responsibility for roads that are a priority for them, and since the townships often have insufficient budgets for road maintenance, they welcome the tribe taking responsibility for the road. On other roads that are not tribal priorities, White Earth Nation has also partnered with the townships to help with snowplowing and other important maintenance activities.
At the heart of the White Earth Nation’s financial planning is a master spreadsheet workbook that combines the TIP, the project control schedule with details for each project, and summary budget information into one document that tracks projects from planning to completion. Each project is on a separate tab, with costs broken out by cost category.
|Project||Blueberry Lake Extension|
|Cost Category||Construction Engineering||Construction||Planning
|Supplies & Materials||$5,000||$5,000|
A summary tab at the start contains the control schedule for each year. The summary of costs for each project is shown by phase. The summary shows only the funding coming through the IRR program or transportation grants the tribe received. In the case of White Earth Transit, the tribe funds the program partly through IRR funding and partly through general tribal funds, which mostly come from the tribe’s casino.
|2010 White Earth Band of Chippewa Indians Project Control Schedule (TTIP)|
|Project Name||Transfer Station Road||Wild Rice Loop||Blueberry Lake Extension||Transit||Bicycle Lanes||Total|
The workbook also has a table that summarizes each year’s information and is formatted to match the budget system structure. Condensing the information into a simple table makes it easy for the accountants to put it into the budget.
As projects move forward, Mr. Tibbetts tracks actual expenditures against his estimates and projections. Over time, the spreadsheet comes to contain both projected funding information as well as data on projects that have been completed. The information on past projects can help to forecast future project costs if similar work is done in later years.
The spreadsheet tool is also helpful for financial reviews. Because the transportation program is one of the largest programs on the reservation, it automatically gets audited every year, and the spreadsheet serves as a very useful tool in that process. Thanks to simplified tables and spreadsheets, and his regular tracking of projects, Mr. Tibbetts is very wellprepared for the auditing process.
Mr. Tibbetts has shared this technique with quite a few reservations, including Leech Lake, Bois Forte, and Turtle Mountain bands of Chippewa/Ojibwe, and the Cheyenne. The Shoshone Arapaho have also spoken to him about coming to share his expertise in the near future. | <urn:uuid:8d5466e9-d914-4e8e-b3c9-9822c7b6144b> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/processes/tribal/planning_modules/financial_planning/page05.cfm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00193-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938007 | 1,553 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Professor Chris Stokes
My research is focussed on glaciers, and ranges from the monitoring of small mountain glaciers over the last few decades to large-scale reconstructions of ice sheets over tens of thousands of years. A common theme of much of my work is the use of remote sensing (e.g. satellite imagery), which allows repeat monitoring of changes in present-day glaciers and provides an efficient means to visualise and investigate the landforms left behind by former ice sheets during the last ice age.
Together with postgraduate students, postdoctoral researchers and collaborators from both the UK and abroad, recent research can be grouped under the following broad themes:
Measuring and monitoring the response of glaciers to recent climate change: this involves both satellite remote sensing and field-based studies to investigate how glaciers are responding to recent climate change and variability, with a particular focus on glaciated regions of Russia (e.g. the Caucasus, Russian High Arctic islands and Siberia) and major outlet glaciers in Greenland and East Antarctica.
Reconstructing former ice sheet and ice stream dynamics: this work uses satellite imagery to map glacial landforms left behind by former ice sheets in order to reconstruct their evolution and links to the ocean-climate system. Early work focussed on locating and reconstructing the behaviour of fast-flow features, known as ice streams, and this has since evolved into looking at their role in the deglaciation of former ice sheets. A key component of this work has been to assess how well numerical ice sheet models reproduce ice stream dynamics, which has implications for predicting and modelling future ice sheet behaviour. Whilst much of this work has been focussed on the North American (Laurentide) Ice Sheet, I’ve contributed to studies on all of the world’s major ice sheets.
Investigating the formation of subglacial bedforms: satellite imagery is an efficient technique to map a variety of glacial landforms created by glaciers and ice sheets. Recent work has contributed towards the collection of large datasets of landform characteristics and these have been used to formulate and test ideas about their formation (e.g. drumlins and mega-scale glacial lineations) and refine numerical models of ice flow over sediments. These datasets have also been used to help interpret recent geophysical evidence of subglacial bedforms beneath ice streams in Antarctica.
Glacial landforms and landscapes on Mars: imagery of Mars is now comparable (and, in places, much better) than that for the Earth’s surface. Based on Earth analogues, recent work has investigated the potential role of glaciers (and liquid water) in shaping Martian landscapes.
In 2009 I was awarded a Philip Leverhulme Prize (£70,000) in recognition of my research contributions, and in 2013 I was awarded the British Society for Geomorphology’s Gordon Warwick Medal. I currently serve on the Editorial Boards for The Cryosphere and the Journal of Maps, and as President of the International Glaciological Society's British Branch.
External Research Projects
Former PhD Students
- Christopher Darvill (2015): The nature and timing of glaciation in southermost South America.
- Rachel Carr (2014): Ice-ocean-atmosphere interactions in the Arctic Seas.
- Robert Storrar (2014): Reconstructing subglacial meltwater dynamics from the spatial and temporal variation in the form and pattern of eskers.
- Andrew Turner (2013): Deglaciation of the Great Glen, Scotland: reconstructed from geophysical surveys and landform mapping.
- Philip Prescott (2013): Quantifying subglacial roughness and its link to glacial geomorphology and ice speed.
- Heather Channon (2012): Multi-scale analysis of the landforms and sediments of palaeo-ice streams.
- Victoria Brown (2012): Ice stream dynamics at the north-western margin of the Laurentide Ice Sheet.
- Katie Grant (2010): Changes in glacier extent since the Little Ice Age and links to 20th/21st Century climatic variability on Novaya Zemlya, Russian Arctic.
Department of Geography
Department of Geography
- Climate Change and Glacier Dynamics in the Caucasus and the Mountains of Southern Siberia
- Glaciated North Atlantic Margins (GLANAM)
- Identification and characterisation of ice stream sticky spots: an improved understanding of ice stream basal mechanics and shut-down
- Reconstructing Ice Stream Behaviour During Marine Ice Sheet Collapse
- Terrestrial Record of Former Arctic Ice Streams: Elucidating the Controls on Ice Stream Location and Vigour, The
- Testing the Instability Mechanism for Subglacial Bedform Production
- Understanding Marine Ice Stream Retreat Using Numerical Modelling and Geophysical Data
Journal papers: academic
- Ely, J.C., Clark, C.D., Spagnolo, M., Stokes, C.R., Greenwood, S.L., Hughese, A.L.C., Dunlopf, P. & Hessg, D. (2016). Do subglacial bedforms comprise a size and shape continuum?. Geomorphology 257: 108-119.
- Stokes, C.R., Margold, M., Clark, C.D. & Tarasov, L. (2016). Ice stream activity scaled to ice sheet volume during Laurentide Ice Sheet deglaciation. Nature 530(7590): 322-326.
- Spagnolo, M., Phillips, E., Piotrowski, J.A., Rea, B.R., Clark, C.D., Stokes, C.R., Carr, S.J., Ely, J.C., Ribolini, A., Wysota, W. & Szuman, I. (2016). Ice stream motion facilitated by a shallow-deforming and accreting bed. Nature Communications 7: 10723.
- Otteson, D., Stokes, C.R., Bøe, R., Rise, L., Longva, O., Thorsnes, T., Olesen, O., Bugge, T., Lepland, A. & Hestvik, O.B. (2016). Landform assemblages and sedimentary processes along the Norwegian Channel Ice Stream. Sedimentary Geology 338: 115-137.
- Miles, B.W.J., Stokes, C.R. & Jamieson, S.S.R. (2016). Pan–ice-sheet glacier terminus change in East Antarctica reveals sensitivity of Wilkes Land to sea-ice changes. Science Advances 2(5): e1501350.
- Stokes, C.R., Margold, M. & Creyts, T.T. (2016). Ribbed bedforms on palaeo-ice stream beds resemble regular patterns of basal shear stress (‘traction ribs’) inferred from modern ice streams. Journal of Glaciology
- Livingstone, S.J., Stokes, C.R., O Cofaigh, C., Hillenbrand, C-D., Vieli, A., Jamieson, S.S.R., Spagnolo, M. & Dowdeswell, J. (2016). Subglacial processes on an Antarctic ice stream bed. 1: Sediment transport and bedform genesis inferred from marine geophysical data. Journal of Glaciology 62(232): 270-284.
- Jamieson, S.S.R., Stokes, C.R., Livingstone, S.J., Vieli, A. Ò Cofaigh, C., Hillenbrand, C-D. & Spagnolo, M. (2016). Subglacial processes on an Antarctic ice stream bed. 2: Can modelled ice dynamics explain the morphology of mega-scale glacial lineations?. Journal of Glaciology 62(232): 285-298.
- Bickerdike,H., Evans, D.J.A., Ó Cofaigh, C. & Stokes, C.R. (2016). The glacial geomorphology of the Loch Lomond Stadial in Britain: a map and geographic information system resource of published evidence. Journal of Maps
- Livingstone, S.J., Storrar, R.D., Hillier, J.K., Stokes, C.R., Clark, C.D. & Tarasov, L. (2015). An ice-sheet scale comparison of eskers with modelled subglacial drainage routes. Geomorphology 246: 104-112.
- Carr, J.R., Vieli, A., Stokes, C.R., Jamieson, S.S.R., Palmer, S.J., Christoffersen, P., Dowdeswell, J.A., Nick, F.M., Blankenship, D.D. & Young, D.A. (2015). Basal topographic controls on rapid retreat of Humboldt Glacier, northern Greenland. Journal of Glaciology 61(225): 137-150.
- Storrar, R.D., Evans, D.J.A., Stokes, C.R. & Ewertowski, M. (2015). Controls on the location, morphology and evolution of complex esker systems at decadal timescales, Breiðamerkurjökull, southeast Iceland. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 40(11): 1421-1438.
- Darvill, C.M., Bentley, M.J., Stokes, C.R., Hein, A.S. & Rodés, A. (2015). Extensive MIS 3 glaciation in southernmost Patagonia revealed by cosmogenic nuclide dating of outwash sediments. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 429: 157-169.
- Darvill, Christopher M., Bentley, Michael J. & Stokes, Chris R. (2015). Geomorphology and weathering characteristics of erratic boulder trains on Tierra del Fuego, southernmost South America: implications for dating of glacial deposits. Geomorphology 228: 382-397.
- Margold, M., Stokes, C.R., Clark, C.D. & Kleman, J. (2015). Ice streams in the Laurentide Ice Sheet: a new mapping inventory. Journal of Maps 11(3): 380-395.
- Margold, M., Stokes, C.R. & Clark, C.D. (2015). Ice streams in the Laurentide Ice Sheet: identification, characteristics and comparison to modern ice sheets. Earth-Science Reviews 143: 117-146.
- Hillier, J.K., Smith, M.J., Armugam, R., Barr, I., Boston, C.M., Clark, C.D., Ely, J., Fankl, J., Greenwood, S.L., Gosselin, L., Hattestrand, C., Hogan, K., Hughes, A.L., Livingstone, S.L., Lovell, H., McHenry, M., Monoz, Y., Pellicer, X.M., Pellitero, R., Robb, C., Roberson, S., Ruther, D., Spagnolo, M., Standell, M., Stokes, C.R., Storrar, R., Tate, N.J. & Wooldridge, K. (2015). Manual mapping of drumlins in synthetic landscapes to assess operator effectiveness. Journal of Maps 11(5): 719-729.
- Stokes, C.R., Tarasov, L., Blomdin, R., Cronin, T.M., Fisher, T.G., Gyllencreutz, R., Hättestrand, C., Heyman, J., Hindmarsh, R.C.A., Hughes, A.L.C., Jakobsson, M., Kirchner, N., Livingstone, S.J., Margold, M., Murton, J.B., Noormets, R., Peltier, W.R., Peteet, D.M., Piper, D.J.W., Preusser, F., Renssen, H., Roberts, D.H., Roche, D.M., Saint-Ange, F., Stroeven, A.P. & Teller, J.T. (2015). On the Reconstruction of Palaeo-Ice Sheets: Recent Advances and Future Challenges. Quaternary Science Reviews 125: 15-49.
- Chang, M., Jamieson, S.S.R., Bentley, M.J. & Stokes, C.R. (2015). The surficial and subglacial geomorphology of western Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica. Journal of Maps
Available for media contact about:
- Environmental change: Glaciers and climate change
- Geography: Glacial landforms | <urn:uuid:1177fbb0-f26c-48cf-8d8d-49b919c7caf7> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | https://www.dur.ac.uk/directory/profile/?id=5244 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00101-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.763083 | 2,715 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
DUAL is a general cognitive architecture integrating the connectionist and symbolic approaches at the micro level. DUAL is based on decentralized representation and emergent computation. It was inspired by the Society of Mind idea proposed by Marvin Minsky but departs from the initial proposal in many ways. Computations in DUAL emerge from the interaction of many micro-agents each of which is hybrid symbolic/connectionist device. The agents exchange messages and activation via links that can be learnt and modified, they form coalitions which collectively represent concepts, episodes, and facts.
Several models have been developed on the basis of DUAL. These include: AMBR- a model of analogy-making and memory, JUDGEMAP - a model of judgment, PEAN - a model of perception, etc.
|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).| | <urn:uuid:59becba4-68c5-4d4f-8c90-8c9b71bd3d1c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/DUAL_(cognitive_architecture) | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00104-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.902501 | 196 | 3 | 3 |
FEMA and NOAA: Floods Happen Everywhere, Be Prepared
Date Posted: March 14, 2014
|Ice jams on the Vermilion River in northern Ohio, Feb. 23, 2014. Credit NOAA.|
During Flood Safety Awareness Week, March 16 to 22, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) are calling on individuals across the country to Be a Force of Nature: Take the Next Step by preparing for a flood and encourage others to do the same.
Floods are the most common — and costliest — natural disaster in the nation affecting every state and territory. A flood occurs somewhere in the United States or its territories nearly every day of the year. Flood Safety Awareness Week, is an opportunity to learn about flood risk and take action to prepare your home and family.
"Many people needlessly die each year because they underestimate the risk of driving through a flooded roadway," said Louis Uccellini, Ph.D., director of NOAA's National Weather Service. "Survive the storm: Turn Around Don't Drown at flooded roadways."
"Floods can happen anytime and anywhere," said FEMA Administrator Craig Fugate. "Take steps now to make sure your family is prepared, including financial protection for your home or business through flood insurance. Find out how your community can take action in America's PrepareAthon! with drills, group discussions and community exercises at www.ready.gov/prepare."
Our flood safety awareness message is simple: know your risk, take action, and be an example. The best way to stay safe during a flood and recover quickly once the water recedes is to prepare for a variety of situations long before the water starts to rise.
- Know Your Risk: The first step to becoming weather-ready is to understand that flooding can happen anywhere and affect where you live and work, and how the weather could impact you and your family. Sign up for weather alerts and check the weather forecast regularly at weather.gov. Now is the time to be prepared by ensuring you have real-time access to flood warnings via mobile devices, weather radio and local media, and avoiding areas that are under these warnings. Visit ready.gov/alerts to learn about public safety alerts and visit floodsmart.gov to learn about your flood risk and flood insurance available.
- Take Action: Make sure you and your family are prepared for floods. You may not be together when weather strikes, so plan how you will contact one another by developing your family communication plan. Flood insurance is also an important consideration, just a few inches of water inside a home can cost tens of thousands of dollars in damage that typically will not be covered by a standard homeowner's insurance policy. Visit Ready.gov/prepare and NOAA to learn more actions you can take to be better prepared and important safety and weather information.
- Be an Example: Once you have taken action, tell family, friends, and co-workers to do the same. Technology today makes it easier than ever to be a good example and to share the steps you took to become weather-ready.
|Ice jam on the Rocky River in Ohio, Jan. 23, 2014. Credit: NOAA.|
NOAA's mission is to understand and predict changes in the Earth's environment, from the depths of the ocean to the surface of the sun, and to conserve and manage our coastal and marine resources. Join us on Facebook,Twitter and our other social media channels.
FEMA's mission is to support our citizens and first responders to ensure that as a nation we work together to build, sustain, and improve our capability to prepare for, protect against, respond to, recover from, and mitigate all hazards. | <urn:uuid:cfd62727-cce6-40a7-8dff-e505ab759dd0> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nws.noaa.gov/com/weatherreadynation/news/140314_flood.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00054-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940096 | 769 | 3.1875 | 3 |
Panorama taken inside Santa Maria del Popolo church in Rome. This picture was taken most of the way down the church aisle near the High Altar in 2006.
Santa Maria del Popolo Church - Rome visitor guide showing a virtual tour of 'Santa Maria del Popolo Church' linked to an interactive map with local and travel information. 360° panoramas from Roma.
The church of Santa Maria del Popolo is one of the more important churches in Rome, and a popular tourist attraction on Piazza del Popolo. The first religious building on this site was a chapel dedicated to Our Lady built over a tomb of the Domitia family in 1099. This was funded by the people of Rome, and hence the name 'Maria del Popolo' (Mary of the People). The chapel became a church in the 13C. The current church was built between 1472 and 1477, with further changes being made in the 16C and 17C.
Santa Maria del Poplo has several important features. The church facade is on the of the best examples of early the Renaissance style in Rome. Inside are numerous chapels decorated with various art from the Renaissance and Baroque eras. Here you will find, inside the Cerasi Chapel, canvases of 'Caravaggio' (Crucifixion of St. Peter and Conversion on the Way to Damascus). Also within S Maria del Popolo are the 'Assumption of the Virgin' by Annibale Carracci, frescoes by Pinturicchio, and sculptures by Andrea Bregno and Gian Lorenzo Bernini. The church dome is decorated with Raphael's 'Creation of the World' mosaics.
On the other side of the Piazza del Popolo are the churches of S. Maria dei Miracoli and S Maria di Montesanto. | <urn:uuid:55b56e2d-3227-4dc2-9aa0-2a10e4919da1> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.panoramicearth.com/3955/Rome/Santa_Maria_del_Popolo_Church | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393997.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00093-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.920738 | 377 | 2.578125 | 3 |
nounZoology , dated
A plantlike animal, especially a coral, sea anemone, sponge, or sea lily.
- There resulted, he proposed, eleven general grades with man at the apex and the zoophytes at the bottom, the zoophytes being invertebrate animals resembling plants.
- A bottle was produced which was said to contain certain zoophytes.
- Sheer chance had placed me in the presence of the most valuable specimens of this zoophyte.
For editors and proofreaders
Definition of zoophyte in:
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
Comments that don't adhere to our Community Guidelines may be moderated or removed. | <urn:uuid:f3a662ad-a6e2-4bf2-acf5-b06c6acec13c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/zoophyte | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00007-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.884938 | 148 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Take a sneak peek at the new NIST.gov and let us know what you think!
(Please note: some content may not be complete on the beta site.).
NIST Super-Sensors to Measure ‘Signature’ of Inflationary Universe
For Immediate Release: May 5, 2009
What happened in the first trillionth of a trillionth of a trillionth of a second after the Big Bang? Super-sensitive microwave detectors, built at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), may soon help scientists find out. The new sensors, described on Saturday at a meeting of the American Physical Society (APS) in Denver,* were made for a potentially ground-breaking experiment scheduled for a year from now to make new measurements of the cosmic microwave background (CMB)—the faint afterglow of the Big Bang that still fills the universe.
The experiment, a collaboration of NIST, Princeton University, the University of Colorado at Boulder, and the University of Chicago, will take place in the Chilean desert. A large array of powerful NIST sensors on a telescope will look for subtle fingerprints in the CMB from primordial gravitational waves—ripples in the fabric of space-time from the violent birth of the universe more than 13 billion years ago. Such waves are believed to have left a faint but unique imprint on the direction of the CMB’s electric field, called the “B-mode polarization.” These waves—never before confirmed through measurements—are potentially detectable today, if sensitive enough equipment is used.
“This is one of the great measurement challenges facing the scientific community over the next 20 years, and one of the most exciting ones as well,” says Kent Irwin, the NIST physicist leading the project.
If found, these waves would be the clearest evidence yet in support of the “inflation theory,” which suggests that all of the currently observable universe expanded rapidly from a subatomic volume, leaving in its wake the telltale cosmic background of gravitational waves.
The experiment depends on new NIST microwave detectors that are designed to measure not only the intensity but also the polarization of the microwave background. The B-mode polarization signals may be more than a million times fainter than the temperature signals. To detect such subtle patterns, the NIST detectors will collect significant amounts of radiation efficiently and will be free of moving parts and traditional sources of systematic error, such as vibration and magnetic interference. The NIST team previously built superconducting amplifiers and cameras for CMB experiments at the South Pole, in balloon-borne observatories, and on the Atacama Plateau in Chile.
For additional details, images and animation, see “NIST Super-Sensors to Measure ‘Signature’ of Inflationary Universe.”
* Atacama B-mode Search (ABS): Scientific Motivations and Design Overview, Sheraton Denver Hotel, Plaza Court 2, Saturday, May 2, 2009, 1:30 – 1:42 p.m.
Edited on May 6, 2009 to insert link to video. | <urn:uuid:999e7b0a-273f-433e-b4b0-768c320b538d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.nist.gov/pml/div686/cmb_050509.cfm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00085-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.905738 | 644 | 3.296875 | 3 |
RECORD: Darwin, C. R. 1883. Essay on instinct. In Romanes, G. J., Mental evolution in animals. With a posthumous essay on instinct by Charles Darwin. London: Kegan Paul Trench & Co., pp. 355-384.
REVISION HISTORY: Scanned, OCRed and corrected by John van Wyhe 2002; further corrections 1.2006, corrections by Sue Asscher 4.2007. RN2
A POSTHUMOUS ESSAY ON INSTINCT,
CHARLES DARWIN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.
[The full text of a part of Mr. Darwin's chapter on Instinct written for the "Origin of Species," but afterwards suppressed for the sake of condensation.]
Migration.—The migration of young birds across broad tracts of the sea, and the migration of young salmon from fresh into salt water, and the return of both to their birthplaces, have often been justly advanced as surprising instincts. With respect to the two main points which concern us, we have, firstly, in different breeds of birds a perfect series from those which occasionally or regularly shift their quarters within the same country to those which periodically pass to far distant countries, traversing, often by night, the open sea over spaces of from 240 to 300 miles, as from the north-eastern shores of Britain to Southern Scandinavia. Secondly, in regard to the variability of the migratory instinct, the very same species often migrates in one country and is stationary in another; or different individuals of the same species in the same country are migratory or stationary, and these can sometimes be distinguished from one another by slight differences.* Dr. Andrew Smith has often remarked to me how inveterate is the instinct of migration in some quadrupeds of S. Africa, notwithstanding the persecution to which they are in consequence subjected: in N. America, however, persecution has driven the Buffalo within
* Mr. Gould has observed this fact in Malta, and in Tasmania in the southern hemisphere. Bechstein (Stubenvögel, 1840, s. 293) says that in Germany the migratory and non-migratory Thrushes can be distinguished by the yellow tinge of the soles of their feet. The Quail is migratory in S. Africa, but stationary in Robin Island, only two leagues from the continent (Le Vaillant's Travels, vol. i, p. 105): Dr. Andrew Smith confirms this. In Ireland the Quail has lately taken to remain in numbers to breed there (W. Thompson, Nat. Hist, of Ireland, vide "Birds," vol. ii, p. 70).
a late period* to cross in its migrations the Rocky Mountains; and those "great highways, continuous for a hundred miles, always several inches, sometimes several feet in depth," worn by migrating buffaloes on the eastern plains, are never found westward of the Rocky Mountains. In the United States, swallows and other birds have largely extended, within quite a late period, the range of their migrations.†
The migratory instinct in Birds is occasionally lost; as in the case of the Woodcock, some of which have totally, without any assignable cause, taken to breed and become stationary in Scotland.‡ In Madeira the first arrival of the Woodcock is known,§ and it is not there migratory; nor is our common Swift, though belonging to a group of birds almost emblematical of migration. A Brent Goose, which had been wounded, lived for nineteen years in confinement; and for about the first twelve years, every spring at the migratory period it became uneasy, and would, like other confined individuals of the species, wander as far northwards as possible; but after this period "it ceased to exhibit any particular feeling at this season."|| So that we have seen the migratory impulse at last worn out.
In the migration of animals, the instinct which impels them to proceed in a certain direction ought, I think, to be distinguished from the unknown means by which they can tell one direction from another, and by which, after starting, they are enabled to keep their course in a dark night over the open sea; and likewise from the means—whether some instinctive association with changing temperature, or with want of food, &c.—which leads them to start at the proper period. In this, and other cases, the several parts of the
* Col. Frémont, Report of Exploring Expedition, 1845, p. 144.
† See Dr. Bachman's excellent memoir on this subject in Silliman's Philosoph. Journ., vol. 30, p. 81.
‡ Mr. W. Thompson has given an excellent and full account of this whole subject (see Nat. Hist, of Ireland, "Birds," vol. ii, pp. 247-57), where he discusses the cause. There seems reason to believe (p. 254) that the migratory and non-migratory individuals can be distinguished. For Scotland see St. John's Wild Sports of the Highlands, 1846, p. 220.
§ Dr. Heineken in Zoological Journal, vol. v, p. 75. See also Mr. E. V. Harcourt's Sketch of Madeira, 1851, p. 120.
|| W. Thompson, loc. cit., vol. iii, p. 63. In Dr. Bachman's paper just referred to cases of Canada geese in confinement periodically trying to escape northward are given.
problem have often been confused together under the word instinct.* With respect to the period of starting, it cannot of course be memory in the young cuckoos' start for the first time two months after their parents have departed: yet it deserves notice that animals somehow acquire a surprisingly accurate idea of time. A. d'Orbigny shows that a lame hawk in S. America knew the period of three weeks, and used at this interval to visit monasteries when food was distributed to the poor. Difficult though it may be to conceive how animals either intelligently or instinctively come to know a given period, yet we shall immediately see that in some cases our domestic animals have acquired an annual recurring impulse to travel, extremely like, if not identical with, a true migratory instinct, and which can hardly be due to mere memory.
It is a true instinct which leads the Brent Goose to try to escape northwards; but how the bird distinguishes north and south we know not. Nor do we know how a bird which starts in the night, as many do, to traverse the ocean, keeps its course as if provided with a compass. But we should be very cautious in attributing to migratory animals any capacity in this respect which we do not ourselves possess;† though certainly in them carried to a wonderful perfection. To give one instance, the experienced navigator Wrangel‡ expatiates with astonishment on the "unerring instinct" of the natives of N. Siberia, by which they guided him through an intricate labyrinth of hummocks of ice with incessant changes of direction; while Wrangel "was watching the different turns compass in hand and trying to reason the true route, the native had always a perfect knowledge of it instinctively." Moreover, the power in migratory animals of keeping their course is not unerring, as may be inferred from
* See E. P. Thompson on the Passions of Animals, 1851, p. 9; and Alison's remarks on this head in the Cyclopædia of Anatomy and Physiology, article "Instinct," p. 23.
† [I cannot refrain from drawing attention to the superiority of scientific method and philosophical caution here displayed as contrasted with Professor Hæckel's views on the same subject, which in presence of this difficulty at once conclude in favour of some mysterious additional sense (see p. 95).—G. J. R.]
‡ Wrangel's Travels, Eng. trans., p. 146. See also Sir G. Grey's Expedition to Australia, vol. ii, p. 72, for interesting account of the powers of the Australians in this same respect. The old French missionaries used to believe that the N. American Indians were actually guided by instinct in finding their way.
the numbers of lost swallows often met with by ships in the Atlantic: the migratory salmon, also, often fails in returning to its own river, "many Tweed salmon being found in the Forth." But how a small and tender bird coming from Africa or Spain, after traversing the sea, finds the very same hedge-row in the middle of England, where it made its nest last season, is truly marvellous.*
Let us now turn to our domesticated animals. Many cases are on record of animals finding their way home in a mysterious manner, and it is asserted that Highland sheep have actually swum over the Frith of Forth to their home a hundred miles distant;† when bred for three or four generations in the lowlands, they retain their restless disposition. I know of no reason to doubt the minute account given by Hogg of a family of sheep which had a hereditary propensity to return at the breeding season to a place ten miles off, whence the first of the lot had been brought; and, after their lambs were old enough, they returned by themselves to the place where they usually lived; so troublesome was this inherited propensity, associated with the period of parturition, that the owner was compelled to sell the lot.‡ Still more interesting is the account given by several authors of certain sheep in Spain, which from ancient times have annually migrated during May from one part of the country to another distant four hundred miles: all the authors§ agree that "as soon as April comes the sheep express, by curious uneasy motions, a strong desire to return to their summer habita-
* The number of birds which by chance visit the Azores (Consul C. Hunt, in Journ. Geograph. Soc., vol. xv, Pt. 2, p. 282), so distant from Europe, is probably in part due to lost directions during migration: W. Thompson (Nat. Hist, of Ireland, "Birds," vol. ii, p. 172) shows that N. American birds, which occasionally wander to Ireland, generally arrive at the period when they are migrating in N. America. In regard to Salmon, see Scope's Days of Salmon Fishing, p. 47.
† Gardener's Chronicle, 1852, p. 798: other cases are given by Youatt on Sheep, p. 377.
‡ Quoted by Youatt in Veterinary Journal, vol. v, p. 282.
§ Bourgoanne's Travels in Spain (Eng. trans.), 1789, vol. i, pp. 38-54. In Mills' Treatise on Cattle, 1776, p. 342, there is an extract of a letter from a gentleman in Spain from which I have made extract. Youatt on the Sheep, p. 153, gives references to three other publications with similar accounts. I may add that von Tschudi (Sketches of Nature in the Alps, Eng. trans., 1856, p. 160) states that annually in the spring the cattle are greatly excited, when they hear the great bell which is carried with them; well knowing that this is the signal for their "approaching migration" to the higher Alps.
tions." "The unquietude," says another author, "which they manifest might in case of need serve as an almanack." "The shepherds must then exert all their vigilance to prevent them escaping," "for it is a known truth that they would go to the very place where they had been born." Many cases have occurred of three or four sheep having started and performed the journey by themselves, though generally these wanderers are destroyed by the wolves. It is very doubtful whether these migratory sheep are aborigines of the country; and it is certain that within a comparatively recent period their migrations have been widely extended: this being the case, I think there can hardly be a doubt that this "natural instinct," as one author calls it, to migrate at one particular season in one direction has been acquired during domestication, based no doubt on that passionate desire to return to their birthplace which, as we have seen, is common to many breeds of sheep. The whole case seems to me strictly parallel to the migrations of wild animals.
Let us now consider how the more remarkable migrations could possibly have originated. Take the case of a bird being driven each year, by cold or want of food, slowly to travel northward, as is the case with some birds; and in time we may well believe that this compulsory travelling would become an instinctive passion, as with the sheep in Spain. Now during the long course of ages, let valleys become converted into estuaries, and then into wider and wider arms of the sea; and still I can well believe that the impulse which leads the pinioned goose to scramble northward would lead our bird over the trackless waters; and that, by the aid of the unknown power by which many animals (and savage men) can retain a true course, it would safely cross the sea now covering the submerged path of its ancient land journey.*
* I do not suppose that the line of migration of birds always marks the line of formerly continuous land. It is possible that a bird accidentally blown to a distant land or island, after staying some time and breeding there, might be induced by its innate instinct to fly away, and again to return there in the breeding season. But I know of no facts to countenance the idea; and I have been much struck in the case of oceanic islands, lying at no excessive distance from the mainland, but which from reasons to be given in a future chapter I do not believe have ever been joined to the mainland, with the fact that they seem most rarely to have any migratory birds. Mr. E. V. Harcourt, who has written on the birds of Madeira, informs me that there are none in that island; so, I am informed by Mr. Carew Hunt, it is in the
[I will give one case of migration which seemed to me at first to offer especial difficulty. It is asserted that in the extreme north of America, Elk and Reindeer annually cross, as if they could smell the herbage at the distance of a hundred miles, a tract of absolute desert, to visit certain islands where there is a better (but still scanty) supply of food. How could their migration have been first established? If the climate formerly had been a little more favourable, the desert a hundred miles in width might then have been clothed with vegetation sufficient to have just tempted the quadrupeds over it, and so to have found out the more fertile northern islet. But the intense Glacial preceded our present climate, and therefore the idea of a former better climate seemed quite untenable; but if those American geologists are right who believe, from the range of recent shells, that subsequently to the Glacial period there was one slightly warmer than the present period, then perhaps we have a key to the migration across the desert of the Elk and Reindeer.*]
Instinctive Fear.—I have already discussed the hereditary tameness of our domestic animals; from what follows I have no doubt that the fear of man has always first to be acquired in a state of nature, and that under domestication it is merely lost. In all the few archipelagoes and islands inhabited by man, of which I have been able to find an early account, the native animals were entirely void of fear of man: I have ascertained this in six cases in the most distant parts of the world, and with birds and mammals of the most different kinds.† At the Galapagos Islands I pushed a hawk off a
Azores, though he thinks that perhaps the Quail, which migrates from island to island, may leave the Archipelago. [In pencil it is added "Canaries none."—G. J. R.]
In the Falkland Islands, so far as I can find, no land-bird is migratory. From enquiries which I have made, I find there is no migratory bird in Mauritius or Bourbon. Colenso asserts (Tasmanian Journal, vol. ii, p. 227) that a cuckoo, C. lucidus, is migratory, remaining only three or four months in New Zealand; but New Zealand is so large an island that it may very easily migrate to the south and remain there quite unknown to the natives of the north. Faröe, situated about 180 miles from the north of Scotland, have several migratory birds (Graber, Tagebuch, 1830, s. 205); Iceland seems to be the strongest exception to the general rule, but it lies only miles from the line of 100 fathoms. [The last ten words are added in pencil with the blanks left for subsequent filling in.—G. J. R.]
* [The paragraph which I have enclosed in square brackets is faintly struck out in pencil.—G. J. R.].
† I have given in my Journal of Researches (1845), p. 378, details on the Falkland and Galapagos. Mr. Cada Mosto (Kerr's Collection of Voyages,
tree with the muzzle of my gun, and the little birds drank water out of a vessel which I held in my hand. But I have in my "Journal" given details on this subject, and I will here only remark that the tameness is not general, but special towards man; for at the Falklands the geese build on the outlying islands on account of the foxes. These wolf-like foxes were here as fearless of man as were the birds, and the sailors in Byron's voyage, mistaking their curiosity for fierceness, ran into the water to avoid them. In all old civilized countries the wariness and fear of even young foxes and wolves are well known.* At the Galapagos Islands the great land lizards (Amblyrhynchus) were extremely tame, so that I could pull them by the tail; whereas in other parts of the world large lizards are wary enough. The aquatic lizard of the same genus lives on the coast, is adapted to swim and dive perfectly, and feeds on submerged algæ: no doubt it must be exposed to danger from the sharks, and consequently, though quite tame on the land, I could not drive them into the water, and when I threw them in they always swam directly back to the shore. See what a contrast with all amphibious animals in Europe, which when disturbed by the most dangerous animal, man, instinctively and instantly take to the water.
The tameness of the birds at the Falklands is particularly interesting, because most of the very same species, more especially the larger birds, are excessively wild in Tierra del Fuego, where for generations they have been persecuted by the savages. Both at these islands and at the Galapagos it is particularly noteworthy, as I have shown in my "Journal" by the comparison of the several accounts up to the time when we visited these islands, that the birds are gradually getting less and less tame; and it is surprising, considering the degree of persecution which they have occasionally suf-
vol. ii, p. 246) says that at the C. de Verde Islands the pigeons were so tame us readily to be caught. These, then, are the only large groups of islands, with the exception of the oceanic (of which I can find no early account) which were uninhabited when discovered. Thos. Herbert in 1626 in his Travels (p. 349) describes the tameness of the birds at Mauritius, and Du Bois in 1669-72 enters into details on this head with respect to all the birds at Bourbon. Capt. Moresby lent me a MS account of his survey of St. Pierre and Providence Islands, north of Madagascar, in which he describes the extreme tameness of the pigeons. Capt. Carmichael has described the tameness of the birds at Tristan d'Acunha.
* Le Roy, Lettres Philosoph., p. 86.
fered during the last one or two centuries, that they have not become wilder; it shows that the fear of man is not soon acquired.
In old inhabited countries, where the animals have acquired much general and instinctive suspicion and fear, they seem very soon to learn from each other, and perhaps even from other species, caution directed towards any particular object. It is notorious that rats and mice cannot long be caught by the same sort of trap,* however tempting the bait may be; yet, as it is rare that one which has actually been caught escapes, the others must have learnt the danger from seeing their companions suffer. Even the most terrific object, if never causing danger, and if not instinctively dreaded, is immediately viewed with indifference, as we see in our railway trains. What bird is so difficult to approach as the heron, and how many generations would it not require to make herons fearless of man? Yet Mr. Thompson says† that these birds, after a few days' experience, would fearlessly allow a train to pass within half gun-shot distance.‡ Although it cannot be doubted that the fear of man in old inhabited countries is partly acquired, yet it also certainly is instinctive; for nesting birds are generally terrified at the first sight of man, and certainly far more so than most of the old birds at the Falklands and Galapagos Archipelago after years of persecution.
We have in England excellent evidence of the fear of man being acquired and inherited in proportion to the danger incurred; for, as was long ago remarked by the Hon. Daines Barrington,§ all our large birds, young and old, are extremely wild. Yet there can be no relation between size and fear;
* E. P. Thompson, Passions of Animals, p. 29.
† Nat. Hist. of Ireland, "Birds," vol. ii, p. 133.
‡ [I may here refer to the corroboration which this statement has recently received in a correspondence between Dr. Rae and Mr. Goodsir (Nature, July 3rd, 12th, and 19th, 1883). The former says that the wild duck, teal, &c., which frequent certain districts through which the Pacific Railway has been carried in Canada, became quite fearless of the trains the first few days after traffic was opened, and the latter gives similar testimony concerning the wild fowl of Australia, adding, "The constant roar of a great passing traffic, as well as the unceasing turmoil and unearthly noises of a large railway station within a stone's throw of their haunts, is now quite unnoticed by these usually most watchful and wary of all birds, [i.e., wild ducks.] But for fear of trespassing on your space, I could give many more illustrations of the truth of Dr. Rae's remarks."—G. J. R.]
§ Phil. Trans., 1773, p. 264.
for on unfrequented islands, when first visited, the large birds were as tame as the small. How exceedingly wary is our magpie; yet it fears not horses or cows, and sometimes alights on their backs, just like the doves at the Galapagos did in 1684 on Cowley. In Norway, where the magpie is not persecuted, it picks up food "close about the doors, sometimes walking inside the houses."* The hooded crow (C. cornix), again, is one of our wildest birds; yet in Egypt† is perfectly tame. Every single young magpie and crow cannot have been frightened in England, and yet all are fearful of man in the extreme: on the other hand, in the Falkland and Galapagos Islands many old birds, and their parents before them, must have been frightened and seen others killed; yet they have not acquired a salutary dread of the most destructive animal, man.†
Animals feigning, as it is said, Death—an unknown state to each living creature—seemed to me a remarkable instinct. I agree with those authors§ who think that there has been much exaggeration on this subject: I do not doubt that fainting (I have had a Robin faint in my hands) and the paralyzing effects of excessive fear have sometimes been mistaken for the simulation of death.|| Insects are most notori-
* Mr. C. Hewitson in Magazine of Zoology and Botany, vol. ii, p. 311.
† Geoffry St. Hilaire, Anns. des Mus., tome ix, p. 471.
† [I have already pointed out the refined degree to which such instinctive dread of man is developed when it is able accurately to discriminate what constitutes safe distance from fire-arms. Since writing the passage to which I allude (see p. 197), I have met with the following observation in the letters recently published by Dr. Rae in Nature, which is of interest as showing how rapidly such refinement of discrimination is attained:—"I may perhaps be permitted to give one of many instances known to me of the quickness of birds in acquiring a knowledge of danger. Golden plover, when coming from their breeding-places in high latitudes, visit the islands north of Scotland in large numbers, and keep together in great packs. At first they are easily approached, but after a very few shots being fired at them, they become not only much more shy, but seem to measure with great accuracy the distance at which they are safe from harm."—G. J. R.]
§ Couch, Illustrations of Instinct, p. 201.
|| The most curious case of apparently true simulation of death is that given by Wrangel (Travels in Siberia, p. 312, Eng. trans.) of the geese which migrate to the Tundras to moult, and are then quite incapable of flight. He says they feigned death so well "with their legs and necks stretched out quite stiff, that I passed them by, thinking they were dead." But the natives were not thus taken in. This simulation would not save them from foxes or wolves, &c., which I presume inhabit the Tundras: would it save them from hawks? The case seems a strange one. A lizard in Patagonia (Journal of Researches, p. 97), which lives on the sand near the coast, and is speckled like it, when frightened feigned death with outstretched legs, depressed body,
ous in this respect. We have amongst them a most perfect series, even within the same genus (as I have observed in Curculio and Chrysomela), from species which feign only for a second and sometimes imperfectly, still moving their antennæ (as with some Histers), and which will not feign a second time however much irritated, to other species which, according to De Geer, may be cruelly roasted at a slow fire, without the slightest movement—to others, again, which will long remain motionless as much as twenty-three minutes, as I find with Chrysomela spartii. Some individuals of the same species of Ptinus assumed a different position from that of others. Now it will not be disputed that the manner and duration of the feint is useful to each species, according to the kind of danger which it has to escape; therefore there is no more real difficulty in its acquirement, through natural selection, of this hereditary attitude than of any other. Nevertheless, it struck me as a strange coincidence that the insects should thus have come to exactly simulate the state which they took when dead. Hence I carefully noted the simulated positions of seventeen different kinds of insects (including an Iulus, Spider, and Oniscus) belonging to the most distinct genera, both poor and first-rate shammers; afterwards I procured naturally dead specimens of some of these insects, others I killed with camphor by an easy slow death; the result was that in no one instance was the attitude exactly the same, and in several instances the attitude of the feigners and of the really dead were as unlike as they possibly could be.
Nidification and Habitation.—We come now to more complex instincts. The nests of Birds have been carefully attended to, at least in Europe and the United States; so that we have a good and rare opportunity of seeing whether there is any variation in an important instinct, and we shall find that this is the case. We shall further find that favourable opportunities and intelligence sometimes slightly modify the constructive instinct. In the nests of birds, also, we have an unusually perfect series, from those which build none, but lay on the bare ground, to others which make a most imperfect and simple nest, to others more perfect, and
and closed eyes; if further disturbed, it buried itself quickly in the sand. If the Hare had been a small insignificant animal, and if she had closed her eyes when on her form, should we not perhaps have said that she was feigning death? In regard to Insects, see Kirby and Spence, Introduction to Entomology, vol. ii, p. 234.
so on, till we arrive at marvellous structures, rivalling the weavers' art.
Even in so singular a nest as that of the Hirundo (Collocalia esculenta), eaten by the Chinese, we can, I think, trace the stages by which the necessary instinct has been acquired. The nest is composed of a brittle white translucent substance, very like pure gum arabic, or even glass, lined with adherent feather-down. The nest of an allied species in the British Museum consists of irregularly reticulated fibres, some as fine as * of the same substance; in another species bits of sea-weed are agglutinated together with a similar substance. This dry mucilaginous matter soon absorbs water and softens: examined under the microscope it exhibits no structure, except traces of lamination, and very generally pear-shaped bubbles of various sizes; these, indeed, are very conspicuous in small dry fragments, and some bits looked almost like vesicular lava. A small pure piece put into flame crackles, swells, does not readily burn, and smells strongly of animal matter. The genus Collocalia, according to Mr. G. R. Gray, to whom I am much obliged for allowing me to examine all the specimens in the British Museum, ranks in the same sub-family with our common Swift. The latter bird generally seizes on the nest of a sparrow, but Mr. Macgillivray has carefully described two nests in which the confusedly fitted materials were agglutinated together by extremely thin shreds of a substance which crackles but does not readily burn when put into a flame. In N. America† another species of Swift causes its nest to adhere against the vertical wall of a chimney, and builds it of small sticks placed parallel and agglutinated together
* [In the MS a blank is here intentionally left for the subsequent filling in of an appropriate word.—G. J. R.]
† For Cypselus murarius see Macgillivray, British Birds, vol. iii, 1840, p. 625. For C. pelasgius, see Mr. Peabody's excellent paper on the Birds of Massachussetts in the Boston Journal of Nat. Hist., vol. iii, p. 187. M. E. Robert (Comptes Rendus, quoted in Anns. and Mag. of Nat. Hist., vol. viii, 1842, p. 476) found that the nests of the Hirundo riparia, made in the gravelly banks of the Volga, had their upper surfaces plastered with a yellow animal substance, which he imagined to be fishes' spawn. Could he have mistaken the species, for there is no reason to suppose our bank-martin has any such habit? This would be a very remarkable variation of instinct, if it could be proved; and the more remarkable that this bird belongs to a different sub-family from the Swifts and Collocalia. Yet I am inclined to believe it, for it has been affirmed with apparent truth that the House-martin moistens the mud, with which it builds its nest, with adhesive saliva.
with cakes of a brittle mucilage which, like that of the esculent swallow, swells and softens in water; in flame it crackles, swells, does not readily burn, and emits a strong animal odour: it differs only in being yellowish-brown, in not having so many large air-bubbles, in being more plainly laminated, and in having even a striated appearance, caused by innumerable elliptical excessively minute points, which I believe to be drawn-out minute air-bubbles.
Most authors believe that the nest of the esculent swallow is formed of either a Fucus or of the roe of a fish; others, I believe, have suspected that it is formed of a secretion from the salivary glands of the bird. The latter view I cannot doubt, from the preceding observations, is the correct one. The inland habits of the Swifts and the manner in which the substance behaves in flame almost disposes of the supposition of Fucus. Nor can I believe, after having examined the dried roe of fishes, that we should find no trace of cellular matter in the nests, had they been thus formed. How could our Swifts, the habits of which are so well known, obtain roe without being detected? Mr. Macgillivray has shown that the salivary crypts of the Swifts are largely developed, and he believes that the substance with which the materials of its nest are fitted together, is secreted by their glands. I cannot doubt that this is the origin of the similar and more copious substance in the nest of the North American Swift, and in those of the Collocalia esculenta. We can thus understand its vesicular and laminated structure, and the curious reticulated structure of the Philippian Island species. The only change required in the instinct of these several birds is that less and less foreign materials should be used. Hence I conclude that the Chinese make soup of dried saliva.*
In looking for a perfect series in the less common forms of birds' nests, we should never forget that all existing birds must be almost infinitely few compared with those which have existed since footprints were impressed on the beach of the New Red Sandstone formation of North America.
If it be admitted that the nest of each bird, wherever placed and however constructed, be good for that species
* [It is almost needless to observe that we must remember the date at which this was written; but it may be remarked that as early as 1817 it was pointed out by Home (Phil. Trans., p. 332) that the proventriculus of Collocalia is a peculiar glandular structure probably suited to secrete the substance of which the nest consists.—G. J. R.]
under its own conditions of life; and if the nesting-instinct varies ever so little, when a bird is placed under new conditions, and the variations can be inherited, of which there can be little doubt—then natural selection in the course of ages might modify and perfect almost to any degree the nest of a bird in comparison with that of its progenitors in long past ages. Let me take one of the most extraordinary cases on record, and see how selection may possibly have acted; I refer to Mr. Gould's observation* on the Australian Megapodidæ. The Talegalla lathami scrapes together a great pyramid, from two to four cart-loads in amount, of decaying vegetable matter; and in the middle it deposit its eggs. The eggs are hatched by the fermenting mass, the heat of which was estimated at 90° F., and the young birds scratch their way out of the mound. The accumulation propensity is so strong that a single unmated cock confined in Sydney annually collected an immense mass of vegetable matter. The Leipoa ocellata makes a pile forty-five feet in circumference and four feet in height, of leaves thickly covered with sand, and in the same way leaves its eggs to be hatched by the heat of fermentation. The Megapodius tumulus in the northern parts of Australia makes even a much larger mound, but apparently including less vegetable matter; and other species in the Malayan Archipelago are said to place their eggs in holes in the ground, where they are hatched by the heat of the sun alone. It is not so surprising that these birds should have lost the instinct of incubation, when the proper temperature is supplied either from fermentation or the sun, as that they should have been led to pile up beforehand a great heap of vegetable matter in order that it might ferment; for, however the fact may be explained, it is known that other birds will leave their eggs when the heat is sufficient for incubation, as in the case of the Fly-catcher which built its nest in Mr. Knight's hot-house.† Even the snake takes advantage of a hot-bed in which to lay its eggs; and what concerns us more, is that a common hen, according to Professor Fischer, "made use of the artificial heat of a hot-bed to hatch her eggs."‡ Again Réaumur, as well as Bonnet,
* Birds of Australia, and Introduction to the Birds of Australia, 1848, p. 82.
† Yarrel's British Birds, vol. i, p. 166.
‡ Alison, article "Instinct" in Todd's Cyclop. of Anat. and Physiol., p. 21.
observed* that ants ceased their laborious task of daily moving their eggs to and from the surface according to the heat of the sun, when they had built their nest between the two cases of a bee-hive, where a proper and equable temperature was provided.
Now let us suppose that the conditions of life favoured the extension of a bird of this Family, whose eggs were hatched by the solar rays alone, into a cooler, damper, and more wooded country: then those individuals which chanced to have the accumulative propensity so far modified as to prefer more leaves and less sand, would be favoured in their extension; for they would accumulate more vegetable matter, and its fermentation would compensate for the loss of solar heat, and thus more young birds would be hatched which might as readily inherit the peculiar accumulative propensity of their parents as our breeds of dogs inherit a tendency to retrieve, another to point, and another to dash round its prey. And this process of natural selection might be continued, till the eggs came to be hatched exclusively by the heat of fermentation; the bird, of course, being as ignorant of the cause of the heat as of that of its own body.
In the case of corporeal structures, when two closely allied species, one for instance semi-aquatic and the other terrestrial, are modified for their different manners of life, their main and general agreement of structure is due, according to our theory, to descent from common parents; and their slight differences to subsequent modification through natural selection. So when we hear that the thrush of South America (T. Falklandicus), like our European species, lines her nest in the same peculiar way with mud, though, from being surrounded by wholly different plants and animals, she must be placed under somewhat different conditions; or when we hear that in North America the males of the kitty wrens,† like the male of our species, have the strange and anomalous habit of making "cock-nests," not lined with feathers, in which to shelter themselves;—when we hear of such cases, and they are sufficiently numerous in all classes of animals, we must attribute the similarity of the instinct to inheritance from common progenitors, and the dissimilarity, either to
* Kirby and Spence, Introd. to Entomol., vol. ii, p. 519.
† Peabody in Boston Journ. Nat. Hist., vol. iii, p. 144. For our British species see Macgillivray, Brit. Birds, vol. iii, p. 23.
selected and profitable modification, or to acquired and inherited habit. In the same manner, as the northern and southern thrushes have largely inherited their instinctive modification from a common parent, so no doubt the thrush and blackbird have likewise inherited much from their common progenitor, but with somewhat more considerable modifications of instinct in one or both species, from that of their ancient and unknown ancestor.
We will now consider the variability of the nesting-instinct. The cases, no doubt, would have been far more numerous, had the subject been attended to in other countries with the same care as in Great Britain and the United States. From the general uniformity of the nests of each species, we clearly see that even trifling details, such as the materials used and the situation chosen on a high or low branch, on a bank or on level ground, whether solitary or in communities, are not due to chance, or to intelligence, but to instinct. The Sylvia sylvicola, for instance, can be distinguished from two closely allied wrens more readily by its nest being lined with feathers than by almost any other character. ("Yarrell's British Birds.")
Necessity or compulsion often leads birds to change the situation of their nests: numerous instances could be given in various parts of the world of birds breeding in trees, but in treeless countries on the ground, or amongst rocks. Audubon (quoted in "Boston Journ. Nat. Hist.," vol. iv, p. 249) states that the Gulls on an islet off Labrador, "in consequence of the persecution which they have met with, now build in trees," instead of in the rocks. Mr. Couch ("Illustrations of Instinct," p. 218) states that three or four-successive layings of the sparrow (F. domesticus) having been destroyed, "the whole colony, as if by mutual agreement, quitted the place and settled themselves amongst some trees at a distance—a situation which, though common in some districts, neither they nor their ancestors had ever before occupied here, where their nests became objects of curiosity." The sparrow builds in holes in walls, on high branches, in ivy, under rooks' nests, in the holes made by the sand-martins, and often seizes on the nest made by the house-martin: "the nest also varies greatly according to the place" (Montague, "Ornitho. Dict.," p. 482). The Heron (Macgillivray, " Brit. Birds," vol. iv, p. 446: W. Thompson, "Nat. Hist. Ireland," vol. ii, p. 146) builds in trees, on precipitous sea-cliffs, and amongst heath on the ground. In the United States the Ardea herodias (Peabody in "Boston Journal Nat. Hist.," vol. iii, p. 209) likewise builds in tall or low trees, or on the ground; and, which is more remarkable, sometimes in communities or heronries, and sometimes solitarily.
Convenience comes into play: we have seen that the Taylor-bird in India uses artificial thread instead of weaving it. A wild Gold-finch (Bolton's Harmonia Ruralis, vol. i, p. 492) first took wool, then cotton, and then down, which was placed near its nest. The common Robin will often build under sheds, four cases having been observed in one season at one place (W. Thompson, "Nat. Hist. Ireland," vol. i, p. 14). In Wales the Martin (H. urbica) builds against perpendicular cliffs, but all over the lowlands of England against houses; and this must have prodigiously increased its range and numbers. In Arctic America in 1825 Hirundo lunifrons (Richardson, "Fauna Boreali-Amercani," p. 331) for the first time built against houses; and the nests, instead of being clustered and each having a tubular entrance, were built under the eaves in a single line and without the
tubular entrance, or with a mere ledge. The date of a similar change in the habits of H. fulva is also known.
In all changes, whether from persecution or convenience, intelligence must come into play in some degree. The Kitty-wren (T. vulgaris), which builds in various situations, usually makes its nest to match with surrounding objects (Macgillivray, vol. iii, p. 21); but this perhaps is instinct. Yet when we hear from White (Letter 14) that a Willow-wren (and I have known a similar case), having been disturbed by being watched, concealed the orifice of her nest, we might argue that the case was one of intelligence. Neither the Kitty-wren nor Water-ouzel ("Mag. of Zool.," vol. ii, 1838, p. 429, invariably build domes to their nests, when placed in sheltered situations Jesse describes a Jackdaw which built its nest on an inclined surface in a turret, and reared up a perpendicular stack of sticks ten feet in height—a labour of seventeen days: families of this bird, I may add (White's "Selborne," Letter 21), have been known regularly to build in rabbit-burrows. Numerous analogous facts could be given. The Water-hen (G. chloropus) is said occasionally to cover her eggs when she leaves her nest, but in one protected place W. Thompson ("Nat. Hist. Ireland," vol. ii, p. 328) says that this was never done. Water-hens and Swans, which build in or near the water, will instinctively raise their nest as soon as they perceive the water begin to rise (Couch "Illustrations of Instinct," p. 223-6). But the following seems a more curious case:—Mr. Yarrell showed me a sketch of the nest of a Black Australian Swan, which had been built directly under the drip of the eaves of a building; and, to avoid this, male and female conjointly added semicircular * to the nest, until it extended close to the wall, within the line of drip; and then they pushed the eggs into the newly added portion, so as to be quite dry. The Magpie (Corvus pica) under ordinary circumstances builds a remarkable, but very uniform nest; in Norway they build in churches, or spouts under the eaves of houses, as well as in trees. In a treeless part of Scotland, a pair built for several years in a gooseberry bush, which they barricaded all round in an extraordinary manner with briars and thorns, so that "it would have cost a fox some days' labour to have got in." On the other hand, in a part of Ireland, where a reward had been offered for each egg and the magpies had been much persecuted, a pair built at the bottom of a low thick hedge, "without any large collection of materials likely to attract notice." In Cornwall, Mr. Couch says he has seen near each other, two nests, one in a hedge not a yard from the ground and "unusually fenced in with a thick structure of thorns;" the other "on the top of a very slender and solitary elm—the expectation clearly being that no creature would venture to climb so fragile a column." I have been struck by the slenderness of the trees sometimes chosen by the magpie; but, intelligent as this bird is, I cannot believe that it foresees that boys could not climb such trees, but rather that, having chosen such a tree, it has found from experience that it is a safe place.†
Although I do not doubt that intelligence and experience often come into play in the nidification of Birds, yet both often fail: a Jackdaw has been seen trying in vain to get a stick through a turret window, and had
* [A word is here accidentally omitted in the MS.—G. J. R.]
† For Norway, see in Mag. of Zool. and Bot., 1838, vol. ii, p. 311. For Scotland, Rev. J. Hall, Travels in Scotland, see Art. "Instinct" in Cyclop. of Anat. and Physiol., p. 22. For Ireland, W. Thompson, Nat. Hist. of Ireland, vol. ii, p. 329. For Cornwall, see Couch, Illustrations of Instinct, p. 213.
not sense to draw it in lengthways: White (Letter 6) describes some martins which year after year built their nests on an exposed wall, and year after year they were washed down. The Furnarius cunicularius in S. America makes a deep burrow in mud-banks for its nest; and I saw ("Journal of Researches," p. 216) these little birds vainly burrowing numerous holes through mud-walls, over which they were constantly flitting, without thus perceiving that the walls were not nearly thick enough for their nests.
Many variations cannot in any way be accounted for: the Totanas macularius (Peabody, "Boston Journ. Nat. Hist.," vol. iii, p. 219) lays her eggs sometimes on the bare ground, sometimes in nests slightly made of grass. Mr. Blackwall has recorded the curious case of a yellow Bunting (Emberiza citrinella) given in "Yarrell's British Birds," which laid its eggs and hatched them on the bare ground: this bird generally builds on or very close to the ground, but a case is recorded of its having built at a height of seven feet. A nest of a Chaffinch (Fringilla cœlebs; "Annals and Mag. of Nat. History," vol. viii, 1842, p. 281) has been described, which was bound by a piece of whipcord passing once round a branch of a pine tree, and then firmly interwoven with the materials of the nest: the nest of the chaffinch can almost be recognized by the elegant manner with which it is coated with lichen; but Mr. Hewitson ("British Oology," p. 7) has described one in which bits of paper were used for lichen. The Thrush (T. musicus) builds in bushes, but sometimes, when bushes abound, in holes of walls or under sheds; and two cases are known of its having built actually on the ground in long grass and under turnip-leaves (W. Thompson, "Nat. Hist. of Ireland," vol. i, p. 136: Couch, "Illustrations of Instinct," p. 219). The Rev. W. D. Fox informs me that an "eccentric pair of blackbirds" (T. merula) for three consecutive years built in ivy against a wall, and always lined their nest with black horse-hair, though there was nothing to tempt them to use this material: the eggs also were not spotted. The same excellent observer has described (in "Hewitson's British Oology") the nests of two Redstarts, of which one alone was lined with a profusion of white feathers. The Golden-crested Wren (Mr. Sheppard in "Linn. Trans.," vol. xv, p. 14) usually builds an open nest attached to the under side of a fir-branch, but sometimes on the branch, and Mr. Sheppard has seen one "pendulous with a hole on one side." Of the wonderful nest of the Indian Weaver-bird (Ploceus Philippensis, "Proc. Zool. Soc.," July 27, 1852), about one or two in every fifty have an upper chamber, in which the males nest, grooved by the widening of the stem of the nest with a pent-house added to it. I will conclude by adding two general remarks on this head by two good observers (Sheppard in "Linn. Trans.," vol. xv, p. 14, and Blackwall quoted by Yarrell, "British Birds," vol. i, p. 444). "There are few birds which do not occasionally vary from the general form in building their nests." "It is evident," says Mr. Blackwall, "that birds of the same species possess the constructive powers in very different degrees of perfection, for the nests of some individuals are finished in a manner greatly superior to those of others."
Some of the cases above given, such as the Totanus either making a nest or building on the bare ground, or that of the Water-ouzel making or not making a dome to its nest, ought, perhaps, to be called a double instinct rather than a variation. But the most curious case of a double instinct which I have met with, is that of the Sylvia cisticola given by Dr. P. Savi ("Anns. des Sc. Nat.," tome ii, p 126). This bird in Pisa annually makes two nests; the autumnal nest is formed by leaves being sewn together with spiders' webs and the down of plants, and is placed in marshes; the vernal nest is placed in tufts of grass in corn-fields, and the leaves are not sewn together; but the
sides are thicker and very different materials are used. In such cases, as was formerly remarked with respect to corporeal strictures, a great and apparently abrupt change might be effected in the instinct of a bird by one form alone of the nest being retained.
In some cases, when the same species ranges into a different climate, the nest differs; the Artamus sordidus in Tasmania builds a larger, more compact, and neater nest, than in Australia (Gould's "Birds of Australia"). The Sterna minuta, according to Audubon ("Anns. of Nat. Hist.," vol. ii, 1839, p. 462), in the southern and middle U. States merely scoops a slight hollow in the sand; "but on the coast of Labrador it makes a very snug nest, formed of dry moss, well matted together and nearly as large as that of the Turdus migratorius." Those individuals of Icterus Baltimore (Peabody in "Boston Journ. of Nat. Hist.," vol. iii, p. 97) "which build in the south make their nests of light moss, which allows the air to pass through, and complete it without lining; while in the cool climate of New England they make their nests of soft substances closely woven with a warm lining."
Habitations of Mammals.—On this head I shall make but few remarks, having said so much on the nests of Birds. The buildings erected by the Beaver have long been celebrated; but we see one step by which its wonderful instincts might have been perfected, in the simpler house of an allied animal, the Musk Rat (Fiber zibethicus) which, however, Hearne* says is something like that of the Beaver. The solitary Beavers of Europe do not practise, or have lost the greater part of their constructive instincts. Certain species of Rats now uniformly inhabit the roofs of houses,† but other species keep to hollow trees—a change analogous to that in swallows. Dr. Andrew Smith informs me that in the uninhabited parts of S. Africa the hyænas do not live in burrows, whilst in the inhabited and disturbed parts they do.‡ Several mammals and birds usually inhabit burrows made by other species, but when such do not exist, they excavate their own habitations.§
In the genus Osmia, one of the Bee family, the several species not only offer the most remarkable differences, as described by Mr. F. Smith|| in their instincts; but the individuals of the same species vary to an unusual degree in this respect; thus illustrating the rule, which certainly seems to
* Hearne's Travels, p. 380. Hearne has given the best description (pp. 227-236) ever published of the habits of the Beaver.
† Rev. L. Jenyns in Linn. Trans., vol. xvi, p. 166.
‡ A case sometimes quoted of Hares having made burrows in an exposed situation (Anns. of Nat. Hist., vol. v, p. 362), seems to me to require verification: were not the old rabbit-burrows used?
§ Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle, "Mammalia," p. 90.
|| Catalogue of British Hymenoptera, 1855, p. 158.
hold in corporeal structures, namely, that the parts which differ most in allied species, are apt also to vary most in the same species. Another Bee, the Megachile maritima, as I am informed by Mr. Smith, near the sea makes its burrows in the sand-banks, whilst in wooded districts it bores holes in posts.*
I have now discussed several of the most extraordinary classes of instincts; but I have still a few miscellaneous remarks which seem to me worth making. First for a few cases of variation which have struck me: a spider which had been crippled and could not spin its web, changed its habits from compulsion into hunting—which is the regular habit of one large group of spiders.† Some insects have two very different instincts under different circumstances, or at different times of life; and one of the two might through natural selection be retained, and so cause an apparently abrupt difference in instinct in relation to the insects' nearest allies: thus the larva of a beetle (the Cionus scrophulariæ), when bred on the scrophularia, exudes a viscid substance, which makes a transparent bladder, within which it undergoes its metamorphosis; but the larva when naturally bred, or transported by man, on to a verbascum, becomes a burrower, and undergoes its metamorphosis within a leaf.‡ In the caterpillars of certain moths there are two great classes, those which burrow in the parenchyma of leaves, and those which roll up leaves with consummate skill: some few caterpillars in their early age are burrowers, and then become leaf-rollers; and this change was justly considered so great, that it was only lately discovered that the caterpillars belonged to the same species.§ The Angoumois moth usually has two broods: the first are hatched in the spring from eggs laid in the autumn on grains of corn stored in granaries, and then immediately take flight to the fields and lay their eggs on the standing corn, instead of on the naked grains stored all round them: the moths of the second brood (produced from the eggs laid on the standing corn) are hatched in the granaries, and then do not leave the granaries, but deposit their eggs on the grains around them; and from these eggs proceed the vernal brood which have the
* [Here follows a section on the instincts of Parasitism, Slave-making, and Cell-making, which is published in the Origin of Species.—G. J. R.]
† Quoted on authority of Sir J. Banks in Journal Linn. Soc.
‡ P. Huber in Mém. Soc. Phys. de Genève, tome x, p. 33.
§ Westwood, in Gardeners' Chronicle, 1852, p. 261.
different instinct of laying on the standing corn.* Some hunting spiders, when they have eggs and young, give up hunting and spin a web wherewith to catch prey: this is the case with a Salticus, which lays its eggs within snail-shells, and at that time spins a large vertical web.† The pupæ of a species of Formica are sometimes‡ uncovered, or not enclosed within cocoons; this certainly is a highly remarkable variation; the same thing is said to occur with the common Pulex. Lord Brougham§ gives us a remarkable case of instinct, namely, the chicken within the shell pecking a hole and then "chipping with its bill-scale till it has cut off a segment from the shell. It always moves from right to left, and it always cuts off the segment from the big end." But the instinct is not quite so invariable, for I was assured at the Eccalobeion (May, 1840) that cases have occurred of chickens having commenced so close to the broad end, that they could not escape from the hole thus made, and had consequently to commence chipping again so as to remove another and larger rim of shell: moreover occasionally they have begun at the narrow end of the shell. The fact of the occasional regurgitation of its food by the Kangaroo|| ought, perhaps, to be considered as due to an intermediate or variable modification of structure, rather than of instinct; but it is worth notice. It is notorious that the same species of Bird has slightly different vocal powers in different districts; and an excellent observer remarks that "an Irish covey of Partridges springs without uttering a call, whilst on the opposite coast the Scotch covey shrieks with all its might when sprung."¶ Bechstein says that from many years' experience he is certain that in the nightingale a tendency to sing in the middle of the night or in the day runs in families and is strictly inherited.** It is remarkable that many birds have the capacity of piping long and difficult tunes, and others, as the Magpie, of imitating
* Bonnet, quoted by Kirby and Spence, Entomology, vol. ii, p. 480.
† Dugès in Anns. des Sci. Nat., 2nd series, tome vi, p. 196.
‡ F. Smith in Trans. Ent. Soc., vol. iii, N.S., Pt. iii, p. 97; and De Geer, quoted by Kirby and Spence, Entomology, vol. iii, p. 227.
§ Dissertation on Natural Theology, vol. i, p. 117.
|| W. C. Martin in Mag. of Nat. Hist., N.S., vol. ii, p. 323.
¶ W. Thompson, in Nat. Hist. Ireland, vol. ii, p. 65, says that he has observed this, and that it is well known to sportsmen.
** Stuben-vögel, 1840, s. 323. See on different powers of singing in different places, s. 205 and 265.
all sorts of sounds, and yet that in a state of nature they never display these powers.*
As there is often much difficulty in imagining how an instinct could first have arisen, it may be worth while to give a few, out of many cases, of occasional and curious habits, which cannot be considered as regular instincts, but which might, according to our views, give rise to such. Thus, several cases are on record† of insects which naturally have very different habits having been hatched within the bodies of men—a most remarkable fact considering the temperature to which they have been exposed, and which may explain the origin of the instinct of the Gad-fly or Œstrus. We can see how the closest association might be developed in Swallows, for Lamarck‡ saw a dozen of these birds aiding a pair, whose nest had been taken, so effectually that it was completed on the second day; and from the facts given by Macgillivray§ it is impossible to doubt that the ancient accounts are true of the Martins sometimes associating and entombing alive sparrows which have taken possession of one of their nests. It is well known that the Hive-bees which have been neglected "get a habit of pillaging from their more industrious neighbours," and are then called corsairs; and Huber gives a far more remarkable case of some Hive-bees which took almost entire possession of the nest of a Humble-bee, and for three weeks the latter went on collecting honey and then regorged it at the solicitation, without any violence, of the Humble-bee.|| We are thus reminded of those Gulls (Lestris) which exclusively live by pursuing other gulls and compelling them to disgorge their food.¶
In the Hive-bee actions are occasionally performed which
* Blackwall's Researches in Zoology, 1834, p. 158. Cuvier long ago remarked that all the passeres have apparently a similar structure in their vocal organs; and yet only a few, and these the males, sing; showing that fitting structure does not always give rise to corresponding habits. [Concerning birds which imitate sounds when in captivity not doing so in a state of nature, see p. 222, where there is evidence of certain wild birds imitating the sounds of other species.—G. J. R.]
† Rev. L. Jenyns, Observations in Nat. Hist., 1846, p. 280.
‡ Quoted by Geoffry St. Hilaire in Anns. des Mus., tome ix, p. 471.
§ British Birds, vol. iii, p. 591.
|| Kirby and Spence, Entomology, vol. ii, p. 207. The case given by Huber is at p. 119.
¶ There is reason to suspect (Macgillivray, British Birds, vol. v, p. 500) that some of the species can only digest food which has been partially digested by other birds.
we must rank amongst the most wonderful of instincts; and yet these instincts must often have been dormant during many generations: I refer to the death of the queen, when several worker-larvæ are necessarily destroyed, and being placed in large cells and reared on royal food, are thus rendered fertile: so again when a hive has its queen, the males are all infallibly killed by the workers in autumn; but if the hive has no queen, not a single drone is ever destroyed.* Perhaps a ray of light is thrown by our theory on these mysterious but well ascertained facts, by considering that the analogy of other members of the Bee family would lead us to believe that the Hive-bee is descended from other Bees which regularly had many females inhabiting the same nest during the whole season, and which never destroyed their own males; so that not to destroy the males and to give the normal food to additional larvæ, perhaps is only a reversion to an ancestral instinct, and, as in the case of corporeal structures reverting, is apt to occur after many generations.†
I will now refer to a few cases of special difficulty on our theory—most of them parallel to those which I adduced when discussing in Chapter VIII corporeal structures. Thus we occasionally meet with the same peculiar instinct in animals widely remote in the scale of nature, and which consequently cannot have derived the peculiarity from community of descent. The Molothrus (a bird something like a starling) of N. and S. America has precisely the same habits with the Cuckoo; but parasitism is so common throughout nature that this coincidence is not very surprising. The parallelism in instinct between the White Ants, belonging to the Neuroptera, and ants belonging to the Hymenoptera, is a far more wonderful fact; but the parallelism seems to be very far from close. Perhaps as remarkable a case as any on record of the same instinct having been independently acquired in two animals very remote from each other in relationship, is that of a Neuropterous and a Dipterous larva digging a conical
* Kirby and Spence, Entomology, vol. ii, pp. 510-13.
† [Concerning the question why there are so many drones as to require killing, see Animal Intelligence, p. 166, where I suggest that among the ancestors of the Hive-bee the males may have been of use as workers. But possibly the drones may even now be of use as nurses to the larvæ, for I am told by an experienced bee-keeper that he believes this to be the case.—G. J. R.]
pit-fall in loose sand, lying motionless at the bottom, and if the prey is about to escape, casting jets of sand all round.*
It has been asserted that animals are endowed with instincts, not for their own individual good, or for that of their own social bodies, but for the good of other species, though leading to their own destruction: it has been said that fishes migrate that birds and other animals may prey on them:† this is impossible on our theory of natural selection of self-profitable modification of instinct. But I have met with no facts in support of this belief worthy of consideration. Mistakes of instinct, as we shall presently see, may in some cases do injury to a species and profit another; one species may be compelled, or even apparently induced by persuasion, to yield up its food or secretion to another species; but that any animal has been specially endowed with an instinct leading to its own destruction or harm, I cannot believe without better evidence than has hitherto been adduced.
An instinct performed only once during the life of an animal appears at first sight a great difficulty on our theory; but if indispensable to the animal's existence, there is no valid reason why it should not have been acquired through natural selection, like corporeal structures used only on one occasion, like the hard tip to the chicken's beak, or like the temporary jaws of the pupa of the Caddis-fly or Phryganea, which are exclusively used for cutting open the silken doors of its curious case, and which are then thrown off for ever.‡ Nevertheless it is impossible not to feel unbounded astonishment, when one reads of such cases as that of a caterpillar first suspending itself by its tail to a little hillock of silk attached to some object, and then undergoing its metamorphosis; then after a time splitting open one side and exposing the pupa, destitute of limbs or organs of sense and lying loose within the lower part of the old bag-like split skin of the caterpillar: this skin serves as a ladder which the pupa ascends by seizing on portions between the creases of its abdominal segments, and then searching with its tail, which is provided with little hooks, thus attaches itself, and
* Kirby and Spence, Entomology, vol. i, pp. 429-435.
† Linnæus in Amœnitates Academicæ, vol. ii; and Prof. Alison on "Instinct" in Todd's Cycl. of Anat. and Physiol., p. 15.
‡ Kirby and Spence, Entomology, vol. iii, p. 287.
afterwards disengages and casts off the skin which had served it for a ladder.* I am tempted to give one other analogous case, that of the caterpillar of a Butterfly (Thekla), which feeds within the pomegranate, but when full fed gnaws its way out (thus making the exit of the butterfly possible before its wings are fully expanded), and then attaches with silk threads the point to the branch of the tree, that it may not fall before the metamorphosis is complete. Hence, as in so many other cases, the larva works on this occasion for the safety of the pupa and of the mature insect. Our astonishment at this manœuvre is lessened in a very slight degree when we hear that several caterpillars attach more or less perfectly with silken threads leaves to the stems for their own safety; and that another caterpillar, before changing into a pupa, bends the edges of a leaf together, coats one surface with a silk web, and attaches this web to the footstalk and branch of the tree; the leaf afterwards becomes brittle and separates, leaving the silken cocoon attached to the footstalk and branch; in this case the process differs but little from the ordinary formation of a cocoon and its attachment to any object.†
A really far greater difficulty is offered by those cases in which the instincts of a species differ greatly from those of its related forms. This is the case with the above mentioned Thekla of the pomegranate; and no doubt many instances could be collected. But we should never forget what a small proportion the living must bear to the extinct amongst insects, the several orders of which have so long existed on this earth. Moreover, just in the same way as with corporeal structures, I have been surprised how often when I thought I had got a case of a perfectly isolated instinct, I found on further enquiry at least some traces of a graduated series.
I have not rarely felt that small and trifling instincts were a greater difficulty on our theory than those which have so justly excited the wonder of mankind; for an instinct, if really of no considerable importance in the struggle for life, could not be modified or formed through natural selection. Perhaps as striking an instance as can be given is that of the worker of the Hive-bee arranged in files and ventilating, by a peculiar movement of their wings, the
* Kirby and Spence, Entomology, vol. iii, pp. 208-11.
† J. O. Westwood in Trans. Entomol. Soc., vol. ii, p. 1.
well-closed hive: this ventilation has been artificially imitated,* and as it is carried on even during winter, there can be no doubt that it is to bring in free air and displace the carbonic acid gas: therefore it is in truth indispensable, and we may imagine the stages—a few bees first going to the orifice to fan themselves—by which the instinct might have been arrived at. We admire the instinctive caution of the hen-pheasant which leads her, as Waterton remarked, to fly from her nest and so leave no track to be scented out by beasts of prey; but this again may well be of high importance to the species. It is more surprising that instinct should lead small nesting birds to remove their broken eggs and the early mutings, whereas with partridges, the young of which immediately follow their parents, the broken eggs are left round the nest; but when we hear that the nests of those birds (Halcyonidæ) in which the mutings are not enclosed by a film, and so can hardly be removed by the parent, are thus "rendered very conspicuous;"† and when we remember how many nests are destroyed by cats, we cannot any longer consider them instincts of trifling importance. But some instincts one can hardly avoid looking at as mere tricks, or sometimes as play: an Abyssinian pigeon when fired at, plunges down so as to almost touch the sportsman, and then mounts to an immoderate height:‡ the Bizcacha (Lagostomus) almost invariably collects all sorts of rubbish, bones, stones, dry dung, &c., near its burrow: Guanacoes have the habit of returning (like Flies) to the same spot to drop their excrement, and I saw one heap eight feet in diameter; as this habit is common to all the species of the genus, it must be instinctive, but it is hard to believe that it can be of any use to the animal, though it is to the Peruvians, who use the dried dung for fuel.§ Many analogous facts could probably be collected.
Wonderful and admirable as most instincts are, yet they cannot be considered as absolutely perfect: there is a con-
* Kirby and Spence, Entomology, vol. ii, p. 193.
† Blyth in Mag. of Nat. Hist., N.S., vol. ii.
‡ Bruce's Travels, vol. v, p. 187.
§ See my Journal of Researches, p. 167 for the Guanaco; for the Bizcacha, p. 145. Many odd instincts are connected with the excrement of animals, as with the wild Horse of S. America (see Azara's Travels, vol. i, p. 373), with the common House Fly and with Dogs; see on the urinary deposits of the Hyrax, Livingston's Missionary Travels, p. 22.
stant struggle going on throughout nature between the instinct of the one to escape its enemy and of the other to secure its prey. If the instinct of the Spider be admirable, that of the Fly which rushes into its toils is so far inferior. Rare and occasional sources of danger are not avoided: if death inevitably ensues, and creatures cannot have learnt by seeing others suffer, it seems that no guardian instinct is acquired: thus the ground within a solfortara in Java is strewed with the carcases of tigers, birds, and masses of insects killed by the noxious exhalations, with their flesh, hairs, and feathers preserved, but their bones entirely consumed.* Migratory instinct not rarely fails, and the animals, as we have seen, are lost. What ought we to think of the strong impulse which leads Lemmings, Squirrels, Ermines,† and many other animals which are not regularly migratory, occasionally to congregate and pursue a headlong course, across great rivers, lakes, and even into the sea, where vast numbers perish; and ultimately it would appear that all perish? The country being overstocked seems to cause the original impulse; but it is doubtful whether in all cases scarcity actually prevails. The whole case is quite inexplicable. Does the same feeling act on these animals which causes men to congregate under distress and fear; and are these occasional migrations, or rather emigrations, a forlorn hope to find a new and better land? The occasional emigrations of insects of many kinds associated together, which, as I have witnessed, must perish by countless myriads in the sea, are still more remarkable, as they belong to families none of which are naturally social or even migratory.‡
* Von Buch, Descript. Phys. des Iles Canaries, 1836, p. 423, on the excellent authority of M. Reinwardts.
† L. Lloyd, Scandinavian Adventure, 1854, vol. ii, p. 77, gives an excellent account of the migration of Lemmings: when swimming across a lake, if they meet a boat, they crawl up one side and down the opposite side. Great migrations took place in 1789, 1807, 1808, 1813, 1823. Ultimately all seem to perish. See Högström's account in Swedish Acts, vol. iv, 1763, of ermines migrating and entering the sea. See Bachman's account in Mag. of Nat. Hist., N.S., vol. iii, 1839, p. 229, of the migration of squirrels; they are bad swimmers and get across great rivers.
‡ Mr. Spence in his Anniversary address to the Entomological Society, 1848, has some excellent remarks on the occasional migration of insects, and shows how inexplicable the case is. See also Kirby and Spence, Entomology, vol. ii, p. 12; and Weissenborn in Mag. of Nat. Hist., N.S., 1834, vol. iii, p. 516, for interesting details on a great migration of Libellulæ, generally along the course of rivers.
The social instinct is indispensable to some animals, useful to still more for the ready notice of danger, and apparently only pleasant to some few animals. But one cannot avoid thinking that this instinct is carried in some cases to an injurious excess: the antelopes in S. Africa and the Passenger Pigeons in N. America are followed by hosts of carnivorous beasts and birds, which could hardly be supported in such numbers if their prey were scattered. The Bison of N. America migrates in such vast bodies, that when they come to narrow passes in the river-cliffs, the foremost, according to Lewis and Clarke (?),* are often pushed over the precipice and dashed to pieces. Can we believe when a wounded herbivorous animal returns to its own herd and is then attacked and gored, that this cruel and very common instinct is of any service to the species? It has been remarked† that with Deer, only those which have been much chased with dogs are led by a sense of self-preservation to expel their pursued or wounded companion, who will bring danger on the herd. But the fearless wild elephants will "ungenerously attack one which has escaped into the jungles with the bandages still upon its legs."‡ And I have seen domestic pigeons attack and badly wound sick or young and fallen birds.
The cock-pheasant crows loudly, as everyone may hear, when going to roost, and is thus betrayed to the poacher.§ The wild Hen of India, as I am informed by Mr. Blyth, chuckles like her domesticated offspring, when she has laid an egg;
* [The note of interrogation is in the MS.—G. J. R.]
† W. Scrope, Art of Deer Stalking, p. 23.
‡ Corse, in Asiatic Researches, vol. iii, p. 272. This fact is the more strange as an Elephant which had escaped from a pit was seen by many witnesses to stop and assist with his trunk his companion in getting out of the pit (Athenæum, 1840, p. 238). Capt. Sulivan, R.N., informs me that he watched for more than half an hour, at the Falkland Islands, a Logger-headed Duck defending a wounded Upland Goose from the repeated attacks of a Carrion Hawk. The upland goose first took to the water, and the duck swam close alongside her, always defending her with its strong beak; when the goose crawled ashore, the duck followed, going round and round her, and when the goose again took to the sea the duck was still vigorously defending her; yet at other times this duck never associates with this goose, for their food and place of habitation are utterly different. I very much fear, from what we see of little birds chasing hawks, that it would be more philosophical to attribute this conduct in the duck to hatred of the carrion hawk rather than to benevolence for the goose.
§ Rev. L. Jenyns, Observations in Natural History, 1846, p. 100.
and the natives thus discover her nest. In La Plata the Furnarius builds a large oven-like nest of mud in as conspicuous a place as possible, on a bare rock, on the top of a post, or cactus-stem;* and in a thickly peopled country, with mischievous boys, would soon be exterminated. The great Butcher-bird conceals its nest very badly, and the male during incubation, and the female after her eggs are hatched, betray the nest by their repeated harsh cries.† So again a kind of Shrew-mouse at the Mauritius continually betrays itself by screaming out as soon as approached. Nor ought we to say that these failures of instinct are unimportant, as principally concerning man alone; for, as we see instinctive wildness directed towards man, there seems no reason why other instincts should not be related to him.
The number of eggs of the American Ostrich scattered over the country, and so wasted, has already been noticed. The Cuckoo sometimes lays two eggs in the same nest, leading to the sure rejection of one of the two young birds. Flies, it has often been asserted, frequently make mistakes, and lay their eggs in substances not fitted for the nourishment of their larvæ. A Spider‡ will eagerly seize a little ball of cotton when deprived of her eggs, embedded as they are in a silken envelope; but if a choice be given her, she will prefer her own eggs, and will not always seize the ball of cotton a second time: so that we see sense or reason here correcting a first mistake. Little birds often gratify their hatred by pursuing a Hawk, and perhaps by so doing distract its attention; but they often mistake and persecute (as I have seen) any innocent and foreign species. Foxes and other carnivorous beasts often destroy far more prey than they can devour or carry away: the Bee Cuckoo kills a vast number more bees than she can eat, and "unwisely pursues without interruption this pastime all the day long."§ A queen Hive-bee confined by Huber, so that she could not lay her eggs in worker cells, would not deposit, but dropped them, upon which the workers devoured them. An unfertilized queen can lay only male eggs, but these she deposits in worker and royal cells—an aberration of instinct not surprising under the circum-
* Journal of Researches, p. 95.
† Knapp, Journal of a Naturalist, p. 188.
‡ These facts are given by Dugès in Anns. des Sc. Nat., 2nd series tome vi, p. 196.
§ Bruce's Travels in Abyssinia, vol. v, p. 179.
stances; but "the workers themselves act as if they suffered in their instinct from the imperfect state of their queen, for they fed these male larvæ with royal jelly and treat them as they would a real queen."* But what is more surprising, the workers of Humble-bees habitually endeavour to seize and devour the eggs of their own queens; and the utmost activity of the mothers is "scarcely adequate to prevent this violence."† Can this strange instinctive habit be of any service to the Bee? Seeing the innumerable and admirable instincts all directed to rear and multiply young, can we believe, with Kirby and Spence, that this strange aberrant instinct is given them "to keep the population within due bounds?" Can the instinct which leads the female spider savagely to attack and devour the male after pairing with him‡ be of service to the species? The carcase of her husband no doubt nourishes her; and without some better explanation can be given, we are thus reduced to the grossest utilitarianism, compatible, it must be confessed, with the theory of natural selection. I fear that to the foregoing cases a long catalogue could be added.
Conclusion.—We have in this chapter chiefly considered the instincts of animals under the point of view whether it is possible that they could have been acquired through the means indicated on our theory, or whether, even if the simpler ones could have been thus acquired, others are so complex and wonderful that they must have been specially endowed, and thus overthrow the theory. Bearing in mind the facts given on the acquirement, through the selection of self-originating tricks or modification of instinct, or through training and habit, aided in some slight degree by imitation, of hereditary actions and dispositions in our domesticated animals; and their parallelism (subject to having less time) to the instincts of animals in a state of nature: bearing in mind that in a state of nature instincts do certainly vary in some slight degree: bearing in mind how very generally we find in allied but distinct animals a gradation in the more complex instincts, which show that it is at least possible that a complex instinct might have been acquired by successive steps; and
* Kirby and Spence, Entomology, vol. ii, p. 161 (3rd ed.).
† Ibid., vol. i, p. 380.
‡ Ibid., vol. i, p. 280. A long list of several insects which either in their larval or mature condition will devour each other is given.
which moreover generally indicate, according to our theory, the actual steps by which the instinct has been acquired, in as much as we suppose allied instincts to have branched off at different stages of descent from a common ancestor, and therefore to have retained, more or less unaltered, the instincts of the several lineal ancestral forms of any one species: bearing all this in mind, together with the certainty that instincts are as important to an animal as their generally correlated structures, and that in the struggle for life under changing conditions, slight modifications of instinct could hardly fail occasionally to be profitable to individuals, I can see no overwhelming difficulty on our theory. Even in the most marvellous instinct known, that of the cells of the Hive-bee, we have seen how a simple instinctive action may lead to results which fill the mind with astonishment.
Moreover it seems to me that the very general fact of the gradation of complexity of instincts within the limits of the same group of animals; and likewise the fact of two allied species, placed in two distant parts of the world and surrounded by wholly different conditions of life, still having very much in common in their instincts, supports our theory of descent; for they are explained by it: whereas if we look at each instinct as specially endowed, we can only say that it is so. The imperfections and mistakes of instinct on our theory cease to be surprising: indeed it would be wonderful that far more numerous and flagrant cases could not be detected, if it were not that a species which has failed to become modified and so far perfected in its instincts that it could continue struggling with the co-inhabitants of the same region, would simply add one more to the myriads which have become extinct.
It may not be logical, but to my imagination, it is far more satisfactory to look at the young cuckoo ejecting its foster-brothers, ants making slaves, the larvæ of the Ichneumidæ feeding within the live bodies of their prey, cats playing with mice, otters and cormorants with living fish, not as instincts specially given by the Creator, but as very small parts of one general law leading to the advancement of all organic bodies—Multiply, Vary, let the strongest Live and the weakest Die.
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Citation: John van Wyhe, editor. 2002-. The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online. (http://darwin-online.org.uk/)
File last updated 2 July, 2012 | <urn:uuid:6bb2d52d-0e3b-4bac-b89f-332bf5f236fd> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/contentblock?itemID=F1434&basepage=1&hitpage=1&viewtype=side | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00048-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966709 | 18,925 | 2.84375 | 3 |
The Moon shone at its biggest and brightest in the early hours of this morning during a phenomenon known as a “supermoon”.
The perigee full moon, to give it its proper name, happens when the Moon reaches its closest point to Earth. It can appear to be up to 14 per cent larger and 30 per cent brighter than at its orbit’s farthest point from our planet.
The Moon’s distance from Earth varies because it follows an elliptical rather than a circular orbit. At this stage, the Moon will be 360,000km (223,000 miles) away from Earth, compared with 400,000km (248,000 | <urn:uuid:d3240529-39fa-4e14-85fe-e7e027a8d436> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/science/article3798382.ece | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00088-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932327 | 139 | 3.859375 | 4 |
When you watch videos on 3D printing or look at the wondrous galleries of 3D printed objects on sites like Thingiverse.com, you can’t help but eventually think to yourself, wow, imagine what could be printed if they could print electronics too. When that can be done, so many more types of complete, complex products could come out of a 3D printer ready to go.
While were not nearing the point where a 3D printer can print resistors, capacitors, and microprocessors, we are getting very close to being able to print the circuit board on which they reside, and have the printer or an assembler place them right onto this printed substrate.
So says David ten Have, CEO of 3D printing outfit Ponoko, as told in a recent story in Wired. He was speaking in the San Francisco offices of Autodesk, which creates CAD software many engineers use to design 3D printed parts. ten said, “Printing actual circuit boards is very close. Most of the assembly tools are completely automated anyway. I’m guessing 18 to 24 months.
That’s not very far off at all.
The Ponoko CEO says all that is needed to build circuit boards is 1) file standardization; we need a common protocol that becomes the standard, and 2) a substrate material that works well with 3D printers.
San Green, Creative & Content Manager at 3D printer manufacturer Objet weighed in on the Wired piece in his terrific blog (I highly recommend picking up his RSS feed). He sees the benefits clearly as allowing manufacturers to be able to “quickly and efficiently produce different configurations for small batch runs or alternatively, offer many more standard products from a much larger product portfolio than is feasible today.”
Green says that inkjet printing, the technology used in the Objet line of 3D printers, could easily be the enabler of this innovation because of an inkjet’s ability to mix materials into a single 3D printed part, simulating semi-conductive properties on a circuit board. Quoting him again, “it would then be simplicity itself to rapidly manufacture the entire customized circuit-board – both the rigid board itself and the conductive circuitry – in a single integrated, simultaneous step!”
I’m sitting at my kitchen table as I write this article, and am looking around at all the various electronic gadgets that could be entirely or even mostly 3D printed, and furthermore customized to my specs, once the technology moves into printing circuit boards. Almost everything I see looks doable.
And that, in a nutshell, seems to be the motto of those involved in the world of 3D printing: “Almost everything I see looks doable.” | <urn:uuid:e606b3f4-ab08-42f6-89e9-d9db2c4f1064> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.3dprinter.net/get-ready-for-3d-printed-circuit-boards | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00066-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955105 | 568 | 2.859375 | 3 |
A new National Institute of Health podcast offers insight into gender-based differences regarding abuse of prescription drugs.
In general, men tend to take more prescription drugs than women except for the period of time between 12 and 17 years of age. Among teenagers, girls have almost 60 to 70 percent higher rates of abuse of prescription drugs than boys, according to an NIH release.
In the podcast, Nora Volkow, MD, director of the National Institute on Drug Abuse, discusses why teenage girls and adult women take prescription drugs for non-medical purposes, how adolescents obtain such medications, how repeated drug use affects the brain and treatment for addiction.
One contributing factor to the high rates of prescription drug by teens is the dramatic increase in the number of prescriptions being written for pain medications and stimulants, says Volkow:
Since 1992 to 2009, which is close to 20 years, there has been a nine-fold increase of the number of prescriptions for stimulant medications. They’ve gone from 4 million to 36 million. For pain [medications] and analgesics the numbers have grown four-fold, from 40 million to 180 million prescriptions on a given year.
What that means is we are making these medications widely, widely available. Yes, they have very beneficial effects when used properly. But at the same time it is also clear that we may be giving many more prescriptions than are necessary. There is no evidence that we have such a high number of individuals that require them for therapeutic purposes.
Photo by DraconianRain | <urn:uuid:66b4d331-602e-494d-b984-28d1ba5dd997> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://scopeblog.stanford.edu/2010/05/04/nih_podcast_spo/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404382.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00026-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932539 | 310 | 2.75 | 3 |
PHILADELPHIA (CBS) – Sometimes I think medical terms get in the way of providing quality care to our patients.
We have many highly technical words that we use to describe medical procedures or medications. Many of these words also sound alike and can cause confusion. But one word is used commonly and I see it as a tremendous obstacle to care. The word is obese.
When a person is obese in medical speak it means that they have a BMI over a certain number. The measurement and word help us with treatment but when a patient hears the word obese they may be insulted.
I think that how information is presented can have a major role in care and success of treatments. Since the word obese has a negative connotation, it might make sense to use another word.
Reported By Dr. Brian McDonough, KYW Newsradio Medical Editor | <urn:uuid:6cb5c8f7-f664-4516-9fdc-3b8af6992a64> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://philadelphia.cbslocal.com/2011/10/10/treating-the-obese/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00144-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949119 | 176 | 2.609375 | 3 |
MEXICO CITY — The aftermath of the twin earthquakes that rocked Mexico City revealed a bit of the Mexican soul that is at best enigmatic and at worst little more than a caricature to most North Americans.
Mexico`s latest national disaster showed, among other things, that the Mexicans are an intensely proud, nationalistic people who have made an accommodation with death if not with the gringo giant to the north.
``Mexico has had a history of political and social earthquakes,`` says Damian Fernandez, a research associate at the University of Miami`s Institute of Inter-American Studies.
``Given the Mexican past and history, which has been bloody since the Aztec times, the people may be more used to dealing with this type of disaster,`` Fernandez says. ``Death to the Mexicans is much more real, more natural because they deal with it every day.``
That was apparent to many of the journalists covering the earthquake. Reporters and photographers flocking to the stricken capital city in search of unmitigated grief were in for some disappointment.
Sure, there was blood, sweat and tears aplenty in the sprawling megalopolis of 17 million people.
Yes, President Miguel de la Madrid declared a period of national mourning, and Mexicans responded by lamenting their dead countrymen and the shattered heart of their nation.
The front page of one Mexico City daily did scream, ``Oh, Dios!`` -- Oh, God. But one expects the media to get worked up over a disaster.
In general, however, teeth-gnashing, hair-pulling keening was the exception to the rule. Aside from the occasional display of raw emotion, the recent disaster was a danse macabre of masked feelings.
Fatalism, stoicism and a long history of suffering saw the Mexican people through, not the exorcism of despair.
There was a parallel situation in 1984, when a deranged gunman massacred 22 people and wounded 20 others in an attack at a McDonald`s restaurant in San Ysidro, Calif. Many of the victims and survivors were of Mexican heritage.
Mental health workers report it was only later that survivors began showing the effects of post-traumatic stress disorder characterized by recurring nightmares, fear of public places, and other psychological problems.
That could well be the case with the Mexican earthquakes.
Octavio Paz, regarded by many as Mexico`s leading intellectual, says resignation is one of the Mexican`s most popular virtues.
``We admire fortitude in the face of adversity more than the most brilliant triumph,`` Paz wrote in The Labyrinth of Solitude: Life and Thought in Mexico, his highly acclaimed study of his countrymen.
Paz may be overstating the case, but there is more than a grain of truth in his assessment.
Fortitude in the face of adversity and a tremendous sense of community and solidarity were perhaps the most salient responses to the country`s latest upheaval. Intertwined with that was a deep sense of nationalistic pride. But it was pride verging on hubris.
One Mexican woman who lost her home and part of her family in the first earthquake bitterly complained about the government`s ``too much pride`` in refusing general offers of international aid.
It was only later that Mexico accepted specific types of help, when it became apparent that the Mexican bucket brigades were incapable of finding and rescuing those buried deep within the rubble. It was only then, and several days late, that crack rescue squads and highly sophisticated equipment arrived from countries across the world.
The arrival of the French, Swiss, Germans and Americans solved some problems but created others. On more than one occasion, tension surfaced between the foreign and the Mexican rescue squads.
Several times, disagreements on how to proceed almost resulted in fistfights.
Mexican pride must be viewed in the context of Mexican history. It must be remembered that Mexico is a developing country, one that is much-maligned and still desperately trying to prove itself.
``The Mexican government traditionally has been reluctant to accept offers of large amounts of international aid,`` says M. Delal Baer, a Mexico expert at Georgetown University`s Center For Strategic and International Studies.
``They don`t want to be seen as a charity case,`` Baer says.
The present Mexican government also may be trying to avoid the charges of misappropriation and malfeasance that were leveled at previous governments that accepted aid, Baer says.
Also coming into play were Mexico`s unique relations with the United States and the thorny 2,000-mile border the two countries share.
Mexicans still smart over what the United States calls the Mexican-American War. The Mexicans remember the war as an invasion in which the United States stole two-fifths of Mexico`s territory, including Texas and California.
That was not the first or last time foreign invaders penetrated Mexico. | <urn:uuid:82db2d59-c930-459d-8877-82e1e93dca56> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1985-09-28/news/8502110071_1_mexican-soul-mexico-s-octavio-paz | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398869.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00045-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966298 | 1,006 | 2.578125 | 3 |
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|Device Driver Tutorial Oracle Solaris 11.1 Information Library|
The kernel manages the system resources, including file systems, processes, and physical devices. The kernel provides applications with system services such as I/O management, virtual memory, and scheduling. The kernel coordinates interactions of all user processes and system resources. The kernel assigns priorities, services resource requests, and services hardware interrupts and exceptions. The kernel schedules and switches threads, pages memory, and swaps processes.
This section discusses several important differences between kernel modules and user programs.
The following characteristics of kernel modules highlight important differences between the execution of kernel modules and the execution of user programs:
Kernel modules have separate address space. A module runs in kernel space. An application runs in user space. System software is protected from user programs. Kernel space and user space have their own memory address spaces. See User and Kernel Address Spaces on x86 and SPARC Machines for important information about address spaces.
Kernel modules have higher execution privilege. Code that runs in kernel space has greater privilege than code that runs in user space. Driver modules potentially have a much greater impact on the system than user programs. Test and debug your driver modules carefully and thoroughly to avoid adverse impact on the system. See Device Driver Testing Tips.
Kernel modules do not execute sequentially. A user program typically executes sequentially and performs a single task from beginning to end. A kernel module does not execute sequentially. A kernel module registers itself in order to serve future requests.
Kernel modules can be interrupted. More than one process can request your driver at the same time. An interrupt handler can request your driver at the same time that your driver is serving a system call. In a symmetric multiprocessor (SMP) system, your driver could be executing concurrently on more than one CPU.
Kernel modules must be preemptable. You cannot assume that your driver code is safe just because your driver code does not block. Design your driver assuming your driver might be preempted.
Kernel modules can share data. Different threads of an application program usually do not share data. By contrast, the data structures and routines that constitute a driver are shared by all threads that use the driver. Your driver must be able to handle contention issues that result from multiple requests. Design your driver data structures carefully to keep multiple threads of execution separate. Driver code must access shared data without corrupting the data. See Chapter 3, Multithreading, in Writing Device Drivers and Multithreaded Programming Guide.
The following characteristics of kernel modules highlight important differences between the structure of kernel modules and the structure of user programs:
Kernel modules do not define a main program. Kernel modules, including device drivers, have no main() routine. Instead, a kernel module is a collection of subroutines and data. A device driver is a kernel module that forms a software interface to an input/output (I/O) device. The subroutines in a device driver provide entry points to the device. The kernel uses a device number attribute to locate the open() routine and other routines of the correct device driver. See Device Drivers for more information on entry points. See Device Numbers for a description of device numbers.
Kernel modules are linked only to the kernel. Kernel modules do not link in the same libraries that user programs link in. The only functions a kernel module can call are functions that are exported by the kernel. If your driver references symbols that are not defined in the kernel, your driver will compile but will fail to load. Oracle Solaris OS driver modules should use prescribed DDI/DKI (Device Driver Interface, Driver-Kernel Interface) interfaces. When you use these standard interfaces you can upgrade to a new Oracle Solaris release or migrate to a new platform without recompiling your driver. For more information on the DDI, seeDDI/DKI Interfaces in Writing Device Drivers. Kernel modules can depend on other kernel modules by using the -N option during link editing. See the ld(1) man page for more information.
Kernel modules use different header files. Kernel modules require a different set of header files than user programs require. The required header files are listed in the man page for each function. See man pages section 9: DDI and DKI Kernel Functions for DDI/DKI functions, man pages section 9: DDI and DKI Driver Entry Points for entry points, and man pages section 9: DDI and DKI Properties and Data Structures for structures. Kernel modules can include header files that are shared by user programs if the user and kernel interfaces within such shared header files are defined conditionally using the _KERNEL macro.
Kernel modules should avoid global variables. Avoiding global variables in kernel modules is even more important than avoiding global variables in user programs. As much as possible, declare symbols as static. When you must use global symbols, give them a prefix that is unique within the kernel. Using this prefix for private symbols within the module also is a good practice.
Kernel modules can be customized for hardware. Kernel modules can dedicate process registers to specific roles. Kernel code can be optimized for a specific processor.
Kernel modules can be dynamically loaded. The collection of subroutines and data that constitute a device driver can be compiled into a single loadable module of object code. This loadable module can then be statically or dynamically linked into the kernel and unlinked from the kernel. You can add functionality to the kernel while the system is up and running. You can test new versions of your driver without rebooting your system.
Data transfer between a device and the system typically is slower than data transfer within the CPU. Therefore, a driver typically suspends execution of the calling thread until the data transfer is complete. While the thread that called the driver is suspended, the CPU is free to execute other threads. When the data transfer is complete, the device sends an interrupt. The driver handles the interrupt that the driver receives from the device. The driver then tells the CPU to resume execution of the calling thread. See Chapter 8, Interrupt Handlers, in Writing Device Drivers.
Drivers must work with user process (virtual) addresses, system (kernel) addresses, and I/O bus addresses. Drivers sometimes copy data from one address space to another address space and sometimes just manipulate address-mapping tables. See Bus Architectures in Writing Device Drivers.
On SPARC machines, the system panics when a kernel module attempts to directly access user address space. You must make sure your driver does not attempt to directly access user address space on a SPARC machine.
On x86 machines, the system does not enter an error state when a kernel module attempts to directly access user address space. You still should make sure your driver does not attempt to directly access user address space on an x86 machine. Drivers should be written to be as portable as possible. Any driver that directly accesses user address space is a poorly written driver.
Caution - A driver that works on an x86 machine might not work on a SPARC machine because the driver might access an invalid address.
Do not access user data directly. A driver that directly accesses user address space is using poor programming practice. Such a driver is not portable and is not supportable. Use the ddi_copyin(9F) and ddi_copyout(9F) routines to transfer data to and from user address space. These two routines are the only supported interfaces for accessing user memory. Modifying Data Stored in Kernel Memory shows an example driver that uses ddi_copyin(9F) and ddi_copyout(9F).
The mmap(2) system call maps pages of memory between a process's address space and a file or shared memory object. In response to an mmap(2) system call, the system calls the devmap(9E) entry point to map device memory into user space. This information is then available for direct access by user applications.
A device driver is a loadable kernel module that manages data transfers between a device and the OS. Loadable modules are loaded at boot time or by request and are unloaded by request. A device driver is a collection of C routines and data structures that can be accessed by other kernel modules. These routines must use standard interfaces called entry points. Through the use of entry points, the calling modules are shielded from the internal details of the driver. See Device Driver Entry Points in Writing Device Drivers for more information on entry points.
A device driver declares its general entry points in its dev_ops(9S) structure. A driver declares entry points for routines that are related to character or block data in its cb_ops(9S) structure. Some entry points and structures that are common to most drivers are shown in the following diagram.
Figure 1-1 Typical Device Driver Entry Points
The Oracle Solaris OS provides many driver entry points. Different types of devices require different entry points in the driver. The following diagram shows some of the available entry points, grouped by driver type. No single device driver would use all the entry points shown in the diagram.
Figure 1-2 Entry Points for Different Types of Drivers
In the Oracle Solaris OS, drivers can manage physical devices, such as disk drives, or software (pseudo) devices, such as bus nexus devices or ramdisk devices. In the case of hardware devices, the device driver communicates with the hardware controller that manages the device. The device driver shields the user application layer from the details of a specific device so that application level or system calls can be generic or device independent.
System initialization. The kernel calls device drivers during system initialization to determine which devices are available and to initialize those devices.
System calls from user processes. The kernel calls a device driver to perform I/O operations on the device such as open(2), read(2), and ioctl(2).
User-level requests. The kernel calls device drivers to service requests from commands such as prtconf(1M).
Device interrupts. The kernel calls a device driver to handle interrupts generated by a device.
Bus reset. The kernel calls a device driver to re-initialize the driver, the device, or both when the bus is reset. The bus is the path from the CPU to the device.
The following diagram illustrates how a device driver interacts with the rest of the system.
Figure 1-3 Typical Device Driver Interactions
Device drivers and other kernel modules are organized into the following directories in the Oracle Solaris OS. See the kernel(1M) and system(4) man pages for more information about kernel organization and how to add directories to your kernel module search path.
These modules are common across most platforms. Modules that are required for booting or for system initialization belong in this directory.
These modules are specific to the platform identified by the command uname -i.
These modules are specific to the platform identified by the command uname -m. These modules are specific to a hardware class but more generic than modules in the uname -i kernel directory.
These are user modules. Modules that are not essential to booting belong in this directory. This tutorial instructs you to put all your drivers in the /usr/kernel directory.
One benefit of organizing drivers into different directories is that you can selectively load different groups of drivers on startup when you boot interactively at the boot prompt as shown in the following example. See the boot(1M) man page for more information.
Type b [file-name] [boot-flags] <ENTER> to boot with options or i <ENTER> to enter boot interpreter or <ENTER> to boot with defaults <<< timeout in 5 seconds >>> Select (b)oot or (i)nterpreter: b -a bootpath: /pci@0,0/pci8086,2545@3/pci8086, Enter default directory for modules [/platform/i86pc/kernel /kernel /usr/kernel]: /platform/i86pc/kernel /kernel
In this example, the /usr/kernel location is omitted from the list of directories to search for modules to load. You might want to do this if you have a driver in /usr/kernel that causes the kernel to panic during startup or on attach. Instead of omitting all /usr/kernel modules, a better method for testing drivers is to put them in their own directory. Use the moddir kernel variable to add this test directory to your kernel modules search path. The moddir kernel variable is described in kernel(1M) and system(4). Another method for working with drivers that might have startup problems is described in Device Driver Testing Tips. | <urn:uuid:126f6ae5-df21-4de3-beaf-34bef3fea66d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://docs.oracle.com/cd/E26502_01/html/E35300/emjjp.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.885296 | 2,640 | 3.46875 | 3 |
Florence Nightingale is famous as the "lady with the lamp" in the Crimean War, 1854--56. There is a massive amount of literature on this work, but, as editor Lynn McDonald shows, it is often erroneous, and films and press reporting on it have been even less accurate. The Crimean War reports on Nightingale's correspondence from the war hospitals and on the staggering amount of work she did post-war to ensure that the appalling death rate from disease (higher than that from bullets) did not recur. This volume contains much on Nightingale's efforts to achieve real reforms. Her well-known, and relatively "sanitized", evidence to the royal commission on the war is compared with her confidential, much franker, and very thorough Notes on the Health of the British Army, where the full horrors of disease and neglect are laid out, with the names of those responsible. The Series and the Set The Collected Works of Florence Nightingale comprises all surviving writing of Florence Nightingale, featuring original material from over 200 archives and private collections worldwide. Known as the heroine of the Crimean War and the major founder of the modern profession of nursing, Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) is affirmed as a scholar, theorist, and social reformer of enormous scope and importance. This series demonstrates her astute use of the political process; reports on her extensive correspondence with royalty, viceroys, cabinet ministers, and international leaders; and contains a great deal of previously unpublished material--Florence Nightingale is revealed as so much more than the "lady with the lamp." The Collected Works of Florence Nightingale is indispensable to scholars, and accessible and revealing to the general reader. All sixteen volumes can be purchased together at a reduced cost with the Collected Works of Florence Nightingale: The Complete Set.
Back to top
Rent Florence Nightingale 1st edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Florence Nightingale. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Wilfrid Laurier University Press. | <urn:uuid:dc9b7564-ba0b-469d-bd15-5bcd34f64520> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chegg.com/textbooks/florence-nightingale-1st-edition-9780889204690-0889204691 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397748.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00060-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94051 | 434 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Tips on Saving Money in College
For a college student, saving money can be a big boon. You can do this by controlling the amount of
money that you spend toward various things. Spending money without a plan can put you in a
vicious cycle of debt, which can cost you dearly in the near future.
By making few adjustments in the way you spend money, you could save a substantial amount of
money. Here are some tips for areas that you could definitely make a good saving.
Live with a group: If you’re living alone, you will end up spending more. But live with a group
instead. When living in a group, you can save substantially on rent, food and other expenses
Prioritize things: Make a list of things that you need and want. Needs and wants are
different. Listen to your needs and not for your wants. If you can differentiate between
needs and wants, then most of your work is done.
Limit the use of credit card: Credit cards are great when you don’t have money of your own.
But, having a credit card is like having a double-edged sword. Even you can get hurt while
using it. So, limit the use of credit card as much as possible and pay off your debts on time to
avoid late fees and interests. Always remember your credit card billing cycle.
Buy in bulk: As much as possible buy stuff in bulk. Gather around your friends and
roommates and plan for buying things in bulk. Bulk purchases result in heavy discounts. Also,
whenever you’re buying, look for coupons. Collect as many coupons as you can and redeem
them whenever you’re running short of money.
Buy used text books: You could save money by buying used text books. Ask around in your
college; look at your college notice board for a senior who’s selling away his text books. Or
place your own note asking for used text books. Also, as far as possible, use reference books
in library. If you’ve access to virtual library, you could also it. This can save a lot of money
being spent on books that you hardly study from.
Eat less outside: Many students feel that cooking is a waste of time. But in reality, if you
spend about 1 hr per day in cooking, you’d end up saving a lot more than you can possibly
think of. Eating outside these days is very expensive and on top of it, there is a risk of
infections. You don’t want to be sick and miss out your classes. By cooking, you not only eat
healthy and fresh, you’d also save money.
Limit mobile usage: Another area where you can save some money is the mobile phone.
Mobile phones are necessary but, limit the use of your mobile by opting for a suitable plan.
These include free night calls, free unlimited messages, free incoming calls, low rate outstation calls, etc. Another area where you can save is in data plan.
Limit data or packet usage as well: As much as possible, use internet on phone whenever
there is free wi-fi available. Turn off data or packet service as much as possible. For every
important or a big download that your phone makes on packet service will cost you in terms
of “per MB of data downloaded”. This also means for data buffering as well.
Look for ways of free entertainment: It is always better to look for free sources of
entertainment than those costly movies and games. If there is a possibility of internet TV,
you could cut back on the cable TV subscription. If that’s not an option, opt for a cheaper
plan for limited number of channels that you watch regularly.
Save on commuting as well: Commuting between your college and apartment can cost you
a lot. Use your student privileges like public transportation discounts, etc. You could also
think of a bicycle than a car. A bicycle is a healthier and frugal option than a car. A car is far
more expensive to maintain than a bike, right!
Avoid expensive vacations: Avoid expensive vacations during spring breaks as much as you
can. You could end up spending a month or month and a half’s expenses worth of money on
a 10 day trip. So, be very cautious and calculative.
Never take out loans: Taking out loans for anything other than your education can cost you
dearly in the present and can continue to haunt you in the future as well.
Use recycled books: Avoid writing on paper as much as you can. If you’re a smartphone
user, try typing down or recording your lectures and back them up in your laptop for later
use. Ask around in your town for note books made from recycled paper. Recycled paper
books cost less compared to regular note books.
With such tips at hand, you could save a lot of money while in college. Always remember the old
saying, a bird in hand is worth two in the bush. Instead of spending more and working on a part-time
job, jeopardizing your education, you could save money with these tips and manage a comfortable
living while studying. | <urn:uuid:c29024d5-6db8-42ed-824a-a88008925a3d> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.slideshare.net/helpwithassignment/few-tips-on-saving-money-in-college | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952978 | 1,101 | 2.609375 | 3 |
What Dentists Say...
How You Get Cavities
- Sugar* in soda pop combines with bacteria in your mouth to form acid.
- Diet or "sugar-free" soda pop contains its own acid.
- Acid in soft drinks, whether they contain sugar or not, is the primary cause of weakening tooth enamel.
- The acid attacks your teeth. Each acid attack lasts about 20 minutes.
- Ongoing acid attacks weaken your tooth enamel.
- Bacteria in your mouth cause cavities when tooth enamel is damaged.
- If you have a receding gum line, acid does more damage below the gum line than above it. This is particularly a concern for adults.
*Sugar, as used here, refers to high-fructose corn syrup in most non-diet beverages.
About Sipping All Day
"I can spot frequent pop drinkers easily by looking at their teeth."
"I had a 16-year-old patient with 30 severe cavities. He admitted he drank two Mountain Dews for breakfast, drank one on the bus, and then had four to five at school. He figured he drank 10 to 12 pops a day and said he can't stop."
"Sweetened soda is to teeth as cigarettes are to lungs."
"Athletes are especially prone to erosion from soft drinks because they drink them frequently to maintain hydration."
View a Chart Showing the Sugar & Acid in Soft Drinks (.pdf) | <urn:uuid:fcb4b1b1-7733-47e5-9b9d-da7bc46bbcba> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.sipallday.org/about-the-campaign/what-dentists-say | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403825.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00134-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938089 | 305 | 3.390625 | 3 |
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