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Professional women's association football players have organized to dispute several issues specific to the sport, such as disparities in compensation compared to men's teams; insufficient pay to compete with other women's teams; unfair or exclusionary financial terms of federation business agreements involving the team; a lack of minimum standards in facilities and treatment, especially compared to men's teams in the same federation, league, or club; reports of systemic gender-related abuse of players, including sexual abuse being ignored by league or federation officials; and a lack of benefits specific to women such as paid leave for pregnancy and maternity, and child care coverage. Disputes have been waged between national team players and football associations, between club players and their teams and leagues, between players and managers, between referees of women's football and their governing organizations, and between players and federations or laws that prevented women from playing or professionalizing the sport. Women's footballers have also organized their labour in support of causes outside of the sport and aligned themselves with labour unions unrelated to sport, sometimes in pursuit of broader societal goals around resolving gender pay gaps and addressing labour needs specific to women. == Themes of disputes == === Inadequate compensation === Players, coaches, and referees for women's national teams and club leagues have raised complaints about being paid insufficiently, or at all, to cover the expenses of their national team or club play, despite the attention and revenue generated by their efforts. Women's players have also organized in the face of legal or federation-level obstacles to professionalizing women's football in nations where men's football was already professionalized. In 2023, global player union FIFPro reported that in a survey of 362 players from 69 member players' unions across all FIFA-member confederations, 29 percent of players participating in 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup qualification or the 2022 UEFA Women's European Championship were not paid — neither wages nor to cover expenses — for playing in those international competitions, and 66 percent of players reported taking either unpaid or paid leave from another job in order to compete. === Gender pay gaps === Separate disputes also arise over perceived unfairness in compensation between men's and women's teams that participate under the same federation or at similar tournaments. These disputes — particularly the United States women's national team's equal pay dispute from 2016 to 2022 — have been viewed by commentators as microcosms of broader gender pay gap debates in sport and society, while other commentators suggest that such movements are mired in inaccurate perceptions, or are limited by differences in revenue generation between men's and women's teams or prize money awarded by FIFA. === Player agency === Clubs have attempted to restrict player movement using league rules, such as the United States National Women's Soccer League, or the Argentinian case of Macarena Sánchez being prevented from signing with another team after UAI Urquiza released her. National team managers have implemented heavily controlling policies that players have claimed restricted their freedom or invaded their privacy, and denied call-ups to protesting players as punishment. === Player safety === Players have also organized to advocate for their own safety. Players have sought adequate equipment and facilities for training and playing professionally and sufficient medical treatment standards for treatment and recovery. Women's players have faced verbal, physical, and sexual abuse from coaches, officials, and managers while simultaneously lacking the means to report or investigate reports of abuse or hold offenders accountable within the sport. The 2023 FIFPro survey also reported that 54 percent of players did not receive any pre-competition physical exam before participating in World Cup qualifiers or the 2022 European Championship, and 30 percent did not receive an electrocardiogram. Only 30 percent reported having physical training facilities that met professional standards, 26 percent reported having no access to physical training facilities, and 20 percent additionally had no access to recovery facilities. === Gender-specific benefits === Women's players have organized or sued to win support for paid leave for pregnancy and maternity, child care, and accommodations in football kits for menstruating players. In January 2021, FIFA enacted regulations entitling players to at least 14 weeks of paid maternity leave and a right for players to be reintegrated into clubs after pregnancy with ongoing medical support. == Relations with other unions == Some women's sports labour unions expanded their influence by affiliating with broader labour movements. The National Women's Soccer League Players Association of the United States' top- division National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) was a founding member of the AFL-CIO Sports Council, alongside the NFL Players Association and two other men's sports unions, and later joined by the Major League Baseball Players Association and men's Major League Soccer Players Association. NWSL players joined picketers at the 2021 Nabisco strike in Portland, Oregon. === Advocacy within mixed-gender unions === In global players' association FIFPro and nations where men's and women's players share unions, organizations such as Australia's Professional Footballers' Association formed specialized committees and initiatives to address needs specific to women's players, and women's players ran for and were elected to union roles, such as English defender Casey Stoney's 2013 election as the first woman to the Professional Footballers' Association's management committee. The Norwegian Players' Association helped negotiate Norway's equal pay agreement between men's and women's teams. == In Argentina == === National team === Following the Argentina women's national football team's failure to qualify for the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup, the Argentine Football Association (AFA) cut all funding for the team, effectively disbanding the team and leading to FIFA classifying it as inactive in 2016. The team was reinstated in summer 2017 for a friendly against Uruguay to prepare for the 2018 Copa América Femenina. However, after being required to travel in and out of Uruguay on the same day as the match and being paid only 150 pesos (US$8.50) for the match, the players launched a strike. In an open letter to AFA women's committee president Ricardo Pinela, the players claimed that stipends that the players were owed had not been paid, and demanded fundamental improvements to their training facilities, such as locker rooms. The team protested during the 2018 Copa América Femenina by raising their hands to their ears during team photos, to suggest that they wanted the AFA to hear their requests. === League === Player-activist Macarena Sánchez led efforts to professionalize the nation's club league Primera División A, but was released by her team UAI Urquiza in January 2019 under terms that prevented her from signing with a new team. She in turn sued UAI Urquiza and the AFA, alleging discrimination where professional women's players were wrongly treated as amateurs, and her plight attracted the support of feminist movements such as Ni una menos, the international footballers' labour organization FIFPRO, and Argentinian players from the 1950s to 1990s. The AFA announced in March that it had agreed with the footballers' union Futbolistas Argentinos Agremiados to support professionalizing the women's league. Three months after her lawsuit, Sánchez was one of fifteen players who joined San Lorenzo on a professional contract, a historic first for Argentine women's football. == In Australia == === National team === ==== 2015 CBA dispute ==== In September 2015, the Australian senior national team held a two-month strike following the breakdown of negotiations over a new collective bargaining agreement (CBA). The players, along with the Professional Footballers Australia (PFA) trade union, issued a statement saying that Football Federation Australia (FFA) "failed to recognise the significant sacrifices the Matildas players are forced to make in playing for their country" and called for a number of improvements in pay and working conditions. An agreement was reached in November 2015, including a significant raise in pay. A new CBA agreed upon in 2019 between the PFA and FFA reduced the gap in revenue distribution between men's and women's teams; equalized both teams' travel accommodations, training facilities, and performance support staff; increased the share of FIFA prize money distributed to the women's team; and restructured or improved benefits around player pregnancy and post-pregnancy reintegration to the national team. Parental benefits included 12 months of paid leave and travel benefits for primary caretakers of an infant, one paid leave for the duration of a national team window allowed to secondary caretakers of a child, and a guaranteed option to return to national team play following medical clearance. The accommodations were expected to reduce the instances of elite players, such as Heather Garriock, retiring from international play after giving birth. === Leagues === In 2016, Professional Footballers Australia (PFA) raised concerns that the lack of minimum medical standards in the W-League caused players to experience a disproportionate number of injuries. The union requested dedicated sports physicians for each W-League club, physiotherapists at every training and match, preseason medical tests, and the right for injured players to seek a second opinion and choose their surgeon if a procedure is required. The union push expanded to set minimum salaries, improve the league's marketing, and establish a full home-and-away structure to extend the season. In 2017, Football Federation Australia, the W-League's clubs, and PFA signed a new collective bargaining agreement (CBA) that raised minimum wages and professionalized more of the league by increasing roster sizes, salary caps, and medical standards. It also introduced the league's first maternity policies. In a 2019 extension to the existing CBA, W-League players saw their hourly pay rate equalized with men's A-League players, though they would still be paid less due to the W-League's season being 14 rounds to the men's 27. In 2021, the push culminated in a new CBA signed in 2021 that also equalized medical standards and set minimum workplace standards across the men's and women's A-Leagues, and increased minimum salary spending in the women's league to $17,055 per player. It also led to the establishment of a longer 18-round home-and-away schedule in the women's league in 2022. After a January 2023 A-League Women match between Canberra United and Western United was allowed to proceed with temperatures above 35 degrees Celsius, five players from the match required medical treatment for heat-related conditions. Women's matches were pushed into hotter parts of the early afternoon in order to accommodate scheduling A-League Men's matches, which take broadcast priority. Player complaints led to revisions to the league's heat policies in February 2023. == In Brazil == === National team === ==== 2017 protest ==== In 2017, the Brazilian Football Confederation fired head coach Emily Lima, which sparked protest among the team's players. The dispute evolved into an argument for greater wages, and more respect and recognition for the country's female football players. Players such as Cristiane, Rosana, and Francielle announced their retirement from international football in protest. == In Canada == === National team === ==== 2011 pay dispute ==== In 2011, Canadian players and the team's manager Carolina Morace raised complaints with Canada Soccer over compensation ahead of the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup. Players sought parity with the Canadian men's national team in the calculations used to determine players' salaries, though not equal pay, and proposed raising the issue for arbitration with the Sport Dispute Resolution Centre of Canada. Players stepped away from club play to focus entirely on World Cup preparation, and national team defender Carmelina Moscato noted that players would often negotiate pay with Canada Soccer during competitive tournaments. Morace threatened to resign after the 2011 World Cup over her own dispute with the association. Morace reached a short-term settlement through the 2012 Summer Olympics, and a day later Canada Soccer resolved its dispute with the team's players. Morace, however, resigned after Canada failed to advance past the World Cup's group stage. ==== 2023 pay dispute ==== Following Canada's first Olympic gold medal victory at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, the team's funding agreement with Canada Soccer expired. In February 2023, six months prior to the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup, the team announced that it would go on strike to protest cuts to the program's budget, including its youth teams. In a nationally televised interview, Canada captain Christine Sinclair said she could not represent the federation until the conflict was resolved. The women's team's strike was supported by the men's team, who claimed Canada Soccer obstructed requests for financial records to confirm the organization's claim that the cuts were necessary. Players from other national teams wore purple armbands representing gender equality in solidarity with Canada, including England, Ireland, Japan, and the United States, who wore their armbands in a friendly played against Canada in which Canadian players wore purple pre-match shirts reading "Enough is Enough" in hand-written lettering and had taped over their national team crests on their pre-match gear. Global footballers' union FIFPro included its members in the campaign. The Canadian men's team's contract had also expired, and had also gone on strike in June 2022 over funding. The women's team sat out of training on February 11, but returned within a week, claiming that Canada Soccer had threatened legal action against the team and individual players because it had not gotten permission to legally strike from the Canada Industrial Relations Board. Players responded by claiming their federation was poorly governed and underfunding the women's team compared to the men's program, and Sinclair posted to Twitter that the team was playing the 2023 SheBelieves Cup under protest. Both teams also criticized Canada Soccer's agreements with a private entity, men's Canadian Premier League-affiliated Canada Soccer Business, giving it control over and a cut of revenue from corporate partnerships and non-FIFA broadcast rights for both men's and women's teams for 10 years. By 27 February, Canada Soccer president Nick Bontis resigned after provincial and territorial soccer administrators, and the men's and women's national teams, requested either his resignation or removal by Canada minister of sport Pascale St-Onge. The teams reached an interim pay agreement that equalized compensation and incentives between the men's and women's teams a week later on 5 March but by 9 March were again at odds with Canada Soccer after the federation publicly shared private details about a proposed collective bargaining agreement without notifying the players. The dispute also resulted in an investigation by the Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee on Canadian Heritage, which began hours after the federation leaked the proposed CBA, and during which Sinclair alleged that Bontis referred to the women's team's compensation proposal by asking, "What was it Christine was bitching about?" Bontis, whose testimony was delayed by the death of an alleged stalker, apologized while claiming he did not remember the language he used. The hearings also included Bontis's predecessor Victor Montagliani, who was questioned about his handling of former Vancouver Whitecaps Women coach Bob Birarda, who was accused and convicted of sexual harassment of underaged players during his tenure. == In Chile == === National team === In 2014, Chilean national team player Iona Rothfeld participated in the 2014 South American Games with the senior women's national team. The games also featured Chile's under-17 boys' team. Rothfeld witnessed the disparity in treatment between the boys' team, who were allowed to use the senior men's nation team facilities, and the women's team, who were made to rest in classrooms. After a regime change in the national Asociación Nacional de Fútbol Profesional replaced Sergio Jadue, who was implicated in the 2015 FIFA corruption case, with Arturo Salah, ANJUFF worked with the new leadership to improve conditions for the team during preparation for the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup, which Chile qualified for. In 2016, players frustrated with the national team's inactive status with FIFA organized the National Association of Female Footballers (). The organization effort was led by players, including Rothfeld, Christiane Endler, and Camila García. ANJUFF was recognized by Chile's athletic unions and FIFPro, and was one of the first efforts to unionize female athletes in Latin America. The Chilean team made its competitive return in May 2017, defeating Peru 12–0. In 2018, thanks to the efforts of ANJUFF, Chile hosted the 2018 Copa América Femenina, in which Chile finished second behind Brazil, qualifying them for the nation's first FIFA Women's World Cup and a chance to qualify for the 2020 Olympics in a CAF- CONMEBOL qualification playoff. === League === In 2021, ANJUFF worked with the University of Chile to survey club players on their pay and conditions. The survey found that only 50 of 520 respondents held any professional contract, and that most made less than 500,000 pesos (US$630) per month. Many players also reported being subject to harassment and discrimination. On 21 March 2022, the Chamber of Deputies of Chile nearly unanimously approved legal reforms professionalizing women's football. The new law mandated at least half of each club's players must be under contract with at least a federal minimum wage, and that by 2025 every player must be contracted. Congress members credited the ANJUFF report with providing the data necessary to enact legislation. == In Denmark == thumb|Denmark's national team went on a two- month strike over employment status in September 2017, including a forfeited World Cup qualification match. In September 2017, the Danish senior national team held a two-month strike following the breakdown of negotiations over the team's collective bargaining agreement (CBA) with the Danish Football Association, particularly the association's plan to stop classifying women's national players as employees. The strike saw the national team forced to forfeit a World Cup qualifying match against Sweden, and UEFA threatened to suspend the team if the strike caused it to miss another match. A new CBA was signed in mid-November 2017. == In England == === 1921 coal miners' strike === Matches of Dick, Kerr Ladies F.C., an early women's football club in Preston, Lancashire, England, were closely associated with charitable causes during World War I and the interwar period. As demand for coal dropped after the war, coal-mining communities in England faced disputes with increasingly privatized mining companies that led to miners organizing their labour. During a wage dispute between miners and mine owners, the owners locked miners out in Wigan and Leigh on 1 April 1921, and the charitable success of Dick, Kerr Ladies inspired the formation of women's football clubs that began playing matches in May 1921 to raise funds for distress relief. This included matches to fund soup kitchens for locked-out miners, leading to some of these matches being named "pea soup" matches. Fundraising games for distress funds continued after the end of the miners' dispute in June 1921. === 1921 Football Association (FA) ban === The Football Association's (FA) Football Association Council, composed of 60 men, banned women's football from FA facilities months later in December 1921, citing in part complaints about "the appropriation of the receipts to other than charitable objects" in its rationale. The ban was enacted in the midst of contemporary movements for women's suffrage in the United Kingdom, the growth of Marxist–Leninism in Britain, and complaints that women's football was a "degrading" activity for women. A Channel 4 documentary in 2017, When Football Banned Women, more directly suggested the "pea soup" matches contributed to the FA's ban by associating it with broader cultural concerns in England about women participating in political movements. The ban lasted until at least 1969. === Women's Super League (WSL) === In April 2021, the players of Birmingham City W.F.C. issued a letter of complaints to the club's board over poor working conditions, saying that they were being prevented "from performing our jobs to the best of our ability." Among the issues raised by the players were a lack of overnight accommodation and medical staff for away games, the physio and rehabilitation room being located in a small portable building, issues with some key coaching staff not being full-time staff in contravention of WSL regulations, and fears over the club's commitment to staying in the WSL, as only three players were at that point under contract for the following season. The FA subsequently announced that it would launch an investigation. == In France == === National team === ==== 2023 player revolt ==== In February 2023, French defender and team captain Wendie Renard publicly withdrew herself from contention for France's national team in the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup, citing risks to her mental health. Forwards Kadidiatou Diani and Marie-Antoinette Katoto immediately followed with public announcements that the were suspending their international careers. Katoto referenced events from 2019, when French national team manager Corinne Diacre refused to call Katoto up despite leading all goal scorers in the top-tier French club league Division 1 Féminine. All three players called for unspecified, but "necessary", changes. The Union Nationale des Footballeurs Professionels (UNFP), France's players' union, praised the players' statements and requested that French Football Federation (FFF) enact changes. Injured defender Griedge Mbock Bathy also publicly supported the resigning players, and the resignations followed previous disputes between Diacre and goalkeeper Sarah Bouhaddi, who retired from international duty in 29 July 2020 and by September stated that winning an international title with Diacre in charge "seems impossible to me"; and with former captain Amandine Henry and forward Eugénie Le Sommer, who Diacre had repeatedly omitted from French selections since 2020 despite their club form. Henry had alleged that her removal was in retaliation for speaking to FFF president Noël Le Graët about the team's problems in preparation for the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup. Diacre was supported by Le Graët through the players' claims, but he resigned on 28 February 2023 after allegations of sexual harassment that he denied. Diani, in a 5 March 2023 interview with Téléfoot, described national team camps that lacked coaching specialists on Diacre's direction and medical treatment that was inadequate compared to her club. On 8 March, Diacre published a statement declaring her intent to manage France at the 2023 World Cup; the next day, FFF dismissed Diacre and replaced her with former Saudi Arabia men's national team manager Herve Renard, who immediately began recruiting the omitted players back to the French roster. On 31 March, Herve Renard named Wendie Renard to the team's first roster since Diacre's dismissal, for friendlies in April against Colombia and Canada. === Division 1 Féminine (D1F) === ==== 2023 maternity pay dispute ==== In 2021, Icelandic midfielder Sara Björk Gunnarsdóttir announced her pregnancy while playing for D1F club Olympique Lyon. By the terms of her employment agreement, Gunnarsdottir claimed that Lyon had failed to pay her wages due to her after she informed the club that she was pregnant. She raised the issue with the French players' union UNFP claiming that FIFA maternity regulations entitled Gunnarsdottir to her full salary. Lyon claimed that because Gunnarsdottir was not playing or working for the club, then she was not entitled to her salary. On 19 May 2022, FIFA ruled against Olympique Lyon and awarded Gunnarsdóttir £72,139, plus an additional 5% annual interest. Gunnarsdóttir left Lyon and signed with Juventus in Italy, and publicized her story and its resolution in The Players' Tribune on 17 January 2023. The ruling was the first enforcement of FIFA's maternity leave regulations enacted in January 2021. == In Ireland == In April 2017, the Republic of Ireland women's national football team announced potential strike action ahead of a match against Slovakia, with the support of the Professional Footballers' Association of Ireland and the SIPTU unions. The grievances raised by the players centered around a lack of pay and poor conditions, such as having to get changed into their uniforms in public toilets before games, having to share tracksuits with the junior women's teams, and being threatened by the Football Association of Ireland (FAI) not to discuss grievances publicly. The players further called for the introduction of match fees of €300 per match, as the players were often being forced to take unpaid leave from their day jobs to represent Ireland. After negotiations, an agreement was reached to avert the strike before the Slovakia match. In August 2021, the FAI announced that an agreement had been reached with the men's and women's senior national teams to ensure equal pay between them. Negotiations had been led by women's captain Katie McCabe and men's captain Séamus Coleman. As part of the agreement, which entered into effect in September 2021, qualifying bonuses for major tournaments and match fees would be equal, with the men's side volunteering to lower their match fees in order to raise the match fees for the women's side. == In Jamaica == After placing third at the 2018 CONCACAF Women's Championship, the Jamaican women's national team became the first Caribbean team to qualify for the FIFA Women's World Cup. However, the team went on strike in September 2019 alleging that they had not been paid by the Jamaican Football Federation in 9 months and weren't paid enough to cover expenses from playing in the World Cup. Jamaica's manager Hue Menzies resigned after the tournament over his own pay dispute with the federation, and was replaced by Hubert Busby Jr., who was accused of sexual misconduct while coaching Vancouver Whitecaps Women in Canada. In 2021, twenty of the team's players demanded that Busby resign in a letter to the JFF. On 15 June 2023, the team again raised protests against the JFF for its lack of financial support, planning, transportation, training facilities, nutrition, and facility access for the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup, nor did the federation schedule any preparatory friendly matches during international windows. Players also reported not receiving their contractually agreed financial compensation. The mother of Reggae Girlz player Havana Solaun launched a fundraiser on GoFundMe to cover team expenses for the tournament, following a GoFundMe fundraiser organized for the team's attempted 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup qualification. == In Mexico == === National team === ==== 1971 World Cup protest ==== In 1970, the Torino-based Federation of Independent European Female Football (FIEFF) ran the 1970 Women's World Cup in Italy without the involvement of FIFA. In the finals of the 1971 Women's World Cup, hosted by Mexico and played at Estadio Azteca in front of an estimated 110,000 or 112,500 attendees, the Mexican team protested their lack of pay in the face of the tournament's profits from ticket sales, television revenues, and merchandising, and threatened to boycott the match. Mexico == In Nigeria == === National team === ==== 2016 back pay protest ==== After winning the 2016 Women's Africa Cup of Nations, the Nigerian national team's players were not paid bonuses of US$23,650 due to them from the Nigeria Football Federation (NFF). On 6 December 2016, the players occupied a hotel in the Nigerian capital of Abuja and refused to leave until they were paid. The sit-in protest lasted for 13 days and included a march on the National Assembly and President Muhammadu Buhari's home to demand payment. ==== 2019 back pay protest ==== After reaching the round of 16 in the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup and losing to Germany, the national team again threatened a sit-in protest demanding payment of unpaid fees and bonuses dating back to 2016. On 23 June 2019, the team met with Nigeria Women Football League president Aisha Falode in their World Cup hotel in Grenoble, France, and remained there until the NFF agreed to pay the outstanding fees. A month after the protest at the 2019 Ladies In Sport conference in Lagos on 30 July 2019, team captain Desire Oparanozie demanded equal pay with the men's team, citing the team's eight consecutive World Cup qualifications. In 2021, former men's national team captain Sunday Oliseh accused the NFF of excluding women's team captain Desire Oparanozie from the team despite her form in Division 1 Féminine. Oliseh had also been removed from national team contention over a 2002 labor dispute. The NFF denied the allegation and said Oparanozie would still have a future with the team. == In Norway == In August 2017, Norwegian national team forward Ada Hegerberg abruptly retired from international play while criticizing the Norwegian Football Federation's (NFF) communication and response to criticism. In October 2017, the NFF proposed a deal to equalize pay structures between the men's and women's national teams. The men's and women's teams jointly signed the agreement in December 2017. Hegerberg declined to return and sat out of the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup and publicized discrepancies in treatment, such as the assignment of poor-quality training pitches during World Cup qualifiers, late and incorrectly sized equipment, and being told "you women complain too much" after raising concerns. She returned to the national team in March 2022 for the UEFA Women's Euro 2022 following changes in federation staff and promises to professionalise the national team, and her own recovery from an anterior cruciate ligament injury. == In Spain == === National team === ==== 2022–23 player revolt ==== In September 2022, 15 players signed an email removing themselves from national team consideration over complaints about national team coach Jorge Vilda, who refused to resign. The players included Patricia Guijarro, Sandra Paños, Mapi León, Clàudia Pina, Aitana Bonmatí, Mariona Caldentey, Lola Gallardo, Ainhoa Vicente, Lucía García, Ona Batlle, Leila Ouahabi, Laia Aleixandri, Nerea Eizagirre, Amaiur Sarriegi, and Andrea Pereira. Vilda subsequently removed those players from the selection, as well as Irene Paredes and Jennifer Hermoso, who had not signed the email but supported the effort, and Alexia Putellas, who had not signed because she was injured. The Royal Spanish Football Federation () backed Vilda. Seven players who did not sign the letter claimed they were pressured by their club, Real Madrid, not to do so, a claim the club denied. Player complaints included a poor quality of training under Vilda compared to their club environment, a lack of tactical preparation for matches, and claims of a controlling environment in which players would be frequently questioned about their whereabouts and shopping purchases. By April 2023, many of the players had entered talks with the federation while Vilda remained in charge. === Primera División === ==== 2019 strike ==== On 22 October 2019, during the 2019–20 Primera División season, the players of the league supported by the Association of Spanish Footballers () labour union, voted almost unanimously in favour of taking strike action. The strike came after a year of negotiations in which the players had sought to improve minimum salaries up to €20 000 for full-time players and the introduction of protections for pregnancy leave, but which the league was unwilling to offer. The strike was called off in mid-November, after the league announced it would be willing to return to negotiations toward a new collective bargaining agreement (CBA). An agreement was reached in late-December, increasing minimum full-time salaries to €16 000 per year. The CBA also introduced rules on working hours and paid leave, including maternity leave, and protection of employment during pregnancy. Pregnancy protections were particularly notable, as under Spanish law the women's league could not be considered professional and therefore was exempt from professional regulation. This allowed clubs to add anti-pregnancy clauses to player contracts allowing clubs to terminate players without compensation should they become pregnant. ==== 2020–22 push for professionalization ==== The Spanish government's sports council, the Consejo Superior de Deportes (CSD) controls whether sports leagues in Spain are considered to be professional, and as of 2019 had conferred professional status to only men's football and men's basketball leagues. Its rulings until 22 December 2022 were defined by the Sports Law of 1990. The council also allowed only one league per sport to be considered professional and considered men's and women's football leagues to be of the same sport, thus allowing only the men's league to be professionalized. Other leagues were designated as "assimilated", which allowed for players to be paid salaries but did not formally or legally recognize them as professionals nor grant them regulatory protections. A formal labour relationship between employers and players was among the prerequisites for a league's professional status. The RFEF operated the women's top-tier Primera División, which was not considered professional and had only a fraction of its teams operating with professional pay or standards. RFEF operated the league's front office, organized the competition, and employed the referees. On 6 May 2020 as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, RFEF cancelled the rest of the 2019–20 Primera División and suspended the league, but allowed the men's professional La Liga to continue play. This raised questions from La Liga's head of women's football, Pedro Malabia, about the women's league's lack of professionalization. In the same month, the employers' ACFF applied for recognition by CSD as a professional league, citing the league's 2019 CBA with players and other professional traits as sufficient for the designation. On 10 June 2020, the RFEF granted Primera División and second-tier Primera Federación professionalized status, RFEF's own designation that it had recently approved to establish minimum standards for clubs. On 15 June 2021 and starting with the 2021-22 Primera División, the cSD allowed the league became fully professional and contracted from 18 teams to 16. The move was welcomed by the AFE. This necessitated the formation of a parallel organizational body for professional women's football, the Professional Women's Football League (), which then employed La Liga as its commercial agent. On 22 December 2022, the Sports Law of 1990 was repealed, and the new law 39/2022 privatized some aspects of sports management, addressed some inequalities between men's and women's sport, provided protections for pregnant players, and promoted equal visibility of men's and women's sport in media. == In Taiwan == On 27 November 2020, Taiwanese players launched the Taiwan Women's Football Players' Association to improve facilities, playing conditions, and medical treatment, as well as to advocate for equal pay for national team players with men's national team players and negotiate salaries for women's clubs. The union was Taiwan's first for women athletes in any sport. Its first chairwoman is Wang Hsiang-huei, who played professionally in Japan, China, and Taiwan. The union was publicly supported by Taiwan's progressive political parties and Taiwan's professional baseball players' union. === National team === The national team not only qualified for the 2022 AFC Women's Asian Cup, its first in 14 years, but also reached the knockout stage, drew with the Philippines in regulation, and lost only after a penalty shoot-out. During a post-match press conference, forward Su Yu-hsuan expressed hopes for more high-quality training facilities, as the team were the only participants in the tournament that lacked a permanent training venue, and the best-available pitches for training were both under renovation. The Players' Association was subsequently consulted in February 2022 on designs for a new venue that could serve as a training facility. == In the United States == === National team === ==== 2014–2015 artificial turf dispute ==== In October 2014, United States women's team forward Abby Wambach led a lawsuit filed against FIFA alleging discrimination by the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup including venues using artificial turf. The lawsuit, filed with the Human Rights Tribunal of Ontario, included American players Alex Morgan and Heather O'Reilly, Japanese player Homare Sawa, Brazilian players Marta and Fabiana, Spanish player Veronica Boquete, and German player Nadine Angerer as plaintiffs. The suit noted that men's teams always played World Cup matches on grass, including the laying of sod over artificial turf in venues using it. United States men's team goalkeeper Tim Howard supported the women's claim, as did actor Tom Hanks and NBA player Kobe Bryant. FIFA refused to negotiate, the tribunal denied a request by the players for an expedited hearing, and Canada Soccer rejected a proposal from the Tribunal to mediate the dispute. FIFA secretary general claimed in a press conference that the players' discrimination claims were "nonsense". In January 2015, the players withdrew the lawsuit. The United States national team participated in and won the tournament. Wambach described the surface as "kind of a nightmare". After the tournament, the United States Soccer Federation (USSF) staged a 10-match victory tour of friendlies featuring the United States national team. On 5 December 2015, the national team's players withdrew from a match scheduled for December 6 against the Trinidad and Tobago national team in Hawaii's Aloha Stadium, which uses artificial turf. Commentator and former United States national team player Julie Foudy posted a photo to Twitter of the turf in front of goal being pulled up by hand from the surface and fears about unnecessary injury risks to players, and criticized USSF for not inspecting the venue or having a policy comparable to the men's team about surface conditions. The following day, players published an open letter to USSF explaining that the issue was about inequality in playing conditions. The national team made the turf dispute a plank in their arguments for improved conditions in collective bargaining agreement (CBA) negotiations in 2016. However, after agreeing to a new CBA in April 2017 that stated that the federation would prefer grass over artificial turf, USSF scheduled three home women's national team matches in 2017 on artificial turf surfaces. As part of a proposed settlement in 2020 of a gender discrimination lawsuit filed by United States national team players in 2016, the women's team would not be required to play home matches on artificial turf. The 2022 CBA signed by players and the USSF includes a provision that the U.S. Women's National Team Players Association must agree to play at a venue using artificial turf, and that USSF must inspect and agree that the surface is safe. ==== 2016 pay dispute ==== Starting in 2016, members of the United States women's national soccer team (USWNT) have engaged in a series of legal actions against the United States Soccer Federation, accusing the organization of unequal treatment and compensation. The fight for equal pay has received widespread media attention, inspired legislative action in the U.S. Senate, and received popular support, including fan chants of "Equal pay" at the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup matches in France. A landmark equal pay agreement was reached in February 2022. === National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) === ==== Accommodations complaints ==== On 15 August and 17 August 2015, Portland Thorns FC forwards Alex Morgan and Christine Sinclair alleged that the Adam's Mark hotel in Kansas City was infested with bed bugs and mold. The hotel was provided by FC Kansas City for the Thorns. The NWSL apologized and published a statement noting that FC Kansas City had changed hotels for the remainder of the season. On 9 July 2016, Western New York Flash hosted Seattle Reign FC at Frontier Field, a baseball stadium. Unable to convert the baseball diamond, the pitch was lined in the stadium's outfield and undersized by FIFA professional standards. On 12 July 2016, Seattle Reign FC goalkeeper Hope Solo published a blog post alleging several ongoing issues with accommodations and facilities at NWSL clubs, including faulty or improperly sized equipment, poor hotels for away matches and inadequate housing in home markets, a lack of traveling staff, dirty showers, and inadequate security. One instance involved the team being co-housed with a 2016 furry convention, which Solo incorrectly alleged was a pornography convention. Solo retired from Reign FC six weeks later after being suspended by USSF during the 2016 Summer Olympics, but restated those complaints in 2022 following the 2021 NWSL abuse scandal. ==== 2021 age limit dispute ==== On 4 May 2021, Portland Thorns FC and youth player Olivia Moultrie sued the NWSL over its minimum age limit, which prevented Thorns FC from signing 15-year-old Moultrie. The lawsuit claimed the rule violated United States antitrust law and was anticompetitive in nature. The league argued that as a single entity, it could not be anticompetitive. However, in the temporary restraining order, Immergut noted that the NWSL might not meet the legal standard for a single-entity organization, being instead a collection of independent teams competing for talent, and that the age rule therefore would violate section 1 of the Sherman Antitrust Act. If such a ruling became permanent, other league rules that relied on its single- entity structure could be similarly contested. On 18 June 2021, Immergut granted Moultrie a preliminary injunction allowing her to sign an NWSL contract, which the league stated that it would appeal to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit on the grounds that the league was negotiating a CBA with the NWSL Players Association (NWSLPA) that would codify an age rule negotiated with players. On 30 June 2021, Moultrie officially signed a three-year professional contract with the NWSL to play for Portland Thorns FC. On 30 July 2021, Moultrie and her attorneys settled their lawsuit with the NWSL out of court, which allowed Moultrie to sign with the league but left the league's age rule otherwise prohibiting players under the age of 18 intact. The settlement also allowed any age rule eventually agreed upon in the league's CBA with the NWSLPA to make Moultrie ineligible again. The CBA, signed in 2023, instead included a special entry process for under-18 players. ==== 2021 abuse scandal ==== Following a series of reports, suspensions, and firings of coaches and management staff during the 2021 NWSL season related to alleged abuses by coaches and staff over most of the league's existence, the league and NWSLPA launched a joint investigation into reported abuse across all NWSL teams. On 14 December 2022, the investigation released a report that claimed the NWSL's culture, forged in part by the fact that its two predecessor leagues, the Women's United Soccer Association and Women's Professional Soccer had folded, which discouraged players from reporting misconduct. The NWSL had also not established a firm definition of "misconduct". The report also noted that the league had failed to adequately vet technical staff. The joint report, and separate Yates Report commissioned by the USSF, resulted in the suspensions, firings, or banning of several head coaches, assistant coaches, and general managers across the league, and the establishment of a league office for player safety. ==== 2021 referee unionization ==== Referees for professional matches in the United States are drawn from the Professional Referee Organization (PRO), a company jointly founded by Major League Soccer (MLS) and the USSF. However, unlike referees of the men's top-division Major Soccer League, referees for the top-division NWSL are drawn from a secondary tier shared with men's second- and third-division leagues, known as PRO2. These officials are assigned to NWSL and lower- division men's leagues with a goal of being promoted to MLS duty, with most of PRO's funding coming from MLS. In 2022, NWSL center referees were considered independent contractors and paid $461 per match, which was less than the $529 paid to referees of the men's second division USL Championship. PRO2 referees reported sleeping in hotel lobbies before games because they were unable to find lodging, working with frequently rotating crews, dealing with poor venue accommodations such as lack of changing rooms, and lacking paid leave for pregnancy. PRO2 referees also remarked on a lack of access to developmental training, coaching, and assessments; low-quality training webinars that lack sufficient detail; a lack of match footage to review and improve on their own performance; a "fear-based" approach to assignment that left officials uncertain whether they would be allowed to continue working; and a lack of access to fitness, physical training, and recovery resources. PRO referees are members of the Professional Soccer Referees Association (PSRA), but as independent contractors PRO2 referees were not considered included in that organization's collective bargaining agreement (CBA). About 80 referees from the top three groups of PRO2 attempted to organize and form a bargaining unit under PSRA, which PRO refused to voluntarily recognize. PSRA escalated to the National Labor Relations Board to rule on whether PRO2 referees were employees of PRO and eligible to unionize, and the NLRB ruled in the referee's favor in October 2021. PRO2 officials voted on 30 November 2021 to unionize with a 68–3 vote in favor that was certified by the NLRB on 8 December 2021. However, PRO then challenged the October 2021 ruling, which PSRA described as "union- busting tactics". PRO was negotiating a CBA with the PSRA in May 2022 before withdrawing its NLRB appeal in July 2022, and on 14 April 2023 the PRO2 referees voted to ratify their first CBA with PRO. ==== 2023 collective bargaining agreement ==== The NWSLPA began negotiations with the NWSL toward its first collective bargaining agreement (CBA) in March 2021. An NWSL CBA would be the first ever negotiated for a professional women's football league in the United States. During the negotiations, the NWSLPA launched a campaign to highlight how some NWSL players were paid so little for their play that many worked multiple jobs in addition to their full-time workload as professional footballers to supplement their income. Using a social media hashtag of "#NoMoreSideHustles", Emily Menges, Jessica McDonald, Kristen Hamilton, Gabby Seiler, Brooke Elby, Caroline Stanley, Kat Williamson, DiDi Haračić, Darian Jenkins, and other active and retired players shared stories about working multiple jobs while having no control over where they place, with the potential to be traded and relocated to distant cities with little or no warning. The campaign was promoted by the AFL-CIO. The union and league ratified the agreement on 31 January 2022, less than a day before players were expected to report to clubs for the 2022 preseason, with players prepared to enact a work stoppage on 1 February. The agreement provided improvements to player salaries and benefits, facilities, parental and mental health leave, and initial steps toward free agency for long-tenured players. It also prevented the league from playing on surfaces that required "substantial conversion" to the dimensions of a football pitch, such as the baseball stadiums employed by OL Reign and Kansas City Current in 2022, and granted players control over their name and image license rights. The association worked with players' unions of other professional sports leagues to help draft the CBA, particularly the Women's National Basketball Players Association, and also worked to make the NWSL CBA public. ==== 2023 free agency dispute ==== The new CBA provided sufficiently tenured NWSL players whose contracts were expiring as of 26 August 2022 the option to begin negotiating with clubs as free agents, which had been unavailable to NWSL players since the league's inception. However, the league interpreted this provision to exclude players whose contracts had unexercised options to extend, even if the club had not determined whether it would exercise the option. The league's interpretation would have delayed those players' negotiations until November 15, the deadline for clubs to exercise options. The NWSLPA disagreed on behalf of 22 affected players who had expected to begin negotiations in August. The NWSLPA disputed the league's interpretation through an independent arbitrator per the CBA's terms, and on 17 October 2022, the arbitrator ruled in favor of the NWSLPA and granted free agency to 22 of the affected players. NWSLPA executive director Meghann Burke and NWSL commissioner Jessica Berman both praised the use of the new arbitration process to resolve the dispute. Among the newly declared free agents was Debinha, whose free-agency signing with Kansas City Current was among the highest-profile transactions in the league's first free agency period. == References == == Further reading == * * Category:Women's association football Category:Sports labor disputes Category:Gender pay gap |
A quiet, silent or fanless PC is a personal computer that makes very little or no noise. Common uses for quiet PCs include video editing, sound mixing and home theater PCs, but noise reduction techniques can also be used to greatly reduce the noise from servers. There is currently no standard definition for a "quiet PC", and the term is generally not used in a business context, but by individuals and the businesses catering to them. A proposed general definition is that the sound emitted by such PCs should not exceed 30 dBA, but in addition to the average sound pressure level, the frequency spectrum and dynamics of the sound are important in determining if the sound of the computer is noticed. Sounds with a smooth frequency spectrum (lacking audible tonal peaks), and little temporal variation are less likely to be noticed. The character and amount of other noise in the environment also affects how much sound will be noticed or masked, so a computer may be quiet with relation to a particular environment or set of users. ==History== Prior to about 1975, all computers were typically large industrial/commercial machines, often in a centralized location with a dedicated room-sized cooling system. For these systems noise was not an important issue. The first home computers, such as the Commodore 64, were very low power, and therefore could run fanless or, like the IBM PC, with a low-speed fan only used to cool the power supply, so noise was seldom an issue. By the mid 1990s as CPU clock speeds increased above 60 MHz, "spot-cooling" was added by means of a fan over the CPU heatsink to blow air onto the processor. Over time, more fans were included to provide spot-cooling in more locations where heat dissipation was needed, including the 3D graphics cards as they grew more powerful. Computer cases increasingly needed to add fans to extract heated air from the case, but unless very carefully designed, this would add more noise. Energy Star, in 1992, and similar programs led to the widespread adoption of sleep mode among consumer electronics, and the TCO Certified program promoted lower energy consumption. Both added features that allowed systems to only consume as much power as is needed at a particular moment and helped reduce power consumption. In a similar manner the first low power and energy-conserving CPUs were developed for use in laptops but can be used in any machine to reduce power requirements, and hence noise. ==Causes of noise== The main causes of PC noise are: * Mechanical friction generated by disk drives and fan bearings * Vibration from disk drives and fans * Air turbulence caused by obstructions in the flow of air * Air vortex effects from fan blade edgesNoise Generation Mechanisms"Acoustic noise", jmcproducts.com * Electrical whine: noise generated by electrical coils or transformers used in power supplies, motherboards, video cards or LCD monitors. Many of these sources increase with the power of the computer. More or faster transistors use more power, which releases more heat. Increasing the rotation speed of fans to address this will (all things being equal) increase their noise. Similarly, increasing hard disk drives' and optical disc drives' rotation speeds increases performance, but generally also vibration and bearing friction. ==Measuring noise== Though standards do exist for measuring and reporting sound power output by such things as computer components, they are often ignored. Many manufacturers do not give sound power measurements. Some report sound pressure measurements, but those that do often do not specify how sound pressure measurements were taken. Even such basic information as measurement distance is rarely reported. Without knowing how it was measured, it is not possible to verify these claims, and comparisons between such measurements (e.g. for product selection) are meaningless. Comparative reviews, which test several devices under the same conditions, are more useful, but even then, an average sound pressure level is only one factor in determining which components will be perceived as quieter. ==Noise reduction methods== ===Common noise reduction methods=== * Use large, efficient heat sinks * Incorporate heat pipes, which have much higher effective thermal conductivity than solid copper * Use fans with lower speeds and larger diameters * Use fans with low bearing and motor noise * Rather than constant-speed fans, use thermostatically controlled variable speed fans that run at less than maximum speed, and thus run quieter most of the time * Use an efficient power supply to minimize waste heat * Use quieter models of hard drive * Use solid state devices like compact flash or solid- state drives rather than traditional mechanical hard drives * Use remote networked via SMB or NFS rather than local disks * Place a damping material such as Sorbothane around hard drives or other spinning items * Use sound insulation material to absorb sound and dampen case resonance * Water cooling, although difficult to set up, may be useful in some situations === Low-cost methods === A number of methods exist for reducing computer noise at little or no added cost. * Reduce CPU supply voltage ("undervolting"). Many of today's CPUs can run stably at their stock speed, or even with a slight overclock, at a reduced voltage, which reduces heat output. Power consumption is approximately proportional to V2·f, that is, it varies linearly with the clock frequency and quadratically with the voltage.. This means that even a small reduction in voltage can have a large effect in power consumption. Undervolting and underclocking can also be used with chipsets and GPUs. * Enable Cool'n'Quiet for AMD CPUs or SpeedStep (also known as EIST) on Intel CPUs. * Reduce fan speed. For newer computers, the speed of fans can be varied automatically, depending on how hot certain parts of the computer get. Lowering a DC fan motor's supply voltage will reduce its speed while making it quieter and lowering the amount of air the fan moves. Doing this arbitrarily could lead to components overheating; therefore, whenever performing hardware work it is advised to monitor the temperature of system components. Fans with Molex connectors can be modified easily. With 3-pin fans, either fixed inline resistors or diodes, or commercial fan controllers, such as the Zalman Fanmate, can be used. Software like speedfan or Argus Monitor may allow fan speed control. Many newer motherboards support pulse-width modulation (PWM) control, allowing the fan speed to be set in the BIOS or with software. * Mount fans on anti-vibration mounts. * Remove restrictive fan grills to allow easier airflow, or replace noisy fan grills with quieter versions. * Use software such as Nero DriveSpeed or RimhillEx to reduce the speed of optical drives. * Isolate hard disk noise, either by using anti-vibration mounts (generally rubber or silicone grommets), or by suspending the hard disk to fully decouple it from the computer chassis by mounting it in a 5.25 inch drive bay with viscoelastic polymer mounts. * Set the hard disk's AAM value to its lowest setting. This reduces the seek noise produced by the hard drive, but also reduces performance slightly. * Set operating system to spin down hard drives after a short time of inactivity. This may reduce a drive's life span and commonly conflicts with the OS and running programs, though it can still be useful for drives that are only used for data storage. * Defragment hard drives to reduce the drive heads' need to search widely for data. This can also improve performance. * Arrange components and cables to improve airflow. Wires hanging inside the computer can block the airflow, which can increase the temperature. They can be easily moved to the side of the case so that air can pass through more easily. * Remove dust from inside the computer. Dust on computer parts will retain more heat. Fans draw in dust along with outside air; it can build up quickly inside the computer. Dust can be removed with a vacuum cleaner, gas duster, or compressed air. Special anti-static vacuum cleaners should be used, however, to prevent electrostatic discharge (ESD). Ideally, this would be done often enough to prevent a significant amount of dust from ever building up. How frequently this would need to be performed would depend entirely on the environment in which the computer is used. In some cases an acceptable solution may be to relocate the too-noisy computer outside the immediate working area, and access it either with long- distance HDMI/USB/DVI cables or via remote desktop software from a quiet thin client, e.g. based on a Raspberry Pi, a miniature computer that does not even use a heat sink. ==Individual components in a quiet PC== The following are notes regarding individual components in quiet PCs. The motherboard, CPU, and video card are major energy users in a computer. Components that need less power will be easier to cool quietly. A quiet power supply is selected to be efficient while providing enough power for the computer. ===Motherboard=== thumb|Passively cooled northbridge chipsets help reduce noise. A motherboard based on a chipset that uses less energy will be easier to cool quietly. Undervolting and underclocking generally require motherboard support, but when available can be used to reduce energy use and heat output, and therefore cooling requirements. Many modern motherboard chipsets have hot northbridges which may come with active cooling in the form of a small, noisy fan. Some motherboard manufacturers have replaced these fans by incorporating large heat sinks or heatpipe coolers, however they still require good case airflow to remove heat. Motherboard voltage regulators also often have heat sinks and may need airflow to ensure adequate cooling. Some motherboards can control the fan speed using an integrated hardware monitoring chip (often a function within a Super I/O solution), which can be configured through BIOS or with a system monitoring software like SpeedFan and Argus Monitor, and most recent motherboards have built-in PWM fan control for one or two fans. Even though a given hardware monitoring chip may be capable of performing fan control, a motherboard manufacturer may not necessarily wire up the fan header pins of the motherboard correctly to the hardware monitoring chip, thus sometimes computer fan control cannot be performed on a given motherboard due to the wiring irregularities, even though the software may indicate that the fan control is available due to the underlying support by the hardware monitoring chip itself. Other times, it may be the case that a single fan-control setting may affect all fan connector headers on the motherboard at the same time, even if individual settings for each fan are available in the hardware monitoring chip itself; these wiring issues being very common makes it difficult to design good general-purpose user interfaces for configuring fan control. Motherboards can also produce audible electromagnetic noise. ===CPU=== The heat output of a CPU can vary according to its brand and model or, more precisely, its thermal design power (TDP). Intel's third revision Pentium 4, using the "Prescott" core, was infamous for being one of the hottest-running CPUs on the market. By comparison, AMD's Athlon series and the Intel Core 2 perform better at lower clock speeds, and thus produce less heat. Modern CPUs often incorporate energy saving systems, such as Cool'n'Quiet, LongHaul, and SpeedStep. These reduce the CPU clock speed and core voltage when the processor is idle, thus reducing heat. The heat produced by CPUs can be further reduced by undervolting, underclocking or both. Most modern mainstream and value CPUs are made with a lower TDP to reduce heat, noise, and power consumption. Intel's dual-core Celeron, Pentium, and i3 CPUs generally have a TDP of 35-54 W, while the i5 and i7 are generally 64-84 W (newer versions, such as Haswell) or 95W (older versions, such as Sandy Bridge). Older CPUs such as the Core 2 Duo typically had a TDP of 65 W, while the Core 2 Quad CPUs were mostly 65-95 W. AMD's Athlon II x2 CPUs were 65 W, while the Athlon x4 was 95 W. The AMD Phenom ranged from 80 W in the x2 variant to 95 and 125 W in the quad-core variants. The AMD Bulldozer CPUs range from 95-125 W. AMD APUs range from 65 W for the lower-end dual-core variants, such as the A4, to 100 W in the higher-end quad-core variants, such as the A8. Some processors come in special low power versions. For example, Intel's lower TDP CPUs end in T (35 W) or S (65 W). ===Video card=== Video card can produce a significant amount of heat. A fast GPU may be the largest power consumer in a computer and because of space limitations, video card coolers often use small fans running at high speeds, making them noisy. Options to reduce noise from this source include: * Replace the stock cooler with an aftermarket one.. * Use motherboard video output. Typically, motherboard video takes less power, but provides lower gaming or HD video decoding performance. * Select a video card that does not use a fan. * Most modern graphics cards come with tools that allow the user to reduce the power target and adjust fan curves, resulting in quieter operation at a cost of performance ===Power supply=== Power supply (PSU) is made quieter through the use of higher efficiency (which reduces waste heat and need for airflow), quieter fans, more intelligent fan controllers (ones for which the correlation between temperature and fan speed is more complex than linear), more effective heat sinks, and designs that allow air to flow through with less resistance. For a given power supply size, more efficient supplies such as those certified 80 plus generate less heat. A power supply of appropriate wattage for the computer is important for high efficiency and minimizing heat. Power supplies are typically less efficient when lightly or heavily loaded. High wattage power supplies will typically be less efficient when lightly loaded, for instance when the computer is idle or sleeping. Most desktop computers spend most of their time lightly loaded. For example, most desktop PCs draw less than 250 watts at full load, and 200 watts or less is more typical. Power supplies with thermally controlled fans can be made quieter by providing a cooler and/or less obstructed source of air, and fanless power supplies are available, either with large passive heat sinks or relying on convection or case airflow to dissipate heat. It is also possible to use fanless DC to DC power supplies that operate like those in laptops, using an external power brick to supply DC power, which is then converted to appropriate voltages and regulated for use by the computer. These power supplies usually have lower wattage ratings. The electrical coils in power supplies can produce audible electromagnetic noise which can become noticeable in a quiet PC. Equipping the PSU with a power cord that uses a ferrite bead can sometimes help to reduce humming from the PSU. ===Case=== thumb|Antec P180, with isolated chambers for more segregated airflow thumb|Another example of the Antec P180, this one demonstrating the use of the Scythe Ninja, a fanless CPU cooler Case designed for low noise usually include quiet fans, and often come with a quiet power supply. Some incorporate heatsinks to cool components passively. Larger cases provide more space for airflow, larger coolers and heat sinks, and sound dampening material. ====Airflow==== Noise- optimized cases.. often have ducting and partitioning within the case to optimize airflow and to thermally isolate components. Vents and ducts may easily be added to regular cases. Case designed to be quiet typically have wire grills or honeycombed fan grills. Both are far superior to the older style of stamped grill. Features that facilitate neat cable management, such as brackets and space to run cables behind the motherboard tray, help increase cooling efficiency. Air filters can help to prevent dust from coating heat sinks and surfaces, which dust impedes heat transfer, making fans spin faster. However, the filter itself can increase noise if it restricts airflow too much or is not kept clean, requiring a larger or faster fan to handle the pressure drop behind the filter. ====Soundproofing==== The inside of a case can be lined with dampening materials to reduce noise by: * attenuating the vibration of the case panels via extensional damping or constrained-layer damping * reducing the amplitude of the vibration of the case panels by increasing their mass * absorbing airborne noise, such as with foam ===Cooling systems=== ====Heat sink==== Large heat sinks designed to operate efficiently with little airflow are often used in quiet computers. Often heat pipes are used to more efficiently distribute heat to the heat sink. ====Fan==== thumb|A 120 mm variable speed fan If they use fans at all, quiet PCs typically use larger- than-usual low-speed fans with quiet-running motors and bearings. The 120 mm size is common, and 140 mm fans are used where cases or heat sinks allow them. Quiet fan manufacturers include Nexus, EBM-Papst,. Yate Loon, Scythe, and Noctua. Extensive comparative surveys have been posted by SPCR and MadShrimps. Fan noise is often proportional to fan speed, so fan controllers can be used to slow down fans and to precisely choose fan speed. Fan controllers can produce a fixed fan speed using an inline resistor or diode; or a variable speed using a potentiometer to supply a lower voltage. Fan speed can also be reduced more crudely by plugging them into the power supply's 5 volt line instead of the 12 volt line (or between the two for a potential difference of 7 volts, although this cripples the fan's speed sensing). Most fans will run at 5 volts once they are spinning, but may not start reliably at less than 7 V. Some simple fan controllers will only vary the fans' supply voltage between 8 V and 12 V to avoid this problem entirely. Some fan controllers start the fan at 12 V, then drop the voltage after a few seconds. PWM fan control, however, is the easiest and most efficient option for modern motherboards that have PWM fan headers. PWM fan control rapidly cycles between feeding the fan full voltage and no voltage, to control rotational speed. Typically the motherboard chipset provides temperature data from sensors on the CPU itself to control speed. Bearing and motor noise is an important consideration. Soft mounting fans (e.g. with rubber or silicone fan isolators) can help reduce transfer of fan vibration to other components. Piezoelectric fans are often quieter than rotating fans and may consume less power. Intel, Murata, and others have recently done development on use of piezoelectric fans in desktop PCs. ====Watercooling==== Watercooling is a method of heat-dissipation by transferring the heat through a conductive material which is in contact with a liquid, such as demineralised water with an additive to prevent bacterial growth. This water travels in a loop that usually contains a reservoir, radiator and pump. Modern 12 V DC pump technologies allow extremely powerful and quiet designs. By efficiently transferring device heat to a separate heat exchanger that can use larger heat sinks or fans, watercooling can allow quieter overall operation. Devices such as GPUs, Northbridges, Southbridges, hard disk drives, memory, voltage regulator modules (VRMs), and even power supplies can be separately watercooled; in fact the whole PC can be immersed, in some cases. ===Secondary storage=== ====Hard drive==== thumb|Silicone grommets in a computer case for mounting a hard drive to reduce vibration. Older hard drives used ball bearing motors but more recent desktop hard drives use quieter fluid bearing motors. The smaller 2.5" form-factor hard drives generally vibrate less, are quieter, and use less power than traditional 3.5" drives, but often have lower performance and less capacity, and cost more per gigabyte. To minimize vibrations from a hard drive being transferred to, and amplified by, the case, hard drives can be mounted with soft rubber studs, suspended with elastics or placed on soft foam or Sorbothane. Hard disk enclosures can also help reduce drive noise, but care must be taken to ensure that the drive gets adequate cooling - with disk temperatures often be monitored by SMART software. ====Solid-state storage==== A solid-state drive has no moving mechanical components and runs silently,STEC."SSD Power Savings Render Significant Reduction to TCO ." Retrieved October 25, 2010. but () are still roughly four times more expensive per unit of storage than consumer- grade HDDs. In some cases, other solid state storage methods may be suitable: * Compact Flash (CF) cards can be used as secondary storage. Because they use a slightly modified Parallel ATA (PATA) interface, a simple adapter is all that is needed to connect CF cards to function as an PATA or PC Card hard disk. CF cards are also small, allowing SFF PCs to be made, produce no noise, use very little power (further reducing heat output in the AC/DC conversion in the PSU), and an insignificant amount of heat. However, they are very expensive per GB and are only available in small capacities and there are also issues regarding the maximum number of writes to each sector. * USB flash drives can be used if a motherboard supports booting from USB. They are based on flash memory, so have the same advantages and disadvantages as CF cards, except that speed is limited by the USB bus. * i-RAM is a solid-state disk which has four DIMM slots to allow regular PC RAM to be used like a disk. It is much faster than a hard disk, does not have the write cycle limitations of flash memory, however it requires power continuously in order to maintain its contents (from standby power or a battery when the system is off), uses more power than many laptop hard drives, has maximum capacity of 4 GiB, and is expensive. All forms of solid-state storage are more expensive than traditional spinning-disk drives, so some quiet PC designs use them in conjunction with a secondary hard drive which is only accessed when needed, or with network-attached storage, where less-quiet traditional hard drives are kept remote. ====Optical drive==== Optical drives can be slowed down by software to quiet them, such as Nero DriveSpeed, or emulated by virtual drive programs such as Daemon Tools to eliminate their noise entirely. Notebook optical drives can be used, which tend to be quieter, however this may be because they tend to run slower (typically 24× CD speed, 8× DVD speed). Some DVD drives have a feature, commonly called Riplock, which reduces drive noise by slowing the drive during video playback. For playback operations only 1x (or real time) speed is required. ===External components=== ====Monitor==== A CRT monitor can produce coil noise, as can the external power supply for an LCD monitor or the voltage converter for the monitor's backlight. LCD monitors tend to produce the least noise (whine) when at full brightness. Reducing brightness using the video card does not introduce whine, but may reduce color accuracy. An LCD monitor with an external power supply tucked out of the way will produce less noticeable noise than one with the power supply built into the screen housing. ====Printer==== In the past, particularly noisy printers such as dot matrix and daisy wheel designs were often housed in soundproofed boxes or cabinets, and the same technique can be used with modern printers to reduce their perceived noise. Another solution is to network the printer, and locate it physically away from the immediate work area. ==Laptop== In contrast to desktop PCs, laptops and notebooks typically do not have power supply fans or video card fans, generally use physically smaller hard drives and lower- power components. However, laptop CPU fans are usually smaller, so may not necessarily be quieter than their desktop counterparts - a smaller fan area requires faster fan speeds to move the same amount of air. Furthermore, limited space, limited access and proprietary components make silencing them more difficult. ===Fanless=== A number of laptops and netbooks however do not use cooling fans at all. Fanless portable computers (tablet pcs, subnotebooks, chromebooks, ultrabooks and 2-in-1 PCs) running under 10-15 W on mobile CPUs (most commonly ARM processors) became popular after netbooks but then mainly after the introduction of the first iPad in 2010. The first iPad's CPU, the ARM Cortex-A8 was the first Cortex design to be adopted on a large scale in consumer devices. ==References== ==External links== * – articles on various aspects of PC acoustics. ** . ** . ** . ** . * . Category:Personal computers Category:Computers and the environment Category:Noise pollution |
upright=1.9|thumb|Office of the Dead, folios 121v–122r; the manuscript's closing leaves The Black Hours, MS M.493 (or the Morgan Black Hours) is an illuminated book of hours completed in Bruges between 1460 and 1475. It consists of 121 pages (leaves), with Latin text written in Gothic minuscule script. The words are arranged in rows of fourteen lines and follow the Roman version of the texts. The lettering is inscribed in silver and gold and placed within borders ornamented with flowers, foliage and grotesques, on pages dyed a deep blueish black. It contains fourteen full-page miniatures and opens with the months of the liturgical calendar (folios 3 verso – 14 recto), followed by the Hours of the Virgin, and ends with the Office of the Dead (folio 121v). MS M.493 has been in the collection of the Morgan Library & Museum, New York, since 1912. It is one of seven surviving black books of hours, all originating from Bruges and dated to the mid-to-late 15th century. They are so named for their unusual dark blueish appearance, a colourisation achieved through the expensive process of dyeing the vellum with iron gall ink. This dye is very corrosive and the surviving examples are mostly badly decomposed; MS M.493 is in relatively good condition due to its very thick parchment. The book is a masterpiece of Late Gothic manuscript illumination."Das Schwarze Stundenbuch". New York: Old Manuscripts & Incunabula. p. 29. Retrieved 11 October 2015 However, no records survive of its commission, but its uniquely dark tone, expense of production, quality and rarity suggest ownership by privileged and sophisticated members of the Burgundian court. The book is often attributed, on stylistic grounds, to a follower of Willem Vrelant, a leading and influential Flemish illuminator. ==Commission== The black books of hours are a grouping of four to five (some books so defined contain only a few pages in this style) extant Flemish illuminated manuscripts so named for their dark appearance.Walther (2014), p. 362 The effect was achieved by soaking the vellum in black dye or ink before they were lettered with gold and silver leaf."The Black Hours, MS M493". Penn Libraries Manuscripts. Retrieved 14 March 2017 The black dye was highly corrosive and so the metals had to be of high purity, and the vellum needed to be unusually thick to survive the process."Black Hours M. 493 – Morgan Library & Museum". Simbach am Inn, Germany: Faksimile Verlag (in German). Retrieved 25 April 2018 The black manuscripts date from about 1455–80 and include the "Black Hours, Hispanic Society, New York" (c. 1458), "Black Hours of Galeazzo Maria Sforza" (c. 1466–67) and the "Hours of Mary of Burgundy" (c. 1477).Harthan (2008), p. 108Jenni & Thoss (1982), p. 143 The artwork is of a sophisticated and unusual taste, and the uncommon colour of the pages likely carried an almost mystical aura for the owner. MS M.493 can thus be assumed as intended for high nobility; probably from the court of Philip the Good or Charles the Bold.Walther, Ingo. Codices Illustres. Berlin: Taschen Verlag, 2001. The members of the Burgundian court were known to have had a preference for dark, sombre colours, and the black books can be assumed to have been designed specifically for their taste.Walther (2014), p. 363 Black books were more highly regarded than conventional illuminated books of hours, and today art historians assume they were commissioned by the court of Philip the Good.Walther (2014), p. 372 Philip's proclivity for black arose from the brutal assassination in 1419 of his father John the Fearless. The funeral procession was lined with 2000 black flags with black standards. From then on Philip wore only black clothes, as an expression of his grief. The style was adapted by other members of the court, who seem to have favoured black against gold and silver in artworks as well in formal dress, as can be seen in Rogier van der Weyden's contemporary Jean Wauquelin presenting his 'Chroniques de Hainaut' to Philip the Good.Walther (2014), p. 373 Emperor Maximilian I observed of the Burgundian rulers that their collections were "luxurious, the home treasury, and the library full of treasures, and the court ceremonial were oriented on a godlike super-elevation of the ruler." ==Attribution== The manuscript does not contain any family crest to identify the donor, who, given the expense of the book and its labour-intensive production, is assumed to have been a high-ranking member of court. Feast days noted in the calendars, including for Donatian of Reims (14 October), indicate it was produced in Bruges, or given the inclusion of the feast of Livinus (12 November), possibly in Ghent.Curatorial description."House of the Virgin. Rome. XV cent. M.493". Morgan Library & Museum, 1998. Retrieved 8 April 2018 The artists who designed, illustrated and inscribed MS M.493 are unknown, as are the circumstances of its commission. The book is often linked to the circle of the Utrecht illuminator Willem Vrelant, who was highly regarded and successful, and was active in Bruges from the 1450s until his death in 1481. This attribution is based on the resemblance of some of the figures in the miniatures with those in works attributed to him; the angular and linear manner of the figures' clothes is also consistent with his style. The text "pro me peccatore" (for me a sinner), which uses a masculine form of the Latin noun, indicates the book was produced for a man, and the inventory records of its mid-19th-century owner, Nicholas Yemeniz, record that it was produced by a workshop which had often been commissioned by the Burgundian Dukes. Other possible attributions include the circle of the French painter Philippe de Mazerolles (d. 1479) or the workshop of Liévin van Lathem (active 1454–93). According to the Morgan Library, van Lathem's influence can be seen in the "figures in angular drapery [who] move somewhat stiffly in shallowly defined spaces... [while] the men's flat faces are dominated by large noses". The style of the miniatures and borders are similar to those of the Galeazzo Maria Sforza in Vienna, but they are not from the same workshop.Brinkmann, Bodo. "Philippe de Mazerolles". Oxford University Press: Grove Art Online. Retrieved 24 November 2017Jenni & Thoss (1982), pp. 140–43 ==Description== upright=1.6|thumb|The Flight into Egypt, Folios 66v–67r The manuscript consists of 122 pages each measuring about . The borders are mostly coloured light blue, while the illustrations are overwhelmingly dark, and of black, grey red, old rose and green pigments, with some white and flesh-tone colours. Each miniature is placed opposite the text of a prayer set against a dark background. This book's solemnity is in contrast to the bright colours found in most contemporary books of hours and seems to reflect a rather gloomy and mournful court outlook. The many shades of blue were achieved from a variety of ingredients, each allowing varying depths and varieties of colour. The miniature's technique and style can be dated as around 1475. In the 15th century, Ultramarine pigment was extremely rare and worth more by weight than gold; thus its prevalence in this work is an indicator of the commissioner's wealth.MacBeth (2015), p. 10Ainsworth (2010), p. 81 The opening letters of each prayer are formed from gold leaf on green ground. Their texts contain words from the Hours of the Cross, the Hours of the Holy Spirit, the Mass of the Virgin, the Hours of the Virgin, the Penitential Psalms, and the Office of the Dead. The lettering is in Gothic minuscule with silver ink, with gold leaf added to the rubrics. The border decorations include landscapes, jagged acanthus scrolls, birds, small animals and grotesques; the latter are similar in style to those found in the Black Hours of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, and include naked winged devils and hybrid men."Medieval & Renaissance Manuscripts". Morgan Library & Museum. Retrieved 13 April 2018 They are ornamented exclusively in gold and are shaded mostly by black pigment. They are lined with yellow or gold filigree and extravagant foliage, including vines. The manuscript has deteriorated over time and has flaked in some areas."Fols. 62v–63r". Morgan Library & Museum. Retrieved 11 October 2015 The book was rebound in the 19th century for its then owner, the French bibliophile , by the bookbinder (known as Trautz-Bauzonnet), and is today encased in a wooden box, which is also modern. The binding is in tan pigskin with oxidised silver clasps. Yemeniz's monogram of two interlocking "Y"'s is stamped on the central panel of the binding and on the clasps."Book of hours (MS M.493). Morgan Library & Museum. Retrieved 4 October 2015 ==Miniatures== left|upright=1.6|thumb|The Crucifixion, folios 14v–15r; Calendar: Hours of the Cross The miniatures depict scenes from the lives of the Virgin and Christ and are placed to the left (verso) pages of the book, mostly against calendar representations of days from the liturgical year. The illuminations include biblical figures dressed in contemporary late medieval or Gothic dress. In folio 76v, David wears the ceremonial robes of a 15th-century monarch. The decorations on the borders are particularly vivid in detail. The Crucifixion (folio 14v) is the book's most acclaimed illustration. It is outlined by border illustrations of fantastical creatures and a peacock. The illumination shows Jesus on the cross with his head inclined and bleeding from multiple wounds. Mary, wearing a wimpled veil, and St John stand to the left of the foot of the cross. Both have halos. The gesturing mourners to their right are given facial expressions that convey a deep sense of sadness and loss. Behind them are two soldiers wearing helmets, one of whom may be Longinus. The hilly landscape behind the figures depicts the walls of Jerusalem set against a deep blue sky. The marginalia contain hybrid men, including one who is half fish and lifts a sword, and another with animal legs. Art historian Ingo Walther described folio 18v, which depicts the Descent of the Holy Spirit, as evidencing the "unusual, exquisite and precious overall effect... generated by using the technique of fixing an illumination on a piece of black dyed parchment". Rinceau decorations on the edges outline a depiction of Mary at the centre of the court of the Apostles. The gilded "D" represents the opening letter of the Hours of the Holy Spirit. The following is a complete list of the manuscript's miniatures:"The Black Hours". Morgan Library & Museum. Retrieved 7 April 2018 * Folio 14v: The Crucifixion (opposite "Hours of the Cross") * Folio 18v: Pentecost (opposite "Hours of the Holy Spirit: Matins") * Folio 22v: Virgin and Child (opposite "Mass of the Virgin") * Folio 29v: Annunciation (opposite "Hours of the Virgin: Matins") * Folio 39v: Visitation (opposite "Hours of the Virgin: Lauds") * Folio 50v: Nativity (Folio 50v: "Nativity" (opposite "Hours of the Virgin: Prime")) * Folio 54v: Annunciation to the Shepherds (opposite "Hours of the Virgin: Terce") * Folio 58v: Adoration of the Magi (opposite "Hours of the Virgin: Sext") * Folio 62v: Massacre of the Innocents (opposite "Hours of the Virgin") * Folio 66v: Flight into Egypt (opposite "Hours of the Virgin") * Folio 72v: Coronation of the Virgin (opposite "Hours of the Virgin: Compline") * Folio 76v: David in prayer (opposite "Penitential Psalms and Litany") * Folio 93v: Resurrection of Lazarus (opposite "Office of the Dead: Vespers") * Folio 98v: Chanting of the Office of the Dead (opposite "Office of the Dead: Matins") ==Provenance and exhibition history== MS 493's early history is obscure, and there are no surviving title or inventory records before the 19th century. The arms of the family of Isabelle de Bethe is stamped on one of the pages; her family married into Burgundians and were wealthy and prominent members of Flanders society. The manuscript is described in an 1867 inventory of the collection of Nicholas Yemeniz (1806–1869), a Lyon silk manufacturer born in Constantinople. It was acquired by the French publisher and art collector Ambroise Firmin-Didot in 1871. He in turn sold the book to Alphonse Labitte in 1879."Schoenberg Database of Manuscripts". University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved 22 November 2017 MS M.493 was acquired by Robert Hoe in 1909 for $500 (about $ in terms). Hoe held it until 1912; following his death that year it was sold in a large scale and commercially successful sell-off of his collection of rare and antique books."The Coming Sale of part of the Robert Hoe Library". Lotus Magazine. Volume 3, No. 2, November 1911. pp. 35–43"End of the Great Hoe Library Sale Approaching". Lotus Magazine. Volume 4, No. 1, October 1912. pp. 5–11 It passed between two book dealers, Bernard Quaritch and Léon Gruel, before its eventual acquisition by the Pierpont Morgan Library later that year. The book was exhibited at the Paris Colonial Exhibition, the Maritime et d'art Flamand in Antwerp in 1930, at the Morgan's 50th anniversary exhibition in 1957, in Brussels in 1959, and in Bruges in 1981. ==Selected images== File:Black Hours, Morgan Library August (conclusion).jpg|Folios. 9v–10r. Calendar: August (conclusion), opp: Calendar: September File:MS M.493, fol. 9r.jpg|Folio 9r: Calendar: August File:MS M.493, fol. 38v.jpg|Folio 38v: Hours of the Virgin: Matins (conclusion) File:MS M.493, fol. 28v.jpg|Folio 28v: Mass of the Virgin (conclusion) File:MS M.493, fol. 93v.jpg|Folio 93v: Raising of Lazarus, Office of the Dead (vespers) File:MS M.493, fol. 104v.jpg|Folio 104v: Office of the Dead: Matins (first nocturns) File:MS M.493, fol. 38r.jpg|Folio 38r: Hours of the Virgin: Matins File:M493 090v 91r.jpg|Folio 91r: Penitential Psalms and Litany ==References== ===Notes=== ===Sources=== * Ainsworth, Maryan. Man, Myth, and Sensual Pleasures: Jan Gossart's Renaissance: the Complete Works. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2010. * Harthan, John. The Book of Hours. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1977. * Jenni, Ulrike; Thoss, Dagmar. Das Schwarze Gebetbuch, Codex 1856 (in German). Frankfurt am Main: Insel Verlag, 1982. * MacBeth, Rhona, "The Rise of Blue in Europe", in Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Blue: Cobalt to Cerulean in Art and Culture. San Francisco, CA: Chronicle Books, 2015. * Walther, Ingo. Codices Illustres. Berlin: Taschen Verlag, 2014. ==Further reading== * Facsimile Ausgabe von Pierpont Morgan Library, New York, M. 493. Luzern: Faksimile Verlag Luzern, 2001 * Wieck, Roger. Painted Prayers: The Book of Hours in Medieval and Renaissance Art. New York: George Braziller, 1997. ==External links== * Full set of digitized images, Morgan Library Category:15th-century illuminated manuscripts Category:Black books of hours Category:Collection of the Morgan Library & Museum Category:Illuminated books of hours |
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Al- Mubarak Al-Hamad Al-Sabah, Prime Minister of Kuwait (2011–2019) * **President – Almazbek Atambayev, President of Kyrgyzstan (2011–2017) **Prime Minister – **#Zhantoro Satybaldiyev, Prime Minister of Kyrgyzstan (2012–2014) **#Djoomart Otorbaev, Prime Minister of Kyrgyzstan (2014–2015) * **Communist Party Leader – Choummaly Sayasone, General Secretary of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (2006–2016) **President – Choummaly Sayasone, President of Laos (2006–2016) **Prime Minister – Thongsing Thammavong, Chairman of the Council of Ministers of Laos (2010–2016) * **President – **#Michel Suleiman, President of Lebanon (2008–2014) **#Tammam Salam, Acting President of Lebanon (2014–2016) **Prime Minister – **#Najib Mikati, Acting President of the Council of Ministers of Lebanon (2011–2014) **#Tammam Salam, President of the Council of Ministers of Lebanon (2014–2016) * **Monarch – Tuanku Abdul Halim, Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia (2011–2016) **Prime Minister – Najib Razak, Prime 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**Prime Minister – Rami Hamdallah, Prime Minister of Palestine (2013–2019) ** Gaza Strip (rebelling against the Palestinian National Authority, in the West Bank) ***territory returned to the Palestinian West Bank Government on 2 June ***President – Aziz Duwaik, Acting President of the Palestinian National Authority (in the Gaza Strip) (2009–2014) ***Prime Minister – Ismail Haniyeh, Prime Minister of the Palestinian National Authority (in the Gaza Strip) (2007–2014) * **President – Benigno Aquino, President of the Philippines (2010–2016) * **Monarch – Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani, Emir of Qatar (2013–present) **Prime Minister – Sheikh Abdullah bin Nasser bin Khalifa Al Thani, Prime Minister of Qatar (2013–2020) * **Monarch – Abdullah, King of Saudi Arabia (2005–2015) **Prime Minister – Abdullah, Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia (2005–2015) * **President – Tony Tan, President of Singapore (2011–2017) **Prime Minister – Lee Hsien Loong, Prime Minister of Singapore (2004–present) * **President – Mahinda Rajapaksa, President of Sri Lanka (2005–2015) **Prime Minister – D. M. Jayaratne, Prime Minister of Sri Lanka (2010–2015) *Syria ** ***President – Bashar al-Assad, President of Syria (2000–present) ***Prime Minister – Wael Nader al-Halqi, Prime Minister of Syria (2012–2016) ** (partially recognised, rival government) ***President – ***#Ahmad Jarba, President of the Syrian National Coalition (2013–2014) ***#Hadi al-Bahra, President of the Syrian National Coalition (2014–2015) ***Prime Minister – ***#Ahmad Tu'mah, Prime Minister of the Syrian National Coalition (2013–2014) ***#Ahmad Tu'mah, Prime Minister of the Syrian National Coalition (2014–2016) * **President – Ma Ying- jeou, President of Taiwan (2008–2016) **Premier – **#Jiang Yi-huah, President of the Executive Yuan of Taiwan (2013–2014) **#Mao Chi-kuo, President of the Executive Yuan of Taiwan (2014–2016) * **President – Emomali Rahmon, President of Tajikistan (1992–present) **Prime Minister – Kokhir Rasulzoda, Prime Minister of Tajikistan (2013–present) * **Monarch – Bhumibol Adulyadej, King of Thailand (1946–2016) **Prime Minister – **#Yingluck Shinawatra, Prime Minister of Thailand (2011–2014) **#Niwatthamrong Boonsongpaisan, Acting Prime Minister of Thailand (2014) **#Prayut Chan-o-cha, Prime Minister of Thailand (2014–present) * **President – **#Abdullah Gül, President of Turkey (2007–2014) **#Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, President of Turkey (2014–present) **Prime Minister – **#Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, Prime Minister of Turkey (2003–2014) **#Ahmet Davutoğlu, Prime Minister of Turkey (2014–2016) * **President – Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow, President of Turkmenistan (2006–2022) * **President – Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, President of the United Arab Emirates (2004–present) **Prime Minister – Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Prime Minister of the United Arab Emirates (2006–present) * **President – Islam Karimov, President of Uzbekistan (1990–2016) **Prime Minister – Shavkat Mirziyoyev, Prime Minister of Uzbekistan (2003–2016) * **Communist Party Leader – Nguyễn Phú Trọng, General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam (2011–present) **President – Trương Tấn Sang, President of Vietnam (2011–2016) **Prime Minister – Nguyễn Tấn Dũng, Prime Minister of Vietnam (2006–2016) * **President – Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi, President of Yemen (2012–present) **Prime Minister – **#Mohammed Basindawa, Prime Minister of Yemen (2011–2014) **#Khaled Bahah, Prime Minister of Yemen (2014–2016) ==Europe== * **President – Bujar Nishani, President of Albania (2012–2017) **Prime Minister – Edi Rama, Prime Minister of Albania (2013–present) * **Monarchs – ***French Co-Prince – François Hollande, French Co-prince of Andorra (2012–2017) ****Co-Prince's Representative – Sylvie Hubac (2012–2015) ***Episcopal Co-Prince – Archbishop Joan Enric Vives Sicília, Episcopal Co-prince of Andorra (2003–present) ****Co-Prince's Representative – Josep Maria Mauri (2012–present) **Prime Minister – Antoni Martí, Head of Government of Andorra (2011–2015) * **President – Serzh Sargsyan, President of Armenia (2008–2018) **Prime Minister – **#Tigran Sargsyan, Prime Minister of Armenia (2008–2014) **#Hovik Abrahamyan, Prime Minister of Armenia (2014–2016) * **President – Heinz Fischer, Federal President of Austria (2004–2016) **Chancellor – Werner Faymann, Federal Chancellor of Austria (2008–2016) * **President – Ilham Aliyev, President of Azerbaijan (2003–present) **Prime Minister – Artur Rasizade, Prime Minister of Azerbaijan (2003–2018) ** (unrecognised, secessionist state) ***President – Bako Sahakyan, President of Nagorno-Karabakh (2007–2020) ***Prime Minister – Arayik Harutyunyan, Prime Minister of Nagorno-Karabakh (2007–2017) * **President – Alexander Lukashenko, President of Belarus (1994–present) **Prime Minister – **#Mikhail Myasnikovich, Prime Minister of Belarus (2010–2014) **#Andrei Kobyakov, Prime Minister of Belarus (2014–2018) * **Monarch – Philippe, King of the Belgians (2013–present) **Prime Minister – **#Elio Di Rupo, Prime Minister of Belgium (2011–2014) **#Charles Michel, Prime Minister of Belgium (2014–2019) * **Head of State – Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina ***Serb Member – ***#Nebojša Radmanović (2006–2014) ***#Mladen Ivanić (2014–2018; Chairman of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2014–2015) ***Croat Member – ***#Željko Komšić (2006–2014; Chairman of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2013–2014) ***#Dragan Čović (2014–2018) ***Bosniak Member – Bakir Izetbegović (2010–2018; Chairman of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2014) **Prime Minister – Vjekoslav Bevanda, Chairman of the Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina (2012–2015) **High Representative – Valentin Inzko, High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina (2009–2021) * **President – Rosen Plevneliev, President of Bulgaria (2012–2017) **Prime Minister – **#Plamen Oresharski, Prime Minister of Bulgaria (2013–2014) **#Georgi Bliznashki, Acting Prime Minister of Bulgaria (2014) **#Boyko Borisov, Prime Minister of Bulgaria (2014–2017) * **President – Ivo Josipović, President of Croatia (2010–2015) **Prime Minister – Zoran Milanović, Prime Minister of Croatia (2011–2016) * **President – Nicos Anastasiades, President of Cyprus (2013–present) ** (unrecognised, secessionist state) ***President – Derviş Eroğlu, President of Northern Cyprus (2010–2015) ***Prime Minister – Özkan Yorgancıoğlu, Prime Minister of Northern Cyprus (2013–2015) * **President – Miloš Zeman, President of the Czech Republic (2013–present) **Prime Minister – **#Jiří Rusnok, Prime Minister of the Czech Republic (2013–2014) **#Bohuslav Sobotka, Prime Minister of the Czech Republic (2014–2017) * **Monarch – Margrethe II, Queen of Denmark (1972–present) **Prime Minister – Helle Thorning-Schmidt, Prime Minister of Denmark (2011–2015) * **President – Toomas Hendrik Ilves, President of Estonia (2006–2016) **Prime Minister – **#Andrus Ansip, Prime Minister of Estonia (2005–2014) **#Taavi Rõivas, Prime Minister of Estonia (2014–2016) * **President – Sauli Niinistö, President of Finland (2012–present) **Prime Minister – **#Jyrki Katainen, Prime Minister of Finland (2011–2014) **#Alexander Stubb, Prime Minister of Finland (2014–2015) * **President – François Hollande, President of France (2012–2017) **Prime Minister – **#Jean-Marc Ayrault, Prime Minister of France (2012–2014) **#Manuel Valls, Prime Minister of France (2014–2016) * **President – Giorgi Margvelashvili, President of Georgia (2013–2018) **Prime Minister – Irakli Garibashvili, Prime Minister of Georgia (2013–2015) ** (partially recognised, secessionist state) ***President – ***#Alexander Ankvab, President of Abkhazia (2011–2014) ***#Valeri Bganba, Acting President of Abkhazia (2014) ***#Raul Khajimba, President of Abkhazia (2014–2020) ***Prime Minister – ***#Leonid Lakerbaia, Prime Minister of Abkhazia (2011–2014) ***#Vladimir Delba, Acting Prime Minister of Abkhazia (2014) ***#Beslan Butba, Prime Minister of Abkhazia (2014–2015) ** (partially recognised, secessionist state) ***President – Leonid Tibilov, President of South Ossetia (2012–2017) ***Prime Minister – ***#Rostislav Khugayev, Prime Minister of South Ossetia (2012–2014) ***#Domenty Kulumbegov, Prime Minister of South Ossetia (2014–2017) * **President – Joachim Gauck, Federal President of Germany (2012–2017) **Chancellor – Angela Merkel, Federal Chancellor of Germany (2005–2021) * **President – Karolos Papoulias, President of Greece (2005–2015) **Prime Minister – Antonis Samaras, Prime Minister of Greece (2012–2015) * **President – János Áder, President of Hungary (2012–present) **Prime Minister – Viktor Orbán, Prime Minister of Hungary (2010–present) * **President – Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson, President of Iceland (1996–2016) **Prime Minister – Sigmundur Davíð Gunnlaugsson, Prime Minister of Iceland (2013–2016) * **President – Michael D. Higgins, President of Ireland (2011–present) **Prime Minister – Enda Kenny, Taoiseach of Ireland (2011–2017) * **President – Giorgio Napolitano, President of Italy (2006–2015) **Prime Minister – **#Enrico Letta, President of the Council of Ministers of Italy (2013–2014) **#Matteo Renzi, President of the Council of Ministers of Italy (2014–2016) * **President – Andris Bērziņš, President of Latvia (2011–2015) **Prime Minister – **#Valdis Dombrovskis, Prime Minister of Latvia (2009–2014) **#Laimdota Straujuma, Prime Minister of Latvia (2014–2016) * **Monarch – Hans-Adam II, Prince Regnant of Liechtenstein (1989–present) **Regent – Hereditary Prince Alois, Regent of Liechtenstein (2004–present) **Prime Minister – Adrian Hasler, Head of Government of Liechtenstein (2013–2021) * **President – Dalia Grybauskaitė, President of Lithuania (2009–2019) **Prime Minister – Algirdas Butkevičius, Prime Minister of Lithuania (2012–2016) * **Monarch – Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg (2000–present) **Prime Minister – Xavier Bettel, Prime Minister of Luxembourg (2013–present) * **President – Gjorge Ivanov, President of Macedonia (2009–2019) **Prime Minister – Nikola Gruevski, President of the Government of Macedonia (2006–2016) * **President – **#George Abela, President of Malta (2009–2014) **#Marie Louise Coleiro Preca, President of Malta (2014–2019) **Prime Minister – Joseph Muscat, Prime Minister of Malta (2013–2020) * **President – Nicolae Timofti, President of Moldova (2012–2016) **Prime Minister – Iurie Leancă, Prime Minister of Moldova (2013–2015) ** (unrecognised, secessionist state) ***President – Yevgeny Shevchuk, President of Transnistria (2011–2016) ***Prime Minister – Tatiana Turanskaya, Prime Minister of Transnistria (2013–2015) * **Monarch – Albert II, Sovereign Prince of Monaco (2005–present) **Prime Minister – Michel Roger, Minister of State of Monaco (2010–2015) * **President – Filip Vujanović, President of Montenegro (2003–2018) **Prime Minister – Milo Đukanović, Prime Minister of Montenegro (2012–2016) * **Monarch – Willem-Alexander, King of the Netherlands (2013–present) ** (constituent country) ***Prime Minister – Mark Rutte, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (2010–present) ** (constituent country) ***see ** (constituent country) ***see ** (constituent country) ***see * **Monarch – Harald V, King of Norway (1991–present) **Prime Minister – Erna Solberg, Prime Minister of Norway (2013–2021) * **President – Bronisław Komorowski, President of Poland (2010–2015) **Prime Minister – **#Donald Tusk, Chairman of the Council of Ministers of Poland (2007–2014) **#Ewa Kopacz, Chairman of the Council of Ministers of Poland (2014–2015) * **President – Aníbal Cavaco Silva, President of Portugal (2006–2016) **Prime Minister – Pedro Passos Coelho, Prime Minister of Portugal (2011–2015) * **President – **#Traian Băsescu, President of Romania (2004–2014) **#Klaus Iohannis, President of Romania (2014–present) **Prime Minister – Victor Ponta, Prime Minister of Romania (2012–2015) * **the secessionist Republic of Crimea was absorbed into the Federation, via annexation from the Ukraine, on 21 March **President – Vladimir Putin, President of Russia (2012–present) **Prime Minister – Dmitry Medvedev, Chairman of the Government of Russia (2012–2020) * **Captains-Regent – **#Anna Maria Muccioli and Gian Carlo Capicchioni, Captains Regent of San Marino (2013–2014) **#Valeria Ciavatta and Luca Beccari, Captains Regent of San Marino (2014) **#Gianfranco Terenzi and Guerrino Zanotti, Captains Regent of San Marino (2014–2015) * **President – Tomislav Nikolić, President of Serbia (2012–2017) **Prime Minister – **#Ivica Dačić, Prime Minister of Serbia (2012–2014) **#Aleksandar Vučić, Prime Minister of Serbia (2014–2017) ** (partially recognised, secessionist state; under nominal international administration) ***President – Atifete Jahjaga, President of Kosovo (2011–2016) ***Prime Minister – ***#Hashim Thaçi, Prime Minister of Kosovo (2008–2014) ***#Isa Mustafa, Prime Minister of Kosovo (2014–2017) ***UN Special Representative – Farid Zarif, Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General for Kosovo (2011–2015) * **President – **#Ivan Gašparovič, President of Slovakia (2004–2014) **#Andrej Kiska, President of Slovakia (2014–2019) **Prime Minister – Robert Fico, Prime Minister of Slovakia (2012–2018) * **President – Borut Pahor, President of Slovenia (2012–present) **Prime Minister – **#Alenka Bratušek, Prime Minister of Slovenia (2013–2014) **#Miro Cerar, Prime Minister of Slovenia (2014–2018) * **Monarch – **#Juan Carlos I, King of Spain (1975–2014) **#Felipe VI, King of Spain (2014–present) **Prime Minister – Mariano Rajoy, President of the Government of Spain (2011–2018) * **Monarch – Carl XVI Gustaf, King of Sweden (1973–present) **Prime Minister – **#Fredrik Reinfeldt, Prime Minister of Sweden (2006–2014) **#Stefan Löfven, Prime Minister of Sweden (2014–2021) * **Council – Federal Council of Switzerland ***Members – Doris Leuthard (2006–present), Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf (2008–2015), Ueli Maurer (2009–present), Didier Burkhalter (2009–present; President of Switzerland, 2014), Johann Schneider-Ammann (2010–present), Simonetta Sommaruga (2010–present), and Alain Berset (2012–present) * **President – **#Viktor Yanukovych, President of Ukraine (2010–2014) **#Oleksandr Turchynov, Acting President of Ukraine (2014) **#Petro Poroshenko, President of Ukraine (2014–2019) **Prime Minister – **#Mykola Azarov, Prime Minister of Ukraine (2010–2014) **#Serhiy Arbuzov, Acting Prime Minister of Ukraine (2014) **#Arseniy Yatsenyuk, Prime Minister of Ukraine (2014) **#Volodymyr Groysman, Acting Prime Minister of Ukraine (2014) **#Arseniy Yatsenyuk, Prime Minister of Ukraine (2014–2016) ** (mostly unrecognised, secessionist state; under Russian occupation) ***the Autonomous Republic of Crimea declared independence on 17 March; annexed by the Russian Federation on 21 March ***Head of State – Vladimir Konstantinov, Chairman of the Supreme Council of Crimea (2010–2014) ***Prime Minister – ***#Anatolii Mohyliov, Prime Minister of Crimea (2011–2014) ***#Sergey Aksyonov, Prime Minister of Crimea (2014) ** Donetsk People's Republic (unrecognised, secessionist state) ***President – ***#Pavel Gubarev, People's Governor of Donetsk People's Republic (2014) ***#Denis Pushilin, Acting People's Governor of Donetsk People's Republic (2014) ***#Denis Pushilin, Chairmen of the Presidium of the Supreme Council of Donetsk People's Republic (2014) ***#Vladimir Makovici, Acting Chairmen of the Presidium of Donetsk People's Republic (2014) ***#Boris Litvinov, Chairmen of the Presidium of Donetsk People's Republic (2014) ***#Alexander Zakharchenko, President of Donetsk People's Republic (2014–2018) ***Prime Minister – ***#Denis Puşilin, Chairman of interim government of Donetsk People's Republic (2014) ***#Aleksandr Borodai, Prime Minister of Donetsk People's Republic (2014) ***#Alexander Zakharchenko, Prime Minister of Donetsk People's Republic (2014–2018) ** Luhansk People's Republic (unrecognised, secessionist state) **President – ***#Valeri Bolotov, People's governor of state of Luhansk People's Republic (2014) ***#Valeri Bolotov, Head of state of Luhansk People's Republic (2014–3017) ***#Igor Plotnitsky, Head of state of Luhansk People's Republic (2014–2017) ***Prime Minister – ***#Vasili Nikitin, Prime Minister of Luhansk People's Republic (2014) ***#Marat Başirov, Prime Minister of Luhansk People's Republic (2014) ***#Igor Plotnitsky, Prime Minister of Luhansk People's Republic (2014) ***#Hennadi Tsypkalov, Prime Minister of Luhansk People's Republic (2014=2015) * **Monarch – Elizabeth II, Queen of the United Kingdom (1952–present) **Prime Minister – David Cameron, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (2010–2016) ** (Crown dependency of the United Kingdom) ***Lieutenant- Governor – Adam Wood, Lieutenant Governor of the Isle of Man (2011–2016) ***Chief Minister – Allan Bell, Chief Minister of the Isle of Man (2011–2016) ** (Crown dependency of the United Kingdom) ***Lieutenant-Governor – Peter Walker, Lieutenant Governor of Guernsey (2011–2015) ***Chief Minister – ***#Peter Harwood, Chief Minister of Guernsey (2012–2014) ***#Jonathan Le Tocq, Chief Minister of Guernsey (2014–2016) ** (Crown dependency of the United Kingdom) ***Lieutenant-Governor – Sir John McColl, Lieutenant Governor of Jersey (2011–2016) ***Chief Minister – Ian Gorst, Chief Minister of Jersey (2011–2018) ** (Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom) ***Governor – Sir James Dutton, Governor of Gibraltar (2013–2015) ***Chief Minister – Fabian Picardo, Chief Minister of Gibraltar (2011–present) * **Monarch – Pope Francis, Sovereign of Vatican City (2013–present) **Head of Government – Cardinal Giuseppe Bertello, President of the Governorate of Vatican City (2011–2021) **Holy See (sui generis subject of public international law) ***Secretary of State – Cardinal Pietro Parolin, Cardinal Secretary of State (2013–present) ==North America== * (Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom) **Governor – Christina Scott, Governor of Anguilla (2013–2017) **Chief Minister – Hubert Hughes, Chief Minister of Anguilla (2010–2015) * **Monarch – Elizabeth II, Queen of Antigua and Barbuda (1981–present) **Governor-General – **#Dame Louise Lake-Tack, Governor-General of Antigua and Barbuda (2007–2014) **#Sir Rodney Williams, Governor-General of Antigua and Barbuda (2014–present) **Prime Minister – **#Baldwin Spencer, Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda (2004–2014) **#Gaston Browne, Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda (2014–present) * (constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands) **Governor – Fredis Refunjol, Governor of Aruba (2004–2016) **Prime Minister – Mike Eman, Prime Minister of Aruba (2009–present) * **Monarch – Elizabeth II, Queen of the Bahamas (1973–present) **Governor-General – **#Sir Arthur Foulkes, Governor-General of the Bahamas (2010–2014) **#Dame Marguerite Pindling, Governor-General of the Bahamas (2014–2019) **Prime Minister – Perry Christie, Prime Minister of the Bahamas (2012–2017) * **Monarch – Elizabeth II, Queen of Barbados (1966–2021) **Governor-General – Sir Elliott Belgrave, Governor-General of Barbados (2012–2017) **Prime Minister – Freundel Stuart, Prime Minister of Barbados (2010–2018) * **Monarch – Elizabeth II, Queen of Belize (1981–present) **Governor-General – Sir Colville Young, Governor- General of Belize (1993–2021) **Prime Minister – Dean Barrow, Prime Minister of Belize (2008–2020) * (Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom) **Governor – George Fergusson, Governor of Bermuda (2012–2016) **Premier – **#Craig Cannonier, Premier of Bermuda (2012–2014) **#Michael Dunkley, Premier of Bermuda (2014–2017) * (Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom) **Governor – **#William Boyd McCleary, Governor of the British Virgin Islands (2010–2014) **#Vivian Inez Archibald, Acting Governor of the British Virgin Islands (2014) **#John Duncan, Governor of the British Virgin Islands (2014–2017) **Premier – Orlando Smith, Premier of the British Virgin Islands (2011–2019) * **Monarch – Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada (1952–present) **Governor-General – David Johnston, Governor General of Canada (2010–2017) **Prime Minister – Stephen Harper, Prime Minister of Canada (2006–2015) * (Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom) **Governor – Helen Kilpatrick, Governor of the Cayman Islands (2013–2018) **Premier – Alden McLaughlin, Premier of the Cayman Islands (2013–present) * **President – **#Laura Chinchilla, President of Costa Rica (2010–2014) **#Luis Guillermo Solís, President of Costa Rica (2014–2018) * **Communist Party Leader – Raúl Castro, First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba (2011–2021) **President – Raúl Castro, President of the Council of State of Cuba (2008–2018) **Prime Minister – Raúl Castro, President of the Council of Ministers of Cuba (2008–2018) * (constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands) **Governor – Lucille George-Wout, Governor of Curaçao (2013–present) **Prime Minister – Ivar Asjes, Prime Minister of Curaçao (2013–2015) * **President – Charles Savarin, President of Dominica (2013–present) **Prime Minister – Roosevelt Skerrit, Prime Minister of Dominica (2004–present) * **President – Danilo Medina, President of the Dominican Republic (2012–present) * **President – **#Mauricio Funes, President of El Salvador (2009–2014) **#Salvador Sánchez Cerén, President of El Salvador (2014–2019) * **Monarch – Elizabeth II, Queen of Grenada (1974–present) **Governor-General – Dame Cécile La Grenade, Governor-General of Grenada (2013–present) **Prime Minister – Keith Mitchell, Prime Minister of Grenada (2013–2022) * **President – Otto Pérez Molina, President of Guatemala (2012–2015) * **President – Michel Martelly, President of Haiti (2011–2016) **Prime Minister – **#Laurent Lamothe, Prime Minister of Haiti (2012–2014) **#Florence Duperval Guillaume, Acting Prime Minister of Haiti (2014–2015) * **President – **#Porfirio Lobo Sosa, President of Honduras (2010–2014) **#Juan Orlando Hernández, President of Honduras (2014–2022) * **Monarch – Elizabeth II, Queen of Jamaica (1962–present) **Governor-General – Sir Patrick Allen, Governor-General of Jamaica (2009–present) **Prime Minister – Portia Simpson- Miller, Prime Minister of Jamaica (2012–2016) * **President – Enrique Peña Nieto, President of Mexico (2012–2018) * (Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom) **Governor – Adrian Davis, Governor of Montserrat (2011–2015) **Premier – **#Reuben Meade, Premier of Montserrat (2009–2014) **#Donaldson Romeo, Premier of Montserrat (2014–2019) * **President – Daniel Ortega, President of Nicaragua (2007–present) * **President – **#Ricardo Martinelli, President of Panama (2009–2014) **#Juan Carlos Varela, President of Panama (2014–2019) * (overseas collectivity of France) **Prefect – Philippe Chopin, Prefect of Saint Barthélemy (2011–2015) **Head of Government – Bruno Magras, President of the Territorial Council of Saint Barthélemy (2007–present) * **Monarch – Elizabeth II, Queen of Saint Kitts and Nevis (1983–present) **Governor-General – Sir Edmund Lawrence, Governor-General of Saint Kitts and Nevis (2013–2015) **Prime Minister – Denzil Douglas, Prime Minister of Saint Kitts and Nevis (1995–2015) * **Monarch – Elizabeth II, Queen of Saint Lucia (1979–present) **Governor-General – Dame Pearlette Louisy, Governor-General of Saint Lucia (1997–2017) **Prime Minister – Kenny Anthony, Prime Minister of Saint Lucia (2011–2016) * (overseas collectivity of France) **Prefect – Philippe Chopin, Prefect of Saint Martin (2011–2015) **Head of Government – Aline Hanson, President of the Territorial Council of Saint Martin (2013–2017) * (overseas collectivity of France) **Prefect – **#Patrice Latron, Prefect of Saint Pierre and Miquelon (2011–2014) **#Jean-Christophe Bouvier, Prefect of Saint Pierre and Miquelon (2014–2016) **Head of Government – Stéphane Artano, President of the Territorial Council of Saint Pierre and Miquelon (2006–2018) * **Monarch – Elizabeth II, Queen of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (1979–present) **Governor-General – Sir Frederick Ballantyne, Governor-General of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (2002–2019) **Prime Minister – Ralph Gonsalves, Prime Minister of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (2001–present) * (constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands) **Governor – Eugene Holiday, Governor of Sint Maarten (2010–present) **Prime Minister – **#Sarah Wescot-Williams, Prime Minister of Sint Maarten (2010–2014) **#Marcel Gumbs, Prime Minister of Sint Maarten (2014–2015) * **President – Anthony Carmona, President of Trinidad and Tobago (2013–2018) **Prime Minister – Kamla Persad- Bissessar, Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago (2010–2015) Tristanville (President) Tristan Johnston (2012-2018) * (Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom) **Governor – Peter Beckingham, Governor of the Turks and Caicos Islands (2013–2016) **Premier – Rufus Ewing, Premier of the Turks and Caicos Islands (2012–2016) * **President – Barack Obama, President of the United States (2009–2017) ** (Commonwealth of the United States) ***Governor – Alejandro García Padilla, Governor of Puerto Rico (2013–2017) ** (insular area of the United States) ***Governor – John de Jongh, Governor of the United States Virgin Islands (2007–2015) ==Oceania== * (unorganised, unincorporated territory of the United States) **Governor – Lolo Matalasi Moliga, Governor of American Samoa (2013–2021) * **Monarch – Elizabeth II, Queen of Australia (1952–present) **Governor-General – **#Dame Quentin Bryce, Governor-General of Australia (2008–2014) **#Sir Peter Cosgrove, Governor-General of Australia (2014–2019) **Prime Minister – Tony Abbott, Prime Minister of Australia (2013–2015) ** (external territory of Australia) ***Administrator – ***#Jon Stanhope, Administrator of Christmas Island (2012–2014) ***#Barry Haase, Administrator of Christmas Island (2014–2017) ***Shire-President – Gordon Thomson, Shire president of Christmas Island (2013–present) ** (external territory of Australia) ***Administrator – ***#Jon Stanhope, Administrator of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (2012–2014) ***#Barry Haase, Administrator of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (2014–2017) ***Shire-President – Aindil Minkom, Shire president of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (2011–2015) ** (self-governing territory of Australia) ***Administrator – ***#Neil Pope, Administrator of Norfolk Island (2012–2014) ***#Gary Hardgrave, Administrator of Norfolk Island (2014–2017) ***Chief Minister – Lisle Snell, Chief Minister of Norfolk Island (2013–2015) * **President – Ratu Epeli Nailatikau, President of Fiji (2009–2015) **Prime Minister – Frank Bainimarama, Prime Minister of Fiji (2007–present) * (overseas collectivity of France) **High Commissioner – Lionel Beffre, High Commissioner of the Republic in French Polynesia (2013–2016) **President – **#Gaston Flosse, President of French Polynesia (2013–2014) **#Nuihau Laurey, Acting President of French Polynesia (2014) **#Édouard Fritch, President of French Polynesia (2014–present) * (insular area of the United States) **Governor – Eddie Baza Calvo, Governor of Guam (2011–2019) * **President – Anote Tong, President of Kiribati (2003–2016) * **President – Christopher Loeak, President of the Marshall Islands (2012–2016) * **President – Manny Mori, President of Micronesia (2007–2015) * **President – Baron Waqa, President of Nauru (2013–2019) * (sui generis collectivity of France) **High Commissioner – **#Jean-Jacques Brot, High Commissioner of New Caledonia (2013–2014) **#Pascal Gauci, Acting High Commissioner of New Caledonia (2014) **#Vincent Bouvier, High Commissioner of New Caledonia (2014–2016) **Head of Government – **#Harold Martin, President of the Government of New Caledonia (2011–2014) **#Cynthia Ligeard, President of the Government of New Caledonia (2014–2015) * **Monarch – Elizabeth II, Queen of New Zealand (1952–present) **Governor-General – Sir Jerry Mateparae, Governor- General of New Zealand (2011–2016) **Prime Minister – John Key, Prime Minister of New Zealand (2008–2016) ** (associated state of New Zealand) ***Queen's Representative – Tom Marsters, Queen's Representative of the Cook Islands (2013–present) ***Prime Minister – Henry Puna, Prime Minister of the Cook Islands (2010–2020) ** (associated state of New Zealand) ***Premier – Toke Talagi, Premier of Niue (2008–present) ** (dependent territory of New Zealand) ***Administrator – Jonathan Kings, Administrator of Tokelau (2011–2015) ***Head of Government – ***#Salesio Lui, Head of Government of Tokelau (2013–2014) ***#Kuresa Nasau, Head of Government of Tokelau (2014–2015) * (Commonwealth of the United States) **Governor – Eloy Inos, Governor of the Northern Mariana Islands (2013–2015) * **President – Tommy Remengesau, President of Palau (2013–2021) * **Monarch – Elizabeth II, Queen of Papua New Guinea (1975–present) **Governor-General – Sir Michael Ogio, Governor-General of Papua New Guinea (2011–2017) **Prime Minister – Peter O'Neill, Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea (2011–2019) * (Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom) **Governor – **#Victoria Treadell, Governor of the Pitcairn Islands (2010–2014) **#Jonathan Sinclair, Governor of the Pitcairn Islands (2014–2017) **Mayor – Shawn Christian, Mayor of the Pitcairn Islands (2014–2019) * **Head of State – Tufuga Efi, O le Ao o le Malo of Samoa (2007–2017) **Prime Minister – Tuilaepa Aiono Sailele Malielegaoi, Prime Minister of Samoa (1998–2021) * **Monarch – Elizabeth II, Queen of the Solomon Islands (1978–present) **Governor-General – Sir Frank Kabui, Governor-General of the Solomon Islands (2009–2019) **Prime Minister – **#Gordon Darcy Lilo, Prime Minister of the Solomon Islands (2011–2014) **#Manasseh Sogavare, Prime Minister of the Solomon Islands (2014–2017) * **Monarch – Tupou VI, King of Tonga (2012–present) **Prime Minister – **#Sialeʻataongo Tuʻivakanō, Prime Minister of Tonga (2010–2014) **#ʻAkilisi Pōhiva, Prime Minister of Tonga (2014–2019) * **Monarch – Elizabeth II, Queen of Tuvalu (1978–present) **Governor-General – Sir Iakoba Italeli, Governor-General of Tuvalu (2010–2019) **Prime Minister – Enele Sopoaga, Prime Minister of Tuvalu (2013–2019) * **President – **#Iolu Abil, President of Vanuatu (2009–2014) **#Philip Boedoro, Acting President of Vanuatu (2014) **#Baldwin Lonsdale, President of Vanuatu (2014–2017) **Prime Minister – **#Moana Carcasses Kalosil, Prime Minister of Vanuatu (2013–2014) **#Joe Natuman, Prime Minister of Vanuatu (2014–2015) * (overseas collectivity of France) **Administrator – Michel Aubouin, Administrator Superior of Wallis and Futuna (2013–2015) **Head of Government – **#Petelo Hanisi, President of the Territorial Assembly of Wallis and Futuna (2013–2014) **#Mikaele Kulimoetoke, President of the Territorial Assembly of Wallis and Futuna (2014–2017) ==South America== * **President – Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, President of Argentina (2007–2015) * **President – Evo Morales, President of Bolivia (2006–2019) * **President – Dilma Rousseff, President of Brazil (2011–2016) * **President – **#Sebastián Piñera, President of Chile (2010–2014) **#Michelle Bachelet, President of Chile (2014–2018) * **President – Juan Manuel Santos, President of Colombia (2010–2018) * **President – Rafael Correa, President of Ecuador (2007–2017) * (Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom) **Governor – **#Nigel Haywood, Governor of the Falkland Islands (2010–2014) **#Sandra Tyler-Haywood, Acting Governor of the Falkland Islands (2014) **#John Duncan, Acting Governor of the Falkland Islands (2014) **#Colin Roberts, Governor of the Falkland Islands (2014–2017) * **President – Donald Ramotar, President of Guyana (2011–2015) **Prime Minister – Sam Hinds, Prime Minister of Guyana (1999–2015) * **President – Horacio Cartes, President of Paraguay (2013–2018) * **President – Ollanta Humala, President of Peru (2011–2016) **Prime Minister – **#César Villanueva, President of the Council of Ministers of Peru (2013–2014) **#René Cornejo, President of the Council of Ministers of Peru (2014) **#Ana Jara, President of the Council of Ministers of Peru (2014–2015) * **President – Dési Bouterse, President of Suriname (2010–2020) * **President – José Mujica, President of Uruguay (2010–2015) * **President – Nicolás Maduro, President of Venezuela (2013–present) ==Notes== ==External links== *Rulersa list of rulers throughout time and places *WorldStatesmenan online encyclopedia of the leaders of nations and territories State leaders State leaders State leaders 2014 |
Thurgood Marshall College (Marshall) is one of the seven undergraduate colleges at the University of California, San Diego. The college, named after Thurgood Marshall, the first African-American Supreme Court Justice and lawyer for the landmark 1954 Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education, emphasizes "scholarship, social responsibility and the belief that a liberal arts education must include an understanding of [one's] role in society." Marshall College's general education requirements emphasize the culture of community involvement and multiculturalism; accordingly Marshall houses the minors in Public Service and Film Studies for the campus. Significant academic programs and departments have come out of the college over many decades: Communication, Ethnic Studies, Third World Studies, African American Studies, Urban Studies & Planning, and Education Studies. Founded as Third College in 1970 amid the student activism of the period, TMC's original aim was to help students understand their own community through a critical examination of diversity and community in the United States. Marshall College's required writing program is called Dimensions of Culture (DOC), and is a 3 quarter (1 year) sequence that explores race, identity, imagination, tradition, and the law in the United States. During President Obama's administration, the White House honored UC San Diego and Marshall College's Public Service minor and charter school outreach as exemplary community service institutions serving the United States. ==Early history== In November 1965, the College III Preliminary Planning Committee released the first substantial report on what form UCSD's third college would take. The committee, comprising faculty members George Backus, Henry Booker, Gabriel Jackson, C.D. Keeling, and committee chair Andrew Wright, suggested that College III should focus itself on history and theory. The Wright Committee report suggested that the college have a muse—namely Clio, the Greek muse of history. History was chosen by the committee because it mixed humanism with science—College III would be a sort of "common ground" between the science of Revelle and the humanities of Muir. In a quiet act of rebelliousness (or perhaps it was just individuality), the committee planned that College III students would only have to take three courses per quarter to graduate in four years, as opposed to the four it took at the other UCSD colleges. Citing the three-course "full load" at UC Santa Cruz, the committee suggested that taking four courses in one quarter would "make the students ride off in all directions," and that three-in depth courses would be preferable. The final note of the Wright Committee report described what the committee felt was needed in a College III Provost "a paragon of intellectual vitality, scholarly accomplishment, and administrative talent... sympathetic with the aims of College III, but independent enough... to be able to shape the College in important ways." They asked that a provost be appointed as soon as possible. By 1967, College III had found its first provost, Armin Rappaport, a history professor at U.C. Berkeley. It was appropriate that the provost of a college with Clio as its muse would be a historian, and Rappaport was that. By the time May rolled around, College III was now "Third College." However, with the swirling political changes of the late 1960s, the college of Clio and Rappaport was never to be. Once the controversy and battles among students, faculty, and administration commenced—featuring lively figures such as Herbert Schiller, Herbert Marcuse, and Angela Davis—the future of Third College would be in a turmoil that didn't fully clear until it finally received its official name, Thurgood Marshall College, in 1993. Chancellor William J. McGill persuaded Dr. Joseph Watson to become the first operational provost of Third College during this very turbulent time in 1970. Provost Watson's term lasted eleven years as he then assumed a higher campus position as Vice Chancellor for Student Affairs. Professor Faustina Solís then followed as the second college administrator and was also the university's first Latina provost. She served in that capacity from 1981 to 1988. Solís established public health coursework for undergraduates and medical students, following years of social work and health care for under-served populations. She was honored in 1990 when Thurgood Marshall Lecture Hall was renamed the Faustina F. Solís Hall. ==Student activism== ===Naming controversy=== thumb|right|Student Activists from Third College At its inception, students pushed for the new college to be named "Lumumba-Zapata College" in honor of the legendary twentieth century revolutionaries Patrice Lumumba and Emiliano Zapata. Unable to get approval for this name from UC Administration, the college was renamed Third College. This name did also inspire the idea that the student body would be one-third white students, one-third black students, and one-third definable minority students. Third College took up much of the activism that the campus was lacking, and the naming controversy was a catalyst for this movement. However, UCSD failed to attract enough black students for this plan to reach fruition and the UC Regents would not allow large scale deviation from the University of California's admission guidelines. In the early 1990s, an attempt was made to name the college after Martin Luther King Jr., but failed when UCSD students objected to naming the college after someone who was charged with plagiarizing his doctoral dissertation. More to the point, King's family announced that they would rather see a full-fledged King College built in the South, and preferably in Atlanta. In 1993 UCSD's Third College finally received its official name in honor of the famous lawyer and Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall. Before becoming the first African American Supreme Court Justice, Marshall argued the 1954 landmark civil rights case Brown v. Board of Education. Justice Marshall was widely known and recognized for his historic contributions to American life and dedication to breaking down barriers to education, civil rights, freedom of speech, women's rights, and the right to privacy. Today Thurgood Marshall College continues to honor the legacy of its namesake by promoting a curriculum and environment that empowers students to become both scholars and citizens. ===DOC controversy=== In the early 1990s, Thurgood Marshall College created a core freshman writing program that provided a critical examination of identity and diversity in American culture. The intellectual program was inspired by the University of Chicago and Columbia University's freshman humanities programs. The program, Dimensions of Culture (DOC), periodically generated heated debates among students, families, and alumni, based on difficult political issues. In the spring of 2007, a new curriculum controversy arose pertaining to DOC as students at TMC began protesting against the administrators of the college. The Lumumba-Zapata Coalition (which had resurfaced with the addition of graduate students) along with other students claimed that DOC had lost some of its original messages, protesting against what they termed a "new and diluted" core writing requirement with a decreased focus on race and the ethnic significance of the individual within society. The protests, including picketing, began with the controversial non-renewal of two DOC Teaching Assistants’ contracts for the subsequent year. Others believed that the coalition was pushing an agenda of political indoctrination that conflicted with the academic goals of the Dimensions of Culture Program and the sensibility of a science oriented campus. The protests had mixed effects. In response to the complaints in regards to the curriculum a new committee was set up to review and change the curriculum accordingly with an emphasis on hiring tenured faculty to teach DOC. Student positions with voting rights were included on the permanent committee so an equitable curriculum will be created reflecting full community input from both students and faculty. Thurgood Marshall College Student Council (TMCSC) issued a report recommending that DOC have an upper division course which also sparked the public service course. In August 2009, Co-Director of the DOC Program, Robert Horwitz stated, "Various criticisms were leveled at DOC in the last few years, and faculty and student investigations concluded that changes needed to be made. Those changes have been implemented and have resulted in a new DOC.” ==College programs== ===Minors=== thumb|245px|Peterson Hall, one of Marshall's lecture halls Thurgood Marshall College has created more academic departments and programs than any other college at UCSD, including Third World Studies, Ethnic Studies, Education Studies, African American Studies Minor, and Urban Studies and Planning. TMC is now home to two UCSD Minors: the Public Service Minor and the Film Studies Minor. The Public Service Minor encourages students to understand the history and practices of public service and to work towards the development of civic skills. Those skills and practices are essential cornerstones of participation in a democratic society regardless of one's chosen profession. The coursework for the minor emphasizes the history and emergence of the non-profit sector as a national institution distinct from the private and public spheres. The practicum aspects of the minor couples with the traditional academic work encourages students to see the connection between the deeds of charitable service and the historic worth of citizens participation in the common public franchise. The Film Studies Minor provides students an exciting opportunity to examine the many facets of American and International cinema. Students interested in exploring cinema as a multidimensional art medium will engage in the analysis of cinematic works of various forms. Study of film genres, history, theories, directors, cultural perspectives and more allow students to gain a robust understanding of cinema as a historical and contemporary means of expression. The interdisciplinary nature of the minor provides investigation of cinematic art through its connection to related fields such as Communication, Literature, Sociology and Visual Arts. Students pursuing the Film Studies Minor exhibit a wide range of interests; from those who plan graduate study in film to those who simply wish to understand better this powerful and influential medium. ===Morehouse/Spelman/Xavier Student Exchange Program=== The Morehouse/Spelman Student Exchange Program was officially launched in the fall quarter of 1989. This formal exchange program with two distinguished Historically Black Colleges was developed by Thurgood Marshall College and is open to all UCSD undergraduates. Morehouse College and Spelman College are both located in Atlanta, Georgia. Xavier University in New Orleans became the third historic Black college to have this exchange with Marshall College in 2016. ===Marshall partnership schools=== Then Thurgood Marshall College Provost Cecil Lytle and Sociology Professor Bud Mehan were instrumental in founding the Preuss School at UCSD, which opened in 1999 on campus despite strong opposition. The project was seen by faculty as a deviation from UC San Diego's focus on science and medicine. However, providing the impetus for the founding of The Preuss School reflected the social justice oriented mission of Marshall College. Between 2007 and 2012 Preuss has consistently been listed among the top 50 American high schools by both Newsweek and U.S. News & World Report. After Preuss was established successfully, the idea and structure of the UCSD-supported charter school model was expanded to Gompers Preparatory Academy. Based on educational theories, the successes of Preuss should be able to be recreated in a different environment, which was why Gompers was selected. Gompers was historically one of the most dangerous and low performing schools in the district, and yet has been transformed into an academically rigorous school with 100% graduation rate with the transition to the charter school model. The College maintains strong links to both charter schools by providing them with hundreds of undergraduate tutors and mentors every year from all six colleges. In addition, the College's Provost is a Preuss School Board Member. ===Artist in residence=== The artist-in-residence program, begun in 2006, brings to campus leading performers and visual artists from San Diego and Southern California to UC San Diego. Each artist is featured for one year and given the opportunity to develop new showcase work, which often goes on to fuller production off campus. Marshall College is the first college at UCSD to commission public art on campus, and has contributed in the creation of a vibrant campus community. Allan Havis, a professor from the Theatre Department, launched these programs during his term as college provost from 2006 to 2016. ==Student life== ===Student involvement=== Marshall College is home to an eclectic mix of student-led organizations, programs to facilitate students' success, and opportunities to give back to the Marshall community. ====Student organizations==== *ACT (Active Community at TMC) *Commuter Board *CAUSE (Cultural Association Uniting Students through Education) *Graduation Committee *Judicial Board *LC3 (Leadership Committee for Cultural Celebration) *MAC (Marshall Activities Committee) *Marshall Memos *MSC (Marshall Spirit Crew) *Marshallpalooza Committee *SCORE (Student Committee on Residential Engagement) *TMCSC (Thurgood Marshall College Student Council) *TMTV (Thurgood Marshall Television) *TRES (Transfer and Re-Entry Student Organizations) ====Student programs==== *Dine-with-a-Prof *Each One Reach One *Marshall Mentor Program *Transfer Connect & Success ====Leadership Development==== *Dean's Office Internship *Lift as You Climb *Orientation Leaders (OL) *Resident Advisors (RA) *Resident Life Interns ==References== ==External links== * *Dedication of Thurgood Marshall College (video) *What's In a Name? The Long Saga of Third College *Marshall College Partnership Schools *The Burden of Excellence by former TMC Provost, Cecil Lytle *Brown-eyed children of the sun: lessons from the Chicano movement, 1965-1975 By George Mariscal *Overview of UCSD's College System *UC San Diego College System *UC San Diego College Comparison Category:University of California, San Diego Category:Educational institutions established in 1970 |
==Events== ===Pre-1600=== * 451 - Attila the Hun captures Metz in France, killing most of its inhabitants and burning the town.; * 529 - First Corpus Juris Civilis, a fundamental work in jurisprudence, is issued by Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I. *1141 - Empress Matilda becomes the first female ruler of England, adopting the title "Lady of the English". *1348 - Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV charters Prague University.; *1449 - Felix V abdicates his claim to the papacy, ending the reign of the final Antipope. *1521 - Ferdinand Magellan arrives at Cebu. *1541 - Francis Xavier leaves Lisbon on a mission to the Portuguese East Indies. ===1601–1900=== *1724 - Premiere performance of Johann Sebastian Bach's St John Passion, BWV 245, at St. Nicholas Church, Leipzig. *1767 - End of Burmese–Siamese War (1765–67). *1788 - Settlers establish Marietta, Ohio, the first permanent settlement created by U.S. citizens in the recently organized Northwest Territory. *1795 - The French First Republic adopts the kilogram and gram as its primary unit of mass. *1790 - Greek War of Independence: Greek revolutionary Lambros Katsonis loses three of his ships in the Battle of Andros. *1798 - The Mississippi Territory is organized from disputed territory claimed by both the United States and the Spanish Empire. It is expanded in 1804 and again in 1812. *1805 - Lewis and Clark Expedition: The Corps of Discovery breaks camp among the Mandan tribe and resumes its journey West along the Missouri River. *1805 - German composer Ludwig van Beethoven premieres his Third Symphony, at the Theater an der Wien in Vienna. *1831 - Pedro II becomes Emperor of Empire of Brazil. *1862 - American Civil War: The Union's Army of the Tennessee and the Army of the Ohio defeat the Confederate Army of Mississippi near Shiloh, Tennessee. *1868 - Thomas D'Arcy McGee, one of the Canadian Fathers of Confederation, is assassinated by a Fenian activist. ===1901–present=== *1906 - Mount Vesuvius erupts and devastates Naples. * 1906 - The Algeciras Conference gives France and Spain control over Morocco. *1922 - Teapot Dome scandal: United States Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall leases federal petroleum reserves to private oil companies on excessively generous terms. *1926 - Violet Gibson attempts to assassinate Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini. *1927 - AT&T; engineer Herbert Ives transmits the first long-distance public television broadcast (from Washington, D.C., to New York City, displaying the image of Commerce Secretary Herbert Hoover). *1933 - Prohibition in the United States is repealed for beer of no more than 3.2% alcohol by weight, eight months before the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution. (Now celebrated as National Beer Day in the United States.) * 1933 - Nazi Germany issues the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service banning Jews and political dissidents from civil service posts. *1939 - Benito Mussolini declares an Italian protectorate over Albania and forces King Zog I into exile. *1940 - Booker T. Washington becomes the first African American to be depicted on a United States postage stamp. *1943 - The Holocaust in Ukraine: In Terebovlia, Germans order 1,100 Jews to undress and march through the city to the nearby village of Plebanivka, where they are shot and buried in ditches. * 1943 - Ioannis Rallis becomes collaborationist Prime Minister of Greece during the Axis Occupation. * 1943 - The National Football League makes helmets mandatory. *1945 - World War II: The Imperial Japanese Navy battleship Yamato, one of the two largest ever constructed, is sunk by United States Navy aircraft during Operation Ten-Go. *1946 - The Soviet Union annexes East Prussia as the Kaliningrad Oblast of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. *1948 - The World Health Organization is established by the United Nations. *1954 - United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower gives his "domino theory" speech during a news conference. *1955 - Winston Churchill resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom amid indications of failing health. *1956 - Francoist Spain agrees to surrender its protectorate in Morocco. *1964 - IBM announces the System/360. *1965 - Representatives of the National Congress of American Indians testify before members of the US Senate in Washington, D.C. against the termination of the Colville tribe. *1968 - Two-time Formula One British World Champion Jim Clark dies in an accident during a Formula Two race in Hockenheim. *1969 - The Internet's symbolic birth date: Publication of RFC 1. *1971 - Vietnam War: President Richard Nixon announces his decision to quicken the pace of Vietnamization. *1972 - Vietnam War: Communist forces overrun the South Vietnamese town of Loc Ninh. *1976 - Member of Parliament and suspected spy John Stonehouse resigns from the Labour Party after being arrested for faking his own death. *1977 - German Federal prosecutor Siegfried Buback and his driver are shot by two Red Army Faction members while waiting at a red light. *1978 - Development of the neutron bomb is canceled by President Jimmy Carter. *1980 - During the Iran hostage crisis, the United States severs relations with Iran. *1982 - Iranian Foreign Affairs Minister Sadegh Ghotbzadeh is arrested. *1983 - During STS-6, astronauts Story Musgrave and Don Peterson perform the first Space Shuttle spacewalk. *1988 - Soviet Defense Minister Dmitry Yazov orders the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan. *1989 - Soviet submarine Komsomolets sinks in the Barents Sea off the coast of Norway, killing 42 sailors. *1990 - A fire breaks out on the passenger ferry Scandinavian Star, killing 159 people. * 1990 - John Poindexter is convicted for his role in the Iran–Contra affair. In 1991 the convictions are reversed on appeal. *1994 - Rwandan genocide: Massacres of Tutsis begin in Kigali, Rwanda, and soldiers kill the civilian Prime Minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana. * 1994 - Auburn Calloway attempts to destroy Federal Express Flight 705 in order to allow his family to benefit from his life insurance policy. *1995 - First Chechen War: Russian paramilitary troops begin a massacre of civilians in Samashki, Chechnya. *1999 - Turkish Airlines Flight 5904 crashes near Ceyhan in southern Turkey, killing six people. *2001 - NASA launches the 2001 Mars Odyssey orbiter. *2003 - Iraq War: U.S. troops capture Baghdad; Saddam Hussein's Ba'athist regime falls two days later. *2009 - Former Peruvian President Alberto Fujimori is sentenced to 25 years in prison for ordering killings and kidnappings by security forces. * 2009 - Mass protests begin across Moldova under the belief that results from the parliamentary election are fraudulent. *2011 - The Israel Defense Forces use their Iron Dome missile system to successfully intercept a BM-21 Grad launched from Gaza, marking the first short-range missile intercept ever. *2017 - A man deliberately drives a hijacked truck into a crowd of people in Stockholm, Sweden, killing five people and injuring fifteen others. * 2017 - U.S. President Donald Trump orders the 2017 Shayrat missile strike against Syria in retaliation for the Khan Shaykhun chemical attack. *2018 - Former Brazilian president, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, is arrested for corruption by determination of Judge Sérgio Moro, from the “Car-Wash Operation”. Lula stayed imprisoned for 580 days, after being released by the Brazilian Supreme Court. * 2018 - Syria launches the Douma chemical attack during the Eastern Ghouta offensive of the Syrian Civil War. *2020 - COVID-19 pandemic: China ends its lockdown in Wuhan. * 2020 - COVID-19 pandemic: Acting Secretary of the Navy Thomas Modly resigns for his handling of the COVID-19 pandemic on USS Theodore Roosevelt and the dismissal of Brett Crozier. *2021 - COVID-19 pandemic: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention announces that the SARS-CoV-2 Alpha variant has become the dominant strain of COVID-19 in the United States. *2022 - Ketanji Brown Jackson is confirmed for the Supreme Court of the United States, becoming the first black female justice. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== *1206 - Otto II Wittelsbach, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1253) *1330 - John, 3rd Earl of Kent, English nobleman (d. 1352) *1470 - Edward Stafford, 2nd Earl of Wiltshire (d. 1498) *1506 - Francis Xavier, Spanish missionary and saint, co-founded the Society of Jesus (d. 1552) *1539 - Tobias Stimmer, Swiss painter and illustrator (d. 1584) ===1601–1900=== *1613 - Gerrit Dou, Dutch painter (d. 1675) *1644 - François de Neufville, duc de Villeroy, French general (d. 1730) *1648 - John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby, English poet and politician, Lord President of the Council (d. 1721) *1652 - Pope Clement XII (d. 1740) *1713 - Nicola Sala, Italian composer and theorist (d. 1801) *1718 - Hugh Blair, Scottish minister and author (d. 1800) *1727 - Michel Adanson, French botanist, entomologist, and mycologist (d. 1806) *1763 - Domenico Dragonetti, Italian bassist and composer (d. 1846) *1770 - William Wordsworth, English poet (d. 1850) *1772 - Charles Fourier, French philosopher (d. 1837) *1780 - William Ellery Channing, American preacher and theologian (d. 1842) *1803 - James Curtiss, American journalist and politician, 11th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1859) * 1803 - Flora Tristan, French author and activist (d. 1844) *1811 - Hasan Tahsini, Albanian astronomer, mathematician, and philosopher (d. 1881) *1817 - Francesco Selmi, Italian chemist and patriot (d. 1881) *1848 - Randall Davidson, Scottish archbishop (d. 1930) *1859 - Walter Camp, American football player and coach (d. 1925) *1860 - Will Keith Kellogg, American businessman, founded the Kellogg Company (d. 1951) *1867 - Holger Pedersen, Danish linguist and academic (d. 1953) *1870 - Gustav Landauer, German theorist and activist (d. 1919) *1871 - Epifanio de los Santos, Filipino jurist, historian, and scholar (d. 1927) *1873 - John McGraw, American baseball player and manager (d. 1934) *1874 - Frederick Carl Frieseke, German-American painter (d. 1939) *1876 - Fay Moulton, American sprinter, football player, coach, and lawyer (d. 1945) *1882 - Bert Ironmonger, Australian cricketer (d. 1971) * 1882 - Kurt von Schleicher, German general and politician, 23rd Chancellor of Germany (d. 1934) *1883 - Gino Severini, Italian-French painter and author (d. 1966) *1884 - Clement Smoot, American golfer (d. 1963) *1886 - Ed Lafitte, American baseball player and soldier (d. 1971) *1889 - Gabriela Mistral, Chilean poet and educator, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1957) *1890 - Paul Berth, Danish footballer (d. 1969) * 1890 - Victoria Ocampo. Argentine writer (d. 1979) * 1890 - Marjory Stoneman Douglas, American journalist and activist (d. 1998) *1891 - Ole Kirk Christiansen, Danish businessman, founded the Lego Group (d. 1958) *1892 - Julius Hirsch, German footballer (d. 1945)Ernst Otto Bräunche (2006). Sport in Karlsruhe; von den Anfängen bis heute * 1893 - José Sobral de Almada Negreiros, Portuguese artist (d. 1970) *1893 - Allen Dulles, American lawyer and diplomat, 5th Director of Central Intelligence (d. 1969) *1895 - John Bernard Flannagan, American soldier and sculptor (d. 1942) * 1895 - Margarete Schön, German actress (d. 1985) *1896 - Frits Peutz, Dutch architect, designed the Glaspaleis (d. 1974) *1897 - Erich Löwenhardt, Polish- German lieutenant and pilot (d. 1918) * 1897 - Walter Winchell, American journalist and radio host (d. 1972) *1899 - Robert Casadesus, French pianist and composer (d. 1972) *1900 - Adolf Dymsza, Polish actor (d. 1975) * 1900 - Tebbs Lloyd Johnson, English race walker (d. 1984) ===1901–present=== *1902 - Eduard Eelma, Estonian footballer (d. 1941) *1903 - M. Balasundaram, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician (d. 1965) * 1903 - Edwin T. Layton, American admiral (d. 1984) *1904 - Roland Wilson, Australian economist and statistician (d. 1996) *1908 - Percy Faith, Canadian composer, conductor, and bandleader (d. 1976) * 1908 - Pete Zaremba, American hammer thrower (d. 1994) *1909 - Robert Charroux, French author and critic (d. 1978) *1910 - Melissanthi, Greek poet, teacher and journalist (d. 1990) *1913 - Louise Currie, American actress (d. 2013) * 1913 - Charles Vanik, American soldier, judge, and politician (d. 2007) *1914 - Ralph Flanagan, American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1995) * 1914 - Domnitsa Lanitou-Kavounidou, Greek sprinter (d. 2011) *1915 - Stanley Adams, American actor and screenwriter (d. 1977) * 1915 - Billie Holiday, American singer-songwriter and actress (d. 1959) * 1915 - Henry Kuttner, American author (d. 1958) *1916 - Anthony Caruso, American actor (d. 2003) *1917 - R. G. Armstrong, American actor and playwright (d. 2012) *1918 - Bobby Doerr, American baseball player and coach (d. 2017) *1919 - Roger Lemelin, Canadian author and screenwriter (d. 1992) * 1919 - Edoardo Mangiarotti, Italian fencer (d. 2012) *1920 - Ravi Shankar, Indian-American sitar player and composer (d. 2012) *1921 - Feza Gürsey, Turkish mathematician and physicist (d. 1992) *1922 - Mongo Santamaría, Cuban-American drummer (d. 2003) *1924 - Johannes Mario Simmel, Austrian-English author and screenwriter (d. 2009) *1925 - Chaturanan Mishra, Indian trade union leader and politician (d. 2011) * 1925 - Jan van Roessel, Dutch footballer (d. 2011) *1927 - Babatunde Olatunji, Nigerian-American drummer, educator, and activist (d. 2003) * 1927 - Leonid Shcherbakov, Russian triple jumper *1928 - James Garner, American actor, singer, and producer (d. 2014) * 1928 - Alan J. Pakula, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1998) * 1928 - James White, Northern Irish author and educator (d. 1999) *1929 - Bob Denard, French soldier (d. 2007) * 1929 - Joe Gallo, American gangster (d. 1972) *1930 - Jane Priestman, English interior designer (d. 2021) * 1930 - Yves Rocher, French businessman, founded the Yves Rocher Company (d. 2009) * 1930 - Andrew Sachs, German-English actor and screenwriter (d. 2016) * 1930 - Roger Vergé, French chef and restaurateur (d. 2015) *1931 - Donald Barthelme, American short story writer and novelist (d. 1989) * 1931 - Daniel Ellsberg, American activist and author (d. 2023) *1932 - Cal Smith, American singer and guitarist (d. 2013) *1933 - Wayne Rogers, American actor, investor, and producer (d. 2015) * 1933 - Sakıp Sabancı, Turkish businessman and philanthropist (d. 2004) *1934 - Ian Richardson, Scottish-English actor (d. 2007) *1935 - Bobby Bare, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1935 - Hodding Carter III, American journalist and politician, Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs *1937 - Charlie Thomas, American singer (d. 2023) *1938 - Jerry Brown, American lawyer and politician, 34th and 39th Governor of California * 1938 - Spencer Dryden, American drummer (d. 2005) * 1938 - Freddie Hubbard, American trumpet player and composer (d. 2008) * 1938 - Iris Johansen, American author *1939 - Francis Ford Coppola, American director, producer, and screenwriter * 1939 - David Frost, English journalist and game show host (d. 2013) * 1939 - Gary Kellgren, American record producer, co-founded Record Plant (d. 1977) * 1939 - Brett Whiteley, Australian painter (d. 1992) *1940 - Marju Lauristin, Estonian academic and politician, 1st Estonian Minister of Social Affairs *1941 - James Di Pasquale, American composer * 1941 - Peter Fluck, English puppet maker and illustrator * 1941 - Cornelia Frances, English-Australian actress (d. 2018) * 1941 - Gorden Kaye, English actor (d. 2017) *1942 - Jeetendra, Indian actor, TV and film producer *1943 - Mick Abrahams, English singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1943 - Dennis Amiss, English cricketer and manager *1944 - Shel Bachrach, American insurance broker, investor, businessman and philanthropist * 1944 - Warner Fusselle, American sportscaster (d. 2012) * 1944 - Oshik Levi, Israeli singer and actor * 1944 - Julia Phillips, American film producer and author (d. 2002) * 1944 - Gerhard Schröder, German lawyer and politician, 7th Chancellor of Germany * 1944 - Bill Stoneman, American baseball player and manager *1945 - Megas, Icelandic singer-songwriter * 1945 - Gerry Cottle, English circus owner (d. 2021) * 1945 - Marilyn Friedman, American philosopher and academic * 1945 - Martyn Lewis, Welsh journalist and author * 1945 - Joël Robuchon, French chef and author (d. 2018) * 1945 - Werner Schroeter, German director and screenwriter (d. 2010) * 1945 - Hans van Hemert, Dutch songwriter and producer *1946 - Zaid Abdul-Aziz, American basketball player * 1946 - Colette Besson, French runner and educator (d. 2005) * 1946 - Herménégilde Chiasson, Canadian poet, playwright, and politician, 29th Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick * 1946 - Dimitrij Rupel, Slovenian politician and diplomate * 1946 - Stan Winston, American special effects designer and makeup artist (d. 2008) *1947 - Patricia Bennett, American singer * 1947 - Florian Schneider, German singer and drummer (d. 2020) * 1947 - Michèle Torr, French singer and author *1948 - John Oates, American singer-songwriter guitarist, and producer * 1948 - Arnie Robinson, American athlete (d. 2020) * 1948 - Ecaterina Andronescu, Romanian politician *1949 - Mitch Daniels, American academic and politician, 49th Governor of Indiana *1950 - Brian J. Doyle, American press secretary * 1950 - Neil Folberg, American-Israeli photographer *1951 - Bruce Gary, American drummer (d. 2006) * 1951 - Janis Ian, American singer-songwriter and guitarist *1952 - David Baulcombe, English geneticist and academic * 1952 - Jane Frederick, American hurdler and heptathlete * 1952 - Gilles Valiquette, Canadian actor, singer, and producer * 1952 - Dennis Hayden, American actor *1953 - Santa Barraza, American mixed media artist * 1953 - Douglas Kell, English biochemist and academic *1954 - Jackie Chan, Hong Kong martial artist, actor, stuntman, director, producer, and screenwriter * 1954 - Tony Dorsett, American football player *1955 - Tim Cochran, American mathematician and academic (d. 2014) * 1955 - Gregg Jarrett, American lawyer and journalist *1956 - Annika Billström, Swedish businesswoman and politician, 16th Mayor of Stockholm * 1956 - Christopher Darden, American lawyer and author * 1956 - Georg Werthner, Austrian decathlete *1957 - Kim Kap-soo, South Korean actor * 1957 - Thelma Walker, British politician *1958 - Brian Haner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1958 - Hindrek Kesler, Estonian architect *1960 - Buster Douglas, American boxer and actor * 1960 - Sandy Powell, English costume designer *1961 - Thurl Bailey, American basketball player and actor * 1961 - Pascal Olmeta, French footballer * 1961 - Brigitte van der Burg, Tanzanian-Dutch geographer and politician *1962 - Jon Cruddas, English lawyer and politician * 1962 - Andrew Hampsten, American cyclist *1963 - Jaime de Marichalar, Spanish businessman * 1963 - Nick Herbert, English businessman and politician, Minister for Policing * 1963 - Dave Johnson, American decathlete and educator *1964 - Jace Alexander, American actor and director * 1964 - Russell Crowe, New Zealand-Australian actor * 1964 - Steve Graves, Canadian ice hockey player *1965 - Bill Bellamy, American comedian, actor, and producer * 1965 - Rozalie Hirs, Dutch composer and poet * 1965 - Alison Lapper, English painter and photographer * 1965 - Nenad Vučinić, Serbian-New Zealand basketball player and coach *1966 - Richard Gomez, Filipino actor and politician * 1966 - Zvika Hadar, Israeli entertainer * 1966 - Béla Mavrák, Hungarian tenor singer * 1966 - Gary Wilkinson, English snooker player *1967 - Artemis Gounaki, Greek-German singer-songwriter * 1967 - Bodo Illgner, German footballer * 1967 - Simone Schilder, Dutch tennis player *1968 - Duncan Armstrong, Australian swimmer and sportscaster * 1968 - Jennifer Lynch, American actress, director, producer, and screenwriter * 1968 - Jože Možina, Slovenian historian, sociologist and journalist * 1968 - Vasiliy Sokov, Russian triple jumper *1969 - Ricky Watters, American football player *1970 - Leif Ove Andsnes, Norwegian pianist and educator * 1970 - Alexander Karpovtsev, Russian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2011) *1971 - Guillaume Depardieu, French actor (d. 2008) * 1971 - Victor Kraatz, German-Canadian figure skater *1972 - Tim Peake, British astronaut *1973 - Marco Delvecchio, Italian footballer * 1973 - Jeanine Hennis-Plasschaert, Dutch lawyer and politician, Dutch Minister of Defence * 1973 - Carole Montillet, French skier * 1973 - Christian O'Connell, British radio DJ and presenter * 1973 - Brett Tomko, American baseball player *1975 - Karin Dreijer Andersson, Swedish singer-songwriter and producer * 1975 - Ronde Barber, American football player and sportscaster * 1975 - Tiki Barber, American football player and journalist * 1975 - Ronnie Belliard, American baseball player * 1975 - John Cooper, American singer-songwriter and bass player * 1975 - Simon Woolford, Australian rugby league player *1976 - Kevin Alejandro, American actor and producer * 1976 - Martin Buß, German high jumper * 1976 - Jessica Lee, English lawyer and politician * 1976 - Aaron Lohr, American actor * 1976 - Barbara Jane Reams, American actress * 1976 - Gang Qiang, Chinese anchor *1977 - Tama Canning, Australian-New Zealand cricketer *1978 - Jo Appleby, English soprano * 1978 - Duncan James, English singer- songwriter and actor * 1978 - Lilia Osterloh, American tennis player *1979 - Adrián Beltré, Dominican-American baseball player * 1979 - Patrick Crayton, American football player * 1979 - Pascal Dupuis, Canadian ice hockey player * 1979 - Danny Sandoval, Venezuelan-American baseball player *1980 - Dragan Bogavac, Montenegrin footballer * 1980 - Bruno Covas, Brazilian lawyer, politician (d. 2021) * 1980 - Tetsuji Tamayama, Japanese actor *1981 - Hitoe Arakaki, Japanese singer *1981 - Kazuki Watanabe, Japanese songwriter and guitarist (d. 2000) * 1981 - Vanessa Olivarez, American singer-songwriter, and actress * 1981 - Suzann Pettersen, Norwegian golfer *1982 - Silvana Arias, Peruvian actress * 1982 - Sonjay Dutt, American wrestler * 1982 - Kelli Young, English singer *1983 - Hamish Davidson, Australian musician * 1983 - Franck Ribéry, French footballer * 1983 - Jon Stead, English footballer * 1983 - Jakub Smrž, Czech motorcycle rider * 1983 - Janar Talts, Estonian basketball player *1984 - Hiroko Shimabukuro, Japanese singer *1985 - KC Concepcion, Filipino actress and singer * 1985 - Humza Yousaf, Scottish politician *1986 - Brooke Brodack, American comedian * 1986 - Jack Duarte, Mexican actor, singer, and guitarist * 1986 - Andi Fraggs, English singer-songwriter and producer * 1986 - Christian Fuchs, Austrian footballer *1987 - Martín Cáceres, Uruguayan footballer * 1987 - Eelco Sintnicolaas, Dutch decathlete * 1987 - Jamar Smith, American football player *1988 - Antonio Piccolo, Italian footballer * 1988 - Ed Speleers, English actor and producer *1989 - Franco Di Santo, Argentinian footballer * 1989 - Mitchell Pearce, Australian rugby league player * 1989 - Teddy Riner, French judoka *1990 - Nickel Ashmeade, Jamaican sprinter * 1990 - Anna Bogomazova, Russian-American kick-boxer, martial artist, and wrestler * 1990 - Sorana Cîrstea, Romanian tennis player * 1990 - Trent Cotchin, Australian footballer *1991 - Luka Milivojević, Serbian footballer * 1991 - Anne-Marie, English singer-songwriter *1992 - Andreea Acatrinei, Romanian gymnast * 1992 - Guilherme Negueba, Brazilian footballer *1993 - Ichinojō Takashi, Mongolian sumo wrestler *1994 - Johanna Allik, Estonian figure skater * 1994 - Aaron Gray, Australian rugby league player * 1994 - Josh Hader, American baseball player *1996 - Emerson Hyndman, American international soccer player *1997 - Rafaela Gómez, Ecuadorian tennis player ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== *AD 30 - Jesus Christ (possible date of the crucifixion)Colin J. Humphreys and W. G. Waddington, "Dating the Crucifixion ," Nature 306 (December 22/29, 1983), pp. 743-46. Colin Humphreys, The Mystery of the Last Supper Cambridge University Press 2011 , page 194Blinzler, J. Der Prozess Jesu, fourth edition, Regensburg, Pustet, 1969, pp101–126 (b. circa 4 BC) * 821 - George the Standard-Bearer, archbishop of Mytilene (b. c. 776) * 924 - Berengar I of Italy (b. 845) *1201 - Baha al-Din Qaraqush, regent of Egypt and builder of the Cairo Citadel *1206 - Frederick I, Duke of Lorraine *1340 - Bolesław Jerzy II of Mazovia (b. 1308) *1498 - Charles VIII of France (b. 1470) *1499 - Galeotto I Pico, Duke of Mirandola (b. 1442) *1501 - Minkhaung II, king of Ava (b. 1446) ===1601–1900=== *1606 - Edward Oldcorne, English martyr (b. 1561) *1614 - El Greco, Greek-Spanish painter and sculptor (b. 1541) *1638 - Shimazu Tadatsune, Japanese daimyō (b. 1576) *1651 - Lennart Torstensson, Swedish field marshal and engineer (b. 1603) *1658 - Juan Eusebio Nieremberg, Spanish mystic and philosopher (b. 1595) *1661 - Sir William Brereton, 1st Baronet, English commander and politician (b. 1604) *1663 - Francis Cooke, English-American settler (b. 1583) *1668 - William Davenant, English poet and playwright (b. 1606) *1719 - Jean-Baptiste de La Salle, French priest and saint, founded the Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools (b. 1651) *1739 - Dick Turpin, English criminal (b. 1705) *1747 - Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau (b. 1676) *1761 - Thomas Bayes, English minister and mathematician (b. 1701) *1766 - Tiberius Hemsterhuis, Dutch philologist and critic (b. 1685) *1767 - Franz Sparry, Austrian composer and director (b. 1715) *1779 - Martha Ray, English singer (b.1746) *1782 - Taksin, Thai king (b. 1734) *1789 - Abdul Hamid I, Ottoman sultan (b. 1725) *1789 - Petrus Camper, Dutch physician, anatomist, and physiologist (b. 1722) *1801 - Noël François de Wailly, French lexicographer and author (b. 1724) *1804 - Toussaint Louverture, Haitian general (b. 1743) *1811 - Garsevan Chavchavadze, Georgian diplomat and politician (b. 1757) *1823 - Jacques Charles, French physicist and mathematician (b. 1746) *1833 - Antoni Radziwiłł, Lithuanian composer and politician (b. 1775) *1836 - William Godwin, English journalist and author (b. 1756) *1849 - Pedro Ignacio de Castro Barros, Argentinian priest and politician (b. 1777) *1850 - William Lisle Bowles, English poet and critic (b. 1762) *1858 - Anton Diabelli, Austrian composer and publisher (b. 1781) *1868 - Thomas D'Arcy McGee, Irish- Canadian journalist, activist, and politician (b. 1825) *1879 - Begum Hazrat Mahal, Begum of Awadh, was the second wife of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah (b. 1820) *1884 - Maria Doolaeghe, Flemish novelist (b. 1803) *1885 - Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold, German physiologist and zoologist (b. 1804) *1889 - Youssef Bey Karam,Youssef Bey Karam on Ehden Family Tree website Lebanese soldier and politician (b. 1823) * 1889 - Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada, Mexican politician and president, 1872-1876 (b. 1823) *1891 - P. T. Barnum, American businessman and politician, co-founded The Barnum & Bailey Circus (b. 1810) ===1901–present=== *1917 - Spyridon Samaras, Greek composer and playwright (b. 1861) *1918 - David Kolehmainen, Finnish wrestler (b. 1885) * 1918 - George E. Ohr, American potter (b. 1857) *1920 - Karl Binding, German lawyer and jurist (b. 1841) *1922 - James McGowen, Australian politician, 18th Premier of New South Wales (b. 1855) *1928 - Alexander Bogdanov, Russian physician, philosopher, and author (b. 1873) *1932 - Grigore Constantinescu, Romanian priest and journalist (b. 1875) *1938 - Suzanne Valadon, French painter (b. 1865) *1939 - Joseph Lyons, Australian educator and politician, 10th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1879) *1943 - Jovan Dučić, Serbian-American poet and diplomat (b. 1871) * 1943 - Alexandre Millerand, French lawyer and politician, 12th President of France (b. 1859) *1947 - Henry Ford, American engineer and businessman, founded the Ford Motor Company (b. 1863) *1949 - John Gourlay, Canadian soccer player (b. 1872) *1950 - Walter Huston, Canadian-American actor and singer (b. 1883) *1955 - Theda Bara, American actress (b. 1885) *1956 - Fred Appleby, English runner (b. 1879) *1960 - Henri Guisan, Swiss general (b. 1874) *1965 - Roger Leger, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1919) *1966 - Walt Hansgen, American race car driver (b. 1919) *1968 - Edwin Baker, Canadian co-founder of the Canadian National Institute for the Blind (CNIB) (b. 1893) * 1968 - Jim Clark, Scottish race car driver (b. 1936) *1972 - Joe Gallo, American gangster (b. 1929) * 1972 - Abeid Karume, Tanzanian politician, 1st President of Zanzibar (b. 1905) *1981 - Kit Lambert, English record producer and manager (b. 1935) * 1981 - Norman Taurog, American director and screenwriter (b. 1899) *1982 - Harald Ertl, Austrian race car driver and journalist (b. 1948) *1984 - Frank Church, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (b. 1924) *1985 - Carl Schmitt, German philosopher and jurist (b. 1888) *1986 - Leonid Kantorovich, Russian mathematician and economist (b. 1912) *1990 - Ronald Evans, American captain, engineer, and astronaut (b. 1933) *1991 - Memduh Ünlütürk, Turkish general (b. 1913) *1992 - Ace Bailey, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1903) * 1992 - Antonis Tritsis, Greek high jumper and politician, 71st Mayor of Athens (b. 1937) *1994 - Lee Brilleaux, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1952) * 1994 - Albert Guðmundsson, Icelandic footballer, manager, and politician (b. 1923) * 1994 - Golo Mann, German historian and author (b. 1909) * 1994 - Agathe Uwilingiyimana, Rwandan chemist, academic, and politician, Prime Minister of Rwanda (b. 1953) *1995 - Philip Jebb, English architect and politician (b. 1927) *1997 - Luis Aloma, Cuban-American baseball player (b. 1923) * 1997 - Georgy Shonin, Ukrainian-Russian general, pilot, and astronaut (b. 1935) *1998 - Alex Schomburg, Puerto Rican painter and illustrator (b. 1905) *1999 - Heinz Lehmann, German-Canadian psychiatrist and academic (b. 1911) *2001 - David Graf, American actor (b. 1950) * 2001 - Beatrice Straight, American actress (b. 1914) *2002 - John Agar, American actor (b. 1921) *2003 - Cecile de Brunhoff, French pianist and author (b. 1903) * 2003 - David Greene, English-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1921) *2004 - Victor Argo, American actor (b. 1934) * 2004 - Konstantinos Kallias, Greek politician (b. 1901) *2005 - Cliff Allison, English race car driver (b. 1932) * 2005 - Grigoris Bithikotsis, Greek singer-songwriter (b. 1922) * 2005 - Bob Kennedy, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1920) * 2005 - Melih Kibar, Turkish composer and educator (b. 1951) *2007 - Johnny Hart, American author and illustrator (b. 1931) * 2007 - Barry Nelson, American actor (b. 1917) *2008 - Ludu Daw Amar, Burmese journalist and author (b. 1915) *2009 - Dave Arneson, American game designer, co-created Dungeons & Dragons (b. 1947) *2011 - Pierre Gauvreau, Canadian painter (b. 1922) *2012 - Steven Kanumba, Tanzanian actor and director (b. 1984) * 2012 - Satsue Mito, Japanese zoologist and academic (b. 1914) * 2012 - Ignatius Moses I Daoud, Syrian cardinal (b. 1930) * 2012 - David E. Pergrin, American colonel and engineer (b. 1917) * 2012 - Bashir Ahmed Qureshi, Pakistani politician (b. 1959) * 2012 - Mike Wallace, American television news journalist (b. 1918) *2013 - Marty Blake, American businessman (b. 1927) * 2013 - Les Blank, American director and producer (b. 1935) * 2013 - Andy Johns, English-American record producer (b. 1950) * 2013 - Lilly Pulitzer, American fashion designer (b. 1931) * 2013 - Irma Ravinale, Italian composer and educator (b. 1937) * 2013 - Mickey Rose, American screenwriter (b. 1935) * 2013 - Carl Williams, American boxer (b. 1959) *2014 - George Dureau, American painter and photographer (b. 1930) * 2014 - James Alexander Green, American-English mathematician and academic (b. 1926) * 2014 - V. K. Murthy, Indian cinematographer (b. 1923) * 2014 - Zeituni Onyango, Kenyan-American computer programmer (b. 1952) * 2014 - John Shirley- Quirk, English opera singer (b. 1931) * 2014 - George Shuffler, American guitarist (b. 1925) * 2014 - Josep Maria Subirachs, Spanish sculptor and painter (b. 1927) * 2014 - Royce Waltman, American basketball player and coach (b. 1942) *2015 - Tim Babcock, American soldier and politician, 16th Governor of Montana (b. 1919) * 2015 - José Capellán, Dominican-American baseball player (b. 1981) * 2015 - Stan Freberg, American puppeteer, voice actor, and singer (b. 1926) * 2015 - Richard Henyekane, South African footballer (b. 1983) * 2015 - Geoffrey Lewis, American actor (b. 1935) *2016 - Blackjack Mulligan, American professional wrestler (b. 1942) *2017 - Nicolae Șerban Tanașoca, Romanian historian and philologist (b. 1941) *2019 - Seymour Cassel, American actor (b. 1935) *2020 - John Prine, American country folk singer- songwriter (b. 1946) * 2020 - Herb Stempel, American television personality (b. 1926) *2021 - Tommy Raudonikis, Australian rugby league player and coach (b. 1950) ==Holidays and observances== * Christian feast days: **Aibert of Crespin **Blessed Alexander Rawlins **Blessed Edward Oldcorne and Blessed Ralph Ashley **Blessed Notker the Stammerer **Brynach **Hegesippus **Henry Walpole **Hermann Joseph **Jean-Baptiste de La Salle **Patriarch Tikhon of Moscow (Eastern Orthodox Church, Episcopal Church (USA)) **April 7 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) *Flag Day (Slovenia) *Genocide Memorial Day (Rwanda), and its related observance: **International Day of Reflection on the 1994 Rwanda Genocide (United Nations) *Motherhood and Beauty Day (Armenia) *National Beer Day (United States) *Sheikh Abeid Amani Karume Day (Tanzania) *Women's Day (Mozambique) *Veterans' Day (Belgium) *World Health Day (International observance) ==References== ==External links== * BBC: On This Day * * Historical Events on April 7 Category:Days of the year Category:April |
The Second Syrian Republic officially the Syrian Republic from 1950 to 1958 and the Syrian Arab Republic from 1961 to 1963 succeeded the First Syrian Republic that had become de facto independent in April 1946 from the French Mandate. The Second Republic was founded on the Syrian Constitution of 1950, which was suspended from 1953 to 1954 under Adib Shishakli's strongmanship, and later when Syria joined with the Republic of Egypt in forming the United Arab Republic in 1958. The Second Republic resumed when Syria withdrew from the union in 1961. In 1963, the Syrian Ba'athist Party came to power in a bloody military coup, which laid the foundations for the political structure in Syria to the present day. The green, white, black and red flag is the first flag of the Syrian Arab Republic and with the shortest usage, that being from 1961 to 1963. It is also the flag of the Syrian Opposition during the ongoing Syrian civil war. ==Background== ===Mandatory Syrian Republic (1930–1946)=== thumb|left|Constitution of the Syrian Republic, 14 May 1930 The project of a new constitution was discussed by a Constituent Assembly elected in April 1928, but as the pro-independence National Bloc had won a majority and insisted on the insertion of several articles "that did not preserve the prerogatives of the mandatary power", the Assembly was dissolved on 9 August 1928. On 14 May 1930, the State of Syria was declared the Republic of Syria and a new Syrian constitution was promulgated by the French High Commissioner, in the same time as the Lebanese Constitution, the Règlement du Sandjak d'Alexandrette, the Statute of the Alawi Government, the Statute of the Jabal Druze State.Youssef Takla, "Corpus juris du Mandat français", in: A new flag was also mentioned in this constitution: :The Syrian flag shall be composed as follows, the length shall be double the height. It shall contain three bands of equal dimensions, the upper band being green, the middle band white, and the lower band black. The white portion shall bear three red stars in line, having five points each."", article 4 of the Constitution de l'Etat de Syrie, 14 May 1930The 1930 Constitution is integrally reproduced in: During December 1931 and January 1932, the first elections under the new constitution were held, under an electoral law providing for "the representation of religious minorities" as imposed by article 37 of the constitution. The National Bloc was in the minority in the new Chamber of deputies with only 16 deputies out of 70, due to intensive vote-rigging by the French authorities. Among the deputies were also three members of the Syrian Kurdish nationalist Xoybûn (Khoyboun) party, Khalil bey Ibn Ibrahim Pacha (Al-Jazira province), Mustafa bey Ibn Shahin (Jarabulus) and Hassan Aouni (Kurd Dagh). There were later in the year, from 30 March to 6 April, "complementary elections". In 1933, France attempted to impose a treaty of independence heavily prejudiced in favor of France. It promised gradual independence but kept the Syrian Mountains under French control. The Syrian head of state at the time was a French puppet, Muhammad 'Ali Bay al-'Abid. Fierce opposition to this treaty was spearheaded by senior nationalist and parliamentarian Hashim al-Atassi, who called for a sixty-day strike in protest. Atassi's political coalition, the National Bloc, mobilized massive popular support for his call. Riots and demonstrations raged, and the economy came to a standstill. After negotiations in March with Damien de Martel, the French High Commissioner in Syria, Hashim al-Atassi went to Paris heading a senior Bloc delegation. The new Popular Front-led French government, formed in June 1936 after the April–May elections, had agreed to recognize the National Bloc as the sole legitimate representatives of the Syrian people and invited al-Atassi to independence negotiations. The resulting treaty called for immediate recognition of Syrian independence as a sovereign republic, with full emancipation granted gradually over a 25-year period. In 1936, the Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence was signed, a treaty that would not be ratified by the French legislature. However, the treaty allowed Jabal Druze, the Alawite region (now called Latakia), and Alexandretta to be incorporated into the Syrian republic within the following two years. Greater Lebanon (now the Lebanese Republic) was the only state that did not join the Syrian Republic. Hashim al-Atassi, who was Prime Minister during King Faisal's brief reign (1918–1920), was the first president to be elected under a new constitution adopted after the independence treaty. The treaty guaranteed incorporation of previously autonomous Druze and Alawite regions into Greater Syria, but not Lebanon, with which France signed a similar treaty in November. The treaty also promised curtailment of French intervention in Syrian domestic affairs as well as a reduction of French troops, personnel and military bases in Syria. In return, Syria pledged to support France in times of war, including the use of its air space, and to allow France to maintain two military bases on Syrian territory. Other political, economic and cultural provisions were included. Atassi returned to Syria in triumph on 27 September 1936 and was elected President of the Republic in November. In September 1938, France again separated the Syrian Sanjak of Alexandretta and transformed it into the State of Hatay. The State of Hatay joined Turkey in the following year by an election which is made by the people in Hatay. In June 1939. Syria did not recognize the incorporation of Hatay into Turkey and the issue is still disputed until the present time. The emerging threat of Adolf Hitler induced a fear of being outflanked by Nazi Germany if France relinquished its colonies in the Middle East. That, coupled with lingering imperialist inclinations in some levels of the French government, led France to reconsider its promises and refuse to ratify the treaty. Also, France ceded the Sanjak of Alexandretta, whose territory was guaranteed as part of Syria in the treaty, to Turkey. Riots again broke out, Atassi resigned, and Syrian independence was deferred until after World War II. With the fall of France in 1940 during World War II, Syria came under the control of the Vichy Government until the British and Free French invaded and occupied the country in July 1941. Syria proclaimed its independence again in 1941 but it wasn't until 1 January 1944, that it was recognized as an independent republic. In the 1940s, Britain secretly advocated the creation of a Greater Syrian state that would secure Britain preferential status in military, economic and cultural matters, in return for putting a complete halt to Jewish ambition in Palestine. France and the United States opposed British hegemony in the region, which eventually led to the creation of Israel.https://www.haaretz.co.il/hasen/spages/950373.html On 27 September 1941, France proclaimed, by virtue of, and within the framework of the Mandate, the independence and sovereignty of the Syrian State. The proclamation said "the independence and sovereignty of Syria and Lebanon will not affect the juridical situation as it results from the Mandate Act. Indeed, this situation could be changed only with the agreement of the Council of the League of Nations, with the consent of the Government of the United States, a signatory of the Franco-American Convention of 4 April 1924, and only after the conclusion between the French Government and the Syrian and Lebanese Governments of treaties duly ratified in accordance with the laws of the French Republic.See Foreign relations of the United States diplomatic papers, 1941. The British Commonwealth; the Near East and Africa Volume III (1941), pages 809–810; and Statement of General de Gaulle of 29 November 1941, concerning the Mandate for Syria and Lebanon, Marjorie M. Whiteman, Digest of International Law, vol. 1 (Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1963) 680–681 Benqt Broms said that it was important to note that there were several founding members of the United Nations whose statehood was doubtful at the time of the San Francisco Conference and that the Government of France still considered Syria and Lebanon to be mandates.See International law: achievements and prospects, by Mohammed Bedjaoui, UNESCO, Martinus Nijhoff; 1991, , page 46 Duncan Hall said "Thus, the Syrian mandate may be said to have been terminated without any formal action on the part of the League or its successor. The mandate was terminated by the declaration of the mandatory power, and of the new states themselves, of their independence, followed by a process of piecemeal unconditional recognition by other powers, culminating in formal admission to the United Nations. Article 78 of the Charter ended the status of tutelage for any member state: 'The trusteeship system shall not apply to territories which have become Members of the United Nations, relationship among which shall be based on respect for the principle of sovereign equality.'"Mandates, Dependencies and Trusteeship, by H. Duncan Hall, Carnegie Endowment, 1948, pages 265–266 So when the UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, after ratification of the United Nations Charter by the five permanent members, as both Syria and Lebanon were founding member states, the French mandate for both was legally terminated on that date and full independence attained. On 29 May 1945, France bombed Damascus and tried to arrest its democratically elected leaders. While French planes were bombing Damascus, Prime Minister Faris al-Khoury was at the founding conference of the United Nations in San Francisco, presenting Syria's claim for independence from the French Mandate. Syrian independence was attained on 24 October 1945, with recognition of the international community. Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalist groups and British pressure forced the French to evacuate their last troops on 17 April 1946. Although rapid economic development followed the declaration of independence, Syrian politics from independence through the late 1960s was marked by upheaval. ===Independent First Syrian Republic (1946–1950)=== The early years of independence were marked by political instability. From 1946 to 1956, Syria had 20 different cabinets and drafted four separate constitutions. In 1948, Syria was involved in the Arab-Israeli War with the newly created State of Israel. The Syrian army was pressed out of the Israeli areas, but fortified their strongholds on the Golan Heights and managed to keep their old borders and occupy some additional territory. In July 1949, Syria was the last Arab country to sign an armistice agreement with Israel. ==History== ===Early years=== On 29 March 1949, Syria's national government was overthrown by a military coup d'état led by Hussni al-Zaim. The cause of this coup was the shame that the Syrian Army experienced following the Arab-Israeli War. An example of this shame can be seen in what we will call the Samneh Scandal of 1948. According to Patrick Seale, "President Shukri al-Quwatli and his new Prime Minister set off on a tour of front-line positions and supply points. The story has it that the two politicians noticed a pungent smell coming from a field kitchen. On making inquiries they were told that it came from burning cooking fat. Quwatli demanded that a new tin be opened and an egg cooked before him. The fat once more gave off a nauseating smell: the President tasted it and pronounced it of inferior quality. Samples were sent for testing and revealed that the fat was made from bone waste". Afterwards, Quwatli ordered the arrest of colonel for profiteering. Following this incident, officers became enraged when the common folk held their noses at them, a reference to the smell of the cooking fat. On 14 August 1949, Zaim was overthrown by his colleague Sami al-Hinnawi. A few months later, in December 1949, Hinnawi was overthrown by Colonel Adib al- Shishakli. The latter undermined civilian rule and led to Shishakli's complete seizure of power in 1951. Shishakli continued to rule the country until 1954, when growing public opposition forced him to resign and leave the country. The national government was restored, but again to face instability, this time coming from abroad. After the overthrow of President Shishakli in the February 1954 coup, continued political maneuvering supported by competing factions in the military eventually brought Arab nationalist and socialist elements to power. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, after the invasion of the Sinai Peninsula by Israeli troops, and the intervention of British and French troops, martial law was declared in Syria. Later Syrian and Iraqi troops were brought into Jordan to prevent a possible Israeli invasion. The November 1956 attacks on Iraqi pipelines were in retaliation for Iraq's acceptance into the Baghdad Pact. In early 1957, Iraq advised Egypt and Syria against a conceivable takeover of Jordan. In November 1956, Syria signed a pact with the Soviet Union, providing a foothold for Communist influence within the government in exchange for planes, tanks, and other military equipment being sent to Syria. This increase in the strength of Syrian military technology worried Turkey, as it seemed feasible that Syria might attempt to retake Iskenderon, a formerly Syrian city now in Turkey. On the other hand, Syria and the USSR accused Turkey of massing its troops at the Syrian border. During this standoff, Communists gained more control over the Syrian government and military. Only heated debates in the United Nations (of which Syria was an original member) lessened the threat of war. ===Joining the United Arab Republic=== Syria's political instability during the years after the 1954 coup, the parallelism of Syrian and Egyptian policies, and the appeal of Egyptian President Gamal Abdal Nasser's leadership in the wake of the Suez crisis created support in Syria for union with Egypt. On 1 February 1958, Syrian president Shukri al-Kuwatli and Nasser announced the merging of the two countries, creating the United Arab Republic, and all Syrian political parties, as well as the Communists therein, ceased overt activities. The merger was approved in a 1958 referendum. ===1961–1963=== Discontent with Egyptian dominance of the UAR led elements opposed to the union under Abd al- Karim al-Nahlawi to seize power on 28 September 1961. Two days later, Syria re-established itself as the Syrian Arab Republic. Frequent coups, military revolts, civil disorders and bloody riots characterized the 1960s. The 8 March 1963 coup resulted in installation of the National Council of the Revolutionary Command (NCRC), a group of military and civilian officials who assumed control of all executive and legislative authority. The takeover was engineered by members of the Ba'ath Party led by Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar. The new cabinet was dominated by Ba'ath members; the moderate al- Bitar became premier. ==See also== *Modern history of Syria ==Notes== ==References== Category:Modern history of Syria Category:Former countries in the Middle East Category:Former republics Category:States and territories established in 1946 Category:States and territories disestablished in 1963 Category:1946 establishments in Syria Category:1963 disestablishments in Syria |
Andreas Röschlaub (21 October 1768 – 7 July 1835) was a German physician born in Lichtenfels, Bavaria. He studied medicine at the Universities of Würzburg and Bamberg, gaining his doctorate at the latter institution in 1795. In 1798 he became a full professor of pathology at Bamberg, and in 1802 transferred to the University of Landshut, where he was director of the medical school. In 1826 he relocated to the University of Munich as a professor of medicine. He died on 7 July 1835 during a recreational trip to Ulm. Röschlaub is remembered for development of the Erregbarkeitstheorie (excitability theory), which was a modification of Brownianism, a speculative theory of medicine that was initially formulated by Scottish physician John Brown (1735–1788). He was editor of Magazin zur Vervollkommnung der theoretischen und praktischen Heilkunde (Magazine for the Perfection of Theoretical and Practical Medicine), and the author of a textbook on classification of diseases titled Lehrbuch der Nosologie. == Role in German Romantic Medicine == Until recently, the history of German medicine, particularly of Romantic medicine, had essentially denigrated, then largely forgotten, the contributions of the physician Andreas Röschlaub of Bamberg, a process that one reviewer terms "a curious combination of obscurity and notoriety." (Nigel Reeves) However, a major revision of his place in German and European medicine, in particular Romantic medicine and the advancement of the Brunonian system, by N. Tsouyopoulos, has come to the conclusion that he "was one of the most well-known, controversial and influential personalities of his time." His writings were extensive and influential as regards the problem of the reform of medicine and its placing on a sound scientific footing, and it was these writings that framed much of the debate in Germany at the time. Important figures of the time, such as Schelling and Hufeland undertook trips to Bamberg to meet him and seek his views. As one contemporary historian wrote "even public teachers and not insignificant figures wrote textbooks in which almost every paragraph begins with 'Röschlaub teaches' " . The main reason for the neglect of Röschlaub's place in history is likely his acceptance of the ideas of Dr. John Brown while a medical student and their enthusiastic promotion, including making it the basis of a doctoral dissertation. He then further advanced Brown's ideas on graduation, making Germany the main centre for the implementation of the Brunonian system of medicine. Brown's ideas had been known in Germany some 10 years after the publication of Elementa Medicinae in 1780, when Dr. Christoph Girtanner, a well-known physician in Göttingen, wrote a paper in a French journal on Brunonianism without attributing the ideas to Brown, creating a minor scandal. Subsequently, a medical student at the university of Bamberg sent a copy of Brown's text to Professor Adam M. Weikard (1742-1803), who was sufficiently impressed to arrange the first German printing in 1794, and then to follow this with the publication the following year of his translation into German (Johann Brown's Grundsätze der Arzneilehre aus dem Lateinischen übersetzt, Frankfurt). Then in 1796 a second translation, by Christoff Pfaff, was made available. Röschlaub made his own translation, but did not publish it until 1806-7 (in three volumes as John Brown's sämtliche Werke) out of consideration for Weikard. Meanwhile, Röschlaub worked closely on his graduation with Adalbert Marcus, the director of the famous hospital in Bamberg, to work out the implementation of the Brunonian system and were ready to publish the results in 1797. The main work was Röschlaub's Untersuchungen über Pathogenie oder Einleitung in die Heilkunde, 3 vols. Frankfurt, 1798-1800. The work and writings that came out of the Bamberg clinic made the town a famous, intellectual and medical centre." === Collaboration with Schelling === In 1799 Röschlaub created a journal, the Magazin der Vervollkommung der theoretischen und praktischen Heilkunde, published eventually in 10 volumes between 1799 and 1809. In the first volume, the famous natural philosopher, Schelling, wrote an article replying to a critical review of Brunonian literature in the renowned Allgemeine Literatur Zeitung earlier that year. While Schelling had been initially critical of Brown's work (Weltseele, 1798), seeing in it but a mechanical approach, his contact with Röschlaub allowed him to appreciate the dynamic, vital nature of Brown's approach as he expressed in his The first outline of a system of a philosophy of nature (1799). Schelling's embracing of Brown's ideas led to a close collaboration with Röschlaub and a visit to Bamberg in 1800. Schelling's main contribution to the theory of excitability was to explain that there was a receptive and active antithetical function, which involved the generative power (Blumenbach's Bildungstrieb and Dr, Samuel Hahnemann's Lebenserzeugungskraft). Schelling held that each organism needs a 'special rhythm' and that this was a function of a certain degree of receptivity and activity, deviation from which meant disorder "because it disturbs the rhythm of self-reproduction and finally influences the reproduction process itself, thus causing not only quantitative but also qualitative changes in the organism." The nature of Schelling's influence in German culture was such as to further promote the Brunonian system, as presented by Röschlaub. "It was Röschlaub's explanation which made Brown's principle [of life as a 'forced state'] acceptable" to the German mind which had a more dynamic conception of life. Röschlaub helped to bring out the dynamic interplay between the outer stimulant ('excitant') and the inner life potential (excitability) resulting in the activity known as life (biological excitation). The organism possesses an intrinsic receptive activity to be acted upon but also a proactive ability to respond. Röschlaub also refined Brown's idea that disorders resulted from an excess (hypersthenia) or deficit (hyposthenia) of stimuli by adding that this involved a disporoportion between the receptive and pro-active sides of excitability. === Role of Physiology === Röschlaub's work also allowed him to tie Brown's elements of a system of medicine to the emerging idea that physiology was the key to a scientific medicine. In this regard, Brown's central idea that pathology was simply a sub-set of physiology, a stretching of normal healthy dynamic rhythms or functions beyond a certain supportable degree, was central to then allowing German medicine to consider that "pathology, nosology and clinical practice could be linked to physiology" which seemed the way to establish a solid foundation for medicine in natural science. :Scientific physiology was a part of medical education in Germany…but they could not see how they could use these basic sciences in the treatment of diseases. Medicine, for Röschlaub, becomes a science only when a true scientific physiology exists. "Only then will medicine be possible as a true 'art' when organismic physiology becomes a truly perfected science." (1801) This meant that physiology had to take into account a life principle (Lebensprinzip) that organized matter, but was not dependent on matter. While Röschlaub worked with Johann Christian Reil's general conception of physiology, which accepted that physiology was a product of natural forces, but tended to see these in chemical terms uniquely. Röschlaub's explanation of excitability (Erregbarkeit) as a dynamic, polarity between two antithetical functions - receptivity and pro-activity - made Brown's principle acceptable and also verifiable "and as such applicable to practical medical diagnosis and therapy." His continued work, while it led to some differences with Schelling, further elaborated the Brunonian system, but Röschlaub eventually came to realize that it could not be taken further without a more overarching theory for excitation itself and the understanding of life energy [Nelly article p. 72] (which would eventually emerge in the work of Wilhelm Reich on orgone energy). === Debate on Human Nature === The Enlightenment view of human nature was an essentially static one (the unique individual who could be perfected according to reason), that of Romantic medicine dynamic (man was unique, but also evolving). While the idea of the mutability of human nature had emerged in the 1700s, it took root in the "dynamization and historification of consciousness through German philosophy." German philosophy had an emerging view of life and consciousness as activity and action, such as expressed by Fichte: "The only Being is Life. And the modes of action are the only reality of the I." which Röschlaub often quoted, and which idea he expressed himself: "If we call the efficacy of living actions 'Life', then we must say by way of epitomizing this that all these bodies live." (1800) Out of this conception came the possibility of a new presentation of the relation between subject (I, consciousness-organism) and object (outer world, nature). The outer world wins for the first time a fundamental significance for the 'subject'; it can be seen as the ground of consciousness and life; it conditions namely the mode of the subject without annulling it; it is the stimulus of activity which modulates the subject, a view that was strikingly close to that held by John Brown, but which could not be perceived except in the more dynamic context of German Romantic medicine. The healthcare implications were that a dynamic view considered therapeutic measures affecting the interior milieu important considerations for the physician.Röschlaub entered the debate on this issue arguing for the role of the physician in "social medicine" or hygiene, and the importance of hygiene itself to a scientific medicine, a position that was largely taken up later by Virchow, whose views on this in 1849 could have been word-for-word those of Röschlaub. :If medicine is to really fulfill its great task, then it must intervene in political and social life at large; it must list the hindrances which stand in the way of the normal fulfillment of the life processes, and work to eliminate them. Should that ever be achieved, then will medicine be as it ought to be – a common property for all. It will then cease to be medicine and will merge into the general, unified body of scientific knowledge which is synonymous with 'know-how'. However, where Virchow only saw hygiene as a prophylactic measure (negative role), Röschlaub also advocated a positive role, that is, the use of remedial measures to promote health. This was an idea that was largely forgotten until revived by Hans Buchner in 1896 in a lecture on Biology and Health Doctrine, which caused quite a stir in German medical circles, but which also raises the question as to the goal of therapy, a question answered several decades later by the work of Wilhelm Reich and his function of the orgasm (special theory) and the more overarching theory of 'super-imposition.' === Influence === It was thanks to Röschlaub's interpretation, promotion and elaboration of Brown's new approach to medicine that it came to influence German medicine, and became the core aspect of German Romantic medicine. As the major historian of Röschlaub's contribution states, German medicine was shifted from the mechanism of the 1700s to a more dynamic conception of life and illness. :The idea of an active, self-reproducing and self-defending power mediating the organism's general reaction has, since then, never ceased to resonate in German medical thinking." Röschlaub strove to unify surgery and medicine, and to place Healthcare on a natural scientific basis whilst also recognizing the need for special methods in approaching clinical practice that went beyond the natural sciences, but also went beyond the purely speculative symptomatic prescribing of traditional medicine (semiotics). :The thought that medicine as a unitary natural science could only be realized by a transformation of the semiotic clinic into a treatment center was what was truly innovative in Röschlaub's conception. Röschlaub's championing of the new views of man and environment from Fichte and Schelling, stemming from Locke, and integrating these into the Brunonian system provided a scientific basis for considering Healthcare, one that continues to find echoes in medicine, such as expressed half a century later in the works of Claude Bernard. The new conception of man, as being acted upon by and acting in response to the world around him to create an individual ambient that was distinct from the environment more generally, is one that has persisted in medicine, particularly in various physicians concerned with hygiene, and the interaction of the organism and its environment, such as in the field of clinical ecology or 'environmental' medicine. As Röschlaub himself wrote quite presciently, :A body can only be an organic individual, and assert itself as such, in that it tears itself away from organic nature by dint of its own activity and self-efficacy. But this activity would expire were it not for an activity that deals with objects. The body must therefore be exposed to external objects and possess receptivity for them. And thus the activity determines the receptivity and is in turn determined by it." (1800) == References == == Works == *Untersuchungen über die Pathogenie oder Einleitung in die medicinische Theorie, Frankfurt am Main, 1798 *Von dem Einflusse der Brown’schen Theorie auf die praktische Heilkunde, Würzburg 1798 *Lehrbuch der Nosologie, Bamberg/Würzburg 1801 *Über Medizin, ihr Verhältnis zur Chirurgie, nebst Materialien zu einem Entwurfe der Polizei der Medizin, Frankfurt am Main 1802 *Lehrbuch der besonderen Nosologie, Jatreusiologie und Jatrie, Frankfurt am Main, 1807–1810 *Philosophische Werke. Bd. 1: Über die Würde und das Wachstum der Wissenschaften und Künste und ihre Einführung in das Leben, Sulzbach 1827 *Magazin zur Vervollkommnung der theorethsichen und praktischen Heilkunde 1799-1809 == Bibliography== * Andreas Röschlaub und die Romantische Medizin: Die philosophische Grundlagen der modernen Medizin by Nelly Tsouyopoulos (Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag, 1982) == References == * translated biography @ Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie Category:1768 births Category:1835 deaths Category:People from Lichtenfels, Bavaria Category:Natural philosophers Category:18th-century German physicians Category:Academic staff of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich Category:Academic staff of the University of Bamberg Category:University of Bamberg alumni |
Marcelino Oreja Elósegui (1894–1934) was a Spanish entrepreneur, Catholic activist and Carlist politician. ==Family and youth== thumbnail|left|Ibarrangelu Marcelino Oreja Elósegui was descendant to a petty bourgeoisie Basque family, originating from the Gipuzkoan town of Orexa.according to Marcelino Oreja Aguirre, Antecedentes de la Revolución de octubre de 1934 y su repercusión en el País Vasco, [in:] Euskonews s/d, available here; José María Urkia Etxabe, Benigno Oreja, pionero de la Urología en Euskadi, [in:] Noticias de Gipuzkoa, 15.10.14 claims that the family was from “localidades navarras de Atayo y Arriba” see here His paternal grandfather was a physician.Urkia Etxabe 2014 His father, Basilio Oreja Echaniz, settled in the Biscay Ibarrangelu and since the late 1870s also practiced as a doctor,he is first time mentioned in Anuario-almanaque del comercio, de la industria, de la magistratura y de la administración of 1879, p. 1215, see here in the early 20th century briefly serving also as a mayor.listed as alcalde in 1900 and 1902, compare Annual del comercio, de la industria, de la magistratura y de la administración, 2 (1900), p. 545, available here; in 1899 and 1904 he is listed as "medico", compare here Marcelino's mother, Cecilia Elósegui Ayala, came from a distinguished and much branched Gipuzkoan family.Urkia Etxabe 2014 His older brothers were active in the Vascongadas branch of Carlism during the late Restoration period already. Basilio died early.La Lectura Dominical 20.06.14 available here Benigno made his name as a physician and one of urology pioneers in Gipuzkoa.see Benigno Oreja entry at Colegio Oficial de Médicos de Gipuzkoa website, available here; he was also active in the Carlist medical service during the Civil War, see Manuel Solórzano Sánchez, Las Margaritas. Enfermeras del Partido Carlista, [in:] Enfermeria avanza service available here Ricardo became one of the Gipuzkoan party leaders; he was elected to the Cortes in 1920 and 1923,see Indice Historico de los Diputados at the official Cortes service, available here during the Primo de Rivera dictatorship serving as gobernador civil of the Santander province.La Vanguardia 03.03.25, compare also here, some internet sources wrongly claim it was Marcelino performing the governor role, see e.g. here Both were members of the Francoist Cortes in the 1950s and 1960s.see Indice Historico de los Diputados available here Marcelino Oreja was born to his parents rather late,the exact birth year remains somewhat unclear. José Luis Orella Martínez, El origen del primer Catolicismo social Español, [PhD thesis, Universidad de Educación a Distancia], Madrid 2012, p. 235, claims he was born in 1896; the Geni service indicates 1894, the same year is mentioned by Roberto Villa García, Las elecciones de 1933 en el País Vasco y Navarra, Madrid 2007, , 9788498491159, p. 272; Marcelino Oreja Elosegui entry at Auñamendi Eusko Entzikipedia available here claims he was born in 1891 much junior than his older brothers,the birth year of his brother Benigno is also unclear. Some claim it was 1878, see Santiago Casas, Los Cursos Internacionales Católicos de San Sebastián (1935), [in:] Sancho el Sabio, 35 (2012), p. 152; some claim he was born in 1880, see Urkia Etxabe 2014; depending what birth of Marcelino is adopted, the difference between the two could be 11 or 18 years, see also José Antonio Martín Aguado, José R. Vilamor, Historia del Ya: sinfonía con final trágico, Madrid 2012, , 9788415382508, p. 49 and was brought up in a militantly Catholic ambience.Aguado, Vilamor 2012, p. 49 He studied civil engineering and graduated as ingeniero de caminos, canales y puertos,La formación de la imagen del Colegio. La comunicación de ideas. El Think Tank. La Fundación, [in:] Fundación Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos website, available here/ in 1925 nominated “ingeniero en practicas”.Madrid cientifico 1925, p. 16, available here He married Purificación Aguirre Isasi, descendant to a well-to-do Gipuzkoan family. Her father, Toribio Aguirre Ibarzabal, served as a Traditionalist officer during the Third Carlist War.Marcelino Oreja habla de su padre, [in:] Diario Vasco 01.11.09, Josemari Velez de Mendizabal, Unión Cerrajera S.A. Riqueza centenaria, [in:] Josemari Velez de Mendizabal, José Ángel Barrutiabengoa, Juan Ramón Garai, “Ama” Cerrajera, Donostia 2007, p. 58 (mentioned as “Second Carlist War”) He became a member of new Basque industrial elites as co- founder, one of major shareholders and directing manager of the metalworking company Union Cerrajera.it specialised in supporting construction industry, manufacturing around 1,200 types of devices, Velez de Mendizabal 2007, p. 60; for shareholding structure see Velez de Mendizabal 2007, p. 55, for Aguirre’s managerial activities see p. 58 and passim The posthumous son of Marcelino and Purificación, Marcelino Oreja Aguirre, was a Francoist diplomat and later Christian-Democrat politician;semi-official biography available at Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l’Europe service here in 2010 Juan Carlos de Borbon made him marquis of Oreja.see the Official Gazette available here His son and the grandson of Marcelino, Marcelino Oreja Arburúa, is a Partido Popular politician and in 2002-2004 served in the European Parliament. Another grandson of Marcelino Oreja, Jaime Mayor Oreja, also a PP politician, held various high official jobs in the Basque Country, served in the Cortes in 1996-2001 and in the European Parliament in 2004-2014. ==Catholic activist== Profoundly religious though falling short of exalted religiosity,e.g. he rejected approaches by a visionary, Francisco Patxi Goicoechea, see William A. Christian, Visionaries: The Spanish Republic and the Reign of Christ, Berkeley 1996, , 9780520200401, pp. 60, 453 Oreja commenced his public activity during the academic period in the very last years of the Restoration era. In early 1920 he entered Asociación Católica Nacional de Propagandistas,Orella Martínez 2012, p. 289, Pedro Fernández Barbadillo, El día en que los socialistas asesinaron a Marcelino Oreja, [in:] Libertad Digital Historia, 01.06.11, available here the lay Catholics organization founded back in 1909.Orella Martínez 2012, p. 289, Fernández Barbadillo 2011 Seconded by ACNdP, later that year he commenced work on launching a conservative academic union, Asociación Nacional de Estudiantes Católicos Españoles, set up and confederated with Confederación Internacional de Estudiantes Católicos.Orella Martínez 2012, pp. 231-233 Based in Madrid, Oreja emerged as number two in the organization, becoming its secretary general;Marcelino Oreja Elosegui entry at Auñamendi Eusko Entziklopedia, also Fernández Barbadillo 2011. The president was Fernando Martín Sánchez-Julia, Orella Martínez 2012, p. 235 he is credited for “inflammatoryOrella Martínez 2012, p. 446 harangues, opposing secularism in education and advocating Catholic integrity as an academic foundation.Orella Martínez 2012, p. 232 Some time afterwards, still acting on ACNdP initiative, he went on to build another Christian youth organization, Juventud Católica Española, somewhat broader in scope than CEC and more tied up with the parochial network. In 1924 Oreja entered its first Comisión Ejecutiva and became member of the propaganda section,Chiaki Watanabe, La Juventud Católica Española.Orígenes y primer desarrollo, [in:] Espacio, Tiempo y Forma, 8 (1995), pp. 133-134 travelling extensively across Spain, organizing JCE structures and taking part in various congresses,Orella Martínez 2012, pp. 316-317 described as “vibrant and effusive” speaker.Francisco Cervera, Ángel Ayala, S.I., Madrid 2009, , p. 286 In 1925 Oreja joined the ACNdP executive, nominated consejero nacional of the organizationOrella Martínez 2012, p. 235 and rising to one of its key figures, on friendly terms with Angel Herrera Oria. In the mid-1920sAguado, Vilamor 2012, p. 49 claims it was in 1920 Herrera dispatched him to the United States,Alicia Tapia López, La enseñanza de la documentación en la escuela de periodismo de «El Debate». Antecedentes y evolución posterior (1989 [sic!]-1971), [in:] Documentación de las Ciencias de la Información 24 (2001), p. 222, wrongly claims it was Ricardo not Marcelino the key purpose having been management training. Oreja enrolled at Columbia University, studying administration and journalism;Orella Martínez 2012, p. 436, Aguado, Vilamor 2012, p. 49 he was also gaining hands-on familiarity with top American newspapers, collaborating with Boston Globe and New York Times.Oreja Aguirre, Antecedentes… He remained in the US for two years.Aguado, Vilamor 2012, p. 49 Upon his return, Oreja praised efficiency of modern American Catholic organizations like Caballeros de Colón and warned against the Jewish influence in the US.Orella Martínez 2012, p. 246 Back in Spain, ACNdP seconded him to El Debate, a dynamic daily owned by a controlled publishing house, Editorial Católica;Orella Martínez 2012, pp. 66-68 Oreja entered the executive board and became its manager.Marcelino Oreja Elosegui entry at Auñamendi Eusko Entziklopedia He is credited for setting up an affiliated journalism school, renovating linotype infrastructure, introducing new techniques of editing and innovative advertising strategies.Aguado, Vilamor 2012, p. 49-50 ==Manager== In the late 1920s Oreja had to leave Madrid due to family reasons and returned to the Vascongadas;Aguado, Vilamor 2012, p. 49. No information on exact nature of these “family duties” is provided, though this could simply refer to his marriage instead of his home Biscay he settled in Gipuzkoa, moving into the family estate of his wife in Mondragón. In 1927 he commenced business activity related to his vocation as an engineer, becoming a manager of Vidrieras Españolas,Orella Martínez 2012, p. 235 a Bilbao-based glass and mirror company.see fundacionvicrile service here, later Vicasa S.A; in the 1990s the company merged with the French giant Saint Gobain In 1928 he set up his own enterprise, Agromán,Fernández Barbadillo 2011, also Juan Ramón Garai Bengoa, Celestino Uriarte: Clandestinidad y Resistencia Comunista, Tafalla 2008, , 9788481365245, p. 32. The company was favored during the Francoist times, see Juan Miguel Baquero, Qué empresas usaron a esclavos del franquismo?, [in:] El Diario 26.04.14, available here; in 1995 it was absorbed by Ferrovial, see here specializing in construction work and gaining governmental contracts.E.g. at the Universidad Central refurbishment works, see ABC 24.07.1930 available here In 1929 he became secretary of Consejo Administracion of Obrascón,Jaime de la Fuente (ed.), De Obrascón a OHL. Crónica de un centenario, 1911-2011, Bilbao 2011, p. 70 a Bilbao construction agglomerate co-managed by a Carlist politician José Joaquín de Ampuero y del Río, also favored during the Primo de Rivera dictatorship.Fuente 2011, p. 44 In early 1930s Marcelino Oreja succeeded his father-in-law as managing director of Unión Cerrajera,Fernández Barbadillo 2011, Sharryn Kasmir, The Myth of Mondragon: Cooperatives, Politics, and Working Class Life in a Basque Town, New York 1996, , 9780791430033 p. 59 says it was in 1933, the same date is given by Barrutiabengoa 2007, p. 122 at that time somewhat of a hybrid between a typical joint-stock company and a cooperative.it became a mythical model of a Basque cooperative, allegedly defying the social class conflict within a framework of an integrated Basque industrial community, see Kasmir 1996, esp. the chapter Making the Myth of Mondragon, pp. 15-40 Some authors claim that during his term Oreja transformed Union into one of the greatest Biscay businesses,Jose Maria Codon, La tradicion en Jose Antonio y el sindicalismo en Mella, Madrid 1962, chapter 6: Marcelino Oreja Elosegui o la accion social, pp. 24. The company is referred to as “todopoderosa”, see Marcelino Oreja habla… the others acknowledge its dynamics with some 1,500 employees, but do not credit Oreja for its growth.Velez de Mendizabal, Barrutiabengoa, Garai 2007; the authors at one point straightforwardly dub him “Marcelino the swine”, see p. 122 thumbnail|220px|Union Cerrajera main building Oreja represented a new breed of managers, attempting to defuse social conflict with a social-Catholic mixture of papal teachings of Leo XIII and traditionalist corporativism of Juan Vázquez de Mella. To promote this vision he co-founded Agrupación Vasca de Acción Social Cristiana in 1931,and became member of its first Junta Directiva, presided by Jose Antonio Aguirre, see Iñaki Mirena Anasagasti Olabeaga, Acción social Cristiana para salvar la sociedad, [in:] ianasgasti.blogs available here though he was able to test its feasibility at Union Cerrajera. As a manager he remained attentive to questions of workplace safety, social insurance and education;e.g. attempting to open a vocational school in Mondragon, see La Escuela de Aprendices, [in:] Josemari Velez de Mendizabal Azkarraga, Unión Cerrajera S.A, un patrimonio de cien años, available here. Entirely different opinion is expressed by the very same author at Velez de Mendizabal 2007, p. 77, where he claims that Oreja opposed vocational schools in 1933 he drafted the statute of Hermandad de Trabajadores de Unión Cerrajera, a Catholic trade union eventually set up after his death.Orella Martínez 2012, p. 235; Velez de Mendizabal 2007, p. 64 when discussing the emergence of HETRUC mentions neither Oreja nor the Catholic character of the union However, he was vehemently hostile to competitive visions of labor relations, denouncing both FascismMartin Blinkhorn, Carlism and Crisis in Spain 1931-1939, Cambridge 1975, , p. 167 claims Oreja opposed Fascism due to its exaltation of an omnipotent state. Some highly partisan authors claim exactly the opposite and link Oreja with fascism, see Erlantz Cantabrana Berrio, Breve memoria - historia (subjectiva) del siglo XX y XXI, s.l. 2010, entry 1934. Fascismo. Marcelino Oreja Elosegui and Marxism.Blinkhorn 1975, p. 167. The issue is not entirely clear. Marcelina Oreja is also alleged to have launched a co-operative project in Ermue, which demonstrated conciliatory approach towards the socialists and the communists, see Manuel Martorell Pérez, Carlos Hugo frente a Juan Carlos. La solución federal para España que Franco rechazó, Pamplona 2014, , 9788477682653, p. 79 Having developed a reputation for being authoritarian,Kasmir 1996, p. 59 he was considered prime enemy by the local UGT branch,and dubbed him “swine”, see Josemari Velez de Mendizabal Azkarraga, 75 años de la revolución de octubre [in:] Euskonews service, available here, also El último revolucionario, [in:] Diario Vasco 30.04.06, available here especially that Oreja pledged never to employ a socialist or an anarchist,“antes de que cualquier republicano pise el suelo de mi fábrica tendrá que comer hierba”, quoted after Garai Bengoa 2008, p. 17; in other references “republicano” is substituted with “socialista”, “sindicalista” etc., see e.g. Diario Vasco here a statement which might be indicative of both his corporativist and Basque leanings.compare Kasmir 1996, especially the chapter Socialism versus Basque Nationalism, pp. 56-59 ==Politician== thumbnail|180px|left|Marcelino Oreja Following in footsteps of his older brothers, as a teenager Oreja was active in local Carlist structures; together with Ricardo and Benigno he defected to the secessionist Mellist branch of Traditionalism in 1919.it is not clear what political party he joined. The original mellist party was Partido Católico Tradicionalista, and Oreja is reported as representing it as late as 1931, see here and here. According to other sources it was Partido Social Popular, see Orella Martínez 2012, pp. 235 After the Primo de Rivera coup he engaged in collaboration with the regime, though its nature remains unspecified.Orella Martínez 2012, p. 235. His brother Ricardo was civil governor of Santander province During the dictablanda period he came out with his first major proposal, presented to the orphaned primoderiveristas: instead of building a successor to Union Patriotica, named Union Monarquica Nacional,some sources claim the opposite, namely that he co-founded UMN, see Javier Real Cuesta, Los partidos monárquicos en Vizcaya durante la Segunda República, [in:] Estudios de Deusto: revista de la Universidad de Deusto, 57 (2009), p. 216 he suggested to build a social-Catholic confederation of regionalist movements across Spain.the confederation was supposed to be headed by Rafael Benjumea y Burín, conde de Guadalhorce. The organization was expected to lure the primoderiveristas towards traditionalism and regionalism and to counter La Lliga , see Gonzalo Álvarez Chillida, José María Pemán: pensamiento y trayectoria de un monárquico (1897-1941), Cadiz 1996, , 9788477863052, p. 38 These plans were cancelled by fall of the monarchy and proclamation of the republic. In the early 1930s Oreja already emerged as one of the Basque Right leaders.Iñaki Egaña, Los crímenes de Franco en Euskal herria 1936-1940, Tafalla 2009, , p. 23 During the first republican electoral campaign of 1931 Oreja, still representing the mellistas,see here forged an alliance with PNV and mainstream Carlism. It eventually materialized in Vascongadas and Navarre as lista catolico-fuerista, with Oreja elected as its deputy from the rural Biscay district.he gained 15 982 votes , see Indice Historico de los Diputados available here. In his native Ibarranguelua he won 120 votes, only 2 more than a PNV candidate Francisco Basterrechea, see detailed results by municipality here During his first term as a deputyhe did not perform any official role in the Cortes, ABC 19.03.32 available here he dedicated himself to the Basque-Navarresethough a Vizcaino living in Gipuzkoa, Oreja sympathized with the neighboring Navarre and supported the traditional Navarrese identity, see Javier Ugarte Tellería, Un episodio de “estilización” de la política antirrepublicana: la fiesta de San Francisco Javier de 1931 en Pamplona, [in:]L. Castells (ed.), El rumor de lo cotidiano, Estudios sobre el País Vasco contemporáneo, Bilbao 1999, p. 173 autonomy, approached not as a tactical necessity, but as a matter of principle.exactly unlike most Traditionalists, see Blinkhorn 1975, p. 47. Oreja remained on friendly terms with the PNV leader, José Antonio Aguirre, and raised many eyebrows within Carlism when named Aguirre a „providencial figure”, José Antonio Vaca de Osma, Los vascos en la historia de España, Madrid 1995, , p. 229 He contributed to the so-called Estella StatuteBlinkhorn 1975, p. 82; detailed though highly partisan account in José María Jimeno Jurío, Navarra jamás dijo no al Estatuto Vasco, Tafalla 1997, , 9788481360219 and kept supporting autonomous regulations even when the government-imposed draft moved religious issues from regional to central portfolio.Marcelino Oreja Elosegui entry at Auñamendi, also Manuel Ferrer Muñoz, La Cuestión estatutaria en Navarra durante la Segunda República, [in:] Príncipe de Viana 52 (1991), p. 206 Another thread of his parliamentary activity – often merged with the Basque cause - was opposing secularization motions of the Left and backing the Church,compare his speech as follows: "si expulsáis a la Compañía de Jesús de España porque no la consideráis española, nosotros podremos decir que siempre la consideramos vasca, porque vasco es su fundador, y su organización está ínfimamente unida con el alma vasca. Os hablo con el corazón lacerado… Os aseguro que cuando aprobéis este artículo habréis declarado la lucha civil espiritual en aquellas provincias", quoted after this site especially trying to preserve its education infrastructure.Oreja Aguirre, Antecedentes… thumbnail|Carlist standard Supporting reunification of Carlismhe was active in reunification meetings as early as January 1932, taking part in huge Carlist meetings in Biscay, see Antonio Manuel Moral Roncal, María Rosa Urraca Pastor: de la militancia en Acción Católica a la palestra política carlista (1900-1936), [in:] Historia y politica 26 (2011), p. 210 in 1932 Oreja joined its united organization, Comunión Tradicionalista, though he remained relatively lukewarm to dynastical issues and supported broad monarchical alliances on nationalsee Real Cuesta, p. 222 or regional basis.like Centro Electoral Autonomo in Bilbao in local elections, see ABC 07.02.33, available here; Real Cuesta p. 225 He was heading the Biscay section of Requeté, a rapidly growing Carlist paramilitary militia.El Siglo Futuro 17.11.34 He successfully represented the party during the 1933 electoral campaign to the Cortes,detailed electoral analysis, including Oreja’s performance, in Villa García 2007. He lost in Ibarranguelua to both PNV candidates. See also here and Indice Historico available here again standing in the Biscay province and again in alliance with PNV.unlike in 1931, the alliance with PNV was strictly provincial, Villa García 2007, pp. 50-51 As late as November 1933 he still advocated the apparently doomed autonomy “contra viento y marea”,“against all odds”, ABC 11.11.33, available here which, however, did not amount to endorsing Basque nationalism or Basque separatism.growing in the Basque milieu, Oreja was an ethnic Basque, though his father Basilio – a Basque himself - allegedly banned his sons to speak Basque at home, see here. Marcelino Oreja considered himself Basque in a traditionalist sense, e.g. member of the Spanish political nation Some scholars oppose him to “integristas” in the autonomy discourse.Real Cuesta, p. 226 During the revolution of 1934, the tension in Mondragon was running high.a popular and dramatized account here; the most controversial account in Garai Bengoa 2008 Oreja was arrested in his home by socialist militiamen, reportedly employees of the company he managed. Following a brief detention, he was shot dead.Marcelino Oreja habla…; details in Garai Bengoa 2008, pp. 42-50 ==Legacy== Oreja was the best known single victim of the 1934 revolution in Spain, as no other parliamentary deputy was killed during the turmoil.Stanley G. Payne, Spain's First Democracy: The Second Republic, 1931-1936, Madison 1993, , 9780299136741, p. 220 His death has long reverberated in the national public debate. The Right presented it as a proof of barbarian and Bolshevik nature of the Left, a prefiguration of the future bloody terror, to be imposed by the mass workers’ movements.see e.g. El Siglo Futuro 06.10.1934 available here For the Carlists, Oreja became another of their martyrs; the following year he was already honored during Fiesta de los Mártires de la Tradición, the feast dedicated to the fallen Carlists and observed every March from 1895.Blinkhorn 1975, p. 218 In the Francoist Spain many streets have been named after him. Today “calle Marcelino Oreja” exists, among other places, in Bilbao and Mislata. thumbnail|calle Marcelino Oreja, Mislata The public memory of Marcelino Oreja Elósegui has been kept alive mostly thanks to his son, Marcelino Oreja Aguirre, who remained a well-known figure in Spain until the late 20th century. Today the Basques usually appreciate Oreja's work on the Basque autonomy, though they tend to ignore his Carlist political identity;Marcelino Oreja Elosegui entry at Auñamendi Eusko Entzikipedia the Leftist-minded Basques view the Basque and the socialist cases as tantamount and consider Oreja the enemy of both.Oreja is named "personaje antivasco” by a Herri Batasuna activist, see Jon Idigoras, El hijo de Juanita Gerrikabeitia, Tafalla 2000, , 9788481361490, p. 77 In the Carlist historical discourse he does not figure prominently.compare a sixtinos fraction of Carlism service here In the partisan debates of current-day Spanish politics he is sometimes acknowledged in relation to Jaime Mayor Oreja, depending on political preferences mentioned either with hostility.see press.o.s. site here ==See also== * Basque nationalism * Second Spanish Republic * Ricardo Oreja Elósegui ==Footnotes== ==Further reading== * Martin Blinkhorn, Carlism and Crisis in Spain 1931-1939, Cambridge 1975, * Sharryn Kasmir, The Myth of Mondragon. Cooperatives, Politics and Working-Class Life in a Basque Town, New York 1996, * José Luis Orella Martínez, El origen del primer Catolicismo social Español, [PhD thesis at Universidad de Educación a Distancia], Madrid 2012 * Josemari Velez de Mendizabal, José Ángel Barrutiabengoa, Juan Ramón Garai, “Ama” Cerrajera, Donostia 2007 thumb|Oreja among Carlist leaders, 1933 ==External links== * Marcelino Oreja Elósegui in the Auñamendi Eusko Entziklopedia * Marcelino Oreja about his father * 1934 Revolutionaries * The death of Marcelino Oreja * Revolution of 1934 in the Basque Country * Parliamentary homage to Marcelino Oreja by Jóse Antonio * Estella Statute text * Historical Index of Deputies * Errekete (Euskara) * Vizcainos! Por Dios y por España; contemporary Carlist propaganda Category:Assassinated Spanish politicians Category:People from Busturialdea Category:Spanish Roman Catholics Category:Carlists Category:Members of the Congress of Deputies of the Second Spanish Republic Category:Politicians from the Basque Country (autonomous community) Category:Regionalism (politics) Category:Corporatism Category:Spanish anti-communists Category:20th-century Spanish businesspeople Category:Spanish prisoners and detainees Category:1894 births Category:1934 deaths Category:Basque prisoners and detainees |
Shinyanga Region (Mkoa wa Shinyanga in Swahili) is one of Tanzania's 31 administrative regions. The region covers a land area of . The region is comparable in size to the combined land area of the nation state of Fiji. for Fiji at The region is bordered to the north by the Mwanza, Mara, and Kagera Regions and to the south by the Tabora Region. In addition, the Kigoma Region borders the region to the west, and the Simiyu Region and a sliver of Singida Region to the east. The regional capital is the municipality of Shinyanga. According to the 2012 national census, the region had a population of 1,534,808. ==Geography== The Shinyanga region, which once belonged to the Sukuma territory, is situated 20 to 160 kilometers south of Lake Victoria. The area is located between 2 and 3 degrees Southern latitude and 31 and 35 Eastern longitude. In the northwestern region of Tanzania, it is a component of the Lake Zone. Kigosi National Park is located on the western border with Geita Region. The western and southern regions follow lakes and sand river flows. ===Climate=== Tropical climate with distinct wet and dry seasons can be found in the Shinyanga Region. Between 600 and 900 millimeters of rainfall on average. Typically, the rainy season begins around the middle of October and lasts until May. The average temperature of Shinyanga is 23.9°C. Throughout the year, October has the hottest average temperature (26.0 °C), while July has the coldest average temperature (22.3 °C). ===Topography=== Shinyanga Region is located at an average height of 1,233 meters above sea level. Heavy clay soil, sandy soil, sandy loam soil, red soils, clay, loamy soil, and sand loamy soil are all types of soil found in the region. In the Shinyanga Region, the soil varies greatly by agro-ecological zone. Four distinct agro-ecological zones are established within the Shinyanga Region mostly based on topographical factors and local meteorological conditions. Parts of Kishapu District and a few wards in Shinyanga District Council are included in the eastern zone. Sandalized soils and thick clay soils are features of the Eastern Zone. The region is known for the growing cotton, sorghum, sweet potatoes, and sisal and receives an average annual rainfall between 400mm and 600mm. Some of the Kishapu District Council and Shinyanga District Council are included in the Central Zone. Usule, Tinde, Usanda, and Imasela are among the wards in the Shinyanga District Council, and Itongoitale, Bunambiyu, and Bubiki are among those in the Kishapu District Council. This region is suited for the growth of crops such paddy, cassava, sorghum, and sweet potatoes and receives an average annual rainfall of 500 to 600 mm. The Ushetu and Uyogo wards in Kahama District fall under the purview of the South-East zone, which is distinguished by loamy and red soils that are ideal for the cultivation of crops like maize, sorghum, paddy, sunflower, cotton, tobacco, and a variety of horticulture products, including tropical fruits like mangoes. Over 700 millimeters of rain fall on average annually in this area. Isaka, Kinanga, Lungunya, and Kinaga wards of the Kahama District are included in this zone. Sand and heavy clay soils in the region are suited for sorghum, sweet potatoes, maize, cotton, groundnuts, and sunflowers. The annual rainfall in this area ranges from 500 to 700 mm. Large Miombo and acacia woods make up the area's native vegetation. However, human activities like as farming, raising livestock, and harvesting trees for energy are causing a decline in vegetation. ==Economy== Agriculture, livestock, and mining are the key economic drivers of the Shinyanga Region. From around TZS 3.75 trillion in 2012 to approximately TZS 7.54 trillion in 2018, the regional GDP has been continuously rising at current market values. At current market values, the regional GDP per capita climbed from TZS 1,124,625 in 2012 to TZS 1,861,770 in 2018. Overall, primary productive industries. in Shinyanga include agricultural, equine, forestry, mining, and heavy industry. ===Agriculture=== The economic foundation of Shinyanga Region is agriculture. 80 percent of the labor force in the area is employed in this sector. Both food and cash crops are produced in the area. Agriculture is still largely reliant on traditional subsistence rain-fed farming techniques, animal husbandry, and the traditional hand hoe and animal-driven carts. The continued low level of agricultural output is implied, among other things, by the usage of traditional agricultural inputs. ====Subsistance agriculture==== Due to the drought of 2016–2017, crop production was low, leading to food shortages and rising food prices. The most important food crop is paddy, which is also a source of income, followed by maize (10.6%), sweet potatoes (4.7%), sorghum (1.5%), and Bulrush millet (0.3%). ====Commerical agriculture==== In the Shinyanga Region, major cash crops include cotton, tobacco, chickpeas, and sunflower. Other crops include cashew nuts, which Ushetu District Council has just begun to cultivate, and sisal, which is farmed in Kishapu District Council. Cotton (29.1% of total production) is the most important cash crop in Shinyanga, followed by green peas (21.2%), chickpeas (17.7%), and sunflower (15.7%). The Shinyanga Region's cash crop output trend from 2015/2016 to 2017/2018. There are 221,896 hectares in the Shinyanga Region available for irrigation. Only 4,899 hectares, or 2.2 percent, of the total land area is currently irrigated. In addition to paddy and maize, horticultural crops like as tomatoes, onions, cabbages, eggplant, watermelons, and capsicums are also grown under irrigation by small business farms. ====Livestock and dairy==== In the Shinyanga Region, Sukuma traditional methods are primarily used for livestock keeping. Cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys, pigs, chickens, and camels are all examples of livestock raised in the region. At the homestead level, the livestock subsector significantly aids in reducing poverty and ensuring food security in the region. Shinyanga Region's livestock population was expected to be 4,742,367 in 2018, with cattle making up 26% of the region's overall livestock population. ===Mining=== The country's production of minerals is significantly influenced by the Shinyanga Region. However, the sector hasn't yet made a big impact on the local economy. A significant amount of foreign direct investment was drawn to the area, mostly for the purpose of mining for diamonds and gold. The "2009 Central and West Zone Mining Implementation Report" states that El- Hillal Minerals Limited, a medium-scale diamond mining firm, operates in Buganika in the Mwadui area of the Kishapu District. While other significant enterprises, such Pangea Minerals Limited and Kahama Mining Corporation Limited, deal with gold mining at Buzwagi and Bulyanhulu in Kahama District, Williamson Diamonds Limited, a large-scale diamond mining company, works in the Mwadui area. ===Infrastructure, water and energy=== The majority of families in the region (94.3%) use firewood as their primary source of energy for cooking, followed by charcoal (4.9%) and other sources (0.8%). The Ibadakuli industrial area in Shinyanga Municipality serves as the transmission hub for the national electricity grid for the Shinyanga Region, which is connected to it, whoch runs the industrues uncluding the diamond mines. There is enough water available in the area right now. By 2019, 835,770 families had access to trustworthy and secure water sources. Water will be brought to Shinyanga in the first phase of the ongoing Lake Victoria Project, while other places beyond the Shinyanga region will receive water in the second phase. The overall length of the road network in the Shinyanga Region is 4,627.81 kilometers. Kahama District has the greatest road network, at 2,135.3 kilometers, followed by Shinyanga District, at 1,799.41 kilometers. In general, 38.2 percent of the area's road network is open all year long. Transit cargo headed for Burundi, Rwanda, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo is transported through the Isaka Dry Port (DRC). Another chance like this will encourage trade between East African nations. At Shinyanga Railway Facility, a domestic cargo handling station has been created as of 2020. ====Airports==== There are two air strips in the area: one is in the Kahama Town Council and the other is in the Shinyanga Municipality's Ibadakuli section. Regular flights will rise as a result of the Ibadakuli Airstrip's ongoing upgrading projects, and the area will gain from greater air travel and related activity. Non-scheduled aviation traffic for medical, tourist, and other services uses Kahama Airstrip to serve the area. ====Railways==== The Central Line, a railroad that runs through Shinyanga Region, is well-known in the area. Shinyanga is connected to Mwanza, Tabora, Singida, Dodoma, Morogoro, Pwani, Dar es Salaam, Katavi, and Kigoma through the Central Line. Through Seke and Songwa stations in Kishapu District, Shinyanga Station, Usule and Lohumbo stations in Shinyanga District, and Isaka Station in Kahama District, this railway line offers services throughout the Shinyanga Region. ====Mass communication==== Internet, telephone (landline and mobile), radio, and postal services are all available in the Shinyanga Region. Tanzania Telecommunication Company Limited (TTCL) and five (5) mobile phone service providers—TIGO, Airtel, VODACOM, Halotel, and ZANTEL—provide telecommunication services in the region. In addition to this, there are five post office branches and seven sub-post offices, two radio stations (Radio Faraja and Kahama FM), internet service providers, and radio stations. There are additional internet services accessible. The optical fiber connection connects the Shinyanga Region (OFC). ===Tourism=== Kigosi National Park, which shares a western boundary with Moyowosi Game Reserve, is located in the Shinyanga Region. This 7,000 square kilometer national park is home to a wide range of wild animals, including elephants, hippo, lions, leopards, sitatunga, buffalo, wild dogs, bushbuck, impala, giraffe, baboons, greater kudu, topi, and roan antelope. Some historic sites in the region are Usanda/Tinde caverns, which are in the Tinde area and were once utilized by Arabs as rest stops for slave trading caravans traveling from Kagera or Mwanza before continuing to coastal areas for export, are recognizable as being in the Shinyanga Region. This location was created specifically to collect slaves. Also in Shinyanga is the Iboja Cave in Ushepu District are slave trade caves that are situated in Iboja in Dakama Division, where German troops seized and executed Chief Mirambo of Wanyamwezi. In the Shinyanga Region, there is a location where there is distinctive hot spring. This hot spring, which is part of Shinyanga Municipality and is formerly known as Uzogole hot spring, has a distinctive history. According to legend, the water from the hot natural spring is thought to possess some type of spiritual power. As a result of this belief, many traditional doctors visit the hot natural spring to gather water for therapeutic purposes. In contrast to other hot natural springs, once the water is removed, it immediately cools. In the past, hot water was employed as a detergent to get rid of or kill lice from clothing. This site is also where Balozi Malembela's grave is located. He was a historic military commander for the Wasukuma community. Some of the protected places in the Shinyanga Region include the Nyamba and Busongo forest reserves (in the Kishapu District), the Mwantini Forest Reserve (in the Shinyanga District), the Mkweni Hills (in the Kahama Town Council), and the Ubagwe Forest Reserves (in the Ushetu Council). == Population == The Sukuma people are the dominant ethnic group. Other ethnic groups include the Nyamwezi and Sumbwa, who are primarily located in the areas of western Kahama District. In eastern Shinyanga District there are also sizable immigrant populations of Wanyiramba, Wataturu, and Wahadzabe from neighboring Singida. The majority of the peoples in the area are Bantus, who settled Shinyanga region during the Iron Age. The majority Sukuma community is invested in agricultural and livestock sectors of the regional economy. There is a sizable Swahili speaking Arab community that settled the area in the 19th century, mostly descendants of slavers. They are the largest non-Indigenous community in the region. ===Demographics=== In 2016 the Tanzania National Bureau of Statistics report there were 1,666,554 people in the region, from 1,534,808 in 2012. For 2002–2012, the region's 2.1 percent average annual population growth rate was the twentieth highest in the country. == Districts == Shinyanga Region is divided into six districts, each administered by a council, 14 divisions, 130 wards with their councils, and 506 villages. Districts of Shinyanga Region Map with main roads in green District Population (2016 Census) 300px Shinyanga Municipal 161,391 300px Kahama Town 242,208 300px Kishapu District 272,990 300px Msalala District* 250,727 300px Shinyanga District 334,417 300px Ushetu District** 273,075 300px Total 1,534,808 Notes: * \- representing the northeast portion of the former Kahama District ** \- representing the southwest portion of the former Kahama District ==Health and Education== ===Healthcare=== The Shinyanga Region has healthcare services mostly through facilities built by the public and commercial sectors. There are roughly 234 healthcare facilities, including 206 dispensaries, 7 hospitals, and 21 health centers in the region. Many of the pharmacies in the region, are in the metropolitan areas. In addition to the aforementioned services, the government's health insurance programs (NHIF and CHF) and the private sector both support the health sector. ===Education=== For its size, the Shinyanga Region has strong primary through tertiary educational facilities available. Shinyanga Region in 2019 had 614 elementary schools and 92% of them, were publicly owned. In contrast, 51 elementary schools were owned by the private sector in 2019. In the same time frame, the public sector owned 27 of the 145 secondary schools in the area, or 81 percent of all secondary schools. The Open University of Tanzania (OUT) and the Moshi University College of Cooperative and Business Studies are the only two universities with physical locations in the area (MUCCOBS). ==Notable people from Shinyanga Region== * Steven Kanumba, Tanzanian actor * Lady Jaydee, musician == References == ==External links== * * * Category:Regions of Tanzania |
thumb|E. wandoo blossom and capsules thumb|E. wandoo foliage Eucalyptus wandoo, commonly known as wandoo, dooto, warrnt or wornt and sometimes as white gum, is a small to medium-sized tree that is endemic to the southwest of Western Australia. It has smooth bark, lance-shaped adult leaves, flower buds in groups of nine to seventeen, white flowers and conical to cylindrical fruit. It is one of a number of similar Eucalyptus species known as wandoo. E.wandoo was first described in 1934 by the Australian botanist William Faris Blakely in his book A Key to the Eucalypts using material collected by the English collector Augustus Frederick Oldfield from a sand plain along the Kalgan River. , Plants of the World Online lists Eucalyptus redunca var. elata as a taxonomic synonym of E.wandoo. The range of the tree extends from Morawa in the north extending south through the Darling Range down to around the Stirling Range to the south coast near the Pallinup River. There is an outlying population found to the east of Narembeen at Twine Reserve. It is native to the following IBRA bioregions: Geraldton Sandplains and Avon Wheatbelt in the north through the Swan Coastal Plain and Jarrah Forest to the Esperance Plains and Mallee in the south. E.wandoo was listed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as a result of its severely fragmented population. ==Description== Eucalyptus wandoo is a tree that typically grows to a height of and sometimes to , and has a diameter of at DBH. The bole or trunk of the tree is usually straight and comprises 50–65% of the total height of the tree. E.wandoo can have a long lifetime, with some trees in excess of 150 years of age and others in excess of 400 years. As trees age the growth rate slows down making an accurate determination of age more difficult. It forms an inconspicuous lignotuber, the woody tuber that begins to develop near the base of seedlings, but can become huge in older trees and contains embedded epicormic buds that allow the plant to regenerate following destruction of the crown following fire or drought. Saplings, young trees and coppice regrowth have rough and fibrous yellow-brown bark on the stems that become smoother as trees mature. The stems of saplings can be circular or square shaped in cross section and have a powdery coating (glaucous). Older trees have smooth powdery or non-powdery white bark, often with patches of white, grey or light brown giving the trunk a mottled appearance. Old layers of darker coloured bark are scattered and loosely held and are shed in flakes; it is not uncommon for a few flakes to persist on the trunk for a long time. The bark is shed in irregular slabs. Branchlets do not have a powdery coating as the bark of older trees can. The soft central cylinder of tissue within, the pith, contains many glands. Young plants and coppice regrowth have blue-green leaves that are arranged oppositely (borne at the same level but on directly opposite sides of their common axis) for two to four nodes where the leaves arise then arranged alternately (found singly at different levels along the stem). The leaves can be egg-shaped, broadly lance- shaped or D-shaped. The leaves can have a length of and a width of . Adult leaves are the same shade of greyish-green or greyish-blue on both sides but can sometimes be a glossy green. The adult leaves are lance-shaped or have a curved lance shape. Adult leaves are in length and wide on a petiole long. The side veins in the leaves are at an angle greater than 45° to the midrib and there is moderate to dense reticulation; the leaf oil glands are found at the intersections of the veinlets. The inflorescences are arranged in leaf axils in groups of nine to seventeen on an unbranched peduncle long, the individual buds on pedicels long. Mature buds are spindle-shaped but curved and with a scar present, the buds are in length and wide with a conical operculum up to twice as long as the floral cup. There are some erect outer stamens; the majority of stamen are bent sharply downward to some degree. The oblong anthers are attached dorsally to the filament and burst open spontaneously via longitudinal slits. It has a straight and long style and a blunt to rounded stigma leading to the ovary that has three to four cavities containing four vertically arranged rows of ovules. Flowering occurs between March and June for wandoo found to the north of the Avon Valley; these are known as the winter wandoo. The spring wandoo found to the south of Wandering flowers in spring and early summer or from September to January, while the summer wandoo, also found to the south of Wandering, flowers from January to February. The flowers are white or cream-coloured. The pollen and nectar are a valuable source of protein, vitamins, fats and minerals for honey bees. Analysis of amino acids in the pollen yield results of 1.69–1.91% aspartic acid, 2.23–2.54% glutamic acid, 2.52–2.67% proline and 1.63–1.69% arginine. The total amount of protein in the pollen was 21.8–23.7%. The fruit is a woody capsule long and wide with the valves near rim level. The woody fruits that form after flowering have cylindrical to oblong-obconical shape and are on stalks that are in length. The fruits are in length and have a width of with a descending disc and three to four valves that are at the rim level or enclosed. The seeds inside have a sub-spherical to cuboid shape with a smooth straw to mid-brown coloured surface. The seeds are in length with marks (hilum) on the seed coat where it was once attached to the ovary wall. The species has a haploid chromosome number of 12. ==Taxonomy== Eucalyptus wandoo was first described in 1934 by the Australian botanist William Faris Blakely in his book A Key to the Eucalypts. The specific epithet "wandoo" comes from the Noongar name for the tree. The type specimen was collected by the English collector Augustus Frederick Oldfield from a sand plain along the Kalgan River. The holotype is held at Kew Gardens. In 1991, Ian Brooker and Stephen Hopper described two subspecies and the names have been accepted by the Australian Plant Census and Plants of the World Online: * Eucalyptus wandoo subsp. pulverea has powdery bark, glaucous branchlets and larger juvenile leaves than the autonym. * Eucalyptus wandoo subsp. wandoo has bark that is not powdery, yellow new bark, branchlets that are not glaucous and narrower juvenile leaves than those of subspecies pulverea. Plants of the World Online, but not the Australian Plant Census, lists Eucalyptus redunca var. elata, formally described in 1867 by George Bentham in Flora Australiensis, as a synonym of E. wandoo. E.wandoo is a part of the Symphyomyrtus subgenus and belongs to section Bisectae and the Glandulosae subsection, which all have bisected cotyledons, an operculum scar and where oil glands are found in the pith of the branchlets. Within the Glandulosae subsection wandoo forms a group of 14 species that are a part of series Levispermae and subseries Cubiformes. All of this subseries have a smooth cuboid shaped seed and narrow spindle-like shaped buds that have some stamens that are erect and others that are deflexed. The tree is most closely related to Eucalyptus capillosa (inland wandoo) and Eucalyptus nigrifunda. The bark of E.capillosa is usually more colourful than that of E.wandoo and E.nigrifunda often retains more rough basal bark than E.wandoo. Wandoo is also closely related to Eucalyptus salmonophloia (salmon gum). Although Eucalyptus accedens is known as powderbark wandoo it belongs to a taxonomic series. E.accedens is easily confused with E.wandoo, and the two are often found growing in the same soil types. Wandoo is usually a larger tree and E.accedens often has an orange tinge to the bark. When rubbed with the hand the bark of E.accedens rubs off as a white powder. ==Distribution and habitat== Wandoo occurs in the south west of Western Australia from Morawa in the north extending south through the Darling Range down to around the Stirling Range to the south coast near the Pallinup River. There is an outlying population found to the east of Narembeen at Twine Reserve. It grows in sandy loams, clay loams or dark brown loamy soils and stony soils, that can contain laterite, granite or gravel as part of an undulating landscape. It is found along the base of the Darling Scarp and spreads south and east out into the Wheatbelt and as far as the Great Southern. It is native to the following IBRA bioregions; Geraldton Sandplains and Avon Wheatbelt in the north through the Swan Coastal Plain and Jarrah Forest to the Esperance Plains and Mallee in the south. Wandoo is absent from the high rainfall areas between these regions. Subspecies pulverea is less common and occurs between Cataby and Morawa. It is usually found at elevations of in valleys or on plateaux and ridges where there is a Mediterranean climate and most rainfall occurs in the winter months and there is an average rainfall of per annum although it can be dry for six to seven months of the year. The average temperature range is usually . It is often part of jarrah forest in medium rainfall areas but is not usually found in high rainfall areas. The tree forms an open woodland where it often forms the overstorey mixed in with jarrah and marri trees. Agricultural clearing has significantly altered the distribution of the tree and it now has a fragmented distribution and is mostly situated in conservation reserves, state forests, on roadside verges and as paddock trees. It is able to grow in slightly saline soils and can tolerate salinity levels of 50–100 mS/m. It is regarded as a moderately salt tolerant species when compared to other species of Eucalyptus that are endemic to Western Australia. E.wandoo has been introduced into parts of Africa. It is cultivated in southern Africa as well as in Tunisia and Algeria. The tree is also grown in the United States in the states of Arizona and California. ==Conservation status== Both subspecies of E. wandoo are classified as "not threatened" by the Government of Western Australia's Department of Parks and Wildlife. Decline of the habitat and crown decline of wandoo has been studied. It is estimated that there has been a decline in the crown size of Wandoo trees since the 1980s which is due to a decline in the health of the population. Some of the causes are thought to be changed fire regimes, climate variability, land clearing, fungal and insect activity and salinity. E.wandoo is endemic to south western parts of Western Australia where it was once widespread. Only about 5% of the tree's habitat now remains with the rest having been cleared for agriculture. E.wandoo was listed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) . The population was described as stable but severely fragmented and it is currently spread across an area of over compared to a pre-clearing area of over . ==Ecology== thumb|upright|Amyema miquelii, a species of mistletoe, growing on a Eucalyptus tree thumb|E. wandoo woodland The woodlands formed by wandoo are composed of open stands of widely spaced trees over sparse understoreys of shrubs, grasses and herbs. The range of plants which flower through the year provide a constant source of nectar for birds, including honeyeaters, as well as insects. The insects then provide a source of food for other birds including the golden whistler, western yellow robin and rufous treecreeper. Wandoo is vital for native wildlife with various animal species using tree hollows and shed branches as habitat. The flowers are a good source of nectar for birds and insects. The bark and foliage of the tree is home to an abundance of spiders and insects, including native cockroaches, thrips, beetles and flies. These organisms are important for pollination, seed dispersal and recycling nutrients as well as attracting insectivorous birds. E.wandoo acts as a host plant for the parasitic species of mistletoe Amyema miquelii. Hollows in live or dead trees with a diameter at breast height of over are known nesting areas for black cockatoos, including Carnaby's black cockatoo. The birds use these sites, when situated in woodlands or forests, as a breeding habitat. Carnaby's black cockatoos are also known to use the flowers and seeds as a food source and the trees as a roosting site. Hollow logs of these trees found on the ground are used as habitat by echidnas through the Wheatbelt region. ===Destructors=== E.wandoo is affected by the beetle Cisseis fascigera, causing a condition known as crown decline. The beetle lays its eggs during the summer months in the twig bark. Once the eggs hatch then the larvae bore straight down into the twigs and consume the bark and cambium tissue underneath into the twigs and branches causing damaging branch tissue. Consequently flagging (where groups of terminal foliage die off) and death of branches occurs, usually in autumn. Trees are also affected by psyllid bugs or lerp that can attack the foliage causing discolouration then the loss of leaves. ===Reproduction=== Large masses of white or cream-coloured flowers are produced by the tree between December and May, but individual trees usually flower at different times and the male stamens mature before the female stigmas. Flowering occurs between March and June for wandoo found to the north of the Avon Valley; these are known as the winter wandoo. The spring wandoo found to the south of Wandering flower in spring and early summer or from September to January while the summer wandoo, also found to the south of Wandering, flower from January to February. Pollination by animals is required by the flowers to set the woody fruit capsules. The seeds commonly have a limited dispersal throughout the ecosystem. E. wandoo trees found in saline areas and amongst smaller populations are inclined to produce a smaller number of fruits and seeds. ===Pollinators=== Wandoo is pollinated by both birds and insects and has a mixed mating system. Trees that are part of smaller populations are found to have noticeably higher pollination levels than trees that are part of larger populations. Up to 65% of pollen that is transferred to plants in fragmented populations is sourced from other populations that are located over apart. ===Disease=== The tree is susceptible to root rot caused by the Armillaria luteobubalina fungus and is known to have a high mortality rate. Wandoo is among several eucalypts that are resistant to the Phytophthora cinnamomi fungi commonly known as dieback. ==Uses== thumb|upright|Wandoo in A primer of forestry, with illustrations of the principal forest trees of Western Australia 1922 The indigenous Noongar peoples used wandoo as a medicinal plant with antibacterial properties and the leaves are steamed or used to make poultices to relieve congestion. The dried gum of the plant was ground up and utilised as an ointment. The wandoo also has outer parts of the roots that are juicy and sweet and were scratched off and consumed. When the flowers are soaked for a while in water it will produce a sweet drink. The wood of this species is extremely dense, with a air-dry density of and a green density of , and is used for a range of heavy-duty construction purposes, including as railway sleepers, poles, wood flooring joists, beams, girders and by wheelwrights. Wandoo was renowned as being the most suitable timber for the production of railway sleepers. There was once an industry in the extraction of tannin from the bark and wood. These days the wood is not much available, as the wandoo forests are preserved for recreation and watershed protection. The wood and bark contains 10–12% tannin. In the 1960s over of wandoo was used to produce tannins for the petroleum, leather and fishing industries. The wood has a yellow to light reddish brown colour, is textured with a wavy to interlocked grain, and is considered extremely durable and resistant to termites. The wood also has no chemical reactions with metal fastenings. In the 1960s mill logs of the wood was harvested. Demand for the wood was such that sawmills in Narrogin and Boyup Brook were entirely dependent upon the supply of wandoo. When dried, E. wandoo is among Australia's hardest timber when measured by the Janka hardness test. At 15,000 kN, E. wandoo is twice as hard as jarrah, and of comparable hardness to grey ironbark, making it Australia's second or third hardest timber. E. wandoo has a density rating of 1280 kg/m3, making it Australia's densest species of true Eucalyptus. As per the CSIRO 1996 Timber Durability Class Ratings, which assesses the natural resistance or durability of the heartwood of various species of Australian timber species, E. wandoo has a rating of "1 for decay", and "1 for decay + termites", classifying it as a timber of the highest natural durability. Wandoo is also famous for the honey produced by bees from the tree's pollen and nectar and is a mainstay for Western Australia's apiculture industry. Essential oils can also be extracted from the leaves. The composition and quantity of oil varies from plant to plant but the leaves can contain up to 1.8% essential oil including chemicals such as cymene, pinene, terpinene and 1,8-cineole. In a 2021 study, leaves of E.wandoo grown in Tunisia were found to contain 2.0% essential oil with 37.7% of the oil being composed on 1,8 cineole, 35.8% of cymene, 6.5% of β-Pinene and 3.9% of γ-Terpinene. The oil was found to have antibacterial properties against six bacterial strains. ==See also== *List of Eucalyptus species ==References== ==Further reading== * wandoo Category:Myrtales of Australia Category:Eucalypts of Western Australia Category:Trees of Australia Category:Trees of Mediterranean climate Category:Plants described in 1934 Category:Taxa named by William Blakely Category:Endemic flora of Southwest Australia |
Mandaic is a southeastern Aramaic variety in use by the Mandaean community, traditionally based in southern parts of Iraq and southwest Iran, for their religious books. Classical Mandaic is still employed by Mandaean priests in liturgical rites.Ethel Stefana Drower, The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran (Leiden: Brill, 1937; reprint 1962); Kurt Rudolph, Die Mandäer II. Der Kult (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht; Göttingen, 1961; Kurt Rudolph, Mandaeans (Leiden: Brill, 1967); Christa Müller-Kessler, Sacred Meals and Rituals of the Mandaeans”, in David Hellholm, Dieter Sänger (eds.), Sacred Meal, Communal Meal, Table Fellowship, and the Eucharist: Late Antiquity, Early Judaism, and Early Christianity, Vol. 3 (Tübingen: Mohr, 2017), pp. 1715–1726, pls. The modern descendant of Classical Mandaic, known as Neo-Mandaic or Modern Mandaic, is spoken by a small section of Mandaeans around Ahvaz and Khorramshahr in the southern Iranian Khuzestan province. Liturgical use of Classical Mandaic is found in Iran (particularly the southern portions of the country), in Baghdad, Iraq and in the diaspora (particularly in the United States, Sweden, Australia and Germany). It is an Eastern Aramaic language notable for its abundant use of vowel letters (mater lectionis with aleph, he only in final position, ‘ayin, waw, yud)) in writing, so-called plene spelling (Mandaic alphabet)Theodor Nöldeke, Mandäische Grammatik (Halle: Waisenhaus, 1875), pp. 3–8. and the amount of IranianNo comprehensive and individual study exists yet except for some word discussions in Geo Widengren, Iranisch- semitische Kulturbegegnung in parthischer Zeit (Köln: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1960) and the etymological sections in Ethel Stefana Drower and Rudolf Macuch, A Mandaic Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963). and AkkadianStephen A. Kaufman, The Akkadian Influences on Aramaic (Assyriological Studies 19; Chicago: The University of Chicago: 1974). language influence on its lexicon, especially in the area of religious and mystical terminology. Mandaic is influenced by Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, Samaritan Aramaic, Hebrew, Greek, Latin, in addition to Akkadian and Parthian. ==Classification== Classical Mandaic belongs to the Southeastern group of Aramaic and is closely related to the Jewish Babylonian Aramaic dialect in the major portions of the Babylonian Talmud,Theodor Nöldeke, Mandäische Grammatik (Halle: Waisenhaus, 1875), pp. XXVI–XXVIIFranz Rosenthal, Das Mandäische, in Die aramaistische Forschung seit Th. Nöldeke’s Veröffentlichungen (Leiden: Brill 1939), pp. 228–229. but less to the various dialects of Aramaic appearing in the incantation texts on unglazed ceramic bowls (incantation bowls)Tapani Harvaianen, An Aramaic Incantation Bowl from Borsippa. Another Specimen of Eastern Aramaic “Koiné”, Studia Orientalia 53.14, 1981, pp. 3–25. found mostly in central and south Iraq as well as the Khuzestan province of Iran.Christa Müller-Kessler, "Zauberschalen und ihre Umwelt. Ein Überblick über das Schreibmedium Zauberschale," in Jens Kamran, Rolf Schäfer, Markus Witte (eds.), Zauber und Magie im antiken Palästina und in seiner Umwelt (Abhandlungen des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 46; Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2017), pp. 59–94, figs. 1–2, 5, pls. 2, 4, 7–8, map. It is less related to the northeastern Aramaic dialect of Syriac. ==Usage== This southeastern Aramaic dialect is transmitted through religious, liturgical, and esoteric texts,Ethel Stefana Drower, The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran (Leiden: Brill, 1937; reprint 1962).Ethel Stefana Drower, The Book of the Zodiac (sfar Malwašia) D.C. 31 (Oriental Translation Fund XXXVI; London: The Royal Asiatic Society, 1949). most of them stored today in the Drower Collection, Bodleian Library (Oxford),Ethel Stefana Drower, "A Mandaean Bibliography", in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 1953, pp. 34–39. and in the Bibliothèque Nationale (Paris), the British Library (London) and in the households of various Mandaeans as religious texts. More specific written objects and of linguistic importance on account of their early transmission (5th – 7th centuries CE) are the earthenware incantation bowls and Mandaic lead rolls (amulets) (3rd–7th centuries CE), including silver and gold specimensChrista Müller-Kessler, "A Mandaic Gold Amulet in the British Museum," in Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 311, 1998, pp. 83–88. that were often unearthed in archaeological excavations in the regions of their historical living sites between Wasiṭ and Baṣra,M. Thevenot, Relations de divers voyages curieux, première partie (Paris, 1663–1672), map with Mandaean villages.J. Heinrich Petermann, Reisen im Orient, Vol. II (Leipzig: Veit, 1861), pp. 66, 83–123, 447–465. and frequently in central Iraq, for example (Bismaya,Henri Pognon, "Une incantation contre les génies malfaisantes, en Mandaite," in Mémoires de la Soceté de Linguitiques de Paris 8, 1892, p. 193 Kish,Peter R. S. Moorey, Kish Excavation 1923 – 1933 (Oxford: Oxford Press, 1978), pp. 123–124. Khouabir,Henri Pognon, Inscriptions mandaïtes des coupes de Khouabir (Paris: H. Wetter, 1898; reprint Amsterdam: Philo Press, 1979), pp. 1–5. Kutha,Christopher Walker apud Jehudah B. Segal, Catalogue of the Aramaic and Mandaic Incantation Bowls in the British Museum (London: British Museum Press, 2000), pp. 35–39. Uruk,Rudolf Macuch, "Gefäßinschriften," in Eva Strommenger (ed.), Gefässe aus Uruk von der Neubabylonischen Zeit bis zu den Sasaniden (Ausgrabungen der deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft in Uruk-Warka 7; Berlin 1967), pp. 55–57, pl. 57.1–3. NippurJ. P. Peters, Nippur or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates, Vol. II (New York, 1897); Hermann V. Hilprecht, Explorations in Bible Lands During the Nineteenth Century (Philadelphia: A. J. Molman and Company, 1903), p. 326; James A. Montgomery, Aramaic Incantation Texts from Nippur (Publications of the Babylonian Section 3; Philadelphia, 1913), pp. 37–39, 242–257; Christa Müller-Kessler (ed.), Die Zauberschalentexte der Hilprecht- Sammlung, Jena und weitere Nippur-Texte anderer Sammlungen (Texte und Materialen der Frau Professor Hilprecht-Collection 7; Wiesbaden 2005), pp. 110–135, 143–147.), north and south of the confluences of the Euphrates and Tigris (Abu Shudhr,François Lenormant, Essai sur la propagation de l’alphabet phénicien dans l’ancien monde, vol. II (Paris, 1872), pp. 76–82, pls. X–XI; Edmund Sollberger, "Mr. Taylor in Chaldaea," in Anatolian Studies 22, 1972, pp. 130–133. al-QurnahChrista Müller-Kessler, "Interrelations between Mandaic Lead Rolls and Incantation Bowls," in Tzvi Abusch, Karel van der Toorn (eds.), Mesopotamian Magic. Textual, Historical, and Interpretative Perspectives (Ancient Magic and Divination 1; Groningen: STYX, 1999), pp. 197–198, pl. 209.), and the adjacent province of Khuzistan (Hamadan).Cyrus H. Gordon, "Two Magic Bowls in Teheran," in Orientalia 20, 1951, pp. 306–311.Christa Müller- Kessler, "Zauberschalen und ihre Umwelt. Ein Überblick über das Schreibmedium Zauberschale," n Jens Kamran, Rolf Schäfer, Markus Witte (eds.), Zauber und Magie im antiken Palästina und in seiner Umwelt (Abhandlungen des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 46; Wiesbaden, 2017), pp. 59–94, pls. 1–8, map, . == Phonology == === Consonants === Labial Dental Alveolar Palato- alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal plain emphatic Nasal Stop/ Affricate voiceless () () voiced () () Fricative voiceless () voiced () () () Approximant Trill * The glottal stop is said to have disappeared from Mandaic. * and are said to be palatal stops, and are generally pronounced as and , but are transcribed as /, /, however; they may also be pronounced as velar stops [, ]. * and are noted as velar, but are generally pronounced as uvular and , however; they may also be pronounced as velar fricatives [, ]. * Sounds [, , ] only occur in Arabic and Persian loanwords. * Both emphatic voiced sounds [, ] and pharyngeal sounds [, ] only occur in Arabic loanwords. === Vowels === Front Central Back Close Mid () Open * A short is often replaced by the short sound. ==Alphabet== Mandaic is written in the Mandaic alphabet. It consists of 23 graphemes, with the last being a ligature.Rudolf Macuch, Handbook of Classical and Modern Mandaic (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1965), p. 9. Its origin and development is still under debate.Peter W. Coxon, “Script Analysis and Mandaean Origins,” in Journal of Semitic Studies 15, 1970, pp. 16–30; Alexander C. Klugkist, “The Origin of the Mandaic Script,” in Han L. J. Vanstiphout et al. (eds.), Scripta Signa Vocis. Studies about scripts, scriptures, scribes and languages in the Near East presented to J. H. Hospers (Groningen: E. Forsten, 1986), pp. 111–120; Charles G. Häberl, “Iranian Scripts for Aramaic Languages: The Origin of the Mandaic Script,” in Bulletin for the Schools of American Oriental Research 341, 2006, pp. 53–62. Graphemes appearing on incantation bowls and metal amulet rolls differ slightly from the late manuscript signs.Tables and script samples in Christa Müller-Kessler, “Mandäisch: Eine Zauberschale,” in Hans Ulrich Steymans, Thomas Staubli (eds.), Von den Schriften zur (Heiligen) Schrift (Freiburg, CH: Bibel+Orient Museum, Stuttgart Katholisches Bibelwerk e.V., 2012), pp. 132–135, . ==Lexicography== Lexicographers of the Mandaic language include Theodor Nöldeke,Theodor Nöldeke. 1964. Mandäische Grammatik, Halle: Waisenhaus; reprint Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft with Appendix of annotated handnotes from the hand edition of Theodor Nöldeke by Anton Schall. Mark Lidzbarski,In his masterful translations of several Mandaic Classical works: 1915. Das Johannesbuch. Giessen: Töpelmann; 1920. Mandäische Liturgien (Abhandlungen der königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen. Phil.-hist. Kl. NF XVII,1) Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung; 1925: Ginza: Der Schatz oder das grosse Buch der Mandäer. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Ethel S. Drower, Rudolf Macúch,Ethel S. Drower and Rudolf Macuch. 1963. A Mandaic Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. This work is based on Lidzbarski’s lexicrographical files, today in the University of Halle an der Saale, and Drower’s lexical collection. and Matthew Morgenstern. ==Neo- Mandaic== Neo-Mandaic represents the latest stage of the phonological and morphological development of Mandaic, a Northwest Semitic language of the Eastern Aramaic sub-family. Having developed in isolation from one another, most Neo-Aramaic dialects are mutually unintelligible and should therefore be considered separate languages. Determining the relationship between Neo- Aramaic dialects is difficult because of poor knowledge of the dialects themselves and their history.Charles Häberl, The Neo-Mandaic Dialect of Khorramshahr, (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2009). Although no direct descendants of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic survive today, most of the Neo-Aramaic dialects spoken today belong to the Eastern sub-family of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic and Mandaic, among them Neo-Mandaic that can be described with any certainty as the direct descendant of one of the Aramaic dialects attested in Late Antiquity, probably Mandaic. Neo-Mandaic preserves a Semitic "suffix" conjugation (or perfect) that is lost in other dialects. The phonology of Neo- Mandaic is divergent from other Eastern Neo-Aramaic dialects.Rudolf Macuch, Neumandäische Chrestomathie (Wiesbaden: Harrasowitz, 1989). Three dialects of Neo-Mandaic were native to Shushtar, Shah Vali, and Dezful in northern Khuzestan Province, Iran before the 1880s. During that time, Mandeans moved to Ahvaz and Khorramshahr to escape persecution. Khorramshahr had the most Neo- Mandaic speakers until the Iran–Iraq War caused many people to leave Iran. Ahvaz is the only community with a sizeable portion of Neo-Mandaic speakers in Iran as of 1993.Rudolf Macuch, Neumandäische Texte im Dialekt von Ahwaz (Wiesbaden: Harrasowitz, 1993). The following table compares a few words in Old Mandaic with three Neo-Mandaic dialects. The Iraq dialect, documented by E. S. Drower, is now extinct. Meaning Script Old Mandaic Iraq dialect Ahvaz dialect Khorramshahr dialect house baita bejθæ b(ij)eθa/ɔ bieθɔ in, ins - b- gaw; b- gu gɔw work ebada wad wɔd əwɔdɔ planet šibiaha ʃewjæ ʃewjɔha ʃewjɔhɔ come! (imp.pl) - atun doθi d(ij)ɵθi doθi == Sample Text == The following is a sample text in Mandaic of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Mandaic: "." Transliteration: "kul ānāʃā māudālẖ āspāsiutā ubkuʃᵵgiātā kui hdādiā. hāb muhā utirātā ʿdlā ʿit rhum uzbr bhdādiā." English original: "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood." ==See also== * Christian Palestinian Aramaic * Jewish Palestinian Aramaic * Samaritan Aramaic language * Western Aramaic languages == References == ==Literature== * Theodor Nöldeke. 1862. "Ueber die Mundart der Mandäer," Abhandlungen der Historisch-Philologischen Classe der königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen 10: 81-160. * Theodor Nöldeke. 1964. Mandäische Grammatik, Halle: Waisenhaus; reprint Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft with Appendix of annotated handnotes from the hand edition of Theodor Nöldeke by Anton Schall. * Svend Aage Pallis. 1933. Essay on Mandaean Bibliography. London: Humphrey Milford. * Franz Rosenthal. 1939. "Das Mandäische," in Die aramaistische Forschung seit Th. Nöldeke’s Veröffentlichungen. Leiden: Brill, pp. 224–254. * Ethel S. Drower and Rudolf Macuch. 1963. A Mandaic Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. * Rudolf Macuch. 1965. Handbook of Classical and Modern Mandaic. Berlin: De Gruyter. * Rudolf Macuch. 1989. Neumandäische Chrestomathie. Wiesbaden: Harrasowitz. * * Joseph L. Malone. 1997. Modern and Classical Mandaic Phonology, in Phonologies of Asia and Africa, edited by Alan S. Kaye. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. * Rainer M. Voigt. 2007."Mandaic," in Morphologies of Asia and Africa, in Phonologies of Asia and Africa, edited by Alan S. Kaye. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. * * * Charles G. Häberl. 2009. The Neo-Mandaic Dialect of Khorramshahr. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. * * == External links == * Mandaic lexicon online * Semitisches Tonarchiv: Tondokument "Ginza Einleitung" — a recording of the opening of the Ginza Rabba spoken by a Mandaean priest. * Semitisches Tonarchiv: Tondokument "Ahwâz Macuch 01 A Autobiographie" — a recording of autobiographical material by Sâlem Çoheylî in Neo-Mandaic. * Mandaic.org Information on the Neo-Mandaic Dialect of Khorramshahr Category:Eastern Aramaic languages Category:Languages of Iran Category:Languages of Iraq Category:Sacred languages Category:Gnosticism Category:Critically endangered languages |
A legislative snap election for the National Council in Austria was held on 28 September 2008. The previous election was held on 1 October 2006. The election (the 24th in Austrian history) was caused by the withdrawal of Austrian People's Party leader Wilhelm Molterer from the governing grand coalition (led by the Social Democratic Party of Austria) on 7 July 2008. Due to dissatisfaction with the grand coalition and the two main parties, it was widely expected to be a realigning election, with gains for the opposition and up to seven parties expected to be in the National Council after the election. The losses for the government parties (both the SPÖ and the ÖVP had the worst election result in history) resulted in strong gains for the far right, while neither the Liberal Forum nor the Citizens' Forum Austria (both of which were considered to have chances of gaining seats) gained as much as 2% of the vote, defying earlier expectations. The result of the election was seen as strong for the far-right and in support of Eurosceptics. Molterer resigned as party chairman as a result of the losses suffered by the ÖVP and was replaced by environment minister Josef Pröll; the Greens' federal spokesman Alexander Van der Bellen (in office since 1997) also resigned and was replaced by his deputy, Eva Glawischnig. Due to the LIF's failure to enter parliament on its own, LIF founder Heide Schmidt and financier Hans-Peter Haselsteiner both declared their complete withdrawal from politics, and the LIF's fate was seen as uncertain. Shortly after the election, BZÖ leader and Carinthian governor Jörg Haider died in a car accident. ==Parties== ===Extraparliamentary parties=== Apart from the five parties represented in parliament with their own parliamentary groups (SPÖ, ÖVP, Greens, FPÖ, BZÖ) and the Communist Party of Austria, which has contested all elections in Austria since 1945, a number of other parties stated they planned to or were considering contesting the election. Parties require either the signatures of 3 MPs or the signatures 2,600 citizens (proportionally divided among the different states: 100 in Burgenland and Vorarlberg, 200 in Carinthia, Salzburg and Tyrol, 400 in Styria and Upper Austria and 500 in Lower Austria and Vienna) between 29 July 2008 and 22 August 2008 in order to stand. The signatures have to come from citizens who are eligible to vote in the election; one can only support one party per election through one's signature, and the statement of support has to be signed at the town hall in front of an official. In addition, parties have to pay a fee of €435 to cover printing costs in each state, for a total of €3,915 to contest the election in all states. ====Liberal Forum==== The Liberal Forum, represented in parliament from 2006 to 2008 by Alexander Zach as a single MP in the SPÖ's parliamentary group thanks to a pre-election agreement with the SPÖ prior to the 2006 election, announced it would contest the election, though it did not initially state whether Zach, LIF founder Heide Schmidt or well-known manager Hans-Peter Haselsteiner would be leading the electoral list; analysts asserted that either Schmidt or Haselsteiner would have to be the main candidate in order for the LIF to have a chance of gaining the required 4%. Analysts were divided on whether the LIF had a chance of entering parliament. The LIF announced, after preparatory party meetings on 12 July, and 13 July 2008, that it was structurally and financially prepared to contest the election, but that the decision on whether it would actually participate hinged on the location of appropriate candidates; on 15 July 2008, the LIF announced it would stand, and that it would officially announce its main candidate by,28 July 2008. On 23 July 2008 it was announced that the leading candidate had been determined, and that a presentation of the political program and the candidate list would take place on 25 July 2008. On 25 July 2008 it was announced that Schmidt would lead the LIF into the elections, and that Haselsteiner would be the economy spokesman. The election campaign budget was announced to be €1.5 million. It was announced on 30 July 2008 that Rudi Vouk, lawyer and activist of the Carinthian Slovenes, one of the most outspoken critics of Jörg Haider, would be the leading candidate of the LIF in Carinthia and would be the LIF's constitutional law spokesman. Vouk is also a member of the Enotna lista, which announced its support for the LIF; it had also previously been a partner of the LIF in the 1990s. The BZÖ claimed the candidacy of Vouk amounted to a "declaration of war" against them. Marion Kitzberger, the founder of the Linzer Lernwerkstatt, was announced to be the LIF's leading candidate in Upper Austria and the family and social issues spokeswoman. Zach also stated he would not rule out supporting a minority government after the election. Maria Schaffenrath was announced as the LIF's leading candidate in Tyrol and its women's issues and education spokeswoman, David Loidolt as defence spokesman and leading candidate in Burgenland (he called for the abolition of conscription) and lateral hire Christine Szalay as leading candidate in Vorarlberg. The Viennese list, led by Schmidt and Zach themselves, also featured youth issues spokeswoman Daphne Frankl, justice spokesman Alexander Hofmann, budget and finances spokesman Peter Unger and science and research spokesman Ronald J. Pohoryles. The leading candidate in Lower Austria and spokesman for art, culture, communication and the environment was Rudolf Berger, former director of the Vienna Volksoper, and the leading candidate in Styria was Gabriele Metz. The national list also featured Stefan Gara, an expert in energy and climate protection and the new LIF spokesman for this field. Besides Schmidt and Haselsteiner, there were unconfirmed rumours that two other people might appear as LIF candidates: former justice minister Karin Gastinger, who left the BZÖ over Westenthaler's comments about deportation about immigrants in the 2006 election campaigning, and Josef Broukal, the former ORF newsanchor who joined the SPÖ, became its university spokesman and left shortly after the early elections were called (because the SPÖ decided not to abolish university tuition fees together with Greens and FPÖ, deciding to adhere to the coalition pact signed with the ÖVP despite the ÖVP's decision to withdraw from the coalition). Former short-time LIF leader Christian Köck had also been mentioned as a possible candidate. MEP Karin Resetarits, who was elected on Hans-Peter Martin's List in the 2004 European Parliament election, but later fell out with him and joined the LIF, announced on 17 July 2008 she would participate in the campaign, but did not want to go into national Austrian politics as she wanted to serve out her term in the European Parliament until June 2009 (if she were to resign, the mandate would next have to be offered to the next person on the electoral list of Hans-Peter Martin's List in 2004). On 21 August 2008 she was announced as the LIF's leading candidate in Salzburg and as its European Union spokeswoman. It was also announced on that date that former SPÖ member of the students' council Barbara Blaha, who left the SPÖ over its failure to abolish university tuition fees, had been approached by the LIF, but that Blaha had declined to join the LIF. The LIF announced on 19 August 2008 that it had gathered the necessary signatures to contest the election in all of Austria, becoming the first extraparliamentary party to do so. The new website of the LIF was presented on 1 September 2008. In early September 2008, Haselsteiner was criticised (especially by Green MP Pilz) for allegedly having subsidised political parties in Hungary in exchange for public contracts for his company Strabag SE. Haselsteiner denied all accusations and in turn strongly criticised Pilz. In mid-September 2008, Zach was accused of having lobbied for EADS, the company behind the Eurofighter Typhoon fighter airplane, while officially opposing them; Zach initially rejected these accusations, but then conceded that he had worked for EADS. He emphasised that he had strictly separated this lobbying activity from his political career. Nonetheless, the LIF held a meeting late on 22 September 2008 to decide the party's reaction to the allegations. On 23 September 2008, Zach announced his resignation as LIF party leader, as an MP and as its candidate in the elections, while still rejecting all allegations. Schmidt took over as LIF party leader. David Nekula (SPÖ) replaced Zach as an MP in the outgoing parliament, as Zach was elected on the SPÖ's list in 2006. Analysts differed whether the EADS issue would hurt the LIF's chances to enter parliament or not. ====Citizens' Forum Austria, Save Austria and the Whites of Austria==== The Citizens' Forum Austria of Fritz Dinkhauser (the short name is FRITZ), which had just become the second- largest party in Tyrol in the Tyrolean state election on 8 June 2008, announced it would contest the election, although it was not initially decided whether nationally or only in Tyrol. Dinkhauser expected his movement to be joined by unionists, economists, mayors and doctors from across the country. Leading members of the ÖVP demanded that Dinkhauser should leave the ÖVP, of which he still was a member, if he ran against them nationally. Later statements indicated Dinkhauser would not be expelled from the ÖVP to avoid making a martyr of him. However, due to the ÖVP's party statutes, Dinkhauser effectively left the ÖVP of his own will by accepting a political mandate from another party, which he did by becoming a state MP for his Citizens' Forum Tyrol in the Tyrolean Landtag. It was not clear how many Tyrolean ÖVP members joined the FRITZ together with Dinkhauser, but the number was reported to be very high. The name of the list was announced as "Citizens' Forum Austria – Fritz Dinkhauser's List" (Bürgerforum Österreich – Liste Fritz Dinkhauser). Dinkhauser formally decided on 28 July 2008 that he would contest the election, as it was widely assumed that he would, since he had secured the necessary financial backing. Dinkhauser had secured the cooperation of the Free Citizens' Lists (Freie Bürgerlisten, a group of former FPÖ members) in Burgenland, and had reportedly got strong backing in Styria as well, with rumours of a participation of fellow ÖVP rebel Gerhard Hirschmann (who failed to enter the Landtag in the 2005 election in Styria) in his list. Hirschmann stated he supported Dinkhauser, but would not participate personally. Upper Austrian farmer rebel Leo Steinbichler also supported Dinkhauser. Dinkhauser's main Tyrolean ally Gurgiser stated, however, that he thought the national candidacy was a mistake and that he would certainly stay in Tyrol. At a later date, it was reported that one of Dinkhauser's most important supporters (who declined to be named, but was assumed to be Gurgiser) was strongly against turning the Citizens' Forum Tyrol into a national party, as he saw it as far more important to establish it as the primary opposition to the ÖVP in Tyrol instead. The election campaign budget was announced to be €2.5 million, making it the largest budget of the extraparliamentary parties; at a later date, it was reported to be only €1 million. Two migrants' lists, the "New Movement for the Future" (Neue Bewegung für die Zukunft) led by the Austrian Chamber of Labour rebel Adnan Dincer in Vorarlberg and the small "List for Our Lower Austria" (Liste für unser Niederösterreich) were reportedly interested in cooperation, though Dincer stated he wouldn't stand in the election but just offer his support to Dinkhauser. Furthermore, there had been rumours about contacts with former finance minister Karl-Heinz Grasser. A group of doctors and medics in opposition to the health system reform called "The Whites of Austria" (Die Weißen Österreichs, DWÖ, initially just "The Whites", Die Weißen) led by Eva Raunig were reportedly also in contact with Dinkhauser, but later announced they would not work together with him and were considering an independent candidacy; subsequently Raunig announced they would be supporting him, but another leading member contradicted her. Former presidential candidate (in the 1998 election) and pro-neutrality activist Karl Walter Nowak's anti-EU initiative "Save Austria" (Rettet Österreich) announced it would contest the election and was reported to be in contact with the FRITZ; it claimed to have the Kronen Zeitung's support, and was assumed to have controversial jurist Adrian Hollaender as its main candidate instead of Nowak, as Nowak's controversial books had proven to be counterproductive in his past attempts at politics, although this turned out to have been a rumour. It was initially unclear whether there would be a joint list with Dinkhauser, but in the end Save Austria decided to stand on its own, after Dinkhauser had refused to cooperate with them (reportedly, Dinkhauser refused to grant Nowak a place on the candidate lists which would guarantee him a seat in the National Council). Save Austria announced on 20 August 2008 that it had gathered the necessary signatures. It said it would not have a leading candidate in the traditional sense, but that party founder Wilfried Auerbach would be first on their national lists, with Nowak also in a leading position; they also stated they would prefer to stay in the opposition and work constructively and that their goal was to reach the electoral threshold of 4%. The short name of the party was announced to be RETTÖ. MEP Hans-Peter Martin, who had failed to get into parliament in the 2006 election with 2.8% (below the electoral threshold of 4%), was considering whether his Hans-Peter Martin's List would contest the election or not; he had ruled out joining forces with Save Austria, stating that he was "critical of the EU, but pro-European", whereas they were "anti- European", but it was considered possible that Martin would join forces with Dinkhauser, as they had reportedly got strong personal connections. A first meeting was held on 12 July 2008; Dinkhauser stated he had not yet been contacted by Nowak, while Martin still ruled out cooperation with Nowak. Following this meeting, there were rumours that Martin could stay in the European Parliament and only offer his support to Dinkhauser. Before another meeting could be held on 16 July 2008, Martin announced he would not run in the election; Dinkhauser and Martin stated that there had been no disagreement between them and that they had the same goals, but that Martin had decided he could continue his work more efficiently in the European Parliament. Martin did, however, also criticise the lack of organisational structure behind Dinkhauser's movement. Dinkhauser said "one had to accept" Martin's decision to concentrate on his work in the EU. On 29 July 2008, Dinkhauser announced that he would contest the elections, but also stated that neither Save Austria nor the Free Citizens' Lists would be contesting the election together with him; the Free Citizens' Lists stated they would, however, support Dinkhauser financially and with collecting the necessary signatures. Save Austria decided to contest the election on its own instead. The Whites of Austria did not immediately announce their plans (they were considering running independently, which they claimed had been their plan all along), but criticised Dinkhauser in many points and claimed that they would certainly have more success than Hackl's SKÖ or the LIF; Raunig later announced on 7 August 2008 that they would be supporting Dinkhauser after all, as they had the feeling he understood their issues and due to the fact that it was difficult to attain competence in all fields of politics on their own, but Raunig's announcement was then contradicted on 8 August 2008 by another spokesman, who said they would neither support Dinkhauser nor the LIF and that they had not yet decided whether they would contest the election on their own or not. On 16 August 2008, they started gathering signatures, but announced on 21 August 2008 that they had failed to collect the necessary amount. Dinkhauser's goal were 4%–7% of the vote. Dinkhauser claimed on 2 August 2008 that he had already got party structures and an organisational apparatus ready in seven states, all except Carinthia and Vorarlberg. In Styria, Dinkhauser presented the first four candidates on 5 August 2008: two doctors, a former unionist and Karl Zotter, an activist opposing a new power line in eastern Styria. The Viennese leading candidate was former FPÖ and BZÖ member Theresia Zierler. Dinkhauser was reportedly offered the signatures of three MPs (rumours said from the ÖVP and the Greens), which he refused, preferring to gather signatures like the other parties without their own parliamentary group instead; the ÖVP denied that it had offered Dinkhauser any kind of support. On 19 August 2008, when it appeared that Dinkhauser was facing difficulties gathering the necessary signatures (especially in Vienna), he stated he would possibly accept the offer. He stated on 21 August 2008, however, that the three MPs had retracted their offer and that it would be a very close affair whether he would be able to contest the election nationally. While he had originally stated he would withdraw his candidacy if he did not succeed in gathering the necessary signatures in all nine states, he stated on 22 August 2008 that he might consider contesting the election even if he failed to gather the last fifty missing signatures in Salzburg by the deadline. By midday on 22 August 2008, Dinkhauser had gathered the remaining signatures. During the election campaign, a number of notable members of the Faction of Christian Unionists (Fraktion Christlicher Gewerkschafter) voiced their support for Dinkhauser. Dinkhauser has stated that he was very sceptical regarding a possible coalition with the FPÖ or the BZÖ, and that he would not be willing to cooperate with the ÖVP as long as Schüssel remained active. ====Communist Party of Austria and Left==== Following moves to create a new left-wing party (the working title was "Left Project", Linksprojekt, and the official name which was later announced was "Left", LINKE) it was considered possible that there would be a common left-wing list similar to the German The Left, but it was not known whether there would be enough time for a unification of left- wing forces to occur; the Communist Party of Austria in principle had already decided to contest the election on its own, while the Socialist Left Party (SLP) had stated it wanted to pursue this project – however, when further inquired, the KPÖ had not ruled out a cooperation with other left-wing parties and groups. In the end, the KPÖ decided to run on its own, but with an open list for other left-wing activists and groups – the KPÖ also stated it fully supported the creation of a new left-wing party, but that there was not enough time before the election; the Left decided on 19 July 2008 that it would run on its own; the main candidate remained to be determined. The Left announced it would campaign for expropriation of the upper ten thousand, for more occupational health and safety and for better integration (including offering free courses in the main languages of immigrants, e.g. Turkish and Serbo- Croatian). The Left announced on 19 August 2008 that it would not be able to contest the election in all nine states, but that it had succeeded in Salzburg and Vienna and would try to gather the necessary signatures in Burgenland, Tyrol and Upper Austria; it submitted candidate lists in all three states on 22 August 2008, thus contesting the election in five of nine states. SLP member Sonja Grusch was announced to be the leading candidate on the national candidate list on 2 September 2008. The KPÖ called for price regulation to combat inflation and for a new attempt at reforming the healthcare system, which the grand coalition failed to implement. The campaign leaders were the party's two federal spokespersons, Mirko Messner and Melina Klaus. The KPÖ announced on 20 August 2008 that it had gathered the necessary signatures to stand in all nine states. ====The Christians==== The Christians were also intending to contest the election; they had previously contested the Lower Austrian and Tyrolean state elections in the same year. Their main campaign promise had in all cases been a strengthening of Christian values and an explicit "no" to equal rights for homosexual couples. They announced they had gathered the necessary signatures on 20 August 2008. The Christians' leading candidate is the lawyer and party founder Alfons Adam; their main campaign topics will be marriage, family and opposition abortion rights. In interviews, he repeatedly criticised gender mainstreaming as a "new state religion" which attempts "to abolish man and woman as biological genders"; he repeatedly stated that homosexuality was "a disease" (and accused criticism of that position as being "like the persecution of Christians") and that sex education in schools only served to "encourage fornication and sexual excesses and thus cause inability to form relationships, drug addiction and excessive criminality". He further stated that he would abolish the women's ministry and replace it with a "real" family ministry. ====Other parties==== Twelve other minor parties also announced their intention to contest the election, and two of them succeeded in submitting candidate lists for the election by the deadline in one state. In addition, former FPÖ MP Karlheinz Klement (expelled from the FPÖ in August 2008) contested the election in Carinthia on his own list, see above. List Strong (Liste Stark), a minor party led by Johann Ehman and active only in Carinthia, which had contested the 2006 election (also only in Carinthia) and had gained 312 votes there, also submitted a candidate list for the 2008 election. The "Animal Rights Party" (Tierrechtspartei, TRP), which had contested the Lower Austrian state election (although only in Mödling, where it got 854 votes and became the strongest minor party with 1.34% locally), succeeded in collecting the necessary signatures to contest the election in Vienna. It is led by Ralph Chaloupek. The Pirate Party of Austria, which had already unsuccessfully tried to stand in the 2006 election but failed to gather the necessary signatures, intended to contest the 2008 election. Actor Karlheinz Hackl announced he might contest the election with a newly founded party called "Solidary Culture of Austria" (Solidarische Kultur Österreichs, SKÖ; the name was also sometimes reported to be "Social Culture of Austria", Soziale Kultur Österreichs). His main themes would have been culture, education, social issues, immigration and Europe, and he wanted to become stronger than Strache's FPÖ; he also stated he would not lead a usual election campaign, but that he would "sing, dance and tell stories" instead. As of early August 2008, he still had not got a website, but he was reported to be gathering signatures nonetheless. Despite acknowledging that he was unlikely to be able to contest the election, he stated he had personally received much support and would try to contest the Viennese state elections in 2009 next. On 5 September 2008, Hackl officially announced his support for the LIF. An internet platform called "Party3" (Partei3) was founded to contest the election; its main aim was to be the third party in either an SPÖ–Greens or an ÖVP–Greens government and to introduce a number of projects which would be drafted and decided by all of its members over the internet. As of early August 2008, the project seemed to have become inactive. The monarchist movement Black-Yellow Alliance (Schwarz-Gelbe Allianz) announced on 25 July 2008 it wanted to contest the election. The SGA have not yet announced a leading candidate. Their aims were to reintroduce the monarchy through a referendum in 2018, installing a monarch with a "strong veto right". On 21 August 2008, they announced they had not succeeded in gathering the necessary signatures in Burgenland, Carinthia and Lower Austria and would therefore not contest the election. A number of other minor parties also wanted to contest the election: a list called "Humans Austria" (Menschen Österreich) led by Johann Klawatsch, a humanist party called "WE (WIR), a list of immigrants called "Democratic Diversity of Austria" (Demokratische Diversität Österreichs, DDÖ) which declared on 11 August 2008 it wanted to contest the election and a movement calling for directly democratic decisions on all laws, "plattform-direkt.at" (PD) – although the latter only intends to stand in Vienna. The DDÖ announced on 21 August 2008 it would not contest the election, despite having received some support and even having been offered the signatures of three MPs, but that they would prepare themselves for European Parliament and Viennese state elections in 2009 instead and announce their support for another party in September; they announced their support for the SPÖ, the Greens and the LIF on 23 September 2008. A movement called "I DON'T VOTE" (ICH WÄHLE NICHT) wanted to participate in order for non-voters to have an effect on the election outcome, as well. It wanted to reform the electoral law so that an amount of the seats proportional to the rate of abstention would be left empty. The minor joke political party Certainly – Absolutely – Independent (Sicher – Absolut – Unabhängig or SAU, which means "sow"; led by Franz Radinger, a municipal councillor from Steindorf am Ossiacher See), which had received 1,514 votes in Carinthia in the 2006 election, also wanted to contest the 2008 election, again only in Carinthia. He withdrew on 21 August 2008 after the 200 signatures he had collected were refused due to new, stricter rules regarding the acceptance of notarially certified signatures. The only other relevant group which had stood in the last election, the anti- EU movement Neutral Free Austria (Neutrales Freies Österreich), decided not to contest the election and to build up its organisational structures for the next elections instead. ===Parties' status=== ;Contesting the election *Alliance for the Future of Austria *Animal Rights Party (Vienna) *Austrian People's Party *Citizens' Forum Austria *Communist Party of Austria *Freedom Party of Austria *Karlheinz Klement (Carinthia) *Left (Burgenland, Salzburg, Tyrol, Upper Austria, Vienna) *Liberal Forum *List Strong (Carinthia) *Save Austria *Social Democratic Party of Austria *The Christians *The Greens – The Green Alternative ;Failed to gather the required signatures *Black-Yellow Alliance *Certainly – Absolutely – Independent (Carinthia) *Democratic Diversity of Austria *Humans Austria *I DON'T VOTE *Pirate Party of Austria *plattform-direkt.at (Vienna) *Solidary Culture of Austria *The Whites of Austria *WE ;Declined to run *Hans-Peter Martin's List *Neutral Free Austria *Party3 ==References== ==External links== *Bundesministerium für Inneres: Information on the 2008 National Council election *ORF: Site of the ORF on the 2008 National Council election *Neuwal: blog with interviews, polls and commentaries (Neuwal, "early whale", is a pun on Neuwahl, "early election".) *NSD: European Election Database – Austria publishes regional level election data; allows for comparisons of election results, 1991–2010 ;Political parties *Social Democratic Party of Austria (Sozialdemokratische Partei Österreichs) *:Werner Faymann's website *Austrian People's Party (Österreichische Volkspartei) *:Wilhelm Molterer's website *The Greens – The Green Alternative (Die Grünen – Die Grüne Alternative) *:Alexander Van der Bellen's website *Freedom Party of Austria (Freiheitliche Partei Österreichs) *:Heinz-Christian Strache's website *Alliance for the Future of Austria (Bündnis Zukunft Österreich) *Liberal Forum (Liberales Forum) *:Heide Schmidt's website *: supported by Unity List (Enotna lista/Einheitsliste) *Citizens' Forum Austria (Bürgerforum Österreich) *Communist Party of Austria (Kommunistische Partei Österreichs) *Save Austria (Rettet Österreich) *The Christians (Die Christen) *Left (Linke) *Animal Rights Party (Tierrechtspartei) *Dipl.-Ing. Karlheinz Klement *Pirate Party of Austria (Piratenpartei Österreichs) *Humans Austria (Menschen Österreich) *WE (WIR) *Democratic Diversity of Austria (Demokratische Diversität Österreichs) *plattform-direkt.at *The Whites of Austria (Die Weißen Österreichs) *I DON'T VOTE (ICH WÄHLE NICHT) *Certainly – Absolutely – Independent (Sicher – Absolut – Unabhängig) *Dr Martin's List (Liste Dr. Martin) *Neutral Free Austria (Neutrales Freies Österreich) *Party3 (Partei3) Legislative election |
"In the Dark" is a song performed by American singer Dev. It was written by Dev alongside the Cataracs, who produced it for Dev's debut studio album, The Night the Sun Came Up (2011). The song was released as the album's second single on April 25, 2011, through Universal Motown. "In the Dark" came about when Dev wanted to make a sexy song to show that she is a grown woman. She collaborated with American rapper Flo Rida on an official remix as she believed she would enjoy the remix when hearing it on the radio. "In the Dark" is a dance-pop song with a saxophone hook and influences of Eurodance, Latin and jazz music. The lyrics emphasize sex drives and letting the sensation of touch fully take over from sight. The song received generally positive reviews from music critics, who highlighted its production and the saxophone line. However, critics were divided regarding the song's lyrical content; some referred it to as sexy, while others dismissed its metaphors. "In the Dark" enjoyed commercial success in the United States, peaking at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and the summit of Hot Dance Club Songs. The song achieved its highest national peak in Russia and Slovakia, where it reached number one. Elsewhere, the song peaked in the top forty in Canada, Australia, Denmark, Ireland, Scotland and the United Kingdom. The song's music video features shots of black-painted hands that touch Dev while she is standing naked. According to Dev, the inspiration behind the video was to reflect the "dark" themes of the song, by creating a Tim Burton-inspired feel. ==Background== "In the Dark" was written by Dev alongside the Cataracs, a group that consists of Niles Hollowell-Dhar and David Singer-Vine, who also produced the track. Dev described the song as "very flavorful" and "hot". In an interview with music blog Idolator, she talked in-depth about the conception of the song, stating, "I was like, dammit, I'm gonna make a sexy song!" She explained that she wanted the song to be "tasteful, yet sexual" and described it as "very sexy, but very musical at the same time". She said, "The songs I had before, even though they were explicit to an extent, they were just fun. It was time when we just wanted to make that sort of record, and we did. It's probably one of the sexier songs on the record, but I think it needed that!" "In the Dark" was recorded during a session in January 2011; it was one of the first songs to be recorded for Dev's debut album and it was eventually also recorded by Demi Lovato. It was later mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Studios in Los Angeles, California and mastered by Tom Coyne at Sterling Sound in New York City. The song was released on April 25, 2011, via digital download as the second single from Dev's debut studio album, The Night the Sun Came Up. It was later sent for rhythmic airplay in the United States on May 24, 2011, followed by an add on mainstream radio stations on June 21, 2011. In the United Kingdom, "In the Dark" was released in a digital extended play (EP) alongside three remixes of the track as well as its music video. Rapper Flo Rida is featured on an official remix of the song, and Dev stated that she wanted to make a remix as it would be refreshing and "great for radio". She explained that a rapper would suit the song well and that she would enjoy the remix when hearing it on the radio. She elaborated on choosing Flo Rida, saying: "We went in thinking about who would be cool on the radio [...] Flo Rida fit, and he completely killed it." 50 Cent is featured on another remix of the track, which he recorded at Sonic Vista Studios Ibiza (Spain) in August 2011, while Kanye West appears on an unofficial remix, of which Dev said: "That was just kind of something that floated onto the Internet and the airwaves, which I don't mind at all because it sounds absolutely amazing and it's one of my favorite remixes too." ==Composition== "In the Dark" is a dance-pop song that features Eurodance beats and synths, mixed with influences of Latin music. The song features a house rhythm and a prominent saxophone riff that serves as the song's instrumentation. Critics compared the riff to "Mr. Saxobeat" (2011) by Romanian singer Alexandra Stan. "In the Dark" opens with Dev's sing-talk vocal style as she sings "On my waist, through my hair / Think about it when you touch me there / Close my eyes, here you are dance-dance-dancing in the dark." According to Nadine Cheung of AOL Radio, the line borrows the melody from Reel 2 Real's "I Like to Move It" (1994). "In the Dark" sees Dev using her singing voice more than her distinctive sing-talk style. Lyrically, the song speaks of sex drives and letting sensation of touch fully taking over from sight, as Dev repeats the line, "I got a sex drive that's push to start". According to sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Hal Leonard Corporation, "In the Dark" is written in the time signature of common time and set in a fast tempo of 125 beats per minute. It is written in the key of C minor and Dev's vocals span from the note of A4 to the note of B5. It has a basic sequence of Cm–E6–A5–G5 as its chord progression. ==Critical reception== "In the Dark" received generally positive reviews from music critics. Lewis Corner of British music website Digital Spy rated it four stars out of five, particularly praising the saxophone hook. Corner commented, "[Dev] purrs in her sensual and sultry tones, accompanied by that saxophone hook spicier than an extra-hot peri peri chicken from Nandos – and, we should add, just as lip-lickingly addictive." Bill Lamb of About.com rated "In the Dark" four stars out of five and praised Dev's vocals, as well as the song's sexy lyrics and the saxophone hook. Lamb observed that the song is "nearly pure libido", but said that it works well without explicit lyrics. On the other hand, he criticized the song for being "locked in the current time", writing: "'In the Dark' seems very much a song of the dance pop moment. Like the hit 'Like a G6,' it is quite possible in a few months 'In the Dark' may sound a bit dated. It does not seem to capture something timeless." Lamb ended on a positive note; however, writing that the song is a worthy addition to party playlists and praised Dev and the Cataracs for "hav[ing] their fingers on the pulse of current party music". Garyn Ganz of Rolling Stone graded the song three stars out of five and commented: "Dev speak-sings about her sex drive over a Nineties Latin house beat like a top- shelf version of Kesha – seductive, not sleazy." While reviewing The Night the Sun Came Up, Slant Magazine critic Sal Cinquemani named the song the album's best track. He pointed out that, unlike the rest of the album, "In the Dark" avoids "too-aggressive beats and chintzy synths" and instead relies on Dev's "ooh la la" hook and the "sleek" saxophone line. Cinquemani concluded by writing that the song is "almost enough to forgive [the Cataracs] for 'Like a G6'." Tris McCall of The Star-Ledger named "In the Dark" the "Song of the Week" and compared its saxophone line to Alexandra Stan's "Mr. Saxobeat", and said that while the latter is "total Euroschlock", "In the Dark" preserves "some of the mechanized detachment" of Dev's song "Booty Bounce" (2010). McCall was mixed regarding "In the Dark"'s lyrical content and called the line "do your work on me/Open up my body and do some surgery" the "grossest pillow talk" since the Black Eyed Peas' "My Humps". Writing for the Dallas Observer, Shahryar Rizvi was negative in his review of the song and criticized the "cheesy" saxophone sound, saying that it "serves well to show just how mediocre this song is". LA Weekly writer Shea Serrano regarded the song as "predictable" and dismissed the metaphors, labeling them "confusing". ===Recognition=== Music magazine Spin included "In the Dark" at number 15 on its "Favorite Pop Tracks of 2011" list, naming it "radio gold". The Hollywood Reporter music editor Shirley Halperin put it at number four on her "Top 10 Singles of 2011" list and called it "irresistible". Halperin went on to comment: "Spotlighting the sexiest sax solo this side of Duran Duran's 'Rio' and a sultry, almost Latin-flavored vibe, it may or may not be an ode to masturbation, but it definitely satisfies in all the right places." In 2021, "In the Dark" entered various international music charts due to going viral on the video-sharing app TikTok. ==Chart performance== In the United States, "In the Dark" made its debut at number 92 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the issue dated August 20, 2011, almost three months after the song's release in April. The song steadily ascended on the chart for eight weeks before reaching its peak position of number 11 in the issue dated October 22, 2011. The song proved to be a bigger commercial success than Dev's debut single, "Bass Down Low" (2010), which reached number 61. Additionally, "In the Dark" reached number one on two of Billboards component charts, Heatseekers Songs and Hot Dance Club Songs. The song also peaked at number eight on both Pop Songs and Radio Songs. On March 8, 2012, the single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales of over one million units. In Canada, "In the Dark" debuted at number 83 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart in the issue dated September 17, 2011 and peaked at number 15 six weeks later on October 22, 2011. In Australia, the song debuted at number 64 on the singles chart, and eventually peaked at number 41. Across Europe, "In the Dark" made its first appearance on the Tracklisten chart in Denmark on July 29, 2011, entering at number 36. The following week, the song reached its peak of number 22 and was listed on the chart for five weeks before falling off. In Slovakia, "In the Dark" debuted at number 30 and peaked at the top position seven weeks later. In the United Kingdom, the song debuted and peaked at number 37 on the UK Singles Chart in the issue dated August 27, 2011. Although failing to match "Bass Down Low"'s peak of number ten, it did give Dev her second top 40 single in the UK. In Ireland, "In the Dark" fared similarly to the UK on the Irish Singles Chart, entering and peaking at number 33. ==Music video== thumb|260px|In the music video for "In the Dark", Dev is standing naked while being surrounded and touched by black-painted hands and arms The music video for "In the Dark" was directed by Ethan Lader, whom Dev enlisted to make the video as he regularly makes videos for her and the Cataracs. Lader originally contacted her with ideas for the clip, and she soon replied with what she would want in the video. She said, "So we did that back and forth, which he always does with me until I get my point across. ... and then we met up and we got both of our ideas and feelings across. I wanted to be sexy and dark like the song is, in a really interesting way, and we pulled it off, I think." The video was filmed in Los Angeles, California in late-April 2011, just before Dev joined Usher as the opening act for his OMG Tour. Dev took more control over the "In the Dark" video than previous video shoots as she used to let the director "take a little bit of control" when she was inexperienced in the process. In an interview with Idolator, Dev elaborated on the video's concept, stating that she wanted a dark feel similar to Tim Burton's Alice in Wonderland: "I wanted the video to be sexy as well [...] we'd have an Alice in Wonderland/Tim Burton type of feel." In the video, Dev is seen in a club scene with intense dancing. The main focus is black-painted hands and arms, which are prominent in several shots of Dev as she is standing naked while the hands are touching her body. Some of the hands were digitally added, but most of them were real, including the ones touching Dev. She explained, "The extras were amazing, they let me paint their hands and bodies, and they stacked on top of each other and did that for hours. For takes and takes and takes." The video also includes shots of an albino ball python and a tarantula. Cory Lamz of Westword wrote a positive review of the video: "Watching 'In the Dark' is like dancing under a strobe light on ecstasy. In a sea of hands, literally, Dev manages to tease you, seduce you and entice you. She makes you want to touch her, just like every other hand in the video." Contessa Gayles of AOL Music referred the video to as "freaky" and "funky", writing "Forget 'dancing in the dark,' Dev works it in a sea of dismembered, black-painted hands and arms in this freaky, funky new vid." In contrast, Becky Bain of Idolator called it "somewhat unsettling". Bill Lamb of About.com wrote that the video "will likely leave you never looking at hands exactly the same". ==Track listings== *CD single and digital download #"In the Dark" – 3:48 *Digital EP #"In the Dark" (Radio Edit) – 3:30 #"In the Dark" (featuring Flo Rida) – 3:40 #"In the Dark" (Proper Villains Remix) – 4:26 #"In the Dark" (Havana Brown Remix) – 5:33 #"In the Dark" (Music video) – 3:46 *Remix download #"In the Dark" (featuring Flo Rida) – 3:39 *Remix EP #"In the Dark" (Proper Villains Remix) – 4:27 #"In the Dark" (Hype Jones 2012 Remix) – 4:33 #"In the Dark" (DJ Havoc & SpekrFreks Remix) – 3:28 #"In the Dark" (Static Revenger Remix) – 6:26 #"In the Dark" (Johan Wedel Remix) – 6:30 #"In the Dark" (Benzi & DStar Remix) – 4:42 #"In the Dark" (DJ Vice Remix) – 6:30 #"In the Dark" (DJ Kue Remix) – 6:52 #"In the Dark" (DJ Enferno Remix) – 6:08 #"In the Dark" (Ranidu Remix) – 5:38 #"In the Dark" (Alfa Paare Remix) – 5:17 ==Credits and personnel== ;Recording *Recorded at The Indie-Pop Sweat Shop ;Personnel *Songwriting – Devin Tailes, Niles Hollowell-Dhar, David Singer- Vine *Production – Niles Hollowell-Dhar *Recording – The Cataracs *Mixing – Manny Marroquin *Mastering – Tom Coyne Credits adapted from The Night the Sun Came Up liner notes. ==Charts== ===Weekly charts=== Chart (2011–12) Peak position scope="row" scope="row" Brazil (Billboard Hot 100) 7 Canada (Canadian Hot 100) 13 scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" Poland (Polish Airplay New) 4 scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" scope="row" ===Year-end charts=== 2011 year-end chart performance for "In the Dark" Chart (2011) Position Canadian Hot 100 86 Russia Airplay (TopHit) 58 US Billboard Hot 100 83 US Hot Dance Club Songs 24 US Dance/Mix Show Airplay 24 US Pop Songs 48 US Rhythmic 21 2012 year-end chart performance for "In the Dark" Chart (2012) Position Russia Airplay (TopHit) 56 2013 year-end chart performance for "In the Dark" Chart (2013) Position Russia Airplay (TopHit) 190 ==Certifications== ==Radio add dates and release history== Country Release date Format(s) Australia April 25, 2011 Digital download Denmark United States April 26, 2011 May 24, 2011 Rhythmic radio August 9, 2011 Mainstream radio Germany July 22, 2011 Digital download Ireland August 12, 2011 Digital EP United Kingdom United States August 29, 2011 Remix download December 13, 2011 Remix EP ==See also== *List of number-one dance singles of 2011 (U.S.) * List of number-one songs of 2011 (Russia) *List of songs recorded by Dev ==References== Category:2011 singles Category:2011 songs Category:Dev (singer) songs Category:Eurodance songs Category:Number-one singles in Russia Category:Song recordings produced by the Cataracs Category:Songs written by David Singer-Vine Category:Songs written by Dev (singer) Category:Songs written by Kshmr Category:Universal Republic Records singles |
A canal pound (from impound), reach, or level (American usage), is the stretch of level water impounded between two canal locks. Canal pounds can vary in length from the non-existent, where two or more immediately adjacent locks form a lock staircase, to many kilometres/miles. The longest canal pound in the United Kingdom is between the stop lock on the Trent and Mersey Canal at Preston Brook (Dutton Stop Lock No 76) and the start of the Leeds and Liverpool Canal near Leigh (Poolstock Bottom Lock No 2), a distance of . Another long pound is on the Kennet and Avon Canal between Wootton Rivers Bottom Lock and Caen Hill top lock. The longest level on the Erie Canal in New York was the 60 mile level (actually ) between Henrietta and Lockport. ==History== Pounds came into being with the development of pound locks to replace the earlier flash locks. A key feature of pound locks was that the intervening level between locks remained largely constant, as opposed to the variable levels created by the opening of flash locks. On some American canals, some pounds acquired nicknames due to the mileage between locks, e.g. the "Eight Mile Level" on the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal was between Riley's Lock (Lock 24) and Edward's Ferry (Lock 25), a distance of about . ===Engineering considerations=== Making a channel that would not leak water is not easily done. Gravel soil or light soil will leak for a few years until it settles and hardens. Puddle or clay would be used to line the channel, but that was not foolproof. The Union Canal and the Schuylkill canal where the canal prism (the shape of the canal as seen in cross section) was blasted through limestone leaked so badly, they had to line the channel with timber. The Chesapeake and Ohio canal had frequent cave-ins due to limestone sinkholes near Shepherdstown, near Two Locks above Dam No. 4, around Four Locks, Big pool, and Roundtop Hill near Dam No. 6. requiring expensive repairs., p. 49 After some years, the canal bed would settle and harden, and puddling would no longer be needed.Old Towpaths, p. 309-310 ====Water supply==== right|thumb|200px|A feeder canal to feed the Georgetown level of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. One main concern to the engineer was the canal's water supply. Pumping would contribute greatly to operating expense, especially at the summit level, hence gravity fed water is preferred. Feeder canals could be to in length, if needed.Old Towpaths, 303 The canal bed would have to slope so that the water would not flow too fast down the canal and impede the progress of upstream boats. Rivers were often dammed to raise the water's height so that the canal could be fed, for instance, the Chesapeake and Ohio canal had 7 dams built to feed water.Unrau, Historical Resource Survey, p. 241-242 If a dam was not built, often water had to be pumped. The Chesapeake and Ohio put a steam pump near the South Branch, near mile 174, which had a capacity of about , since the water from Dam No. 8 was insufficient.Hahn, Thomas. Towpath Guilde, p. 470 This problem is particularly acute on summit pounds (see below). On the Delaware Division canal, the Delaware River was made to pump its own water into the canal, using an undershot water wheel which was connected to another wheel which had buckets attached, thereby lifting the river water up to the canal.Old Towpaths, p. 306 ===Winter=== thumb|right|200px|Canal drained for winter. Note: water "stain" on lock masonry indicates normal water level. Where ice would form during winter, the canal prism would usually be closed and drained. During this time, sand bars would be dug out, locks and other structures would be fixed.Old Towpaths, p. 308-309 Exceptions to this would include wartime necessities, i.e. the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal was left open in the winters of 1861–1862 because of the American Civil War.Unrau, Historical Resource Survey, p. 724 ===Level walkers and repairs=== American canals often had a man called a "level walker" (Chesapeake and Ohio Canal), "bank watchman" (Erie Canal), towpath walker or inspector whose job was to walk along the pound (level) with a shovel, checking for leaks and repairing minor ones before the leak could cause major damage, and calling the section work crew for major ones. His rounds were about 20 to 24 miles daily.Kytle, Elizabeth. Home on the Canal, Cabin John, Md. Seven Locks Press, c. 1983. P. 270 Muskrats would cause leaks by burrowing in the canal, as well as competitors such as stage coach lines or teamsters who would sabotage the canal by digging holes in the bank. Other duties included checking the waste weir gates to see if they were letting out the correct amount of water, checking aqueducts for damage, as well as being called in the night to search for missing persons supposedly drowned in the canal. If a break or leak was discovered and the level walker could not do repair it himself, he sent a message to the section superintendent or headquarters, and the section crew with a repair scow would come. These boats carried clay straw, takes, rope, wooden boards, and tools (picks & shovels).Old Towpaths, 311 For culverts and flood gates, a row of heavy planks, interlocked with tongue and groove, would be driven across the canal (similar to a cofferdam) above and below the break, and would swell when wet. After the water drained out through the break, it would be repaired. If the break was in the bank or berm of the canal, the crew would drive two rows of stakes, about a foot apart, across the breach, then weaving rope between them. Straw was put in it, and that would slow or stop the water flow. A row of planks were then driven to stop the flow, and then the break would be filled with dirt and rocks. Burrowing animals, such as muskrats, would cause leaks by digging holes. Indiana canals had leaks from burrowing crawfish.Old Towpaths, p. 310 Canal companies would often post bounties for muskrats, e.g. the Middlesex Canal. ==Types of pound== Pounds can be described in various ways according to their situation; ===Summit pound=== A summit pound is formed at a summit on the canal, and where all the defining locks descend from the pound. Summit pounds are particularly important in canal design, as every boat entering or leaving the pound causes a loss of water. Summit pounds therefore need an independent form of water supply, which may take the form of weirs on adjacent rivers, reservoirs or pumping stations. Common practice during canal design was to make summit pounds as large as practically possible, in order that losing a lockful of water would not lower the water level too significantly. The Rochdale Canal is a good example of a canal with a relatively short summit pound, which requires restrictions on lock workings at certain times. The canal, which is one of three which cross the Pennines, is long, but the summit pound is just . To the north and east, 36 locks descend to Sowerby Bridge, while to the south and west, another 56 locks descend to Castlefield Junction, on the edge of Manchester. The summit pound is above sea level, and is one of the highest summit pounds in Britain. In order to keep it in water, the company built a total of eight reservoirs near the summit pound. Hollingworth Reservoir was at a lower level than the summit, and so a steam engine was installed to pump the water up to a feeder, which delivered it to the summit pound. One reason for the present restriction on boat movements over the summit is that the water rights and associated works were sold to various local authorities in 1923 under the terms of the Oldham and Rochdale Corporations Water Act, as the subsequent increase in leisure traffic was not anticipated. The first canal to be constructed with a summit pound in the United Kingdom was the Newry Canal, completed in 1741, which linked Newry to Lough Neagh. The summit pound was long, between Poyntz Pass and Terryhoogan, but its water supply was a cause of problems over many years. Pennsylvania's Union Canal suffered likewise on its summit level for lack of water. To rectify that, engineers had to put three large dams across Swartara creek, a mile long dam over Cattail Creek, and the water then passed to a powerhouse where the water was pumped (using water wheels and additional steam pumps if needed) 95 feet up, whereupon it flowed 4 miles through an aqueduct.Old Towpaths p. 303-304 The Morris Canal in New Jersey used Lake Hopatcong to feed its summit pound through a feeder canal. The lake was large enough, that traffic could enter the lake from the canal. Lock 1E was east of the summit pound, and Lock 1W was west of the summit pound. The Panama Canal also uses a lake (Lake Gatun) as its summit pound. ===Sump pound=== The inverse of a summit pound is a sump pound. In contrast to a summit pound, a sump pound is a point where every boat entering or leaving the pound causes an addition of water. The longest one is the Fenny Stratford pound on the Grand Union Canal, between Cosgrove Lock, which starts the ascent to the Braunston summit to the north, and Fenny Stratford lock, which starts the ascent to the Bulborne summit to the south. Every sump pound needs somewhere to discharge the surplus water, and in this case, a large viaduct and aqueduct immediately to the south of Cosgrove Lock carries the canal over the River Great Ouse, which serves that function. ===Lock pound=== A lock pound lies between two locks which are only a short distance apart. Water levels in the pound are liable to fluctuate as the locks are used. Boats entering the pound from the lower level remove a lockful of water from the pound, while those using the upper lock add a lockful of water. Because the maximum level in the pound is normally controlled by a bywash weir at the lower lock, some of the water from the upper lock may be lost over it, and if the lower lock has a deeper fall, there is a net loss of level when a boat passes through the pound. ===Side pound=== thumb|250px|Map showing extended intermediate pounds at Caen Hill locks A side pound is a particular type of extremely short lock pound, which is extended sideways to make up for the short distance between locks so as to avoid excessive level fluctuations. An example of this is the Caen Hill locks on the Kennet and Avon Canal. Climbing the hill that leads to Devizes requires 29 locks. The first seven and the last six have conventional pounds, but the middle sixteen have large side pounds, enabling all 16 to be fitted into a distance of around . Serving a similar function are the side ponds on lock flights such as the Foxton flight. The ten locks are organised as two staircases of five chambers each, where each lock can discharge water into the pond below it and receive water from the one above it. Although connected to the locks by sluices, they are still often called side pounds, as they are maintained at the level at which an intermediate pound would be if one were present. The term side pond is also used to refer to a water saving basin, which is maintained at a level between the upper and lower level of a single lock. Most of the locks on the Grand Union Canal between Whilton Locks and lock 45 at Bulbourne, the junction with the Wendover Arm, were built with two such side ponds, although they are currently disused. ==Regulating water level== Canals have several devices used to keep the water level from rising too high in the pounds, causing floods, washouts, and other damage. ===Waste weirs=== Waste weirs are used to regulate the height of the water in the canal. Any water higher than the highest board in the waste weir would flow over the board, and out of the canal pound. Boards could be added or taken out to adjust the height of water. Waste weirs often had paddle valves at the bottom, allowing the canal to be completely drained for repairs, emergencies, or at the end of the boating season for winter. On some canals (e.g. the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal) with the exception of short levels, almost every level had a waste weir between the locks. At locks, there was often a bypass weir which fed water to the flume, allowing water to bypass the lock into the lower pound. This could be adjusted, similar to the waste weir by adding or removing boards to control the water level. ===Spillways and informal overflows (mule drinks)=== 150px|thumb|A spillway on the towpath of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. Spillways were also used, allowing the water to spill over and into the surrounding rivers. These may be positioned over the towpath or on the berm side of the canal. An "informal overflow" on American canals is a dip in the towpath which functions as a spillway, but usually lacking concrete or formal structure. The boatmen sometimes called these "mule drinks", since the mules would drink from the water flowing over the towpath.Kytle p. 271 Informal overflows were often replaced by a waste weir or lined with concrete or masonry to make a more "permanent" spillway. P. 93 ===Stop gates=== If the pound was many miles long, sometimes the canal would be designed with stop gates, so that if there was a break in the canal the whole pound would not lose all its water. Isolating the break would allow the company to make repairs sooner. For instance, on the 14 mile level of the Chesapeake and Ohio canal, there were stop gates put before and after Big Pool so that it (the Big Pool lake) would not have to be drained Reference to one of the stop gates at Big Pool in case of breaks or repairs. ==Animal escape== thumb|Indentation in the tow-path for the Regent's Canal in London, to accommodate horse submerged steps so that horses towing a barge that fell into the water could clamber out On the Erie Canal, in the three mile long rock cut above Lockport, if a mule or horse fell into the canal pound, there were some escape "holes" cut in the towpath, a depression covered over by wooden boards, so that the animal could go into the "hole" and then be rescued. This was as a result of the bank being practically vertical, making it impossible to retrieve one that fell into the canal.Garrity, Richard, p. 12 Ramps at the side of canals next to the towpath are quite common in England particularly where horses were known to fall in. For example there is one on the Hanwell Lock Flight of locks on the Grand Union Canal. ==Sand bars and obstructions== right|thumb|200px|Work crew removing sand bar by inclined plane 5E on the Morris Canal Canal levels sometimes have sand bars or shallow areas where the boat will get stuck. It is common on English canals for boaters to carry a barge pole to help punt the boat off an obstruction. Some boats carried long iron-tipped poles to push themselves off,Old Towpaths, p. 315 although some canals forbade their use. Sometimes boatmen would ask the lockkeeper of the lock above for a swell, to raise the water in the level, so that they could get off the sand bar.Kytle, Elizabeth. Home on the Canal. Seven Locks Press, 1983. p. 207Garrity, p. 40 ==See also== *Mill race ==Bibliography== * * * * * * * * ==References== Category:Locks (water navigation) |
Rotherham United Football Club is an association football club based in Rotherham, South Yorkshire. The club was formed in 1925 as a merger between Rotherham Town and Rotherham County when it was decided that having two professional clubs in the town was not sustainable. After the merger, the club was elected to play in the Football League Third Division North. United played in the Third Division North until 1950–51, when they were champions of the division and were promoted to the Second Division. During their first spell in the Second Division the club reached the fifth round of the FA Cup twice and were runners up in the inaugural Football League Cup, which is the furthest they have reached in these competitions. Their furthest Football League Trophy run saw the club win the competition twice, in the 1995–96 season defeating Shrewsbury Town 2–1 in the final; and in the 2021–22 season defeating Sutton United 4–2 after extra time in the final. As of the end of 2022–23, the club's first team has remained in the English Football League since its formation. Their highest finish came in 1954–55 when they finished in third place in the Second Division, missing out on promotion to the top division only on goal average. In total the club has spent 27 seasons in the second tier of the English football league system, 47 in the third and 13 in the fourth. Rotherham has qualified for four Football League play-offs, in 1998–99 they lost in the Third Division semi-final to Leyton Orient, in 2009–10 they reached the League Two final but lost 3–2 to Dagenham & Redbridge, in 2013–14 they reached the League One final and defeated Leyton Orient in a penalty shoot-out to gain promotion the Football League Championship, and in 2017–18 they again reached the League One final and defeated Shrewsbury Town 2–1 to gain promotion the EFL Championship. The table details their achievements in first-team competitions for each completed season since their first appearance in the Football League in 1925–26. ==Key== ;Key to divisions: * Division 1 – Football League First Division * Division 2 – Football League Second Division * Division 3 – Football League Third Division * Division 3N – Football League Third Division North * Division 4 – Football League Fourth Division * Championship – Football League Championship * League 1 – Football League One * League 2 – Football League Two ;Key to rounds: * PR – Preliminary Round * GS – Group Stage * R1 – First Round, etc. * QF – Quarter-finals * SF – Semi-finals * F(N) – Runner-up for the Northern section * RU – Runner-up * W – Winner ;Key to positions and symbols: * – Champions * – Runners-up * – Promoted * – Relegated ==Seasons== Season League record League record League record League record League record League record League record League record League record FA Cup EFL Cup EFL Trophy Top scorer(s) Top scorer(s) Season Division FA Cup EFL Cup EFL Trophy Player(s) Goals 1925–26 Division 3N 42 17 7 18 69 92 41 14th R3 — — 1926–27 Division 3N 42 10 12 20 70 92 32 19th R1 — — 1927–28 Division 3N 42 14 11 17 65 69 39 14th R3 — — 1928–29 Division 3N 42 15 9 18 60 77 39 16th R1 — — 1929–30 Division 3N 42 11 8 23 67 113 30 20th R3 — — 1930–31 Division 3N 42 13 12 17 81 83 38 14th R1 — — 1931–32 Division 3N 40 14 4 22 63 72 32 19th R1 — — 1932–33 Division 3N 42 14 6 22 60 84 34 17th R1 — — 1933–34 Division 3N 42 10 8 24 53 91 28 21st R3 — — 1934–35 Division 3N 42 19 7 16 86 73 45 9th R2 — — 1935–36 Division 3N 42 16 9 17 69 66 41 11th R2 — — 1936–37 Division 3N 42 14 7 21 78 91 35 17th R1 — — 1937–38 Division 3N 42 20 10 12 68 56 50 6th R2 — — 1938–39 Division 3N 42 17 8 17 64 64 42 11th R1 — — 1939–40 Division 3N 3 1 1 1 5 6 3 11th — — 1939–45 No competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. No competitive football was played between 1939 and 1945 due to the Second World War. 1945–46 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A R4 — — 1946–47 Division 3N 42 29 6 7 114 53 64 2nd R3 — — 1947–48 Division 3N 42 25 9 8 95 49 59 2nd R1 — — 1948–49 Division 3N 42 28 6 8 90 46 62 2nd R3 — — 1949–50 Division 3N 42 19 10 13 80 59 48 6th R3 — — 1950–51 Division 3N 46 31 9 6 103 41 71 1st R4 — — 1951–52 Division 2 42 17 8 17 73 71 42 9th R4 — — 1952–53 Division 2 42 16 9 17 75 74 41 12th R5 — — 1953–54 Division 2 42 21 7 14 80 67 49 5th R4 — — 1954–55 Division 2 42 25 4 13 94 64 54 3rd R4 — — 1955–56 Division 2 42 12 9 21 56 75 33 19th R3 — — 1956–57 Division 2 42 13 11 18 74 75 37 17th R3 — — 1957–58 Division 2 42 14 5 23 65 101 33 18th R3 — — 1958–59 Division 2 42 10 9 23 42 82 29 20th R3 — — 1959–60 Division 2 42 17 13 12 61 60 47 8th R4 — — 1960–61 Division 2 42 12 13 17 65 64 37 15th R4 RU — 1961–62 Division 2 42 16 9 17 70 76 41 9th R3 — 1962–63 Division 2 42 17 6 19 67 74 40 14th R3 R4 — 1963–64 Division 2 42 19 7 16 90 78 45 7th R3 — 1964–65 Division 2 42 14 12 16 70 69 40 14th R4 R3 — 1965–66 Division 2 42 16 14 12 75 74 46 7th R4 R4 — 1966–67 Division 2 42 13 10 19 61 70 36 18th R4 R3 — 1967–68 Division 2 42 10 11 21 42 76 31 21st R5 R2 — 1968–69 Division 3 46 16 13 17 56 50 45 11th R2 R1 — 1969–70 Division 3 46 15 14 17 62 54 44 14th R3 R3 — 1970–71 Division 3 46 17 16 13 64 60 50 8th R3 R2 — 1971–72 Division 3 46 20 15 11 69 52 55 5th R4 R1 — 1972–73 Division 3 46 17 7 22 51 65 41 21st R2 R3 — 1973–74 Division 4 46 15 13 18 56 58 43 15th R2 R2 — 1974–75 Division 4 46 22 15 9 71 41 59 3rd R3 R2 — 1975–76 Division 3 46 15 12 19 54 65 42 16th R2 R1 — 1976–77 Division 3 46 22 15 9 69 44 59 4th R3 R2 — 1977–78 Division 3 46 13 13 20 51 68 39 20th R3 R2 — 1978–79 Division 3 46 17 10 19 49 55 44 17th R3 R3 — 1979–80 Division 3 46 18 10 18 58 66 46 13th R2 R2 — 1980–81 Division 3 46 24 13 9 62 32 61 1st R2 R1 — 1981–82 Division 2 42 20 7 15 66 54 67 7th R3 R2 — 1982–83 Division 2 42 10 15 17 45 68 45 20th R3 R3 — 1983–84 Division 3 46 15 9 22 57 64 54 18th R3 R1 1984–85 Division 3 46 18 11 17 55 55 65 12th R1 R3 R1 1985–86 Division 3 46 15 12 19 61 59 57 14th R4 R1 1986–87 Division 3 46 15 12 19 48 57 57 14th R1 R2 PR 1987–88 Division 3 46 12 16 18 50 66 52 21st R2 R2 R1 1988–89 Division 4 46 22 16 8 76 35 82 1st R2 R2 R1 1989–90 Division 3 46 17 13 16 71 62 64 9th R2 R2 1990–91 Division 3 46 10 12 24 50 87 42 23rd R4 R2 R1 1991–92 Division 4 42 22 11 9 70 37 77 2nd R2 R1 1992–93 Division 2 46 17 14 15 60 60 65 11th R4 R2 R2 1993–94 Division 2 46 15 13 18 63 60 58 15th R1 R2 R2 1994–95 Division 2 46 14 14 18 57 61 56 17th R2 R1 R2 1995–96 Division 2 46 14 14 18 54 62 56 16th R1 R2 W align=left 6 1996–97 Division 2 46 7 14 25 39 70 35 23rd R1 R1 R1 align=left 17 1997–98 Division 3 46 16 19 11 67 61 67 9th R3 R1 R2 align=left 18 1998–99 Division 3 46 20 13 13 79 61 73 5th R3 R1 R1 * * * 12 1999–2000 Division 3 46 24 12 10 72 36 84 2nd R2 R1 R2 align=left 17 2000–01 Division 2 46 27 10 9 79 55 91 2nd R3 R1 R1 align=left 26 2001–02 Division 1 46 10 19 17 52 66 49 21st R4 R2 — align=left 16 2002–03 Division 1 46 15 14 17 62 62 59 15th R3 R4 — align=left 16 2003–04 Division 1 46 13 15 18 53 61 54 17th R3 R3 — align=left 15 2004–05 Championship 46 5 14 27 35 69 29 24th R3 R2 — align=left 6 2005–06 League 1 46 12 16 18 52 62 52 20th R1 R2 R2 align=left 14 2006–07 League 1 46 13 9 24 58 75 38 23rd R1 R2 R1 align=left 16 2007–08 League 2 46 21 11 14 62 58 64 9th R1 R1 R2 * * * 11 2008–09 League 2 46 21 12 13 60 46 58 14th R1 R4 align=left 19 2009–10 League 2 46 21 10 15 55 52 73 5th R2 R2 R1 align=left 30 2010–11 League 2 46 17 15 14 75 60 66 9th R1 R1 align=left 25 2011–12 League 2 46 18 13 15 67 63 67 10th R2 R1 R2 align=left 20 2012–13 League 2 46 24 7 15 74 59 79 2nd R3 R1 R1 align=left 13 2013–14 League 1 46 24 14 8 86 58 86 4th R2 R2 SF align=left 18 2014–15 Championship 46 11 16 19 46 67 46 21st R3 R2 — align=left 10 2015–16 Championship 46 13 10 23 53 71 49 21st R3 R2 — align=left 8 2016–17 Championship 46 5 8 33 40 98 23 24th R3 R1 — align=left 12 2017–18 League 1 46 24 7 15 73 53 79 4th R1 R1 R1 align=left 13 2018–19 Championship 46 8 16 22 36 77 40 22nd R3 R1 — * * * * * * 8 2019–20 League 1 35 18 8 9 61 38 62 2nd R3 R2 GS align=left 17 2020–21 Championship 46 11 9 26 44 60 42 23rd R3 R1 — align=left 10 2021–22 League 1 46 27 9 10 70 33 90 2nd R3 R1 W align=left 25 2022–23 Championship 46 11 17 18 49 60 50 19th R3 R2 — align=left 9 ==Notes== ==References== ;General * * * ;Specific Seasons Rotherham United |
Nancy Ruth Mace (born December 4, 1977) is an American politician serving as the U.S. representative for South Carolina's 1st congressional district since 2021. Her district includes much of the state's share of the East Coast, from Charleston to Hilton Head Island. In 1999, Mace was the first woman to graduate from the Corps of Cadets program at The Citadel. From 2018 to 2020, she represented the 99th district in the South Carolina House of Representatives, covering Hanahan, northeast Mount Pleasant, and Daniel Island. Mace is the first Republican woman to be elected to Congress from South Carolina. Mace worked on Donald Trump's 2016 presidential campaign. In 2021, she voted against impeaching Trump in relation to the January 6 attack on the U.S. Capitol, but nevertheless condemned his words and actions before, during, and after the attack. She also voted to hold Trump aide Steve Bannon in contempt of Congress for defying a subpoena to testify before the House Select Committee investigating the attack. ==Early life, education, and career== Mace was born at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, to United States Army officer James Emory Mace and schoolteacher Anne Mace. In 1999 she became the first woman to graduate from The Citadel's Corps of Cadets program, receiving a degree in business administration. Mace wrote In the Company of Men: A Woman at The Citadel (Simon & Schuster, 2001) about that experience. Mace went on to earn a master's degree in journalism and mass communication from the Henry W. Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Georgia. In 2008, Mace started a consulting business called The Mace Group. ==Early political career== Mace campaigned for the Republican Party nomination for the United States Senate in South Carolina in the 2014 election. During the campaign, she opposed the Affordable Care Act, saying, "We must use any means possible to repeal, defund and ultimately stop Obamacare." Mace received 19,560 votes, or 6.2% of the total votes cast, in the Republican primary as incumbent Lindsey Graham re-won nomination. Mace worked for Donald Trump's 2016 presidential campaign in South Carolina. ==South Carolina House of Representatives== ===Elections=== ==== 2017 special ==== On September 18, 2017, Mace filed as a Republican to run in a special election for the South Carolina State House District 99 seat being vacated by Jimmy Merrill, who resigned earlier that month after an indictment and plea deal for several ethics violations. She received 49.5% of the vote in the November 14 Republican primary, 13 votes short of winning the nomination outright. She defeated the second-place finisher, Mount Pleasant town councilman Mark Smith, in the November 28 runoff, 63–37%. Mace defeated Democrat Cindy Boatwright in the January 16, 2018, general election, 2,066 votes to 1,587 (57–43%). She took office on January 23, 2018. ==== 2018 ==== Mace defeated the Democratic nominee, Mount Pleasant resident Jen Gibson, in the November 6, 2018 general election. ===Tenure=== In 2019, Mace successfully advocated for the inclusion of exceptions for rape and incest in a bill for a six-week abortion ban that passed the South Carolina state house. In a speech on the state house floor, Mace revealed that she had been raped at age 16. She has said she opposes abortion but does not believe the government has the right to deny the procedure to a victim of rape or incest. Mace co-sponsored a bill to oppose offshore drilling off South Carolina's coast. She opposed President Donald Trump's plan to offer oil drilling leases off South Carolina beaches. The Conservation Voters of South Carolina gave Mace a 100% Lifetime rating for her voting record against offshore drilling and seismic testing. The South Carolina Club for Growth gave Mace its 2019 Tax Payer Hero Award. In May 2020, Governor Henry McMaster signed Mace's prison reform bill, which ends the shackling of pregnant women in prison, into law. == U.S. House of Representatives == === Elections === ==== 2020 ==== In June 2019, Mace announced that she would seek the Republican nomination for South Carolina's 1st congressional district, centered in Charleston, and at the time represented by Democrat Joe Cunningham. Cunningham had won the seat in 2018 in a surprise victory, winning a district Trump had carried by 13 percentage points two years earlier. Mace faced Mount Pleasant City Councilwoman Kathy Landing and Bikers for Trump founder Chris Cox in the June 9 Republican primary. During her primary campaign, she ran an advertisement stating she would "help President Trump take care of our veterans", and in which Vice President Mike Pence called her "an extraordinary American with an extraordinary lifetime of accomplishments—past, present and future." She won the primary with 57.5% of the vote. Mace focused her campaign on banning offshore drilling off South Carolina's coast and restoring South Carolina's low country's economy. In the November general election, Mace defeated Cunningham. She assumed office on January 3, 2021. ==== 2022 ==== Mace did not vote to impeach President Trump, but she criticized him for his role in the January 6, 2021 attack on the U.S. Capitol. As a consequence, Trump endorsed former South Carolina representative Katie Arrington in the 2022 Republican primary for Mace's congressional seat. Mace defeated Arrington. In the November general election, Mace defeated her Democratic opponent Annie Andrews by 14 percentage points. === Tenure === Mace was one of seven Republicans who publicly refused to support their colleagues' efforts to challenge the results of the 2020 presidential election on January 6, 2021. These seven signed a letter that, while giving credence to Trump's allegations of electoral fraud, said Congress did not have the authority to influence the election's outcome. Mace was so concerned by the hostile atmosphere Trump was generating in the District of Columbia that she sent her children home to South Carolina before the congressional vote to accept the Electoral College votes. After the 2021 United States Capitol attack, Mace pleaded with Trump to condemn it. While locked down in her Capitol office she told CBS News' Red & Blue host Elaine Quijano, "I'm begging the president to get off Twitter." Mace, along with all other Senate and House Republicans, voted against the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021. On May 18, 2021, Mace joined 61 other House Republicans to vote against the COVID-19 Hate Crimes Act, which condemned acts of hate against Asian-Americans and streamlined data collection and reporting about such occurrences. The bill previously passed the U.S. Senate on a 94–1 vote. Mace said she opposed the bill because it did not address discrimination against Asian-Americans in higher education. In November 2021 Mace criticized fellow Republican Congresswoman Lauren Boebert for her anti-Muslim comments about Democrat Ilhan Omar. === Committee assignments === * Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure * Committee on Oversight and Reform * Committee on Veterans' Affairs == Political positions == thumb|Mace during her campaign for the US Senate for South Carolina in 2013. An October 2021 profile in Politico magazine noted that Mace had worked on Donald Trump's 2016 campaign before disavowing him in the wake of the 2021 United States Capitol attack. She then softened her criticism of Trump before "slowly arcing her political trajectory back toward her post-Jan. 6 image as one of the few House Republicans skeptical of a Donald Trump-ruled GOP." ===D.C. statehood=== In April 2021, Mace voiced her opposition to a Democratic proposal to grant the District of Columbia statehood. She argued that D.C. was too small to qualify as a state, saying, "D.C. wouldn't even qualify as a singular congressional district." === LGBT rights === In 2021, The Washington Examiner wrote that Mace "is a supporter of both religious liberty and gay marriage." Later that year, she told The Washington Examiner, "I strongly support LGBTQ rights and equality. No one should be discriminated against." She opposed the Equality Act, instead co-sponsoring a Republican alternative called the Fairness for All Act. Mace was one of 31 Republicans to vote for the LGBTQ Business Equal Credit Enforcement and Investment Act. Mace was the lone Republican to sponsor H.R.5776 - Serving Our LGBTQ Veterans Act, legislation establishing a Center for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer (LGBTQ) Veterans within the Department of Veterans Affairs. Among other functions, the center must serve as the department's principal adviser on adoption and implementation of policies and programs affecting veterans who are LGBTQ. In July 2022, Mace was among 47 Republican representatives who voted in favor of the Respect for Marriage Act, which protects existing same-sex and interracial marriages under federal law. She later said, "If gay couples want to be as happily or miserably married as straight couples, more power to them. Trust me, I've tried it more than once." === Abortion and contraception === On January 26, 2023, Mace introduced the Standing with Moms Act, which would create a website, life.gov, that would link women to crisis pregnancy centers that urge women to continue pregnancy and do not provide information about alternatives such as abortion. Mace was one of 26 Republicans to vote for the Equal Access to Contraception for Veterans Act. In 2021, Mace was among a handful of Republican representatives who did not sign onto an amicus brief to overturn Roe v. Wade. Mace voted for H.R. 8373 ("The Right to Contraception Act"), a bill designed "to protect a person’s ability to access contraceptives and to engage in contraception, and to protect a health care provider’s ability to provide contraceptives, contraception, and information related to contraception". Regarding abortion legislation, Mace called on legislators to work on a compromise involving "gestational limits" on abortions, citing the example of European nations, but also exceptions for rape or incest, stating: "In most countries in Europe you're looking at 12 to 15 weeks there. And there are other, you know, exceptions that we should be looking at. We should be ensuring that life of the mother in every instance is protected… which is one of the reasons I was one of eight Republicans just a few weeks ago to vote to ensure that women have access to contraceptives. There are some basic things we could be doing that all of us agree on, the vast majority of people agree on, and aren't fringy on either side of the aisle. But that's not what we're doing right now.” She criticized states enacting abortion bans without exceptions in the wake of the Supreme Court overturning Roe v. Wade. In an interview on Face the Nation, (30 April 2023) she said she disagreed with the recently passed abortion ban in Florida, which was signed into law by Governor Ron DeSantis: "Signing a six-week ban that puts women who are victims of rape and girls who are victims of incest and in a hard spot isn't the way to change hearts and minds. It's not compassionate. The requirements [DeSantis] has for rape victims are too much, not something that I support. It's a non-starter. I am a victim of rape. I was raped by a classmate at the age of 16. I am very wary, and the devil is always in the details, but we've got to show more care and concern and compassion for women who've been raped. I don't like that this bill was signed in the dead of night". ===Marijuana legalization=== In 2021, Mace introduced the States Reform Act to remove cannabis from the Controlled Substances Act and regulate it similarly to alcohol. Mace said: "This bill supports veterans, law enforcement, farmers, businesses, those with serious illnesses, and it is good for criminal justice reform. ... The States Reform Act takes special care to keep Americans and their children safe while ending federal interference with state cannabis laws." ===Foreign policy=== In June 2021, Mace was one of 49 House Republicans to vote to repeal the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 2002. During the 2021–2022 Russo-Ukrainian crisis, Mace wrote an article stating her opposition to military intervention in the conflict. Mace voted for H.R. 7691, the Additional Ukraine Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2022, which would provide $40 billion in emergency aid to the Ukrainian government. In 2023, Mace was among 47 Republicans to vote in favor of H.Con.Res. 21, which directed President Joe Biden to remove U.S. troops from Syria within 180 days. In 2023, Mace was among 52 Republicans who voted in favor H.Con.Res. 30, which would remove American troops from Somalia. ===Gun rights=== After the Robb Elementary School shooting in 2022, Mace called for bipartisan action on gun laws. She said, "If we can't even do the bare minimum, we're never going to keep our kids safe in school. Somewhere in the middle is the truth." ===Liz Cheney=== Mace opposed the first attempt to remove Liz Cheney as chair of the House Republican Conference, saying, "We should not be silencing voices of dissent. That is one of the reasons we are in this today, is that we have allowed QAnon conspiracy theorists to lead us." In early May, Mace appeared at fundraiser events with Cheney. During the second attempt to remove Cheney as chair, however, Mace voted to remove her. ===Defense=== In September 2021, Mace was among 135 House Republicans to vote in favor of the National Defense Authorization Act of 2022, which contains a provision that would require women to register for the draft. ===Contempt of Congress=== On October 21, 2021, Mace was one of nine House Republicans who voted to hold Steve Bannon in contempt of Congress for defying a subpoena to appear before the United States House Select Committee on the January 6 Attack. Explaining her vote, Mace said she was being "consistent" and wants "the power to subpoena" in the event that Republicans regain control of the House of Representatives in 2022. ===Race and criminal justice=== Mace co-sponsored H.R.7394 ("Women in Criminal Justice Reform Act"), a bill addressing issues that women face under the criminal justice system. In 2021, Mace was the sole Republican sponsor of H.R.4827 ("Judiciary Accountability Act"), a bill applying to judicial branch employees laws that prohibit discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex (including sexual orientation or gender identity), national origin, age, or disability. It also encouraged representation that better reflects demographics. ===Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023=== Mace was among the 71 Republicans who voted against final passage of the Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023 in the House. == Personal life == Mace resides in Charleston, South Carolina, on Daniel Island. She has two children with her ex-husband Curtis Jackson, whom she divorced in 2019. Mace was previously married to Chris Niemiec. In May 2022, she was engaged to Patrick Bryant. On June 1, 2021, the Charleston Police Department opened an investigation after Mace's home was vandalized with profanity, three anarchy symbols, and graffiti in support of the PRO Act. Mace is a Protestant. ==Electoral history== thumb|South Carolina House District 99 special election, 2018 thumb|Nancy Mace vs. Jen Gibson, general election in South Carolina 99th House District on November 6, 2018 ==See also== *Women in the United States House of Representatives ==References== ==External links== * Representative Nancy Mace official U.S. House website * Nancy Mace for US House campaign website * * * |- |- Category:1977 births Category:21st-century American women politicians Category:21st-century American politicians Category:Businesspeople from Charleston, South Carolina Category:Candidates in the 2014 United States elections Category:Christians from South Carolina Category:Female members of the United States House of Representatives Category:Living people Category:Republican Party members of the South Carolina House of Representatives Category:People from Cumberland County, North Carolina Category:Politicians from Charleston, South Carolina Category:Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from South Carolina Category:The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina alumni Category:University of Georgia alumni Category:Women state legislators in South Carolina |
The official founding date of the German motor vehicle manufacturer BMW is 7 March 1916, when an aircraft producer called Bayerische Flugzeugwerke (formerly Otto Flugmaschinenfabrik) was established. This company was renamed to Bayerische Motoren Werke (BMW) in 1922. However, the BMW name dates back to 1917, when Rapp Motorenwerke changed its name to Bayerische Motoren Werke. BMW's first product was a straight-six aircraft engine called the BMW IIIa. Following the end of World War I, BMW remained in business by producing motorcycle engines, farm equipment, household items and railway brakes. The company produced its first motorcycle, the BMW R32, in 1923. BMW became an automobile manufacturer in 1928 when it purchased Fahrzeugfabrik Eisenach, which built Austin Sevens at that time under licence (under the Dixi marque).Odin, L.C. World in Motion 1939 - The whole of the year's automobile production. Belvedere Publishing, 2015. ASIN: B00ZLN91ZG. The first car sold as a BMW was a rebadged Dixi called the BMW 3/15. Throughout the 1930s, BMW expanded its range into sports cars and larger luxury cars. Aircraft engines, motorcycles, and automobiles would be BMW's main products until World War II. During the war, against the wishes of its director Franz Josef Popp, BMW concentrated on aircraft engine production, with motorcycles as a side line, and automobile manufacture stopped altogether. BMW's factories were heavily bombed during the war, and its remaining West German facilities were banned from producing motor vehicles or aircraft after the war. Again, the company survived by making pots, pans and bicycles. In 1948, BMW restarted motorcycle production. BMW resumed car production in Bavaria in 1952 with the BMW 501 luxury saloon. The range of cars was expanded in 1955, through the production of the cheaper Isetta microcar under licence. Slow sales of luxury cars and small profit margins from microcars meant BMW was in serious financial trouble, and in 1959, the company was nearly taken over by rival Daimler-Benz. A large investment in BMW by Herbert Quandt and Harald Quandt resulted in the company surviving as a separate entity. The Quandt's father, Günther Quandt, was a well-known German industrialist. Quandt joined the Nazi party in 1933 and made a fortune arming the German Wehrmacht, manufacturing weapons and batteries. Many of his enterprises had been appropriated from Jewish owners under duress and with minimal compensation. At least three of his enterprises made extensive use of slave laborers, as many as 50,000 in all. One of his battery factories had its own on-site concentration camp, complete with gallows. While the Quandt family and BMW were not directly connected during the war, funds amassed in the Nazi era by his father allowed Herbert Quandt to buy BMW. The BMW 700 was successful and assisted in the company's recovery. The 1962 introduction of the BMW New Class compact sedans was the beginning of BMW's reputation as a leading manufacturer of sport-oriented cars. Throughout the 1960s, BMW expanded its range by adding coupe and luxury sedan models. The BMW 5 Series mid-size sedan range was introduced in 1972, followed by the BMW 3 Series compact sedans in 1975, the BMW 6 Series luxury coupes in 1976 and the BMW 7 Series large luxury sedans in 1978. The BMW M division released its first road car, a mid-engine supercar, in 1978. This was followed by the BMW M5 in 1984 and the BMW M3 in 1986. Also in 1986, BMW introduced its first V12 engine in the 750i luxury sedan. The company purchased the Rover Group in 1994, but the takeover was not successful and caused BMW large financial losses. In 2000, BMW sold off most of the Rover brands, retaining only Mini. BMW acquired the rights to the Rolls-Royce brand in 1998. The 1995 BMW Z3 expanded the line-up to include a mass-production two-seat roadster, and the 1999 BMW X5 was the company's entry into the SUV market. Their first mass- produced turbocharged petrol engine was introduced in 1980 (m102), with most engines switching over to turbocharging over the following decade. The first hybrid BMW was the 2010 BMW ActiveHybrid 7, and BMW's first electric car was the BMW i3 city car, which was released in 2013. After many years of establishing a reputation for sporting rear-wheel drive cars, BMW's first front-wheel drive car was the 2014 BMW 2 Series Active Tourer multi-purpose vehicle (MPV). == Aircraft and industrial engines == === 1913–1918: World War I === BMW's origins can be traced back to three separate German companies: Rapp Motorenwerke, Bayerische Flugzeugwerke and Fahrzeugfabrik Eisenach. The history of the name itself begins with Rapp Motorenwerke, an aircraft engine manufacturer which was established in 1913 by Karl Rapp. A site near the Oberwiesenfeld was chosen because it was close to Bayerische Flugzeugwerke (then called Otto Flugmaschinenfabrik), with whom he had contracts to supply his four-cylinder aircraft engines.Norbye, Jan P., BMW - Bavaria's Driving Machines p. 11 Rapp was also sub-contracted by Austro-Daimler to manufacture their V12 aircraft engines, under the supervision of Franz Josef Popp, who was delegated to Munich from Vienna. Popp did not restrict himself to the role of observer, becoming actively involved in the overall management of the company.Norbye, p. 12 In April 1917, following founder Karl Rapp's departure, Rapp Motorenwerke was renamed to Bayerische Motoren Werke (BMW). BMW's first product was the BMW IIIa aircraft engine. The IIIa engine was known for good fuel economy and high-altitude performance. The resulting orders for IIIa engines from the German military caused rapid expansion for BMW. The large orders received from the Reichswehr for the BMW IIIa engine were overwhelming for the small company, however government officials in the relevant ministries were able to give BMW extensive practical support for the rapid expansionBayerische Motoren Werke GmbH BMW Historical Archives and funding to build a new factory near BMW's existing workshops. The German Empire did not, however, wish to go on supporting BMW with loans and guarantees, and therefore urged the flotation of a public limited company.Kiley, D. Driven:Inside BMW, the Most Admired Car Company in the World The name change to Bayerische Motoren Werke compelled management to devise a new logo for the company, and the famous BMW logo was designed at this time. However, they remained true to the imagery of the previous Rapp Motorenwerke emblem. Thus, both the old and the new emblems were built up in the same way – the company name was placed in a black circle, which was once again given a pictorial form by placing a symbol within it. By analogy with this, the blue and white panels of the Bavarian national flag were placed at the center of the BMW logo. Not until the late 1920s was the logo lent a new interpretation as representing a rotating propeller. BMW's corporate history considers the founding date of Bayerische Flugzeugwerke (7 March 1916) to be the birth of the company. === 1918-1923: Post-war aftermath === thumb|right |BFw Helios motorcycle After the end of World War I in 1918, BMW was forced to cease aircraft engine production by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. At the time, Max Wiedmann held about 80 percent of the shares in BMW, the majority of which were obtained from his father-in-law Julius Auspitzer. Following Wiedmann's capitulation, BMW AG was registered as a company on 13 August 1918, taking over the manufacturing assets, order book and workforce from BMW GmbH.Munich Commercial Register; Munich public records; 13 August 1918 The shares in BMW AG were owned by the Viennese financier Camillo Castiglioni (33%), the Nuremberg industrialist Fritz Neumeyer (33%), Bayerische Bank (17%) and Norddeutsche Bank (17%). To remain in business, BMW produced farm equipment, household items and railway brakes. The BMW M2B15 industrial engine was also used in various motorcycles, including the 1920 Helios model built by Bayerische Flugzeugwerke (which would later merge with BMW). thumb|Share of the Bayerische Motoren Werke AG, issued September 1925, signated by Camillo Castiglioni as member of the supervisory board On 20 May 1922, Camillo Castiglioni purchased the rights to the name BMW for 75 million reichsmarks. The purchase did not include BMW's facilities, therefore the company descended from Rapp Motorenwerke continued production under the name , now known as Knorr-Bremse. Castiglioni was also an investor in another aircraft company, called Bayerische Flugzeugwerke (formerly Otto Flugmaschinenfabrik), which he renamed to Bayerische Motoren Werke AG. The disused factory of Bayerische Flugzeugwerke on Lerchenauer Straße was re- opened to produce engines for buses, trucks, farm equipment and pumps under the BMW brand name. BMW's headquarters have been at that location ever since.Norbye, p. 13BMW Munich Plant - Location - History - 1922 === 1939–1945: World War II === With German rearmament in the 1930s, the company again began producing aircraft engines for the Luftwaffe. In 1939, BMW bought Brandenburgische Motorenwerke, also known as Bramo, from the Siemens group of companies and merged it with its aircraft engine division under the name BMW Flugmotorenbau GmbH. A new factory at Allach, outside Munich, began production of aircraft engines later that year.Norbye, p. 72 Over 30,000 aero engines were manufactured through 1945, as well as over 500 jet engines such as the BMW 003. To enable this massive production effort, forced labor was utilized, consisting primarily of prisoners from concentration camps such as Dachau.The Dachau Concentration Camp, 1933 to 1945, p.171 By the end of the war, almost 50% of the 50,000-person workforce at BMW AG consisted of prisoners from concentration camps. Among its successful World War II engine designs were the BMW 132 and BMW 801 air-cooled radial engines, and the pioneering BMW 003 axial-flow turbojet. Towards the end of the Third Reich, BMW developed some military aircraft projects for the Luftwaffe— the Strahlbomber, Schnellbomber and Strahljäger— but none of them reached production. == Motorcycles == thumb|right|BMW R24 BMW's motorcycle history began in 1921 when the company commenced manufacturing engines for other companies. BMW's own motorcycles— sold under the BMW Motorrad brand— began in 1923 with the BMW R 32, which was powered by a flat-twin engine (also called a "boxer-twin" engine). Production of motorcycles with flat-twin engines continues to this day, however BMW has also produced many models with other types of engine. == Automobiles == === 1923–1939: Start of production === BMW's production of automobiles began in 1928, when the company purchased the Automobilwerk Eisenach car company from Gothaer Waggonfabrik. Eisenach's current model was the Dixi 3/15, a licensed copy of the Austin 7 which had begun production in 1927. Following the takeover, the Dixi 3/15 became the BMW 3/15, BMW's first production car.Norbye, p.24 Towards the end of 1930, BMW attempted to introduce a new front axle with independent wheel suspension for both their models, the BMW 'Dixi' 3/15 DA4 and BMW 'Wartburg' DA3, but this resulted in accidents with the prototypes because of construction faults.Article ‘Die Schwingachse des Kleinen,’ Motor-Kritik magazine, issue 3, early February 1931. In 1932, the BMW 3/20 became the first BMW automobile designed entirely by BMW. It was powered by a four-cylinder engine, which BMW designed based on the Austin 7 engine. BMW's first automotive straight-six engine was released in 1933,Norbye, pp. 33-36 in the BMW 303, which was larger and more conventional than its 3/20 predecessor.Norbye, p. 33Noakes, Andrew, The Ultimate History of BMW, pp. 24-25 The 303 was also the first BMW to use the "kidney grille" that would become a characteristic of BMW styling.Norbye, p. 36 The 303 formed the basis for the four-cylinder 309 and the larger-engined 315 and 319,Norbye, pp. 38-40, 43-44Noakes, p. 26 while the 315/1 and 319/1 roadsters were built using the chassis of the 303.Noakes, pp. 27-28 and the restyled 329.Norbye, p. 47 The 303 platform was supplemented in 1936 by the BMW 326, a larger luxury car with a more rigid frame. The 326 was BMW's first four-door sedan.Norbye, pp. 45-46Noakes, p. 28 A shortened version of the 326 chassis was used in the BMW 320 (which replaced the 329), the BMW 321 (which replaced the 320) and in the BMW 327 coupé.Norbye, pp. 47, 68-70Noakes, pp. 36-37 Also in 1936, the BMW 328 sports car replaced the 315/1 and 319/1. Unlike its predecessors, the 328 had a purpose-built chassis and a unique engine (the BMW M328) which produced .Norbye, pp. 65-66 From its introduction at the Eifelrennen race at the Nürburgring in 1936, where Ernst Henne drove it to win the 2.0 litre class,Noakes, p. 31 to the overall victory of Fritz Huschke von Hanstein at the 1940 Brescia Grand Prix during World War II.Norbye, p. 68Noakes, p. 35 The 328 was highly successful in motor racing, with more than 100 class wins in 1937 alone.Norbye, p. 66 The BMW 335 luxury car was produced from 1939 to 1941.Norbye, p. 250 It was built using an extended version of the 326 chassis with the larger BMW M335 straight-six engine.Norbye, p. 69 File:BMW Dixi 1930.JPG |BMW 3/15PS (1928-1931) File:MHV_BMW_303_1934_01.jpg |BMW 303 (1932-1934) File:MHV_BMW_335_1939_01.jpg |BMW 335 (1939-1941) === 1945–1951: Post-war rebuilding === In East Germany, the BMW factories at Eisenach- Dürrerhof, Wandlitz-Basdorf and Zühlsdorf) were seized by the Soviet Union. The factory at Eisenach was taken over by the Soviet Awtowelo Company.Noakes, p.42 and resumed production of the BMW 321 in 1945, just after motorcycle production also resumed. A mildly revised BMW 327 entered production in 1948, followed by the BMW 340 in 1949. These were sold under the BMW name with the BMW logo affixed to them.Norbye, p. 75 To protect its trademarks, BMW AG legally severed its Eisenach branch from the company. The Soviet Awtowelo Company continued production of the 327 and 340 under the Eisenacher Motorenwerk (EMW) brand with a red and white version of the logo until 1955. In West Germany, many of the BMW factories had been heavily bombed during the war. By the end of the war, the Munich plant was completely destroyed. BMW was banned by the Allies from producing motorcycles or automobiles. During this ban, BMW used basic secondhand and salvaged equipment to make pots and pans, later expanding to other kitchen supplies and bicycles. In 1948, BMW was still barred from producing automobiles, however, the Bristol Aeroplane Company (BAC) inspected the factory, and returned to Britain with plans for the 327 model and the six-cylinder engine as official war reparations. Bristol then employed BMW engineer Fritz Fiedler to lead their engine development team. In 1947, the newly formed Bristol Cars released their 400 coupé, a lengthened version of the BMW 327. that featured BMW's double-kidney grille.Norbye, p. 80 By the end of the 1940s BMW had returned to motorcycle manufacture but still had not restarted automobile manufacture.Norbye, p.85 There were several approaches considered regarding how to re-enter the automotive market. Kurt Donath, technical director of BMW and general manager of the Milbertshofen factory,Norbye, p.76 advocated to produce another manufacturer's old models under licence, also purchasing the tooling to produce the cars from the other manufacturer.Norbye, p.86 Chief engineer Alfred Böning's preferred approach was a small economy car, and he developed the BMW 331 prototype, powered by a motorcycle engine. In the end, it was sales director Hanns Grewenig's proposal that was successful. Grewenig believed that BMW's small production capacity was best suited to luxury cars with high profit margins, similar to the cars BMW made just before the war. To this end, he had Böning and his team design the BMW 501 luxury sedan.Norbye, p.87 The 501 was unveiled in 1951, however delays in receiving and setting up equipment caused production of the 501 to be delayed until late 1952.Norbye, pp. 89-90 === 1952–1958: Production resumes in Munich === There were several other shortcomings with the 501 luxury sedan. The cost was approximately DM15,000— about four times the average German's earnings.Noakes, p. 46 It was also much heavier than expected, so the six- cylinder engine (based on a pre-war design) struggled to provide adequate performance.Norbye, p. 88 Construction of the 501 bodies was originally expected to be done in-house, however BMW ended up using bodies built by Karosserie Baur in Stuttgart for more than a year. In 1954, the 501 model range received some much-needed changes, which resulted in a doubling of sales. The 501 became the 501A and received a price reduction of DM1,000. An entry-level 501B model was introduced, priced at DM1,000 below the 501A.Noakes, p. 48Norbye, p. 92 Both models received an upgraded version of the six-cylinder engine. A new BMW 502 flagship model was introduced, with a higher trim level and the new BMW OHV V8 engine,Norbye, p. 91Norbye, p. 90 BMW's first V8 engine. At the same time, BMW sought to offer a more affordable car. Motorcycles were BMW's largest money earner at the time, and their sales had peaked in 1954. Germans were turning away from mopeds and motorcycles toward light automobiles such as the Messerschmitt KR175 and the Goggomobil. After seeing the Iso Isetta bubble car at the 1954 Geneva Motor Show,Norbye, pp. 119-120Lewin, pp. 31-32 BMW entered talks with Iso Rivolta and bought both a licence to manufacture the Isetta and all the tooling needed to manufacture its body.Norbye, p. 121 Production of BMW's version of the Isetta began in 1955; more than ten thousand Isettas were sold that year. BMW made more than a hundred thousand Isettas by the end of 1958,Lewin, p. 33 and a total of 161,728 by the end of production in 1962.Norbye, p. 122 The Isetta chassis was lengthened to create the BMW 600, since BMW knew that it needed a larger four- seat family car to keep up with the rising wealth and expectations of the German people, but could not afford to develop a new model from scratch. The rear-mounted engine was increased in size from and the 600's rear suspension was BMW's first use of the semi-trailing arm system that would be used on their sedans and coupes until the 1990s. Released in 1957, the 600 could not compete against the larger, more powerful Volkswagen Beetle. Production ended in 1959 after fewer than 35,000 were built.Norbye, pp. 122-123Lewin, p. 34 Influenced by the public response to the introduction of the Mercedes-Benz 300SL and Mercedes-Benz 190SL in 1954, BMW began development of a sports car based on the platform of the BMW 502 luxury sedan.Norbye, pp. 95-96 The styling was contracted out to industrial designer Albrecht von Goertz, who designed a two-seat roadster and a four-seat grand tourer versions.Norbye, pp. 113-114 The BMW 507 roadster was introduced at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York in early 1955,Seeliger, Georg, BMW 503/507: Die V8-Sportmodelle, p. 83BMW 507 and 503 (1955-1960), Car Body Design, 21 November 2006 while the BMW 503 four-seater was introduced a few months later. However, high prices would be the downfall of both models. Max Hoffman, the BMW importer for the United States, told BMW that he would order 2000 507s if he could sell them for each. When the selling price was given as about twice that, and higher than the 300SL, he withdrew his offer.Norbye, p. 115Noakes, pp. 50-52 412 units of the 503 and 253 of the 507 were built during their production runs from 1956 (May for the 503, November for the 507) to March 1959.Norbye, p. 251Lewin, Tony, The Complete Book of BMW: Every Model in the World Since 1962, p. 29 === 1959–1968: Near bankruptcy and New Class === By 1959, BMW was in debt and losing money.Norbye, p. 134 The Isetta was selling well but with small profit margins.Noakes, p. 57 Their 501-based luxury sedans were not selling well enough to be profitable and were becoming increasingly outdated.Norbye, p. 130 Their 503 coupé and 507 roadster were too expensive to be profitable. The BMW 600, a four-seater based on the Isetta, was selling poorly.Noakes, pp. 56–57 The motorcycle market imploded in the mid-1950s with increasing affluence turning Germans away from motorcycles and toward cars.Norbye, pp. 119–120 BMW had sold their Allach plant to MAN in 1954.Norbye, p. 119 American Motors and the Rootes Group had both tried to acquire BMW.Norbye, p. 132 At BMW's annual general meeting on 9 December 1959, Dr. Hans Feith, chairman of BMW's supervisory board, proposed a merger with Daimler-Benz. The dealers and small shareholders opposed this suggestion and rallied around a counter-proposal by Dr. Friedrich Mathern, which gained enough support to stop the merger. At that time, the Quandt Group, led by half-brothers Herbert and Harald Quandt, had recently increased their holdings in BMW and had become their largest shareholder. By the end of November 1960, the Quandts owned two-thirds of BMW's stock between them. By this time, BMW had launched the BMW 700, a small car with a rear-mounted engine (based on the BMW R67 motorbike engine). The 700 was available as a 2-door sedan, a coupe and a "RS" model for racing.Norbye, p. 124Melissen, Pieter; Ultimatecarpage.com: BMW 700 RS In 1960, the development program began for a new range of models, called the "Neue Klasse" (New Class) project.Norbye, pp. 140-141 The resulting BMW New Class four-door sedans, introduced in 1962, are credited for saving the company financially and establishing BMW's identity as a producer of sports sedans. The New Class had front disc brakes and four-wheel independent suspension,Norbye, pp. 136-137 which helped establish BMW's reputation for sporting cars. It was the first BMW to officially feature the "Hofmeister kink", the rear window line that has been a styling feature of most BMWs since. By 1963, with the company back on its feet, BMW offered dividends to its shareholders for the first time since World War II.Norbye, p. 63 In 1965, the New Class range was expanded with the New Class Coupés luxury models. The following year, the two-door version of the 1600 was launched, along with a convertible in 1967. These models began the BMW 02 Series, of which the 2002 sports sedan model was the best known.Norbye, pp. 161-162 BMW acquired the Hans Glas company based in Dingolfing, Germany, in 1966. Glas vehicles were briefly badged as BMW until the company was fully absorbed. It was reputed that the acquisition was mainly to gain access to Glas’ development of the timing belt with an overhead camshaft in automotive applications,Toronto Star 3 July 2004 although some saw Glas’ Dingolfing plant as another incentive. However, this factory was outmoded and BMW's biggest immediate gain was, according to themselves, a stock of highly qualified engineers and other personnel. The Glas factories continued to build a limited number of their existing models, while adding the manufacture of BMW front and rear axles until they could be closer incorporated into BMW.Becker, p. 74 === 1968–1978: New Six, 3 Series, 5 Series, 7 Series === In 1968, production of the BMW M30 engine began, BMW's first straight-six engine since World War II which would remain in production for 24 years. This engine coincided with the launch of the New Six large sedans (the predecessor to the 7 Series) and New Six CS large coupes (the predecessor to the 6 Series). The first generation of the BMW 5 Series mid-size sedans were introduced in 1972, to replace the New Class sedans. The 5 Series platform was also used for the BMW 6 Series coupes, which were introduced in 1976. In 1975, the first generation of the BMW 3 Series range of compact sedans/coupes was introduced as the replacement for the 02 Series. The first generation of the BMW 7 Series large sedans were introduced in 1978. === 1978–1989: M division === thumb|E30 M3 The 1978 BMW M1 was BMW's first mid-engined sports car and was developed in conjunction with Lamborghini. It was also the first road car produced by BMW's motorsport division, BMW M. In 1980, the M division produced its first model based on a regular production vehicle, the E12 5 Series M535i. The M535i is the predecessor to the BMW M5, which was introduced in 1985 based on the E28 5 Series platform. In 1983, BMW introduced its first diesel engine, the BMW M21. The first all-wheel drive BMW was the E30 3 Series 325iX model, which began production in 1985. The E30 became BMW's first model produced in a station wagon (estate) body style, when the "Touring" model was introduced in 1987. The 1986 E32 7 Series 750i model was BMW's first car to use a V12 engine. The E32 was also the first sedan to be available with a long-wheelbase body style (badged "iL" or "Li"). The BMW M3 was introduced in 1985, as part of the E30 3 Series model range. === 1989–1994: 8 Series, hatchbacks === thumb|E31 8 Series The 8 Series range of large coupes was introduced in 1989 and in 1992 was the first application of BMW's first V8 engine in 25 years, the BMW M60. It was also the first BMW to use a multi-link rear suspension, a design which was implemented for mass-production in 1990 E36 3 Series. The E34 5 Series, introduced in 1988, was the first 5 Series to be produced with all-wheel drive or a wagon body style. In 1989, the limited-production BMW Z1 began BMW's line of two-seat convertible Z Series models. In 1993, the BMW 3 Series Compact (built on the E36 3 Series platform) was BMW's first hatchback model (except for the limited production 02 Series "Touring" models). These hatchback models formed a new entry-level model range below the other 3 Series models. In 1992, BMW acquired a large stake in California-based industrial design studio DesignworksUSA, which they fully acquired in 1995. Their first automotive assembly plant outside of Germany was announced to be built in Greer, South Carolina (between Greenville and Spartanburg) in the United States. It was assembling cars a year later. The 1993 McLaren F1 is powered by a BMW V12 engine. === 1994–1999: Rover ownership, Z3 === In 1994, BMW bought the British Rover Group (which at the time consisted of the Rover, Land Rover, Mini and MG brands as well as the rights to defunct Austin and Morris brands), and owned it for six years. The purchase of Rover was not successful. Already struggling after years of industrial disputes, Rover had a poor reputation but in trying to improve its image it would become a rival to the BMW market segment. BMW found it difficult to reposition the English automaker alongside its own products and the Rover division was faced with endless changes in its marketing strategy. In the six years under BMW, Rover was positioned as a premium automaker, a mass-market automaker, a division of BMW and an independent unit. The 1996 documentary, When Rover Met BMW gave some insight into the difficulties faced by the two companies. By 2000, Rover was incurring huge losses and BMW decided to sell off several of the brands. The MG and Rover brands were sold to the Phoenix Consortium to form MG Rover, while Land Rover was taken over by Ford. BMW, meanwhile, retained the rights to Mini (the all new Mini was launched in 2001). Back in Germany, the 1995 E38 7 Series 725tds was the first 7 Series to use a diesel engine. The E39 5 Series was also introduced in 1995 and was the first 5 Series to use rack-and-pinion steering and a significant number of suspension parts made from lightweight aluminum. The Z3 two-seat convertible and coupe models were introduced in 1995. These were the first mass-produced models outside of the 1/3/5 Series and the first model to be solely manufactured outside Germany (in the United States, in this case). In 1998, the E46 3 Series was introduced, with the M3 model featuring BMW's most powerful naturally aspirated engine to date. === 1999–2006: SUV models, Rolls-Royce === BMW's first SUV, the X5, was introduced in 1999. The X5 was a large departure from BMW's image of sporting "driver’s cars", however, it was very successful and resulted in other SUVs being introduced, such as the smaller X3 in 2003. The 2001 E65 7 Series was BMW's first model to use a 6-speed automatic transmission and the iDrive infotainment system. The E65 also attracted controversy for its exterior styling. In 2002, the Z4 two-seat coupe/convertible replaced the Z3. In 2004, the 1 Series hatchbacks replaced the 3 Series Compact models as BMW's entry- level models. 2003 Rolls-Royce Phantom was the first Rolls-Royce vehicle produced under BMW ownership. This was the result of complicated contractual negotiations that began in 1998 when Rolls-Royce plc licensed use of the Rolls-Royce name and logo to BMW, but Vickers sold the remaining elements of Rolls-Royce Motor Cars to Volkswagen. In addition, BMW had supplied Rolls- Royce with engines since 1998 for use in the Rolls-Royce Silver Seraph. In 2005, BMW's first V10 engine was introduced in the M5 model of the E60 5 Series range. The E60 platform was also used for the E63/E64 6 Series, which reintroduced the 6 Series models after a hiatus of 14 years. === 2006–2013: Shift to turbocharged engines === BMW's first mass-production turbocharged petrol engine was the six-cylinder BMW N54, which debuted in the 2006 E92 3 Series 335i model. In 2011, the F30 3 Series was released, with turbocharged engines being used on all models. This shift to turbocharging and smaller engines was reflective of general automotive industry trends. The M3 model based on the F30 platform is the first M3 to use a turbocharged engine. BMW's first turbocharged V8 engine, the BMW N63, was introduced in 2008. Despite the trend to downsizing, in 2008 BMW began production of its first turbocharged V12 engine, the BMW N74. In 2011, the F10 5 Series was the first time an M5 model used a turbocharged engine. The BMW X6 SUV was introduced in 2008. The X6 attracted controversy for its unusual combination of coupe and SUV styling cues. In 2009, the BMW X1 compact SUV was introduced. The BMW 5 Series Gran Turismo fastback body style was also introduced in 2009, based on the 5 Series platform. BMW's first hybrid-powered car, the F01 7 Series ActiveHybrid 7 model, was introduced in 2010. === 2013–present: Electric/hybrid/fuel-cell power === BMW released their first electric car, the BMW i3 city car, in 2013. The i3 is also the first mass-production car to have a structure mostly made from carbon-fiber. BMW's first hybrid sportscar (and their first mid-engined car since the M1) is called the BMW i8 and was introduced in 2014. The i8 is also the first car to use BMW's first inline-three engine, the BMW B38. In 2013, the BMW 4 Series replaced the coupe and convertible models of the 3 Series. Many elements of the 4 Series remained shared with the equivalent 3 Series model. Similarly, the BMW 2 Series replaced the coupe and convertible models of the 1 Series in 2013. The 2 Series was produced in coupe (F22), five-seat MPV (F45) and seven-seat MPV (F46) body styles. The latter two body styles are the first front-wheel drive vehicles produced by BMW. The F48 X1 also includes some front-wheel-drive models. The BMW X4 compact SUV was introduced in 2014. The 2016 G11 7 Series 740e and F30 3 Series 330e models are the first plug-in hybrid versions of the 7 Series and 3 Series respectively. ==See also== *BMW Group Classic ==References== ;Citations ;Sources * * * * * * * * * *BMW Historical Archives Bayerische Motoren Werke GmbH * * * * * * * *Article ‘Die Schwingachse des Kleinen,’ Motor-Kritik magazine, issue 3, early February 1931. * * ==Further reading== * * ==External links== *BMW Group archives *BMW models history in pictures Category:BMW BMW BMW |
Canned Heat is an American blues and rock band that was formed in Los Angeles in 1965. The group has been noted for its efforts to promote interest in blues music and its original artists. It was launched by two blues enthusiasts Alan Wilson and Bob Hite, who took the name from Tommy Johnson's 1928 "Canned Heat Blues", a song about an alcoholic who had desperately turned to drinking Sterno, generically called "canned heat". After appearances at the Monterey and Woodstock festivals at the end of the 1960s, the band acquired worldwide fame with a lineup of Hite (vocals), Wilson (guitar, harmonica and vocals), Henry Vestine and later Harvey Mandel (lead guitar), Larry Taylor (bass), and Adolfo de la Parra (drums). The music and attitude of Canned Heat attracted a large following and established the band as one of the popular acts of the hippie era. Canned Heat appeared at most major musical events at the end of the 1960s, performing blues standards along with their own material and occasionally indulging in lengthy "psychedelic" solos. Three of their songs — "Going Up the Country", "On the Road Again", and "Let's Work Together" — became international hits. Since the early 1970s, following the early death of Wilson, numerous personnel changes have occurred. For much of the 1990s and 2000s and following Taylor's death in 2019, de la Parra has been the only member from the band's 1960s lineup. Walter Trout and Junior Watson are among the guitarists who played in later editions of the band. == History == === Origins and early lineups === Canned Heat was started within the community of blues collectors. Bob Hite had been trading blues records since his early teens, and his house in Topanga Canyon was a meeting place for people interested in music. In 1965, some blues devotees there decided to form a jug band and started rehearsals. The initial configuration included Hite as vocalist, Alan Wilson on bottleneck guitar, Mike Perlowin on lead guitar, Stu Brotman on bass and Keith Sawyer on drums. Perlowin and Sawyer dropped out within a few days, so guitarist Kenny Edwards (a friend of Wilson's) stepped in to replace Perlowin, and Ron Holmes agreed to sit in on drums until they could find a permanent drummer. Another of Hite's friends, Henry Vestine (who had been let go from Frank Zappa's Mothers of Invention for smoking pot), asked if he could join the band and was accepted, while Edwards was kept on temporarily. Soon Edwards departed (he went on to form the Stone Poneys with Bobby Kimmel and Linda Ronstadt), and at the same time Frank Cook came in to replace Holmes as their permanent drummer. Cook already had substantial professional experience, having performed with such jazz luminaries as bassist Charlie Haden, trumpeter Chet Baker, and pianist Elmo Hope, and had also collaborated with black soul/pop artists such as Shirley Ellis and Dobie Gray. In 1966, producer Johnny Otis brought them into a studio to record material for a first album, with the ensemble of Hite, Wilson, Cook, Vestine, and Brotman. However, the recordings went unissued until 1970 when they appeared as Vintage Heat, released by Janus Records. Otis oversaw the session which produced a dozen tracks, including two versions of "Rollin' and Tumblin'" (with and without harmonica), "Spoonful" by Willie Dixon, and "Louise" by John Lee Hooker in his studio in Los Angeles. Over a summer hiatus in 1966, Stuart Brotman effectively left Canned Heat after he had signed a contract for a long engagement in Fresno with an Armenian belly-dance revue. Canned Heat had contacted Brotman, touting a recording contract which had to be signed the next day, but Brotman was unable to make the signing on short notice. Brotman would go on to join the world-music band Kaleidoscope with David Lindley, replacing Chris Darrow. Replacing Brotman in Canned Heat was Mark Andes, who lasted only a couple of months before he returned to his former colleagues in the Red Roosters, who adopted the new name Spirits Rebellious, later shortened to Spirit. After joining up with managers Skip Taylor and John Hartmann, Canned Heat finally found a permanent bassist in Larry Taylor, who joined in March 1967. He was a former member of the Moondogs and the brother of Ventures' drummer, Mel Taylor, and already had experience backing Jerry Lee Lewis and Chuck Berry in concert, and recording studio sessions for the Monkees. This lineup (Hite, Wilson, Vestine, Taylor, Cook) started recording in April 1967 for Liberty Records with Calvin Carter, who had been the head of A&R; for Vee-Jay Records and had recorded such bluesmen as Jimmy Reed, John Lee Hooker. They recorded "Rollin' and Tumblin'", backed with "Bullfrog Blues", and this became Canned Heat's first single. The first official album, Canned Heat, was released three months later in July 1967. All tracks were re- workings of older blues songs. The Los Angeles Free Press reported: "This group has it! They should do very well, both live and with their recordings." Canned Heat fared reasonably well commercially, reaching number 76 on the Billboard chart. === Rise to fame and formation of the classic lineup === The first big live appearance of Canned Heat was at the Monterey Pop Festival on June 17, 1967. A picture of the band taken at the performance was featured on the cover of Down Beat where an article complimented their playing: D.A. Pennebaker's documentary captured their rendition of "Rollin and Tumblin" and two other songs from the set, "Bullfrog Blues" and "Dust My Broom", found a place later in a boxed CD set in 1992. Canned Heat also began to garner their notoriety as "the bad boys of rock" for being jailed in Denver, Colorado, after a police informant provided enough evidence for their arrest for drugs (an incident recalled in their song "My Crime"). Band manager Skip Taylor was forced to obtain the $10,000 bail by selling off Canned Heat's publishing rights to Liberty Records president Al Bennett. thumb|1970 photo of the classic Canned Heat lineup. After the Denver incident, Frank Cook was replaced with de la Parra, who had been playing the drums in Bluesberry Jam (the band which evolved into Pacific Gas & Electric). As an official member of Canned Heat, de la Parra played his first gig on December 1, 1967, sharing top billing with the Doors at the Long Beach Auditorium. This began what de la Parra refers to as the classic and perhaps best known Canned Heat lineup, which recorded some of the band's most famous and well-regarded songs. During this "classic" period, Skip Taylor and John Hartmann introduced the use of band member nicknames: * Bob "The Bear" Hite * Alan "Blind Owl" Wilson * Henry "Sunflower" Vestine (and later Harvey "The Snake" Mandel) * Larry "The Mole" Taylor * Adolfo "Fito" de la Parra Their second released album, Boogie with Canned Heat, included "On the Road Again", an updated version of a 1950s composition by Floyd Jones. "On the Road Again" became the band's breakout song and was a worldwide success. The album also included a twelve-minute version of "Fried Hockey Boogie", (credited to Larry Taylor, but derived from John Lee Hooker's "Boogie Chillen'" riff) allowed each member to stretch out on his instrument while establishing them with hippie ballroom audiences across America as the "kings of the boogie". Hite's "Amphetamine Annie" (a "speed kills" tune inspired by the drug abuse of an acquaintance and reminiscent of Albert King's "The Hunter"), became one of their most enduring songs and one of the first "anti-drug" songs of the decade. Although not featured on the album's artwork, this was the first Canned Heat album to have featured drummer de la Parra. With this success Taylor, Hartmann and new associate Gary Essert leased a Hollywood club they named the Kaleidoscope, in which Canned Heat essentially became the house band; Jefferson Airplane, Grateful Dead, Buffalo Springfield and Sly and the Family Stone also performed there. Also in 1968, after playing before 80,000 at the first annual Newport Pop Festival in September, Canned Heat left for their first European tour. It entailed a month of concert performances and media engagements that included television appearances on the British show Top of the Pops. They also appeared on the German program Beat Club, where they lip-synched "On the Road Again". === "Going Up the Country" and Woodstock === In October, the band released their third album, Living the Blues, which included "Going Up the Country", their best-known song. Wilson's recreation of Henry Thomas' "Bull-Doze Blues" was almost a note-for-note copy of the original, including Thomas' instrumental break on the "quills" (pan-pipes) which Jim Horn duplicated on flute. Wilson rewrote the lyrics with a simple message that caught the "back- to-nature" attitude of the late 1960s. The song was a hit in numerous countries around the world (number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100) and was used as the unofficial theme song of the Woodstock Festival in Michael Wadleigh's 1970 documentary. The album also included a 19-minute experimental track "Parthenogenesis", which was a nine-part sound collage of blues, ragas, jaw- harp sounds, guitar distortion and other electronic effects; all pulled together under the direction of manager/producer, Skip Taylor. Longer still is "Refried Boogie", clocking in at over 40 minutes, recorded live at the Kaleidoscope. Also recorded live at the Kaleidoscope around this time was the album, which was later 1971 released with the deceptive title, Live at Topanga Corral (later renamed Live at the Kaleidoscope), by Wand Records because Liberty Records did not want to release a live album at the time and manager Skip Taylor did not want a lawsuit. The band ended 1968 in a big way at a New Year's show at the Shrine Auditorium, in Los Angeles, with Bob Hite riding a painted purple dayglo elephant to the stage. In July 1969, just prior to Woodstock, Hallelujah, their fourth album was released. The Melody Maker review included: "While less ambitious than some of their work, this is nonetheless an excellent blues-based album and they remain the most convincing of the white electric blues groups." The album contained mainly original compositions with lyrics relating to the band such as Wilson's "Time Was" and a few re-worked covers like "Sic 'em Pigs" (Bukka White's "Sic 'em Dogs") and the original "Canned Heat" by Tommy Johnson. Within days of the album's release, Vestine left the group after an on-stage blow up at the Fillmore West between himself and Larry Taylor. The next night after Mike Bloomfield and Harvey Mandel jammed with Canned Heat, both were offered Vestine's spot in the band's lineup and Mandel accepted. The new lineup played two dates at the Fillmore before appearing at Woodstock in mid-August. Arriving via helicopter at Woodstock, Canned Heat played their set on the second day of the festival at sunset. The set included "Going Up the Country" which became the title track in the documentary, even though the band's performance was not shown. The song was included in the first (triple) Woodstock album; while the second album, Woodstock 2, contained "Woodstock Boogie". The expanded 25th Anniversary Collection added "Leaving This Town" to the band's collection of Woodstock performances and "A Change Is Gonna Come" was included on the director's cut of the documentary film; leaving only "Let's Work Together" to be released. Before their European tour in early 1970, the band recorded Future Blues, an album containing five original compositions and three covers. "Let's Work Together", a Wilbert Harrison song, was the single chosen for release in Europe to coincide with the tour. At the band's insistence the U.S. release was delayed in order to offer the author's version a chance in the market first. Canned Heat had a big hit with "Let's Work Together" and was the band's only top forty hit to feature the vocals of Bob "The Bear" Hite. The album featured piano by Dr. John and an atypical jump blues style also. Some controversy was sparked by the Moon landing/Iwo Jima album cover and the upside-down American flag. The upside-down flag was Wilson's idea and was a response to his love of nature, growing environmentalism and concern that humankind would soon be polluting the Moon as well as the Earth (as reflected in his song "Poor Moon"). Material from their 1970 European tour provided the tracks for, Canned Heat '70 Concert Live in Europe, later retitled Live in Europe. It was a live album that combined tracks from different shows throughout the tour, but was put together in such a way as to resemble one continuous concert for the listener. Although the album garnered some critical acclaim and did well in the UK (peaking at number 15), it had only limited commercial success in the U.S.; Returning from Europe in May 1970, an exhausted Larry Taylor left the band to join John Mayall (who had moved to Laurel Canyon, California) and was followed by Mandel. === Hooker 'n Heat and the death of Wilson === With Taylor and Mandel gone, Vestine returned on guitar, accompanied by bassist Antonio de la Barreda who had played with de la Parra for five years in Mexico City and was previously a member of the groups Jerome and Sam & the Goodtimers. This lineup went into the studio to record with John Lee Hooker the tracks that would yield the double album, Hooker 'n Heat. The band had originally met Hooker at the airport in Portland, Oregon, and discovered they were fans of each other's work. Hooker and Canned Heat became good friends and Hooker had stated that Wilson was "the greatest harmonica player ever". The planned format for the sessions called for Hooker to perform a few songs by himself, followed by some duets with Wilson playing piano or guitar. The rest of the album featured Hooker with some backing by the group (sans Bob Hite, who co-produced the album along with Skip Taylor). The album was finished after Wilson's passing and became the first album in Hooker's career to make the charts, topping out at number 73 in February 1971. Hooker 'n Heat reunited in 1978 and record a live album at the Fox Venice Theatre in Los Angeles, released in 1981 as, Hooker 'n Heat, Live at the Fox Venice Theatre, under Rhino Records. Also in 1989, Canned Heat (and many others) guested on John Lee Hooker's album The Healer. Shortly after the original Hooker 'n Heat sessions, Wilson, who had always suffered from depression, was said by some to have attempted suicide by driving his van off the road near Hite's home in Topanga Canyon. Unlike other members of the band, Wilson did not have much success with women and was deeply upset and frustrated by this. His depression also worsened over time. On September 3, 1970, just before leaving for a festival in Berlin, the band learned of Wilson's death by barbiturate overdose; his body was found on a hillside behind Hite's home. De la Parra and other members of the band believed that his death was a suicide. Wilson died at the age of 27, just weeks before Jimi Hendrix, and then Janis Joplin, died at the same age. === Historical Figures, New Age and Human Condition lineups === Joel Scott Hill, who had played with the Strangers and the Joel Scott Hill Trio, was recruited to fill the void left by Wilson's death. The band still had a touring contract for September, as well as upcoming studio dates. That fall they toured Australia and Europe; including a show played in Baarn, Netherlands, for the VPRO television program Piknik and the following summer they appeared at the Turku Festival in Finland. These performances were recorded, but the recordings were not released until much later, with the albums Live at Turku Rock Festival in 1995 and Under the Dutch Skies 1970–74 in 2007 (which encompassed three separate tours). At the end of 1971 a new studio album, Historical Figures and Ancient Heads, was released. The album included Hite's vocal duet with Little Richard on "Rockin' with the King", written by Skip Taylor and featuring the guitar playing of both Vestine and Joel Scott Hill. This lineup of Hite, Vestine, Scott Hill, de la Barreda and de la Parra did not last, as the band was in disarray; Scott Hill and de la Barreda's attitudes were not fitting in with the rest of the band, and drummer de la Parra decided to call it quits. He was talked out of it by Hite, and it was Scott Hill and de la Barreda who left the band instead. New additions to the group were James Shane on rhythm guitar and vocals, Ed Beyer on keyboards, and Richard Hite (Bob Hite's brother) on bass. This lineup recorded what was the band's last album for Liberty/United Artists Records, The New Age, released in 1973. This album featured the popular biker- themed anthem "The Harley-Davidson Blues", written by James Shane. The era of the late 1960s was changing, but nonetheless the band embarked on another European tour, during which they recorded a session with Memphis Slim in Paris for the album Memphis Heat. They also recorded with Clarence "Gatemouth" Brown, while still in Paris, for the album Gates on the Heat (both were released by Blue Star Records). Footage from this era is included on the DVD Canned Heat Live at Montreux (2004). Met with hard times, de la Parra writes that the band resorted to importing drugs from Mexico to make ends meet between shows. Over $30,000 in debt, manager Skip Taylor advised the band to sign away their future royalties to their previous Liberty/United Artists material and jump to Atlantic Records. After a bad introduction to Atlantic Records, which included a brawl between Hite and Vestine over a vending machine, the band released the album One More River to Cross in 1973. Produced by Roger Hawkins and Barry Beckett, this album had a different sound and featured the Muscle Shoals Horns. On a subsequent promotional tour of Europe, this new "horn band" sound included the talents of Clifford Solomon and Jock Ellis. Absent from Canned Heat at this time, after growing ever more distant, was longtime manager Skip Taylor, who had left after the band joined Atlantic. Atlantic producer Tom Dowd tried to get one more album out of Canned Heat, despite their drug use and heavy drinking; they ultimately recorded an album's worth of material at Criteria Studios in Miami, Florida, during 1974 (featuring some collaboration with former member Mandel), but Atlantic ended its relationship with Canned Heat before it could be released. The masters for the bulk of the material, which had been kept at Skip Taylor's house, were destroyed in a fire, and what material was rescued by de la Parra was finally restored and issued decades later, in 1997, titled The Ties That Bind. Shortly thereafter, new manager Howard Wolf set up the struggling band with a gig at California's Mammoth Ski Resort. Bob Hite, in a foul rage, went off on the crowd, to the disapproval of Vestine, James Shane and Ed Beyer, who quit the band as a result. Taking the place of those who departed were pianist Gene Taylor and guitarist Chris Morgan, who both joined in late 1974. Taylor departed in 1976 in response to an argument during a tour of Germany, and after a brief fill-in by Stan Webb (of Chicken Shack), Mark Skyer came in as the new guitar player. In the meantime the band had worked out a deal with Takoma Records, and this "Human Condition/Takoma" lineup recorded the 1977 album Human Condition. Despite the appearance of the Chambers Brothers on the album, it was met with very little success, largely because of the growing popularity of disco music in the late 1970s. Before long, more arguments ensued, and Mark Skyer, Chris Morgan and Richard Hite all quit the band in 1977. Hite promptly hired a new bass player, Richard Exley, after befriending him on tour and watching his performance with the band Montana. Becoming fast friends with Hite, Exley toured the remainder of the year with the band and collaborated with Hite on many of the arrangements during their 1976 Texas Bicentennial Comeback Tour. Exley then quit the band after an argument over Hite's excessive drinking and drug use on stage. Frustrated and fed up, Exley joined the Texas Heartbreakers at the end of that year but returned periodically to fill in as a favor to Hite while the band struggled to find permanent members amidst heavy drinking and drug use. Exley remarked about his time with the band, "No one ever remembers the bass player ...". This effectively reduced the band's members to just Hite and de la Parra. === Burger Brothers revival and the death of Bob Hite === The popularity of the blues genre rose in the late 1970s and early 1980s with the release of the musical-comedy film The Blues Brothers (1980), starring Dan Aykroyd and John Belushi. During this time, de la Parra had bought into the partnership of an East Hollywood recording studio at which he was again working with former bandmate Larry Taylor. Taylor had been associating with guitarist Mike "Hollywood Fats" Mann and pianist Ronnie Barron and before long Taylor, Barron and Hollywood Fats were in the band. This version referred to by Hite and Mann as the "Burger Brothers" lineup, was soon joined by blind piano player Jay Spell, as Ronnie Barron walked out on the band after a blow-up between himself and Taylor. The Burger Brothers played the tenth anniversary of Woodstock at Parr Meadows in 1979. A recording of the performance eventually surfaced through King Biscuit Flower Hour's Barry Ehrmann as, Canned Heat in Concert, in 1995 (de la Parra considers this to be Canned Heat's best recorded live album). Another recording made around this time was for Cream Records, who desired a more R&B-style; sound than what Canned Heat was currently offering. This upset Hollywood Fats and Mike Halby was brought in to finish the project; which would not find commercial release until 1981 when former band member Tony de la Barreda put it out under RCA as a tribute album called, In Memory of Bob "The Bear" Hite 1943–1981—"Don't Forget To Boogie". After a falling out with de la Parra and Hite, Taylor and Mann were increasingly unhappy with the musical direction of the band and eventually left to focus more attention on their Hollywood Fats Band. Nevertheless, Jay Spell was still on board and brought in bass player Jon Lamb; Mike Halby was now a full-time member and long-time guitarist Vestine once again made his return to the band, with Hite and de la Parra as its leaders. No longer managed by Howard Wolf, Eddie Haddad set the band up touring military bases across the U.S., Europe and Japan non- stop. Returning with little pay after the difficult tour, Jay Spell quit the band. Jon Lamb stayed on for one more tour in the south and just before Christmas 1980 (and lacking the outlaw roots of the others), he too quit the band; but by then even Hite was starting to lose it. He had attempted to give it another try by hiring a large enthusiastic biker with the moniker "The Push" as their manager; hoping that the band's popularity with the biker community would give them renewed energy. With new bass player Ernie Rodriguez joining the ranks, Canned Heat recorded the 1981 album, Kings of the Boogie, the last album to feature Hite on a few of the tracks. On April 5, 1981, having collapsed from a heroin overdose during a show at the Palomino in Los Angeles, Bob Hite was later found dead in de la Parra's Mar Vista home at the age of 38. === Later history and the death of Vestine === The death of frontman Bob Hite was a devastating blow that most thought would end the career of Canned Heat; however, de la Parra kept the band alive and would lead it back to prosperity over the next few decades. An Australian tour had been set up before Hite's death and harmonica player Rick Kellogg had joined to finish off the Kings of the Boogie album. This incarnation of Canned Heat without Bob Hite was nicknamed the "Mouth Band" by Vestine and was a huge hit in Australia, especially with the biker crowd. Under the management of "The Push", the band toured the States playing biker bars and began work on a video known as "The Boogie Assault", starring Canned Heat and various members of the San Francisco chapter of the Hells Angels. As production for "The Push's" video dragged on, a drunken Vestine got into a brawl with Ernie Rodriguez and was once again out of the band; this time replaced by guitarist Walter Trout. After a tour with John Mayall, as the production for "The Boogie Assault" continued, de la Parra was forced to fire "The Push" as the band's manager; but did eventually finish the video and a live lbum of the same name recorded in Australia in 1982 (also re-released as Live in Australia and Live in Oz). This version of Canned Heat would also soon dissolve with a dispute between Mike Halby and de la Parra after the recording of the Heat Brothers '84 EP. During the 1980s the interest in the type of music played by Canned Heat was revived and, despite the past tragedies and permanent instability, the band appeared to be revitalized. In 1985, Trout had left to join John Mayall's Bluesbreakers, so Vestine was once again back in the band and he brought with him new musical talent from Oregon in James Thornbury (slide guitar and lead vocals) and Skip Jones (bass). They were dubbed the "Nuts and Berries" band by de la Parra, due to their love of organic food. It was not long before former members Larry Taylor (replacing Jones) and Ronnie Barron returned to round out the group. Versions of this lineup would record the live album, Boogie Up The Country, in Kassel, Germany, in 1987 and also appear on the Blues Festival Live in Bonn '87 Vol 2 compilation. Barron, just as before did not last long in this lineup, nor did Vestine, who was once again ousted from the band due to pressure from Larry Taylor. Replacing Vestine on lead guitar was Junior Watson; his style emulated Hollywood Fats (who died in late 1986) and was perfectly suited for the band as witnessed by the well-regarded album, Reheated. Unfortunately, the album was released only in Germany in 1988 due to disagreements with the Chameleon Music Group Record label. In 1990, the "Would-Be" lineup of James T, Taylor, Watson and de la Parra also recorded a sequel live album in Australia entitled Burnin' Live. The lineup dissolved in the early 1990s as Junior Watson went his own way and Mandel came back into the fold, bringing along Ron Shumake on bass to take some of the load off of Larry Taylor. Mandel, however, left the band after a few tours, so female singer and guitarist Becky Barksdale was brought in for a tour of France, Germany and Hawaii; but lasted no longer. Smokey Hormel was also considered, but only played one gig before friction between de la Parra and Larry Taylor caused Taylor to bitterly go his separate way with Hormel in tow. The revolving door that was Canned Heat continued as Vestine and Watson made their returns to the lineup as the "Heavy Artillery" band. Several former members including Mandel, Barron and Taylor joined up in de la Parra's effort for the album, Internal Combustion, which was released in 1994, but saw only limited release due to the returning manager Skip Taylor's falling out with Red River Records. In 1995, James Thornbury left the band with no hard feelings after ten years of service to live the married life in New South Wales, Australia, and new front-man Robert Lucas came in to take his place. Mandel returned and Shumake left the band in 1996, and after the position of bassist was taken temporarily by Mark "Pocket" Goldberg, Greg Kage took the reins as the bass player, and after a reconciliation with Larry Taylor the band released, Canned Heat Blues Band, in 1996. On October 20, 1997, a tired and cancer stricken Vestine died in Paris following the final gig of a European tour. Taylor and Watson subsequently left the band. === 2000s–2020s === Canned Heat's popularity has endured in some European countries and Australia. Their studio albums during this period include Boogie 2000 (1999), and Friends in the Can (2003), which features various guests, including John Lee Hooker, Taj Mahal, Trout, Corey Stevens, Roy Rogers, Mandel, Larry Taylor, and Vestine. Eric Clapton and Dr. John made guest appearances on the Christmas Album (2007). In July 2007, a documentary, Boogie with Canned Heat: The Canned Heat Story, was released, as was a biography of Wilson, Blind Owl Blues, by author Rebecca Davis Winters. By 2000, Robert Lucas had departed and the lineup was completed by Dallas Hodge (vocals, guitar), John Paulus (guitar) and Stanley "Baron" Behrens (harmonica, saxophone, flute). Lucas returned to Canned Heat in late 2005 but left again in the fall of 2008. He died, age 46, on November 23, 2008, at a friend's home in Long Beach, California; the cause was an apparent drug overdose. Other more recent deaths of band members included Hite's brother, bassist Richard Hite, who died at age 50 on September 22, 2001, due to complications from cancer. Also, former bassist Antonio de la Barreda died of a heart attack on February 17, 2009. From late 2008 to the Spring of 2010 the lineup included Dale Spalding (guitar, harmonica and vocals), Barry Levenson (lead guitar), Greg Kage (bass), and classic lineup hold-over and band leader de la Parra on drums. Mandel and Larry Taylor toured with Canned Heat during the summer of 2009 on the Heroes of Woodstock Tour to celebrate the 40th anniversary of Woodstock. In 2010, Taylor and Mandel officially replaced Kage and Levenson, and as of 2012, this lineup (de la Parra, Taylor, Mandel, and Spalding) continued to tour regularly. In October 2012, during a festival tour in Spain, France and Switzerland, Randy Resnick was called to replace Mandel who had to quit the tour due to health issues. Resnick played two dates, October 4 and 5, but had to return home for prior commitments. De la Parra was able to get Paulus to fly in from Portland to finish the tour. On September 7, 2013, Paulus once again substituted for Mandel at the Southern Maryland Blues Festival. In 2014, he officially replaced Mandel. On August 19, 2019, longtime bass guitarist Taylor died after a twelve-year battle with cancer. Drummer Frank Cook died on July 9, 2021, aged 79. == Musical style and influences == Canned Heat's musical style encompasses blues, country blues, rhythm and blues, boogie-woogie, psychedelic, psychedelic funk, rock and roll, blues rock and boogie rock. == Personnel == === Current members === * Adolfo "Fito" de la Parra — drums, vocals (1967–present) * John Paulus — guitar (2000–2006, 2013, 2014–present) * Dale Wesley Spalding — guitar, harmonica, bass, vocals (2008–present) * Rick Reed — bass (2019–present) * Jimmy Vivino - Lead Guitar (2019 to Present) == Discography == * Canned Heat (1967) * Boogie with Canned Heat (1968) * Living the Blues (1968) * Hallelujah (1969) * Future Blues (1970) * Vintage (1970) * Historical Figures and Ancient Heads (1971) * The New Age (1973) * One More River to Cross (1973) * Human Condition (1978) * Kings of the Boogie (Dog House Blues) (1981) * Reheated (1988) * Internal Combustion (1994) * Canned Heat Blues Band (1996) * Boogie 2000 (1999) * Friends in the Can (2003) * Christmas Album (2007) == References == == Bibliography == * == External links == * * Category:1965 establishments in California Category:American blues musical groups Category:American blues rock musical groups Category:Liberty Records artists Category:Musical groups established in 1965 Category:Musical groups from Los Angeles Category:Psychedelic musical groups Category:Ruf Records artists Category:United Artists Records artists |
right|thumb|Single-bubble sonoluminescence – a single, cavitating bubble. Sonoluminescence is the emission of light from imploding bubbles in a liquid when excited by sound. Sonoluminescence was first discovered in 1934 at the University of Cologne. It occurs when a sound wave of sufficient intensity induces a gaseous cavity within a liquid to collapse quickly, emitting a burst of light. The phenomenon can be observed in stable single-bubble sonoluminescence (SBSL) and multi-bubble sonoluminescence (MBSL). In 1960, Peter Jarman proposed that sonoluminescence is thermal in origin and might arise from microshocks within collapsing cavities. Later experiments revealed that the temperature inside the bubble during SBSL could reach up to 12,000 kelvins. The exact mechanism behind sonoluminescence remains unknown, with various hypotheses including hotspot, bremsstrahlung, and collision-induced radiation. Some researchers have even speculated that temperatures in sonoluminescing systems could reach millions of kelvins, potentially causing thermonuclear fusion however this idea has been met with skepticism by other researchers. The phenomenon has also been observed in nature, with the pistol shrimp being the first known instance of an animal producing light through sonoluminescence. ==History== The sonoluminescence effect was first discovered at the University of Cologne in 1934 as a result of work on sonar. Hermann Frenzel and H. Schultes put an ultrasound transducer in a tank of photographic developer fluid. They hoped to speed up the development process. Instead, they noticed tiny dots on the film after developing and realized that the bubbles in the fluid were emitting light with the ultrasound turned on.H. Frenzel and H. Schultes, Luminescenz im ultraschallbeschickten Wasser Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie International journal of research in physical chemistry and chemical physics, Published Online: 2017-01-12 | DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/zpch-1934-0137 It was too difficult to analyze the effect in early experiments because of the complex environment of a large number of short-lived bubbles. This phenomenon is now referred to as multi- bubble sonoluminescence (MBSL). In 1960, Peter Jarman from Imperial College of London proposed the most reliable theory of sonoluminescence phenomenon. He concluded that sonoluminescence is basically thermal in origin and that it might possibly arise from microshocks with the collapsing cavities. In 1990, an experimental advance was reoorted by Gaitan and Crum, who produced stable single-bubble sonoluminescence (SBSL). In single-bubble sonoluminescence, a single bubble trapped in an acoustic standing wave emits a pulse of light with each compression of the bubble within the standing wave. This technique allowed a more systematic study of the phenomenon, because it isolated the complex effects into one stable, predictable bubble. It was realized that the temperature inside the bubble was hot enough to melt steel, as seen in an experiment done in 2012; the temperature inside the bubble as it collapsed reached about 12,000 kelvins. Interest in sonoluminescence was renewed when an inner temperature of such a bubble well above one million kelvins was postulated. This temperature is thus far not conclusively proven; rather, recent experiments indicate temperatures around . ==Properties== Sonoluminescence can occur when a sound wave of sufficient intensity induces a gaseous cavity within a liquid to collapse quickly. This cavity may take the form of a pre-existing bubble, or may be generated through a process known as cavitation. Sonoluminescence in the laboratory can be made to be stable, so that a single bubble will expand and collapse over and over again in a periodic fashion, emitting a burst of light each time it collapses. For this to occur, a standing acoustic wave is set up within a liquid, and the bubble will sit at a pressure anti-node of the standing wave. The frequencies of resonance depend on the shape and size of the container in which the bubble is contained. Some facts about sonoluminescence: * The light that flashes from the bubbles last between 35 and a few hundred picoseconds long, with peak intensities of the order of 1–. * The bubbles are very small when they emit light—about 1 micrometer in diameter—depending on the ambient fluid (e.g., water) and the gas content of the bubble (e.g., atmospheric air). * Single- bubble sonoluminescence pulses can have very stable periods and positions. In fact, the frequency of light flashes can be more stable than the rated frequency stability of the oscillator making the sound waves driving them. However, the stability analyses of the bubble show that the bubble itself undergoes significant geometric instabilities, due to, for example, the Bjerknes forces and Rayleigh–Taylor instabilities. * The addition of a small amount of noble gas (such as helium, argon, or xenon) to the gas in the bubble increases the intensity of the emitted light. Spectral measurements have given bubble temperatures in the range from to , the exact temperatures depending on experimental conditions including the composition of the liquid and gas. Detection of very high bubble temperatures by spectral methods is limited due to the opacity of liquids to short wavelength light characteristic of very high temperatures. A study describes a method of determining temperatures based on the formation of plasmas. Using argon bubbles in sulfuric acid, the data shows the presence of ionized molecular oxygen O2+, sulfur monoxide, and atomic argon populating high-energy excited states, which confirms a hypothesis that the bubbles have a hot plasma core. The ionization and excitation energy of dioxygenyl cations, which they observed, is 18 electronvolts. From this they conclude the core temperatures reach at least 20,000 kelvins—hotter than the surface of the sun. ==Rayleigh–Plesset equation== : The dynamics of the motion of the bubble is characterized to a first approximation by the Rayleigh–Plesset equation (named after Lord Rayleigh and Milton Plesset): :R\ddot{R} + \frac{3}{2}\dot{R}^{2} = \frac{1}{\rho}\left(P_\infty(t) - P_0(t) - 4\mu\frac{\dot{R}}{R} - \frac{2\gamma}{R}\right) This is an approximate equation that is derived from the Navier–Stokes equations (written in spherical coordinate system) and describes the motion of the radius of the bubble R as a function of time t. Here, μ is the viscosity, P_\infty(t) is the external pressure infinitely far from the bubble, P_0(t) is the internal pressure of the bubble, \rho is the liquid density, and γ is the surface tension. The over-dots represent time derivatives. This equation, though approximate, has been shown to give good estimates on the motion of the bubble under the acoustically driven field except during the final stages of collapse. Both simulation and experimental measurement show that during the critical final stages of collapse, the bubble wall velocity exceeds the speed of sound of the gas inside the bubble. Thus a more detailed analysis of the bubble's motion is needed beyond Rayleigh–Plesset to explore the additional energy focusing that an internally formed shock wave might produce. In the static case, the Rayleigh-Plesset equation simplifies, yielding the Young-Laplace equation. ==Mechanism of phenomenons== The mechanism of the phenomenon of sonoluminescence is unknown. Hypotheses include: hotspot, bremsstrahlung radiation, collision-induced radiation and corona discharges, nonclassical light, proton tunneling, electrodynamic jets and fractoluminescent jets (now largely discredited due to contrary experimental evidence). center|600px|thumb|From left to right: apparition of bubble, slow expansion, quick and sudden contraction, emission of light In 2002, M. Brenner, S. Hilgenfeldt, and D. Lohse published a 60-page review that contains a detailed explanation of the mechanism. An important factor is that the bubble contains mainly inert noble gas such as argon or xenon (air contains about 1% argon, and the amount dissolved in water is too great; for sonoluminescence to occur, the concentration must be reduced to 20–40% of its equilibrium value) and varying amounts of water vapor. Chemical reactions cause nitrogen and oxygen to be removed from the bubble after about one hundred expansion-collapse cycles. The bubble will then begin to emit light. The light emission of highly compressed noble gas is exploited technologically in the argon flash devices. During bubble collapse, the inertia of the surrounding water causes high pressure and high temperature, reaching around 10,000 kelvins in the interior of the bubble, causing the ionization of a small fraction of the noble gas present. The amount ionized is small enough for the bubble to remain transparent, allowing volume emission; surface emission would produce more intense light of longer duration, dependent on wavelength, contradicting experimental results. Electrons from ionized atoms interact mainly with neutral atoms, causing thermal bremsstrahlung radiation. As the wave hits a low energy trough, the pressure drops, allowing electrons to recombine with atoms and light emission to cease due to this lack of free electrons. This makes for a 160-picosecond light pulse for argon (even a small drop in temperature causes a large drop in ionization, due to the large ionization energy relative to photon energy). This description is simplified from the literature above, which details various steps of differing duration from 15 microseconds (expansion) to 100 picoseconds (emission). Computations based on the theory presented in the review produce radiation parameters (intensity and duration time versus wavelength) that match experimental results with errors no larger than expected due to some simplifications (e.g., assuming a uniform temperature in the entire bubble), so it seems the phenomenon of sonoluminescence is at least roughly explained, although some details of the process remain obscure. Any discussion of sonoluminescence must include a detailed analysis of metastability. Sonoluminescence in this respect is what is physically termed a bounded phenomenon meaning that the sonoluminescence exists in a bounded region of parameter space for the bubble; a coupled magnetic field being one such parameter. The magnetic aspects of sonoluminescence are very well documented. ===Other proposals=== ====Quantum explanations==== An unusually exotic hypothesis of sonoluminescence, which has received much popular attention, is the Casimir energy hypothesis suggested by noted physicist Julian Schwinger and more thoroughly considered in a paper by Claudia Eberlein of the University of Sussex. Eberlein's paper suggests that the light in sonoluminescence is generated by the vacuum within the bubble in a process similar to Hawking radiation, the radiation generated at the event horizon of black holes. According to this vacuum energy explanation, since quantum theory holds that vacuum contains virtual particles, the rapidly moving interface between water and gas converts virtual photons into real photons. This is related to the Unruh effect or the Casimir effect. The argument has been made that sonoluminescence releases too large an amount of energy and releases the energy on too short a time scale to be consistent with the vacuum energy explanation, although other credible sources argue the vacuum energy explanation might yet prove to be correct. ====Nuclear reactions==== Some have argued that the Rayleigh–Plesset equation described above is unreliable for predicting bubble temperatures and that actual temperatures in sonoluminescing systems can be far higher than 20,000 kelvins. Some research claims to have measured temperatures as high as 100,000 kelvins and speculates temperatures could reach into the millions of kelvins. * Temperatures this high could cause thermonuclear fusion. This possibility is sometimes referred to as bubble fusion and is likened to the implosion design used in the fusion component of thermonuclear weapons. Experiments in 2002 and 2005 by R. P. Taleyarkhan using deuterated acetone showed measurements of tritium and neutron output consistent with fusion. However, the papers were considered low quality and there were doubts cast by a report about the author's scientific misconduct. This made the report lose credibility among the scientific community.Purdue physicist found guilty of misconduct, Los Angeles Times, July 19, 2008, Thomas H. Maugh II On January 27, 2006, researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute claimed to have produced fusion in sonoluminescence experiments. ==Biological sonoluminescence== Pistol shrimp (also called snapping shrimp) produce a type of cavitation luminescence from a collapsing bubble caused by quickly snapping its claw. The animal snaps a specialized claw shut to create a cavitation bubble that generates acoustic pressures of up to 80 kPa at a distance of 4 cm from the claw. As it extends out from the claw, the bubble reaches speeds of 60 miles per hour (97 km/h) and releases a sound reaching 218 decibels. The pressure is strong enough to kill small fish. The light produced is of lower intensity than the light produced by typical sonoluminescence and is not visible to the naked eye. The light and heat produced by the bubble may have no direct significance, as it is the shockwave produced by the rapidly collapsing bubble which these shrimp use to stun or kill prey. However, it is the first known instance of an animal producing light by this effect and was whimsically dubbed "shrimpoluminescence" upon its discovery in 2001. It has subsequently been discovered that another group of crustaceans, the mantis shrimp, contains species whose club-like forelimbs can strike so quickly and with such force as to induce sonoluminescent cavitation bubbles upon impact. A mechanical device with 3D printed snapper claw at five times the actual size was also reported to emit light in a similar fashion, this bioinspired design was based on the snapping shrimp snapper claw molt shed from an Alpheus formosus, the striped snapping shrimp. == See also == * List of light sources * Seth Putterman * Sonochemistry * Triboluminescence == References == == Further reading == * * * * * * * For a "How to" guide for student science projects see: * This article was created in 1996 together with the alternative theory; both were seen by Ms Eberlein. It contains many references to the crucial experimental results in this field. * == External links == * Detailed description of a sonoluminescence experiment * A description of the effect and experiment, with a diagram of the apparatus * An mpg video of the collapsing bubble (934 kB) * Shrimpoluminescence * Impulse Devices * Applications of sonochemistry * Sound waves size up sonoluminescence * Sonoluminescence: Sound into light Category:Luminescence Category:Ultrasound Category:Light sources Category:Physical phenomena Category:Unsolved problems in physics Category:Articles containing video clips Category:1934 in science Category:Bubbles (physics) Category:Acoustics |
Amanda Swisten is a former American actress and model born of Scandinavian descent. She was born on 20 December 1978 in Manhattan. Swisten spent most of her childhood in Connecticut before she moved to Los Angeles to pursue her career in acting. Swisten started her career in acting in the movie American Wedding. She is also known for her role in The Girl Next Door and Two and a Half Men. She also appeared in the music videos William Hung’s She Bangs, Eminem’s The Real Slim Shady and Kid Rock’s Bawitdaba. Swisten is also known for her modelling in magazines including Maxim and Stuff, and calendars including DreamsGirls and Women of Soccer. Additionally, Swisten visited Iraq with Dean Cain during the Iraq War. They visited various bases spending 12 to 18 hours signing autographs and giving out T-shirts. In her spare time she enjoys reading forensic science, looking up cars and listening to music. Swisten admits to reading and talking with a serial killer in her spare time. ==Early life== Swisten was born in Manhattan, but grew up in Connecticut. She moved to Connecticut soon after she was born, where she spent most of her childhood. Swisten describes herself as a tomboy and a curious child, partaking in activities such as building forts and kickball. During this time she developed an interest in swimming at age 4. This interest led her to participate in swimming competitions at age 9, breaking records and briefly becoming a lifeguard. At age 15, she moved to Charlottesville, Virginia as her family wanted a change of life. During this time she attended a private school, where she did not fit in. She describes this change as being shy and trapped like a wallflower. This occurred due to the school opposition towards the performing arts, an interest she accumulated when she was younger. She was also bullied by other girls her age. During this period she developed an interest for poetry, art and going to the gym. In an interview with Maxim, she stated that when she was a student she was also interested in science and medicine. She also volunteered at a sexual assault center to give herself a feeling of purpose. At 16, Swisten worked at a gym, receiving aerobics and personal training certification. Upon visiting the mall with her mother she was approached by a scout who offered her a chance to model in New York. Swisten was unable to accept the offer, however instead got her mother to take pictures of her. Eventually she was able to move to New York to attend a drama school at the University of Virginia. Whilst she could have pursued a career in medicine and science, she couldn't see herself “wearing a labcoat somewhere”. Swisten also did an apprenticeship as a designer, and received a degree in interior design. She additionally possesses a license for interior design. == Career == === Acting === At the University of Virginia, Swisten took acting lessons from Judith Reagan. She then performed in theatrical performances such as The Cocktail Party, It's Just Sex, Grease, Brighton Beach Memoirs, Sound of music, East and Sexually Perversity in Chicago. Swisten made her debut in the music video Bawitdaba by Kid Rock, as a supporting role. She also appeared in Eminem's The Real Slim Shady. In 2000 she appeared in an unaired episode of the TV show Brutally Normal. Swisten also appeared on the TV show Backstage Pass, The Extreme Gong Show, Major Payne, Gold's Gym Healthtalk, CPR Training Series and Bolt Upright. She also appeared in the 2001 film Rockstar where she was uncredited. She made her next appearance in the 2003 film American Wedding, where she played the stripper Fraulein Brandi alongside Nikki Ziering. In an interview, Swisten stated that “the whole movie was an experience”. In an interview with Stuff she describes how awkward the ordeal was for her initially. However she soon got into it playing the character with the intent to be “exploited…. But have some meaning obviously”. In 2004 she portrayed April in The Girl Next Door. To prepare for this movie she went to Maxim parties to talk with porn stars. She also appeared in TV shows such as Two and a Half Men, I'm With Her, Quintuplets, Las Vegas and Joey. Swisten also appeared in The Last Run as Sage. Additionally she also portrayed William Hung's girlfriend in She Bangs. Swisten, having prior dance experience, was told to “wing it” and base her entire performance around Hung. Swisten is also in 10 things every guy should experience, and Love Lounge. Swisten also hosted the US bikini bowling team. 2005 marked her appearance in the movie Freezerburn, where she played Star Penumbra Gold the Talent. In 2006, she appeared in an unaired episode of Cracking up as Candy Biscoe. === Modelling === Swisten began modelling at age 16 after a scout approached her, whilst shopping with her mother. Initially she got her mother to take pictures of her, due to her experience as an artist. Swisten appeared in the Women of Soccer 2001 calendar, as the cover girl for September. She also appeared on the cover of DreamGirls 2001 calendar and the Iron and Lace 2002 calendar. Swisten latered appear in magazines such as THE One magazine, the Swedish Imagine Magazine, Top Model, Cosmopolitan, Elle Magazine, Mademoiselle, Stuff and Maxim. In an interview with the Stuff she states that she dislikes modelling. Swisten claims that “ït’s really boring”, and “takes a toll on your body”. === Guest appearances === On March 9, 2005, Swisten was the first guest star on the Coast to Coast AM podcast. In the podcast she was asked by George Noory about her opinions on serial killers and how she became interested in forensic science. She was also asked by audience members of the show, about different questions related to serial killers. == Accolades == === Iraq War === thumb|210x210px|Amanda Swisten and Dean Cain signing autographs for troops at a camp exchange on May 15, 2005. On the 10th of May 2005, Pro Sports MVP asked 500 celebrities if they were interested in spending two weeks in Iraq meeting American militia. Out of the 500, only Swisten and Dean Cain volunteered to go. Swisten was invited to go on a luxury cruise however rejected it due to the following reasons. She states that her reason for joining this cause was due to the initial support provided by the company when she first started out. Another reason she joined was because she lost friends during the 9/11 incident, and wanted to give back to the soldiers risking their lives. During this campaign she was accompanied by two guards to ensure her safety. Swisten and Cain spent most of their time signing autographs, handing out merchandise and conversing amongst soldiers. She mentions that she would “say hello, pass out T-shirts, posters and sign autographs” to guards. Swisten also spent hundreds on cosmetics before the trip, in order to hand them out to female militia. They visited a variety of different bases close to the front and back line including: Forward Operation Base Bernstein and Forward Operation Base Sparta. On 22 May 2005, they visited a base in Baghdad called Camp Tahji where they signed autographs, posed, socialised and dined with soldiers. During the camp's weekly boxing event Swisten announced that “The tour has given us a great opportunity to show our support for the troops”. They also witnessed the tragic side effects of war, in a hospital at Baghdad they visited a little boy and girl who were injured. The boy they met had been shot, whilst being used as a hostage. The girl had her leg blown off, after she chose to join the Iraq military. Swisten mentions that “both her and Dean broke down crying, because he had a little boy around the same age as the victims”. In various interviews, Swisten respects the soldiers. In an interview with the United States Department of Defence she states that “They have more courage than anybody I know back home”. She's also grateful for the experience stating that “This has been really grounding to see it for myself, that everybody here is out to do good work and serve their country, even though at the end of the day, they'd love to go home”. ===Animals=== According to her website every product bought from her website allowed a small sum of money to be donated to SPCA. Additionally she also supported animals during Hurricane Katrina, by raising awareness on her website. ==Personal life== ===Experiences with Fans=== In 2004, Swisten was stalked by a fan. The fan managed to get her home address by using Swisten's website. Swisten states that “it was so frightening that the police had to get involved”. Because of this event she claims that she carries a gun everywhere, stating that she is "... a bad girl. I can hold my own. I grew up learning how to use a gun". ===Interests=== Swisten mentions that she was contacted by an anonymous serial killer. This motivated her to write a section on serial killers in the Maxim magazine. She also appeared on the Coast to Coast am podcast serial killers with George Noory. She additionally enjoys reading the forensic novel A Time to Kill. On her website she also states that she is interested in cars. She specifically states that she's interested in Shelby Cobra, 1965 Mustang, Ferrari Spyder, Suburban Yukon, Rolls-Royces, Harley Davidson Softail Custom, Ducatis, BMWs, Indians, Triumphs and Harley's. She also mentions on her website that she enjoys listening to classical, jazz, and blues artists such as Massanet, Billie Holiday, Dinah Washington, John Lee Hooker, B.B King. Additionally she admits to listening to Classic Rock artists Janis Joplin, Clapton, The Rolling Stones and Santana. Swisten also listens to artists Gap Band, Parliament, P-Funk, George Clinton, Frank Sinatra, Tony Bennett, Nat King Cole, Rosemary Clooney and Patsy Cline. Her favourite movies are Citizen Kane, Wuthering Heights, Easy Rider, Time Bandits, The Color Purple, The Godfather, Taxi Driver, As Good as It Gets, Up in Smoke, Hairspray, Somewhere in Time, Flawless and The Silence of the Lambs. ==Public image== ===Modelling=== Swisten has been praised by both the media and individuals for her physique. The website Maxim stated that she is beautiful and a stunner to their audiences. Additionally her fans on her website have also praised her appearance. In 2004, she was ranked 99th place in Maxim's top 100 sexiest women. She states on her website that her fashion sense is based on a girlie- girl and tomboyish style. For her tomboyish style she enjoys wearing jeans, classic white button-down men's oxfords, black boots, white t-shirts, ribbed wife-beater tanks, pearls and silver and turquoise jewellery. For her girlish style she wears dresses, skirts and high-heels. She also enjoys wearing vintage clothes, specifically “black leather biker chick-stuff flannel shirts and boxers”. ===Acting=== Swisten has portrayed porn stars and prostitutes in the films American Wedding, The Last Run and The Girl Next Door. She states that the casting director of The Girl Next Door, Malli Finn, was after the Victoria Secret type of look. She has appeared topless in American Wedding; however, in an interview she states that her breasts were prosthetic. Due to this scholars have used her as a representation of American culture within the early 2000s. Daniel K. Cortese and Pamela M. Ling uses her as an example when describing the effects of smoking and masculinity. In a thesis by Barikatul Hikmah, he uses her to express the requirements of masculine norms. She is also used by Díaz-Granados Prieto and Pablo Esteban as a benchmark for attractive women in their thesis. ===Iraq War=== During their visit they were praised by soldiers. Lance Cpl. Russ Bonham, an air traffic controller assigned to Marine Air Control Squadron 2, welcomed the arrival of Cain and Swisten, stating that “Occasions like this definitely benefit morale here”. He also states “Amanda Swisten is a sexy girl and after seeing her here I’m forced to go watch ‘American Wedding’ again.” She was also praised by her fans and general audiences. In a forum post by Zoomway multiple recipients praised Amanda and Cain. They claimed “that there needed to be more people like them”. On Twitter they were also praised by numerous soldiers a decade after the event occurred. ==Filmography== ===Film=== Year Title Role 2003 American Wedding Fraulein Brandi 2004 The Girl Next Door April 2004 The Last Run Sage 2005 Freezerburn Star Penumbra Gold the Talent ===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 2004 I'm with Her Actress Episode "The Heartbreak Kid" 2004 Two and a Half Men Darlene Episode "My Doctor Has a Cow Puppet" 2004 Quintuplets Joela Episode "Pilot" 2004 Joey Miss Santa Fe Episode "Joey and the Roadtrip" 2004 Las Vegas Rachel Episode "My Beautiful Launderette" ==References== ==External links== * *Official site of Amanda Swisten *Amanda Swisten at Maxim *The Official Amanda Swisten MySpace Category:1978 births Category:Living people Category:Actresses from New York City Category:American film actresses Category:American female models Category:American television actresses Category:21st-century American women |
thumb|100px|Viktor Giacobbo Viktor Giacobbo (born February 6, 1952) is a Swiss writer, comedian and actor. == Life == thumb|100px|Giacobbo as a child After school in Winterthur, he made an apprenticeship as a typesetter. Afterwards, he was a corrector, reader and media documentalist. Initially, he was author and actor at the independent comedy-theater groups “Stuzzicadenti” (1979–1986) and “Zampanoo's Variété” (1984–1985), then member of the comedy group “Harul's Top Service” (1985–1998). He worked for Radio DRS’ satire programme Satiramisù (1991–1994). During the 90s, he created satirical figures like Harry Hasler, Debbie Mötteli, Fredi Hinz and Erwin Bischofberger (see below for detailed list). He became well known, thanks to his job as a moderator and co-author of the satirical programmes Viktors Programm (1990–1994) and Viktors Spätprogramm (1995–2002) on SF DRS and as an author and main actor in the movie Ernstfall in Havanna (2002). In 2000, Giacobbo initiated, together with Patrick Frey and others, the “Casinotheater” Winterthur. Since then, he is Verwaltungsrats- Präsident of the „Casinotheater AG”. In 2006 he was the Circus Knie’s guest star. He lives near Winterthur. == Characters played == * Alter ego thumb|100px|"Debbie Mötteli" Giacobbo sometimes plays himself as a selfish, arrogant egoist, who is accompanied by bodyguards who hold back the fans. As part of this characterization: he has a desk full of goblets, a large poster showing himself, and gets paid for product placement in reportages for the Schweizer Illustrierte, a Swiss personality magazine. He refuses a children home's offer to take part in a ceremony because the offer doesn't offer a large enough honorarium. Furthermore, Giacobbo cuts Walter Andreas Müller’s gage. Giacobbo plays a video to show Müller, how miserable Müller's acting was, but the acting shown is Giacobbo’s. Müller is hustled out of the office and gets the commission and honorarium to participate in the children’s home ceremony. This alternative Giacobbo is depicted as a man who originally was respectable, prudish and very uptight. The sketch indicates that his real name had been “Erwin Bischofberger“ (see below) but he had adopted the improbable and discordant alias of “Viktor Giacobbo“ combining the Germanic version of a forename, and an Italian family name. TV-director Peter Schellenberg discovered him, when Bischofberger was singing as a female yodler in a duet. But Bishofberger/Giacobbo had a big success after he had stolen the idea to disguise himself as “Harry Hasler” (see below). This idea allegedly had been stolen from a Chinese programme's main persona, and the Harry Hasler persona was the occidental copy of that Asian figure called "Ha Li Hassel“. * Harry Hasler, (persona allegedly born 1952 in Weinfelden). Is a typical macho Manta- driver, he plays a bouncer and pimp from Zürich's "Stadtkreis Schwamendingen“ ( a Zürich City district). His favourite holiday destination is Pattaya, Thailand. His attributes are a hairy chest, white country-singer's clothing and golden necklaces. A typical gesture is standing on one leg and angling the other, then stretching it and angling it again (as in pushing an automobile gas pedal). Typical words: "aber volle Pulle, Du!“ (Give it gas man!), "Wennt weisch was i mein!“ (If you know what I mean!), or the greeting formula "Saletti zäme!“ (Hi there!). He doesn't visit Thailand to see culture and huge Buddha sculptures or temples, but rather have “meetings” (sexual ones). Hasler once was a guest of a fictional programme about travelling, to tell the viewers about "Mailand" (Milan, Italy) however, there was an error in understanding and the city actually being discussed was Venice, Italy. Furthermore, Hasler thinks, the gondola (of which he shows a model) was a fertility goddess symbol. According to Viktors Universum 1, DVD 1/2, Hasler earns money by selling these souvenirs. Other sketches show Hasler in other jobs: leader of a private army of civilians, hawker (seller) at an esoteric fair. Regularly, Hasler is said to be a producer / seller of adult movies. Hasler drives a "Chevrolet Corvette Stingray“. One of his favourite locals (tavern or pub) is the "Pattaya" bar, a bar that actually exists in Zürich. Harry has a father, who resembles himself, Konrad Hasler. Further, he has an uncle, that isn't similar to him, but is a regular and respectable-looking elder man, who is a bit silent. According to a comment by Giaccobo, Hasler's first appearance was in a sketch about a fictional discussion programme, that dealt with humour. But then, he wasn't called "Hasler", but "Grüter" or "Grütter". He doesn't really enrich the fictional discussion programme, but told jokes about Manta drivers instead of discussing humor. Giacobbo played a Christmas Santa on the street which was filmed by a hidden camera. The "Santa" spoke like Harry Hasler, and pretended to intimately (physically) know a female passerby. In another sequence, the "Santa" had the "Italian guy"'s (see below) pronunciation. Disguised as Harry Hasler, Giacobbo moderated a programme of Viktors Spätprogramm. * Fredi Hinz Is a "typical" homeless doper. His attributes are unkempt hair and clothing, as well as a plastic bag, which he carries all the time. His style of speaking is in fits and starts, aspirating, like a heavy smoker. He often begs for two "zwei Schtutz" (Swiss- German dialect for "zwei Franken" - "two Swiss Franks") to sleep at the Notschlafstelle (emergency/homeless sleeping shelter). A surprising aspect of Hinz' character are his (very seldom) intellectual thoughts. Example: when he has to interview fictional expert Stolte-Benrad (Patrick Frey) concerning Iraq, he awkwardly searches the question list, while the expert gets angry. The expert starts talking despite there's no question, but suddenly, Fredi interrupts him and claims, that the expert is wrong, because the discussed "region obviously was coined monotheistic". He shows bits of deep knowledge and blames the expert for a short moment - just to start talking about "black Afghan", "red Lebanese" and other types of the region's "shit" (hemp) afterwards again. Disguised as Fredi Hinz, Giacobbo moderated a programme of Viktors Spätprogramm, in which he interviewed the (real) sect leader Uriella. * Rajiv Prasad A man from India, that is incessantly keen on money. He speaks bad English, with a staccato Indian accent. He deals and arranges everything. Once, he even tried to sell Indian soccer-players to the Swiss team. He would even agree selling his own sister, when the price is right. Right wing politician Christoph Mörgeli criticised Giacobbo for discriminating against Indian people. However the Swiss Indian community immediately replied that they don't feel being discriminated by the Rajiv character. Disguised as Rajiv Prasad, Giacobbo moderated a programme of Viktors Spätprogramm. * Debbie Mötteli She and her girlfriends (allegedly) are the typical "Goldcoast chicks" :Zürich Goldcoast, on the right side of Lake Zürich, where residents are allegedly noted for high incomes, expensive residences and villas, and an upscale lifestyle. The name "Goldcoast" comes from the large amount of afternoon sunlight which the south facing ridge side area receives compared to adjoining areas Debbie wears a waterproof red coat, is uneducated and naive. She doesn't even recognize Hitler, when finding him in an archive's cupboard. Hitler makes his gestures and rantings, but Mötteli just asks, who this man "with the little moustache" was. In a certain sketch, Debbie's boyfriend is introduced as a trucker called Küde (Mike Müller), who plans to blacken the traffic ministre with Debbie like Monica Lewinsky with Bill Clinton. Disguised as Debbie Mötteli, Giacobbo moderated a programme of Viktors Spätprogramm, in which he interviewed Gunvor and Nella Martinetti. * Dr. Klöti Is a very nervous expert, who speaks extremely fast. He e.g. gives banal tips to stop smoking, or a very short quiz, that contains absurd and doubtable questions. * Prelate Morgenthaler and Sister (Viktoria) Morgenthaler (a nun) Are from Catholic clerics, both with the same ugly teeth. The prelate once acts as a clerical occupational counsellor, that degrades bishop Wolfgang Haas after a laughable qualifying examination. The nun appears in a fictional TV- advertising spot, which tries to find new members for church. (Do you know the Landeskirche? Do you know, that only every second person is member? (...) Call now!). This advertising is made like callsex-commercials, with the nun winking seductively. :The "Landeskirche" is the official state church in each canton -- can be Protestant or Roman Catholic depending on the historical religious population of the canton. * 'Erwin Bischofberger Is an uptight library employee (according to other comments, he is a counsellor for enterprises, too. Once, Bischofberger even spoke at a real meeting of a real Swiss enterprise). He has huge glasses. In a fictional coupling show, Bischofberger's hobby is described to be riding a "motorcycle" - the following part of the film shows him riding a moped. * Jakob Liniger A pensioner with shifted bit and partially bald head. He is anchorman of the fictional programme „Bettflucht“. * Sonny Boppeler, called Jack Boppeler, too A soccer coach, that isn't very sympathetic. In one sketch, he tries to deal African players. * Italian-guy (called "Gian-Franco Benelli". In the sketch "Die Weihnachtsgeschichte" ("The Christmas Tale"), Benelli who is an Italian guest worker (foreign labourer), speaks a bad but fast Swiss German. His cadence is rhythmic and "Italian", as are his gestures. He seemingly doesn't know dialectical Swiss-German spoken grammar and therefore he makes mistakes such as "double verbs", etc.. Furthermore, he doesn't really assume a conversation's momentane content, but simply shouts his typical phrases, e.g. „Chasche nitte mache!“ (You can't do that!). * Turkish- or Kurd-guy (called "Mehmet Örkan" in sketch "Der neue Arena-Moderator") A seldom seen figure, a bit similar to the Italian-guy, but with different hair (partially grey). According to the sketch "Der neue Arena-Moderator", he is a "weapons dealer and mafioso". In a fictive discussion of the programme "Arena", he celebrates himself, putting the hands in the air and making gestures to increase the own applause. The (real) Kurt Aeschbacher, who plays the moderator, says that Örkan speaks the Swiss German dialect of Berne very well - But Örkan only says a few, merely unclear, words and imitates gun sounds. Possibly because of their similarity, "Turkish/Kurd-guy" and "Italian-guy" are in the same folder on Viktors Universum DVD 1½, which has a chapter menu that organizes sketches after the figures appearing in the sketch. == Real persons that were parodied (a selection)== * Roger Schawinski * Ueli Maurer * Martina Hingis Further, there were e.g. parodies of: Carla Del Ponte, Jean Ziegler, Christoph Blocher, Wolfgang Haas, Ursula Koch, but these parodies were by other actors of the programme: (Mike Müller, Peter Fischli, Walter Andreas Müller, Birgit Steinegger, Patrick Frey etc.) There are also fictive figures played by others: * Mauro, an Italian of the 2nd generation Mike Müller * Herr Schupisser, expert and ambassador Andrej Togni == Publications == * columnist for news magazine „Facts“ (1995–1999) * columnist for „Tages-Anzeiger“ (since 1999) * „Spargel der Vergeltung“ (collected columns), edition "Kein & Aber" (1998) * Calendar for 1999 and 2001 „Viktors Wandprogramm“, edition "Kein & Aber" (1998, 2000) == Movies and programmes on VHS, CD and DVD == * CD Saletti, Rap alias Harry Hasler (1996) * Videocassette Volle Pulle, alias Harry Hasler, Warner Home Video (1996) * Videocassette Viktors Spätprogramm - Selection, Warner Home Video (1998–2001) * DVD Viktors Universum 1 & 2, Warner Home Video (2000, 2001) * DVD Ernstfall in Havanna, Warner Home Video, Vega Film (2002) * DVD Viktors Universum - Finale, Warner Home Video (2003) * CD Sickmen, Audio-CD of the theater play, edition "Kein & Aber" (2004) * DVD Undercover, Vega Film (2005) * CD Fredi Hinz - Unstoned, Audio-CD, edition "Kein & Aber" (2005) * Movie script writer (with Domenico Blass), actor and co-producer of Ernstfall in Havanna, Director: Sabine Boss (2001/2002) * Actor in Germanikus by Gerhard Polt (2004) == Awards == thumb|100px|Swiss Awards 2002 * Salzburger Stier 1991 (with Birgit Steinegger) * Telepreis 1996 * Prix Walo (Category: Medienschaffende) 1996 * Prix Walo for „Viktors Spätprogramm“ (Category: Fernsehsendung) 1997 * Prix Walo for „Viktors Spätprogramm“ (Category: Fernsehproduktion) 2001 * Swiss Award 2002 (Category: Showbusiness) * Spezialpreis für Fernsehsatire, Oltner Cabarettage, 2003 == External links == * * Viktor Giacobbo's Homepage * Images on an independent website * Category:1952 births Category:Living people Category:Swiss male film actors Category:Swiss male television actors Category:Impressionists (entertainers) Category:Swiss parodists Category:Swiss satirists Category:Swiss political satire Category:Swiss television personalities Category:Swiss comedians Category:People from Winterthur |
The Hong Kong Morris (, Cantonese pronunciation: Heung Gong Gwoo Doi Ying Gwok Mo Tuen, literally the Hong Kong Ancient English Dance Platoon) is an English morris dancing team or side founded in Hong Kong in 1974. The side now has two chapters, the Hong Kong Morris and the Hong Kong (UK) Morris, colloquially known as The Brackets, in the United Kingdom. In its heyday, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Hong Kong Morris was one of the largest Cotswold morris sides in the world. The side maintains that it is committed to the principles of multiculturalism and inclusivity, and has always encouraged a multicultural membership and mixed dancing. The return of the former British colony of Hong Kong to China in 1997 has had no effect on the side's activities, and it continues to flourish as a notable example of the resilience of Western cultural activity in postcolonial Hong Kong. == Early history == thumb|Hong Kong Morris founder members Jim Carter (left) and Tony Reynolds The Hong Kong Morris was founded by Jim Carter in 1974. Many of its early members were officers of the Royal Hong Kong Police Force. One founding member, Tony Reynolds, was a Quaker who had driven ambulances along the Burma Road during the Second World War. The side met to practice at St John's Cathedral in Garden Road, Hong Kong Island. In the 1980s the side attracted British expatriates working in Hong Kong, teachers and engineers being particularly well represented. The side's numbers reached a peak in the mid-1980s, at around 50 dancers and musicians. Due to the increase in the team's numbers the practice venue was moved in the early 1980s to South Island School. In 1985 the side was featured in the Morris Ring publication The Morris Tradition, as an example of the spread of morris dancing beyond its traditional home in England.The Morris Tradition (Morris Ring, 1985): 'The work of collecting and interpreting the dances has been continued today by Roy Dommett, Lionel Bacon and many others, and the fruits of their labours can be seen in towns and villages all over England, and indeed in Europe, America, Australia and even Hong Kong.' The feature was illustrated by a photograph showing the Hong Kong Morris dancing the Upton-on-Severn stick dance at a District Board performance in Sha Tin in July 1984. == Notable events == thumb|left|The Hong Kong Morris at the Wishing Tree, San Uk Tsai, May 2008 The side has typically danced either at open-air venues in Hong Kong such as fetes and festivals or in air- conditioned shopping malls. During the mid-1980s the Hong Kong Morris performed on most weekends, though in recent years performances have been less frequent. In 1987 the side danced on top of a decorated shipping container swung out over Kwai Chung Creek on a crane to mark the opening of a new berth at Kwai Chung Container Terminals. In 1988, in order to benefit from the waiver of fees granted by the Urban Council to charitable, religious and educational groups for the use of its premises, the Hong Kong Morris successfully argued that it was a religious group on the grounds that morris dancing was a survival of a pre-Christian fertility rite. This myth was exploded with the publication in 1999 of A History of Morris Dancing, John Forrest's magisterial study of the historical roots of morris dancing (no earlier than the fifteenth century), and is no longer an argument that the side could make with a good conscience. In 1990 and 1991 three four-person teams from the Hong Kong Morris took part in the annual Trailwalker competition, an event that involves walking the 100 kilometres of the Maclehose Trail within a period of 48 hours. On both occasions the walkers changed into morris kit near the end of the trail, danced across the finishing line, and took part in a vigorous display of morris dancing afterwards. In 1991 the side danced at Hei Ling Chau refugee camp. Its audience consisted of several hundred Vietnamese boat people who had fled from Vietnam and had been interned upon their arrival in Hong Kong. In 1994 the side celebrated its twentieth anniversary in Hong Kong. A large number of former members returned to Hong Kong from the UK and Canada to take part in the celebrations. In 1997, shortly before the handover of Hong Kong to China, the Hong Kong Morris held The Last Ale of the Empire. In 2004 the side celebrated its thirtieth anniversary. Again, several former members returned to Hong Kong for the anniversary. The celebrations included dancing in Hong Kong Park, in Stanley, and outside the Cultural Centre in Tsim Sha Tsui. In 2008 and 2009 the Hong Kong Morris celebrated May Morning by dancing next to the Wishing Tree in San Uk Tsai, a locally celebrated banyan tree believed to bring good fortune to its devotees. == The Brackets == thumb|Hong Kong Morris and Brackets reunion in Macau, October 2008 In 1984 China and the United Kingdom issued a Joint Declaration providing for the return of Hong Kong to China in 1997. In the late 1980s, largely due to localisation policies implemented in preparation for the 1997 handover, many of the side's members returned to the United Kingdom. These members met for a weekend of dance at Wimborne, Dorset in 1991, at which the decision was taken to form the Hong Kong (UK) Morris, colloquially known as The Brackets. Initial Brackets gatherings took place at the annual Sidmouth Folk Festival in Devon, normally held at the end of July. In January 1993 a recently returned Hong Kong Morris member organised a weekend of dance for The Brackets and the Brackley Morris Men in Northamptonshire. The idea of a January gathering in addition to the July Sidmouth reunion caught on, and The Brackets now regularly meet and dance together in the first week of January as well as at Sidmouth. Many of the Brackets became members of local morris sides after their return to the UK, but all retain an allegiance to the Hong Kong Morris. Throughout the 1990s members of the Hong Kong and UK sides met up annually at the Sidmouth Folk Festival, and links between the two sides remain strong. Many members of The Brackets returned to Hong Kong in 1994 to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the foundation of the Hong Kong Morris, and several Brackets members also helped to celebrate the side's 30th anniversary in 2004. A strong side of Brackets visited Hong Kong in October 2008, and the local and UK sides danced together in Stanley, on Lamma Island and in Macau.Macau Daily Times, 3 November 2008 == Constitution and offices == The Hong Kong Morris is registered under the Societies Ordinance (Cap. 151 of the Laws of Hong Kong), a local ordinance introduced by the Hong Kong Government to counter the threat of subversion. The ordinance allows the government to monitor the activities of political parties, pressure groups and other potentially-undesirable combinations, and under its provisions the side is required to furnish the government every year with copies of its accounts and the minutes of its annual general meeting. As with many other morris sides, the officers of the Hong Kong Morris include a squire (president), a bagman (treasurer) and a foreman (dance teacher). In 1989, in recognition of the wish of the women members to develop their own dance traditions, the office of foreman was replaced with a men's foreman and a women's foreman. == Costume == The men's side of the Hong Kong Morris wear white trousers and shirts. Their baldricks, red and yellow with green highlights, are decorated with a badge, which was designed in 1976 by Sue King, representing a Chinese dragon behind a rapper sword knot. All three colours, but particularly red, are considered lucky in Chinese tradition, and drew attention away from the men's white shirts and trousers. White is the colour worn at funerals in China, and is considered inauspicious. This costume was lightly modified in 1984. The Hong Kong Morris colour palette (red, yellow and green) influenced the costume of the Vancouver Morris Men , one of Canada's most illustrious morris sides. Graham Baldwin, one of the earliest members of the Hong Kong Morris, founded the Vancouver Morris Men in 1982, and chose the same colours for the costume of the Vancouver side. The costume of the Hong Kong Morris women's side has undergone changes over the years. The first women's costume consisted of a white blouse and a skirt available in light green, russet brown, or pink. In 1984 this early costume was replaced with a uniform costume designed by Annette Frizell, consisting of a red skirt, a white blouse and a green waistcoat. At present many of the women dancers continue to wear the costume introduced in 1984, though some dancers prefer a modified open-neck version of the 1984-model white blouse. Other dancers wear the same costume as the men. The sticks used by the side in its dances are wrapped in tape in three broad bands of colour: red, white and green. The green end of the stick is always held uppermost, so that any blood shed in an incautious stick clash is disguised by dripping onto the lower red band. Many morris sides include one or more members dressed as animals, typically horses. The Hong Kong Morris has its own hobby horse named Horace, normally represented by Martin Samson. == Dancing traditions == Most of the dances performed by the Hong Kong Morris are from the Cotswold Morris tradition. Cotswold traditions danced at various periods in the side's history include Adderbury, Ascot-under-Wychwood, Bampton, Bledington, Bucknell, Fieldtown, Headington, Lichfield, Stanton Harcourt and Upton-on-Severn. At periods in its history the side has also performed longsword dances, garland dances, rapper dances and mumming plays. While the Hong Kong Morris has always regarded Lionel Bacon's classic work A Handbook of Morris DancesA Handbook of Morris Dances 1974 as a most valuable source of information on the form and historical development of particular morris tunes and morris dances, it has never felt the need to adhere slavishly to the particular form in which a dance or tune was collected several decades ago. The side has therefore contributed to the development of the morris tradition by adapting a number of existing dances to local circumstances. In the early 1980s the Hong Kong Morris developed a variant of the Lichfield Morris tradition, designed to be viewed from above when being danced on the circular ground-floor stage of the multi-storey shopping mall The Landmark. Instead of the conventional set of eight dancers, the Hong Kong Morris danced Lichfield with twelve dancers arranged in a cross formation. This formation enabled spectacular effects to be achieved, particularly in the complex Lichfield Hey. Other dances similarly adapted include the Upton-on-Yangtze stick dance, a version of the Upton-on- Severn stick dance performed in traditional Chinese costume with chopsticks, and Governor's Gallop, a dance developed in the early 1990s in honour of Chris Patten, Hong Kong's last British governor. == Music == The main musicians for the Hong Kong side are Sue Ellis and Sue Papper (melodeons), and for the Brackets Steve Butler/Hall, John Bacon (both piano accordions), John Rowlands (button accordion) and June Rowlands (fiddle). The squeezebox and fiddle players normally carry the main burden of the tune, while attractive decorative effects are produced by supporting musicians with less powerful instruments. Bill Crump and Dave Ellis, for example, use the tin whistle to counterpoint and harmonise with the main melody. While most of the side's musicians play traditional morris instruments (the piano accordion, the button accordion, the melodeon, the concertina, the fiddle, the guitar, the bodhran and the tin whistle), the Hong Kong Morris has never refused less conventional instruments. The late Mike Cowley's inimitable performance on the trombone (Mike died on 18 November 2010) will be particularly missed, as it gave the side's music a depth and volume that considerably enhanced the performance of the dancers and at times reduced them to tears of laughter. == Mumming play and rapper dancing== The Hong Kong Morris has for many years performed an English mumming play. Texts of a large number of medieval mumming plays have survived, and the play performed by the side is in the mainstream mumming play tradition. It contains the characters Father Christmas, Saint George and the Turkish Knight. In the late 1980s and early 1990s the mumming play actors also included a display of rapper sword dancing in their performance. The impact of these performances was considerably enhanced by the striking costumes produced for the actors by side member Chris Baldwin, a devotee of amateur dramatics. == Singing == thumb|The Hong Kong Morris has always loved to sing: May Day celebrations, 2008 Singing (mostly of English folk songs) has always played a role in the apres-morris conviviality of the Hong Kong Morris. Jim Carter, Hilary Blythe and Phil Pimentil, three of the side's early members, were noted singers on the local folk scene as part of the group Mulled Ale, and launched a tradition of powerful singing. Several other regular singers have maintained this tradition, including Mary Read and Amy Hughes (romantic ballads), Mike Greenhalgh (sea shanties), Dave Wilmshurst ('Death to the French' songs), Steve Ford (folksong parodies) and Dave Ellis (drinking songs). Kyoko Fukuda has recently widened the side's singing repertoire with two songs sung in Japanese: one about an elephant, known as The Elephant Song,象さんの歌 zou-san no uta and one about something else, known jokingly as The Not-the-Elephant Song. Phil Pimentil used to sing one of the few English folksongs known to have mentioned Hong Kong, about an Irish navvy who found work in the British colony in the late nineteenth century: 'I'm off to be a Chinaman, to Hong Kong I'm bound.'Hong Kong is also mentioned in a variant of the English sea shanty Blow the Man Down. The word "Chinaman" is replaced with "flying-fish sailor" in the version of "Blow the Man Down" collected by Clive Carey (1883–1968) Another song with a China connection, The Chinese Bumboatman Song,Lyrics The Chinese bumboatman Words & music (c) Harry Nelson & Tim Drake. Registration Number / Date: EU0000464898 / 1957-02-06 also known as The Ballad of Wing Chang Loo, has become a side favourite, and is sometimes delivered with 'an horrible oath' (as the song requires) in Cantonese, depending on the company. == Oratory == An important aspect of any morris side's performance is rapport with its audience, and good speakers can make all the difference to a side's reception. The late Jim Carter was one of the side's most effective orators in its early days, and his baton has been passed on to Roger Pope, who brings to his task the humour and gravitas won in his chosen career as a school headmaster. When dancing for Chinese audiences in Hong Kong, the Hong Kong Morris always tries to make its announcements in Cantonese. Several of its expatriate members have enough Cantonese to make themselves understood on such occasions. == Inclusivity and multiculturalism == The Hong Kong Morris attracted its first women members in the late 1970s, at a time when there was opposition to women's morris dancing in the United Kingdom. Women and men have always danced together in the Hong Kong Morris, either in mixed sets or in separate sets. By the mid-1980s the side's growing numbers enabled strong men's and women's sets to develop, and each set began to specialise in certain Cotswold traditions, while retaining a large common core of dances for mixed dancing. In 1989 a women's foreman was added to the side's officers. The Hong Kong Morris was briefly a member side of the Morris Ring, but was asked to leave the Ring because of its inclusive policy on women's dancing (the Morris Ring has since dropped its gender bar). It is now a member side of the Morris Federation. Two of its members, John Bacon and Chris Butler/Hall, have played an influential role respectively in the development of the policies of the Morris Federation and Open Morris, two organisations in the United Kingdom committed to the principle of mixed dancing. The side has also welcomed dancers and musicians of all nationalities. Although most of its members have been English, it has also had Hong Kong Chinese, Scottish, American, Australian, New Zealand, French, South African, Thai, Ukrainian and Japanese members. == Invention of traditions == thumb|Farewell ale for Hong Kong Morris stalwarts Sue and Dave Ellis, 25 September 2009 A number of traditions were invented by the Hong Kong Morris in the early 1980s, some of which have survived. These include an adaptation of the Oxford custom May Morning, a ritual that includes dancing on The Peak at dawn followed by a hearty breakfast and still more dancing; Macau trips, including evenings of singing and dancing at the Pousada da Coloane hotel and lunch at Fernando's restaurant on Hac Sa Beach; junk trips to the Lamma Island Wan Kee Seafood Restaurant; Boxing Day dancing; and a send-off 'ale' for departing members of the side. == Overseas tours == thumb|The Hong Kong Morris performs a traditional mumming play in Canberra, 1997 The first overseas tour by the Hong Kong Morris was to Manila in 1980. In 1984 a strong Hong Kong Morris side visited Perth (Australia) and danced with the local ladies' side The Fair Maids of Perth. Subsequent tours have included the 1986 Guangzhou Tour, the 1987 North American Tour to Seattle, Victoria and Vancouver (a tour in which the side danced with the US sides MossyBacks and Misty City and the Canadian Victoria and Vancouver Morris sides); the 1988 Brisbane Tour to Maleny Folk Festival, at which the side's musician was asked to accompany an Australian women's side of practising witches; the 1989 Taiwan Tour, whose participants enjoyed the unfamiliar experience of being cultural ambassadors for British education; the 1990 Bangkok Tour; the 1995 Kuala Lumpur Tour, which doubled as a honeymoon for recently married Steve and Myra Ford; and the 1997 Canberra Tour, where the Hong Kong Morris provided a visual history of morris dancing as a specially-invited side, performed its mumming play and led a session of chorus singing. == Visits to Hong Kong by overseas sides == thumb|left|Hong Kong and Cyprus Morris at Tai Hang, 6 November 2010 The Hong Kong Morris is the only morris side in Hong Kong, and has therefore welcomed visits from other morris sides. Teams that have danced in Hong Kong as guests of the Hong Kong Morris include the Australian side The Fair Maids of Perth (1985, in return for the 1984 Perth Tour), the American sides MossyBack Morris Men and Misty City (1988, in return for the 1987 North American Tour), and the UK clog dancing side Kettle Bridge Clogs (1989). Several former members of the Hong Kong Morris now dance with other sides, and occasionally revisit their old haunts. Peter and Christine Baldwin, now with the Cyprus Morris, danced with the Hong Kong Morris in November 2010 in the village of Tai Hang in the Lam Tsuen valley. ==Notes== ==Further reading== * Bacon, L., A Handbook of Morris Dances (The Morris Ring, 1974) * Forrest, J., The History of Morris Dancing, 1483-1750 (Cambridge, 1999) == External links == * Hong Kong Morris old website * Hong Kong Morris new website * Kettle Bridge Clogs web site Category:Culture of Hong Kong Category:Morris dance |
Al-Haq () is an independent Palestinian human rights organization based in the city of Ramallah in the West Bank. Founded in 1979, Al-Haq monitors and documents human rights violations committed by parties to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, issuing reports on its findings and producing detailed legal studies. It is in special consultative status with ECOSOC since 2000. Al-Haq has been affiliated with the Geneva-based International Commission of Jurists and is a member of the International Federation for Human Rights, Habitat International Coalition and the World Organisation Against Torture. It also is part of EuroMed Rights' Executive Committee and the Steering Committee of the Palestinian NGOs Network. ==Early years== Al-Haq was established in 1979 by a group of Palestinian lawyers. According to Al- Haq, it was one of the first human rights organizations set up in the Arab world. During its early years, Al-Haq was largely limited to analyzing Israel's legal status as an occupying power in the West Bank including East Jerusalem and the Gaza Strip, as well as the structures put in place by its governmental authorities in the OPT. Al-Haq would produce some of the early studies trying to apply humanitarian law to the Israeli occupation. Al-Haq reported that these studies "were essential in shaping the debate on what laws and regulations are applicable in the OPT." It was during this period that Al- Haq established its legal unit, which helps advance its positions in conjunction with the legal research unit. By 1986, it had started taking on projects involving human rights issues of specific concerns, like women’s and labour rights. It was this work that helped Al-Haq earn international recognition. Middle East analyst Mouin Rabbani noted that, from its outset, Al-Haq has been as involved with understanding its environment as it has been with pursuing changes. The need for an organization like this stemmed from both the “incomprehensible” judicial system in the Occupied Territories and its "arbitrary implementation". Rabbani also said that in "an accurate reflection of these concerns, legal research, as opposed to human rights monitoring and intervention as narrowly understood, assumed pride of place during al-Haq's formative period," and Al-Haq still defines itself as both a human rights and legal research organization.Rabbani, Mouin. “Palestinian human rights activism under Israeli occupation: the case of al-Haq.”Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ) March 22, 1994 ==Issues and campaigns== ===Human rights accusations=== Al-Haq's 2012 report into Operation Pillar of Defense stated that the Gaza strip was subjected to "indiscriminate and disproportionate Israeli attacks". The report found that 173 Palestinians were killed including 113 civilians, of whom 38 were children and at least 1,221 injuries, of which 445 are to children. Al-Haq's 2009 report on its findings in relation to the 2008/09 Gaza War stated that the Israeli offensive had led to 1,409 Palestinian deaths including 1,172 civilians, of which 342 were children; and over 5,000 wounded. According to the report "Excessive civilian casualties were compounded by the unprecedented destruction of civilian infrastructure across the Gaza Strip including hospitals, schools, mosques, civilian homes, police stations and United Nations compounds. In July 2008, Al-Haq said that more than 1,000 people had been detained by Fatah and more than 1,000 by Hamas within the previous year and that 20%-30% had been tortured. In June 2005, Al-Haq condemned the execution of four convicts in Gaza by the PA. Al-Haq said that four were killed without notice: "[t]hree were hanged and one was shot". It mentioned that dozens of Palestinians await execution, particularly those sentenced by the State Security Court and "may not have been granted a fair trial".Palestinian group slams executions.” UPI. June 13, 2005. (Lexis) In 1996, Al-Haq charged Palestinian police tortured to death Mahmoud al-Jamil—a member of the Fatah Hawks organisation who was imprisoned in Nablus jail in the West Bank.Rights group: Palestinian police with torturing prisoner to death.” Deutsche Presse-Agentur. July 31, 1996 (Lexis) Al-Haq's position on PLO assassinations of collaborators has been the topic of discussion. Al-Haq claimed that, because the authorities were responsible for keeping order, the killings were not human rights violations and were at worst common crimes. Al-Haq said that the "network of informers" and “agents of the state" were executed by an aroused citizenry, acting spontaneously. The Jerusalem Post, commenting on Al-Haq's position on the PLO killings, noted that the "mutilation-murders of young boys and girls, housewives, pregnant women and old men...did not fit the pacific image the PLO was trying to project". The Post also noted that although Al-Haq did not condone the killings in its human-rights report, it did not condemn them either.ABU SHARIFF'S EXPLANATION.” The Jerusalem Post. March 27, 1990 (Lexis) Yasser Arafat would later clarify the PLO involvement, telling an Egyptian newspaper that he dealt with each file of the executed, if not before the killing then definitely after. PLO spokesman Bassam Abu Sharif said that the procedure is that the suspect is warned three times to change his or her ways before taken to trial and given a chance to repent. Shariff reported that only after this would the accused be executed. ===Relations to Israel=== Al-Haq and its counterpart, the Israeli human rights organization B'Tselem, were co- recipients of the Carter-Menil Human Rights Prize in 1989, and of the Geuzenpenning, a Dutch human rights award, in 2009. In the 1990s, Israel's Ambassador to the United States, Moshe Arad, accused Al-Haq of being a front for Arafat's PLO and stated that "most of its members are supporters of Fatah and other members of the PLO terrorist organization". While conscious of internal human rights abuses within the Palestinian community, Al-Haq views Israeli presence in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip as “the root of the conflict in our region.” When Al-Haq accepted the 2009 Geuzen Medal, its representative said that the international community needs to increase its efforts, citing Al-Haq's case against the UK government for “failing to fulfill its obligations under international as well as domestic UK law.” The representative also expressed his desire for the Netherlands to “become the site of accountability for Israeli international crimes” and said Al-Haq, in line with its conviction to protect human rights, would never shy away from internal challenges in the West Bank and Gaza. Al-Haq showed support for a 2012 wave of Palestinian hunger strikes in protest of Israeli administrative detention of a 33-year-old member of Islamic Jihad. Al-Haq board members have expressed their feelings of doubt towards a two-state solution. One wrote that “If there cannot be two states, there will be one, and it will have a Palestinian majority.” Another said that a two-state solution looks increasingly unlikely. He went on to say that birthrates suggest Jews will eventually be a minority once again, and “unless continued military occupation and all-out apartheid is the desired path, now may be the time for Israelis to start putting in place the kinds of legal and constitutional safeguards that will protect all minorities, now and in the future, in a single democratic state of Israel-Palestine. This is both the right thing and the smart thing to do.” ===World Conference against Racism=== Al-Haq was an active participant in the World Conference against Racism held in Durban in 2001. In 2002, the organization issued a substantial report based on its conference concept paper. The conference turned into an argument about whether Zionism was equivalent to racism and whether the West should apologize for the Atlantic slave trade. Both the U.S. and Israel withdrew their delegations in reaction to what they called antisemitic language. ===Al-Haq and Palestinian groups=== The Palestinian Centre for Human Rights (PCHR) condemned an attack launched by members of the General Intelligence Service (GIS) on al-Haq staffers in Ramallah,. The staffers were documenting GIS’s attempts to stop an assembly organized to protest against the Palestinian National Authority’s decision to participate in direct negotiations with Israel. The PCHR called upon the government to respect freedoms and encourage respect done by human rights organizations.“PCHR CONDEMNS ATTACK BY GIS MEMBERS ON STAFF OF 'AL-HAQ' IN RAMALLAH.” IPR Strategic Business Information Database. August 26, 2010 ===Al- Haq legal cases=== In November 2006, Al-Haq brought a case in the UK Court of Appeal against the British government to end export licenses to Israel to "secure the implementation of the July 2004 [ICJ] Advisory Opinion on Israel's Wall". The case was dismissed in November 2008. In February 2009, Al-Haq, with solicitor Phil Shiner of Public Interest Lawyers (PIL), filed a claim for judicial review before the High Court of England and WalesAl-Haq v. Secretary of State for Foreign & Commonwealth Affairs et al. challenging the British government over its failure to fulfill its alleged “obligations under international law with respect to Israel’s activities in the Occupied Palestinian Territory”.http://www.alhaq.org/etemplate.php?id=432 Al-Haq v. UK. Last accessed: 10 August 2009.http://www.geuzenverzet.nl/index.php?tekst_id=12&news;_id=104⟨=EN Geuzenpenning Award ceremony 2009: acceptance speech Al-Haq. Last accessed: 10 August 2009. The case was dismissed in July 2009, and the dismissal was affirmed by an appellate court in February 2010. In March 2010, Al-Haq filed a criminal complaint alleging that a Dutch company, Riwal, "was complicit in the commission of war crimes and crimes against humanity through its construction of the Annexation Wall, ‘the Wall,’ and illegal settlements in the Occupied West Bank." The complaint was dismissed in May 2013. ===Operation Cast Lead=== In April 2009, Al-Haq issued a position paper titled "Operation Cast Lead and the Distortion of International Law". The paper is a legal analysis of Israel’s claim to self-defence under Article 51 of the United Nations Charter as a justification for its military operation in the Gaza Strip. ==Travel bans on Shawan Jabarin== Al-Haq's general director, Shawan Jabarin, has been prevented by Israel from traveling outside of West Bank since 2006. Shin Bet claims Jabarin is a member of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, and that "his travel may endanger regional security" but refuses to disclose evidence on the grounds that it is classified. Jabarin has been detained on at least two previous occasions following convictions in Israeli courts on the charge that he has engaged in activity on behalf of the PFLP, once for nine months in 1985 and once in 1994.https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory?id=7056868 ABC News - Palestinian Activist to Get Prize by Video. Last Accessed: 4 February 2010 Jabarin denies membership saying that he has worked for Al-Haq since 1987. Israeli and international human rights organizations sent letters of protest to Defense Minister Ehud Barak, asking that Jabarin be allowed to travel and accept the prize. In 2009, Israel's Shin Bet prevented Jabarin, from travelling to the Netherlands to accept the Geuzenpenning, a prestigious Dutch human rights prize presented by the Geuzen Resistance 1940-1945 Foundation jointly awarded to Al-Haq and B'Tselem. The Supreme Court of Israel was asked to review Jabarin's petition to reverse the travel ban which the petitioners stated "suggests he is being targeted for securing human rights for his people". Previous secret hearings decided in Shin Bet's favour. The court upheld the travel ban. In a previous case in 2008, the Supreme Court reviewed classified intelligence material and concluded that Jabarin was also a senior activists of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine.Shawan Rateb Abdullah Jabarin respondent , 3 July 2008 In November 2010, Jabarin was again refused permission by Israel to travel, this time to Galway, Ireland to receive a "distinguished graduate award" at the 10th anniversary celebrations of the NUI's Irish Centre for Human Rights, where he had studied international human rights law from 2004 to 2005. In addition, Jordan does not allow Jabarin to travel through its territory. ==Jabarin's appointments== In February 2011, Jabarin was appointed by Human Rights Watch to its Mideast Advisory Board, which was seen as a controversial appointment since Jabarin was labeled "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde" by the Israeli Supreme Court, for the dual roles it claimed he held in both the militant organization PFLP, and the human rights organization, Al Haq. The HRW appointment was criticised by Robert L. Bernstein, the founder of HRW, Stuart Robinowitz, a prominent New York attorney who has undertaken human-rights missions for the American Bar Association and Helsinki Watch (the predecessor to HRW) in Yugoslavia, Bulgaria and El Salvador, and Prof. Gerald Steinberg, the president of the Jerusalem-based NGO Monitor. In May 2013, Jabarin was elected a vice president of the International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH). Jabarin had also been elected Commissioner of the International Commission of Jurists. In August 2016, Jabarin was elected Secretary General of FIDH. ==Awards== * 1989 - The Carter-Menil Human Rights Prize (co-recipient with B'Tselem) * 1990 - Reebok Human Rights Award (awarded to Shabwan Jabarin) * 2009 - The Geuzen Medal (co- recipient with B'Tselem) ==Terrorist designation by Israel== In October 2021, Al-Haq was branded a terrorist organization by Israel, together with five other Palestinian non-profit, non-governmental organizations (Addameer, Bisan Center for Research and Development, Defence for Children International – Palestine, the Union of Palestinian Women's Committees and the Union of Agricultural Work Committees). Israel shared its intelligence on the groups with the C.I.A. which in a classified report response said it could find no evidence to confirm Israel's designation of these groups as terrorist.Isaac Scher, 'CIA unable to corroborate Israel’s ‘terror’ label for Palestinian rights groups, The Guardian 22 August 2022 The designation was condemned by Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the UN Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights who called it a "frontal attack on the Palestinian human rights movement and on human rights everywhere." In July 2022, nine EU countries (Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain and Sweden) issued a joint statement saying they will continue working with the six Palestinian organisations that Israel had banned because Israel had failed to prove that they should be considered terrorist groups.Hagar Shezaf: תשע מדינות באירופה: בהיעדר ראיות מישראל, נמשיך לסייע לארגונים האזרחיים בגדה / ‘Insufficient Evidence’: Nine EU Nations to Keep Ties With Palestinian NGOs Israel Blacklisted as Terrorist Groups. Haaretz, 12 July 2022. On 18 August, Israeli forces raided the headquarters of the six along with the Union of Health Work Committees (outlawed in 2020) in Ramallah and al-Bireh, removed computers and equipment and ordered their closure. Hussein Al-Sheikh tweeted his condemnation of the action. Michael Sfard, lawyer for Al-Haq, said "Let's recall that this is all happening after the government failed to convince the European countries who one by one determined that there is no basis for the accusations against the organizations. An urgent international intervention is needed to protect Palestinian human rights defenders from the Israeli dictatorship." ==See also== * Palestinian Centre for Human Rights ==References== ==External links== * Official website Category:Human rights organizations based in the State of Palestine Haq Category:Non-governmental organizations involved in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict Category:Charities based in the State of Palestine |
In neurology, abulia, or aboulia (from , meaning "will"),Bailly, A. (2000). Dictionnaire Grec Français, Éditions Hachette. refers to a lack of will or initiative and can be seen as a disorder of diminished motivation (DDM). Abulia falls in the middle of the spectrum of diminished motivation, with apathy being less extreme and akinetic mutism being more extreme than abulia.Marin, R. S., & Wilkosz, P. A. (2005). Disorders of diminished motivation . Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 20(4), 377-388. The condition was originally considered to be a disorder of the will,Berrios G.E. and Gili M. (1995) Will and its disorders. A conceptual history. History of Psychiatry 6: 87-104Berrios G.E. and Gili M. (1995) Abulia and impulsiveness revisited. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 92: 161-167 and aboulic individuals are unable to act or make decisions independently; and their condition may range in severity from subtle to overwhelming. In the case of akinetic mutism, many patients describe that as soon as they "will" or attempt a movement, a "counter-will" or "resistance" rises up to meet them. ==Symptoms and signs== The clinical condition denoted abulia was first described in 1838; however, since that time, a number of different, some contradictory, definitions have emerged.Vijayaraghavan, L., Krishnamoorthy, E. S., Brown, R. G., & Trimble, M. R. (2002). Abulia: A Delphi survey of British neurologists and psychiatrists. [Article]. Movement Disorders, 17(5), 1052-1057. Abulia has been described as a loss of drive, expression, behavior and speech output, with slowing and prolonged speech latency, and reduction of spontaneous thought content and initiative,Jahanshahi, M., & Frith, C. D. (1998). Willed action and its impairments. [Review]. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 15(6-8), 483-533. being considered more recently as 'a reduction in action emotion and cognition'. The clinical features most commonly associated with abulia are: * Difficulty in initiating and sustaining purposeful movements * Lack of spontaneous movement * Reduced spontaneous speech * Increased response-time to queries * Passivity * Reduced emotional responsiveness and spontaneity * Reduced social interactions * Reduced interest in usual pastimes Especially in patients with progressive dementia, it may affect feeding.Starkstein, S. E., & Leentjens, A. F. G. (2008). The nosological position of apathy in clinical practice. [Review]. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 79(10), 1088-1092. Patients may continue to chew or hold food in their mouths for hours without swallowing it. The behavior may be most evident after these patients have eaten part of their meals and no longer have strong appetites. ===Differentiation from other disorders=== Both neurologists and psychiatrists recognize abulia to be a distinct clinical entity, but its status as a syndrome is unclear. Although abulia has been known to clinicians since 1838, it has been subjected to different interpretations – from 'a pure lack of will', in the absence of motor paralysis to, more recently, being considered 'a reduction in action emotion and cognition'. As a result of the changing definition of abulia, there is currently a debate on whether or not abulia is a sign or a symptom of another disease, or its own disease that seems to appear in the presence of other more well-researched diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease. A 2002 survey of two movement disorder experts, two neuropsychiatrists, and two rehabilitation experts, did not seem to shed any light on the matter of differentiating abulia from other DDMs. The experts used the terms "apathy" and "abulia" interchangeably and debated whether or not abulia was a discrete entity, or just a hazy gray area on a spectrum of more defined disorders. Four of the experts said abulia was a sign and a symptom, and the group was split on whether or not it was a syndrome. Another survey, which consisted of true and false questions about what abulia is distinct from, whether it is a sign, symptom, or syndrome, where lesions are present in cases of abulia, what diseases are commonly associated with abulia, and what current treatments are used for abulia, was sent to 15 neurologists and 10 psychiatrists. Most experts agreed that abulia is clinically distinct from depression, akinetic mutism, and alexithymia. However, only 32% believed abulia was different from apathy, while 44% said they were not different, and 24% were unsure. Yet again, there was disagreement about whether or not abulia is a sign, symptom, or syndrome. The study of motivation has been mostly about how stimuli come to acquire significance for animals. Only recently has the study of motivational processes been extended to integrate biological drives and emotional states in the explanation of purposeful behavior in human beings. Considering the number of disorders attributed to a lack of will and motivation, it is essential that abulia and apathy be defined more precisely to avoid confusion. ==Causes== Many different causes of abulia have been suggested. While there is some debate about the validity of abulia as a separate disease, experts mostly agree that abulia is the result of frontal lesions and not with cerebellar or brainstem lesions. As a result of more and more evidence showing that the mesolimbic and the mesocortical dopamine system are key to motivation and responsiveness to reward, abulia may be a dopamine- related dysfunction. Abulia may also result from a variety of brain injuries which cause personality change, such as dementing illnesses, trauma, or intracerebral hemorrhage (stroke), especially stroke causing diffuse injury to the right hemisphere.Grunsfeld, A. A., & Login, I. S. (2006). Abulia following penetrating brain injury during endoscopic sinus surgery with disruption of the anterior cingulate circuit: Case report. [Article]. Bmc Neurology, 6, 4.Kile, S. J., Camilleri, C. C., Latchaw, R. E., & Tharp, B. R. (2006). Bithalamic lesions of butane encephalopathy. [Article]. Pediatric Neurology, 35(6), 439-441. ===Damage to the basal ganglia=== Injuries to the frontal lobe and/or the basal ganglia can interfere with an individual's ability to initiate speech, movement, and social interaction. Studies have shown that 5-67% of all patients with traumatic brain injuries and 13% of patients with lesions on their basal ganglia experience some form of diminished motivation. It may complicate rehabilitation when a stroke patient is uninterested in performing tasks like walking despite being capable of doing so. It should be differentiated from apraxia, when a brain injured patient has impairment in comprehending the movements necessary to perform a motor task despite not having any paralysis that prevents performing the task; that condition can also result in lack of initiation of activity. ===Damage to the capsular genu=== A case study involving two patients with acute confusional state and abulia was conducted to see if these symptoms were the result of an infarct in the capsular genu. Using clinical neuropsychological and MRI evaluations at baseline and one year later showed that the cognitive impairment was still there one year after the stroke. Cognitive and behavioral alterations due to a genu infarct are most likely because the thalamo-cortical projection fibers that originate from the ventral-anterior and medial-dorsal nuclei traverse the internal capsule genu. These tracts are part of a complex system of cortical and subcortical frontal circuits through which the flow of information from the entire cortex takes place before reaching the basal ganglia. Cognitive deterioration could have occurred through the genu infarcts affecting the inferior and anterior thalamic peduncles. In this case study the patients did not show any functional deficits at the follow-up one year after the stroke and were not depressed but did show diminished motivations. This result supports the idea that abulia may exist independently of depression as its own syndrome.Pantoni, L., Basile, A. M., Romanelli, M., Piccini, C., Sarti, C., Nencini, P., et al. (2001). Abulia and cognitive impairment in two patients with capsular genu infarct. [Article]. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 104(3), 185-190. ===Damage to anterior cingulate circuit=== The anterior cingulate circuit consists of the anterior cingulate cortex, also referred to as Brodmann area 24, and its projections to the ventral striatum which includes the ventromedial caudate. The loop continues to connect to the ventral pallidum, which connects to the ventral anterior nucleus of the thalamus. This circuit is essential for the initiation of behavior, motivation and goal orientation, which are the very things missing from a patient with a disorder of diminished motivation. Unilateral injury or injury along any point in the circuit leads to abulia regardless of the side of the injury, but if there is bilateral damage, the patient will exhibit a more extreme case of diminished motivation, akinetic mutism. ===Acute caudate vascular lesions=== It's well documented that the caudate nucleus is involved in degenerative diseases of the central nervous system such as Huntington disease. In a case study of 32 acute caudate stroke patients, 48% were found to be experiencing abulia. Most of the cases where abulia was present were when the patients had a left caudate infarct that extended into the putamen as seen through a CT or MRI scan.Kumral, E., Evyapan, D., & Balkir, K. (1999). Acute caudate vascular lesions. [Article]. Stroke, 30(1), 100-108. ==Diagnosis== Diagnosis for abulia can be quite difficult because it falls between two other disorders of diminished motivation, and one could easily see an extreme case of abulia as akinetic mutism or a lesser case of abulia as apathy and therefore, not treat the patient appropriately. If it were to be confused with apathy, it might lead to attempts to involve the patient with physical rehabilitation or other interventions where a source of strong motivation would be necessary to succeed but would still be absent. The best way to diagnose abulia is through clinical observation of the patient as well as questioning of close relatives and loved ones to give the doctor a frame of reference with which they can compare the patient's new behavior to see if there is in fact a case of diminished motivation. In recent years, imaging studies using a CT or MRI scan have been shown to be quite helpful in localizing brain lesions which have been shown to be one of the main causes of abulia. ===Conditions where abulia may be present=== * Normal pressure hydrocephalus * Major depressive disorder * Persistent depressive disorder * Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder * Schizophrenia * Frontotemporal dementia * Parkinson's disease * Huntington's disease * Pick's disease * Progressive supranuclear palsy * Traumatic brain injury * Stroke ===Alzheimer's disease=== A lack of motivation has been reported in 25–50% of patients with Alzheimer's disease. While depression is also common in patients with this disease, abulia is not a mere symptom of depressions because more than half of the patients with Alzheimer's disease with abulia do not have depression. Several studies have shown that abulia is most prevalent in cases of severe dementia which may result from reduced metabolic activity in the prefrontal regions of the brain. Patients with Alzheimer's disease and abulia are significantly older than patients with Alzheimer's who do not lack motivation. Going along with that, the prevalence of abulia increased from 14% in patients with a mild case Alzheimer's disease to 61% in patients with a severe case of Alzheimer's disease, which most likely developed over time as the patient got older. ==Treatment== Most current treatments for abulia are pharmacological, including the use of antidepressants. However, antidepressant treatment is not always successful and this has opened the door to alternative methods of treatment. The first step to successful treatment of abulia, or any other DDM, is a preliminary evaluation of the patient's general medical condition and fixing the problems that can be fixed easily. This may mean controlling seizures or headaches, arranging physical or cognitive rehabilitation for cognitive and sensorimotor loss, or ensuring optimal hearing, vision, and speech. These elementary steps also increase motivation because improved physical status may enhance functional capacity, drive, and energy and thereby increase the patient's expectation that initiative and effort will be successful. There are 5 steps to pharmacological treatment: # Optimize medical status. # Diagnose and treat other conditions more specifically associated with diminished motivation (e.g., apathetic hyperthyroidism, Parkinson's disease). # Eliminate or reduce doses of psychotropics and other agents that aggravate motivational loss (e.g., SSRIs, dopamine antagonists). # Treat depression efficaciously when both DDM and depression are present. # Increase motivation through use of stimulants, dopamine agonists, or other agents such as cholinesterase inhibitors. ==Society and culture== A case of abulia after a transient ischemic attack in the frontal lobes is depicted in the episode "House Training" of the drama series House, M.D.. == See also == * Avolition ==References== ==External links== * Category:Symptoms and signs: Nervous system Category:Symptoms and signs of mental disorders Category:Motivation |
India–Sri Lanka relations (; Indiyava-Shri Lanka Sabandatha; ) also referred to Indian-Sri Lankan relations or Indo-Sri Lanka relations, are the bilateral relations between India and Sri Lanka. Only 4% of Sri Lankans have a negative view on India, the lowest of all the countries surveyed by the Ipsos GlobalScan.http://www.sasapost.com/wp-content/uploads/080416_0243_1.png The two countries are also close on economic terms with India being the island's largest trading partner and an agreement to establish a proto single market also under discussion at an advanced stage. There are deep racial and cultural links between the two countries. India and Sri Lanka share a maritime border. India is the only neighbour of Sri Lanka, separated by the Palk Strait; both nations occupy a strategic position in South Asia and have sought to build a common security umbrella in the Indian Ocean. Both India and Sri Lanka are republics within the Commonwealth of Nations. They have been however tested by the Sri Lankan Civil War and by the controversy of Indian intervention during the war. In recent years Sri Lanka has moved closer to China, especially in terms of naval agreements. India has signed a nuclear energy deal to improve relations. India made a nuclear energy pact with Sri Lanka in 2015.Krista Mahr and Sanjeev Miglani, "India seals nuclear energy pact with Sri Lanka, hopes to push back Chinese influence," Reuters Feb. 16, 2015 == History == Sri Lanka was established as a country after European colonialism, prior to which the nation functioned as an independent Kingdom under a line of singular monarchs or multiple kingdoms. The Kingdom had continuous wars with occupying South Indian Kingdoms. === Early history === thumb|V.S. Swami Nathan of the External Affairs Ministry, photographed at the Safdarjung Airport, taking Mahatma Gandhi's ashes to Ceylon According to traditional Sri Lankan chronicles (such as the Dipavamsa) Buddhism was introduced into Sri Lanka in the 4th century BCE by Venerable Mahinda, the son of Indian Emperor Ashoka, during the reign of Sri Lanka's King Devanampiya Tissa. During this time, a sapling of the Bodhi Tree was brought to Sri Lanka and the first monasteries and Buddhist monuments were established. Among these, the Isurumuni-vihaara and the Vessagiri-vihaara remain important centers of worship. He is also credited with the construction of the Pathamaka-cetiya, the Jambukola-vihaara and the Hatthaalhaka-vihaara, and the refectory. The Pali Canon, having previously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BCE. Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any Buddhist nation, with the Sangha having existed in a largely unbroken lineage since its introduction in the 4th century. During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with Myanmar and Thailand. Periods of Mahayana influence, as well as official neglect under colonial rule, created great challenges for Theravada Buddhist institutions in Sri Lanka, but repeated revivals and resurgences – most recently in the 19th century CE – have kept the Theravada tradition alive for over 2,600 years. Tamils in Sri Lanka, had established Hinduism and Tamil language links with South India. Nainativu Nagapooshani Amman Temple considered as one Shakthi Peethams. Koneswaram and Ketheeswaram are considered as only Paadal Petra Sthalangal in Sri Lanka. === Indian intervention in the Sri Lankan civil war === In the 1970s–1980s, private entities and elements in the Research and Analysis Wing and the state government of Tamil Nadu were believed to be encouraging the funding and training for the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, a separatist insurgent force.RAW: India's External Intelligence Agency Council on Foreign Relations – November 7, 2008 In 1987, faced with growing anger amongst its own Tamils, and a flood of refugees, India intervened directly in the conflict for the first time after the Sri Lankan government attempted to regain control of the northern Jaffna region by means of an economic blockade and military assaults, India supplied food and medicine by air and sea. After subsequent negotiations, India and Sri Lanka entered into an agreement/13th amendment. The peace accord assigned a certain degree of regional autonomy in the Tamil areas with Eelam People's Revolutionary Liberation Front (EPRLF) controlling the regional council and called for the Tamil militant groups to lay down their arms. Further India was to send a peacekeeping force, named the IPKF to Sri Lanka to enforce the disarmament and to watch over the regional council.The Peace Accord and the Tamils in Sri Lanka. Hennayake S.K. Asian Survey, Vol. 29, No. 4. (April 1989), pp. 401-415. According to Rejaul Karim Laskar, a scholar of Indian foreign policy, Indian intervention in Sri Lankan civil war became inevitable as that civil war threatened India's “unity, national interest and territorial integrity.” According to Laskar, this threat came in two ways: On the one hand external powers could take advantage of the situation to establish their base in Sri Lanka thus posing a threat to India, on the other the LTTE's dream of a sovereign Tamil Eelam comprising all the Tamil inhibited areas (of Sri Lanka and India) posed a threat to India's territorial integrity. Even though the accord was signed between the governments of Sri Lanka and India, with the Tamil Tigers and other Tamil militant groups not having a role in the signing of the accord, most Tamil militant groups accepted this agreement,O'Ballance, 91 the LTTE rejected the accord because they opposed the candidate, who belonged to another militant group named Eelam Peoples Revolutionary Liberation Front (EPRLF), for chief administrative officer of the merged Northern and Eastern provinces. Instead, the LTTE named three other candidates for the position. The candidates proposed by the LTTE were rejected by India.O'Ballance, p.94 The LTTE subsequently refused to hand over their weapons to the IPKF. The result was that the LTTE now found itself engaged in military conflict with the Indian Army, and launched their first attack on an Indian army rations truck on October 8, killing five Indian para-commandos who were on board by strapping burning tires around their necks.O'Ballance, p.100 The government of India then decided that the IPKF should disarm the LTTE by force, and the Indian Army launched a number of assaults on the LTTE, including a month-long campaign dubbed Operation Pawan to wrest control of the Jaffna peninsula from the LTTE. When the IPKF engaged the LTTE, the then president of Sri Lanka, Ranasinghe Premadasa, began supporting LTTE and funded LTTE with arms. During the warfare with the LTTE, IPKF was also alleged to have made human rights violation against the civilians. Notably, IPKF was alleged to have perpetrated the Jaffna teaching hospital massacre which was the killing of over 70 civilians including patients, doctors and nurses. The ruthlessness of this campaign, and the Indian army's subsequent anti-LTTE operations made it extremely unpopular amongst many Tamils in Sri Lanka. The conflict between the LTTE and the Indian Army left over 1,115 Indian soldiers dead. The Indo-Sri Lankan Accord, which had been unpopular amongst Sri Lankans for giving India a major influence, now became a source of nationalist anger and resentment as the IPKF was drawn fully into the conflict. Sri Lankans protested the presence of the IPKF, and the newly elected Sri Lankan president Ranasinghe Premadasa demanded its withdrawal, which was completed by March 1990. on May 21, 1991, Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated and the LTTE was alleged to be the perpetrator. As a result, India declared the LTTE to be a terrorist outfit in 1992. Bilateral relations improved in the 1990s and India supported the peace process but has resisted calls to get involved again. India has also been wary of and criticised the extensive military involvement of Pakistan in the conflict, accusing the latter of supplying lethal weaponry and encouraging Sri Lanka to pursue military action rather than peaceful negotiations to end the civil war. ===Support during COVID-19 and Sri Lankan economic crisis=== In the face of the acute financial and economic crisis of Sri Lanka, India has extended help worth USD 3.8 billion to help Sri Lanka. In line with India's 'neighbourhood first' policy, this includes an agreement to supply 700 million USD worth of petroleum through a Line of credit. India's EXIM Bank and State Bank of India extended export credit facilities of 1.5 billion USD for the import of essential commodities. India also signed a 400 million USD agreement to help present Sri Lanka's Foreign exchange reserves. India also supplied 500 buses to the Sri Lankan Transport Department. During the COVID-19 pandemic, India sent 500,000 vaccines to Sri Lanka under grant assistance. India also sent 150 tonnes of oxygen to Sri Lanka to help combat the third wave of the pandemic. == Culture == The two countries share near-identical racial and cultural ties. Sinhalese people who make up 75% of the total population descend in part from Northern Indian Indo-Aryan settlers who migrated the Island from 543 BCE to 243 BCE. Tamil people (included Indian Tamils and Sri Lankan Moors) who make up 25% of the total population belonging to the Dravidian group that migrated to the island from 300BC. == Economy == === Commercial ties === India and Sri Lanka are member nations of several regional and multilateral organizations such as the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme, South Asian Economic Union and BIMSTEC, working to enhance cultural and commercial ties. Since a bilateral free trade agreement was signed and came into effect in 2000, Indo-Sri Lankan trade rose 128% by 2004 and quadrupled by 2006, reaching US$2.6 billion. Between 2000 and 2004, India's exports to Sri Lanka in the last four years increased by 113%, from US$618 million to $1,319 million while Sri Lankan exports to India increased by 342%, from $44 million to $194 million. Indian exports account for 14% of Sri Lanka's global imports. India is also the fifth largest export destination for Sri Lankan goods, accounting for 3.6% of its exports. Both nations are also signatories of the South Asia Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA). Negotiations are also underway to expand the free trade agreement to forge stronger commercial relations and increase corporate investment and ventures in various industries. The year 2010 is predicted to be the best year for bilateral trade on record, with Sri Lanka's exports to India increasing by 45% over the first seven months of the yearSri Lanka's exports to India increase by 45% - Indian High Commissioner Sunday Observer – September 23, 2010 India's National Thermal Power Corp (NTPC) is also scheduled to build a 500 MW thermal power plant in Sampoor (Sampur). The NTPC claims that this plan will take the Indo-Sri Lankan relationship to a new level.India's Sri Lanka power project runs into Tamil storm ==== Fishing disputes ==== There have been several alleged incidents of Sri Lankan Navy personnel firing on Indian fishermen fishing in the Palk Strait, where India and Sri Lanka are separated by only . The issue started because of Indian fishermen having used mechanised trawlers, which deprived the Sri Lankan fishermen (including Tamils) of their catch and damaged their fishing boats. The Sri Lankan government wants India to ban use of mechanized trawlers in the Palk Strait region, and negotiations on this subject are undergoing. So far, no concrete agreement has been reached since India favours regulating these trawlers instead of banning them altogether. Another cause of anger amongst the Sri Lankan side is the use of mechanized trawlers, which they view as ecologically damaging.Rumley et al. 2009:166 Presently there is no bona fide Indian fisherman in Sri Lankan custody. A Joint Working Group (JWG) has been constituted to deal with the issues related to Indian fishermen straying in Sri Lankan territorial waters, work out modalities for prevention of the use of force against them, the early release of confiscated boats and explore possibilities of working towards bilateral arrangements for licensed fishing. The JWG last met in January 2006. India officially protested against the Sri Lankan Navy for its alleged involvement in attacks on Indian fishermen on January 12, 2011. After the official protest, another fisherman was killed on 22 January 2011. Over 730 fishermen have been killed in the last 30 years. The apathetic attitude of the Indian government and the national media towards the alleged killing of Tamil Nadu fishermen by the Sri Lankan Navy has been strongly condemned. Several Tamil Nadu politicians like Vaiko and Jayalalitha have condemned the federal government for not doing enough to stop the killing of Indian Tamil fishermen, and for offering training, equipment, and strategic cooperation for the Sri Lankan Navy. In 2010, Naam Thamizhar Katchi Chief coordinator Seeman got arrested under National security act for his reported statement that he would attack the Sri Lankan students if the killing of Tamil fishermen continued by the Sri Lankan navy. Later he got acquitted of the charges and set free by the Madras high court. In November 2014, Sri Lanka ordered capital punishment to Indian fishermen who were allegedly involved in drug supply or other kind of smuggling. Activists from India approached to Sri Lankan government through an appeal, where they stated the need to strengthen south Asian regional cooperation for all such issues. It was appealed that though crime of any kind must get punishment, but capital punishment must be revoked in this case and in general from all over south Asia. Sri Lanka Prime Minister Ranil Winckramsinghe told during an interview to a television channel in March 2015 that 'if Indian fishermen will cross the sea boundary, Sri Lankan navy can shoot them.' This remark sparked controversy over Sri Lanka–India relations. External affairs minister of India raised the issue with meeting her counterpart in Sri Lanka, but the statement of PM of Sri Lanka was condemned by civil rights activists, and open letters were written to PMs of Sri Lanka and India to resolve the dispute and to apologize for statements. In October 2021, Sri Lankan fishermen from the North and Tamil parties launched a protest on the sea complaining about the inability of Sri Lankan authorities to deal with Indian poachers. === Development co-operation === India is active in a number of areas of development activity in Sri Lanka. About one-sixth of the total development credit granted by India is made available to Sri Lanka. In the recent past, three lines of credit were extended to Sri Lanka: US$100 million for capital goods, consumer durables, consultancy services and food items, US$31 million for the supply of 300,000 MT of wheat and US$150 million for purchase of petroleum products. All of the lines of credit have been fully used. Another line of credit of US$100 million is now being made available for rehabilitation of the Colombo-Matara railway. A number of development projects are implemented under Aid to Sri Lanka funds. In 2006–07, the budget for Aid to Sri Lanka was Rs 28.2 Crs. A memorandum of understanding on Cooperation in Small Development Projects has been signed. Projects for providing fishing equipment to the fishermen in the East of Sri Lanka and solar energy aided computer education in 25 rural schools in Eastern Sri Lanka are under consideration. India has supplied medical equipment to hospitals at Hambantota and Point Pedro, supplied 4 state-of-the-art ambulances to the Central Province, implemented a cataract eye surgery programme for 1500 people in the Central Province and implemented a project of renovation of OT at Dickoya hospital and supplying equipment to it. The projects under consideration are the construction of a 150-bed hospital at Dickoya, upgrading of the hospital at Trincomalee and a US$7.5 million grant for setting up a cancer hospital in Colombo. India also contributes to the Ceylon Workers Education Trust that gives scholarships to the children of estate workers. A training programme for 465 Sri Lankan Police officers has been commenced in Dec 2005. Another 400 Sri Lankan Police personnel are being trained for the course of Maintenance of Public Order. Indian governments have also showed interest in collaborating with their Sri Lankan counterparts on building tourism between the two countries based on shared religious heritage.Sri Lanka woos Indian tourists News Track India – January 13, 2009 Madhya Pradesh CM Shivraj Chauhan in June 2013 stated he was working with Sri Lankan authorities to build a temple dedicated to the Hindu deity Sita in Nuwara Eliya.New Mannar – June 1, 2013 In November 2019, Prime Minister Narendra Modi stated that India will invest $400 million in infrastructure projects in Sri Lanka amid improving ties after talks with Sri Lanka's new President Gotabaya Rajapaksa. stated that it will lend Sri Lanka $400 million for infrastructure projects, India-Sri Lanka border crossings Only land border India and Sri Lanka have is in Talaimannar on a Ram Sethu sand dune. === Shared Tourism === In the past, ferry services for tourists have been introduced and suspended repeatedly because of their low usage. The low usage of the old ferry services could be due to the high cost of the former services. As of now, the only way for tourists to access India from Sri Lanka is by air. In 2019 negotiations about ferry services between Colombo and Tuticorin and between Talaimannar and Rameshwaram began. There is also a proposal to operate a cruise/ferry service between Colombo and Kochi in Kerala. The Indian and Sri Lankan governments are working close together to connect the two neighboring countries better. The Sri Lankan minister of Tourism Development John Amaratunga indicates that a ferry service will help tourists from both sides to travel at a very low cost. == Security == India and Sri Lanka signed an agreement allowing for the transfer of criminals serving prison sentences in the other country to be repatriated to serve the balance of their sentences in their home country. Sentenced persons from Kerala and Tamil Nadu have been transferred under the agreement from Sri Lanka to India. There are areas of cooperation where people to people contacts are focused. Sri Lanka and India has friendly relations through people's support also. It was seen that A. T. Ariyaratne in Sri Lanka helped in spreading non- violence and community service activities on Gandhian philosophy. === Alleged RAW interference === In 2015, the Sri Lankan Government expelled the country's RAW agent for the role played in uniting the opposition for the 2015 presidential election. In October 2018, President Sirisena alleged that Indian RAW was plotting his assassination. He made this comment in the cabinet meeting, after CID of Sri Lanka Police arrested an Indian national in September for the alleged assassination of Sirisena and former Defence Secretary Gotabaya Rajapaksa. After President Sirisena's comment on this, the media reported that the Indian High Commissioner met with the president, and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi had a telephone conversation with the president. === China === In recent years Sri Lanka has moved closer to China, especially in terms of naval agreements.K. T. Ganeshalingam and P. Moorthy. "Chinese influence in Sri Lanka on the Ascend: Impact on Indian geo-strategic interest." ACADEMICIA: An International Multidisciplinary Research Journal (2014) 4#1 pp: 201-210.Saman Kelegama, "China–Sri Lanka Economic Relations An Overview." China Report (2014) 50#2 pp: 131-149. India and Sri Lanka in February 2015 signed a nuclear energy deal to improve relationships. Recently elected Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi in a meeting with recently elected Sri Lankan ex-president Maithripala Sirisena stated that: "India is Sri Lanka's closest neighbour and friend. Our destinies are interlinked." Grants to Sri Lanka by India and other co-operation—Sri Lanka is one of India's major development partners and this partnership has been an important pillar of bilateral ties between the two countries over the years. With grants alone amounting to around US$570 million, the overall commitment by GOI is to the tune of more than US$3.5 billion. Demand driven and people-centric nature of India's development partnership with Sri Lanka have been the cornerstone of this relationship. == See also == * Sri Lankans in India * Indians in Sri Lanka * List of Indians in Sri Lanka * Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka * Deputy High Commission of Sri Lanka, Chennai * Foreign relations of Sri Lanka * Foreign relations of India * India–Sri Lanka maritime boundary agreements * South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) == References == ==Further reading== * Malone, David M., C. Raja Mohan, and Srinath Raghavan, eds. The Oxford handbook of Indian foreign policy (2015) excerpt pp 412–423. * * ==External links== * Common gods, shared values thread India, Sri Lanka together * Sinhala Hindi English Dictionary and Sinhala To Hindi Language Translator * India-Sri lanka 2015 * / From Sri Lanka to India within hours by sea Sri Lanka Category:Bilateral relations of Sri Lanka Category:India and the Commonwealth of Nations Category:Sri Lanka and the Commonwealth of Nations |
thumb|Map of Fiji showing major island groups The avifauna of Fiji is the richest in West Polynesia. Numerous families reach the farthest east of their range, and the island is home to several endemic species and genera, as well as sharing several more endemics with its close neighbours Tonga and Samoa. The birds of Fiji have been heavily impacted by the arrival of humans. Several species (and some genera) were lost in prehistory and are known only from fossil remains. Other have become extinct more recently, and some species remain very close to extinction. It is certain that the current knowledge of the previous ranges of many species is incomplete and further research is needed. This is a list of the bird species recorded in Fiji. The avifauna of Fiji include a total of 179 species, of which 31 are endemic, and 13 have been introduced by humans. Numerous species listed have been extirpated from Fiji. This list's taxonomic treatment (designation and sequence of orders, families and species) and nomenclature (common and scientific names) follow the conventions of The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World, 2022 edition. The family accounts at the beginning of each heading reflect this taxonomy, as do the species counts found in each family account. Introduced and accidental species are included in the total counts for Fiji. There are also a few species listed that have been recorded in Fiji, but not known to what specific island they were recorded at. The following tags have been used to highlight several categories. * (V) Vagrant - a species that rarely or accidentally occurs in Fiji * (B) Breeder - a species that breeds in Fiji * (M) Migrant - a species that regularly migrates to Fiji * (P) Passage migrant - a species that neither breeds nor winters in Fiji but regularly passes through * (I) Introduced - a species introduced to Fiji as a consequence, direct or indirect, of human actions * (X) Extirpated - a species that no longer occurs here although populations may exist elsewhere * (*) Endemic - a species that is endemic to Fiji * (?) Uncertain - a species with uncertain records or current status ==Ducks, geese, and waterfowl== Order: AnseriformesFamily: Anatidae Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These birds are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, flattened bills, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to an oily coating. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Wandering whistling-duck Dendrocygna arcuata X Pacific black duck Anas superciliosa B B B B B Eastern spot-billed duck Anas zonorhyncha Mallard Anas platyrhynchos V ==Megapodes== Order: GalliformesFamily: Megapodiidae The Megapodiidae are stocky, medium-large chicken-like birds with small heads and large feet. All but the malleefowl occupy jungle habitats and most have brown or black colouring. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Consumed scrubfowl Megapodius alimentum X Viti Levu scrubfowl Megapodius amissus * X X Melanesian scrubfowl Megapodius eremita ==Sylviornithids== PangalliformesFamily: Sylviornithidae Sylviornithids are an extinct lineage of flightless birds related to modern Galliformes. They are represented by two species, one of them native to Fiji. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Noble megapode Megavitiornis altirostris X ==Pheasants, grouse, and allies== Order: GalliformesFamily: Phasianidae The Phasianidae are a family of terrestrial birds. In general, they are plump (although they vary in size) and have broad, relatively short wings. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Brown quail Synoicus ypsilophorus I I Red junglefowl Gallus gallus IX IX I I I I I Wild turkey Meleagris gallopavo I ==Pigeons and doves== Order: ColumbiformesFamily: Columbidae Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Rock dove Columba livia I I I Metallic pigeon Columba vitiensis B B B B B B Spotted dove Spilopelia chinensis I I I I Shy ground dove Alopecoenas stairi B B B B B B Many-colored fruit-dove Ptilinopus perousii B B B B B B Crimson-crowned fruit dove Ptilinopus porphyraceus B B Orange dove Ptilinopus victor* B B Golden dove Ptilinopus luteovirens* B B Velvet dove Ptilinopus layardi* B Pacific imperial-pigeon Ducula pacifica B B B Peale's imperial-pigeon Ducula latrans* B B B B B B Lau imperial-pigeon Ducula lakeba X X Viti Levu giant pigeon Natunaornis gigoura* X ==Cuckoos== Order: CuculiformesFamily: Cuculidae The family Cuculidae includes cuckoos, roadrunners and anis. These birds are of variable size with slender bodies, long tails and strong legs. The Old World cuckoos are brood parasites. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Long-tailed koel Urodynamis taitensis M M M M M M Fan-tailed cuckoo Cacomantis flabelliformis B B B B B ==Frogmouths== Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Podargidae The frogmouths are a group of nocturnal birds related to the nightjars. They are named for their large flattened hooked bill and huge frog-like gape, which they use to take insects. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Tawny frogmouth Podargus strigoides I ==Swifts== Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Apodidae Swifts are small birds which spend the majority of their lives flying. These birds have very short legs and never settle voluntarily on the ground, perching instead only on vertical surfaces. Many swifts have long swept-back wings which resemble a crescent or boomerang. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma White-throated needletail Hirundapus caudacutus V White-rumped swiftlet Aerodramus spodiopygius B B B B B B Australian swiftlet Aerodramus terraereginae ==Rails, gallinules, and coots== Order: GruiformesFamily: Rallidae Rallidae is a large family of small to medium-sized birds which includes the rails, crakes, coots and gallinules. Typically they inhabit dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, swamps or rivers. In general they are shy and secretive birds, making them difficult to observe. Most species have strong legs and long toes which are well adapted to soft uneven surfaces. They tend to have short, rounded wings and to be weak fliers. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Buff-banded rail Gallirallus philippensis X X B B B B B Bar-winged rail Gallirallus poecilopterus* Black-backed swamphen Porphyrio indicus Australasian swamphen Porphyrio melanotus X X B B B B B Viti Levu rail Vitirallus watlingi* X White-browed crake Poliolimnas cinereus B B B B B B Spotless crake Zapornia tabuensis B B B B B B ==Plovers and lapwings== Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Charadriidae The family Charadriidae includes the plovers, dotterels and lapwings. They are small to medium-sized birds with compact bodies, short, thick necks and long, usually pointed, wings. They are found in open country worldwide, mostly in habitats near water. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Black-bellied plover Pluvialis squatarola V Pacific golden-plover Pluvialis fulva M M M M M M M Masked lapwing Vanellus miles V Lesser sand-plover Charadrius mongolus V Caspian plover Charadrius asiaticus V Double-banded plover Charadrius bicinctus V ==Sandpipers and allies== Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Scolopacidae Scolopacidae is a large diverse family of small to medium-sized shorebirds including the sandpipers, curlews, godwits, shanks, tattlers, woodcocks, snipes, dowitchers and phalaropes. The majority of these species eat small invertebrates picked out of the mud or soil. Variation in length of legs and bills enables multiple species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Bristle-thighed curlew Numenius tahitiensis M M M M M M M Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus M M M M M M M Far Eastern curlew Numenius madagascariensis V Bar-tailed godwit Limosa lapponica M M M M M M M Hudsonian godwit Limosa haemastica V Ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres M M M M M M M Red knot Calidris canutus V Ruff Calidris pugnax V Sharp-tailed sandpiper Calidris acuminata Curlew sandpiper Calidris ferruginea V Red-necked stint Calidris ruficollis V Sanderling Calidris alba Pectoral sandpiper Calidris melanotos V Terek sandpiper Xenus cinereus V Common sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos V Solitary sandpiper Tringa solitaria V Gray-tailed tattler Tringa brevipes M M M M M M M Wandering tattler Tringa incana M M M M M M M Lesser yellowlegs Tringa flavipes V Viti Levu snipe Coenocorypha miratropica* X ==Skuas and jaegers== Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Stercorariidae The family Stercorariidae are, in general, medium to large birds, typically with grey or brown plumage, often with white markings on the wings. They nest on the ground in temperate and arctic regions and are long-distance migrants. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma South polar skua Stercorarius maccormicki V Pomarine jaeger Stercorarius pomarinus V Parasitic jaeger Stercorarius parasiticus V Long-tailed jaeger Stercorarius longicaudus V ==Gulls, terns, and skimmers== Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Laridae Laridae is a family of medium to large seabirds, the gulls, terns, and skimmers. Gulls are typically grey or white, often with black markings on the head or wings. They have stout, longish bills and webbed feet. Terns are a group of generally medium to large seabirds typically with grey or white plumage, often with black markings on the head. Most terns hunt fish by diving but some pick insects off the surface of fresh water. Terns are generally long-lived birds, with several species known to live in excess of 30 years. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Silver gull Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae V Laughing gull Leucophaeus atricilla V Kelp gull Larus dominicanus V Brown noddy Anous stolidus B B B B B B B Black noddy Anous minutus B B B B B B B Blue-gray noddy Anous ceruleus B B B B B B B White tern Gygis alba B B B B B B B Sooty tern Onychoprion fuscatus B B B B B B B Gray-backed tern Onychoprion lunatus Bridled tern Onychoprion anaethetus Little tern Sternula albifrons V White-winged tern Chlidonias leucopterus V Black-naped tern Sterna sumatrana B B B B B B Common tern Sterna hirundo P P P P P Great crested tern Thalasseus bergii B B B B B B B ==Tropicbirds== Order: PhaethontiformesFamily: Phaethontidae Tropicbirds are slender white birds of tropical oceans, with exceptionally long central tail feathers. Their heads and long wings have black markings. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma White-tailed tropicbird Phaethon lepturus B B B B B B B Red-tailed tropicbird Phaethon rubricauda B B B B B B B ==Albatrosses== Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Diomedeidae The albatrosses are among the largest of flying birds, and the great albatrosses from the genus Diomedea have the largest wingspans of any extant birds. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Black-browed albatross Thalassarche melanophris V Wandering albatross Diomedea exulans ==Southern storm-petrels== Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Oceanitidae The southern storm-petrels are relatives of the petrels and are the smallest seabirds. They feed on planktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering. The flight is fluttering and sometimes bat-like. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Wilson's storm-petrel Oceanites oceanicus P White-faced storm-petrel Pelagodroma marina V White-bellied storm-petrel Fregetta grallaria V New Zealand storm-petrel Fregetta maoriana V Black-bellied storm-petrel Fregetta tropica V Polynesian storm-petrel Nesofregatta fuliginosa B B B B B ==Northern storm-petrels== Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Hydrobatidae Though the members of this family are similar in many respects to the southern storm-petrels, including their general appearance and habits, there are enough genetic differences to warrant their placement in a separate family. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Leach's storm-petrel Hydrobates leucorhous V Matsudaira's storm-petrel Hydrobates matsudairae V ==Shearwaters and petrels== Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Procellariidae The procellariids are the main group of medium-sized "true petrels", characterised by united nostrils with medium septum and a long outer functional primary. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Southern giant-petrel Macronectes giganteus V Cape petrel Daption capense V Gray-faced petrel Pterodroma gouldi Kermadec petrel Pterodroma neglecta V Herald petrel Pterodroma heraldica V Murphy's petrel Pterodroma ultima V Providence petrel Pterodroma solandri V Mottled petrel Pterodroma inexpectata P White-necked petrel Pterodroma cervicalis Black-winged petrel Pterodroma nigripennis Gould's petrel Pterodroma leucoptera V Collared petrel Pterodroma brevipes B B B B B B Phoenix petrel Pterodroma alba V Fiji petrel Pseudobulweria macgillivrayi* B Tahiti petrel Pseudobulweria rostrata B B Parkinson's petrel Procellaria parkinsoni V Flesh-footed shearwater Ardenna carneipes V Wedge-tailed shearwater Ardenna pacifica B B B B B B B Buller's shearwater Ardenna bulleri V Sooty shearwater Ardenna grisea V Short-tailed shearwater Ardenna tenuirostris V Christmas shearwater Puffinus nativitatis V Newell's shearwater Puffinus newelli Tropical shearwater Puffinus bailloni B B B B B B ==Frigatebirds== Order: SuliformesFamily: Fregatidae Frigatebirds are large seabirds usually found over tropical oceans. They are large, black-and-white or completely black, with long wings and deeply forked tails. The males have coloured inflatable throat pouches. They do not swim or walk and cannot take off from a flat surface. Having the largest wingspan-to-body-weight ratio of any bird, they are essentially aerial, able to stay aloft for more than a week. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Lesser frigatebird Fregata ariel B B B B B B B Great frigatebird Fregata minor R R R R R R R ==Boobies and gannets== Order: SuliformesFamily: Sulidae The sulids comprise the gannets and boobies. Both groups are medium to large coastal seabirds that plunge-dive for fish. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Masked booby Sula dactylatra B B B B B B B Brown booby Sula leucogaster B B B B B B B Red-footed booby Sula sula B B B B B B B ==Pelicans== Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Pelecanidae Pelicans are large water birds with a distinctive pouch under their beak. As with other members of the order Pelecaniformes, they have webbed feet with four toes. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Australian pelican Pelecanus conspicillatus V ==Herons, egrets, and bitterns== Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Ardeidae The family Ardeidae contains the bitterns, herons and egrets. Herons and egrets are medium to large wading birds with long necks and legs. Bitterns tend to be shorter necked and more wary. Members of Ardeidae fly with their necks retracted, unlike other long-necked birds such as storks, ibises and spoonbills. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Great egret Ardea alba V White-faced heron Egretta novaehollandiae B? Pacific reef-egret Egretta sacra B B B B B B B Cattle egret Bubulcus ibis V Striated heron Butorides striata B B B B B B ==Ibises and spoonbills== Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Threskiornithidae Threskiornithidae is a family of large terrestrial and wading birds which includes the ibises and spoonbills. They have long, broad wings with 11 primary and about 20 secondary feathers. They are strong fliers and despite their size and weight, very capable soarers. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Glossy ibis Plegadis falcinellus V ==Hawks, eagles, and kites== Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Accipitridae Accipitridae is a family of birds of prey, which includes hawks, eagles, kites, harriers and Old World vultures. These birds have powerful hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons and keen eyesight. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Swamp harrier Circus approximans B B B B B B Fiji goshawk Accipiter rufitorques* B B B B B ==Barn-owls== Order: StrigiformesFamily: Tytonidae Barn owls are medium to large owls with large heads and characteristic heart-shaped faces. They have long strong legs with powerful talons. There are 16 species worldwide and 2 species which occur in Fiji. Tytonidae Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Australasian grass-owl Tyto longimembris X Barn owl Tyto alba B B B B B B ==Kingfishers== Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Alcedinidae Kingfishers are medium-sized birds with large heads, long, pointed bills, short legs and stubby tails. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Pacific kingfisher Todirhamphus sacerPratt et al. (1987) assigned most kingfishers in Fiji to the sacred kingfisher species, whereas most other authorities assign it to the collared kingfisher species. B B B B B B Sacred kingfisher Todirhamphus sanctus ==Falcons== Order: FalconiformesFamily: Falconidae Falconidae is a family of diurnal birds of prey. They differ from hawks, eagles and kites in that they kill with their beaks instead of their talons. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus B B B B B ==Old World parrots== Order: PsittaciformesFamily: Psittaculidae Characteristic features of parrots include a strong curved bill, an upright stance, strong legs, and clawed zygodactyl feet. Many parrots are vividly coloured, and some are multi-coloured. In size they range from to in length. Old World parrots are found from Africa east across south and southeast Asia and Oceania to Australia and New Zealand. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Crimson shining-parrot Prosopeia splendens*Steadman (2006) treats this species as a race of the red shining parrot. I B Red shining-parrot Prosopeia tabuensis*The red shining parrot is endemic to Fiji but was introduced in prehistoric times to Tonga (Steadman, 2006) B B Masked shining- parrot Prosopeia personata* B Red-throated lorikeet Vini amabilis* B? B? B? X Collared lory Vini solitarius* B B B B B B Blue-crowned lorikeet Vini australis B ==Honeyeaters== Order: PasseriformesFamily: Meliphagidae The honeyeaters are a large and diverse family of small to medium-sized birds most common in Australia and New Guinea. They are nectar feeders and closely resemble other nectar-feeding passerines. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Rotuma myzomela Myzomela chermesina* B Orange-breasted myzomela Myzomela jugularis* B B B B B B Kadavu honeyeater Meliphacator provocator* B Chattering giant-honeyeater Gymnomyza viridis* B B Duetting giant-honeyeater Gymnomyza brunneirostris* B Western wattled-honeyeater Foulehaio procerior B Eastern wattled-honeyeater Foulehaio carunculatus B B B B Northern wattled-honeyeater Foulehaio taviunensis* B B ==Cuckooshrikes== Order: PasseriformesFamily: Campephagidae The cuckooshrikes are small to medium-sized passerine birds. They are predominantly greyish with white and black, although some species are brightly coloured. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Polynesian triller Lalage maculosa B B B B B B B ==Whistlers and allies== Order: PasseriformesFamily: Pachycephalidae The family Pachycephalidae includes the whistlers, shrikethrushes, and some of the pitohuis. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Fiji whistler Pachycephala vitiensis* B B B B B B ==Woodswallows, bellmagpies, and allies== Order: PasseriformesFamily: Artamidae The woodswallows are soft-plumaged, somber-coloured passerine birds. They are smooth, agile flyers with moderately large, semi-triangular wings. The cracticids: currawongs, bellmagpies and butcherbirds, are similar to the other corvids. They have large, straight bills and mostly black, white or grey plumage. All are omnivorous to some degree. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Fiji woodswallow Artamus mentalis* B B B B Australian magpie Gymnorhina tibicen I ==Fantails== Order: PasseriformesFamily: Rhipiduridae The fantails are small insectivorous birds which are specialist aerial feeders. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Taveuni silktail Lamprolia victoriae* B Natewa silktail Lamprolia klinesmithi* B Streaked fantail Rhipidura verreauxi B B B B Kadavu fantail Rhipidura personata* B ==Monarch flycatchers== Order: PasseriformesFamily: Monarchidae The monarch flycatchers are small to medium-sized insectivorous passerines which hunt by flycatching. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Ogea monarch Mayrornis versicolor* B Slaty monarch Mayrornis lessoni* B B B B B B Fiji shrikebill Clytorhynchus vitiensis B B B B B B B Black-throated shrikebill Clytorhynchus nigrogularis B B B B B Vanikoro flycatcher Myiagra vanikorensis B B B B B B Azure-crested flycatcher Myiagra azureocapilla* B Chestnut-throated flycatcher Myiagra castaneigularis* B B ==Australasian robins== Order: PasseriformesFamily: Petroicidae Most species of Petroicidae have a stocky build with a large rounded head, a short straight bill and rounded wingtips. They occupy a wide range of wooded habitats, from subalpine to tropical rainforest, and mangrove swamp to semi-arid scrubland. All are primarily insectivores, although a few supplement their diet with seeds. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Pacific robin Petroica pusilla B B B B ==Grassbirds and allies== Order: PasseriformesFamily: Locustellidae Locustellidae are a family of small insectivorous songbirds found mainly in Eurasia, Africa, and the Australian region. They are smallish birds with tails that are usually long and pointed, and tend to be drab brownish or buffy all over. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Long-legged thicketbird Trichocichla rufa* B B ==Swallows== Order: PasseriformesFamily: Hirundinidae The family Hirundinidae is adapted to aerial feeding. They have a slender streamlined body, long pointed wings and a short bill with a wide gape. The feet are adapted to perching rather than walking, and the front toes are partially joined at the base. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Gau Ovalau Lau Rotuma Pacific swallow Hirundo tahitica B B B B B B B ==Bulbuls== Order: PasseriformesFamily: Pycnonotidae Bulbuls are medium-sized songbirds. Some are colourful with yellow, red or orange vents, cheeks, throats or supercilia, but most are drab, with uniform olive-brown to black plumage. Some species have distinct crests. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Red-vented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer I I ==Bush warblers and allies== Order: PasseriformesFamily: Scotocercidae The members of this family are found throughout Africa, Asia, and Polynesia. Their taxonomy is in flux, and some authorities place some genera in other families.Gill, F. and D. Donsker (Eds). 2019. IOC World Bird List (v 9.2). . http://www.worldbirdnames.org/ retrieved 22 June 2019 Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Fiji bush warbler Horornis ruficapilla* B B B B ==White-eyes, yuhinas, and allies== Order: PasseriformesFamily: Zosteropidae The white-eyes are small and mostly undistinguished, their plumage above being generally some dull colour like greenish-olive, but some species have a white or bright yellow throat, breast or lower parts, and several have buff flanks. As their name suggests, many species have a white ring around each eye. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Layard's white-eye Zosterops explorator* B B B B B Silvereye Zosterops lateralis B B B B B Yellow-fronted white-eye Zosterops flavifrons ==Starlings== Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sturnidae Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds. Their flight is strong and direct and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country. They eat insects and fruit. Plumage is typically dark with a metallic sheen. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Polynesian starling Aplonis tabuensis B B B B B B B European starling Sturnus vulgaris I Common myna Acridotheres tristis I I I I I Jungle myna Acridotheres fuscus I ==Thrushes and allies== Order: PasseriformesFamily: Turdidae The thrushes are a group of passerine birds that occur mainly in the Old World. They are plump, soft plumaged, small to medium-sized insectivores or sometimes omnivores, often feeding on the ground. Many have attractive songs. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Island thrush Turdus poliocephalus B B B B B ==Waxbills and allies== Order: PasseriformesFamily: Estrildidae The estrildid finches are small passerine birds of the Old World tropics and Australasia. They are gregarious and often colonial seed eaters with short thick but pointed bills. They are all similar in structure and habits, but have wide variation in plumage colours and patterns. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma Red avadavat Amandava amandava I I Fiji parrotfinch Erythrura pealii B B B B Pink-billed parrotfinch Erythrura kleinschmidti* B Java sparrow Padda oryzivora I I I ==Old World sparrows== Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passeridae Old World sparrows are small passerine birds. In general, sparrows tend to be small, plump, brown or grey birds with short tails and short powerful beaks. Sparrows are seed eaters, but they also consume small insects. Species Viti Levu Vanua Levu Taveuni Kadavu Lomaiviti Lau Rotuma House sparrow Passer domesticus I ==See also== * List of birds * Lists of birds by region ==References== * * * Pratt, H., Bruner, P & Berrett, D. (1987) The Birds of Hawaii and the Tropical Pacific Princeton University Press:Princeton * Steadman D, (2006). Extinction and Biogeography in Tropical Pacific Birds, University of Chicago Press. ===Notes=== ' Fiji birds |
Crailtap is a skateboarding distribution company based in Torrance, California, United States. The distribution company is home to Girl Skateboards, Chocolate Skateboards, Royal Skateboard Trucks, and Fourstar Clothing. ==Girl Skateboards== ===History=== Girl Skateboards, the inaugural brand of the company, originated in 1993 after a selection of team riders from World Industries - notably Mike Carroll and Rick Howard - decided to found their own brand. Howard explained in a 2000 interview: > Part of the reason we started Girl was so pro skateboarders would have a > future. Take Royal, for instance. When Guy Mariano and Rudy Johnson's legs > don't work anymore, at least what they've done for skateboarding and their > ideas can continue with something they can fall back on. All the Girl > Distribution companies are based around people who have helped Girl get to > where it is today. Howard and Carroll revealed in 2013 as part of the company's 20-year anniversary commemoration that the majority of the skateboard industry at the time was acrimonious towards the new enterprise. Carroll stated that a particular woodshop was threatened by another company and consequently severed ties with Girl, but that industry figure, Fausto Vitello, assisted Girl in numerous ways. Carroll explained that Vitello "...he always just, kinda, let us know that he had our back." In addition to Howard and Carroll, the original Girl team consisted of Jovontae Turner, Eric Koston, Guy Mariano, Rudy Johnson, Tim Gavin, Tony Ferguson, Sean Sheffey, and Jeron Wilson. The company has evolved into a distribution company that distributes skateboard hard goods, skateboard videos and films, and soft goods. The Girl logo is similar to the symbol on women's bathrooms and was designed by Girl's in-house artist Andy Jenkins, who left the company to join Element Skateboards in October 2017. Named the "Art Dump," the design department of Girl was overseen by Jenkins and included contributions from artists such as Geoff McFetridge, Kevin Lyons, and Hershel Baltrotsky. In the period leading up to the year 2000, Carroll and Howard were filming for the TransWorld SKATEboarding video Modus Operandi and their filmer, Ty Evans, invited a young unknown skateboarder named Brandon Biebel to accompany them on filming/skateboarding sessions. Biebel had moved from Chicago to California, US and had met Evans previously in Southern California. At the 2000 premiere of the video, Carroll asked Biebel to join the Lakai skate shoe team, followed by an offer to join Girl several months afterwards. Biebel was assigned professional status in 2002 and stated in a 2012 interview: "Girl, Lakai — that's a dream come true. I ain't never leaving that shit." During the mid-2000s, Girl recruited new amateur riders Mike Mo Capaldi, Sean Malto, and Alex Olson, and established amateur Jereme Rogers was assigned professional status with the company in 2005. Rogers left the company in 2007 due to his dissatisfaction with his royalty payments, while Capaldi, Malto, and Olson were assigned professional status the following year. Rogers later explained his issues with Girl in an October 2012 interview: > I was getting my cheque, just not my actual royalties. I got a three > thousand dollar guarantee a month, which operated as a minimum; meaning I > get that no matter what, but if I sell over the minimum, I get the extras - > royalties kick in ... So what had happened was, they were letting my > royalties fall back into the company to cover their overhead, which helped > keep a boat afloat that had some leaks. For two years I apparently didn't > break my three thousand dollar minimum ... Don't forget, we're taking about > Girl here who sells all around the world ... So I inappropriately blurted > out at Tampa 2007, after getting second to Koston, who had a flawed run, > against mine which was flawless, that all I wanted was my royalties, when > Rick Howard asked what I wanted after doing so well. The following month I > got a six thousand dollar cheque ... The first time I broke my three > thousand dollar minimum, "apparently", and on top of that, it was April; tax > time. Coincidence ... Sure. A statement from Girl was not released in response to Rogers's claims. After winning the "Bang Yo' Self 2" contest, held by the Berrics website, in April 2009, Cory Kennedy was recruited by Girl and was assigned professional status in mid-2011. In regard to Kennedy's victory, the Berrics wrote: "Today, April 2nd, 2009, is the beginning of Cory Kennedy's tyranny over skateboarding. May God have mercy on our souls." Kennedy was unaware of his promotion, as he was deliberately informed by the company that a filming session was occurring at the North Hollywood skatepark; however, 20 of Kennedy's inaugural signature skateboard deck were given to random people at the park who skated on the decks, together with Girl team members who were also using the deck, while Kennedy remained unaware. After 20 minutes, Kennedy eventually realized that his name was written on the decks. In May 2013, longtime Girl team riders Brian Anderson and Olson announced that they had parted ways with the company as a board sponsor. Anderson explained that he would be pursuing a creative venture of his own, while Olson did not disclose a subsequent sponsor and stated: "I wouldn't be where I am today without the help and motivation of Girl." Following the announcement of Anderson's own skateboard deck company "3D Skateboards" and the recruitment of Olson (who left to form his own brand shortly afterwards), the former Girl team member affirmed that his departure was not due to dissatisfaction: > There was absolutely nothing wrong with the way things were going with Girl. > That's why it was hard to go through with everything because we're all > really close friends and I love those guys so much. I just felt like I > wanted to do something for myself, instead of in a few years realizing that > I can't jump down stairs when I'm 45, and I kinda wanted to have my own > thing started by the time that happens. I have a few Girl tattoos, and I'm > happy I have them because it's great memories of fun trips and great years. When asked to comment on the departure of team members in August 2013, Carroll stated, "When people quit for other companies for just more money, or something, that's stupid. But, if someone quits because they don't feel right on a team, or something, then, and for another company, that makes sense." As of August 2013, the Girl brand has existed for 20 years and Howard explained his perspective on the longevity of Girl in an interview with Route One magazine: > We've grown up together doing this, so, yeah, we're just lucky to work with > our friends, you know? And all share the same things in what we do here, so > ... That's how we started and that's what we do to this day. This is up for > everyone to have fun with, you know? In 2015 Girl announced the departure of Koston and Mariano. Through 2016 to 2018 Girl added four new amateurs to the team; Simon Bannerot, Tyler "Manchild" Pacheco, Griffin Gass, and Niels Bennett. They also welcomed Andrew Brophy to the team following the end of Cliché Skateboards. Girl released their first full-length video since Pretty Sweet in October 2018, titled, "Doll", which formally introduces Griffin and Niels to the team. In 2019, Girl added the first ever girl to the team, Breana Geering, from Vancouver, Canada. In 2020, Girl releases "Nervous Circus" and turn Griffin Gass and Niels Bennett pro. === Team Riders === Professional *Mike Carroll *Rick Howard *Jeron Wilson *Rick McCrank *Sean Malto *Mike Mo Capaldi *Cory Kennedy *Cody Chapman *Andrew Brophy *Tyler Pacheco *Simon Bannerot *Griffin Gass *Niels Bennett *Breana Geering *Rowan Davis Amateur *TBA Former *Jovantae Turner *Tim Gavin *Sean Sheffey *Rudy Johnson *Colin McKay *Paul Rodriguez (skateboarder) *Jereme Rogers *Alex Olson *Brian Anderson *Guy Mariano *Eric Koston *Robbie McKinley *Tony Ferguson *Brandon Biebel ===Videography=== *1994: Goldfish *1996: Mouse *1999: Girl in South Africa *2000: Euro Blitz *2003: Harsh Euro Barge *2003: Yeah Right! *2004: High Fives Up The i-5 *2005: Oi! Meets Girl! *2005: What Tour? *2006: Yes We CANada *2007: Badass Meets Dumbass (with Chocolate skateboards) *2007: We're OK EurOK (with Chocolate Skateboards) *2008: Beauty and the Beast (with Anti-Hero Skateboards) *2008: Yanks On Planks *2009: Beauty and the Beast 2 (with Anti-Hero Skateboards) *2010: Beauty and the Beast 3 (with Anti-Hero Skateboards) *2010: Der Bratwurst Tour Ever (with Chocolate skateboards) *2010: Outbackwards *2011: Unbeleafable (3D film) *2012: Pretty Sweet (with Chocolate skateboards) *2013: Pretty Sweet US Tour (with Chocolate Skateboards) *2014: Wet Dream: A Skateboard Tale *2015: Going Dumb Up The 101 (with Chocolate Skateboards) *2016: Girl & Chocolate in Mexico (with Chocolate Skateboards) *2016: Girl Skates Washington State *2017: When Nature Calls *2018: Chickity China (with Chocolate Skateboards) *2018: Don't Mess With Girl *2018: Out For A Rip *2018: Doll *2019: Bangers & Mash *2019: Melbourne Identity *2020: Nervous Circus *2020: Pretty Stoned (with Volcom) *2022: In Real Life ==Chocolate Skateboards== thumb|100px|Chocolate Skateboards logo ===History=== In the year following the formation of Girl, the Chocolate brand was introduced, as the growth of Girl inspired the creation of another brand, with the recruitment of additional riders and personnel. Howard and Carroll explained in 2013 that they were compelled to start the brand after an experience in which they were forced to leave behind professional skateboarder Chico Brenes, a close friend at the time, as they embarked on a skateboard tour, as he was unable to fit into the tour van. The original team consisted of Brenes, Daniel Castillo, Paulo Diaz, Richard Mulder, Shamil Randle, Gabriel Rodriguez, and Ben Sanchez. In 2009, a 15-year anniversary advertisement was published in which a portrait of the team was depicted — the two riders who were not present at the photo shoot, Anthony Pappalardo and Jesus Fernandez, were represented by framed portrait photographs. The Chocolate team made guest appearances in Girl videos, such as Goldfish and Yeah Right!, in addition to producing its own videos, Las Nueve Vidas De Paco (1995), The Chocolate Tour (1999), Se Habla Canuck (2004), and Hot Chocolate (2004), and A Little Chunk of Chocolate (2006). On November 12, 2013, a video was published on the Crailtap YouTube channel, the official channel of the Girl Distribution Company, in which Jerry Hsu is officially revealed as the new professional for the Chocolate skateboard company. The video skit features Carroll, Marc Johnson, Stevie Perez, Chris Roberts, Elijah Berle, and Gino Ianucci. In the video, the skateboarders (minus Ianucci, who arrives at the end of the skit) discuss a new professional team member for the Chocolate brand in a Mexican restaurant. A list of criteria is articulated by the group's members—a list that is associated with Hsu's career thus far — and Hsu then appears as the waiter. Hsu and fellow Chocolate rider, Elijah Berle, left the company in 2017. The Chocolate brand celebrated its 20th anniversary in August 2014 with an art show, held at the Art Share Gallery in Los Angeles, U.S. The Berrics website conducted interviews with artist Evan Hecox and Brenes at the event. Following the release of Lakai Limited Footwear's "The Flare" video, Chocolate turned Yonnie Cruz pro in the summer of 2017. In 2019, Chocolate released the "T.O.N.Y. Tour" video, introducing amateurs Hakeem Ducksworth, James Capps, and Carl Aikens to the team. In 2021, Chocolate turned James Capps and Carlisle Aikens pro, added Jordan Trahan to the team, and released their first full-length video since Pretty Sweet (2012), titled "Bunny Hop". === Team Riders === Professional * Chris Roberts (skateboarder) * Kenny Anderson * Jesus Fernandez * Justin Eldridge * Vincent Alvarez * Stevie Perez * Raven Tershy * James Capps * Jordan Trahan * Carl Aikens * Erik Herrera Amateur * TBA Former *Keenan Milton * Daniel Castillo * Paulo Diaz * Richard Mulder * Shamil Randle * Gabriel Rodriguez *Ben Sanchez * Ricardo Carvalho * Mike York * Stevie Williams * Scott Johnston * Devine Calloway * Anthony Pappalardo *Gino Iannucci * Marc Johnson * Elijah Berle *Jerry Hsu *Hakeem Ducksworth *Yonnie Cruz ===Videography=== * 1995: Las Nueve Vidas De Paco * 1999: The Chocolate Tour *2004: Se Habla Canuck * 2004: Hot Chocolate *2006: A Little Chunk of Chocolate *2006: Hittin' Britain & Oui Will Rock You * 2007: Badass Meets Dumbass (with Girl Skateboards) *2007: We're OK EurOK (with Girl Skateboards) * 2008: Felicità (trailer with Italian artist Bugo) *2010: Der Bratwurst Tour Ever * 2012: Pretty Sweet *2013: Pretty Sweet US Tour (with Girl Skateboards) *2013: Trunk Boyz In Puerto Rico *2015: Going Dumb Up The 101 (with Girl Skateboards) *2016: Chocolate Skateboards in Miami *2016: Girl & Chocolate in Mexico (with Girl Skateboards) *2018: Chickity China (with Girl Skateboards) *2019: T.O.N.Y. Tour *2021: Bunny Hop *2022: Upper Cruster ==Fourstar Clothing== Founded by Eric Koston and Guy Mariano in April 1996, as the pair sought to move beyond cargo pants and T-shirts to create affordable clothing for skateboarders. Fourstar Clothing have not released a new collection since Holiday 2016. ===Past Team Riders=== *Eric Koston *Guy Mariano *Ishod Wair *Tony Trujillo *Rick Howard *Mike Carroll *Brian Anderson *Keenan Milton *Shane O' Neill *Tyler Bledsoe *Andrew Brophy *Sean Malto *Lucas Puig *Frank Gerwer *Max Schaaf *Mark Gonzales *Cory Kennedy *Paul Rodriguez *PJ Ladd *Andrew Reynolds *Colin McKay ===Videography=== *Fourstar Clothing Tradeshow Promo (1999) *Super Champion Funzone (2005) *Spring/Summer 2005 Catalog Shoot (2005) *Fall/Winter 2005 Catalog Shoot (2005) *North of Everything (2008) *A Tribe Called Mapquest (2008) *Gang of Fourstar (2009) *Leisure Till You Seizure (2011) *Hawaii Four-0 (2012) *4 Live Crew (2012) *Crocodile Done Deal (2014) *Obtuse Moments (2015) ==Lakai Limited Footwear== Lakai Limited Footwear is a skateboard footwear company based in Torrance, California, US, that was founded by Carroll and Howard in 1999. ===Team Riders === Pro *Mike Carroll *Rick Howard *Vincent Alvarez *Riley Hawk *Stevie Perez *Simon Bannerot *Tyler "Manchild" Pacheco *Griffin Gass *Cody Chapman *James Capps AM *Jimmy Wilkins *Nico Hiraga *Greg DeHart Former * Danny Garcia * Scott Johnston * JJ Rousseau * Alex Olson * Anthony Pappalardo * Lucas Puig * Eric Koston *Mike Mo Capaldi *Rob Welsh *Cairo Foster *Jeff Lenoce *Karsten Kleppan *Guy Mariano *Brandon Biebel *Marc Johnson *JB Gillet *Daniel Espinoza *Raven Tershy *Nick Jensen *Ronnie Sandoval *Jon Sciano *Sebo Walker *Danny Brady *Jesus Fernandez *Rick McCrank *Tony Hawk *Yonnie Cruz ===Videography=== * Australia/NZ Tour (2001) * Beware Of The Flare (2002) * Canada Eh? (2004) * The Red Flare Tour (2006) * EMB Carroll (2007) * Fully Flared (2007) * The Final Flare! (2008) * Fully Trippin' in Malaga (2008) * Voltage (2010) * Am I Am (2010) * 2010 Video Collection (2010) * Transworld's Skate & Create "LAKAIromania" (2010) * Getting Nordical Tour (2010) * Stupor Tour (2014) * Stay Flared (2015) (with Emerica Footwear) * The Flare (2017) * Flare Canada (2019) * Street Safari (2019) == Royal Trucks == thumb|100px|Royal Skateboard Trucks logoRoyal Trucks is a company in Torrance, California that makes skateboard trucks, the axle-like structures to which a skateboard's wheels are attached, and apparel. According to Transworld Business and Chocolate Skateboards, the company was founded in 1999 by Rudy Johnson and Guy Mariano. ===Team Riders === * Griffin Gass * Vincent Alvarez * Rowan Davis * Zach Allen * Stevie Perez * Andrew Brophy * Mike Carroll * Rick Howard * Nico Hiraga * Jeron Wilson *Mike Mo Capaldi * Justin Eldridge * Jesus Fernandez *Cory Kennedy * Kevin Taylor * Josh Gomez * Leo Takayama * Diego Johnson ==Girl Films & Chocolate Cinema== Girl Films has been the company name that has been used for all of the Girl Distribution video productions. In early 2013, longtime videographer/director/editor for Girl Films Ty Evans announced his departure from the company and Italian videographer/director Federico Vitetta has become more involved with film work for the company since Evans' departure. Evans was primarily responsible for the Yeah Right!, Hot Chocolate, Fully Flared, and Pretty Sweet productions. === Pretty Sweet === Both the Girl and Chocolate teams were involved with the filming of the Pretty Sweet video production — the world premiere of the video occurred on November 16, 2012 at the Orpheum Theater in Los Angeles, California, US (the commercial release date for the video is November 27, 2012). The video includes parts from the team members of both brands and was the first full-length Girl Distribution Company video to feature a part from Sean Malto. Filming for Pretty Sweet occurred in numerous global locations, including Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, China, Barcelona, and Berlin. Evans also explained that, due to commitments for his next feature film, Jonze's involvement was limited, but he conducted a week's worth of filming, contributed ideas, and participated in creative meetings for the production. The video was a winner at the 15th Annual Transworld SKATEboarding Awards event, held at the Avalon Hollywood in Hollywood, California, US, and received the Best Video award over DGK's Parental Advisory and Transworld's The Cinematographer Project. In February 2013, Evans predicted that Pretty Sweet would surpass Lakai's Fully Flared as the best-selling skateboard video of all time. He explained that two months after the video's release it had achieved similar sales figures to the Lakai film, and that the video "was #1 in the Sports and Documentary categories on iTunes and overall out of all the films it was #2." ==Causes== In 2012, Girl was listed as a partner of the (RED) campaign, together with other brands such as Nike, American Express, and Converse. The campaign's mission is to prevent the transmission of HIV from mother to child by 2015 (the campaign's byline is "Fighting For An AIDS Free Generation"). ==References== ==External links== *Crailtap official website *Girl Skateboards official website *Chocolate Skateboards official website *Royal Skateboard Truck Co. official website Category:Companies based in Los Angeles County, California Category:Companies established in 1993 Category:Skateboarding companies Category:Companies based in Torrance, California |
The regions of Italy () are the first-level administrative divisions of the Italian Republic, constituting its second NUTS administrative level. There are twenty regions, five of which have higher autonomy than the rest. Under the Constitution of Italy, each region is an autonomous entity with defined powers. With the exception of the Aosta Valley (since 1945) and Friuli Venezia Giulia (since 2018), each region is divided into a number of provinces. ==History== During the Kingdom of Italy, regions were mere statistical districts of the central state. Under the Republic, they were granted a measure of political autonomy by the 1948 Italian Constitution. The original draft list comprised the Salento region (which was eventually included in Apulia); Friuli and Venezia Giulia were separate regions, and Basilicata was named Lucania. Abruzzo and Molise were identified as separate regions in the first draft, but were later merged into Abruzzi e Molise in the final constitution of 1948, before being separated in 1963. Implementation of regional autonomy was postponed until the first Regional elections of 1970. The ruling Christian Democracy party did not want the opposition Italian Communist Party to gain power in the regions where it was historically rooted (the red belt of Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany, Umbria and the Marches). Regions acquired a significant level of autonomy following a constitutional reform in 2001 (brought about by a centre-left government and confirmed by popular referendum), which granted them residual policy competence. A further federalist reform was proposed by the regionalist party Lega Nord and in 2005, the centre-right government led by Silvio Berlusconi proposed a new reform that would have greatly increased the power of regions. The proposals, which had been particularly associated with Lega Nord, and seen by some as leading the way to a federal state, were rejected in the 2006 Italian constitutional referendum by 61.7% "no" to 38.3% "yes". The results varied considerably among the regions, ranging from 55.3% in favour in Veneto to 82% against in Calabria. ===Political control=== thumb|Regions coloured by the winning coalition (as of February 2023) Number of regions governed by each coalition since 1995: ImageSize = width:900 height:230 PlotArea = width:780 height:180 left:30 bottom:20 AlignBars = justify DateFormat = yyyy Period = from:0 till:20 TimeAxis = orientation:vertical ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:4 start:0 Colors = id:red value:rgb(0.94,0.24,0.24) id:blue value:rgb(0.04,0.42,0.88) id:grey value:rgb(0.75,0.75,0.75) id:black value:rgb(0.40,0.40,0.40) PlotData= bar:1995 color: red from:start till:11 text:11 bar:1995 color: blue from:11 till:20 text:9 bar:1996 color: red from:start till:11 text:11 bar:1996 color: blue from:11 till:20 text:9 bar:1997 color: red from:start till:11 text:11 bar:1997 color: blue from:11 till:20 text:9 bar:1998 color: red from:start till:12 text:12 bar:1998 color: blue from:12 till:20 text:8 bar:1999 color: red from:start till:15 text:15 bar:1999 color: blue from:15 till:20 text:5 bar:2000 color: red from:start till:11 text:11 bar:2000 color: blue from:11 till:20 text:9 bar:2001 color: red from:start till:10 text:10 bar:2001 color: blue from:10 till:20 text:10 bar:2002 color: red from:start till:9 text:9 bar:2002 color: blue from:9 till:20 text:11 bar:2003 color: red from:start till:10 text:10 bar:2003 color: blue from:10 till:20 text:10 bar:2004 color: red from:start till:10 text:10 bar:2004 color: blue from:10 till:20 text:10 bar:2005 color: red from:start till:16 text:16 bar:2005 color: blue from:16 till:20 text:4 bar:2006 color: red from:start till:15 text:15 bar:2006 color: grey from:15 till:16 text:1 bar:2006 color: blue from:16 till:20 text:4 bar:2007 color: red from:start till:15 text:15 bar:2007 color: grey from:15 till:16 text:1 bar:2007 color: blue from:16 till:20 text:4 bar:2008 color: red from:start till:13 text:13 bar:2008 color: blue from:13 till:20 text:7 bar:2009 color: red from:start till:12 text:12 bar:2009 color: blue from:12 till:20 text:8 bar:2010 color: red from:start till:8 text:8 bar:2010 color: blue from:8 till:20 text:12 bar:2011 color: red from:start till:8 text:8 bar:2011 color: blue from:8 till:20 text:12 bar:2012 color: red from:start till:9 text:9 bar:2012 color: blue from:9 till:20 text:11 bar:2013 color: red from:start till:12 text:12 bar:2013 color: blue from:12 till:20 text:8 bar:2014 color: red from:start till:17 text:17 bar:2014 color: blue from:17 till:20 text:3 bar:2015 color: red from:start till:17 text:17 bar:2015 color: blue from:17 till:20 text:3 bar:2016 color: red from:start till:17 text:17 bar:2016 color: blue from:17 till:20 text:3 bar:2017 color: red from:start till:16 text:16 bar:2017 color: blue from:16 till:20 text:4 bar:2018 color: red from:start till:14 text:14 bar:2018 color: blue from:14 till:20 text:6 bar:2019 color: red from:start till:7 text:7 bar:2019 color: grey from:7 till:8 text:1 bar:2019 color: blue from:8 till:20 text:12 bar:2020 color: red from:start till:6 text:6 bar:2020 color: blue from:6 till:20 text:14 bar:2021 color: red from:start till:6 text:6 bar:2021 color: blue from:6 till:20 text:14 bar:2022 color: red from:start till:6 text:6 bar:2022 color: blue from:6 till:20 text:14 bar:2023 color: red from:start till:5 text:5 bar:2023 color: blue from:5 till:20 text:15 ==Regions== Flag Region Italian name (if different) Status Population January 2023 Population January 2023 Area Area Pop. density (p/km²) HDI 2022 Capital President President Number of comuni Prov. or metrop. cities Number Region Italian name (if different) Status % km² % Pop. density (p/km²) HDI 2022 Capital President President Number of comuni Prov. or metrop. cities 40px|border Abruzzo Ordinary 1,307,000 2.16% 3.59% 118 0.889 L'Aquila Marco Marsilio Brothers of Italy 305 4 40px|border Aosta Valley Valle d'Aosta Autonomous 143,000 0.21% 1.08% 38 0.887 Aosta Renzo Testolin Valdostan Union 74 1 40px|border Apulia Puglia Ordinary 3,945,000 6.63% 6.48% 200 0.854 Bari Michele Emiliano Democratic Party 257 6 40px|border Basilicata Ordinary 559,000 0.92% 3.34% 54 0.862 Potenza Vito Bardi 131 2 40px|border Calabria Ordinary 1,870,000 3.13% 5.04% 121 0.845 Catanzaro Roberto Occhiuto 404 5 40px|border Campania Ordinary 5,615,000 9.48% 4.53% 409 0.854 Naples Vincenzo De Luca Democratic Party 550 5 40px|border Emilia-Romagna Ordinary 4,452,000 7.51% 7.44% 197 0.921 Bologna Stefano Bonaccini Democratic Party 330 9 40px|border Friuli-Venezia Giulia Furlanija-Julijska Krajina/Friûl-Vignesie Julie Autonomous 1,219,000 2.03% 2.63% 151 0.903 Trieste Massimiliano Fedriga League 215 4 40px|border Lazio Ordinary 5,745,000 9.69% 5.71% 332 0.914 Rome Francesco Rocca Independent 378 5 40px|border Liguria Ordinary 1,535,000 2.56% 1.79% 278 0.898 Genoa Giovanni Toti Cambiamo! 234 4 40px|border Lombardy Lombardia Ordinary 10,342,000 16.89% 7.91% 418 0.912 Milan Attilio Fontana League 1,506 12 40px|border Marche Ordinary 1,524,000 2.53% 3.12% 158 0.901 Ancona Francesco Acquaroli Brothers of Italy 225 5 40px|border Molise Ordinary 324,000 0.49% 1.48% 65 0.872 Campobasso Donato Toma 136 2 40px|border Piedmont Piemonte Ordinary 4,302,000 7.21% 8.41% 168 0.898 Turin Alberto Cirio 1,181 8 40px|border Sardinia Sardegna Autonomous 1,604,000 2.68% 7.99% 66 0.868 Cagliari Christian Solinas Sardinian Action Party 377 5 40px|border Sicily Sicilia Autonomous 4,825,000 8.14% 8.56% 186 0.845 Palermo Renato Schifani 391 9 40px|border Trentino-South Tyrol Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol Autonomous 1,111,000 1.83% 4.51% 79 Trentino: 0.920 Trento Maurizio Fugatti League 282 2 South Tyrol: 0.910 40px|border Tuscany Toscana Ordinary 3,698,000 6.23% 7.62% 160 0.907 Florence Eugenio Giani Democratic Party 273 10 40px|border Umbria Ordinary 930,000 1.46% 2.81% 102 0.897 Perugia Donatella Tesei League 92 2 40px|border Veneto Ordinary 4,883,000 8.23% 5.97% 265 0.900 Venice Luca Zaia League 563 7 40px|border Italy Italia — 59,933,000 100.00% 100.00% 195 0.892 Rome Sergio Mattarella Independent 7,904 107 ==Macroregions== Macroregions are the first-level NUTS of the European Union.(it) Map Macroregion Italian name Regions Major city Population January 2022 Population January 2022 Area (km²) Area (km²) Population density (km²) MEPs Number Macroregion Italian name Regions Major city % km² % Population density (km²) 130px|center Centre Centro Lazio Marche Tuscany Umbria Rome 11,740,836 19.91% 19.23% 202 15 130px|center North-West Nord-Ovest Aosta Valley Liguria Lombardy Piedmont Milan 15,848,100 26.87% 19.18% 274 20 130px|center North-East Nord-Est Emilia-Romagna Friuli-Venezia Giulia Trentino-South Tyrol Veneto Bologna 11,561,676 19.60% 20.63% 186 15 130px|center South Sud Abruzzo Apulia Basilicata Calabria Campania Molise Naples 13,451,861 22.81% 24.43% 182 18 130px|center Islands Sardinia Sicily Palermo 6,380,649 10.82% 16.53% 128 8 ==Status== thumb|right|The 5 autonomous regions in red and the 15 ordinary regions in gray. Every region has a statute that serves as a regional constitution, determining the form of government and the fundamental principles of the organization and the functioning of the region, as prescribed by the Constitution of Italy (Article 123). Although all the regions except Tuscany define themselves in various ways as an "autonomous Region" in the first article of their Statutes, fifteen regions have ordinary statutes and five have special statutes, granting them extended autonomy. ===Regions with ordinary statute=== These regions, whose statutes are approved by their regional councils, were created in 1970, even though the Italian Constitution dates back to 1948. Since the constitutional reform of 2001 they have had residual legislative powers: the regions have exclusive legislative power with respect to any matters not expressly reserved to state law (Article 117). Yet their financial autonomy is quite modest: they keep just 20% of all levied taxes, mostly used to finance the region-based healthcare system.Report RAI - Le regioni a statuto speciale (Italian), retrieved 21 January 2009 , ===Autonomous regions with special statute=== Article 116 of the Italian Constitution grants home rule to five regions, namely the Aosta Valley, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Sardinia, Sicily, and Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, allowing them some legislative, administrative and financial power to a varying extent, depending on their specific statute. These regions became autonomous in order to take into account cultural differences and protect linguistic minorities. Moreover, the government wanted to prevent them from potentially seceding or being taken away from Italy after the defeat in World War II.Hiroko Kudo, “Autonomy and Managerial Innovation in Italian Regions after Constitutional Reform”, Chuo University, Faculty of Law and Graduate School of Public Policy (2008): p. 1. Retrieved on 6 April 2012 from http://www.med-eu.org/proceedings/MED1/Kudo.pdf . ==Institutions== Each region has an elected parliament, called Consiglio Regionale (regional council), or Assemblea Regionale (regional assembly) in Sicily, and a government called Giunta Regionale (regional committee), headed by a governor called Presidente della Giunta Regionale (president of the regional committee) or Presidente della Regione (regional president). The latter is directly elected by the citizens of each region, with the exceptions of Aosta Valley and Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol regions where the president is chosen by the regional council. Under the 1995 electoral law, the winning coalition receives an absolute majority of seats on the council. The president chairs the giunta, and nominates or dismisses its members, called assessori. If the directly elected president resigns, new elections are called immediately. In the Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol region, the regional council is made up of the joint session of the two provincial councils of Trentino and of South Tyrol. The regional president is one of the two provincial commissioners. ==Representation in the Senate== thumb|Number of senators assigned to each Region before 2020. Article 57 of the Constitution of Italy originally established that the Senate of the Republic was to be elected on a regional basis by Italian citizens aged 25 or older (unlike the Chamber of the Deputies, which was elected on a national basis and by all Italian citizens aged 18 or older). No region could have less than 7 senators, except for the two smallest regions: Aosta Valley (1 senator) and Molise (2 senators). From 2006 to 2020, 6 out of 315 senators (and 12 out of 630 deputies) were elected by Italians residing abroad. After two constitutional amendments were passed respectively in 2020 (by constitutional referendum) and 2021, however, there have been changes. The Senate is still elected on a regional basis, but the number of senators was reduced from 315 to 200, who are now elected by all citizens aged 18 or older, just like deputies (themselves being reduced from 630 to 400). Italians residing abroad now elect 4 senators (and 8 deputies). The remaining 196 senators are assigned to each region proportionally according to their population. The amended Article 57 of the Constitution provides that no region can have fewer than 3 senators representing it, barring Aosta Valley and Molise, which retained 1 and 2 senators respectively. Region Seats Region Seats Region Seats 4 4 5 1 18 16 13 5 6 3 31 12 6 5 3 18 2 16 14 14 Overseas constituencies 4 ==Economy of regions and macroregions== thumb|GDP per capita 2018, EUR Flag Name GDP 2018, million EUR GDP per capita 2018, EUR GDP 2011, million PPS GDP per capita 2011, PPS 40px|border Abruzzo 33,900 25,800 29,438 21,900 40px|border Aosta Valley 4,900 38,900 4,236 33,000 40px|border Apulia 76,600 19,000 68,496 16,700 40px|border Basilicata 12,600 22,200 10,517 17,900 40px|border Calabria 33,300 17,000 32,357 16,100 40px|border Campania 108,000 18,600 91,658 15,700 40px|border Emilia-Romagna 161,000 36,200 139,597 31,400 40px|border Friuli- Venezia Giulia 38,000 31,200 35,855 29,000 40px|border Lazio 198,000 33,600 168,609 29,300 40px|border Liguria 49,900 32,100 43,069 26,700 40px|border Lombardy 388,800 38,600 330,042 33,200 40px|border Marche 43,200 28,300 40,014 25,500 40px|border Molise 6,500 20,900 6,278 19,700 40px|border Piedmont 137,000 31,500 123,336 27,600 40px|border Sardinia 34,900 21,200 32,377 19,300 40px|border Sicily 89,200 17,800 82,183 16,300 40px|border Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol 41,700 39,200 35,041 33,700 40px|border Tuscany 118,000 31,500 103,775 27,600 40px|border Umbria 22,500 25,400 21,078 23,200 40px|border Veneto 163,000 33,200 146,369 29,600 Code Name GDP 2011, million EUR GDP per capita 2011, EUR GDP 2011, million PPS GDP per capita 2011, PPS ITE Centre 340,669 28,400 333,475 27,800 ITD North-East 364,560 31,200 356,862 30,600 ITC North-West 511,484 31,700 500,683 31,000 ITG Islands 117,031 17,400 114,560 17,000 ITF South 243,895 17,200 238,744 16,800 \- Extra-regio 2,771 – 2,712 – ==See also== * Italian NUTS level 1 regions * Regional Council (Italy) * Presidents of Regions of Italy *List of Italian regions by GDP *List of Italian regions by GRP per capita * List of Italian regions by Human Development Index * Flags of regions of Italy * ISO 3166-2:IT ===Other administrative divisions=== * Provinces of Italy * Metropolitan cities of Italy * Municipalities of Italy ==References== ==External links== * CityMayors article * Regional Governments of Italy on Italia.gov.it * Regional Governments of Italy on Governo.it Category:Subdivisions of Italy Category:Ranked lists of country subdivisions Category:Lists of subdivisions of Italy Italy 1 Regions, Italy |
A dump truck, known also as a dumping truck, dump trailer, dumper trailer, dump lorry or dumper lorry or a dumper for short, is used for transporting materials (such as dirt, gravel, or demolition waste) for construction as well as coal. A typical dump truck is equipped with an open-box bed, which is hinged at the rear and equipped with hydraulic rams to lift the front, allowing the material in the bed to be deposited ("dumped") on the ground behind the truck at the site of delivery. In the UK, Australia, South Africa and India the term applies to off-road construction plants only and the road vehicle is known as a tip lorry, tipper lorry (UK, India), tipper truck, tip truck, tip trailer or tipper trailer or simply a tipper (Australia, New Zealand, South Africa). ==History== thumb|The Graff & Hipple Wagon Dumper, ca. 1884, showing an early lever-based dumping mechanism The dump truck is thought to have been first conceived in the farms of late 19th century western Europe. Thornycroft developed a steam dust-cart in 1896 with a tipper mechanism."An Automobile Dust-Cart". The Automotor and Horseless Carriage Journal, October 1897, p24 The first motorized dump trucks in the United States were developed by small equipment companies such as The Fruehauf Trailer Corporation, Galion Buggy Co. and Lauth-Juergens among many others around 1910. Hydraulic dump beds were introduced by Wood Hoist Co. shortly after. Such companies flourished during World War I due to massive wartime demand. August Fruehauf had obtained military contracts for his semi-trailer, invented in 1914 and later created the partner vehicle, the semi-truck for use in World War I. After the war, Fruehauf introduced hydraulics in his trailers. They offered hydraulic lift gates, hydraulic winches and a dump trailer for sales in the early 1920s. Fruehauf became the premier supplier of dump trailers and their famed "bathtub dump" was considered to be the best by heavy haulers, road and mining construction firms.Home Front Heroes: A Biographical Dictionary of Americans During Wartime. Edited by Benjamin F. Shearer, November 30, 2006, Volume 1, pp 319, Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc., Westport, Connecticut Companies like Galion Buggy Co. continued to grow after the war by manufacturing a number of express bodies and some smaller dump bodies that could be easily installed on either stock or converted (heavy-duty suspension and drivetrain) Model T chassis prior to 1920. Galion and Wood Mfg. Co. built all of the dump bodies offered by Ford on their heavy-duty AA and BB chassis during the 1930s. Galion (now Galion Godwin Truck Body Co.) is the oldest known truck body manufacturer still in operation today. The first known Canadian dump truck was developed in Saint John, New Brunswick, when Robert T. Mawhinney attached a dump box to a flatbed truck in 1920. The lifting device was a winch attached to a cable that fed over sheave (pulley) mounted on a mast behind the cab. The cable was connected to the lower front end of the wooden dump box which was attached by a pivot at the back of the truck frame. The operator turned a crank to raise and lower the box.Mario Theriault, Great Maritime Inventions 1833-1950, Goose Lane Editions, 2001, p. 71 From the 1930s Euclid, International-Harvester and Mack contributed to ongoing development. Mack modified its existing trucks with varying success. In 1934 Euclid became the first manufacturer in the world to successfully produce a dedicated off- highway truck. ==Types== Today, virtually all dump trucks operate by hydraulics and they come in a variety of configurations each designed to accomplish a specific task in the construction material supply chain. ===Standard dump truck=== A standard dump truck is a truck chassis with a dump body mounted to the frame. The bed is raised by a vertical hydraulic ram mounted under the front of the body (known as a front post hoist configuration), or a horizontal hydraulic ram and lever arrangement between the frame rails (known as an underbody hoist configuration), and the back of the bed is hinged at the back of the truck. The tailgate (sometimes referred to as an end gate) can be configured to swing up on top hinges (and sometimes also to fold down on lower hinges) or it can be configured in the "High Lift Tailgate" format wherein pneumatic or hydraulic rams lift the gate open and up above the dump body. Some bodies, typically for hauling grain, have swing-out doors for entering the box and a metering gate/chute in the center for a more controlled dumping. In the United States most standard dump trucks have one front steering axle and one (4x2 4-wheeler) or two (6x4 6-wheeler) rear axles which typically have dual wheels on each side. Tandem rear axles are almost always powered, front steering axles are also sometimes powered (4x4, 6x6). Unpowered axles are sometimes used to support extra weight. Most unpowered rear axles can be raised off the ground to minimize wear when the truck is empty or lightly loaded, and are commonly called "lift axles". European Union heavy trucks often have two steering axles. Dump truck configurations are two, three, and four axles. The four-axle eight wheeler has two steering axles at the front and two powered axles at the rear and is limited to gross weight in most EU countries. The largest of the standard European dump trucks is commonly called a "centipede" and has seven axles. The front axle is the steering axle, the rear two axles are powered, and the remaining four are lift axles. The shorter wheelbase of a standard dump truck often makes it more maneuverable than the higher capacity semi-trailer dump trucks. File:Ashok Leyland Tipper Truck 726.jpg|An Ashok Leyland Comet dump truck, an example of a very basic 4×2 dump truck used for payloads of or less File:Volvo Tri-axle Dump Truck.jpg|US 4-axle with lift axle File:Actros 4141 Mercedes 4 axle. Spielvogel.jpg|EU four-axle with two steering axles ===Semi trailer end dump truck=== thumb|6×4 semi-tractor with two-axle trailer A semi end dump is a tractor-trailer combination wherein the trailer itself contains the hydraulic hoist. In the US a typical semi end dump has a 3-axle tractor pulling a 2-axle trailer with dual tires, in the EU trailers often have 3 axles and single tires. The key advantage of a semi end dump is a large payload. A key disadvantage is that they are very unstable when raised in the dumping position limiting their use in many applications where the dumping location is uneven or off level. Some end dumps make use of an articulated arm (known as a stabilizer) below the box, between the chassis rails, to stabilize the load in the raised position. Frame and Frameless end dump truck Depending on the structure, semi trailer end dump truck can also be divided into frame trailer and frameless trailer. The main difference between them is the different structure. The frame dump trailer has a large beam that runs along the bottom of the trailer to support it. The frameless dump trailer has no frame under the trailer but has ribs that go around the body for support and the top rail of the trailer serves as a suspension bridge for support. The difference in structure also brings with it a difference in weight. Frame dump trailers are heavier. For the same length, a frame dump trailer weighs around 5 ton more than a frameless dump trailer. ===Transfer dump truck=== thumb|Example of a transfer truck and trailer A transfer dump truck is a standard dump truck pulling a separate trailer with a movable cargo container, which can also be loaded with construction aggregate, gravel, sand, asphalt, klinkers, snow, wood chips, triple mix, etc. The second aggregate container on the trailer ("B" box), is powered by an electric motor, a pneumatic motor or a hydraulic line. It rolls on small wheels, riding on rails from the trailer's frame into the empty main dump container ("A" box). This maximizes payload capacity without sacrificing the maneuverability of the standard dump truck. Transfer dump trucks are typically seen in the western United States due to the peculiar weight restrictions on highways there. Another configuration is called a triple transfer train, consisting of a "B" and "C" box. These are common on Nevada and Utah Highways, but not in California. Depending on the axle arrangement, a triple transfer can haul up to with a special permit in certain American states. , a triple transfer costs a contractor about $105 an hour, while a A/B configuration costs about $85 per hour. Transfer dump trucks typically haul between of aggregate per load, each truck is capable of 3–5 loads per day, generally speaking. ===Truck and pup=== thumb|Truck and pup dump truck thumb|A model of a truck and pup dump truck A truck and pup is very similar to a transfer dump. It consists of a standard dump truck pulling a dump trailer. The pup trailer, unlike the transfer, has its own hydraulic ram and is capable of self-unloading. ===Superdump truck=== thumbnail|Fruehauf super dump with GMC tractor A super dump is a straight dump truck equipped with a trailing axle, a liftable, load-bearing axle rated as high as . Trailing behind the rear tandem, the trailing axle stretches the outer "bridge" measurement—the distance between the first and last axles—to the maximum overall length allowed. This increases the gross weight allowed under the federal bridge formula, which sets standards for truck size and weight. Depending on the vehicle length and axle configuration, Superdumps can be rated as high as GVW and carry of payload or more. When the truck is empty or ready to offload, the trailing axle toggles up off the road surface on two hydraulic arms to clear the rear of the vehicle. Truck owners call their trailing axle-equipped trucks Superdumps because they far exceed the payload, productivity, and return on investment of a conventional dump truck. The Superdump and trailing axle concept were developed by Strong Industries of Houston, Texas. ===Semi trailer bottom dump truck=== thumb|Bottom dump trailer. A semi bottom dump, bottom hopper, or belly dump is a (commonly) 3-axle tractor pulling a 2-axle trailer with a clam shell type dump gate in the belly of the trailer. The key advantage of a semi bottom dump is its ability to lay material in a windrow, a linear heap. In addition, a semi bottom dump is maneuverable in reverse, unlike the double and triple trailer configurations described below. These trailers may be found either of the windrow type shown in the photo or may be of the cross spread type, with the gate opening front to rear instead of left and right. The cross spread type gate will actually spread the cereal grains fairly and evenly from the width of the trailer. By comparison, the windrow-type gate leaves a pile in the middle. The cross spread type gate, on the other hand, tends to jam and may not work very well with coarse materials. ===Double and triple trailer bottom dump truck=== Double and triple bottom dumps consist of a 2-axle tractor pulling one single-axle semi-trailer and an additional full trailer (or two full trailers in the case of triples). These dump trucks allow the driver to lay material in windrows without leaving the cab or stopping the truck. The main disadvantage is the difficulty in backing double and triple units. The specific type of dump truck used in any specific country is likely to be closely keyed to the weight and axle limitations of that jurisdiction. Rock, dirt, and other types of materials commonly hauled in trucks of this type are quite heavy, and almost any style of truck can be easily overloaded. Because of that, this type of truck is frequently configured to take advantage of local weight limitations to maximize the cargo. For example, within the United States, the maximum weight limit is throughout the country, except for specific bridges with lower limits. Individual states, in some instances, are allowed to authorize trucks up to . Most states that do so require that the trucks be very long, to spread the weight over more distance. It is in this context that double and triple bottoms are found within the United States. === Bumper Pull Dump Trailer === Bumper Pull personal and commercial Dump Trailers come in a variety of sizes from smaller 6x10 7,000 GVWR models to larger 7x16 High Side 14,000 GVWR models. Dump trailers come with a range of options and features such as tarp kits, high side options, dump/spread/swing gates, remote control, scissor, telescop, dual or single cylinder lifts, and metal locking toolboxes. They offer the perfect solution for a variety of applications, including roofing, rock and mulch delivery, general contractors, skid steer grading, trash out, and recycling. ===Side dump truck=== thumb|Side Dump Industries Train Set. A side dump truck (SDT) consists of a 3-axle tractor pulling a 2-axle semi-trailer. It has hydraulic rams that tilt the dump body onto its side, spilling the material to either the left or right side of the trailer. The key advantages of the side dump are that it allows rapid unloading and can carry more weight in the western United States. In addition, it is almost immune to upset (tipping over) while dumping, unlike the semi end dumps which are very prone to tipping over. It is, however, highly likely that a side dump trailer will tip over if dumping is stopped prematurely. Also, when dumping loose materials or cobble sized stone, the side dump can become stuck if the pile becomes wide enough to cover too much of the trailer's wheels. Trailers that dump at the appropriate angle (50° for example) avoid the problem of the dumped load fouling the path of the trailer wheels by dumping their loads further to the side of the truck, in some cases leaving sufficient clearance to walk between the dumped load and the trailer. ===Winter service vehicles=== thumb|Dump truck with snowplow Many winter service vehicles are based on dump trucks, to allow the placement of ballast to weigh the truck down or to hold sodium or calcium chloride salts for spreading on snow and ice-covered surfaces. Plowing is severe service and needs heavy-duty trucks. ===Roll-off trucks=== A Roll-off has a hoist and subframe, but no body, it carries removable containers. The container is loaded on the ground, then pulled onto the back of the truck with a winch and cable. The truck goes to the dumpsite, after it has been dumped the empty container is taken and placed to be loaded or stored. The hoist is raised and the container slides down the subframe so the rear is on the ground. The container has rollers on the rear and can be moved forward or back until the front of it is lowered onto the ground. The containers are usually open-topped boxes used for rubble and building debris, but rubbish compactor containers are also carried. A newer hook-lift system ("roller container" in the UK) does the same job, but lifts, lowers, and dumps the container with a boom arrangement instead of a cable and hoist. File:Roll-Off.jpg|Roll-off with box container File:WLF17_BF_Dortmund.jpg|Roller container ===Off-highway dump trucks=== Off-highway dump trucks are heavy construction equipment and share little resemblance to highway dump trucks. Bigger off-highway dump trucks are used strictly off-road for mining and heavy dirt hauling jobs. There are two primary forms: rigid frame and articulating frame. The term "dump" truck is not generally used by the mining industry, or by the manufacturers that build these machines. The more appropriate U.S. term for this strictly off-road vehicle is "haul truck" and the equivalent European term is "dumper". ====Haul truck==== Haul trucks are used in large surface mines and quarries. They have a rigid frame and conventional steering with drive at the rear wheel. As of late 2013, the largest ever production haul truck is the 450 metric ton BelAZ 75710, followed by the Liebherr T 282B, the Bucyrus MT6300AC and the Caterpillar 797F, which each have payload capacities of up to . Most large- size haul trucks employ Diesel-electric powertrains, using the Diesel engine to drive an AC alternator or DC generator that sends electric power to electric motors at each rear wheel. The Caterpillar 797 is unique for its size, as it employs a Diesel engine to power a mechanical powertrain, typical of most road-going vehicles and intermediary size haul trucks. Other major manufacturers of haul trucks include SANY, XCMG, Hitachi, Komatsu, DAC, Terex, and BelAZ. ====Articulated hauler==== thumb|Articulated dump truck or dumper An articulated dumper is an all-wheel-drive, off-road dump truck. It has a hinge between the cab and the dump box but is distinct from a semi-trailer truck in that the power unit is a permanent fixture, not a separable vehicle. Steering is accomplished via hydraulic cylinders that pivot the entire tractor in relation to the trailer, rather than rack and pinion steering on the front axle as in a conventional dump truck. By this way of steering, the trailer's wheels follow the same path as the front wheels. Together with all-wheel drive and low center of gravity, it is highly adaptable to rough terrain. Major manufacturers include Volvo CE, Terex, John Deere, and Caterpillar. ===U-shaped dump truck=== U-shaped dump trucks, also known as tub-body trucks, is used to transport construction waste, it is made of high-strength super wear-resistant special steel plate directly bent, and has the characteristics of impact resistance, alternating stress resistance, corrosion resistance and so on. 1\. Cleaner unloading U-shaped dump truck, there is no dead angle at the corners of the cargo box, it is not easy to stick to the box when unloading, and the unloading is cleaner. 2\. Lightweight The U-shaped cargo box reduces its own weight through structural optimization. Now the most common U-shaped dump is to use high-strength plates. Under the premise of ensuring the strength of the car body, the thickness of the plate is reduced by about 20%, and the self-weight of the car is reduced by about 1 ton, which effectively improves the utilization factor of the load mass. 3\. Strong carrying capacity.Using high-strength steel plate, high yield strength, better impact resistance and fatigue resistance. For users of ore transportation, it can reduce the damage of ore to the container. 4\. Low center of gravity The U-shaped structure has a lower center of gravity, which makes the ride more stable, especially when cornering, and avoids spilling cargo. 5\. Save tires The U-shaped cargo box can keep the cargo in the center, and the tires on both sides are more evenly stressed, which is beneficial to improve the life of the tires. ==Dangers== ===Collisions=== Dump trucks are normally built for some amount of off-road or construction site driving; as the driver is protected by the chassis and height of the driver's seat, bumpers are either placed high or omitted for added ground clearance. The disadvantage is that in a collision with a standard car, the entire motor section or luggage compartment goes under the truck. Thus, the passengers in the car could be more severely injured than would be common in a collision with another car. Several countries have made rules that new trucks should have bumpers approximately above ground in order to protect other drivers. There are also rules about how long the load or construction of the truck can go beyond the rear bumper to prevent cars that rear-end the truck from going under it. ===Tipping=== Another safety consideration is the leveling of the truck before unloading. If the truck is not parked on relatively horizontal ground, the sudden change of weight and balance due to lifting of the body and dumping of the material can cause the truck to slide, or even to tip over. The live bottom trailer is an approach to eliminate this danger. ===Back-up accidents=== Because of their size and the difficulty of maintaining visual contact with on-foot workers, dump trucks can be a threat, especially when backing up.A Laborer Dies in a Street Work Zone after Being Backed Over by a Dump Truck. Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation (FACE) Program. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. California Case Report: 07CA001. Mirrors and back-up alarms provide some level of protection, and having a spotter working with the driver also decreases back-up injuries and fatalities. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. California FACE Investigation 00CA005. ==Manufacturers== * Ashok Leyland * Asia MotorWorks * Astra Veicoli Industriali * BelAZ * BEML * Case CE * Caterpillar Inc. * DAC * Daewoo * Dart (commercial vehicle) * Eicher Motors * Euclid Trucks * FAP * HEPCO * Hitachi Construction Machinery * Hitachi Construction Machinery (Europe) * Iveco * John Deere * Kamaz * Kenworth * Kioleides * Komatsu * KrAZ * Leader Trucks * Liebherr Group * Mack Trucks * Mahindra Trucks & Buses Ltd. * MAN SE * Mercedes-Benz * Navistar International * New Holland * Peterbilt * SANY * Scania AB * ST Kinetics * Tata * Tatra (company) * Terex Corporation * Volvo Construction Equipment * Volvo Trucks * XCMG ==See also== * Cement mixer truck * Road roller * Combine harvester * Tractor * Crane construction (truck) * Bulldozer * Forklift * Dumper * Garbage truck * Live bottom trailer * Rear- eject haul truck bodies ==Notes== ==References== Category:Canadian inventions Category:Engineering vehicles |
The twenty-second season of the American reality television series The Voice premiered September 19, 2022, on NBC. Blake Shelton and John Legend returned as coaches for their twenty-second and seventh seasons, respectively. Gwen Stefani, who last coached on season 19, returned as a coach for her sixth season. Camila Cabello made her first appearance as a coach this season. Meanwhile, Carson Daly returned as host for his twenty-second season. Bryce Leatherwood was named the winner of the season on the season finale aired on December 13, 2022. His victory is the first instance in which a contestant who had been saved by a Wild Card instant save would go on to win the entire competition. Leatherwood's victory marks Blake Shelton's ninth and final win as a coach. This season is also the first season without studio performances released on any platform. == Panelists == === Coaches and host === In May 2022, NBC announced that there would be a change in the show's roster of coaches. Of the four coaches that appeared on the previous season, only Blake Shelton and John Legend continue, with Shelton returning for his twenty-second season and Legend returning for his seventh. Kelly Clarkson and Ariana Grande both exited the panel, with Gwen Stefani returning for her sixth season and Camila Cabello returning for her second time on the show and joining as a first-time coach. Cabello previously served as the battle advisor for Team Legend in the previous season. Carson Daly returned for his twenty-second season as host. === Battle advisors === The teams' battle advisors were revealed on August 17, 2022. The battle advisors for this season are Jazmine Sullivan for Team Legend, Sean Paul for Team Gwen, Charlie Puth for Team Camila, and Jimmie Allen for Team Blake. ==Teams== Teams color key Winner Eliminated in the Live shows Runner-up Eliminated in the Live playoffs Third place Stolen in the Knockouts Fourth place Eliminated in the Knockouts Fifth place Stolen in the Battles Eliminated in the Battles Coaches' teams Coach Top 56 Artists John Legend Omar Jose Cardona Parijita Bastola Kim Cruse Sasha Hurtado Peyton Aldridge Emma Brooke Valarie Harding Ian Harrison _The Marilynds_ Morgan Taylor David Andrew Lana Love Dia Malai Kara McKee SOLsong Nia Skyfer Gwen Stefani Justin Aaron Kique Alyssa Witrado Kevin Hawkins ~~Rowan Grace~~ ~~Sasha Hurtado~~ Cara Brindisi Daysia _Destiny Leigh_ Kayla Von Der Heide ~~Jay Allen~~ ~~Ian Harrison~~ Julia Aslanli Sadie Bass Tanner Howe Jillian Jordyn Camila Cabello Morgan Myles Devix Eric Who Kate Kalvach _Steven McMorran_ Chello Andrew Igbokidi Reina Ley Jaeden Luke Orlando Mendez ~~Sasha Hurtado~~ Grace Bello Constance Howard Sydney Kronmiller Zach Newbould Ava Lynn Thuresson Blake Shelton Bryce Leatherwood bodie Brayden Lape Rowan Grace ~~Kevin Hawkins~~ ~~Kate Kalvach~~ Jay Allen _The Dryes_ Austin Montgomery Eva Ullmann ~~Jaeden Luke~~ Ansley Burns Tanner Fussell Madison Hughes Hillary Torchiana Benny Weag == Blind auditions == The show began with the Blind Auditions on September 19, 2022. In each audition, an artist sings their piece in front of the coaches whose chairs are facing the audience. If a coach is interested to work with the artist, they will press their button to face the artist. If a singular coach presses the button, the artist automatically becomes part of their team. If multiple coaches turn, they will compete for the artist, who will decide which team they will join. Each coach has one "block" to prevent another coach from getting an artist. This season, each coach ends up with 14 artists by the end of the blind auditions, creating a total of 56 artists advancing to the battles. Blind auditions color key ✔ Coach pressed "I WANT YOU" button Artist elected a coach's team Artist defaulted to a coach's team Artist was eliminated with no coach pressing their button ✘ Coach pressed "I WANT YOU" button, but was blocked by another coach from getting the artist * Blocked by John * Blocked by Gwen * Blocked by Camila * Blocked by Blake ===Episode 1 (Sept. 19)=== First blind auditions results Order Artist Age Hometown Song Coach's and artist's choices John Gwen Camila Blake 1 Morgan Myles 35 Williamsport, Pennsylvania "Hallelujah" ✔ ✘ ✔ ✔ 2 Omar Jose Cardona 33 Orlando, Florida "Separate Ways (Worlds Apart)" ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ 3 Ian Harrison 20 Lewis Center, Ohio "The Night We Met" ✔ ✔ – ✔ 4 Tiana Goss 28 Los Angeles, California "Say It Right" – – – – 5 Emma Brooke 19 Lyman, South Carolina "California Dreamin'" ✔ ✔ – – 6 Orlando Mendez 26 Miami, Florida "Beer Never Broke My Heart" ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ 7 Alexis McLaughlin 25 Conroe, Texas "Here I Go Again" – – – – 8 David Andrew 25 Detroit, Michigan "Falling" ✔ ✔ – – 9 Jay Allen 36 Cedar Falls, Iowa "'Til You Can't" – ✔ – ✔ 10 JJ Hill 34 Pilot Rock, Oregon "Inside Out" – – – – 11 Kate Kalvach 27 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania "Rainbow" – ✔ ✔ ✔ ===Episode 2 (Sept. 20)=== Second blind auditions results Order Artist Age Hometown Song Coach's and artist's choices John Gwen Camila Blake 1 Reina Ley 13 San Tan Valley, Arizona "Cielito Lindo" – ✔ ✔ – 2 Bryce Leatherwood 22 Woodstock, Georgia "Goodbye Time" ✔ ✔ – ✔ 3 KoKo 31 Mobile, Alabama "About Damn Time" – – – – 4 Alyssa Witrado 19 Fresno, California "Don't Speak" – ✔ ✔ – 5 Devix 28 Queens, New York "Heat Waves" ✔ ✔ ✔ – 6 Chello 22 Chester, Pennsylvania "Just the Two of Us" ✔ – ✔ – 7 Kevin Hawkins 28 Lancaster, Texas "Isn't She Lovely" ✘ ✔ ✔ ✔ 8 Sadie Bass 25 Bath, Michigan "Stupid Boy" – ✔ – ✔ 9 SHEj 26 Atlanta, Georgia "I Like It" – – – – 10 Brayden Lape 15 Grass Lake, Michigan "This Town" – – – ✔ 11 Peyton Aldridge 25 Cleveland, Mississippi "Can't You See" ✔ ✔ – ✘ ===Episode 3 (Sept. 26)=== Third blind auditions results Order Artist Age Hometown Song Coach's and artist's choices John Gwen Camila Blake 1 Andrew Igbokidi 22 Chicago, Illinois "when the party's over" ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ 2 Cara Brindisi 34 Shrewsbury, Massachusetts "All Too Well" – ✔ – ✔ 3 Billy Craver 29 Palm Beach Gardens, Florida "She Got the Best of Me" – – – – 4 Valarie Harding 41 Muskogee, Oklahoma "Giving Him Something He Can Feel" ✔ ✔ – – 5 Julia Aslanli 23 DeLand, Florida "Let's Stay Together" – ✔ – – 6 The Dryes 36 & 33 Winston-Salem, North Carolina "Islands in the Stream" – ✔ – ✔ 7 Ava Lynn Thuresson 18 San Diego, California "…Baby One More Time" ✔ – ✔ – 8 Madison Hughes 25 Ponte Vedra Beach, Florida "Knockin' on Heaven's Door" – ✔ ✔ ✔ 9 Sasha Hurtado 18 Dallas, Georgia "River" ✔ – ✔ – 10 Dominic Patrick 37 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania "U Got It Bad" – – – – 11 Morgan Taylor 20 Carmel, Indiana "Cuz I Love You" ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ===Episode 4 (Sept. 27)=== Fourth blind auditions results Order Artist Age Hometown Song Coach's and artist's choices John Gwen Camila Blake 1 Tanner Howe 29 Huntington Beach, California "Mercy" ✔ ✔ – ✔ 2 Sydney Kronmiller 25 Ogden, Utah "Latch" – ✔ ✔ – 3 Tanner Fussell 28 Statesboro, Georgia "Anymore" – – – ✔ 4 Eva Ullmann 21 Ponte Vedra Beach, Florida "Light On" – – – ✔ 5 Emani Prince 22 Fort Gaines, Georgia "All My Life" – – – – 6 Kayla Von Der Heide 30 Hesperia, California "Jealous Guy" ✔ ✔ – – 7 Destiny Leigh 18 Sofia, Bulgaria "A Song for You" – ✔ – – 8 Eric Who 22 Charleston, South Carolina "bad guy" – – ✔ – 9 Parijita Bastola 17 Baltimore, Maryland "Jealous" ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ===Episode 5 (Oct. 3)=== Fifth blind auditions results Order Artist Age Hometown Song Coach's and artist's choices John Gwen Camila Blake 1 Kique 18 Miami, Florida "Beautiful Girls" – ✔ – ✔ 2 Hillary Torchiana 34 State College, Pennsylvania "Easy on Me" – – – ✔ 3 MANU 18 Howell, New Jersey "Shallow" – – – – 4 The Marilynds 30 & 34 La Plata, Maryland "What If I Never Get Over You" ✔ – ✔ – 5 SOLsong 28 Saginaw, Michigan "Turning Tables" ✔ – – – 6 Kara McKee 36 Cumberland, Rhode Island "Woodstock" ✔ – – – 7 Zach Newbould 19 Northborough, Massachusetts "Use Somebody" – ✔ ✔ – 8 Lana Love 30 Naples, Florida "Candy" ✔ – – – 9 Daysia 17 Hampton, Virginia "Crazy" – ✔ – ✔ 10 Conner Sweeny 23 Nashville, Tennessee "Ain't Worth the Whiskey" – – – – 11 Ansley Burns 15 Easley, South Carolina "Unchained Melody" – ✘ – ✔ 12 Manasseh Samone 22 Dallas, Texas "Rescue" – – – – 13 bodie 29 Los Angeles, California "You Found Me" ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ===Episode 6 (Oct. 4)=== Sixth blind auditions results Order Artist Age Hometown Song Coach's and artist's choices John Gwen Camila Blake 1 Austin Montgomery 19 Hemet, California "I Can't Help It (If I'm Still in Love with You)" – ✔ ✔ ✔ 2 Dia Malai 26 Queens, New York "Real Love" ✔ – – – 3 The Little Miss 31 San Diego, California "You Were Meant for Me" – – – – 4 Benny Weag 29 Lake County, Montana "Shivers" – – – ✔ 5 Jillian Jordyn 17 Melville, New York "Issues" ✔ ✔ – – 6 Hanny Ramadan 23 Voorhees, New Jersey "Round Here" – – – – 7 Grace Bello 21 Cibolo, Texas "Ghost" ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ===Episode 7 (Oct. 10)=== The seventh episode included the last auditions as well as the first battle. The coaches performed Camila Cabello's "Havana" once all the teams were full. Seventh blind auditions results Order Artist Age Hometown Song Coach's and artist's choices John Gwen Camila Blake 1 Kim Cruse 30 Woodville, Texas "Best Part" ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ 2 Steven McMorran 40 Little Rock, Arkansas "Never Enough" – – ✔ – 3 Rowan Grace 16 Rapid City, South Dakota "traitor" ✔ ✔ ✔ – 4 Yelka 20 San Diego, California "No Me Queda Mas" – – – – 5 Constance Howard 27 Katy, Texas "Peaches" ✔ – ✔ – 6 Justin Aaron 34 Junction City, Kansas "Glory" – ✔ Team full – 7 August James 21 Chatsworth, California "Heart of Glass" – Team full – 8 Jaeden Luke 22 Bothell, Washington "Make It with You" ✔ ✔ 9 Nia Skyfer 26 Havana, Cuba "Bam Bam" ✔ Team full == Battles == The battles aired on Monday, October 10, 2022, through Tuesday, October 25, 2022, comprising episodes 7 through 12. In this round, the coaches pit two of their artists in a singing match and then select one of them to advance to the next round. Losing artists may be "stolen" by another coach, becoming new members of their team, or can be saved by their coach, remaining a part of their original team. Multiple coaches can attempt to steal an artist, resulting in a competition for the artist, who will ultimately decide which team they will join. Additionally, their original coach can compete for their artist if they attempt to save them. At the end of this round, nine artists will remain on each team; seven will be the battle winners, and one from a steal and a save, respectively. In total, 36 artists advance to the knockouts. The guest advisors for this round were Jazmine Sullivan for Team Legend, Sean Paul for Team Gwen, Charlie Puth for Team Camila, and Jimmie Allen for Team Blake. Battles color key Artist won the battle and advanced to the knockouts Artist lost the battle, but was stolen by another coach, and, advanced to the knockouts Artist lost the battle, but was saved by their coach, and, advanced to knockouts Artist lost the battle and was eliminated Battles results Episode Coach Order Winner Song Loser 'Steal'/'Save' result John Gwen Camila Blake Episode 7 Blake 1 Austin Montgomery "Folsom Prison Blues" Tanner Fussell – – – – Episode 8 Gwen 1 Rowan Grace "Fingers Crossed" Jillian Jordyn – – – – John 2 Valarie Harding "Bust Your Windows" Dia Malai – – – – Camila 3 Morgan Myles "Wrecking Ball" Steven McMorran – – ✔ – Episode 9 Camila 1 Orlando Mendez "Rocket Man" Ava Lynn Thuresson – – – Gwen 2 Cara Brindisi "Leather and Lace" Jay Allen – ✔ – ✔ John 3 Emma Brooke "She's All I Wanna Be" Nia Skyfer – – – Blake 4 bodie "As Long as You Love Me" Jaeden Luke – ✔ ✔ – Camila 5 Reina Ley "Time After Time" Grace Bello – – Team full Gwen 6 Justin Aaron "No More Drama" Destiny Leigh – ✔ Episode 10 Camila 1 Eric Who "Paparazzi" Sydney Kronmiller – – Team full Blake 2 Brayden Lape "Pretty Heart" Benny Weag – – – 3 Eva Ullmann "Wildest Dreams" Ansley Burns – – – John 4 Morgan Taylor "Die for You" SOLsong – – Gwen 5 Daysia "Home" Julia Aslanli – John 6 Parijita Bastola "How Deep Is Your Love" The Marilynds ✔ – Episode 11 Gwen 1 Kique "Don't You (Forget About Me)" Tanner Howe – Team full Blake 2 Kevin Hawkins "Preach" Hillary Torchiana – – – Camila 3 Devix "Electric Feel" Sasha Hurtado – ✔ John 4 Kim Cruse "Heartbreak Anniversary" David Andrew Team full Blake 5 Kate Kalvach "Every Rose Has Its Thorn" Madison Hughes – – Gwen 6 Alyssa Witrado "happier than ever" Ian Harrison ✔ Episode 12 John 1 Omar Jose Cardona "Into the Unknown" Lana Love Team full Team full Team full Camila 2 Andrew Igbokidi "I Wanna Dance with Somebody (Who Loves Me)" Zach Newbould 3 Chello "Leave the Door Open" Constance Howard John 4 Peyton Aldridge "More Than Words" Kara McKee Gwen 5 Kayla Von Der Heide "Everything I Own" Sadie Bass Blake 6 Bryce Leatherwood "Red Dirt Road" The Dryes ✔ == Knockouts == The knockouts aired on October 31, 2022 through November 6, 2022, comprising episodes 13 to 15. In this round, each coach groups three of their artists in a singing match. The artists themselves will select the song they will sing in the round. The coach will then select one of the three artists to advance to the Live Playoffs. Each coach can steal one losing artist from another team, but the coaches do not have the ability to save their artists. At the end of this round, three artists will remain on each team while four artists will be stolen, creating a total of sixteen artists advancing to the Live Playoffs. This was the first season since season 5 to not feature a mega mentor for the Knockouts. It is also the first season in the show's history to pit three artists against each other in a standard Knockout, though were a couple individual instances of three-way knockouts in previous seasons, such as in Team Pharrell in the eighth season and in Team Kelly in the fifteenth season, both being the result of an artist's withdrawal mid-season. Knockouts color key Artist won the knockout and advanced to the live playoffs Artist lost the knockout but, was stolen by another coach, and advanced to the live playoffs Artist lost the knockout and was eliminated Knockouts results Episode Coach Order Winner Losers 'Steal' result Song Artist Artist Song John Gwen Camila Blake Episode 13 Blake 1 "Better Now" bodie The Dryes "Chasing After You" – – – Kevin Hawkins "This Woman's Work" – ✔ ✔ Camila 2 "What the World Needs Now Is Love" Morgan Myles Chello "Hold On" – Team full – Orlando Mendez "Live Like You Were Dying" – – John 3 "I'd Rather Go Blind" Parijita Bastola Peyton Aldridge "Forever After All" – – Valarie Harding "Weak" – – Gwen 4 "Hey Ya!" Kique Destiny Leigh "Impossible" – – – Rowan Grace "Vienna" – – ✔ Episode 14 John 1 "Radioactive" Omar Jose Cardona Ian Harrison "Cough Syrup" Team full – Team full Morgan Taylor "I Got You (I Feel Good)" – Camila 2 "Ex's & Oh's" Eric Who Jaeden Luke "Stay" – Reina Ley "You Say" – Blake 3 "Colder Weather" Bryce Leatherwood Jay Allen "Prayed for You" – – Kate Kalvach "Anyone" ✔ ✔ Episode 15 Gwen 1 "Can We Talk" Justin Aaron Cara Brindisi "Love Me Like a Man" – Team full Team full Team full Kayla Von Der Heide "Losing My Religion" – Blake 2 "Mercy" Brayden Lape Austin Montgomery "You Look So Good in Love" – Eva Ullmann "Dangerous Woman" – John 3 "I Can't Stand the Rain" Kim Cruse Emma Brooke "I Hope" The Marilynds "Chasing Cars" Camila 4 "Yellow" Devix Andrew Igbokidi "Everybody Hurts" – Steven McMorran "It Will Rain" – Gwen 5 "Don't Stop Me Now" Alyssa Witrado Daysia "Get Here" – Sasha Hurtado "Make It Rain" ✔ == Live shows == Live shows color key Artist was saved by public's vote Artist was saved by his/her coach Artist was selected to compete in the Wild Card instant save Artist was placed in the bottom group and competed for an Instant Save Artist was instantly saved Artist was eliminated === Week 1: Top 16 – Playoffs (Nov. 14–15) === The Live Playoffs comprised episodes 16 and 17. The Top 16 artists, four from each team, performed on Monday, November 14. This is the third time in the series' history, former two occasions in season 1 and season 4, in which only sixteen contestants competed in the Live Playoffs. On Tuesday, November 15, two artists from each team were saved by getting the most overnight public votes per team. Each coach then selected one more artist from their team to advance, leaving four artists, one from each team, to compete for the Wild Card instant save. Top 16 results Episode Coach Order Artist Song Result Episode 16 John Legend 1 Omar Jose Cardona "Livin' on a Prayer" Public's vote 2 Kim Cruse "I Never Loved a Man (The Way I Love You)" John's choice 3 Sasha Hurtado "Tiny Dancer" Wild Card 4 Parijita Bastola "I'll Never Love Again" Public's vote Gwen Stefani 5 Kique "As It Was" Public's vote 6 Kevin Hawkins "Skate" Wild Card 7 Alyssa Witrado "Angels like You" Gwen's choice 8 Justin Aaron "Here and Now" Public's vote Camila Cabello 9 Morgan Myles "Let Him Fly" Public's vote 10 Eric Who "Rumour Has It" Camila's choice 11 Kate Kalvach "You're Still the One" Wild Card 12 Devix "Sex on Fire" Public's vote Blake Shelton 13 Bryce Leatherwood "I'm Gonna Be Somebody" Wild Card 14 Rowan Grace "Hopelessly Devoted to You" Blake's choice 15 Brayden Lape "Buy Dirt" Public's vote 16 bodie "Glimpse of Us" Public's vote Episode 17 Blake Shelton 1 Bryce Leatherwood "Let Me Down Easy" Wild Card winner John Legend 2 Sasha Hurtado "Elastic Heart" Eliminated Gwen Stefani 3 Kevin Hawkins "Redbone" Eliminated Camila Cabello 4 Kate Kalvach "When I Look at You" Eliminated Non-competition performances Order Performers Song 17.1 Charlie Puth "That's Hilarious"/"Left and Right" === Week 2: Top 13 (Nov. 21–22) === This week's theme was "Songs that Changed My Life". This season continued with the elimination format that returned in the previous season, in which not every coach is guaranteed an artist in the finale. The top nine artists were saved by the public's vote, while the remaining four artists, who received the fewest votes, competed for the Instant Save in the results show. Also, unlike last season, the artist's songs are not available for purchase on iTunes. Top 13 results Episode Coach Order Artist Song Result Episode 18 Gwen Stefani 1 Kique "Superstition" Bottom four Blake Shelton 2 Bryce Leatherwood "Amarillo by Morning" Public's vote Camila Cabello 3 Devix "R U Mine?" Bottom four Blake Shelton 4 Rowan Grace "The Winner Takes It All" Public's vote John Legend 5 Omar Jose Cardona "In the Name of Love" Public's vote Gwen Stefani 6 Alyssa Witrado "Dreaming of You" Bottom four Blake Shelton 7 bodie "I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles)" Public's vote John Legend 8 Kim Cruse "Always on My Mind" Public's vote Blake Shelton 9 Brayden Lape "Come Over" Public's vote Camila Cabello 10 Eric Who "Can't Help Falling in Love" Bottom four 11 Morgan Myles "If I Were a Boy" Public's vote John Legend 12 Parijita Bastola "All I Ask" Public's vote Gwen Stefani 13 Justin Aaron "Break Every Chain" Public's vote Episode 19 Camila Cabello 1 Eric Who "The Climb" Eliminated Gwen Stefani 2 Alyssa Witrado "Ocean Eyes" Eliminated Camila Cabello 3 Devix "When You Were Young" Eliminated Gwen Stefani 4 Kique "Earned It (Fifty Shades of Grey)" Instantly saved Non-competition performances Order Performers Song 19.1 Blake Shelton and his team "Southern Nights" 19.2 Camila Cabello and her team "Happy Together" === Week 3: Top 10 (Nov. 28–29) === This week's theme was "Fan Week" wherein the viewers selected the songs the ten artists performed. The top seven artists were saved by the public's vote, while the remaining three artists, who received the fewest votes, competed for the Instant Save in the results show. With Kim Cruse being instantly saved, this is the third time since season 16 that John Legend takes three contestants into the semi-final (first time in season 17, and second in season 19). With Kique being eliminated, Gwen Stefani and Camila Cabello both have only one artist left on their team, marking the first time since season 16 that two coaches take one artist each to the semi-final. Top 10 results Episode Coach Order Artist Song Result Episode 20 John Legend 1 Parijita Bastola "Scars to Your Beautiful" Public's vote Blake Shelton 2 Rowan Grace "i love you" Bottom three Gwen Stefani 3 Justin Aaron "Just Once" Public's vote Blake Shelton 4 Brayden Lape "Homesick" Public's vote John Legend 5 Kim Cruse "Love on the Brain" Bottom three Blake Shelton 6 Bryce Leatherwood "Sand in My Boots" Public's vote Gwen Stefani 7 Kique "Call Out My Name" Bottom three Camila Cabello 8 Morgan Myles "Tennessee Whiskey" Public's vote Blake Shelton 9 bodie "golden hour" Public's vote John Legend 10 Omar Jose Cardona "I Want to Know What Love Is" Public's vote Episode 21 Blake Shelton 1 Rowan Grace "Landslide" Eliminated Gwen Stefani 2 Kique "River" Eliminated John Legend 3 Kim Cruse "Believe" Instantly saved Non- competition performances Order Performers Song 21.1 John Legend and his team "The Weight" 21.2 Gwen Stefani and her team "Burning Down the House" === Week 4: Top 8 – Semifinals (Dec. 5–6) === The semifinals comprise episodes 22 and 23. The eight semifinalists each performed a solo song and a Whitney Houston duet with a fellow semifinalist on Monday, with the results following on Tuesday. The four artists with the most votes automatically moved on to the finale, while the remaining four artists competed in the Instant Save for the fifth and final spot in the finale. With the elimination of Justin Aaron, this is Stefani's third time, in her six seasons as a coach, that she does not have an artist in the finale. With the advancement of Morgan Myles to the finale, Camila Cabello became the sixth new coach to successfully coach an artist on her team to the finale on her first attempt as a coach, after Usher (Michelle Chamuel in season 4), Alicia Keys (Wé McDonald in season 11), Kelly Clarkson (Brynn Cartelli in season 14), John Legend (Maelyn Jarmon in season 16), and Nick Jonas (Thunderstorm Artis in season 18). Also, with the advancement of all three Team Blake members, this is the third time in the series history that a coach has three artists in the finals and the second time that Blake has three artists in the finale; the first was done by Team Adam in season 7 and the second was Team Blake in season 16. In addition, Bryce Leatherwood from Team Blake became the second Wild card Instant Save winner to make it to the finale, after Hailey Mia in season 21. This is the first time in the show's history that a coach has three artists competing for the instant save. Semifinals results Episode Coach Order Artist Solo song Whitney Houston duet Result Episode 22 Gwen Stefani 1 (9) Justin Aaron "Stand Up" "Greatest Love of All" Bottom four Blake Shelton 3 (5) Brayden Lape "In Case You Didn't Know" "I Wanna Dance with Somebody (Who Loves Me)" Public's vote John Legend 4 (11) Parijita Bastola "Unstoppable" "I'm Every Woman" Bottom four 6 (11) Kim Cruse "Summertime" Bottom four 7 (9) Omar Jose Cardona "My Heart Will Go On" "Greatest Love of All" Bottom four Blake Shelton 8 (5) bodie "Without Me" "I Wanna Dance with Somebody (Who Loves Me)" Public's vote 10 (2) Bryce Leatherwood "If Heaven Wasn't So Far Away" "Saving All My Love for You" Public's vote Camila Cabello 12 (2) Morgan Myles "Always Remember Us This Way" Public's vote Episode 23 John Legend 1 Parijita Bastola "Make You Feel My Love" Eliminated 2 Kim Cruse "All by Myself" Eliminated Gwen Stefani 3 Justin Aaron "Made a Way" Eliminated John Legend 4 Omar Jose Cardona "You and I" Instantly saved Non-competition performances Order Performers Song 23.1 Blake Shelton "No Body" 23.2 John Legend "Nervous" 23.3 Carly Pearce "What He Didn't Do" === Week 5: Finale (Dec. 12–13) === The Top 5 finalists performed two songs on Monday and a duet with their coach on Tuesday. This is the third consecutive season in which contestants cannot perform original songs on the finale. With the victory of Bryce Leatherwood, he becomes the first Wild Card winner to win the entire competition. This also marks Blake's ninth and final overall win and the first time that a coach took 3 artists to the finale, and won the season. In addition, this was the third season to have the winner and runner-up from the same team, following seasons three (with Cassadee Pope and Terry McDermott) and 18 (with Todd Tilghman and Toneisha Harris). All three of these occurrences were done by Team Blake. Finale results Coach Artist Episode 24 Episode 25 Result Order Artistry Song Order Dedication Song Order Duet (with coach) Blake Shelton bodie 1 "Late Night Talking" 9 "Gratitude" 15 "God's Country" Runner-up Camila Cabello Morgan Myles 2 "Total Eclipse of the Heart" 7 "Girl Crush" 14 "Never Be the Same" Third place Blake Shelton Brayden Lape 6 "Wild as Her" 3 "Humble and Kind" 13 "Chasin' That Neon Rainbow" Fifth place John Legend Omar Jose Cardona 10 "Somebody to Love" 4 "The Way You Make Me Feel" 12 "Signed, Sealed, Delivered (I'm Yours)" Fourth place Blake Shelton Bryce Leatherwood 8 "T-R-O-U-B-L-E" 5 "Don't Close Your Eyes" 11 "Hillbilly Bone" Winner Non-competition performances Order Performers Song 24.1 John Legend, Gwen Stefani, Camila Cabello, and Blake Shelton "The Christmas Song" 25.1 OneRepublic "I Ain't Worried" 25.2 Adam Lambert "Ordinary World" 25.3 Maluma "Junio"/"Tukoh Taka" 25.4 Girl Named Tom "One More Christmas" 25.5 Breland "For What It's Worth" 25.6 Kane Brown and Blake Shelton "Different Man" 25.7 Kelly Clarkson "Santa, Can't You Hear Me" == Elimination chart == Results color key Winner Saved by an instant save (via Voice App) Runner-up Saved by the public Third place Saved by their coach Fourth place Saved by Wildcard (via Voice App) Fifth place Eliminated Coaches color key Team Legend Team Gwen Team Camila Team Blake === Overall === Live shows' results per week Artists Week 1 Playoffs Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Finale Bryce Leatherwood Safe Safe Safe Safe Winner bodie Safe Safe Safe Safe Runner-up Morgan Myles Safe Safe Safe Safe 3rd place Omar Jose Cardona Safe Safe Safe Safe 4th place Brayden Lape Safe Safe Safe Safe 5th place Justin Aaron Safe Safe Safe Eliminated Eliminated (Week 4) Parijita Bastola Safe Safe Safe Eliminated Kim Cruse Safe Safe Safe Eliminated Rowan Grace Safe Safe Eliminated Eliminated (Week 3) Kique Safe Safe Eliminated Devix Safe Eliminated Eliminated (Week 2) Eric Who Safe Eliminated Alyssa Witrado Safe Eliminated Kevin Hawkins Eliminated Eliminated (Week 1) Sasha Hurtado Eliminated Kate Kalvach Eliminated === Per team === Live shows' results per team Artists Week 1 Playoffs Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Finale Omar Jose Cardona Public's vote Advanced Advanced Advanced Fourth place Parijita Bastola Public's vote Advanced Advanced Eliminated Kim Cruse Coach's choice Advanced Advanced Eliminated Sasha Hurtado Eliminated Justin Aaron Public's vote Advanced Advanced Eliminated Kique Public's vote Advanced Eliminated Alyssa Witrado Coach's choice Eliminated Kevin Hawkins Eliminated Morgan Myles Public's vote Advanced Advanced Advanced Third place Devix Public's vote Eliminated Eric Who Coach's choice Eliminated Kate Kalvach Eliminated Bryce Leatherwood Public's vote Advanced Advanced Advanced Winner bodie Public's vote Advanced Advanced Advanced Runner-up Brayden Lape Public's vote Advanced Advanced Advanced Fifth place Rowan Grace Coach's choice Advanced Eliminated ==Ratings== ==Controversy== On the semifinal results episode, all four white contestants advanced to the finale, while all of the people of color had to sing in the Instant Save to compete for the final spot. Some viewers were upset with this, and considered it to be racist. Some viewers also speculated that the voting base voted for certain artists solely because they were on Team Blake. Additionally, after Omar Jose Cardona's Instant Save performance, John Legend, stunned by the results in which all three members of his team ended up in the bottom four, implied that the audience did not "vote for people because of their voice". == References == ==External links== * Category:2022 American television seasons Category:The Voice (American TV series) |
John Walter Ripley (June 29, 1939 – October 28, 2008) was a decorated United States Marine Corps Colonel who received the Navy Cross for his actions in combat during the Vietnam War. On Easter morning 1972, Captain Ripley repeatedly exposed himself to intense enemy fire over a three-hour period as he prepared to blow up an essential bridge in Dong Ha. His actions significantly hampered the North Vietnamese Army's advance into South Vietnam. The story of "Ripley at the Bridge" is legendary in the Marine Corps and is captured in a gripping diorama at the United States Naval Academy. On October 28, 2009, the first biography about Col. Ripley was published. It was written by Norman Fulkerson and is titled An American Knight, The Life of Col. John W. Ripley. ==Marine career== John Walter Ripley was born on June 29, 1939, in Radford, Virginia and his family lived there until he was five years old. They then moved to Portsmouth, Ohio, where they remained for some years before finally settling in Radford, Virginia. After graduating from Radford High School, John Ripley enlisted into the Marine Corps in 1957 at 17 years of age. A year later, he was appointed to the U.S. Naval Academy by the Secretary of the Navy. He graduated in 1962 with a Bachelor of Science degree in electrical engineering, and received his commission as a second lieutenant. After completing The Basic School, he joined the Marine detachment on the . After his sea duty, he joined 2nd Battalion, 2nd Marines. In May 1965, Ripley was transferred to 2nd Force Reconnaissance Company, and after training, he deployed to Vietnam with his platoon. In October 1966, Ripley joined 3rd Battalion, 3rd Marines in South Vietnam. He served as company commander of Lima Company, known as Ripley's Raiders, was wounded in action, then returned to active duty and completed his combat tour. In October 1969, Capt Ripley was selected to serve as exchange officer with the British Royal Marines and Special Boat Service. During his two years of Vietnam service, he participated in 26 major operations. In addition to numerous decorations for extensive combat experience at the rifle company and battalion levels, Ripley was awarded the Navy Cross for extraordinary heroism in destroying the Dong Ha bridge during the April 1972 North Vietnamese Easter Offensive (also known as the Nguyen Hue Offensive). That action is memorialized at the Naval Academy with a large diorama titled "Ripley at the Bridge." thumb|right|John Ripley in 1971 While under intense unrelenting enemy fire, Ripley dangled for an estimated three hours under the bridge in order to attach 500 pounds of explosives to the span, ultimately obliterating it. His action, conducted under enemy fire while going back and forth for materials, definitively thwarted an onslaught by 20,000 enemy troops and dozens of tanks and was the subject of a book, The Bridge at Dong Ha, by Colonel John Grider Miller. He attributes his success to the help of God and his mother. When his energy was about to give out he began a rhythmic chant, "Jesus, Mary, Get me there". His body taxed to its extreme limits, his action is considered one of the greatest examples of concentration under fire in the annals of U.S. military history. Following his tours in Vietnam, Capt Ripley was promoted to major on 1 June 1972. Ripley served with Marine Force Reconnaissance; served as the military aide to General Snowden and Chief of Staff of the Marine Corps during the late 1970s. As a lieutenant colonel, Ripley assumed command of 1st Battalion, 2nd Marines from July 1979 to May 1981. During this time they deployed for Combined Arms Exercise 2-80, then to the Mountain Warfare Training Center. Upon completion of his tour with the 2nd Marines, LtCol Ripley attended Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island, graduating in 1982. He then reported to the Joint Staff, Joint Chiefs of Staff, serving as Political-Military Planner and branch chief, European Division, J-5. Ripley was next assigned to the United States Naval Academy where he served as senior Marine and director, Division of English and History from 1984 to 1987. He was promoted to colonel on 1 July 1984. Col Ripley next spent a year as assistant chief of staff, G-3, with 3rd Marine Expeditionary Force, Okinawa, Japan. Ripley assumed command of 2nd Marine Regiment, Camp Lejeune, North Carolina from 14 July 1988 to 19 July 1990. The 2d Marines deployed twice as a regiment to Norway. Colonel Ripley was next assigned to the U.S. Naval Academy, where he served as senior Marine and director, Division of English and History from 1984 to 1987. His final tours in the Marine Corps were in charge of the NROTC detachments at Oregon State University and the Virginia Military Institute, and as the senior Marine at the United States Naval Academy teaching English and history. He earned the "Quad Body" distinction for making it through four of the toughest military training programs in the world: the Army Rangers, Marine Reconnaissance, Underwater Demolition Team and Britain's Royal Marines Commandos, according to Miller's book. He was the first Marine officer to be inducted in the U.S. Army Ranger Hall of Fame. Ripley retired from the Marine Corps in 1992 after 35 years of active duty service. He received more than five awards for his acts of bravery in Vietnam. ==Post-active duty== After his retirement from active duty in 1992, Ripley became president and chancellor of Southern Seminary College for Women (now Southern Virginia University) in Buena Vista, Virginia. In 1997, Ripley stepped down as the head of Southern Seminary and headed to Chatham, Virginia where he took charge of Hargrave Military Academy as the private military boarding school's eighth president, remaining in command for two years. He was selected in 1999 by the Commandant of the Marine Corps as the director of the History and Museums Division. On June 26, 1992 (a month before he retired from the Marine Corps) Col. Ripley testified against women in the military before a presidential commission. He based his arguments on a defense of "femininity, motherhood, and what we have come to appreciate in Western culture as the graceful conduct of women." In the following year he spoke against homosexuals in the military during the House Armed Services Committee hearings that preceded the implementation of President Clinton's "Don't ask, don't tell" policy. As a result of combat action, Colonel Ripley contracted a disease that in the summer of 2002 required a liver transplant. Nearing death, with little time left and already having received Last Rites twice, a replacement liver was located. The Commandant of the Marine Corps, who called Col. Ripley a living symbol of pride, sent a section of CH-46s helicopters from the Marine One presidential squadron to Philadelphia to retrieve the liver. After further coordination with the Washington D.C. Police to obtain a landing zone in the city, the liver was delivered in time for a successful transplant.Gamerman, Ellen." 'Semper Fidelis' Saves a Life" , Baltimore Sun, August 16, 2002. In October 2006, John Ripley returned to the site of the Dong Ha Bridge to film a documentary of his action. The documentary was hosted by Oliver North, and was shown on November 12, 2006, on Fox News.The Furious Fight for Dong Ha, War Stories with Oliver North, Fox News ==Awards and decorations== {| class="wikitable" U.S. military decorations Navy Cross Silver Star Medal Legion of Merit with gold award star Bronze Star Medal with Combat Distinguishing Device and gold award star Purple Heart Defense Meritorious Service Medal with oak leaf cluster Meritorious Service Medal Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal with gold award star Combat Action Ribbon with gold award star U.S. Unit Awards U.S. Unit Awards Presidential Unit Citation Navy Unit Commendation U.S. Service (Campaign) Medals and Service and Training Ribbons U.S. Service (Campaign) Medals and Service and Training Ribbons National Defense Service Medal with bronze service star Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal Vietnam Service Medal with silver service star Sea Service Deployment Ribbon with four bronze service stars South Vietnamese Army Distinguished Service Order, 2nd Class Vietnam Gallantry Cross Vietnam Civil Actions Medal Vietnam Campaign Medal In 2002, he also became the very first Marine officer to receive the "Distinguished Graduate Award", the highest and most prestigious award given by the United States Naval Academy. Also, in May 2004, Marines of the 22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit named a Forward Operating Base after him "FOB Ripley" (now Multi National Base Tarin Kot) in south-central Afghanistan. In July 2006, the Naval Academy Preparatory School in Newport, Rhode Island dedicated its new dormitory as "Ripley Hall", honoring their former graduate. On June 11, 2008, Ripley became the first Marine to be inducted into the U.S. Army Ranger Hall of Fame -- honored for the assault on the Dong Ha Bridge, on Easter morning 1972. On Tuesday November 11, 2008, Veteran's Day, Ripley's hometown of Radford, VA held a ceremony in memory of him. It had been originally intended to be in honor of him, but he died a couple weeks before the ceremony took place. His son was presented with a key to the city and a plaque declaring November 11, 2008, John W Ripley day in Radford, VA. ===Navy Cross citation=== Citation: > The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting > the Navy Cross to Captain John W. Ripley (MCSN: 0-84239), United States > Marine Corps, for extraordinary heroism on 2 April 1972 while serving as the > Senior Marine Advisor to the Third Vietnamese Marine Corps Infantry > Battalion in the Republic of Vietnam. Upon receipt of a report that a > rapidly moving, mechanized, North Vietnamese army force, estimated at > reinforced divisional strength, was attacking south along Route #1, the > Third Vietnamese Marine Infantry Battalion was positioned to defend a key > village and the surrounding area. It became imperative that a vital river > bridge be destroyed if the overall security of the northern provinces of > Military Region One was to be maintained. Advancing to the bridge to > personally supervise this most dangerous but vitally important assignment, > Captain Ripley located a large amount of explosives which had been pre- > positioned there earlier, access to which was blocked by a chain-link fence. > In order to reposition the approximately 500 pounds of explosives, Captain > Ripley was obliged to reach up and hand-walk along the beams while his body > dangled beneath the bridge. On five separate occasions, in the face of > constant enemy fire, he moved to points along the bridge and, with the aid > of another advisor who pushed the explosives to him, securely emplaced them. > He then detonated the charges and destroyed the bridge, thereby stopping the > enemy assault. By his heroic actions and extraordinary courage, Captain > Ripley undoubtedly was instrumental in saving an untold number of lives. His > inspiring efforts reflected great credit upon himself, the Marine Corps, and > the United States Naval Service. ===Silver Star citation=== Citation: > The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting > the Silver Star to Captain John Walter Ripley (MCSN: 0-84239/1653859), > United States Marine Corps, for conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity in > action while serving as Commanding Officer of Company L, Third Battalion, > Third Marines, THIRD Marine Division, in connection with operations against > the enemy in the Republic of Vietnam. On 21 August 1967, Company L was > assigned the mission of reinforcing a convoy that had been surprised by a > large enemy force and was pinned down. With one rifle platoon, a small > command group, and accompanied by two M-42 dual 40-mm. anti-aircraft guns, > Captain Ripley was leading the relief column when it suddenly came under > intense enemy automatic weapons and recoilless rifle fire. Disregarding his > own safety and the heavy volume of hostile fire, he moved to the machine gun > mounted on the vehicle and opened fire, pinpointing the location of the well > concealed North Vietnamese and enabling the 40-mm. guns to deliver accurate > fire on the enemy positions. Directing his unit to dismount, he quickly > organized a defensive perimeter while coordinating supporting artillery fire > and simultaneously controlling the remainder of his company which was widely > separated from his position. Repeatedly exposing himself to the hostile > fire, he directed artillery fire and air strikes upon the attacking enemy > force and courageously adjusted fire missions to within fifty meters of his > position. Throughout the following three hours, his skillful employment of > supporting arms and direction of the fire of his men repulsed the determined > enemy attacks and forced the hostile units to flee in panic and confusion. > His aggressiveness and outstanding professionalism were an inspiration to > all who served with him and were instrumental in the successful extraction > of his unit from an extremely hazardous situation. By his steadfast courage, > superb leadership and unfaltering devotion to duty at great personal risk, > Captain Ripley upheld the highest traditions of the Marine Corps and of the > United States Naval Service. == Death == Ripley died suddenly on October 28, 2008, at his home in Annapolis, Maryland of undetermined causes at age 69 and was buried at the United States Naval Academy graveyard.Colonel John Ripley's Grave - Google Maps He was survived by his son, Stephen, by his wife of 44 years, the former Moline Blaylock; a sister, Mary Susan GoodykoontzMary Susan Goodykoontz who died in 2015; two other sons, Thomas and John; a daughter, Mary Ripley; nine grandchildren; and one great grandchild.Hevesi, Dennis, "Col. John W. Ripley, Marine Who Halted Vietnamese Attack, Dies At 69", New York Times, November 4, 2008, p. 33. Moline Blaylock Ripley died on September 12, 2009, from complications due to Alzheimer's disease, at the age of 68. When he died, his son Thomas related at his funeral that Commandant James L. Jones visited him in his hospital bed accompanied by Color Sergeant of the Marine Corps Sgt Jewel and the Battle Colors. He told Ripley, "The Colors don't leave the room until you do." He was buried with full military honors on November 7 at the United States Naval Academy Cemetery.Besides the 21-gun salute he was also honored with a fly over by 4 Harrier jets in a missing man formation. His older brother Mike Ripley died while testing flying the new Harriers in 1971. ==See also== ==References== ==Further reading== * John Grider Miller, The Bridge at Dong Ha (Annapolis, MD: U.S. Naval Institute Press, 1996). * * Norman J. Fulkerson, An American Knight: The Life of Col. John W. Ripley (Spring Grove, PA: York Press, 2008). ==External links== * * An American Knight: The Life of Colonel John W. Ripley USMC * * Category:1939 births Category:2008 deaths Category:Recipients of the Navy Cross (United States) Category:People from Radford, Virginia Category:Recipients of the Silver Star Category:Recipients of the Legion of Merit Category:Recipients of the Gallantry Cross (Vietnam) Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Service Order (Vietnam) Category:United States Marine Corps colonels Category:United States Naval Academy alumni Category:United States Marine Corps personnel of the Vietnam War Category:Military personnel from Virginia Category:United States Marine Corps officers |
Magalir Mattum () is a 1994 Indian Tamil-language satirical film directed by Singeetam Srinivasa Rao, produced by Kamal Haasan, and written by Crazy Mohan. The film stars Revathi, Urvashi, Rohini, and Nassar. It revolves around three women deciding to gang up on their lecherous office boss who constantly harasses them. Haasan wrote a story inspired by the 1980 American film 9 to 5 which Mohan then expanded into the screenplay of Magalir Mattum. The film was Thirunavukarasu's first as an independent cinematographer and P. N. Satish worked as the editor. Ilaiyaraaja composed the music while Vaali wrote the lyrics. Magalir Mattum was released on 25 February 1994 and became a commercial success, running for over 175 days in theatres. The film won the V. Shantaram Silver Award. For her performance, Urvashi won the Tamil Nadu State Film Award Special Prize for Best Actress. The film became a milestone in Tamil cinema for the topics it addressed, such as workplace harassment and male gaze, and is regarded as an early example of the MeToo movement in India. == Plot == Janaki and Pappamma are employees at a fashion export company. Janaki is a shy Brahmin woman who works as a typist to support her family after her husband lost his factory job. Pappamma, who lives with her drunkard rickshaw-puller husband and earns a living for both of them and her husband's drinking expense, is a housekeeper there. The women in the company face a common threat from their manager, G. K. Pandian. Although married, he is a womaniser, and harasses his female employees regularly. The women tolerate his behaviour because of their family circumstances. Sathya, a computer graduate, joins the company as a designer. Noting her intelligence and beauty, Pandian attempts to get closer to her. Initially believing his overtures are strictly platonic, Sathya accepts an invitation to dine with him. This is noticed by the other employees who misread the situation and shun her. When Pandian presents her with a silk sari, Sathya understands his actual intentions and rebukes him, gaining the respect and friendship of Janaki and Pappamma, who are fed up with their manager's antics. As their friendship blossoms, Janaki becomes increasingly courageous and speaks up when treated unfairly, a point noted sourly by Pandian's sidekick, Madhavi. One day Pandian asks Janaki to work late. Asked to prepare him a coffee, she unknowingly mixes rat poison in his coffee instead of sugar and gives it to him. Pandian falls from his chair and becomes unconscious. Sathya finds him and he is admitted to the hospital. Janaki realises what she did, thinks Pandian drank the coffee and tells Pappamma. Both rush to the hospital and tell Sathya. The trio are unaware that Pandian fainted because of a minor injury and has recovered. They overhear that a patient (a terrorist) is dead from consuming "poison" (cyanide). They steal the covered corpse, assuming it is Pandian, and take it to Sathya's room, only to find that they have taken the terrorist's corpse. Panicking, they decide to return the body to the hospital. After several mishaps, the police take the body away. Pandian returns to work. On learning what happened from Madhavi, he blackmails the trio into spending three nights with him in his guesthouse. He tells them if they refuse, he will have them arrested. The trio appear to agree, but once they reach the house, they overpower him, tie him up and imprison him in a room. Sathya takes charge as acting manager in the office and, with the help of Janaki, Pappamma and the other employees, brings about many changes there. Sathya soon receives information from the head office about the boss's visit. The trio is in a quandary since Pandian is still in their custody. The trio decide to come clean about what happened and rush to the airport to pick up the boss who they have never seen. However, Madhavi overhears them and rescues Pandian, and they head to the airport. The trio arrives at the airport but misses the boss who leaves with Pandian. They rush to the office. On reaching the office, the boss finds it has changed radically. A flustered Pandian says that he is not responsible for this, and blames Sathya, Janaki and Pappamma. However, the boss appreciates the trio for their innovative ideas, and tells Pandian he is aware of his misogynistic behaviour and harassment towards his employees, relayed to him by a spy he had planted in the office. He leaves the trio in charge of the office and transfers Pandian and Madhavi to Andaman. He offers Janaki's husband a job in his friend's factory and Pappamma's husband a job as a watchman in their school, delighting them. When he inquires about Sathya's marriage, Janaki says that she has an artistic rendition of her dream husband drawn in her computer. Sathya shows him her rendition, and they are all surprised to see that her dream husband looks exactly like their boss. The boss asks Sathya to marry him, and she accepts his proposal. == Cast == * Revathi as Sathya * Urvashi as Janaki * Rohini as Pappamma * Nassar as G. K. Pandian * Nagesh as the corpse (cameo) * Pasi Sathya as Madhavi * Thalaivasal Vijay as Pappamma's husband * Kalaipuli S. Thanu as Thamizhavan * V. S. Raghavan as a doctor * R. S. Shivaji as a piles patient * Crazy Mohan as a doctor * A. S. Nagarajan as the "deaf" employee/spy * Parthiban as a doctor * Renuka as Pandian's wife (uncredited) * M. Vasanthakumari as the bus driver * Kamal Haasan as the office boss (cameo) == Production == === Development === After being inspired by the American film 9 to 5 (1980), Kamal Haasan wrote a story, narrated it to Crazy Mohan, and asked him to develop it into a screenplay. Haasan was not sure "if we could turn it into a two-hour film", so a subplot featuring a terrorist's corpse was one thing Mohan included to expand the screenplay. This subplot was inspired by a TV series in which one of his troupe members acted as a corpse. Mohan's wife wrote the screenplay while he explained every scene. Mohan suggested the title Magalir Mattum, which translates to "Ladies Only" because buses displaying this text "were quite popular then and people would instantly connect to the subject of the film". Singeetam Srinivasa Rao was hired to direct, while Haasan produced the film under his banner Raaj Kamal Films International. Haasan wanted P. C. Sreeram to be the cinematographer, but since he was busy with Thiruda Thiruda (1993), his assistant Thirunavukarasu, who later became known as Tirru, was recruited instead. The film was Thirunavukarasu's first as an independent cinematographer; he previously assisted Sreeram with Haasan's Thevar Magan (1992). Thirunavukarasu has said that Rao "almost summarily dismissed" him because he rarely worked with novices, "but I was able to prove my technical worth in the opening shots, with a lot of help from Kamal, who had immense faith in my capabilities". R. Velraj worked as an assistant cinematographer on the film. P. N. Satish worked as the editor, and Haasan's then-wife Sarika designed the costumes. === Casting === For the three female leads, Rao wanted actresses who were good friends in real life. Revathi, who was cast as Sathya, agreed to act in the film without second thoughts. Urvashi recalled Haasan asked her to choose the character who interested her; she liked Pappamma because of the "rawness that stems from her family situation", but chose Janaki because she felt audiences could relate to the character. Though Rao had no difficulty in finding actresses to play Sathya and Janaki, the casting for Pappamma was troubled; many actresses were hesitant to play her after Rao described the plot because they believed Urvashi's performance would eclipse theirs, and the character of Pappamma had to de-glamorised. The role eventually went to Rohini; she recalled she agreed to do it "without a second thought" and since she grew up in Madras, she "didn't have to work on the slang". Nassar was chosen to portray G. K. Pandian, his first humorous role. Mohan was initially apprehensive about casting Nassar in a comical role as he was known mainly for playing serious roles, but Haasan remained adamant. Director Bharathiraja and poet Vairamuthu were initially approached for the character of the office supervisor Thamizhavan; however producer Kalaipuli S. Thanu appeared in that role—Magalir Mattum was his only film as an actor. Haasan cast Nagesh as the terrorist corpse; Mohan felt he was the "best choice". Though the character of the office boss was originally written as a woman, the cast wanted Haasan to play that role and he agreed. Sathya, then known mainly for playing servant roles, was cast against type as Pandian's sidekick Madhavi. === Filming === Magalir Mattum entered production in the first half of 1993, one of the few films to do so during a period when distributors' associations had imposed a ban on film production in Tamil Nadu. The set of the office was established on the second floor of a building that was being constructed at the then Vauhini Studios. While filming the scene where the corpse is being carried by the protagonists, Rao asked Nagesh to keep a smirk on his face throughout the sequence. Rao told him to let his body go totally limp; this proved difficult for both him and the three female leads, as they had to carry his entire weight. The stunt scene involving Nagesh was filmed on a set erected at Campa Cola. The team waited for three months to film the song "Karavai Maadu" as all three lead actresses had to be in it. It was ultimately decided to film the portions separately with Nassar depending on the availability of an actress on that day. Raghuram, who choreographed the song, completed it in such a way that "the shots could later be edited and made to look like they [were] all shot together". The final length of the film was . == Themes == Magalir Mattum revolves around the themes of workplace harassment and the male gaze. Writing for Sify, Sowmya Rajendran said the film addresses many issues that women employees face, such as "feminization of poverty, the problems of a middle- class, new mother who has to get back to work to make a living" and the "anger of a single, talented woman who has to keep her temper in check if she's to retain her job". The protagonists—Sathya, Janaki and Pappamma—represent three different classes of society. Urvashi has said the film's purpose was to show that "women, irrespective of class difference, face the same problems in a patriarchal society". She described Janaki as exhibiting "a typical middle- class mentality", Pappamma as her opposite who "carries a bold and brazen attitude", and Sathya as "an independent woman who's very precise about things". Rao said the film represents his personal views of being against male chauvinism, and that women should be in control of their own lives. == Soundtrack == The soundtrack was composed by Ilaiyaraaja, while the lyrics for all the songs were written by Vaali. It was released under the label AVM Audio in December 1993. Ilaiyaraaja, using the technique of M. B. Sreenivasan, composed the title track as a choir song. Urvashi was initially displeased with "Karavai Maadu" because it contained lyrics she considered were degrading, but after Vaali explained to her why he wrote those words, she was convinced. == Release == Magalir Mattum was released on 25 February 1994. No distributor was willing to buy the film since it featured no romance or a hero; as a result, Haasan had to distribute it himself. Despite this, the film was a commercial success, running for over 175 days in theatres, and becoming a silver jubilee film. Urvashi attributed the film's success to the fact that it "told the sufferings through comedy", and felt it might have been rejected by audiences if it had been a serious film. For her performance, she won the Tamil Nadu State Film Award Special Prize for Best Actress. == Reception == On 25 February 1994, Malini Mannath of The Indian Express called the film "a welcome breath of fresh air". She went on to praise Nassar's performance, saying that "his expressions are a treat to watch [...] he can do comedy too with ease". She also praised the performances of Revathi and Rohini and complimented Urvashi "with her sense of comedy who come out the best the humour and punchlines coming naturally". On 12 March, K. Vijiyan of the New Straits Times praised Haasan and Mohan's writing, the performances of the lead actors, and concluded, "Ladies, Kamalhassan has made this movie just for you. Make that man in your life take you away for this one and he will probably also enjoy it too." On 13 March, R.P.R. of Kalki appreciated the film for Mohan's writing, Urvashi's performance and Ilaiyaraaja's music, but felt the post-interval scenes were unnecessarily stretched, and criticised Haasan for overacting. The review board of the magazine Ananda Vikatan said the filmmakers must be appreciated for presenting a high-class comedy entertainer without any vulgarity or double entendre dialogues and becoming a benchmark for humour. They said that among the three female leads, Urvashi had lived through the character of a Brahmin woman and made them laugh throughout the film. The review board praised the cinematography and wrote that the filmmakers certainly moved a few steps ahead in their effort to present a neat and entertaining comedy film, and gave Magalir Mattum a rating of 44 marks out of 100. == Other versions == thumbnail|right|A still from Ladies Only. Magalir Mattum was dubbed in Malayalam as Ladies Only, and in Telugu as Adavallaku Matrame. The film was remade in Hindi as Ladies Only by Dinesh Shailendra. Seema Biswas, Shilpa Shirodkar and Heera Rajagopal were cast as the female leads and Randhir Kapoor was selected to reprise Nassar's character. Haasan produced the film and appeared as the corpse. Though the film was completed by 1997, it failed to have a theatrical release. == Legacy == Magalir Mattum attained cult status, and became a milestone in Tamil cinema for the topics it addresses, being regarded as an early example of the MeToo movement in India. Nassar's character of Pandian attained iconic status, and later became "the face of all memes and posts related to harassment at the workplace". Producer Suriya obtained permission to reuse the film's title; his production Magalir Mattum, also featuring Urvashi and Nassar, was released in 2017. == References == == Bibliography == * * == External links == * Category:1990s buddy comedy films Category:1990s satirical films Category:1990s Tamil-language films Category:1994 comedy films Category:1994 films Category:Films about sexual harassment Category:Films about women in India Category:Films directed by Singeetam Srinivasa Rao Category:Films scored by Ilaiyaraaja Category:Films with screenplays by Crazy Mohan Category:Indian buddy comedy films Category:Indian female buddy films Category:Indian feminist films Category:Indian remakes of American films Category:Indian satirical films Category:Tamil films remade in other languages Category:Workplace comedies |
In Tunisian football, the Tunis derby is the local derby between the two major clubs in the city of Tunis, Tunisia - Club Africain and Espérance de Tunis. The derby is played in Tunis in the Hammadi Agrebi stadium due to its larger capacity of 60,000 seats. Before the construction of this stadium, the derby used to be played in the 45,000 seat-capacity Stade El Menzah. == History == The derbies between the Club Africain (CA) and Espérance de Tunis (EST) start during the season 1923–1924, when the African Club joins the EST in second series (promotion 1): the first official derby, which takes place on March 23, 1924, at the Ariana on behalf of the fifth day of the championship of the second series, is won by the African Club (3-0). Tunisia's first Cup derby, which takes place on October 10, 1926, at the Vélodrome on the occasion of the round of 32, is won by the African Club (1-0). In the context of the Tunisian Cup competitions, six derbys opposed the two teams before independence: one is won by the African Club in 1926, one ends with a draw and four by a victory of the Espérance sportive de Tunis, including two in the semifinals, in 1939 and 1947–1948. The two teams entered into direct competition in the spring of 1933 and are now playing in the same division, with the exception of one season, sporting competition and competition between them taking over any desire to merge. It is at this period that, competition compels, are forged images truncated or at least oriented or manipulated of a city club and aristocrat for the African Club, solidly anchored in his stronghold of Bab Jedid, in opposition to his opponent being more popular and going to settle in Bab Souika. If this vision develops from the profiles of the leaders of the two clubs, the clubs certainly have more beldis among their ranks, no basis either supports or confirms this difference. On the contrary, the players of the African Club have, from time immemorial, of diverse social and geographical origins and it is the same for their supporters. The African Club and the EST play together in the elite from the 1937–1938 season, the EST having secured its accession to the first series at the end of the 1935–1936 season, the African Club l having joined a year later. The first derby in Ligue I took place on September 26, 1937, during the second day of the 1937–1938 season, and ended with a draw (1-1). On November 13, 1955, clubman Mounir Kebaili scored in the 65th minute the first goal in the history of the derby since the independence of the country, his teammate Ridha Meddeb doubling the lead in the 71st and allowing his club to win on the score of 2 to 0 against Espérance sportive de Tunis. In 1969, the two clubs meet for the first time in the final of the Tunisian Cup: the African Club won on a score of 2 to 0 thanks to goals scored by Abderrahmane Rahmouni and Tahar Chaibi. The following year, while the African Club leads 1–0 at half-time, the players Esperance Sports Tunis decide not to return to the field for the second half following a corner disputed by the referee in the 41st minute; the FTF decides to replay the game which sees the African Club win on the score of 1 to 0.thumb|Le résultat du match de derby au tableau de Stade Mustapha Ben Jannet le 6 janvier 2019.|alt=|left|239x239px On May 5, 1985, the African club won the match 5–1, causing their opponent his second biggest loss in a derby after the 1978 which ended in a score of 5 to 2. In 1995, while Esperance sportive de Tunis lead on a score of 4–0 in the 70th minute, the referee expels the fourth club player and stops the match. In 2006, after a long struggle of 120 minutes, Espérance sportive de Tunis won on penalties in the final of the Tunisian Cup. On January 27, 2007, after nine years without a win, the African Club won with a goal at the 87th Moussa Pokong. On May 1, 2010, for the first time in the league, a derby is played behind closed doors. The longest undefeated period for the African Club takes place between the seasons 1937-1938 and 1947-1948 (seven seasons played in eleven years, four seasons having been canceled due to World War II); EST is experiencing such a period between the 1998–1999 season and the first leg of the 2006–2007 season (8.5 seasons). During the 2014–2015 season, the derby of the return phase of the championship, decisive for separating the two clubs of the capital on the one hand and the Etoile Sportive du Sahel on the other hand, is held on May 12, 2015. Designated « derby of the century "by some Tunisian media, the match ends with the victory of the club players, future champions of this season by a goal to zero. On January 6, 2019, for the first time in derby history, he plays outside the capital in Monastir due to the closure of the Rades Stadium due to maintenance. Esperance won 2-1 == Stadiums == === Stade Chedly Zouiten === left|thumb|255x255px|Stade Chedly Zouiten The Chedly-Zouiten Stadium (Arabic: ملعب الشاذلي زويتن), formerly called Geo-André Stadium, is a Tunisian stadium located in the Belvedere district of Tunis. It is a multi-purpose stadium of 18,000 spectators1, which hosted the 1965 African Cup of Nations. It is being renovated to host two matches of the 1994 Africa Cup of Nations. Long capital stadium of the capital, it was supplanted by the Olympic stadium of El Menzah in 1967 and then by the Olympic stadium of Radès in 2001, both larger and more modern. The Tunisian Stadium, the third club of the capital, elected home until 2011, the year of the inauguration of its own stadium, the Hedi-Enneifer stadium. 956/5000 It bears the name of Geo Andre, a French sportsman killed during the campaign in Tunisia, before taking that of Chedly Zouiten, a figure of Tunisian football. The Tunis municipality closed it on November 17, 2006, to carry out renovations estimated at 3.4 million dinars2 and initially caused by defects in the rainwater drainage channels. This cost includes the renovation of the stormwater drainage and drainage system, the renovation of the tribune of honor, the press gallery, lawn terraces, changing rooms, electrical installations; the works are launched on January 2, 2009, for a period of ten months2. It was not until May 20, 2012, that the stadium was finally reopened3. In search of a stadium specific to the football team of his club, Slim Riahi, president of the Club Africain, proposes in February 2013 an official offer to the Tunisian State concerning the acquisition of the stadium5. : === Stade Olympique d'El Menzah === thumb|Stade Olympique d'El Menzah Stade Olympique El Menzah (Arabic: الملعب الأولمبي المنزه) is a multi- purpose stadium, located in the north of Tunis, Tunisia. It is built to host the 1967 Mediterranean Games at the same time as the Olympic swimming pool and gymnasium. Since then, it is an integral part of Tunisia's main sports complex. Tunisia's three major football teams, ES Tunis, Club Africain and Stade Tunisien played their games there. The stadium is completely renovated for the 1994 African Cup of Nations. It has a capacity of 39,858 seats. The VIP section consists of a grandstand and 2 salons that can accommodate 300 people in a "cocktail" configuration. The stadium hosted the matches of Tunisia national football team until the inauguration of the Stade 7 November in Radès in 2001. Sometimes the Stade El Menzah hosts entertainment events. Popstar Michael Jackson performed his first and only concert in Tunisia, at this stadium during his HIStory World Tour on October 7, 1996, in front of 90.000 fans. Sting performed at the stadium during his Brand New Day Tour on April 28, 2001. Mariah Carey kicked off The Adventures of Mimi Tour at the stadium on July 22 and 24, 2006. === Stade Olympique de Radès === left|thumb|251x251px|Stade Olympique de Radès Stade Olympique de Radès (Arabic: الملعب الأولمبي برادس) is a multi-purpose stadium in Rades, Tunisia about 10 kilometers south-east of the city center of Tunis, in the center of the Olympic City. It is currently used mostly for football matches and it also has facilities for athletics. The stadium holds 65,000 and was built in 2001 for the 2001 Mediterranean Games and is considered to be one of the best stadiums in Africa. Built for the 2001 Mediterranean Games, the 65,000-seat covered area covers 13,000 m2 and consists of a central area, 3 adjoining grounds, 2 warm-up rooms, 2 paintings and an official stand of 7,000 seats. The press gallery is equipped with 300 desks. It was inaugurated in July 2001 for the final of the Tunisian Cup between CS Hammam-Lif and Étoile du Sahel (1-0). Club Africain and Espérance de Tunis play their major league matches here. Before the construction of this stadium, the Tunis derby used to be played in the 45,000 seat-capacity Stade El Menzah. It is also the stadium of Tunisia national football team since 2001. This stadium has hosted matches of the 2004 African Cup of Nations which was won by the Tunisian team. Ligue de Football Professionnel, which wants to relocate the Trophée des Champions opposing the Olympique de Marseille (OM) to Paris Saint-Germain (PSG), announces that the 2010 edition takes place at the stadium on 28 July 2010; It ended in a draw (0-0) in the presence of 57,000 spectators. === Stade Mustapha Ben Jannet === thumb|244x244px|Stade Mustapha Ben Jannet Stade Mustapha Ben Jannet (Arabic: ملعب مصطفى بن جنات) is a multi-use stadium in Monastir, Tunisia. It is currently used by football team US Monastir, and was used for the 2004 African Cup of Nations. The stadium holds 20,000 people and is sometimes used as a home for the Tunisia national football team. The stadium is named after Mustapha Ben Jannet, a nationalist militant executed by the French guards and having gathered the footballers of Monastir around a football team: US Monastir. The stadium is integrated into the sports complex of the city of Monastir, Tunisia, located a few hundred meters from the city center, which extends over 11 hectares and includes a sports hall, an indoor swimming pool, a tennis complex and various golf courses, training. It hosts the matches of the resident team: US Monastir. Inaugurated in 1958, this stadium with suspended tiers thanks to the technique of "cantilevered ball joint" used by the architect Olivier-Clément Cacoub initially offers a capacity of 3,000 places. Over time, several expansion works were carried out: its capacity was increased in the late 1990s to more than 10,000 places. On the occasion of the organization of the 2004 African Cup of Nations, new works allow to reach a capacity of 20,000 places. == Results == === Before Independence === Season Home Score Away Venue 1923-1924 ES Tunis Club Africain ؟ Club Africain ES Tunis ؟ 1924-1925 The two teams are in different sections 1925-1926 Club Africain ES Tunis ؟ 1926-1927 Club Africain 1 – 1 ES Tunis ؟ ES Tunis 1 – 1 Club Africain ؟ 1927-1928 ES Tunis Club Africain ؟ Club Africain ES Tunis ؟ 1928-1932 The two teams are in different sections 1932-1933 ES Tunis 1 – 1 Club Africain ؟ Club Africain ES Tunis ؟ 1933-1934 ES Tunis Club Africain ؟ Club Africain ES Tunis ؟ 1934-1935 ES Tunis Club Africain ؟ Club Africain 0 – 0 ES Tunis ؟ 1935-1936 Club Africain ES Tunis ؟ ES Tunis Club Africain ؟ 1936-1937 The two teams are in different sections 1937-1938 Club Africain 1 – 1 ES Tunis ؟ ES Tunis 1 – 1 Club Africain ؟ 1938-1939 Club Africain ES Tunis ؟ ES Tunis 1 – 1 Club Africain ؟ 1939-1940 No Competition 1940-1941 1941-1942 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade Chedly Zouiten Club Africain ES Tunis Stade Chedly Zouiten 1945-1944 No Competition 1946-1947 ES Tunis 1 – 1 Club Africain Stade Chedly Zouiten Club Africain 0 – 0 ES Tunis Stade Chedly Zouiten 1947-1948 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade Chedly Zouiten Club Africain ES Tunis Stade Chedly Zouiten 1948-1949 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade Chedly Zouiten ES Tunis Club Africain Stade Chedly Zouiten 1949-1950 ES Tunis 0 – 0 Club Africain Stade Chedly Zouiten Club Africain ES Tunis Stade Chedly Zouiten 1950-1951 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade Chedly Zouiten Club Africain ES Tunis Stade Chedly Zouiten 1951-1952 Club Africain 2 – 2 ES Tunis Stade Chedly Zouiten 1951-1952 No Competition 1952-1953 The two teams are in different sections 1953-1954 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade Chedly Zouiten ES Tunis Club Africain Stade Chedly Zouiten 1954-1955 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade Chedly Zouiten ES Tunis Club Africain Stade Chedly Zouiten === Tunisian League 1 === ==== Tunisian National Championship ==== Season Home Score Away Venue 1955-1956 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade Chedly Zouiten ES Tunis Club Africain Stade Chedly Zouiten 1956-1957 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade Chedly Zouiten Club Africain ES Tunis Stade Chedly Zouiten 1957-1958 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade Chedly Zouiten Club Africain ES Tunis Stade Chedly Zouiten 1958-1959 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade Chedly Zouiten Club Africain ES Tunis Stade Chedly Zouiten 1959-1960 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade Chedly Zouiten Club Africain ES Tunis Stade Chedly Zouiten 1960-1961 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade Chedly Zouiten Club Africain ES Tunis Stade Chedly Zouiten 1961-1962 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade Chedly Zouiten Club Africain ES Tunis Stade Chedly Zouiten 1962-1963 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade Chedly Zouiten Club Africain ES Tunis Stade Chedly Zouiten 1963-1964 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade Chedly Zouiten ES Tunis Club Africain Stade Chedly Zouiten 1964-1965 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade Chedly Zouiten ES Tunis Club Africain Stade Chedly Zouiten 1965-1966 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade Chedly Zouiten Club Africain ES Tunis Stade Chedly Zouiten 1966-1967 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1967-1968 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1968-1969 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1969-1970 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1970-1971 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1971-1972 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1972-1973 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1973-1974 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1974-1975 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1975-1976 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1976-1977 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah 1977-1978 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah 1978-1979 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah 1979-1980 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah 1980-1981 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah 1981-1982 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1982-1983 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah 1983-1984 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah 1984-1985 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1985-1986 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1986-1987 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1987-1988 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1988-1989 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1989-1990 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah 1990-1991 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1991-1992 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1992-1993 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1993-1994 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah ==== Tunisian Ligue Professionnelle 1 ==== # Date Home team Score Away team Goals (home) Goals (away) Venue 77 20 November 1994 Espérance de Tunis 4 – 0 Club Africain Berkhissa , Hamrouni , Thabet — Stade Olympique d'El Menzah 78 1995 Club Africain 1 – 1 Espérance de Tunis Stade Olympique d'El Menzah 79 1995 Espérance de Tunis 1 – 1 Club Africain Stade Olympique d'El Menzah 80 1996 Club Africain 0 – 0 Espérance de Tunis — — Stade Olympique d'El Menzah 81 1996 Espérance de Tunis 1 – 0 Club Africain — Stade Olympique d'El Menzah 82 13 April 1997 Club Africain 0 – 2 Espérance de Tunis — Jaïdi , Laaroussi Stade Olympique d'El Menzah 83 1997 Club Africain 1 – 1 Espérance de Tunis Stade Olympique d'El Menzah 84 1998 Espérance de Tunis 1 – 2 Club Africain Stade Olympique d'El Menzah 85 1998 Club Africain 0 – 1 Espérance de Tunis — Stade Olympique d'El Menzah 86 23 May 1999 Espérance de Tunis 4 – 0 Club Africain Agoye , Thabet , Zitouni — Stade Olympique d'El Menzah 87 1999 Espérance de Tunis 4 – 0 Club Africain — Stade Olympique d'El Menzah 88 20 May 2000 Club Africain 1 – 2 Espérance de Tunis Zitoun Badra , Zitouni Stade Olympique d'El Menzah 89 2000 Espérance de Tunis 2 – 0 Club Africain — Stade Olympique d'El Menzah 90 2001 Club Africain 1 – 1 Espérance de Tunis Stade Olympique d'El Menzah 91 25 November 2001 Espérance de Tunis 3 – 0 Club Africain Traoré , Reinaldo Aleluia — Stade Olympique d'El Menzah 92 17 March 2002 Club Africain 1 – 2 Espérance de Tunis Badara Melki , Zaâlani Stade Olympique de Radès 93 15 December 2002 Espérance de Tunis 2 – 0 Club Africain Traoré — Stade Olympique de Radès 94 2003 Club Africain 0 – 1 Espérance de Tunis — Stade Olympique de Radès 95 2003 Espérance de Tunis 0 – 0 Club Africain — — Stade Olympique de Radès 96 2004 Club Africain 1 – 1 Espérance de Tunis Stade Olympique de Radès 97 2004 Espérance de Tunis 1 – 1 Club Africain Stade Olympique de Radès 98 17 April 2005 Club Africain 2 – 2 Espérance de Tunis Traoré , Chaâbani Chaâbani , Kasdaoui Stade Olympique de Radès 99 25 September 2005 Espérance de Tunis 2 – 0 Club Africain Jabeur , Ltaïef — Stade Olympique de Radès 100 2006 Club Africain 1 – 2 Espérance de Tunis Stade Olympique de Radès 101 2006 Espérance de Tunis 1 – 1 Club Africain Stade Olympique de Radès 102 20 January 2007 Club Africain 1 – 0 Espérance de Tunis Pokong — Stade Olympique de Radès 103 2007 Club Africain 1 – 0 Espérance de Tunis — Stade Olympique de Radès 104 2008 Espérance de Tunis 0 – 1 Club Africain — Stade Olympique de Radès 105 9 November 2008 Espérance de Tunis 2 – 2 Club Africain Eneramo , Darragi Tchalla Stade Olympique de Radès 106 1 March 2009 Club Africain 3 – 0 Espérance de Tunis Z. Dhaouadi , Sellami — Stade Olympique de Radès 107 5 December 2009 Espérance de Tunis 1 – 1 Club Africain Bienvenu Amri Stade Olympique de Radès 108 1 May 2010 Club Africain 0 – 0 Espérance de Tunis — — Stade Olympique de Radès 109 21 November 2010 Club Africain 2 – 2 Espérance de Tunis Z. Dhaouadi , Aouadhi Eneramo , Hichri Stade Olympique de Radès 110 26 June 2011 Espérance de Tunis 2 – 1 Club Africain Darragi , Msakni Ben Yahia Stade Olympique de Radès 111 11 April 2012 Club Africain 1 – 2 Espérance de Tunis N'Douassel Msakni , Aouadhi Stade Olympique de Radès 112 26 September 2012 Espérance de Tunis 3 – 2 Club Africain Msakni , N'Djeng Zitouni , Jaziri Stade Olympique de Radès 113 15 December 2012 Club Africain 2 – 1 Espérance de Tunis Hedhli , Djabou N'Djeng Stade Olympique de Radès 114 31 March 2013 Espérance de Tunis 3 – 1 Club Africain Afful , C. Dhaouadi , Belaïli Ifa Stade Olympique de Radès 115 30 November 2013 Club Africain 2 – 0 Espérance de Tunis Z. Dhaouadi — Stade Olympique de Radès 116 16 March 2014 Espérance de Tunis 2 – 0 Club Africain C. Dhaouadi , Jouini — Stade Olympique de Radès 117 24 December 2014 Espérance de Tunis 2 – 2 Club Africain N'Djeng Djabou , Belaïd Stade Olympique de Radès 118 12 May 2015 Club Africain 1 – 0 Espérance de Tunis Miniaoui — Stade Olympique de Radès 119 14 October 2015 Club Africain 0 – 2 Espérance de Tunis — Ben Youssef , Mhirsi Stade Olympique de Radès 120 3 April 2016 Espérance de Tunis 2 – 1 Club Africain C. Dhaouadi , Jouini Ayadi Stade Olympique de Radès 121 30 October 2016 Espérance de Tunis 1 – 1 Club Africain Badri Chenihi Stade Olympique de Radès 122 9 February 2017 Club Africain 1 – 0 Espérance de Tunis Khalifa — Stade Olympique de Radès 123 1 March 2017 Espérance de Tunis 2 – 1 Club Africain Bguir , Badri Chenihi Stade Olympique de Radès 124 30 April 2017 Club Africain 0 – 2 Espérance de Tunis — Khenissi , Ben Youssef Stade Olympique de Radès 125 3 December 2017 Espérance de Tunis 1 – 0 Club Africain Sassi — Stade Olympique de Radès 126 18 February 2018 Club Africain 2 – 1 Espérance de Tunis Ben Yahia , Belaïd Ben-Hatira Stade Olympique de Radès 127 6 January 2019 Espérance de Tunis 2 – 1 Club Africain Khenissi Chamakhi Stade Mustapha Ben Jannet 128 9 June 2019 Club Africain 2 – 1 Espérance de Tunis Chamakhi , Haddad Bguir Stade Olympique de Radès 129 19 January 2020 Espérance de Tunis 2 – 1 Club Africain Khenissi , Coulibaly Jaziri Stade Olympique de Radès 130 26 August 2020 Club Africain 0 – 0 Espérance de Tunis — — Stade Hammadi Agrebi 131 31 January 2021 Espérance de Tunis 1 – 0 Club Africain Badri — Stade Hammadi Agrebi 132 5 May 2021 Club Africain 1 – 1 Espérance de Tunis Chamakhi Ben Romdhane Stade Hammadi Agrebi 133 8 May 2022 Club Africain 0 – 0 Espérance de Tunis — — Stade Hammadi Agrebi 134 19 June 2022 Espérance de Tunis 3 – 1 Club Africain Tougai , Coulibaly , Elhouni Dhaouadi Stade Hammadi Agrebi 135 7 May 2023 Club Africain 1 – 0 Espérance de Tunis H. Labidi — Stade Hammadi Agrebi 136 27 June 2023 Espérance de Tunis 0 – 0 Club Africain — — Stade Hammadi Agrebi ===Tunisian Cup results=== Season Round Home Score Away Venue 1965 Round of 8 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade Chedly Zouiten 1966 Round of 8 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade Chedly Zouiten 1966 Round of 8 (R) Club Africain ES Tunis Stade Chedly Zouiten 1967 Quarter-finals ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1967 Quarter-finals (R) Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah 1969 Final Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah 1970 Round of 8 ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1970 Round of 8 (R) Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah 1976 Final ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1976 Final (R) Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah 1980 Final ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1983 Quarter-finals Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah 1986 Final ES Tunis ( p) Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1989 Final ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1992 Round of 8 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah 1996 Quarter- finals ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1998 Semi-finals Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah 1999 Final ES Tunis Club Africain Stade El Menzah 2005 Semi-finals ES Tunis Club Africain Stade de Radès 2006 Final ES Tunis ( p) Club Africain Stade de Radès 2008 Round of 16 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade de Radès 2016 Final Club Africain ES Tunis Stade de Radès === Tunisian Super Cup results === Season Home Score Away Venue 1970 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah 1979 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade El Menzah === Tunisian League Cup results === Season Home Score Away Venue 2007 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade de Radès 2007 Club Africain ES Tunis Stade de Radès ==Statistics== Competition Matches Wins Draws Goals Espérance de Tunis Club Africain ES Tunis Club Africain Tunisian Ligue 1 135 54 31 50 161 122 Tunisian Cup 22 9 9 4 22 21 Tunisian Super Cup 2 0 2 0 0 2 Tunisian League Cup 2 2 0 0 4 1 Total 161 65 42 54 187 146 ===Top scorers=== # Hassen Bayou (Club Africain): 9 goals # Chedly Laaouini and Abdeljabar Machouche (Espérance de Tunis): 7 goals # Hedi Bayari and Zouheir Dhaouadi (Club Africain): 6 goals # Mohamed Salah Jedidi (Club Africain) and Ayadi Hamrouni (Espérance de Tunis): 5 goals ===Participations=== #Tarak Dhiab (ES Tunis): 29 derbies #Sadok Sassi (Club Africain) and Khaled Ben Yahia (ES Tunis): 27 derbies #Nabil Maâloul (ES Tunis Club Africain): 26 derbies (24 with ES Tunis and 2 with Club Africain) #Chokri El Ouaer (ES Tunis): 24 derbies ==Tnisian Ligue Professionnelle 1 results== Season 55–56 56–57 57–58 58–59 59–60 60–61 61–62 62–63 63–64 64–65 65–66 66–67 67–68 68–69 69–70 70–71 71–72 72–73 73–74 74–75 75–76 76–77 77–78 78–79 EST 4 2 2 1 1 2 3 10 2 6 5 2 7 6 1 9 3 2 1 1 7 6 4 CA 3 4 6 5 3 8 4 5 1 2 6 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 3 2 2 1 Season 79–80 80–81 81–82 82–83 83–84 84–85 85–86 86–87 87–88 88–89 89–90 90–91 91–92 92–93 93–94 94–95 95–96 96–97 97–98 98–99 99–00 00–01 01–02 02–03 EST 2 3 1 3 5 1 2 3 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 CA 1 2 2 2 4 2 3 2 3 2 1 2 1 5 3 4 1 5 2 6 5 3 3 3 Season 03–04 04–05 05–06 06–07 07–08 08–09 09–10 10–11 11–12 12–13 13–14 14–15 15–16 16–17 17–18 18–19 19–20 20–21 21–22 EST 1 4 1 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 CA 3 3 2 2 1 2 2 4 6 4 4 1 6 3 2 5 5 7 4 == One club to another == Due to intense rivalry between the two clubs, few players have dared to play for both the African Club and Esperance Tunis during their career. Apart from Mohamed Bachtobji, Mohamed Ali Yaakoubi and Ali Abdi, all the others have passed through other clubs, whether in Tunisia or abroad, before playing with the Club Africain or Espérance sportive de Tunis. === Club Africain then Espérance de Tunis === thumb|229x229px|Seifeddine Akremi * Ahmed Akaichi * Mohamed Bachtobji * Borhene Ghannem * Walid Hichri * Dramane Traore * Khaled Mouelhi * Karim Aouadhi * Riadh Jelassi * Seifeddine Akremi * Mohamed Ali Yacoubi * Hicham Belkaroui * Farouk Ben Mustapha * Rached Arfaoui === Espérance de Tunis then Club Africain === * Slama Kasdaoui * Anis Amri * Khaled Korbi * Nabil Maâloul * Mohamed Torkhani * Skander Sheikh * Foued Slama * Saber Khalifa * Ali Abdi * Oussama Darragi == Arbitration == Fathi Bouseta is the most governing referee for Derby with six meetings. In 1995, after the referee took out four red cards, the match was halted in the 70th minute by Esperance (4-0). * Tunisian refereeing crew: 88 matches * Foreign referee: 31 matches == Popular culture == The Tunis derby has a huge fan base in Tunisia, especially in the capital and the Greater Tunis region. The derby match has been under preparation for several weeks in order to prepare flags and inputs, which are represented in giant calligraphic images. Before the Tunisian revolution, derby matches were supported by the fans of the two teams during the revolution. 2016 Both fans were invited to the match and it was one of the greatest derby matches in Tunisian football history. == Honors == Club Africain Championship Espérance de Tunis Official International (Official) 1 CAF Champions League 4 – FIFA Club World Cup – – CAF Confederation Cup – – CAF Super Cup 1 – CAF Cup (Defunct) 1 – African Cup Winners' Cup (Defunct) 1 1 Afro-Asian Club Championship (Defunct) 1 2 Aggregate 8 Domestic (Official) 13 Tunisian Ligue Professionnelle 1 32 13 Tunisian Cup 15 3 Tunisian Super Cup 6 – League Cup (Defunct) – 29 Aggregate 53 International (Defunct and Non-official) 3 Maghreb Champions Cup (Defunct) – 1 Maghreb Cup Winners Cup (Defunct) – 4 Aggregate 0 International (Non-official) 1 Arab Champions League 3 1 Arab Cup Winners' Cup (Defunct) – – Arab Super Cup (Defunct) 1 2 Aggregate 4 37 Total Aggregate 65 ==Notes== == References == Category:Football rivalries in Tunisia Category:Espérance Sportive de Tunis Category:Club Africain |
The apportionment of seats within the European Parliament to each member state of the European Union is set out by the EU treaties. According to European Union treaties, the distribution of seats is "degressively proportional" to the population of the member states, with negotiations and agreements between member states playing a role. [PDF file] Thus the allocation of seats is not strictly proportional to the size of a state's population, nor does it reflect any other automatically triggered or fixed mathematical formula. The process can be compared to the composition of the electoral college used to elect the President of the United States of America in that, pro rata, the smaller state received more places in the electoral college than the more populous states. Since the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the EU in 2020, the number of MEPs, including the president, is 705. The maximum number allowed by the Lisbon Treaty is 751. ==Background== When the Parliament was established in 1952 as the 78-member "Common Assembly of the European Coal and Steel Community" the then-three smaller states (Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands) were concerned about being under-represented and hence they were granted more seats than their population would have allowed. Membership increased to 142 with the Assembly expanded to cover the Economic and Atomic Energy Communities. It then grew further with each enlargement, which each time allowing smaller nations to have greater proportion of seats relative to larger states. Membership reached 626 in 1995 with the Treaty of Amsterdam setting a limit of 700. The Treaty of Nice increased this to 732 and set out the future distribution for up to 27 states. In 2007 Romania and Bulgaria joined with 35 and 18 members respectively temporarily pushing the number of members over the ceiling to 785. In 2009 the number of members decreased to 736. In December 2011 an amendment had temporarily increased the Lisbon limit to 754. This allowed member states who gained seats under Lisbon to take them before the 2014 election, while allowing Germany which lost seats under Lisbon to retain them until the 2014 election. In July 2013, the European Parliament had 766 members (MEPs). This included three legacy members from Germany serving until the end of their term and twelve new members from Croatia who joined the Union on 1 July 2013. After the 2020 withdrawal, 46 of the United Kingdom's 73 European Parliament seats became unallocated, reducing the total number of MEPs in Brussels down to 705. The remaining 27 seats were redistributed among some of the remaining member states that were judged to have less adequate proportion. ;; Relative influence of voters from different EU member states (2022) Member state Population MEPs Inhabitants per MEP InfluenceIt's based on the medium value 633,843 Inhabitants/MEPs. Formula: {633,843 \over (Inhabitants/MEPs)_{Memberstate}} 8,978,929 19 472,575 1,34 11,617,623 21 553,220 1,15 6,838,937 17 402,290 1,58 3,862,305 12 321,859 1,97 904,705 6 150,784 4,20 10,516,707 21 500,796 1,27 5,873,420 14 419,530 1,51 1,331,796 7 190,257 3,33 5,548,241 14 396,303 1,60 67,871,925 79 859,138 0,74 83,237,124 96 867,053 0,73 10,459,782 21 498,085 1,27 9,689,010 21 461,381 1,37 5,060,004 13 389,231 1,63 59,030,133 76 776,712 0,82 1,875,757 8 234,470 2,70 2,805,998 11 255,091 2,48 645,397 6 107,566 5,89 520,971 6 86,829 7,30 17,590,672 29 606,575 1,04 37,654,247 52 724,120 0,88 10,352,042 21 492,954 1,29 19,042,455 33 577,044 1,10 5,434,712 14 388,194 1,63 2,107,180 8 263,398 2,41 47,432,893 59 803,947 0,79 10,452,326 21 497,730 1,27 446,735,291 705 633,667 1.00 ==Nice system== The 2009 European parliamentary elections were conducted under the rules included in the Nice Treaty which provided for a maximum number of 736, although that figure had been breached on the accession of new members to the EU, these states being allowed parliamentary representation without a corresponding reduction in the number of MEPs allotted to other member states. This happened in 2007 on the accession of Romania and Bulgaria, when the number of seats temporarily increased to 785. It subsequently returned to 736 in the 2009 election. A total of 736 seats for about 500 million EU citizens meant that there were on average 670,000 citizens represented by each MEP. Some states divide the electorate for their allocated MEPs into sub-national constituencies. However, they may not be divided in such a way that the system would no longer be proportional. right|thumb|400px|Number of seats plotted against the population of each State (Nice 2007) ==Lisbon system== Under the Lisbon Treaty, which first applied to the 2014 Parliament elections, the cap on the number of seats was raised to 750, with a maximum of 96 and a minimum of 6 seats per state. They continue to be distributed "degressively proportional" to the populations of the EU's member states. Germany lost three seats, while Spain gained four. France, Sweden and Austria gained two seats each and eight other countries each gained one seat. Following the accession of Croatia on 1 July 2013 with 12 extra seats, the apportionment was amended for the 2014 elections, when 12 countries lost one seat (including Croatia itself). There was controversy over the fact that the population figures are based on residents, not citizens, resulting in countries with larger disenfranchised immigrant populations gaining more under Lisbon than those with smaller ones. Italy would have been the greatest loser under the Lisbon system and sought the same number of MEPs as France and the United Kingdom. Italy raised the issue during treaty negotiations and succeeded in gaining one extra MEP (giving it the same as the UK) while the President of the European Parliament would not be counted as a lawmaker hence keeping the number of MEPs to the 750-seat limit. MEPs also intended to propose amendments well in advance of the 2014 elections to take account of demographic changes. It was hoped that this would avoid the political horse trading that occurs when the numbers need to be revised. On 13 March 2013 the European Parliament voted a new proposal updating seat assignments per country for 2014, taking into account demographic changes and bringing the total number of seats back to the nominal 751 enshrined in the Lisbon Treaty. The same document suggests the creation of a formal process "based on objective criteria to be applied in a pragmatic manner" for apportioning seats in future elections. ==2011 amendment== The 2011 apportionment of members in the European Parliament reflects an amendment to the Lisbon Treaty which came into force on 1 December 2011. This amendment, in effect, institutes a transitional manner of distributing MEPs to take account of the fact that the 2009 European Parliamentary elections took place under the rules contained in the Nice Treaty and not in the Lisbon Treaty. That result means that member state that are to gain seats in parliament under the Lisbon rules may take them, but that Germany which loses three seats under the Lisbon rules keeps those seats until the next elections, due in 2014.Protocol Amending the Protocol on Transitional Provisions annexed to the Treaty on European Union, to the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union and to the Treaty Establishing the European Atomic Energy Community (OJ 29.9.2010, C 263, p. 1). As a result, Germany temporarily exceeds the maximum number of MEPs allocatable to a member state under the Lisbon Treaty by having 99 MEPs, three above the intended limit. == Changes in membership == State Joined Population 2006 Population 2017 Sep 1952 Mar 1957 Jan 1973 Jun 1979 Jan 1981 Jan 1986 Jun 1994 Jan 1995 May 2004 Jun 2004 Jan 2007 Jun 2009 Dec 2011 Jul 2013 Jun 2014 Feb 2020 1951 82,428,000 82,521,653 18 36 36 81 81 81 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 96 96 1951 62,886,000 66,989,083 18 36 36 81 81 81 87 87 87 78 78 72 74 74 74 79 1973 60,422,000 65,808,573 36 81 81 81 87 87 87 78 78 72 73 73 73 1951 58,752,000 60,589,445 18 36 36 81 81 81 87 87 87 78 78 72 73 73 73 76 1986 43,758,000 46,528,024 60 64 64 64 54 54 50 54 54 54 59 2004 38,157,000 37,972,964 54 54 54 50 51 51 51 52 2007 21,610,000 19,644,350 35 33 33 33 32 33 1951 16,334,000 17,081,507 10 14 14 25 25 25 31 31 31 27 27 25 26 26 26 29 1951 10,511,000 11,351,727 10 14 14 24 24 24 25 25 25 24 24 22 22 22 21 21 1981 11,125,000 10,768,193 24 24 25 25 25 24 24 22 22 22 21 21 2004 10,251,000 10,578,820 24 24 24 22 22 22 21 21 1986 10,570,000 10,309,573 24 25 25 25 24 24 22 22 22 21 21 1995 9,048,000 9,995,153 22 22 19 19 18 20 20 20 21 2004 10,077,000 9,797,561 24 24 24 22 22 22 21 21 1995 8,266,000 8,772,865 21 21 18 18 17 19 19 18 19 2007 7,719,000 7,101,859 18 17 18 18 17 17 1973 5,428,000 5,748,769 10 16 16 16 16 16 16 14 14 13 13 13 13 14 1995 5,256,000 5,503,297 16 16 14 14 13 13 13 13 14 2004 5,389,000 5,435,343 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 14 1973 4,209,000 4,784,383 10 15 15 15 15 15 15 13 13 12 12 12 11 13 2013 4,443,000 4,154,213 12 11 12 2004 3,403,000 2,847,904 13 13 13 12 12 12 11 11 2004 2,003,000 2,065,895 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 2004 2,295,000 1,950,116 9 9 9 8 9 9 8 8 2004 1,344,000 1,315,635 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 2004 766,000 854,802 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 1951 460,000 590,667 4 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 2004 404,000 460,297 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 Total Total 494,070,000 511,522,671 78 142 198 410 434 518 567 626 788 732 785 736 754 766 751 705 Source for MEP figures 1952–2004: European Navigator. Source for population figures and MEP figures for 2007 and 2009: European Parliament, full population figures . December 2011 figures reflect the members added to the European Parliament by the Protocol Amending the Protocol on Transitional Provisions (OJ 29.9.2010, C 263, p. 1) which came into force on 1 December 2011. Figures for 2019 follow parliamentary decision of February 2018. ==2014 amendment== From October 2008,Euractiv, MEP: 'Radical' electoral reform 'badly needed' for 2014 13 October 2008 MEP Andrew Duff (ALDE, UK) has advocated within the European Parliament for a reform of EU electoral law for the 2014 elections, including the creation of a single constituency of 25 seats in which each European citizen would be entitled to vote on the basis of pan- European lists. He has been nominated rapporteur, as the European Parliament has the right of initiative in this field ruled by unanimity in the Council. After the 2009 election, Duff proposed a new version of his report,Europolitics, Célia Sampol, European elections: Andrew Duff proposes creation of transnational list 26 April 2010 which was adopted by the parliamentary Committee on Constitutional Affairs (AFCO) in April 2011. However, the plenary session of the Parliament referred the report back to the AFCO committee in July 2011. A third version of the reportLegislative observatory of the European Parliament, Procedure files on the Proposal for a modification of the Act concerning the election of the Members of the European Parliament by direct universal suffrage of 20 September 1976 was published in September 2011 and adopted by the AFCO committee in January 2012, but was withdrawn before being discussed in plenary in March 2012 for fear that it would likely be turned down. thumb|Number of seats in EP 2014–2019 versus number of inhabitants, showing difference with proportionality. Apportionment in the European Parliament Constituency 2007 2009 Dec. 2011Amendments to the protocol on transitional provisions annexed to the EU treaties ratified on 1 December 2011, according to the European Parliament Press release on the ratification of Parliament's 18 additional MEPs, 1 December 2011 1 July 2013Accession of Croatia to the EU in compliance with the Treaty concerning the accession of the Republic of Croatia signed on 9 December 2011 A. Duff's 1st prop. for 2014First proposal by Member of European Parliament Andrew Duff in his draft report entitled Proposal for a modification of the Act concerning the election of the Members of the European Parliament by direct universal suffrage of 20 September 1976, published on 4 November 2010Report of the European Parliament staff, The allocation between the EU member states of seats in the European Parliament – Cambridge Compromise March 2011 A. Duff's 2nd prop.Euractiv, Countries set to lose MEPs as their population shrinks, 11 September 2012 European Council Decision 2014Official Journal of the European Union, 2013/312/EU: European Council Decision of 28 June 2013 establishing the composition of the European Parliament, 28 June 2013 Population in 2013Eurostat, as of 1 January 2013; numbers in italic are provisional. Population per MEPs 2014 2019 2024 Pan-European – – – – 25 – – – – – – 99 99 99 99 96 96 96 96 96 80,523,746 838,789 78 72 74 74 83 79 83 83 74 65,633,194 886,935 78 72 73 73 80 76 79 80 73 63,896,071 875,289 78 72 73 73 78 75 78 78 73 59,685,227 817,606 54 50 54 54 61 58 61 61 54 46,704,308 864,895 54 50 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 38,533,299 755,555 35 33 33 33 31 31 31 31 32 20,020,074 625,627 27 25 26 26 25 25 25 25 26 16,779,575 645,368 24 22 22 22 18 20 19 19 21 11,161,642 531,507 24 22 22 22 19 20 19 19 21 11,062,508 526,786 24 22 22 22 18 20 18 18 21 10,516,125 500,768 24 22 22 22 18 20 18 18 21 10,487,289 499,395 24 22 22 22 17 20 18 17 21 9,908,798 471,848 19 18 20 20 17 18 17 17 20 9,555,893 477,795 18 17 19 19 16 17 16 16 18 8,451,860 469,548 18 17 18 18 15 16 14 14 17 7,284,552 428,503 14 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 13 5,602,628 430,971 14 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 13 5,426,674 417,436 14 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 13 5,410,836 416,218 13 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 11 4,591,087 417,372 — — — 12 11 11 11 11 11 4,262,140 387,467 13 12 12 12 9 10 9 9 11 2,971,905 270,173 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 2,058,821 257,353 9 8 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 2,023,825 252,978 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 6 1,324,814 220,802 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 865,878 144,313 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 537,039 89,507 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 421,364 70,227 total 785 736 754 766 776 751 751 751 751 505,701,172 673,370 ==2019 election== The EU needed to revise the apportionment of seats in time for the next European Parliament election, expected to be held in May 2019, when the United Kingdom's 73 MEPs may have vacated their seats following Brexit. In April 2017, a group of European lawmakers discussed what should be done about the vacated seats. One plan, supported by Enrico Letta, Gianni Pittella and Emmanuel Macron, was to replace the 73 seats with a pan-European constituency list. Other options which were considered include dropping the British seats without replacement and reassigning some or all of the existing seats from other countries to reduce inequality of representation. A plan to reduce the number of seats to 705 was approved by the Parliament in February 2018. It involves redistributing 27 seats to under-represented members and reserving the remaining 46 for future EU expansions. A proposal by the Constitutional Affairs Committee to create a pan-member constituency was rejected by the Parliament at the same time. The proposed redistribution did not occur due to the Brexit extension until 31 October, and the allocation used was the same as in 2014. After Brexit took legal effect, the seat distribution was decided by the European Council. Those countries which were allocated additional seats elected MEPs who only took office after Brexit had taken effect. Apportionment in the European Parliament Country 2007 2009 Dec. 2011Amendments to the protocol on transitional provisions annexed to the EU treaties ratified on 1 December 2011, according to the European Parliament Press release on the ratification of Parliament's 18 additional MEPs, 1 December 2011 July 2013 2014 Proposals for 2019 after the removal of UK seats"Is Brexit an opportunity to reform the European Parliament?" [pdf] Proposals for 2019 after the removal of UK seats"Is Brexit an opportunity to reform the European Parliament?" [pdf] Proposals for 2019 after the removal of UK seats"Is Brexit an opportunity to reform the European Parliament?" [pdf] Proposals for 2019 after the removal of UK seats"Is Brexit an opportunity to reform the European Parliament?" [pdf] Population Population Country 2007 2009 Dec. 2011Amendments to the protocol on transitional provisions annexed to the EU treaties ratified on 1 December 2011, according to the European Parliament Press release on the ratification of Parliament's 18 additional MEPs, 1 December 2011 July 2013 2014 Cambridge Compromise Cambridge Compromise Decision (Feb 2018) Change from 2014 2017 Thousands per MEP Country 2007 2009 Dec. 2011Amendments to the protocol on transitional provisions annexed to the EU treaties ratified on 1 December 2011, according to the European Parliament Press release on the ratification of Parliament's 18 additional MEPs, 1 December 2011 July 2013 2014 Minimizing Gini Minimizing malapportionment Decision (Feb 2018) Change from 2014 2017 Thousands per MEP 99 99 99 99 96 96 96 96 82,521,653 78 72 74 74 74 79 96 79 +5 66,989,083 78 72 73 73 73 – – – -73 – – 78 72 73 73 73 73 89 76 +3 60,589,445 54 50 54 54 54 57 70 59 +5 46,528,024 54 50 51 51 51 47 58 52 +1 37,972,964 35 33 33 33 32 27 33 33 +1 19,644,350 27 25 26 26 26 24 29 29 +3 17,081,507 24 22 22 22 21 18 21 21 11,351,727 24 22 22 22 21 17 20 21 10,768,193 24 22 22 22 21 17 20 21 10,578,820 24 22 22 22 21 16 19 21 9,797,561 24 22 22 22 21 17 20 21 10,309,573 19 18 20 20 20 16 19 21 +1 9,995,153 18 17 19 19 18 15 18 19 +1 8,772,865 18 17 18 18 17 13 15 17 7,101,859 14 13 13 13 13 12 13 14 +1 5,748,769 14 13 13 13 13 12 13 14 +1 5,503,297 14 13 13 13 13 12 13 14 +1 5,435,343 13 12 12 12 11 11 12 13 +2 4,784,383 – – – 12 11 10 11 12 +1 4,154,213 13 12 12 12 11 9 9 11 2,847,904 9 8 9 9 8 8 8 8 1,950,116 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 2,065,895 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 +1 1,315,635 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 6 854,802 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 590,667 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 460,297 Total 785 736 754 766 751 639 736 705 –46 445,714,098 ==2024 election== In February 2023, the AFCO committee of the European Parliament released a draft report (whose rapporteurs are Lóránt Vincze and Sandro Gozi) on the necessary changes to the composition of the European Parliament in order to respect the principle of degressive proportionality (enshrined in the TEU). The draft report suggested a new apportionnement which aimed at respecting the degressive proportionality while also resulting in no loss of seats for any Member State, therefore leading to an expansion in the number of MEPs, from 705 to 716. On 12 June 2023, the report was approved by the AFCO committee, with the apportionment being unchanged compared to the draft report. On 15 June 2023 the report was approved by the EP plenary. Member state Population MEPs ratio population/seats New allocation of seats Change from 2022 New ratio population/seats 83,203,320 96 866,701 96 866,701 67,842,582 79 858,767 79 858,767 59,607,184 76 784,305 76 784,305 47,432,805 59 803,946 61 +2 777,587 37,654,247 52 724,120 52 724,120 19,038,098 33 576,912 33 576,912 17,734,036 29 611,518 31 +2 572,066 11,631,136 21 553,864 21 553,864 10,603,810 21 504,943 21 504,943 10,545,457 21 502,165 21 502,165 10,440,000 21 497,143 21 497,143 10,352,042 21 492,954 21 492,954 9,689,010 21 461,381 21 461,381 8,967,500 19 471,974 20 +1 448,375 6,838,937 17 402,290 17 402,290 5,864,667 14 418,905 15 +1 390,978 5,541,241 14 395,803 15 +1 369,416 5,434,712 14 388,194 15 +1 362,314 5,060,004 13 389,231 14 +1 361,429 3,862,305 12 321,859 12 321,859 2,805,998 11 255,091 11 255,091 2,107,180 8 263,398 9 +1 234,131 1,875,757 8 234,470 9 +1 208,417 1,331,796 7 190,257 7 190,257 904,700 6 150,784 6 150,784 643,648 6 107,275 6 107,275 520,971 6 86,829 6 86,829 447,533,143 705 634,799 716 +11 625,046 Degressive proportionality breached. ==See also== * United States congressional apportionment ==References== Category:European Parliament apportionment Category:Numbering in politics |
Port Jervis is a city located at the confluence of the Neversink and Delaware rivers in western Orange County, New York, United States, north of the Delaware Water Gap. Its population was 8,775 at the 2020 census. The communities of Deerpark, Huguenot, Sparrowbush, and Greenville are adjacent to Port Jervis. Matamoras, Pennsylvania, is across the river and connected by the Mid-Delaware Bridge. Montague Township, New Jersey, also borders the city. The Tri-States Monument, marking the tripoint between New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, lies at the southwestern corner of the city. Port Jervis was part of early industrial history, a point for shipping coal to major markets to the southeast by canal and later by railroads. Its residents had long- distance passenger service by railroad until 1970. The restructuring of railroads resulted in a decline in the city's business and economy. In the 21st century, from late spring to early fall, many thousands of travelers and tourists pass through Port Jervis on their way to enjoying rafting, kayaking, canoeing and other activities in the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area and the Upper Delaware Scenic and Recreational River and the surrounding area. Port Jervis is part of the Poughkeepsie–Newburgh–Middletown metropolitan area as well as the larger New York metropolitan area. In August 2008, Port Jervis was named one of "Ten Coolest Small Towns" by Budget Travel magazine.Harrison, Karen Tina. "10 Coolest Small Towns: Port Jervis" . Budget Travel. (September 2008). Retrieved January 13, 2011. == History == The first fully developed European settlement in the area was established by Dutch and English colonists c.1690, and a land grant of was formalized on October 14, 1697. The settlement was originally known as Mahackamack, after a Lenape word. It was raided and burned in 1779 during the American Revolutionary War, by British and Mohawk forces under the command of Mohawk leader Joseph Brant before the Battle of Minisink. Over the next two decades, residents rebuilt the settlement. They developed more roadways to better connect Mahackamack with the eastern parts of Orange County. After the Delaware and Hudson Canal was opened in 1828, providing transportation of coal from northeastern Pennsylvania to New York and New England via the Hudson River, trade attracted money and further development to the area."D&H; Canal & Gravity Railroad", Minisink Valley Historical Society A village was incorporated on May 11, 1853. It was renamed as Port Jervis in the mid-19th century, after John Bloomfield Jervis, chief engineer of the D&H; Canal. Port Jervis grew steadily into the 1900s, and on July 26, 1907, it became a city. ===Coming of the railroad=== The first rail line to run through Port Jervis was the New York & Erie Railroad, which in 1832 was chartered to run from Piermont, New York, on the Hudson River in Rockland County, to Lake Erie. Ground was broken in 1835, but construction was delayed by a nationwide financial panic, and did not start again until 1838. The line was completed in 1851, and the first passenger train - with President Millard Fillmore and former United States Senator Daniel Webster on board - came through the city on May 14. The railroad went through a number of name changes, becoming the Erie Railroad in 1897."Railroads of Port Jervis". Minisink Valley Historical Society website A second railroad, the Port Jervis and Monticello Railroad, later leased to the New York, Ontario and Western Railway (O&W;), opened in 1868, running northeast out of the city, and eventually connecting to Kingston, New York, Weehawken, New Jersey and eastern connections. Like the D&H; Canal, the railroads brought new prosperity to Port Jervis in the form of increased trade and investment in the community from the outside. However, the competition by the railroad, which could deliver products faster, hastened the decline of the canal, which ceased operation in 1898. The railroads were the basis of the city's economy for the coming decades. Port Jervis became Erie's division center between Jersey City, New Jersey and Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, and by 1922, 20 passenger trains went through the city every day. More than 2,500 Erie RR employees made their homes there. The railroads began to decline after the Great Depression."Port Jervis and the Gilded Age", Minisink Valley Historical Society A shift in transportation accelerated after World War II with the federal subsidy of the Interstate Highway System and increased competition from trucking companies. One of the first Class I railroads to shut down was the O&W;, on March 29, 1957, leaving Port Jervis totally reliant on the Erie. A few years later, in 1960, the Erie, also on a shaky financial footing, merged with Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad to become the Erie Lackawanna. Railroad restructuring continued and in 1976, the Erie Lackawana became part of Conrail, along with a number of other struggling railroads, such as the Penn Central. Since the breakup of Conrail, the trackage around Port Jervis has been controlled by Norfolk Southern. The decline of the railroads was an economic blow to Port Jervis. The city has struggled to find a new economic basis. ===Racial incidents=== On June 2, 1892, Robert Lewis, an African American, was lynched, hanged on Main Street in Port Jervis by a mob after being accused of participation in an assault on a white woman.https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1025&context;=ho_pubs A grand jury indicted nine people for assault and rioting rather than Lewis's lynching. Some literary critics argue that this event influenced Stephen Crane's 1898 novella The Monster. Crane lived in Port Jervis from 1878 until 1883 and frequently visited the area from 1891 to 1897.Wertheim, Stanley. A Stephen Crane Encyclopedia. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1997. . p. 195 In the mid-1920s some residents in the area formed a Ku Klux Klan chapter, in the period of the KKK's early 20th-century revival. They burned crosses on Point Peter, the mountain peak that overlooks the city. thumb|The parade on July 14, 2007, celebrating the 100th year as a city ===Recent history=== The city's location at the confluence of the Delaware and Neversink rivers has made it subject to occasional flooding. There was flooding during the 1955 Hurricane Diane, and a flood-related rumor started a panic in the population. This incident was studied and a 1958 report issued by the National Research Council: "The Effects of a Threatening Rumor on a Disaster-Stricken Community"."The Effects of a Threatening Rumor on a Disaster-Stricken Community ". National Research Council (NRC). (1958) Retrieved January 13, 2011. In addition to the rivers having flooded during periods of heavy rainfall, at times ice jams have effectively dammed the Delaware, also causing flooding. In 1875 ice floes destroyed the bridge to Matamoras, Pennsylvania. In 1981 a large ice floe resulted in the highest water crest measured to date at the National Weather Service's Matamoras river gauge .Weyandt, Kimberly. "Flooding is old news". The River Reporter (September 30 – October 6, 2004). Retrieved March 5, 2011. However, the NWS' list of "Historical Crests" for the river at Matamoras/Port Jervis shows a peak of in 1904, and no record peak in 1981 at all. ==Geography== Port Jervis is located on the north bank of the Delaware River at the confluence where the Neversink River - the Delaware's largest tributary - empties into the larger river. Port Jervis is connected by the Mid-Delaware Bridge across the Delaware to Matamoras, Pennsylvania. From here the Delaware flows to the southwest, running parallel to Kittatinny Ridge until reaching the Delaware Water Gap. It heads southeastward, continuing past New Hope, Pennsylvania and Lambertville, New Jersey; and the New Jersey capital, Trenton; to Philadelphia, and the Delaware Bay. Port Jervis is also home to the tri-point between New York, Pennsylvania and New Jersey. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and (6.64%) is water. === Climate === Port Jervis has a Humid Continental Climate (Köppen Dfb) with relatively hot summers and cold winters. It revives approximately 47.18 inches (1,198 mm) of precipitation per year, most of which occurs in the late spring in early summer. Extremes range from −26 °F (−32 °C) on January 14, 1912, to 105 °F (40.5 °C) on July 9, 1936. ==Demographics== As of the census of 2000, there were 8,860 people, 3,533 households, and 2,158 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 3,851 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 82.4% White, 8.2% African American, 0.59% Native American, 0.64% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 2.19% from other races, and 2.26% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.5% of the population. There were 3,533 households, out of which 32.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.9% were married couples living together, 15.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.9% were non-families. 32.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.15. thumb|upright|The Deerpark Reformed Church on East Main Street was originally organized in 1737, making it the oldest congregation in the area. The current building dates from 1838.City of Port Jervis historical marker at the church site In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 27.8% under the age of 18, 8.4% from 18 to 24, 28.3% from 25 to 44, 20.3% from 45 to 64, and 15.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.0 males. The median income for a household in the city was $30,241, and the median income for a family was $35,481. Males had a median income of $31,851 versus $22,274 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,525. About 14.2% of families and 15.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 25.5% of those under age 18 and 10.3% of those age 65 or over. == Points of interest == ===State line monuments=== Port Jervis lies near the points where the states of New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania come together. South of the Laurel Grove Cemetery, under the viaduct for Interstate 84, are two monuments marking the boundaries between the three states. The larger monument is a granite pillar inscribed "Witness Monument". It is not on any boundary itself, but instead is a witness for two boundary points. On the north side (New York), it references the corner boundary point between New York and Pennsylvania that is located in the center of the Delaware River due west of the Tri-State Rock. On the south side (New Jersey), it references the Tri- State Rock to the south. The smaller monument, the Tri-States Monument, also known as the Tri-State Rock, marks both the northwest end of the New Jersey and New York boundary and the north end of the New Jersey and Pennsylvania boundary. It is a small granite block with inscribed lines marking the boundaries of the three states and a bronze National Geodetic Survey marker. Both monuments were erected in 1882. == Transportation == US 6, U.S. Route 209, New York State Route 42, and New York State Route 97 (the "Upper Delaware Scenic Byway") pass through Port Jervis. Interstate 84 passes to the south. Port Jervis is the last stop on the Port Jervis Line, which is a commuter railroad service from Hoboken, New Jersey and New York City (via a Secaucus Transfer) that is contracted to NJ Transit by the Metro-North Railroad of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority. The track itself continues on to Binghamton and Buffalo, but passenger service west of Port Jervis was discontinued in November 1966. Short Line provides bus service between Honesdale, Pennsylvania, Port Jervis, and the Port Authority Bus Terminal. == Government == alt=Port Jervis City Hall|thumb|Port Jervis City Hall Port Jervis is governed by a mayor and a city council under a mayor–council government system. The city council has nine members: a councilman-at-large and eight members elected from wards. The city comprises four wards, residents of which elect two council members each for two year terms. The mayor and councilman-at-large are elected at large for two year terms. Elections are held in odd number years. Terms of office begin on January 1. Representation in the state legislature is split between Democrats and Republicans. The city is located in the 98th Assembly district, currently represented by Republican Karl Brabenec. Democrat James Skoufis represents the city in the state senate as part of the 42nd district. Port Jervis is a part of New York's 18th congressional district, represented by Democrat Pat Ryan. Senators Charles Schumer and Kirsten Gillibrand represent all of New York in the U.S. Senate, including the city. City council Seat Member Party Took office Councilman-at- large Stanley Siegel Republican January 1, 2022 Councilman (ward 1) Regis Foster Republican January 1, 2016 Councilman (ward 1) Elizabeth Miller Democratic January 1, 2022 Councilman (ward 2) Misty Fuller Republican January 1, 2022 Councilman (ward 2) Maria Mann Republican January 1, 2018 Councilman (ward 3) Michael Decker Republican January 1, 2022 Councilman (ward 3) Denis Livingston Republican January 1, 2022 Councilman (ward 4) Melissa Newhauser Republican January 1, 2022 Councilman (ward 4) Timothy Simmons Republican January 1, 2020 thumb|Port Jervis Middle School, in the Port Jervis city limits ==Education== Port Jervis City School District operates public schools serving Port Jervis. The area elementary school, Anna S. Kuhl Elementary School, is in Deerpark but with a Port Jervis postal address. \- Despite the "Port Jervis" postal address, the school is physically in Deerpark. * Compare full address to the zoning map of Deerpark: * Compare to the map of Port Jervis: Port Jervis Middle School is in Port Jervis. Port Jervis High School is also in Deerpark but with a Port Jervis postal address. \- Despite the "Port Jervis" postal address, the school is physically in Deerpark. * Compare full address to the zoning map of Deerpark: * Compare to the map of Port Jervis: Kuhl and Port Jervis High are on the same property. ==Media== On July 4, 1953 WDLC at 1490 on the AM dial signed-on. Co-owned. The station also can receive WSPK-FM K104.7 and WRRV on 92.7. ==Notable people== Notable current and former residents of Port Jervis include: *Frank Abbott, Mayor of Port Jervis from 1874 to 1876 * Ed and Lou Banach, University of Iowa wrestlers, NCAA All-Americans and NCAA Champions, 1984 Summer Olympics gold medalists in freestyle wrestling, lived in Port Jervis and graduated from Port Jervis Senior High School.Rimer, Sara. "Port Jervis Celebrates Its Conquering Heroes", New York Times, September 3, 1984. Accessed October 10, 2007. "The Banach boys, as everyone knows them here, came back home this weekend, and as the townspeople celebrated their own Olympic gold medalists with a day of marching bands, waving flags and heartfelt speeches, all the hard times and disasters Port Jervis had endured seemed at last forgotten." * William Stiles Bennet (1870–1962), U.S. representative for New York's 17th congressional district from 1905 to 1911 and New York's 23rd congressional district from 1915 to 1917. * Daniel Cohen, children's book author * Stephen Crane, author of The Red Badge of Courage, lived in Port Jervis between the ages 6–11 and frequently visited and wrote there from 1891 to early 1897.Wertheim, Stanley and Paul Sorrentino. 1994. The Crane Log: A Documentary Life of Stephen Crane, 1871–1900. pp. 13-30, 54, 65, 71, 108, et al to 240, New York: G. K. Hall & Co. . *William Howe Crane (1854–1926), older brother of Stephen Crane, lived and practiced law in Port Jervis for many years. * Stefanie Dolson, basketball player for the New York Liberty and formerly of the Connecticut Huskies Women's Basketball team, was born in Port Jervis. She was a high school standout at nearby Minisink Valley High School, where she was a McDonald's All-American and won multiple National Championships with Connecticut. * Samuel Fowler (1851–1919) represented New Jersey's 4th congressional district in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1893 to 1895.Samuel Fowler, Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Accessed September 4, 2007. * E. Arthur Gray (1925–2006) was the longest-serving mayor of Port Jervis and was later a New York State Senator. The Port Jervis United States Post Office building is dedicated in his name."E. Arthur Gray Post Office Building" in the Congressional Record (March 10, 2008) * Benjamin Hafner (March 24, 1821–spring 1899), known as "The Flying Dutchman" and "Uncle Ben", was an American locomotive engineer who worked for the Erie Railway. *Albert Hammond Jr., (1980–), musician and music producer best known as a guitarist of The Strokes. His One Way Studio in the area is where much of the albums Angles and Comedown Machine were recorded, among others. * Bucky Harris, Baseball player/manager and Hall of Famer; born in Port Jervis. * The Kalin Twins, Hal (1934–2005) and Herbie (1934–2006), were one hit wonders whose record "When" made the top 5 in the U.S. and was number one for five weeks in the U.K. in 1958. * Francis Marvin (1828–1905), U.S. representative for New York's 17th congressional district from 1893 to 1895. * William C. Norris (1926-), a major general who served in the United States Air Force from 1945 to 1980. * Amar'e Stoudemire (1982–), former professional basketball player for the New York Knicks. Lived in Port Jervis for a duration of grade school and middle school. It is said that this is where he played basketball at local parks and first fell in love with the sport of basketball. * Hudson Van Etten, Medal of Honor recipient, was born in Port Jervis. ==Gallery== File:Post Office Port Jervis.jpg|The E. Arthur Gray Post Office, on the NRHP File:Free Library Port Jervis.jpg|The Free Library, a Carnegie library built in 1903 File:Erie Turntable Port Jervis New York.jpg|The largest working rail turntable in the U.S. is in Port Jervis File:72 East Main Street Port Jervis New York.jpg|One of the many Victorian style houses in the city File:Fort Decker Port Jervis 3.jpg|Fort Decker (1793), the oldest building in the city File:Front St. Port Jervis.jpg|A view of many small businesses on Front St ==References== ;Notes ==External links== * City of Port Jervis Website Category:Cities in New York (state) Category:Neversink River Category:Populated places established in 1690 Category:Poughkeepsie–Newburgh–Middletown metropolitan area Category:Cities in Orange County, New York Category:Cities in the New York metropolitan area Category:1690 establishments in the Province of New York Category:New York (state) populated places on the Delaware River |
Simon Cameron (March 8, 1799June 26, 1889) was an American businessman and politician who represented Pennsylvania in the United States Senate and served as United States Secretary of War under President Abraham Lincoln at the start of the American Civil War. A native of Maytown, Pennsylvania, Cameron made a fortune in railways, canals, and banking. He was elected to the United States Senate as a member of the Democratic Party in 1845. A persistent opponent of slavery, Cameron briefly joined the Know Nothing Party before switching to the Republican Party in 1856. He won election to another term in the Senate in 1857 and provided pivotal support to Abraham Lincoln at the 1860 Republican National Convention. Lincoln appointed Cameron as his first Secretary of War. Cameron's wartime tenure was marked by allegations of corruption and lax management, and he was demoted to Ambassador to Russia in January 1862. Cameron made a political comeback after the Civil War, winning a third election to the Senate in 1867 and building the powerful Cameron machine, which would dominate Pennsylvania politics for the next 70 years. ==Early life and career== Simon Cameron was born in Maytown, Pennsylvania, on March 8, 1799, to Charles Cameron and his wife Martha Pfoutz Cameron. Charles Cameron's father, named Simon, had emigrated from Scotland to Pennsylvania, in 1765. A farmer, he continued that same trade in Lancaster County and fought for the Americans in the Revolutionary War. On his mother's side, Simon Cameron was the great-grandson of Hans Michel Pfoutz, one of the first Palatine Germans to emigrate to the American colonies, and was the third of eight children born to Charles and Martha Cameron. Charles Cameron was a tailor and tavern keeper in Maytown, but was less than successful in those occupations. In 1808, he moved from Lancaster County north to Sunbury, in Northumberland County, but within two years was living alone with his wife in Lewisburg and died in January 1811, his children boarding with other families. Simon was sent to live with the family of Dr. Peter Grahl, a Jewish physician in Sunbury. The Grahls, childless, treated him like their son, and he expanded his rudimentary education in the libraries of Dr. Grahl and his neighbors. In Sunbury, he came to know Lorenzo da Ponte, who had been a librettist for Mozart and other composers, and in December 1813, visited Philadelphia with him. Soon after his 17th birthday, Cameron apprenticed himself as a printer to Andrew Kennedy, publisher of the Sunbury and Northumberland Gazette, and Republican Advertiser. In 1817, though, Kennedy, who had suffered financial troubles, released Cameron from his indentures, and the young man went to Harrisburg, capital of Pennsylvania, where he indentured himself to James Peacock, publisher of the Pennsylvania Republican. This was the leading Pennsylvania newspaper outside of Philadelphia; after two years' apprenticeship, Cameron was made assistant editor. Involvement with a Harrisburg newspaper meant involvement in Pennsylvania politics; in 1842, Simon Cameron would state that he had attended almost every session of the Pennsylvania General Assembly, the state legislature, since 1817. He met Samuel D. Ingham, the Secretary of the Commonwealth. Ingram was the proprietor of the Doylestown Messenger, and following the departure of its editor, hired Cameron as his replacement, a position he took in January 1821. He held this position throughout that year, but the newspaper was not profitable and merged with another local paper, costing Cameron his job. Cameron next worked as a compositor for the Congressional Globe, the periodical which reported the debates in Congress. Although it paid little, the job was ideal for a young man interested in politics, as it allowed him to build contacts with national political figures such as President James Monroe and Senator John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. In 1822, he returned to Harrisburg as a partner in the Pennsylvania Intelligencer, and after he was able to purchase the Republican, merged it with the Intelligencer. These enterprises gave Cameron enough security that he felt he could marry, and did so on October 16, 1822, to Margaret Brua. Ten children were born of that marriage, of whom six reached adulthood. ==Entry into politics== Cameron benefitted from the election of his friend, John Andrew Shulze as Pennsylvania's governor in 1823. Not only did Cameron spend several years in the profitable post of State Printer, but in 1829, Governor Shulze appointed him Adjutant-General of Pennsylvania. His brief term in this position gained him the rank, which he used as a title throughout his life, of general. With his appointment to that position, Cameron, who had sold his stake in the Intelligencer and brought one in the Pennsylvania Reporter and Democratic Herald, divested himself of his interest in the printing trade and ceased to be an active journalist, though he ensured his state contracts would be transferred to his brother James. Shulze also awarded Cameron contracts for the construction of canals in Pennsylvania. A delegate from Dauphin County to the Harrisburg State Convention of the Democratic-Republicans in 1824, Cameron was slow to support the presidential candidacy of General Andrew Jackson in the 1824 election, despite Jackson's broad support in Pennsylvania, and only did so because he supported Calhoun for vice president. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams was elected, and made Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky his successor at the State Department. In that capacity, Clay was responsible for selecting three printers in each state to print the laws and resolutions of Congress, and since Cameron was not known as an ardent Jacksonian, his firm became one of the official printers. Cameron corresponded extensively with Clay, offering him political advice on Pennsylvania affairs. Adams advocated internal improvements to the nation's transportation infrastructure, financed by high tariffs, policies Cameron (who was by then involved in a number of businesses that would benefit) approved of. By the time the administration lost control of Congress in 1827, Cameron began to gravitate away from Adams and towards Jackson. In doing so, Cameron followed a new political ally, Pennsylvania Congressman James Buchanan. Nevertheless, his support for Jackson in his successful run for the presidency in 1828 was only lukewarm. Cameron's support for Jackson grew in the president's first term, though he was busy with his involvement in banking (founding the Bank of Middletown) and canal and railroad construction. Jackson found Cameron to be a useful lieutenant in Pennsylvania. The president had originally pledged to serve only one term, in changing his mind he enlisted Cameron to get the Pennsylvania legislature to pass a resolution urging him to change his mind and run again in 1832. Calhoun had broken with the administration, and Jackson convened the 1832 Democratic National Convention for the main purpose of endorsing a new running mate, Martin Van Buren of New York. Pennsylvania politicians preferred one of their own to run with Jackson, but Cameron arranged a delegation that would back Van Buren, and he was elected along with Jackson. As a reward, Cameron was appointed to the Board of Visitors of the United States Military Academy, though he held the position only briefly. By the mid-1830s, Cameron had built a national reputation in what was becoming known as the Democratic Party. Buchanan had left the House of Representatives after 1831, and then served as minister to Russia. When he returned, Cameron tried to get him elected to the Senate in 1833, lobbying the legislature for votes—until 1913, senators were elected by state legislatures. He was not successful, but the following year, Cameron prevailed on Jackson to give Pennsylvania's senior senator, William Wilkins, a diplomatic post, opening a seat that Buchanan might fill. His success in getting Buchanan elected on the fourth ballot pleased both the new senator and Vice President Van Buren, and increased his influence in Washington. Nevertheless, when Cameron sought appointment by Jackson in 1835 as governor of Michigan Territory, he did not get it. Although he was not a delegate to the 1835 Democratic National Convention, Cameron supported the nomination of Van Buren for president and Congressman Richard M. Johnson of Kentucky for vice president, and campaigned for them; both were elected. Still seeking a federal position, he asked Buchanan for help being appointed a commissioner under the 1837 treaty with the Winnebago Indians, who ceded land in exchange for payments to tribe members as well as to those who had part- Native American descent. The commissioners were to pass on claims by traders to whom recipients were said to owe money. Cameron was named as one of the two commissioners, and in August 1838, journeyed to Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin Territory. There, they adjudicated the traders' claims, and also those of people of part-Native American blood who sought compensation. Many of the latter were represented by whites, and there were allegations of abuses, both at the time and since, though documentary evidence was never presented. According to Cameron biographer Paul Kahan, "the lack of evidence, coupled with the vague assertions of corruption, became a hallmark of this scandal, and it is one of the reasons why it is so hard for historians to assess who was actually telling the truth." According to another biographer, Erwin S. Bradley, "briefly, Cameron's part in the Winnebago affair may be stated as follows: he did exceed his instructions and showed poor business acumen in failing to require bond of the third parties intrusted with the certificates; but the charges ... remain unproved". The impression of corruption long clouded Cameron's reputation, with his enemies mocking him, to his anger, as the "Great Winnebago Chief". Somewhat shunned after the Winnebago affair, Cameron continued to support Buchanan. The defeat of Van Buren for re-election in 1840 divided Pennsylvania Democrats into those who backed the former president to run again in 1844, and those who supported the administration of Governor David R. Porter. Both Cameron and Senator Buchanan joined the latter camp, and were known as "Improvement Men", and supported continued public improvements, a protective tariff, and the establishment of a state bank. A supporter of Buchanan, Cameron was strongly opposed to the presidential candidacy of Van Buren in 1844, and supported those at the national convention to require a two-thirds vote to nominate, thus effectively dooming Van Buren's candidacy, though his exact role is uncertain. Cameron was unenthusiastic about the eventual presidential nominee, former Tennessee governor James K. Polk, not liking Polk's ambiguous position on tariffs, and worked for his election in a desultory fashion. Polk won Pennsylvania, and was elected president. ==First term as senator == === Election of 1845 === Pennsylvania elected a governor in 1844, and Democrats had been divided between supporters of Henry A. P. Muhlenberg and of Francis R. Shunk. Muhlenberg got the nomination, but soon thereafter died, and Shunk was chosen as gubernatorial nominee. Shunk was elected, but former Muhlenberg supporters, including Cameron, feared they would not receive patronage. This divided the party as it prepared to elect a senator in January 1845, and when it became clear that Senator Buchanan would become Polk's Secretary of State, a second seat would also have to be filled. The factions remained apart as the legislature prepared to fill the seat held by Senator Daniel Sturgeon. Cameron wrote to Buchanan in December 1844, hinting at his interest in the seat, but both factions had candidates in mind. Neither had enough support to be elected by the legislature when it met in January 1845, and as a compromise, Sturgeon was re-elected. Buchanan resigned following Polk's inauguration in March 1845, and the legislature prepared for an election to fill the remaining four years of his term. Governor Shunk's faction nominated George W. Woodward, as they had to fill Sturgeon's seat, and he gained a majority in the Democratic legislative caucus, though some legislators remained away. Cameron worked to unite the minority of the Democratic Party with the Whigs and Native American Party (or Know Nothings) to gain a majority in the legislature and elect himself. Since the election and especially in his inaugural address, it had become clear that Polk did not support a protective tariff; most of the dissenting Democrats did, as did Cameron and the Whigs. Cameron also held similar views to the Whigs on internal improvements, and found them willing to support him—he hinted to the nativists that he supported increasing the residence time for immigrants to gain citizenship. To the outrage of the mainstream Democratic Party, on March 13, 1845, Cameron was elected on the fifth ballot with 66 votes (including 16 from Democrats), to 55 for Woodward, and six votes scattered. Cameron began his first term in the Senate with little long-term support in the legislature, since he was alienated from many of the Democrats and was viewed by the Whigs as the lesser evil to Woodward, to be replaced in better times. Alleging that Cameron had gained the seat by corrupt means, the Democratic caucus sent letters to Vice President George M. Dallas (a Pennsylvanian) and also to Buchanan. The two officials, in their replies, refrained from attacking Cameron personally, though they decried the lack of party loyalty which made his election possible. Although nothing came of this, it added to a growing rift between Buchanan and Cameron. === Events of first term (1845–1849) === On the day of his election, Cameron wrote to Buchanan, asking him to assure Polk that no one in the Senate would support the administration with more good will than he. Nevertheless, having been elected by uniting disaffected Democrats and the minority parties against the candidate of the Democratic caucus, he found that neither Democrats nor Whigs were willing to fully accept him as a political fellow. Immediately after being elected senator, Cameron went to Washington, where on March 15, 1845, his credentials were laid before the Senate, which was in special session, by Vice President Dallas. On March 17, he was presented to the Senate by Senator Sturgeon, and was sworn in. Three days later, the Senate adjourned until December 1845. Polk declined to consult Cameron on Pennsylvania federal appointments, though he had been advised by his brother-in-law, James Walker, to make an ally of Cameron, especially since the administration had only a narrow majority in the Senate. Angered, Cameron struck back, defeating the nomination of Henry Horn to the lucrative position of Collector of Customs for the Port of Philadelphia, which Polk pressed repeatedly. Cameron also defeated the nomination of Woodward to the Supreme Court, the latter likely with Buchanan's help. Polk eventually nominated another Pennsylvanian, Robert C. Grier, as a justice; Grier was confirmed, but the president never forgave Cameron. Cameron and Polk also differed on the tariff. The Whig-backed Tariff of 1842 was protectionist in nature, rather than for the sole purpose of raising government revenue, and Polk's administration sought to revise it through the Walker tariff (named of the Secretary of the Treasury, Robert J. Walker, an advocate of free trade). Cameron felt free to oppose it as he owed no debts to Polk and the Pennsylvania legislature had passed a resolution asking the state's congressional delegation to oppose the legislation. He gave a lengthy speech against the tariff in July 1846 opining that it would harm Pennsylvania's iron foundries, and opining that no native of the state could support the bill. This was a comment aimed at Vice President Dallas; nevertheless, Dallas's tie breaking vote in favor paved the way to the bill's enactment. A longtime supporter of the annexation of Texas, Cameron backed the declaration of war against Mexico and the Mexican–American War, He opposed, however, the annexation of land where slavery might flourish, and supported the Wilmot Proviso (introduced by Pennsylvania Congressman David Wilmot) which would ban slavery from lands gained from Mexico. At the same time, he stated that the people of Pennsylvania had no desire to interfere with slavery in Southern states where it was legal. Cameron's view on slavery prior to 1861 was that it should be the decision of each state or territory whether to be slave or free, but he sought to guard Pennsylvania's interest by limiting the spread of slavery. He expected that in due course, Southern states would themselves abolish slavery. Polk was not a candidate for re-election in 1848, and Secretary of State Buchanan sought the Democratic presidential nomination. Cameron was a delegate from Pennsylvania to the 1848 Democratic National Convention and in common with the state's other delegates, supported Buchanan on each ballot. The nomination went to Michigan Senator Lewis Cass, and Cameron was accused of working behind the scenes to defeat Buchanan. The Whigs nominated General Zachary Taylor of Louisiana for president, with his running mate former congressman Millard Fillmore of New York. In the fall elections, the Pennsylvania Whigs carried the state for Taylor and Fillmore (who were elected), with a majority for their party in both houses of the state legislature. Cameron's term in the Senate was up in 1849; the Whigs wanted to elect one of their own, while many Democrats still resented the manner in which he had been elected. Cameron apparently had no supporters in the Democratic caucus; he received no votes in the legislature's balloting for senator, in which Whig James Cooper was elected. == Out of office (1849–1857) == Once his term in the Senate expired in March 1849, Cameron returned to Pennsylvania and devoted his time to his business enterprises. This did not mean he cloistered himself from politics; his business activities, including railroads and banking, routinely brought him into contact with politicians, and he retained his interest in public affairs. The Democrats recaptured the state legislature in 1850, and Cameron hoped to succeed Sturgeon in the election the following January, but failed to gain enough votes. Nevertheless, the new senator, Richard Brodhead, soon became a political ally of Cameron. Cameron and Buchanan continued to grow apart, even as Buchanan prepared to seek the 1852 Democratic presidential nomination. In 1850, trying to diminish any southern support the former secretary might get, Cameron sent Mississippi Senator Jefferson Davis a thirty-year-old news article showing that Buchanan had signed an anti-slavery petition. In response, Buchanan had friendly newspapers attack Cameron. The two battled at the 1851 Democratic state convention which nominated William Bigler for governor; though Bigler was elected, Buchanan blamed Cameron for the fact that the Whigs had taken control of the state senate. Pennsylvania's delegation to the 1852 Democratic National Convention, which included Cameron, was instructed to vote for Buchanan; nevertheless, Cameron worked for the nomination of Cass and the evident dissension in his home state's ranks hurt Buchanan's chances. The nomination went to former New Hampshire senator Franklin Pierce. Once elected, Pierce declined to return Buchanan to the cabinet, and Cameron was successful in getting a number of his allies federal positions. Pennsylvania's next Senate election was in 1855; in the 1854 legislative elections, the Whigs won a majority, which would ordinarily make it very difficult for Cameron to regain the seat. Many members of both the Whig and Democratic Parties were Know Nothings, who sought restrictions on immigration and immigrants, but who also, in the North, opposed the spread of slavery, an issue on which Cameron might find common ground with them. In addition, being a party with few prominent leaders, it was a route to political power for Democrats who wished to avoid Buchanan's hold on the state party, especially after the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854 cost the party support in the North. Cameron worked to appeal to the Know Nothing caucus. When the caucuses met in early 1855, Cameron was the choice of the Know Nothing caucus, but disputes about voting meant about half the caucus left and refused to be bound by the outcome. When the legislature voted on February 13, 1855, Cameron had a plurality, but not a majority. Faced with a deadlock, the legislature postponed its voting for two weeks, but when voting resumed, it remained deadlocked, and the senatorial election was postponed, effectively until the next legislature met in 1856, allowed Governor James Pollock to make a temporary appointment. When the 1856 legislature met, the Democrats had a majority, and Cameron did not attempt to win the seat, which went to Bigler. == Second term as senator (1857–61) == === 1857 election === The various factions that opposed the Democrats and the KansasNebraska Act began to coalesce by 1856 into what became known as the Union Party, or Republican Party. Cameron was aligned with many of the new party's views and also saw an opportunity to return to the Senate. He was prominent at many of the meetings that shaped the new party. He attended the 1856 Republican National Convention that nominated former California senator John C. Frémont for president. With Buchanan the Democratic nominee for president, and Pennsylvania a crucial state in the election, Cameron was considered as Frémont's running mate, but William Dayton was chosen. Buchanan won Pennsylvania by fewer than three thousand votes, and Frémont blamed the decision not to choose Cameron as critical to the outcome. The Democrats had a narrow majority in the Pennsylvania legislature against the combined forces of the Republicans and Know Nothings. Once the presidential election was over, Republicans considered how to obtain the Democratic votes needed to gain the senatorship. Cameron had the support of Representatives David Wilmot and Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania, who were convinced Cameron could win. Cameron kept his plans as quiet as possible; unnerved by rumors and the memories of Cameron's controversial victory in 1845, Democrats nominated John W. Forney, a journalist and loyal Democrat. Forney had gotten President-elect Buchanan to write a letter of support to show to legislators, but there were three Democratic members who disliked Buchanan and the letter helped them decide to vote for Cameron. They secretly met with Cameron's managers, who told the Republicans and Know Nothing legislators that there would be Democratic votes, and obtained an agreement to support Cameron on the first ballot. In the election on January 13, 1857, Cameron was elected without a vote to spare, to the shock of many legislators and observers. The three Democrats were expelled from their hotels in Harrisburg, and each lost his re- election bid. Cameron was informed of his election by his son, Donald Cameron, who leapt out of a window at the rear of the legislative chamber, and raced to his father's hotel. The election of Cameron, given the Democratic majority in the legislature, was seen as a great victory for the Republicans, and an embarrassment for President-elect Buchanan. The Democrats alleged bribery, and the legislature formed a committee to investigate, but the majority found no evidence to substantiate any charges. Similarly, shortly after Cameron's swearing-in, Senator Bigler presented a petition signed by 59 members of the legislature asking the Senate to investigate the circumstances of Cameron's election, but the Senate soon dropped the matter, finding there was no proof of wrongdoing. Nevertheless, like the Winnebago matter, the circumstances of the 1857 election gave Cameron a reputation for corruption that proved impossible to shake. === Prelude to war === Cameron quickly became one of the leaders of the Republican minority in the Senate. He had returned to a Senate far less congenial than the body he had left eight years before, with members deeply divided over slavery. Nevertheless, he maintained friendships with Southern senators. The divisions manifested themselves during the Senate's debate over whether to adopt President Buchanan's recommendation that Kansas Territory be admitted to the Union under the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution. Cameron engaged in a verbal battle in March 1858 with Missouri's James S. Green, during which each called the other a liar, and Green suggested the two should fight a duel. The matter was settled, as was usual in such cases, with formal apologies before the Senate. Nevertheless, remembering the recent beating of Charles Sumner, Cameron made a pact with Zachariah Chandler of Michigan and Benjamin F. Wade of Ohio that they would take each other's part in another such incident. Cameron's view concerning slavery remained much as it had during his first term in the Senate. He opposed its spread, believing it to be against Pennsylvania's interest for it to do so, but thought Congress had no power to do anything about it where it already existed. He also, beginning in about 1859, employed as a servant an escaped slave named Tom Chester. Cameron arranged for him to be educated; he later emigrated to Liberia and became that country's minister to Russia. Although like most Republican senators, Cameron distrusted President Buchanan, he supported the administration when the president asked for funds for troops in case there should be conflict with members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Utah Territory. Republicans feared Buchanan would use the troops to support pro-slavery elements in Kansas. Cameron was one of only four Republicans to vote in favor. In 1858, Cameron campaigned for the Republicans in Pennsylvania, who were rewarded with control of the state House of Representatives, although Democrats maintained a one-vote majority in the state Senate, Democrats previously had a majority of Pennsylvania's seats in the federal House of Representatives; they were reduced to five out of twenty- five seats. Cameron's influence in Harrisburg allowed him to choose the new officers of the state House, and continued victories in the 1859 state elections magnified his status in Pennsylvania. A persistent opponent of slavery, Cameron switched to the Know Nothing Party, before joining the Republican Party in 1856. === Election of 1860 === ==== Presidential nomination ==== The year 1860 was a presidential election year, and Cameron sought the presidential nomination, believing that Pennsylvania's strength at the nominating convention would be sufficient to win. Not all Pennsylvania Republicans supported Cameron, and there were rumors that he had made a deal with the Democrats, or that his candidacy was a stalking horse to build support for the frontrunner, New York Senator William H. Seward. This was supported by a visit Seward had paid to Harrisburg in 1859, in which he had been feted by Cameron. Afterwards, Seward had written to his political manager, Thurlow Weed, that Cameron had promised the ultimate support of the Pennsylvania delegation, though it might initially vote for Cameron. The rumors that Cameron would support Seward were damaging since the New Yorker's abolitionist leanings limited his support among Pennsylvania's conservative voters. Kahan suggested that the fact that Cameron hosted both Seward and another presidential hopeful, Governor Salmon P. Chase of Ohio, in 1859, meant that he was trying to keep good relations with the major contenders for the nomination and place himself in a position to be a kingmaker. There was little support for Cameron outside of Pennsylvania. One of the other contenders, former representative Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, played down suggestions Lincoln might take second place on a ticket led by Cameron, Lincoln's supporters discussed the possibility of Cameron as vice presidential candidate, hoping it might win the crucial state of Pennsylvania. The year also would see elections for governor of Pennsylvania, and for a legislature that would choose who would fill Senator Bigler's seat. In February 1860, the party state convention endorsed Cameron as Pennsylvania's favorite son candidate for the Republican nomination for president, and chose Andrew Curtin as gubernatorial candidate. There was a strong dislike between the two men, and their supporters, but no one wanted a breach within the party. Curtin had little appetite for a deal between Cameron and Seward, since if Seward headed the ticket, his unpopularity in Pennsylvania might affect Curtin's own election. In mid-March, Cameron told Seward that he wanted to meet with Weed in advance of the 1860 Republican National Convention in May in Chicago. Confident that Seward would gain the nomination, and of Cameron's support, Weed did not meet with Cameron. Kahan suggested that if the two had met, Cameron would have demanded a cabinet seat for his support, something Weed wanted to avoid. In Chicago, supporters of his rivals worked to stop a Seward victory on the first ballot, and selected Lincoln as the candidate with the most support. Although Lincoln had instructed his people to make no deals that would bind him, his manager, David Davis, reasoned that Lincoln, not present at the convention, was in no position to judge what had to be done to get him the nomination, and would have to fulfill whatever deals they made. It is unclear if an explicit deal was made to bring Cameron aboard the Lincoln bandwagon, but at the minimum, Davis and others pledged that Cameron would be treated as generously as if he had supported Lincoln from the start. William Herndon, Lincoln's law partner, later wrote that Davis and his fellow managers "negotiated with the Indiana and Pennsylvania delegations and assigned places in the cabinet to Simon Cameron and Caleb Smith, beside making other ‘arrangements’ which [Davis] expected Mr. Lincoln to ratify. Of this he [Lincoln] was undoubtedly unaware." According to Bradley, Cameron could not have delivered the delegation to Seward had he wanted to, given the opposition to the New Yorker in the state. On the first ballot, a divided Pennsylvania delegation came together to cast 47 votes of 54 for Cameron, as Seward had a plurality, with Lincoln behind him and Cameron third. On the second ballot, Lincoln received 48 votes from Pennsylvania, as he almost erased Seward's lead. On the third, on which Lincoln was nominated, Lincoln's Pennsylvania vote increased to 52. ==== Campaign ==== The understanding between Lincoln's backers and Cameron's became public almost at once, with one newspaper printing that the senator had been promised the Treasury Department. In the campaign, Cameron was a strong supporter of Lincoln, stating that he welcomed Lincoln's nomination "in a most cordial and emphatic manner". In August, Cameron wrote to the presidential candidate, pledging that Pennsylvania would vote for him, and "the state is for you and we all have faith in your good intentions to stand by her interests". Cameron also sent a contribution of $800 to Davis. To establish his soundness on the tariff question, which was important in Pennsylvania, Lincoln had Davis show Cameron excerpts from speeches he had given in the 1840s; Cameron wrote to Lincoln that he was pleased with their content. Cameron also campaigned for Curtin, though antagonism between the two continued. On October 9, 1860, Pennsylvania state elections were held. Curtin was easily elected, and Republicans increased their margins in both houses of the legislature. This meant that Senator Bigler would almost certainly be replaced by a Republican, and if Cameron resigned to accept high office, his successor would also be a Republican. Republican Party leaders did not rest on their state laurels but pressed for a heavy majority for Lincoln. On Election Day, November 6, 1860, Republicans flipped Pennsylvania to their party, something confirmed by a telegram from Harrisburg to Lincoln's headquarters in Springfield after midnight, "Hon. A. Lincoln: Pennsylvania, 70,000 for you. New York safe, Glory enough. S. Cameron." ==Secretary of War== ===Appointment=== thumb|right|260px|Simon Cameron In drafts Lincoln made of his cabinet following the election, Cameron was omitted. Given the divisions between Cameron and Curtin supporters in Pennsylvania, Lincoln planned to exclude Cameron from the cabinet, hoping both factions would accept New Jersey's William Dayton, like Cameron a strong protectionist, Within days, though, Lincoln began receiving many letters urging him to make Cameron Secretary of the Treasury. Lincoln may still have been unaware of the understanding made at the convention; his advisor, Leonard Swett, wrote to Cameron on November 27, 1860, that Lincoln was not bound by any such bargain. Swett sent a copy to the president-elect, who did nothing initially, but asked Weed for his view on Cameron on December 20. Cameron had reneged on his support for Seward, Weed's candidate, and Weed advised excluding Cameron in favor of a trustworthy Southerner. Cameron would not visit Lincoln's hometown of Springfield, Illinois without an invitation, and, after sending Swett to Pennsylvania to confer with him, Lincoln felt compelled to invite Cameron, who arrived on December 30, 1860. Others urged Lincoln to leave Cameron out of the cabinet, citing the Winnebago affair or the allegations of bribery in his elections to the Senate; former congressman George N. Eckert wrote, "I wish to say to you that under no circumstances or contingency will it answer to even dream of putting Simon Cameron in the Cabinet. He is corrupt beyond belief. He is rich by plunder— and can not be trusted any where." Upon his arrival in Springfield, Cameron met with Lincoln for several hours, first at the president-elect's law office and then at the senator's hotel. Both men were personable in nature, and the meetings were enjoyable; at their conclusion, Lincoln offered Cameron a place in the cabinet, either as Secretary of the Treasury or of War. At Cameron's request, Lincoln gave him the offer in writing, which he regretted soon thereafter, as no sooner had Cameron left town, that a fresh flood of anti-Cameron communications came to him, and he met with Alexander McClure, a member of a faction in Pennsylvania opposed to Cameron. Lincoln wrote to withdraw the offer, asking Cameron to keep it confidential, unless he chose to publicly decline, in which case he had no objection to the offer being made public. One reason for Lincoln's about-face was that he had asked Cameron to keep the offer confidential, which he had not done. Cameron complained to Lincoln's associates about the president-elect's conduct, but did and said nothing publicly, and in fact arranged for Lincoln and his family to use a luxurious Pennsylvania Railroad car for the journey to Washington. In early January, after meeting with Chase, who he wanted in the cabinet, Lincoln told two of his advisers, "I am in a quandary. Pennsylvania is entitled to a cabinet office. [Lincoln had received] hundreds of letters, and the cry is 'Cameron, Cameron!' … The Pennsylvania people say: 'If you leave out Cameron you disgrace him.'" Lincoln decided not to offer Cameron the Treasury post, but to hold out the possibility of another appointment. On January 13, Lincoln sent Cameron a letter stating he meant no offense by the previous letter, and stating that he had no doubt Cameron would perform the duties of a cabinet secretary "ably and faithfully". Cameron continued to press Lincoln by displaying the December 31 letter offering a post without showing the January 3 one rescinding the offer. With much of Lincoln's cabinet undetermined by the end of January, Herndon wrote, "Lincoln is in a fix. Cameron’s appointment ... bothers him. If Lincoln do[es] appoint Cameron, he gets a fight on his hands, and if he do[es] not he gets a quarrel deep-abiding, & lasting ... Poor Lincoln! God help him!" At the behest of Cameron supporters Lincoln met with, the president-elect offered another meeting in Springfield, but Cameron refused, and the matter was still unresolved when Lincoln left for Washington. When the train passed through Pittsburgh, Lincoln was met with a group of Cameron supporters who insisted he be appointed to the cabinet. In Philadelphia, other Cameron acolytes buttonholed Lincoln, both in the lobby of his hotel, and at his room. Tired of this, he hinted he might keep holdovers from the Buchanan cabinet rather than appoint Cameron. Cameron's opponents in Pennsylvania, likely out of fear the state would go unrepresented in the cabinet, dropped their opposition to him. When Lincoln stopped in Philadelphia, a group of supporters of Governor Curtin told him that Curtin now supported Cameron's cabinet bid. Lincoln still made no decision until after he reached Washington, when after much soul-searching he decided to appoint Cameron to the cabinet. Cameron still wanted the Treasury position, which went to Chase, and only reluctantly accepted War. After discussions between the two on February 28 and March 1, 1861, Lincoln nominated Cameron to be Secretary of War on March 5, 1861, the day after he took office as president. He broke with Lincoln and openly advocated emancipating the slaves and arming them for the army at a time when Lincoln was not ready to publicly take that position.Kahan, Amiable Scoundrel pp 192–194 Cameron's tenure as Secretary of War was marked by allegations of corruption and lax management. === Tenure === Cameron was sworn in as Secretary of War on March 12, 1861. The week's delay in swearing-in was because Cameron was in Pennsylvania and has been taken by some historians to mean that, even amid the rapidly-worsening secession crisis, that Cameron did not take his new position seriously. Kahan pointed out that at Lincoln's first cabinet meeting, on March 6, there was no mention of the increasingly-desperate situation at Fort Sumter. At the cabinet meeting of March 15, Lincoln asked his cabinet members for their views on Sumter and Cameron stated that the fort, isolated in the harbor of seceded Charleston, South Carolina, should not be resupplied since it could not be held indefinitely. On April 18, 1861, the day after Virginia seceded from the Union, the Virginia militia seized Harpers Ferry, an important work station on the rival Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's main westward line and a strategically important connection between Washington, D.C., and the American West. Under threats of destruction or confiscation from the Governor of Virginia and mayor of nearby Charles Town, B&O; president John Work Garrett asked Cameron to protect the B&O.; Instead, Cameron warned Garrett that passage of any Confederate troops over his line would be treason. Cameron agreed to station troops to protect other rail lines, including the Pennsylvania, but flatly refused to help the B&O.;Toomey pp. 41, 61–62, 83–84 The B&O; had to repair damaged line at its own expense and often received late or no payment for services rendered to the federal government.Toomey pp. 82–83 The Harpers Ferry Bridge was blown up by order of Confederate General Stonewall Jackson on June 14. On June 20, 1861, Jackson seized Martinsburg, another major B&O; work station. Within weeks, Jackson began confiscating locomotives, train cars, and track for Confederate use in Virginia.Toomey pp. 108–110 With B&O;'s main line into Washington inoperative for over six months, the North Central and Pennsylvania Railroads profited from overflow traffic. These problems were partially alleviated by the summer 1861 Union victories at the Philippi and Rich Mountain, and vigorous army and company work crews which reduced the main line gap to 25 miles between Harpers Ferry and Back Creek.Toomey pp. 82–84 However, with no help from Secretary Cameron, Garret appealed to others, including Reverdy Johnson, General George McClellan, and Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase. The gap created in the B&O; line dramatically affected civilian life as well. The B&O; was forced to arrange to have its coal shipments brought to the capital via the Chesapeake and Ohio canal, but as winter began, coal prices soared in Washington. Western farmers could also not get their produce to markets because of the B&O; gap. Finally, Samuel M. Felton, the President of PW&B; Railroad notified newspapers of the War Department's discrimination against the B&O.; Cameron's corruption became so notorious that Pennsylvania Representative Thaddeus Stevens, asked whether there was anything Cameron would not steal, said, "I don't think that he would steal a red hot stove." Cameron demanded Stevens retract this insult, and so Stevens said to Lincoln, "I believe I told you he would not steal a red hot stove. I will now take that back." In January 1862, President Lincoln removed Cameron in favor of Edwin M. Stanton, a Pennsylvania lawyer who had been serving as Cameron's legal advisor.Toomey pp. 62–63 Furthermore, on January 31, Congress passed the Railways and Telegraph Act, creating the United States Military Railroad and allowing it to seize and operate any railroad or telegraph company's equipment, although Stanton and USMRR Superintendent Daniel McCallum would choose to allow civilian operations to continue.Toomey pp. 63, 181 In February 1862, Union forces recaptured Martinsburg and Harpers Ferry, and work crews continued replacing wrecked bridges and equipment, although bushwhacker raids continued.Toomey pp. 108–109 After Stanton's promotion, Cameron became Minister to Russia. ==Postwar political boss== Cameron made a political comeback after the Civil War, building a powerful state Republican machine, which would dominate Pennsylvania politics for the next 70 years. In 1866, Cameron was again elected to the Senate. Cameron convinced his close friend Ulysses S. Grant to appoint his son, J. Donald Cameron, as Secretary of War in 1876. Later that year, Cameron helped Rutherford B. Hayes win the Republican nomination for President. Cameron resigned from the Senate in 1877, after ensuring that his son would succeed him. In the 1880 United States presidential election, Cameron and his son, along with Roscoe Conkling and John A. Logan, led the conservative, anti- Blaine, Stalwart faction of the Republican Party in their advocacy of nominating Grant for a third, non-consecutive presidential term.Banks, Ronald F. (June 1958). The Senatorial Career of William P. Frye, pp. 5–6. The University of Maine. Retrieved February 18, 2022. The Stalwarts were ultimately thwarted when the Blaine faction formed an alliance with the Half- Breeds to nominate James A. Garfield, who would triumph in the general election over Democratic opponent Winfield Scott Hancock. == Personal life == Cameron's brother James was colonel of the 79th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment and was killed in action at the First Battle of Bull Run on July 21, 1861. ==Death == Cameron retired to his farm at Donegal Springs near Maytown, Pennsylvania, where he died on June 26, 1889, at the age of 90. He is buried in the Harrisburg Cemetery in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Though Cameron had intended his son to succeed him as head of the state machine, Matthew Quay ultimately succeeded Cameron as the party boss. ==Legacy== According to historian Hans L. Trefousse, Cameron ranks as one of the most successful political bosses in American history. He was shrewd, wealthy, and devoted his talents in money to the goal of building a powerful Republican organization. He achieved recognition as the undisputed arbiter of Pennsylvania politics. His assets included business acumen, sincere devotion to the interests and needs of Pennsylvania, expertise on the tariff issue and the need for protection for Pennsylvania industry, and a skill at managing and organizing politicians and their organizations. He cleverly rewarded his friends, punished his enemies, and maintain good relations with his Democratic counterparts. His reputation as an unscrupulous grafter was exaggerated by his enemies; he was in politics for power, not profit.Hans L. Trefousse, "Cameron, Simon" in John A. Garraty, Encyclopedia of American Biography (1974), pp. 165–167 Biographer Paul Kahan says Cameron was very good as a "back-slapping, glad-handing politician", who could manipulate congressmen. But he was too disorganized, and inattentive to the extremely complex duties of the largest and most important federal department. He paid too much attention to patronage and then not enough to strategy.Paul Kahan, Amiable Scoundrel: Simon Cameron, Lincoln's Scandalous Secretary of War (2016) p. 167. Cameron County, Pennsylvania, and Cameron Parish, Louisiana, are named in his honor, as are: *Simon Cameron House and Bank, Middletown, Pennsylvania *Simon Cameron House, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania *Simon Cameron School, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania ==Notes== ==References== ==Bibliography== * * * * * * * "Simon Cameron." Dictionary of American Biography (1936) Online. ==Further reading == * Koistinen, Paul A. C. Beating Plowshares into Swords: The Political Economy of American Warfare, 1606–1865 (1996) pp. 132–169. ==External links== * Simon Cameron biography in Secretaries of War and Secretaries of the Army a publication of the United States Army Center of Military History *Spartacus Educational: Simon Cameron *Mathew Brady Studio: Simon Cameron *biographic sketch at U.S. Congress website *Biography at Lincoln Institute *Mr. Lincoln and Friends: Simon Cameron *The John Harris-Simon Cameron Mansion |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- Category:1799 births Category:1889 deaths Category:Activists for African-American civil rights Category:American abolitionists Category:American businesspeople Category:American people of Scottish descent Category:American bankers Category:American political bosses from Pennsylvania Category:Ambassadors of the United States to Russia Category:Burials at Harrisburg Cemetery Category:Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election Category:Chairmen of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations Category:Democratic Party United States senators from Pennsylvania Category:Lincoln administration cabinet members Category:Pennsylvania Democrats Category:Pennsylvania Jacksonians Category:Pennsylvania Know Nothings Category:People from Lancaster County, Pennsylvania Category:Pennsylvania Republicans Category:People of Pennsylvania in the American Civil War Category:Republican Party United States senators from Pennsylvania Category:Stalwarts (Republican Party) Category:United States Secretaries of War Category:Union (American Civil War) political leaders Category:19th-century American diplomats Category:19th-century American newspaper publishers (people) |
The Wright Family Houses area heritage-listed group of detached houses at 98/100/106 Mt Crosby Road, Tivoli, City of Ipswich, Queensland, Australia. It was built from onwards. No. 100 is also known as Oaklands and No. 106 is also known as Wrightlands. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 30 January 2004. == History == thumb|Wright family photo, 1883|left The Wright family houses precinct at 98, 100 and 106 Mt Crosby Road, Tivoli, are 3 timber houses on adjoining allotments built -1903 for John and Elizabeth Wright. The allotments on which these residences are situated were originally a part of the land purchased in 1864 as Portion 66, parish of Chuwar, County of Stanley (43 acres), by Josiah Bowring Sloman, part proprietor of the Queensland Times. The land appears to have remained unimproved during the 30 years of Sloman's ownership and by the mid-1890s it had been subdivided. thumb|upright|Memorial photograph from the Eclipse Colliery Disaster, Ipswich, 1893|left In September 1894, the title to the subdivisions on which the houses at 98 and 106 Mt Crosby Road now stand was transferred to Elizabeth Ann Wright, the wife of John Wright. Five years later Elizabeth was registered as the owner of the allotment where the main family house, known as Oaklands, was constructed and which is now delineated as 100 Mt Crosby Road. John Wright was born in 1837 at Coolbawm, County Kilkenny, Ireland, and married Elizabeth in 1862. He and his wife arrived in Moreton Bay on board the Naval Reserve in 1867 and in October of that year he moved to Ipswich to find work, while his wife and children remained in Brisbane. In the 1860s, Ipswich was an emerging centre of commercial and industrial activity and, despite the financial crisis of this period, it remained a place of opportunity for early pioneers. Coal mining was a burgeoning industry in the district at this time and Wright was from a long line of colliery owners in Ireland and had worked for several years in his father's mine before embarking for Australia This experience secured him a job at the Old Tivoli Pit owned by Harry Hooper and John Robinson, where he remained until 1873. In that year he negotiated a lease with Josiah Sloman, who then owned Portions 65 and 66, for mining rights on the land and with the financial backing of John Blond, a Brisbane coal dealer, he opened a small mine known as Perseverance Mine. Wright's mining interests continued to expand over the years with the opening of the Eclipse mine in Tivoli as well as mines in other coal-bearing districts like Purga, Walloon, Burrum and Oakey. While the Eclipse mine was lost in the 1893 floods, along with 2 of John's sons, the family business remained strong and his youngest sons, Andrew and John, later became mine managers. The Wrights became the largest producer of coke in Queensland and in 1910 the Jubilee History of Ipswich reported that the Wrights held contracts with the Mt Crosby Pumping Station, the Ipswich Pumping Station, Queensland Woollen Company, Electric Light Company of Toowoomba and Queensland Railway. Although John Wright's mining interests were spread over Queensland, he resided in Tivoli until his death in 1915 and acquired a distinct local patriotism. While described in The History of Queensland (1919) as a "man of quiet disposition, reserved, and unassuming", he was known to have supported many local charities and with his wife helped found a Sunday school in the area. The Wrights also became prominent freehold landowners in the North Ipswich district, with Brassall Shire Council Valuation Registers showing the family owned several estates by the early 1900s. Despite their numerous real estate interests, the Wrights favoured the allotments on Mt Crosby Road (formerly known as Tivoli Road and Junction Road) for their family homes. No documentary evidence exists to definitively date the main family residence at 100 Mt Crosby Road, however it is known to have been existence by January 1898 when it was described in The Queenslander as "one of the nattiest villas in North Ipswich". The adjoining properties at 98 and 106 Mt Crosby Road reputedly were built for Andrew Wright and John Wright junior probably by 1903, the year of the earliest extant Brassall Shire Council Valuation Register, which records that on the land now covered by 98, 100 and 106 Mt Crosby Road there existed 3 residences owned by Elizabeth Ann Wright. The juxtaposition of these properties is as much a physical representation of the rising social and financial fortunes offered to Ipswich colliers of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, as it is a reminder of the concept of the extended family and a way of life no longer common. The Wrights were a close-knit family and their houses were a nest of domesticity. Elizabeth Ann Wright retained ownership of the land on which Oaklands stands until her death in 1920, after which the house was reputedly left vacant until 1922 when Elizabeth Ann Barbet, the youngest daughter of John and Elizabeth Wright, became the registered owner. Four years later the property passed to Benjamin Morgan, a close friend of the Wright family whose father had reputedly built a hut of chaff bags in a gully below Oaklands. The estate remains in the Morgan family. The property at 98 Mt Crosby Road remained in the hands of Elizabeth Ann Wright until 1915 when the title was transferred to Andrew Wright. In 1931, Catherine Wright, the wife of Andrew, became the owner of the estate and retained the title until 1953. Since that time the property has passed to a number of different owners. The house now known as Wrightson, at 106 Mt Crosby Road, was owned by Elizabeth Ann Wright until 1911 when the title to the property was transferred to John Wright junior. After his father's death in 1915, John Wright reputedly moved to the Darling Downs to manage the family's mining interests in the region but Wrightson remained his property until 1924 when title to the estate was transferred to Robert Hutchins Hunter. Since that time the property has passed had 5 owners. The house has been renovated in recent years. == Description == thumb|98 Mt Crosby Road, 2015 thumb|Oaklands, 2015 thumb|Wrightlands, 2015 thumb|upright|Entrance to 98 Mt Crosby Road, 2015 The Wright Family Houses are located on large allotments fronting Mt Crosby Road in Tivoli, north of the Ipswich city centre. Each allotment is long with a narrower frontage to Mt Crosby Road. The allotments extends down a gully toward a branch of Sandy Creek, where Perseverance Mine was located. All three houses are well set back from the road and are of timber construction with a square floor plan. === 98 Mt Crosby Road === The residence at 98 Mt Crosby Road has a short-ridge pyramid roof and is sheeted in corrugated iron. The front verandah has been removed. A section of side verandah on the southern side of the house remains with its iron lace balustrade, its posts, brackets and capitals, and an acroterion remains on at least one corner of the roof guttering. The iron lace is similar to or identical with that of the earlier house, Oaklands, at 100 Mt Crosby Road, and the brackets are similar or identical with those on the later house, Wrightson, at 106 Mt Crosby Road. Walls facing the former front verandah are single-skin, vertically jointed boards with horizontal bracing. Under the main roof are 5 bedrooms, a sleepout, study, formal lounge with marble and tiled fireplace, dining room, living room, and a kitchen. A small hip-roof structure at the right of the house is sheeted in corrugated iron and may originally have functioned as a service wing or business office. === Oaklands at 100 Mt Crosby Road === Oaklands is surrounded by a well-established garden, which provides strong evidence of early garden layout and includes a number of mature fig trees in the front yard. Early tiled garden-edging remains lining the borders of the front path leading to the main entrance of the house. The house has a short- ridge pyramid roof clad in corrugated iron, with two corbelled chimneystacks of brick construction rising above. Paired decorative brackets to the eaves of the main roof are located on all facades of the house. The house is surrounded on 3 sides by a stepped verandah with a skillion roof. The rear verandah has been enclosed and extended. The front pediment features a decorative timber bargeboard and finial, and the verandah has been enclosed sideways-sliding sashes featuring panelled coloured glass. The original cast iron balustrades have been retained. === Wrightson at 106 Mt Crosby Road === The pedestrian entrance to the residence at 106 Mt Crosby Road is lined by garden beds, which retain some reference to the original garden layout and which screen the facade of the house from Mt Crosby Road. The well-established garden includes a number of mature pine and conifer trees in the front yard. The front boundary is enclosed with a timber-paling fence and the side perimeter is enclosed with a wire fence. There is one vehicular entrance onto the site from Mt Crosby Road leading to a later garage on the northern side of the property. The northern perimeter of the property abuts Tivoli State School and the southern side of the property adjoins Oaklands. The original timber stumps of the house have been replaced with concrete stumps and the sub-floor is enclosed with timber battens. The house is timber-framed and externally clad on its exposed faces in deep chamferboards. The main roof of the residence is pyramid shaped and sheeted in corrugated iron, with 2 brick chimneystacks rising above. The stepped verandah has a bull-nose roof profile. Access to the verandah is gained by a short flight of timber stairs. The decorative fretwork pediment above the stairs features a sunray motif, which is repeated in the timber brackets to the verandah posts and which was a common embellishment of Irish design. The front walls are unlined, vertically jointed boards braced by horizontal beams. Dowel balustrading encloses the verandah and lattice infill panels have been installed in the front verandah bays. The northern side of the house is enclosed with a combination of early 20th century sliding and fixed windows with coloured glass. To the rear of the house is a recent covered patio area adjoining the house and a pool. A separate garage and an attached covered bay are located to the northern side of the building. The early front door, which has a cast iron knocker, central door knob, fielded panels and bolection moulds, opens into a short central hallway which extends half the depth of the house. Internally, 2 rooms open off a short hallway. Both rooms have French doors opening onto the front verandah. The room to the left also has a sliding door opening in an area that includes 2 bathrooms, toilet and storage spaces, created by enclosing the southern verandah. At the end of the hallway a single glazed timber door with etched glass provides access to the living room, which has a white marble fireplace. To the right of the living room is a bedroom with French doors opening on to an enclosed area, which is an enclosed part of the verandah. Access from the living room to the kitchen, with its original brick fireplace, is gained through a doorway. The rear section of the house, which appears to be a 20th-century extension, is now used as a laundry, dining room and storage room. Substantial interior renovations, which are most evident in the rear section of the house and in the kitchen, have been carried out. The joinery and floors have been stripped of their original finishes. There are timber floors throughout the house and all walls are lined with vertically jointed tongue and groove boarding. Similarly, all ceilings are lined with vertically jointed tongue and groove boarding, excluding the dining room which features what appears to be a pressed metal ceiling. All rooms have high picture rails. The hallway and living room both have bolection mould skirting boards, while all other rooms have plain skirting boards. == Heritage listing == Wright Family Houses was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 30 January 2004 having satisfied the following criteria. The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history. The Wright family houses are important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history and in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural place. Built for the collier and mining proprietor, John Wright and his wife, Elizabeth, these houses are representative of the burgeoning economic fortunes of the Ipswich region during the late 19th century. As Ipswich developed into a wealthy commercial and industrial centre of Queensland and as the coal industry continued to expand in the area, the construction of these 3 houses is indicative of the prospect of rising social and financial status offered in late-19th century Ipswich. The houses communicate a tangible link with the district's mining heritage. The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places. The Wright family houses are important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history and in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural place. Built for the collier and mining proprietor, John Wright and his wife, Elizabeth, these houses are representative of the burgeoning economic fortunes of the Ipswich region during the late 19th century. As Ipswich developed into a wealthy commercial and industrial centre of Queensland and as the coal industry continued to expand in the area, the construction of these 3 houses is indicative of the prospect of rising social and financial status offered in late-19th century Ipswich. The houses communicate a tangible link with the district's mining heritage. The place is important because of its aesthetic significance. The houses are also important because of their aesthetic significance, which contributes to the overall historical townscape of the Ipswich area. With its rich heritage, Ipswich abounds with significant examples of early Queensland architecture and as such these houses represent an important landmark in the area and their integrity as a group is strengthened by the direct connection between them. == References == === Attribution === ==External links== Category:Queensland Heritage Register Category:Tivoli, Queensland Category:Houses in Queensland Category:Articles incorporating text from the Queensland Heritage Register |
Franz Uri Boas (July 9, 1858 – December 21, 1942) was a German-American anthropologist and a pioneer of modern anthropology who has been called the "Father of American Anthropology".Boas, Franz. A Franz Boas reader: the shaping of American anthropology, 1883–1911. University of Chicago Press, 1989. p. 308Holloway, M. (1997) "The Paradoxical Legacy of Franz Boas—father of American anthropology." Natural History. November 1997.Stocking, George W. Jr. 1960. "Franz Boas and the Founding of the American Anthropological Association". American Anthropologist 62: 1–17. His work is associated with the movements known as historical particularism and cultural relativism.Harris, Marvin. 1968. The Rise of Anthropological Theory: A History of Theories of Culture. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company. Studying in Germany, Boas was awarded a doctorate in 1881 in physics while also studying geography. He then participated in a geographical expedition to northern Canada, where he became fascinated with the culture and language of the Baffin Island Inuit. He went on to do field work with the indigenous cultures and languages of the Pacific Northwest. In 1887 he emigrated to the United States, where he first worked as a museum curator at the Smithsonian, and in 1899 became a professor of anthropology at Columbia University, where he remained for the rest of his career. Through his students, many of whom went on to found anthropology departments and research programmes inspired by their mentor, Boas profoundly influenced the development of American anthropology. Among his many significant students were A. L. Kroeber, Alexander Goldenweiser Ruth Benedict, Edward Sapir, Margaret Mead, Zora Neale Hurston, Gilberto Freyre. Boas was one of the most prominent opponents of the then-popular ideologies of scientific racism, the idea that race is a biological concept and that human behavior is best understood through the typology of biological characteristics. In a series of groundbreaking studies of skeletal anatomy, he showed that cranial shape and size was highly malleable depending on environmental factors such as health and nutrition, in contrast to the claims by racial anthropologists of the day that held head shape to be a stable racial trait. Boas also worked to demonstrate that differences in human behavior are not primarily determined by innate biological dispositions but are largely the result of cultural differences acquired through social learning. In this way, Boas introduced culture as the primary concept for describing differences in behavior between human groups, and as the central analytical concept of anthropology. Among Boas's main contributions to anthropological thought was his rejection of the then-popular evolutionary approaches to the study of culture, which saw all societies progressing through a set of hierarchic technological and cultural stages, with Western European culture at the summit. Boas argued that culture developed historically through the interactions of groups of people and the diffusion of ideas and that consequently there was no process towards continuously "higher" cultural forms. This insight led Boas to reject the "stage"-based organization of ethnological museums, instead preferring to order items on display based on the affinity and proximity of the cultural groups in question. Boas also introduced the idea of cultural relativism, which holds that cultures cannot be objectively ranked as higher or lower, or better or more correct, but that all humans see the world through the lens of their own culture, and judge it according to their own culturally acquired norms. For Boas, the object of anthropology was to understand the way in which culture conditioned people to understand and interact with the world in different ways and to do this it was necessary to gain an understanding of the language and cultural practices of the people studied. By uniting the disciplines of archaeology, the study of material culture and history, and physical anthropology, the study of variation in human anatomy, with ethnology, the study of cultural variation of customs, and descriptive linguistics, the study of unwritten indigenous languages, Boas created the four-field subdivision of anthropology which became prominent in American anthropology in the 20th century. ==Early life and education== Franz Boas was born on July 9, 1858,Norman F. Boas, 2004, p. 291 (photo of the graveyard marker of Franz and Marie Boas, Dale Cemetery, Ossining, N.Y.) in Minden, Westphalia, the son of Sophie Meyer and Feibes Uri Boas. Although his grandparents were observant Jews, his parents embraced Enlightenment values, including their assimilation into modern German society. Boas's parents were educated, well-to-do, and liberal; they did not like dogma of any kind. An important early influence was the avuncular Abraham Jacobi, his mother's brother-in-law and a friend of Karl Marx, and who was to advise him through Boas's career. Due to this, Boas was granted the independence to think for himself and pursue his own interests. Early in life, he displayed a penchant for both nature and natural sciences. Boas vocally opposed antisemitism and refused to convert to Christianity, but he did not identify himself as a Jew. This is disputed however by Ruth Bunzel, a protégée of Boas, who called him "the essential protestant; he valued autonomy above all things." According to his biographer, "He was an 'ethnic' German, preserving and promoting German culture and values in America."Douglas Cole 1999 Franz Boas: The Early Years, 1858–1906 p. 280. Washington: Douglas and MacIntyre. In an autobiographical sketch, Boas wrote: > The background of my early thinking was a German home in which the ideals of > the revolution of 1848 were a living force. My father, liberal, but not > active in public affairs; my mother, idealistic, with a lively interest in > public matters; the founder about 1854 of the kindergarten in my hometown, > devoted to science. My parents had broken through the shackles of dogma. My > father had retained an emotional affection for the ceremonial of his > parental home, without allowing it to influence his intellectual > freedom.Boas, Franz. 1938. An Anthropologist's Credo. The Nation > 147:201–204. part 1, part 2 (PDF). From kindergarten on, Boas was educated in natural history, a subject he enjoyed.Koelsch, William A. 2004. "Franz Boas, Geographer, and the Problem of Disciplinary Identity." Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 40(1):1–22 In gymnasium, he was most proud of his research on the geographic distribution of plants. thumb|Boas's dissertation: Beiträge zur Erkenntniss der Farbe des Wassers When he started his university studies, Boas first attended Heidelberg University for a semester followed by four terms at Bonn University, studying physics, geography, and mathematics at these schools.Harris, 1968, p. 253.Koelsch, 2004, p. 1. In 1879, he hoped to transfer to Berlin University to study physics under Hermann von Helmholtz, but ended up transferring to the University of Kiel instead due to family reasons.Koelsch, 2004, p. 1 At Kiel, Boas had wanted to focus on the mathematical topic of C.F. Gauss's law of the normal distribution of errors for his dissertation, but he ultimately had to settle for a topic chosen for him by his doctoral advisor, physicist Gustav Karsten, on the optical properties of water.Cole, 1999, pp. 52 and 55. Boas completed his dissertation entitled Contributions to the Perception of the Color of Water,Cole, 1999, p. 298. which examined the absorption, reflection, and polarization of light in water, and was awarded a PhD in physics in 1881.Bohannan and Glazer, 1988, p. 81Murray, Stephen O. 1993. Theory Groups and the Study of Language in North America: A Social History. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 47Williams, Vernon J. Jr. 1998. Franz Boas Paradox and the African American Intelligentsia. In V.P. Franklin (ed.) African Americans and Jews in the Twentieth Century: Studies in Convergence and Conflict. Columbia: University of Missouri Press. 54–86. p. 57.Cole, 1999, p. 53. While at Bonn, Boas had attended geography classes taught by the geographer Theobald Fischer and the two established a friendship, with the coursework and friendship continuing after both relocated to Kiel at the same time.Lowie, 1947, p. 303.Harris, 1968, p. 265.Bohannan, Paul, and Mark Glazer (eds.). 1988. High Points in Anthropology (2nd Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 81Cole, 1999, pp. 49, 51, 55, 56.Koelsch, 2004, p. 4 Fischer, a student of Carl Ritter, rekindled Boas's interest in geography and ultimately had more influence on him than did Karsten, and thus some biographers view Boas as more of a geographer than a physicist at this stage.Harris, 1968, p. 265Bohannan and Glaser, 1988, p. 81.Adams, William Y. 2016. The Boasians: Founding Fathers and Mothers of American Anthropology. Falls Village: Hamilton Books. In addition to the major in physics, Adams, citing Kroeber, states that "[i]n accordance with German tradition at the time... he also had to defend six minor theses",Adams, 2016, p. 39 and Boas likely completed a minor in geography,Williams, 1998, p. 57 which would explain why Fischer was one of Boas's degree examiners.Koelsch, 2004, p. 5 Because of this close relationship between Fischer and Boas, some biographers have gone so far as to incorrectly state that Boas "followed" Fischer to Kiel, and that Boas received a PhD in geography with Fischer as his doctoral advisor.Speth, William W. 1999. How It Came to Be: Carl O. Sauer, Franz Boas and the Meanings of AnthropogographyEllensburg: Ephemera Press. p. 128.Adams, 2016, pp. 3, 39 For his part, Boas self-identified as a geographer by the time he completed his doctorate,Koelsch, 2004, pp. 1, 4 prompting his sister, Toni, to write in 1883, "After long years of infidelity, my brother was re-conquered by geography, the first love of his boyhood."quoted in Cole, 1999, p. 57. In his dissertation research, Boas's methodology included investigating how different intensities of light created different colors when interacting with different types of water; however, he encountered difficulty in being able to objectively perceive slight differences in the color of water, and as a result became intrigued by this problem of perception and its influence on quantitative measurements.Murray, 1993, p. 47. Boas, due to tone deafness, would later encounter difficulties also in studying tonal languages such as Laguna.Marmon Silko, Leslie (1981). Storyteller, p. 254. Arcade. . His student Parsons stayed behind and documented Laguna language and stories. Boas had already been interested in Kantian philosophy since taking a course on aesthetics with Kuno Fischer at Heidelberg. These factors led Boas to consider pursuing research in psychophysics, which explores the relationship between the psychological and the physical, after completing his doctorate, but he had no training in psychology.Liss, Julia E. 1995 Patterns of Strangeness: Franz Boas, Modernism, and the Origins of Anthropology. In Prehistories of the Future: The Primitivist Project and the Culture of Modernism. E. Barkan and R. Bush, eds. pp. 114–130. Stanford. CA: Stanford University Press.Liss, Julia E. 1996. "German Culture and German Science in the Bildung of Franz Boas". In History of Anthropology, vol. 8. Volksgeist as Method and Ethic. G. W. Stocking Jr., ed. pp. 155–184. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Boas did publish six articles on psychophysics during his year of military service (1882–1883), but ultimately he decided to focus on geography, primarily so he could receive sponsorship for his planned Baffin Island expedition.Harris, 1968, p. 264. ==Post-graduate studies== Boas took up geography as a way to explore his growing interest in the relationship between subjective experience and the objective world. At the time, German geographers were divided over the causes of cultural variation. Many argued that the physical environment was the principal determining factor, but others (notably Friedrich Ratzel) argued that the diffusion of ideas through human migration is more important. In 1883, encouraged by Theobald Fischer, Boas went to Baffin Island to conduct geographic research on the impact of the physical environment on native Inuit migrations. The first of many ethnographic field trips, Boas culled his notes to write his first monograph titled The Central Eskimo, which was published in 1888 in the 6th Annual Report from the Bureau of American Ethnology. Boas lived and worked closely with the Inuit on Baffin Island, and he developed an abiding interest in the way people lived. In the perpetual darkness of the Arctic winter, Boas reported, he and his traveling companion became lost and were forced to keep sledding for twenty-six hours through ice, soft snow, and temperatures that dropped below −46 °C. The following day, Boas penciled in his diary, Boas went on to explain in the same entry that "all service, therefore, which a man can perform for humanity must serve to promote truth." Before his departure, his father had insisted he be accompanied by one of the family's servants, Wilhelm Weike who cooked for him and kept a journal of the expedition. Boas was nonetheless forced to depend on various Inuit groups for everything from directions and food to shelter and companionship. It was a difficult year filled with tremendous hardships that included frequent bouts of disease, mistrust, pestilence, and danger. Boas successfully searched for areas not yet surveyed and found unique ethnographic objects, but the long winter and the lonely treks across perilous terrain forced him to search his soul to find a direction for his life as a scientist and a citizen. Boas's interest in indigenous communities grew as he worked at the Royal Ethnological Museum in Berlin, where he was introduced to members of the Nuxalk Nation of British Columbia, which sparked a lifelong relationship with the First Nations of the Pacific Northwest. He returned to Berlin to complete his studies. In 1886, Boas defended (with Helmholtz's support) his habilitation thesis, Baffin Land, and was named in geography. While on Baffin Island he began to develop his interest in studying non-Western cultures (resulting in his book, The Central Eskimo, published in 1888). In 1885, Boas went to work with physical anthropologist Rudolf Virchow and ethnologist Adolf Bastian at the Royal Ethnological Museum in Berlin. Boas had studied anatomy with Virchow two years earlier while preparing for the Baffin Island expedition. At the time, Virchow was involved in a vociferous debate over evolution with his former student, Ernst Haeckel. Haeckel had abandoned his medical practice to study comparative anatomy after reading Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species, and vigorously promoted Darwin's ideas in Germany. However, like most other natural scientists prior to the rediscovery of Mendelian genetics in 1900 and the development of the modern synthesis, Virchow felt that Darwin's theories were weak because they lacked a theory of cellular mutability. Accordingly, Virchow favored Lamarckian models of evolution. This debate resonated with debates among geographers. Lamarckians believed that environmental forces could precipitate rapid and enduring changes in organisms that had no inherited source; thus, Lamarckians and environmental determinists often found themselves on the same side of debates. But Boas worked more closely with Bastian, who was noted for his antipathy to environmental determinism. Instead, he argued for the "psychic unity of mankind", a belief that all humans had the same intellectual capacity, and that all cultures were based on the same basic mental principles. Variations in custom and belief, he argued, were the products of historical accidents. This view resonated with Boas's experiences on Baffin Island and drew him towards anthropology. While at the Royal Ethnological Museum Boas became interested in the Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest, and after defending his habilitation thesis, he left for a three-month trip to British Columbia via New York. In January 1887, he was offered a job as assistant editor of the journal Science. Alienated by growing antisemitism and nationalism as well as the very limited academic opportunities for a geographer in Germany, Boas decided to stay in the United States. Possibly he received additional motivation for this decision from his romance with Marie Krackowizer, whom he married in the same year. With a family underway and under financial stress, Boas also resorted to pilfering bones and skulls from native burial sites to sell to museums.Rosemary Lévy Zumwalt, Franz Boas: The Emergence of the Anthropologist, University of Nebraska Press 2019 pp.182-183 Aside from his editorial work at Science, Boas secured an appointment as docent in anthropology at Clark University, in 1888. Boas was concerned about university president G. Stanley Hall's interference in his research, yet in 1889 he was appointed as the head of a newly created department of anthropology at Clark University. In the early 1890s, he went on a series of expeditions which were referred to as the Morris K. Jesup Expedition. The primary goal of these expeditions was to illuminate Asiatic- American relations.Cole, Douglas 1983 "The Value of a Person Lies in His Herzensbildung": Franz Boas's Baffin Island Letter-Diary, 1883–1884. In Observers Observed: Essays on Ethnographic Fieldwork. George W. Stocking Jr., ed. pp. 13–52. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Cole, Douglas. 1999/ Franz Boas: The Early Years. 1858–1906. Seattle: University of Washington Press. In 1892 Boas, along with another member of the Clark faculty, resigned in protest of the alleged infringement by Hall on academic freedom. ==World's Columbian Exposition== Anthropologist Frederic Ward Putnam, director and curator of the Peabody Museum at Harvard University, who had been appointed as head of the Department of Ethnology and Archeology for the Chicago Fair in 1892, chose Boas as his first assistant at Chicago to prepare for the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition or Chicago World's Fair, the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the Americas. Boas had a chance to apply his approach to exhibits. Boas directed a team of about one hundred assistants, mandated to create anthropology and ethnology exhibits on the Indians of North America and South America that were living at the time Christopher Columbus arrived in America while searching for India. Putnam intended the World's Columbian Exposition to be a celebration of Columbus' voyage. Putnam argued that showing late nineteenth century Inuit and First Nations (then called Eskimo and Indians) "in their natural conditions of life" would provide a contrast and celebrate the four centuries of Western accomplishments since 1493. Franz Boas traveled north to gather ethnographic material for the Exposition. Boas had intended public science in creating exhibitions for the Exposition where visitors to the Midway could learn about other cultures. Boas arranged for fourteen Kwakwaka'wakw aboriginals from British Columbia to come and reside in a mock Kwakwaka'wakw village, where they could perform their daily tasks in context. Inuit were there with 12-foot-long whips made of sealskin, wearing sealskin clothing and showing how adept they were in sealskin kayaks. His experience with the Exposition provided the first of a series of shocks to Franz Boas's faith in public anthropology. The visitors were not there to be educated. By 1916, Boas had come to recognize with a certain resignation that "the number of people in our country who are willing and able to enter into the modes of thought of other nations is altogether too small ... The American who is cognizant only of his own standpoint sets himself up as arbiter of the world."A collection of 33 public addresses by the late Boas A collection of 33 public addresses by the late Boas After the exposition, the ethnographic material collected formed the basis of the newly created Field Museum in Chicago with Boas as the curator of anthropology. He worked there until 1894, when he was replaced (against his will) by BAE archeologist William Henry Holmes. In 1896, Boas was appointed Assistant Curator of Ethnology and Somatology of the American Museum of Natural History under Putnam. In 1897, he organized the Jesup North Pacific Expedition, a five-year-long field-study of the nations of the Pacific Northwest, whose ancestors had migrated across the Bering Strait from Siberia. He attempted to organize exhibits along contextual, rather than evolutionary, lines. He also developed a research program in line with his curatorial goals: describing his instructions to his students in terms of widening contexts of interpretation within a society, he explained that "... they get the specimens; they get explanations of the specimens; they get connected texts that partly refer to the specimens and partly to abstract things concerning the people; and they get grammatical information". These widening contexts of interpretation were abstracted into one context, the context in which the specimens, or assemblages of specimens, would be displayed: "... we want a collection arranged according to tribes, in order to teach the particular style of each group". His approach, however, brought him into conflict with the President of the Museum, Morris Jesup, and its director, Hermon Bumpus. By 1900 Boas had begun to retreat from American museum anthropology as a tool of education or reform (Hinsley 1992: 361). He resigned in 1905, never to work for a museum again. ==Late 19th century debates== ===Science versus history=== Some scholars, like Boas's student Alfred Kroeber, believed that Boas used his research in physics as a model for his work in anthropology. Many others, however—including Boas's student Alexander Lesser, and later researchers such as Marian W. Smith, Herbert S. Lewis, and Matti Bunzl—have pointed out that Boas explicitly rejected physics in favor of history as a model for his anthropological research. This distinction between science and history has its origins in 19th-century German academe, which distinguished between Naturwissenschaften (the sciences) and Geisteswissenschaften (the humanities), or between Gesetzwissenschaften (the law - giving sciences) and Geschichtswissenschaften (history). Generally, Naturwissenschaften and Gesetzwissenschaften refer to the study of phenomena that are governed by objective natural laws, while the latter terms in the two oppositions refer to those phenomena that have to mean only in terms of human perception or experience. In 1884, Kantian philosopher Wilhelm Windelband coined the terms nomothetic and idiographic to describe these two divergent approaches. He observed that most scientists employ some mix of both, but in differing proportions; he considered physics a perfect example of a nomothetic science, and history, an idiographic science. Moreover, he argued that each approach has its origin in one of the two "interests" of reason Kant had identified in the Critique of Judgement—one "generalizing", the other "specifying". (Winkelband's student Heinrich Rickert elaborated on this distinction in The Limits of Concept Formation in Natural Science : A Logical Introduction to the Historical Sciences; Boas's students Alfred Kroeber and Edward Sapir relied extensively on this work in defining their own approach to anthropology.) Although Kant considered these two interests of reason to be objective and universal, the distinction between the natural and human sciences was institutionalized in Germany, through the organization of scholarly research and teaching, following the Enlightenment. In Germany, the Enlightenment was dominated by Kant himself, who sought to establish principles based on universal rationality. In reaction to Kant, German scholars such as Johann Gottfried Herder (an influence to Boas) argued that human creativity, which necessarily takes unpredictable and highly diverse forms, is as important as human rationality. In 1795, the great linguist and philosopher Wilhelm von Humboldt called for an anthropology that would synthesize Kant's and Herder's interests. Humboldt founded the University of Berlin in 1809, and his work in geography, history, and psychology provided the milieu in which Boas's intellectual orientation matured. Historians working in the Humboldtian tradition developed ideas that would become central in Boasian anthropology. Leopold von Ranke defined the task of the historian as "merely to show as it actually was", which is a cornerstone of Boas's empiricism. Wilhelm Dilthey emphasized the centrality of "understanding" to human knowledge, and that the lived experience of a historian could provide a basis for an empathic understanding of the situation of a historical actor.A Franz Boas Reader: The Shaping of American Anthropology, 1883–1911, University of Chicago Press, 1989, p. 11. For Boas, both values were well-expressed in a quote from Goethe: "A single action or event is interesting, not because it is explainable, but because it is true." The influence of these ideas on Boas is apparent in his 1887 essay, "The Study of Geography", in which he distinguished between physical science, which seeks to discover the laws governing phenomena, and historical science, which seeks a thorough understanding of phenomena on their own terms. Boas argued that geography is and must be historical in this sense. In 1887, after his Baffin Island expedition, Boas wrote "The Principles of Ethnological Classification", in which he developed this argument in application to anthropology: This formulation echoes Ratzel's focus on historical processes of human migration and culture contact and Bastian's rejection of environmental determinism. It also emphasizes culture as a context ("surroundings"), and the importance of history. These are the hallmarks of Boasian anthropology (which Marvin Harris would later call "historical particularism"), would guide Boas's research over the next decade, as well as his instructions to future students. (See Lewis 2001b for an alternative view to Harris'.) Although context and history were essential elements to Boas's understanding of anthropology as Geisteswissenschaften and Geschichtswissenschaften, there is one essential element that Boasian anthropology shares with Naturwissenschaften: empiricism. In 1949, Boas's student Alfred Kroeber summed up the three principles of empiricism that define Boasian anthropology as a science: # The method of science is, to begin with, questions, not with answers, least of all with value judgments. # Science is a dispassionate inquiry and therefore cannot take over outright any ideologies "already formulated in everyday life" since these are themselves inevitably traditional and normally tinged with emotional prejudice. # Sweeping all-or-none, black-and-white judgments are characteristic of categorical attitudes and have no place in science, whose very nature is inferential and judicious. ===Orthogenetic versus Darwinian evolution=== One of the greatest accomplishments of Boas and his students was their critique of theories of physical, social, and cultural evolution current at that time. This critique is central to Boas's work in museums, as well as his work in all four fields of anthropology. As historian George Stocking noted, however, Boas's main project was to distinguish between biological and cultural heredity, and to focus on the cultural processes that he believed had the greatest influence over social life.Stocking, George W. Jr. 1968. Race, culture, and evolution: Essays in the history of anthropology. New York: Free Press. 264 In fact, Boas supported Darwinian theory, although he did not assume that it automatically applied to cultural and historical phenomena (and indeed was a lifelong opponent of 19th-century theories of cultural evolution, such as those of Lewis H. Morgan and Edward Burnett Tylor).Alexander Lesser, 1981 "Franz Boas" p. 25 in Sydel Silverman, ed. From Totems to Teachers New York: Columbia University Press The notion of evolution that the Boasians ridiculed and rejected was the then dominant belief in orthogenesis—a determinate or teleological process of evolution in which change occurs progressively regardless of natural selection. Boas rejected the prevalent theories of social evolution developed by Edward Burnett Tylor, Lewis Henry Morgan, and Herbert Spencer not because he rejected the notion of "evolution" per se, but because he rejected orthogenetic notions of evolution in favor of Darwinian evolution. The difference between these prevailing theories of cultural evolution and Darwinian theory cannot be overstated: the orthogeneticists argued that all societies progress through the same stages in the same sequence. Thus, although the Inuit with whom Boas worked at Baffin Island, and the Germans with whom he studied as a graduate student, were contemporaries of one another, evolutionists argued that the Inuit were at an earlier stage in their evolution, and Germans at a later stage. Boasians argued that virtually every claim made by cultural evolutionists was contradicted by the data, or reflected a profound misinterpretation of the data. As Boas's student Robert Lowie remarked, "Contrary to some misleading statements on the subject, there have been no responsible opponents of evolution as 'scientifically proved', though there has been determined hostility to an evolutionary metaphysics that falsifies the established facts". In an unpublished lecture, Boas characterized his debt to Darwin thus: > Although the idea does not appear quite definitely expressed in Darwin's > discussion of the development of mental powers, it seems quite clear that > his main object has been to express his conviction that the mental faculties > developed essentially without a purposive end, but they originated as > variations, and were continued by natural selection. This idea was also > brought out very clearly by Wallace, who emphasized that apparently > reasonable activities of man might very well have developed without an > actual application of reasoning. Thus, Boas suggested that what appear to be patterns or structures in a culture were not a product of conscious design, but rather the outcome of diverse mechanisms that produce cultural variation (such as diffusion and independent invention), shaped by the social environment in which people live and act. Boas concluded his lecture by acknowledging the importance of Darwin's work: "I hope I may have succeeded in presenting to you, however imperfectly, the currents of thought due to the work of the immortal Darwin which have helped to make anthropology what it is at the present time."Boas, 1909 lecture; see Lewis 2001b. ==Early career: museum studies== In the late 19th century anthropology in the United States was dominated by the Bureau of American Ethnology, directed by John Wesley Powell, a geologist who favored Lewis Henry Morgan's theory of cultural evolution. The BAE was housed at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, and the Smithsonian's curator for ethnology, Otis T. Mason, shared Powell's commitment to cultural evolution. (The Peabody Museum at Harvard University was an important, though lesser, center of anthropological research). It was while working on museum collections and exhibitions that Boas formulated his basic approach to culture, which led him to break with museums and seek to establish anthropology as an academic discipline. During this period Boas made five more trips to the Pacific Northwest. His continuing field research led him to think of culture as a local context for human action. His emphasis on local context and history led him to oppose the dominant model at the time, cultural evolution. Boas initially broke with evolutionary theory over the issue of kinship. Lewis Henry Morgan had argued that all human societies move from an initial form of matrilineal organization to patrilineal organization. First Nations groups on the northern coast of British Columbia, like the Tsimshian, and Tlingit, were organized into matrilineal clans. First Nations on the southern coast, like the Nootka and the Salish, however, were organized into patrilineal groups. Boas focused on the Kwakiutl, who lived between the two clusters. The Kwakiutl seemed to have a mix of features. Prior to marriage, a man would assume his wife's father's name and crest. His children took on these names and crests as well, although his sons would lose them when they got married. Names and crests thus stayed in the mother's line. At first, Boas—like Morgan before him—suggested that the Kwakiutl had been matrilineal like their neighbors to the north, but that they were beginning to evolve patrilineal groups. In 1897, however, he repudiated himself, and argued that the Kwakiutl were changing from a prior patrilineal organization to a matrilineal one, as they learned about matrilineal principles from their northern neighbors. Boas's rejection of Morgan's theories led him, in an 1887 article, to challenge Mason's principles of museum display. At stake, however, were more basic issues of causality and classification. The evolutionary approach to material culture led museum curators to organize objects on display according to function or level of technological development. Curators assumed that changes in the forms of artifacts reflect some natural process of progressive evolution. Boas, however, felt that the form an artifact took reflected the circumstances under which it was produced and used. Arguing that "[t]hough like causes have like effects like effects have not like causes", Boas realized that even artifacts that were similar in form might have developed in very different contexts, for different reasons. Mason's museum displays, organized along evolutionary lines, mistakenly juxtapose like effects; those organized along contextual lines would reveal like causes. ===Minik Wallace=== In his capacity as Assistant Curator at the American Museum of Natural History, Franz Boas requested that Arctic explorer Robert E. Peary bring one Inuk from Greenland to New York. Peary obliged and brought six Inuit to New York in 1897 who lived in the basement of the American Museum of Natural History. Four of them died from tuberculosis within a year of arriving in New York, one returned to Greenland, and a young boy, Minik Wallace, remained living in the museum. Boas staged a funeral for the father of the boy and had the remains dissected and placed in the museum. Boas has been widely critiqued for his role in bringing the Inuit to New York and his disinterest in them once they had served their purpose at the museum.Harper, Kenn. (1986/2000) Give Me My Father's Body: The Life of Minik, the New York Eskimo. South Royalton, VT: Steerforth Press. ==Later career: academic anthropology== thumb|Columbia University library in 1903 Boas was appointed a lecturer in physical anthropology at Columbia University in 1896, and promoted to professor of anthropology in 1899. However, the various anthropologists teaching at Columbia had been assigned to different departments. When Boas left the Museum of Natural History, he negotiated with Columbia University to consolidate the various professors into one department, of which Boas would take charge. Boas's program at Columbia was the first Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) program in anthropology in America.(The first American PhD in anthropology was actually granted from Clark University, though still under the leadership of Boas.) Moore, Jerry D. (2009). "Franz Boas: Culture in Context". Visions of Culture: an Introduction to Anthropological Theories and Theorists. Walnut Creek, California: Altamira. pp. 33. During this time Boas played a key role in organizing the American Anthropological Association (AAA) as an umbrella organization for the emerging field. Boas originally wanted the AAA to be limited to professional anthropologists, but William John McGee (another geologist who had joined the BAE under Powell's leadership) argued that the organization should have an open membership. McGee's position prevailed and he was elected the organization's first president in 1902; Boas was elected a vice-president, along with Putnam, Powell, and Holmes. At both Columbia and the AAA, Boas encouraged the "four-field" concept of anthropology; he personally contributed to physical anthropology, linguistics, archaeology, as well as cultural anthropology. His work in these fields was pioneering: in physical anthropology he led scholars away from static taxonomical classifications of race, to an emphasis on human biology and evolution; in linguistics he broke through the limitations of classic philology and established some of the central problems in modern linguistics and cognitive anthropology; in cultural anthropology he (along with the Polish-English anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski) established the contextualist approach to culture, cultural relativism, and the participant observation method of fieldwork. The four-field approach understood not merely as bringing together different kinds of anthropologists into one department, but as reconceiving anthropology through the integration of different objects of anthropological research into one overarching object, was one of Boas's fundamental contributions to the discipline, and came to characterize American anthropology against that of England, France, or Germany. This approach defines as its object the human species as a totality. This focus did not lead Boas to seek to reduce all forms of humanity and human activity to some lowest common denominator; rather, he understood the essence of the human species to be the tremendous variation in human form and activity (an approach that parallels Charles Darwin's approach to species in general). In his 1907 essay, "Anthropology", Boas identified two basic questions for anthropologists: "Why are the tribes and nations of the world different, and how have the present differences developed?". Amplifying these questions, he explained the object of anthropological study thus: > We do not discuss the anatomical, physiological, and mental characteristics > of a man considered as an individual; but we are interested in the diversity > of these traits in groups of men found in different geographical areas and > in different social classes. It is our task to inquire into the causes that > have brought about the observed differentiation and to investigate the > sequence of events that have led to the establishment of the multifarious > forms of human life. In other words, we are interested in the anatomical and > mental characteristics of men living under the same biological, > geographical, and social environment, and as determined by their past. These questions signal a marked break from then-current ideas about human diversity, which assumed that some people have a history, evident in a historical (or written) record, while other people, lacking writing, also lack history. For some, this distinction between two different kinds of societies explained the difference between history, sociology, economics and other disciplines that focus on people with writing, and anthropology, which was supposed to focus on people without writing. Boas rejected this distinction between kinds of societies, and this division of labor in the academy. He understood all societies to have a history, and all societies to be proper objects of the anthropological society. In order to approach literate and non- literate societies the same way, he emphasized the importance of studying human history through the analysis of other things besides written texts. Thus, in his 1904 article, "The History of Anthropology", Boas wrote that > The historical development of the work of anthropologists seems to single > out clearly a domain of knowledge that heretofore has not been treated by > any other science. It is the biological history of mankind in all its > varieties; linguistics applied to people without written languages; the > ethnology of people without historical records; and prehistoric archeology. Historians and social theorists in the 18th and 19th centuries had speculated as to the causes of this differentiation, but Boas dismissed these theories, especially the dominant theories of social evolution and cultural evolution as speculative. He endeavored to establish a discipline that would base its claims on a rigorous empirical study. One of Boas's most important books, The Mind of Primitive Man (1911), integrated his theories concerning the history and development of cultures and established a program that would dominate American anthropology for the next fifteen years. In this study, he established that in any given population, biology, language, material, and symbolic culture, are autonomous; that each is an equally important dimension of human nature, but that no one of these dimensions is reducible to another. In other words, he established that culture does not depend on any independent variables. He emphasized that the biological, linguistic, and cultural traits of any group of people are the product of historical developments involving both cultural and non-cultural forces. He established that cultural plurality is a fundamental feature of humankind and that the specific cultural environment structures much individual behavior. Boas also presented himself as a role model for the citizen-scientist, who understand that even were the truth pursued as its own end, all knowledge has moral consequences. The Mind of Primitive Man ends with an appeal to humanism: > I hope the discussions outlined in these pages have shown that the data of > anthropology teach us a greater tolerance of forms of civilization different > from our own, that we should learn to look on foreign races with greater > sympathy and with a conviction that, as all races have contributed in the > past to cultural progress in one way or another, so they will be capable of > advancing the interests of mankind if we are only willing to give them a > fair opportunity. ===Physical anthropology=== Boas's work in physical anthropology brought together his interest in Darwinian evolution with his interest in migration as a cause of change. His most important research in this field was his study of changes in the body from among children of immigrants in New York. Other researchers had already noted differences in height, cranial measurements, and other physical features between Americans and people from different parts of Europe. Many used these differences to argue that there is an innate biological difference between races. Boas's primary interest—in symbolic and material culture and in language—was the study of processes of change; he therefore set out to determine whether bodily forms are also subject to processes of change. Boas studied 17,821 people, divided into seven ethno- national groups. Boas found that average measures of the cranial size of immigrants were significantly different from members of these groups who were born in the United States. Moreover, he discovered that average measures of the cranial size of children born within ten years of their mothers' arrival were significantly different from those of children born more than ten years after their mothers' arrival. Boas did not deny that physical features such as height or cranial size were inherited; he did, however, argue that the environment has an influence on these features, which is expressed through change over time. This work was central to his influential argument that differences between races were not immutable. * Boas observed: > The head form, which has always been one of the most stable and permanent > characteristics of human races, undergoes far-reaching changes due to the > transfer of European races to American soil. The East European Hebrew, who > has a round head, becomes more long-headed; the South Italian, who in Italy > has an exceedingly long head, becomes more short-headed; so that both > approach a uniform type in this country, so far as the head is > concerned.Abbott, Karen, Sin in the Second City, Random House, 2008, p. 206 These findings were radical at the time and continue to be debated. In 2002, the anthropologists Corey S. Sparks and Richard L. Jantz claimed that differences between children born to the same parents in Europe and America were very small and insignificant and that there was no detectable effect of exposure to the American environment on the cranial index in children. They argued that their results contradicted Boas's original findings and demonstrated that they may no longer be used to support arguments of plasticity in cranial morphology. However, Jonathan Marks—a well-known physical anthropologist and former president of the General Anthropology section of the American Anthropological Association—has remarked that this revisionist study of Boas's work "has the ring of desperation to it (if not obfuscation), and has been quickly rebutted by more mainstream biological anthropology".Marks, Jonathan What It Means to Be 98% Chimpanzee: Apes, People, and Their Genes, University of California Press, 2003 p. xviii In 2003 anthropologists Clarence C. Gravlee, H. Russell Bernard, and William R. Leonard reanalyzed Boas's data and concluded that most of Boas's original findings were correct. Moreover, they applied new statistical, computer- assisted methods to Boas's data and discovered more evidence for cranial plasticity. In a later publication, Gravlee, Bernard and Leonard reviewed Sparks and Jantz's analysis. They argue that Sparks and Jantz misrepresented Boas's claims and that Sparks's and Jantz's data actually support Boas. For example, they point out that Sparks and Jantz look at changes in cranial size in relation to how long an individual has been in the United States in order to test the influence of the environment. Boas, however, looked at changes in cranial size in relation to how long the mother had been in the United States. They argue that Boas's method is more useful because the prenatal environment is a crucial developmental factor. A further publication by Jantz based on Gravlee et al. claims that Boas had cherry picked two groups of immigrants (Sicilians and Hebrews) which had varied most towards the same mean, and discarded other groups which had varied in the opposite direction. He commented, "Using the recent reanalysis by Gravlee et al. (2003), we can observe in Figure 2 that the maximum difference in the cranial index due to immigration (in Hebrews) is much smaller than the maximum ethnic difference, between Sicilians and Bohemians. It shows that long-headed parents produce long headed offspring and vice versa. To make the argument that children of immigrants converge onto an "American type" required Boas to use the two groups that changed the most." Although some sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists have suggested that Boas was opposed to Darwinian evolution, Boas, in fact, was a committed proponent of Darwinian evolutionary thought. In 1888, he declared that "the development of ethnology is largely due to the general recognition of the principle of biological evolution". Since Boas's times, physical anthropologists have established that the human capacity for culture is a product of human evolution. In fact, Boas's research on changes in body form played an important role in the rise of Darwinian theory. Boas was trained at a time when biologists had no understanding of genetics; Mendelian genetics became widely known only after 1900. Prior to that time biologists relied on the measurement of physical traits as empirical data for any theory of evolution. Boas's biometric studies led him to question the use of this method and kind of data. In a speech to anthropologists in Berlin in 1912, Boas argued that at best such statistics could only raise biological questions, and not answer them. It was in this context that anthropologists began turning to genetics as a basis for any understanding of biological variation. ===Linguistics=== Boas also contributed greatly to the foundation of linguistics as a science in the United States. He published many descriptive studies of Native American languages, wrote on theoretical difficulties in classifying languages, and laid out a research program for studying the relations between language and culture which his students such as Edward Sapir, Paul Rivet, and Alfred Kroeber followed.Boas' view of grammatical meaning. R Jakobson – American Anthropologist, 1959Stocking, G. W. 1974. "The Boas plan for the study of American Indian languages," in Studies in the history of linguistics: Traditions and paradigms. Edited by D. Hymes, pp. 454–83. Bloomington: Indiana University Press His 1889 article "On Alternating Sounds", however, made a singular contribution to the methodology of both linguistics and cultural anthropology. It is a response to a paper presented in 1888 by Daniel Garrison Brinton, at the time a professor of American linguistics and archaeology at the University of Pennsylvania. Brinton observed that in the spoken languages of many Native Americans, certain sounds regularly alternated. Brinton argued that this pervasive inconsistency was a sign of linguistic and evolutionary inferiority. Boas had heard similar phonetic shifts during his research in Baffin Island and in the Pacific Northwest. Nevertheless, he argued that "alternating sounds" is not at all a feature of Native American languages—indeed, he argued, they do not really exist. Rather than take alternating sounds as objective proof of different stages in cultural evolution, Boas considered them in terms of his longstanding interest in the subjective perception of objective physical phenomena. He also considered his earlier critique of evolutionary museum displays. There, he pointed out that two things (artifacts of material culture) that appear to be similar may, in fact, be quite different. In this article, he raises the possibility that two things (sounds) that appear to be different may, in fact, be the same. In short, he shifted attention to the perception of different sounds. Boas begins by raising an empirical question: when people describe one sound in different ways, is it because they cannot perceive the difference, or might there be another reason? He immediately establishes that he is not concerned with cases involving perceptual deficit—the aural equivalent of color-blindness. He points out that the question of people who describe one sound in different ways is comparable to that of people who describe different sounds in one way. This is crucial for research in descriptive linguistics: when studying a new language, how are we to note the pronunciation of different words? (in this point, Boas anticipates and lays the groundwork for the distinction between phonemics and phonetics.) People may pronounce a word in a variety of ways and still recognize that they are using the same word. The issue, then, is not "that such sensations are not recognized in their individuality" (in other words, people recognize differences in pronunciations); rather, it is that sounds "are classified according to their similarity" (in other words, that people classify a variety of perceived sounds into one category). A comparable visual example would involve words for colors. The English word green can be used to refer to a variety of shades, hues, and tints. But there are some languages that have no word for green.Berlin, Brent and Paul Kay 1969 Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution In such cases, people might classify what we would call green as either yellow or blue. This is not an example of color- blindness—people can perceive differences in color, but they categorize similar colors in a different way than English speakers. Boas applied these principles to his studies of Inuit languages. Researchers have reported a variety of spellings for a given word. In the past, researchers have interpreted this data in a number of ways—it could indicate local variations in the pronunciation of a word, or it could indicate different dialects. Boas argues an alternative explanation: that the difference is not in how Inuit pronounce the word, but rather in how English-speaking scholars perceive the pronunciation of the word. It is not that English speakers are physically incapable of perceiving the sound in question; rather, the phonetic system of English cannot accommodate the perceived sound. Although Boas was making a very specific contribution to the methods of descriptive linguistics, his ultimate point is far reaching: observer bias need not be personal, it can be cultural. In other words, the perceptual categories of Western researchers may systematically cause a Westerner to misperceive or to fail to perceive entirely a meaningful element in another culture. As in his critique of Otis Mason's museum displays, Boas demonstrated that what appeared to be evidence of cultural evolution was really the consequence of unscientific methods and a reflection of Westerners' beliefs about their own cultural superiority. This point provides the methodological foundation for Boas's cultural relativism: elements of a culture are meaningful in that culture's terms, even if they may be meaningless (or take on a radically different meaning) in another culture. ===Cultural anthropology=== The essence of Boas's approach to ethnography is found in his early essay on "The Study of Geography". There he argued for an approach that When Boas's student Ruth Benedict gave her presidential address to the American Anthropological Association in 1947, she reminded anthropologists of the importance of this idiographic stance by quoting literary critic A. C. Bradley: "We watch 'what is', seeing that so it happened and must have happened". This orientation led Boas to promote a cultural anthropology characterized by a strong commitment to * Empiricism (with a resulting skepticism of attempts to formulate "scientific laws" of culture) * A notion of culture as fluid and dynamic * Ethnographic fieldwork, in which the anthropologist resides for an extended period among the people being researched, conducts research in the native language, and collaborates with native researchers, as a method of collecting data, and * Cultural relativism as a methodological tool while conducting fieldwork, and as a heuristic tool while analyzing data. Boas argued that in order to understand "what is"—in cultural anthropology, the specific cultural traits (behaviors, beliefs, and symbols)—one had to examine them in their local context. He also understood that as people migrate from one place to another, and as the cultural context changes over time, the elements of a culture, and their meanings, will change, which led him to emphasize the importance of local histories for an analysis of cultures. Although other anthropologists at the time, such as Bronisław Malinowski and Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown focused on the study of societies, which they understood to be clearly bounded, Boas's attention to history, which reveals the extent to which traits diffuse from one place to another, led him to view cultural boundaries as multiple and overlapping, and as highly permeable. Thus, Boas's student Robert Lowie once described culture as a thing of "shreds and patches". Boas and his students understood that as people try to make sense of their world they seek to integrate its disparate elements, with the result that different cultures could be characterized as having different configurations or patterns. But Boasians also understood that such integration was always in tensions with diffusion, and any appearance of a stable configuration is contingent (see Bashkow 2004: 445). During Boas's lifetime, as today, many Westerners saw a fundamental difference between modern societies, which are characterized by dynamism and individualism, and traditional societies, which are stable and homogeneous. Boas's empirical field research, however, led him to argue against this comparison. For example, his 1903 essay, "Decorative Designs of Alaskan Needlecases: A History of Conventional Designs, Based on Materials in a U.S. Museum", provides another example of how Boas made broad theoretical claims based on a detailed analysis of empirical data. After establishing formal similarities among the needlecases, Boas shows how certain formal features provide a vocabulary out of which individual artisans could create variations in design. Thus, his emphasis on culture as a context for meaningful action made him sensitive to individual variation within a society (William Henry Holmes suggested a similar point in an 1886 paper, "Origin and development of form and ornament in ceramic art", although unlike Boas he did not develop the ethnographic and theoretical implications). In a programmatic essay in 1920, "The Methods of Ethnology", Boas argued that instead of "the systematic enumeration of standardized beliefs and customs of a tribe", anthropology needs to document "the way in which the individual reacts to his whole social environment, and to the difference of opinion and of mode of action that occur in primitive society and which are the causes of far-reaching changes". Boas argued that attention to individual agency reveals that "the activities of the individual are determined to a great extent by his social environment, but in turn, his own activities influence the society in which he lives and may bring about modifications in a form". Consequently, Boas thought of culture as fundamentally dynamic: "As soon as these methods are applied, primitive society loses the appearance of absolute stability ... All cultural forms rather appear in a constant state of flux ..." (see Lewis 2001b) Having argued against the relevance of the distinction between literate and non-literate societies as a way of defining anthropology's object of study, Boas argued that non-literate and literate societies should be analyzed in the same way. Nineteenth-century historians had been applying the techniques of philology to reconstruct the histories of, and relationships between, literate societies. In order to apply these methods to non-literate societies, Boas argued that the task of fieldworkers is to produce and collect texts in non-literate societies. This took the form not only of compiling lexicons and grammars of the local language, but of recording myths, folktales, beliefs about social relationships and institutions, and even recipes for local cuisine. In order to do this, Boas relied heavily on the collaboration of literate native ethnographers (among the Kwakiutl, most often George Hunt), and he urged his students to consider such people valuable partners, inferior in their standing in Western society, but superior in their understanding of their own culture. (see Bunzl 2004: 438–439) Using these methods, Boas published another article in 1920, in which he revisited his earlier research on Kwakiutl kinship. In the late 1890s, Boas had tried to reconstruct transformation in the organization of Kwakiutl clans, by comparing them to the organization of clans in other societies neighboring the Kwakiutl to the north and south. Now, however, he argued against translating the Kwakiutl principle of kin groups into an English word. Instead of trying to fit the Kwakiutl into some larger model, he tried to understand their beliefs and practices in their own terms. For example, whereas he had earlier translated the Kwakiutl word numaym as "clan", he now argued that the word is best understood as referring to a bundle of privileges, for which there is no English word. Men secured claims to these privileges through their parents or wives, and there were a variety of ways these privileges could be acquired, used, and transmitted from one generation to the next. As in his work on alternating sounds, Boas had come to realize that different ethnological interpretations of Kwakiutl kinship were the result of the limitations of Western categories. As in his work on Alaskan needlecases, he now saw variation among Kwakiutl practices as the result of the play between social norms and individual creativity. Before his death in 1942, he appointed Helen Codere to edit and publish his manuscripts about the culture of the Kwakiutl people. ==Franz Boas and folklore== Franz Boas was an immensely influential figure throughout the development of folklore as a discipline. At first glance, it might seem that his only concern was for the discipline of anthropology—after all, he fought for most of his life to keep folklore as a part of anthropology. Yet Boas was motivated by his desire to see both anthropology and folklore become more professional and well- respected. Boas was afraid that if folklore was allowed to become its own discipline the standards for folklore scholarship would be lowered. This, combined with the scholarships of "amateurs", would lead folklore to be completely discredited, Boas believed. In order to further professionalize folklore, Boas introduced the strict scientific methods which he learned in college to the discipline. Boas championed the use of exhaustive research, fieldwork, and strict scientific guidelines in folklore scholarship. Boas believed that a true theory could only be formed from thorough research and that even once you had a theory it should be treated as a "work in progress" unless it could be proved beyond doubt. This rigid scientific methodology was eventually accepted as one of the major tenets of folklore scholarship, and Boas's methods remain in use even today. Boas also nurtured many budding folklorists during his time as a professor, and some of his students are counted among the most notable minds in folklore scholarship. Boas was passionate about the collection of folklore and believed that the similarity of folktales amongst different folk groups was due to dissemination. Boas strove to prove this theory, and his efforts produced a method for breaking a folktale into parts and then analyzing these parts. His creation of "catch- words" allowed for categorization of these parts, and the ability to analyze them in relation to other similar tales. Boas also fought to prove that not all cultures progressed along the same path, and that non-European cultures, in particular, were not primitive, but different. Boas remained active in the development and scholarship of folklore throughout his life. He became the editor of the Journal of American Folklore in 1908, regularly wrote and published articles on folklore (often in the Journal of American Folklore). He helped to elect Louise Pound as president of the American Folklore Society in 1925. ==Scientist as activist== Boas was known for passionately defending what he believed to be right. During his lifetime (and often through his work), Boas combated racism, berated anthropologists and folklorists who used their work as a cover for espionage, worked to protect German and Austrian scientists who fled the Nazi regime, and openly protested Hitlerism. Many social scientists in other disciplines often agonize over the legitimacy of their work as "science" and consequently emphasize the importance of detachment, objectivity, abstraction, and quantifiability in their work. Perhaps because Boas, like other early anthropologists, was originally trained in the natural sciences, he and his students never expressed such anxiety. Moreover, he did not believe that detachment, objectivity, and quantifiability was required to make anthropology scientific. Since the object of study of anthropologists is different from the object of study of physicists, he assumed that anthropologists would have to employ different methods and different criteria for evaluating their research. Thus, Boas used statistical studies to demonstrate the extent to which variation in data is context- dependent, and argued that the context-dependent nature of human variation rendered many abstractions and generalizations that had been passing as scientific understandings of humankind (especially theories of social evolution popular at the time) in fact unscientific. His understanding of ethnographic fieldwork began with the fact that the objects of ethnographic study (e.g., the Inuit of Baffin Island) were not just objects, but subjects, and his research called attention to their creativity and agency. More importantly, he viewed the Inuit as his teachers, thus reversing the typical hierarchical relationship between scientist and object of study. This emphasis on the relationship between anthropologists and those they study—the point that, while astronomers and stars; chemists and elements; botanists and plants are fundamentally different, anthropologists and those they study are equally human—implied that anthropologists themselves could be objects of anthropological study. Although Boas did not pursue this reversal systematically, his article on alternating sounds illustrates his awareness that scientists should not be confident about their objectivity, because they too see the world through the prism of their culture. This emphasis also led Boas to conclude that anthropologists have an obligation to speak out on social issues. Boas was especially concerned with racial inequality, which his research had indicated is not biological in origin, but rather social. Boas is credited as the first scientist to publish the idea that all people—including white and African Americans—are equal. He often emphasized his abhorrence of racism, and used his work to show that there was no scientific basis for such a bias. An early example of this concern is evident in his 1906 commencement address to Atlanta University, at the invitation of W. E. B. Du Bois. Boas began by remarking that "If you did accept the view that the present weakness of the American Negro, his uncontrollable emotions, his lack of energy, are racially inherent, your work would still be noble one". He then went on, however, to argue against this view. To the claim that European and Asian civilizations are, at the time, more advanced than African societies, Boas objected that against the total history of humankind, the past two thousand years is but a brief span. Moreover, although the technological advances of our early ancestors (such as taming fire and inventing stone tools) might seem insignificant when compared to the invention of the steam engine or control over electricity, we should consider that they might actually be even greater accomplishments. Boas then went on to catalogue advances in Africa, such as smelting iron, cultivating millet, and domesticating chickens and cattle, that occurred in Africa well before they spread to Europe and Asia (evidence now suggests that chickens were first domesticated in Asia; the original domestication of cattle is under debate). He then described the activities of African kings, diplomats, merchants, and artists as evidence of cultural achievement. From this, he concluded, any social inferiority of Negroes in the United States cannot be explained by their African origins: > If therefore, it is claimed that your race is doomed to economic > inferiority, you may confidently look to the home of your ancestors and say, > that you have set out to recover for the colored people the strength that > was their own before they set foot on the shores of this continent. You may > say that you go to work with bright hopes and that you will not be > discouraged by the slowness of your progress; for you have to recover not > only what has been lost in transplanting the Negro race from its native soil > to this continent, but you must reach higher levels than your ancestors ever > had attained. Boas proceeds to discuss the arguments for the inferiority of the "Negro race", and calls attention to the fact that they were brought to the Americas through force. For Boas, this is just one example of the many times conquest or colonialism has brought different peoples into an unequal relation, and he mentions "the conquest of England by the Normans, the Teutonic invasion of Italy, [and] the Manchu conquest of China" as resulting in similar conditions. But the best example, for Boas, of this phenomenon is that of the Jews in Europe: > Even now there lingers in the consciousness of the old, sharper divisions > which the ages had not been able to efface, and which is strong enough to > find—not only here and there—expression as antipathy to the Jewish type. In > France, that let down the barriers more than a hundred years ago, the > feeling of antipathy is still strong enough to sustain an anti-Jewish > political party. Boas's closing advice is that African Americans should not look to whites for approval or encouragement because people in power usually take a very long time to learn to sympathize with people out of power. "Remember that in every single case in history the process of adaptation has been one of exceeding slowness. Do not look for the impossible, but do not let your path deviate from the quiet and steadfast insistence on full opportunities for your powers." Despite Boas's caveat about the intractability of white prejudice, he also considered it the scientist's responsibility to argue against white myths of racial purity and racial superiority and to use the evidence of his research to fight racism. At the time, Boas had no idea that speaking at Atlanta University would put him at odds with a different prominent Black figure, Booker T. Washington. Du Bois and Washington had different views on the means of uplifting Black Americans. By supporting Du Bois, Boas lost Washington's support and any chance of funding from his college, Carnegie Mellon University.Baker, L. D. (1998). From Savage to Negro: Anthropology and the Construction of Race, 1896–1954 (1st ed.). University of California Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt1pnh2d Boas was also critical of one nation imposing its power over others. In 1916, Boas wrote a letter to The New York Times which was published under the headline, "Why German-Americans Blame America". Although Boas did begin the letter by protesting bitter attacks against German Americans at the time of the war in Europe, most of his letter was a critique of American nationalism. "In my youth, I had been taught in school and at home not only to love the good of my own country, but also to seek to understand and to respect the individualities of other nations. For this reason, one-sided nationalism, that is so often found nowadays, is to be unendurable." He writes of his love for American ideals of freedom, and of his growing discomfort with American beliefs about its own superiority over others. > I have always been of the opinion that we have no right to impose our ideals > upon other nations, no matter how strange it may seem to us that they enjoy > the kind of life they lead, how slow they may be in utilizing the resources > of their countries, or how much opposed their ideas may be to ours ... Our > intolerant attitude is most pronounced in regard to what we like to call > "our free institutions." Modern democracy was no doubt the most wholesome > and needed reaction against the abuses of absolutism and of a selfish, often > corrupt, bureaucracy. That the wishes and thoughts of the people should find > expression, and that the form of government should conform to these wishes > is an axiom that has pervaded the whole Western world, and that is even > taking root in the Far East. It is a quite different question, however, in > how far the particular machinery of democratic government is identical with > democratic institutions ... To claim as we often do, that our solution is > the only democratic and the ideal one is a one-sided expression of > Americanism. I see no reason why we should not allow the Germans, Austrians, > and Russians, or whoever else it may be, to solve their problems in their > own ways, instead of demanding that they bestow upon themselves the > benefactions of our regime. Although Boas felt that scientists have a responsibility to speak out on social and political problems, he was appalled that they might involve themselves in disingenuous and deceitful ways. Thus, in 1919, when he discovered that four anthropologists, in the course of their research in other countries, were serving as spies for the American government, he wrote an angry letter to The Nation. It is perhaps in this letter that he most clearly expresses his understanding of his commitment to science: > A soldier whose business is murder as a fine art, a diplomat whose calling > is based on deception and secretiveness, a politician whose very life > consists in compromises with his conscience, a businessman whose aim is > personal profit within the limits allowed by a lenient law—such may be > excused if they set patriotic deception above common everyday decency and > perform services as spies. They merely accept the code of morality to which > modern society still conforms. Not so the scientist. The very essence of his > life is the service of truth. We all know scientists who in private life do > not come up to the standard of truthfulness, but who, nevertheless, would > not consciously falsify the results of their researches. It is bad enough if > we have to put up with these because they reveal a lack of strength of > character that is liable to distort the results of their work. A person, > however, who uses science as a cover for political spying, who demeans > himself to pose before a foreign government as an investigator and asks for > assistance in his alleged researches in order to carry on, under this cloak, > his political machinations, prostitutes science in an unpardonable way and > forfeits the right to be classed as a scientist. Although Boas did not name the spies in question, he was referring to a group led by Sylvanus G. Morley, who was affiliated with Harvard University's Peabody Museum. While conducting research in Mexico, Morley and his colleagues looked for evidence of German submarine bases, and collected intelligence on Mexican political figures and German immigrants in Mexico. Boas's stance against spying took place in the context of his struggle to establish a new model for academic anthropology at Columbia University. Previously, American anthropology was based at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington and the Peabody Museum at Harvard, and these anthropologists competed with Boas's students for control over the American Anthropological Association (and its flagship publication American Anthropologist). When the National Academy of Sciences established the National Research Council in 1916 as a means by which scientists could assist the United States government to prepare for entry into the war in Europe, competition between the two groups intensified. Boas's rival, W. H. Holmes (who had gotten the job of Director at the Field Museum for which Boas had been passed over 26 years earlier), was appointed to head the NRC; Morley was a protégé of Holmes's. When Boas's letter was published, Holmes wrote to a friend complaining about "the Prussian control of anthropology in this country" and the need to end Boas's "Hun regime".Adam Kuper, 1988 The Invention of Primitive Society p. 149. London: Routledge Reaction of Holmes and his allies was influenced by anti-German and probably also by anti-Jewish sentiment. The Anthropological Society of Washington passed a resolution condemning Boas's letter for unjustly criticizing President Wilson; attacking the principles of American democracy; and endangering anthropologists abroad, who would now be suspected of being spies (a charge that was especially insulting, given that his concerns about this very issue were what had prompted Boas to write his letter in the first place). This resolution was passed on to the American Anthropological Association (AAA) and the National Research Council. Members of the American Anthropological Association (among whom Boas was a founding member in 1902), meeting at the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Harvard (with which Morley, Lothrop, and Spinden were affiliated), voted by 20 to 10 to censure Boas. As a result, Boas resigned as the AAA's representative to the NRC, although he remained an active member of the AAA. The AAA's censure of Boas was not rescinded until 2005. Boas continued to speak out against racism and for intellectual freedom. When the Nazi Party in Germany denounced "Jewish Science" (which included not only Boasian Anthropology but Freudian psychoanalysis and Einsteinian physics), Boas responded with a public statement signed by over 8,000 other scientists, declaring that there is only one science, to which race and religion are irrelevant. After World War I, Boas created the Emergency Society for German and Austrian Science. This organization was originally dedicated to fostering friendly relations between American and German and Austrian scientists and for providing research funding to German scientists who had been adversely affected by the war,Robert F. Barsky. 2011. Zellig Harris: From American Linguistics to Socialist Zionism. MIT Press, Apr 15, 2011, p. 196 and to help scientists who had been interned. With the rise of Nazi Germany, Boas assisted German scientists in fleeing the Nazi regime. Boas helped these scientists not only to escape but to secure positions once they arrived.Lewis 2001:458–459 Additionally, Boas addressed an open letter to Paul von Hindenburg in protest against Hitlerism. He also wrote an article in The American Mercury arguing that there were no differences between Aryans and non-Aryans and the German government should not base its policies on such a false premise.Boas, Franz, "Aryans and Non-Aryans," The American Mercury, June 1934, at p. 219. Boas, and his students such as Melville J. Herskovits, opposed the racist pseudoscience developed at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics under its director Eugen Fischer: "Melville J. Herskovits (one of Franz Boas's students) pointed out that the health problems and social prejudices encountered by these children (Rhineland Bastards) and their parents explained what Germans viewed as racial inferiority was not due to racial heredity. This "... provoked polemic invective against the latter [Boas] from Fischer. "The views of Mr. Boas are in part quite ingenious, but in the field of heredity Mr. Boas is by no means competent" even though "a great number of research projects at the KWI-A which had picked up on Boas's studies about immigrants in New York had confirmed his findings—including the study by Walter Dornfeldt about Eastern European Jews in Berlin. Fischer resorted to polemic simply because he had no arguments to counter the Boasians' critique."Hans-Walter Schmuhl, The Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Anthropology, Human Heredity and Eugenics, 1927–1945, Wallstein Verlag, Göttingen, 2003, pp. 212–213"Boasian Anthropology and the Critique of American Culture". Richard Handler. American Quarterly, Vol. 42, No. 2 (Jun., 1990), pp. 252–273 ==Students and influence== Franz Boas died suddenly at the Columbia University Faculty Club on December 21, 1942, in the arms of Claude Lévi-Strauss. By that time he had become one of the most influential and respected scientists of his generation. Between 1901 and 1911, Columbia University produced seven PhDs in anthropology. Although by today's standards this is a very small number, at the time it was sufficient to establish Boas's Anthropology Department at Columbia as the preeminent anthropology program in the country. Moreover, many of Boas's students went on to establish anthropology programs at other major universities. Boas's first doctoral student at Columbia was Alfred L. Kroeber (1901), who, along with fellow Boas student Robert Lowie (1908), started the anthropology program at the University of California, Berkeley. He also trained William Jones (1904), one of the first Native American Indian anthropologists (the Fox nation) who was killed while conducting research in the Philippines in 1909, and Albert B. Lewis (1907). Boas also trained a number of other students who were influential in the development of academic anthropology: Frank Speck (1908) who trained with Boas but received his PhD from the University of Pennsylvania and immediately proceeded to found the anthropology department there; Edward Sapir (1909) and Fay-Cooper Cole (1914) who developed the anthropology program at the University of Chicago; Alexander Goldenweiser (1910), who, with Elsie Clews Parsons (who received her doctorate in sociology from Columbia in 1899, but then studied ethnology with Boas), started the anthropology program at the New School for Social Research; Leslie Spier (1920) who started the anthropology program at the University of Washington together with his wife Erna Gunther, also one of Boas's students, and Melville Herskovits (1923) who started the anthropology program at Northwestern University. He also trained John R. Swanton (who studied with Boas at Columbia for two years before receiving his doctorate from Harvard in 1900), Paul Radin (1911), Ruth Benedict (1923), Gladys Reichard (1925) who had begun teaching at Barnard College in 1921 and was later promoted to the rank of professor, Ruth Bunzel (1929), Alexander Lesser (1929), Margaret Mead (1929), and Gene Weltfish (who defended her dissertation in 1929, although she did not officially graduate until 1950 when Columbia reduced the expenses required to graduate), E. Adamson Hoebel (1934), Jules Henry (1935), George Herzog (1938),and Ashley Montagu (1938). His students at Columbia also included Mexican anthropologist Manuel Gamio, who earned his Master of Arts degree after studying with Boas from 1909 to 1911, and became the founding director of Mexico's Bureau of Anthropology in 1917; Clark Wissler, who received his doctorate in psychology from Columbia University in 1901, but proceeded to study anthropology with Boas before turning to research Native Americans; Esther Schiff, later Goldfrank, worked with Boas in the summers of 1920 to 1922 to conduct research among the Cochiti and Laguna Pueblo Indians in New Mexico; Gilberto Freyre, who shaped the concept of "racial democracy" in Brazil;That Freyre was ever Boas's student is under contention. Boas was opposed to racism, as were students such as Ashley Montagu, etc. It seems unlikely that the "father" of the modern racist theory of Lusotropicalism had ever worked closely with Boas. "The invention of Freyre included his self- invention. For example, he too presented himself as if he had been a follower of Boas ever since his student days." See Peter Burke, Maria Lucia G. Pallares-Burke: "Gilberto Freyre: social theory in the tropics", Peter Lang, 2008, p. 19 Viola Garfield, who carried forth Boas's Tsimshian work; Frederica de Laguna, who worked on the Inuit and the Tlingit; anthropologist, folklorist and novelist Zora Neale Hurston, who graduated from Barnard College, the women's college associated with Columbia, in 1928, and who studied African American and Afro-Caribbean folklore, and Ella Cara Deloria, who worked closely with Boas on the linguistics of Native American languages. Boas and his students were also an influence on Claude Lévi-Strauss, who interacted with Boas and the Boasians during his stay in New York in the 1940s.Moore, Jerry D. (2004). Visions of Culture: An Introduction to Anthropological Theories and Theorists. Rowman Altamira. p. 234 Several of Boas's students went on to serve as editors of the American Anthropological Association's flagship journal, American Anthropologist: John R. Swanton (1911, 1921–1923), Robert Lowie (1924–1933), Leslie Spier (1934–1938), and Melville Herskovits (1950–1952). Edward Sapir's student John Alden Mason was editor from 1945 to 1949, and Alfred Kroeber and Robert Lowie's student, Walter Goldschmidt, was editor from 1956 to 1959. His last student Marian Smith was President of the American Anthropological Association and the honorary secretary of the Royal Anthropological Institute in London. Most of Boas's students shared his concern for careful, historical reconstruction, and his antipathy towards speculative, evolutionary models. Moreover, Boas encouraged his students, by example, to criticize themselves as much as others. For example, Boas originally defended the cephalic index (systematic variations in head form) as a method for describing hereditary traits, but came to reject his earlier research after further study; he similarly came to criticize his own early work in Kwakiutl (Pacific Northwest) language and mythology. Encouraged by this drive to self-criticism, as well as the Boasian commitment to learn from one's informants and to let the findings of one's research shape one's agenda, Boas's students quickly diverged from his own research agenda. Several of his students soon attempted to develop theories of the grand sort that Boas typically rejected. Kroeber called his colleagues' attention to Sigmund Freud and the potential of a union between cultural anthropology and psychoanalysis. Ruth Benedict developed theories of "culture and personality" and "national cultures", and Kroeber's student, Julian Steward developed theories of "cultural ecology" and "multilineal evolution". ==Legacy== Nevertheless, Boas has had an enduring influence on anthropology. Virtually all anthropologists today accept Boas's commitment to empiricism and his methodological cultural relativism. Moreover, virtually all cultural anthropologists today share Boas's commitment to field research involving extended residence, learning the local language, and developing social relationships with informants.Regna Darnell. 1998. And Along Came Boas: Continuity and Revolution in Americanist Anthropology. John Benjamins Publishing Finally, anthropologists continue to honor his critique of racial ideologies. In his 1963 book, Race: The History of an Idea in America, Thomas Gossett wrote that "It is possible that Boas did more to combat race prejudice than any other person in history." ==Leadership roles and honors== * 1887—Accepted a position as Assistant Editor of Science in New York. * 1889—Appointed as the head of a newly created department of anthropology. His adjunct was L. Farrand. * 1896—Became assistant curator at the American Museum of Natural History, under F. W. Putnam. This was combined with a lecturing position at Columbia University. * 1900—Elected to the National Academy of Sciences in April. * 1901—Appointed Honorary Philologist of Bureau of American Ethnology. *1903—Elected to the American Philosophical Society. * 1908—Became editor of The Journal of American Folklore. * 1908—Elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society.American Antiquarian Society Members Directory * 1910—Helped create the International School of American Archeology and Ethnology in Mexico. * 1910—Elected president of the New York Academy of Sciences. * 1913—Became founding editor of Columbia University Contributions to Anthropology (Columbia University Press)About Columbia University Press, columbia.edu. Retrieved 24 April 2021. * 1917—Founded the International Journal of American Linguistics. * 1917—Edited the Publications of the American Ethnological Society. * 1931—Elected president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. * 1936—Became "emeritus in residence" at Columbia University in 1936. Became "emeritus" in 1938. ==Writings== *Boas n.d. "The relation of Darwin to anthropology", notes for a lecture; Boas papers (B/B61.5) American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia. Published online by Herbert Lewis 2001b. * Smithsonian Research Online. * Smithsonian Research Online. * AMNH Digital Repository. * AMNH Digital Repository. * AMNH Digital Repository. * AMNH Digital Repository. * AMNH Digital Repository. * AMNH Digital Repository. * AMNH Digital Repository. * AMNH Digital Repository. *Boas, Franz (1906). The Measurement of Differences Between Variable Quantities. New York: The Science Press. (Online version at the Internet Archive) * AMNH Digital Repository. * Boas, Franz. (1911). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 1). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology). *Boas, Franz (1911). The Mind of Primitive Man. (Online version of the 1938 revised edition at the Internet Archive) *Boas, Franz (1912). "Changes in the Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants". American Anthropologist, Vol. 14, No. 3, July–Sept 1912. Boas * *Boas, Franz (1914). "Mythology and folk-tales of the North American Indians". Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 27, No. 106, Oct.-Dec. pp. 374–410. * * Classics in Washington History: Native Americans. *Boas, Franz (1922). "Report on an Anthropometric Investigation of the Population of the United States". Journal of the American Statistical Association, June 1922. *Boas, Franz (1927). "The Eruption of Deciduous Teeth Among Hebrew Infants". The Journal of Dental Research, Vol. vii, No. 3, September 1927. *Boas, Franz (1927). Primitive Art. *Boas, Franz (1928). Anthropology and Modern Life (2004 ed.) (Online version of the 1962 edition at the Internet Archive) *Boas, Franz (1935). "The Tempo of Growth of Fraternities". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 413–418, July 1935. *Boas, Franz (1940). Race, Language, and Culture * (D.C. Heath, 1938) *Boas, Franz (1945). Race and Democratic Society, New York, Augustin. *Stocking, George W. Jr., ed. 1974 A Franz Boas Reader: The Shaping of American Anthropology, 1883–1911 *Boas, Franz, edited by Helen Codere (1966), Kwakiutl Ethnography, Chicago, Chicago University Press. *Boas, Franz (2006). Indian Myths & Legends from the North Pacific Coast of America: A Translation of Franz Boas' 1895 Edition of Indianische Sagen von der Nord-Pacifischen Küste-Amerikas. Vancouver, BC: Talonbooks. ==Notes== ==References== ==Further reading== *Appiah, Kwame Anthony, "The Defender of Differences" (review of Rosemary Lévy Zumwalt, Franz Boas: The Emergence of the Anthropologist, University of Nebraska Press, 2019, 417 pp.; Charles King, Gods of the Upper Air: How a Circle of Renegade Anthropologists Reinvented Race, Sex, and Gender in the Twentieth Century, Doubleday, 2019, 431 pp.; Mark Anderson, From Boas to Black Power: Racism, Liberalism, and American Anthropology, Stanford University Press, 262 pp), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVII, no. 9 (28 May 2020), pp. 17–19. Appiah writes: "[Boas] was skeptical... about doctrines of racial superiority. He had, more slowly, become a skeptic of social evolutionism: the notion that peoples progress through stages (in one crude formulation, from savagery to barbarism to civilization)... 'My whole outlook', [Boas] later wrote in a credo, 'is determined by the question: how can we recognize the shackles that tradition has laid upon us?'" (p. 18.) * * * * *Boas, Norman F. 2004. Franz Boas 1858–1942: An Illustrated Biography * *Cole, Douglas 1999. Franz Boas: The Early Years, 1858–1906. *Darnell, Regna 1998. And Along Came Boas: Continuity and Revolution in Americanist Anthropology. *Evans, Brad 2006. "Where Was Boas During the Renaissance in Harlem? Diffusion, Race, and the Culture Paradigm in the History of Anthropology." . * * * *Kuper, Adam. 1988. The Invention of Primitive Society: Transformations of an Illusion *Lesser, Alexander 1981. "Franz Boas" in Sydel Silverman, ed. Totems and Teachers: Perspectives on the History of Anthropology * *Lewis, Herbert 2001b. "Boas, Darwin, Science and Anthropology" in Current Anthropology 42(3): 381–406 (On line version contains transcription of Boas's 1909 lecture on Darwin.) * * *Lowie, Robert H. "Franz Boas (1858–1942)." The Journal of American Folklore: Franz Boas Memorial Number. Vol. 57, No. 223. January–March 1944. Pages 59–64. The American Folklore Society. JSTOR. Print. Franz Boas (1858–1942). *Lowie, Robert H. "Bibliography of Franz Boas in Folklore." The Journal of American Folklore: Franz Boas Memorial Number. Vol. 57, No. 223. January–March 1944. Pages 65–69. The American Folklore Society. JSTOR. Print. Bibliography of Franz Boas in Folklore. *Maud, Ralph. 2000. Transmission Difficulties: Franz Boas and Tsimshian Mythology. Vancouver, BC: Talonbooks. * * * *Stocking, George W. Jr. 1968. Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology *Stocking, George W. Jr., ed. 1996. Volksgeist as Method and Ethic: Essays on Boasian Ethnography and the German Anthropological Tradition *Williams, Vernon J. Jr. 1996. Rethinking Race: Franz Boas and His Contemporaries. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. * *Zumwalt, Rosemary Lévy. American Folklore Scholarship: A Dialogue of Dissent. Ed. Alan Dundes. Bloomington and Indianapolis; Indiana University Press, 1988. Print. *Zumwalt, Rosemary Lévy. 2019. Franz Boas: The Emergence of the Anthropologist. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press online review ==External links== * * * * Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History – Objects and Photographs from Jesup North Pacific Expedition 1897–1902 (section Collections Online, option Collections Highlights). * Franz Boas at Minden, Westphalia *Franz Boas Papers at the American Philosophical Society * Recordings made by Franz Boas during his field research can be found at the Archives of Traditional Music at Indiana University *National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir * Genius at Work: How Franz Boas Created the Field of Cultural Anthropology By Charles King, Columbia Magazine, Winter 2019-20 Category:1858 births Category:1942 deaths Category:19th-century Prussian people Category:20th-century American academics Category:20th-century Prussian people Category:American anthropologists Category:American anti-fascists Category:20th-century linguists Category:American folklorists Category:Clark University faculty Category:Columbia University faculty Category:German anthropologists Category:German anti-fascists Category:German ethnologists Category:German emigrants to the United States Category:German folklorists Category:German people of Jewish descent Category:Heidelberg University alumni Category:Linguistic Society of America presidents Category:Linguists from the United States Category:Linguists of Na-Dene languages Category:Linguists of Salishan languages Category:Linguists of Uto-Aztecan languages Category:Members of the American Antiquarian Society Category:Anthropological linguists Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences Category:People associated with the American Museum of Natural History Category:People from Minden Category:People from the Province of Westphalia Category:Phonologists Category:Smithsonian Institution people Category:String figures Category:University of Bonn alumni Category:Jewish anthropologists Category:Jewish anti-fascists Category:Presidents of the American Folklore Society Category:20th-century American Jews |
The following is a list of state highways in the U.S. state of Louisiana designated in the 800–849 range. __NOTOC__ ==Louisiana Highway 800== Louisiana Highway 800 (LA 800) ran in a north–south direction from the intersection of two local roads to a junction with LA 163 south of Doyline. The route is now part of LA 527\. ==Louisiana Highway 801== Louisiana Highway 801 (LA 801) ran in a north–south direction from LA 166 south of Doyline to LA 163 in Doyline. ==Louisiana Highway 802== Louisiana Highway 802 (LA 802) runs in an east–west direction from US 371 south of Cullen to LA 2 northeast of Sarepta. ==Louisiana Highway 803== Louisiana Highway 803 (LA 803) currently consists of one road segment with a total length of that is located in the Webster Parish city of Springhill. Two of the original three segments, which existed in Springhill and the adjacent town of Cullen, have been deleted from the state highway system. *LA 803-1 runs , primarily along South Main Street, from US 371 (South Arkansas Street) to LA 157 at the intersection of Main and Reynolds Streets in Springhill. *LA 803-2 ran , primarily along South Main Street and Coyle Avenue, from LA 803-1 at Vine Street in Springhill to US 371 in Cullen. The route was deleted in 1960. *LA 803-3 ran along East Road from LA 803-2 (Coyle Avenue) in Cullen to a local road east of the corporate limits. It was incorporated into the route of LA 803-2 around 1957. ==Louisiana Highway 804== Louisiana Highway 804 (LA 804) ran in an east–west direction from the concurrent US 79/US 80 to a second junction with US 80 in Minden. ==Louisiana Highway 805== Louisiana Highway 805 (LA 805) runs in a north–south direction from the concurrent LA 154/LA 518 to LA 9 in Athens. ==Louisiana Highway 806== Louisiana Highway 806 (LA 806) runs in a north–south direction along Arizona Road from Robinson Lane to a junction with LA 2 east of Homer. The route's mileposts increase from the northern end contrary to common practice. ==Louisiana Highway 807== Louisiana Highway 807 (LA 807) runs in a north–south direction from LA 2 Alt. to a point near Holly Circle in Haynesville. ==Louisiana Highway 808== Louisiana Highway 808 (LA 808) runs in a general east–west direction from LA 615 northeast of Shongaloo, Webster Parish to a second junction with LA 615 in Haynesville, Claiborne Parish. ==Louisiana Highway 809== Louisiana Highway 809 (LA 809) ran in an east–west direction along Siloam Church Road from LA 505 to the Siloam Springs Methodist Church south of Jonesboro. ==Louisiana Highway 810== Louisiana Highway 810 (LA 810) runs in an east–west direction from LA 505 east of Jonesboro to LA 34 south of Chatham. ==Louisiana Highway 811== Louisiana Highway 811 (LA 811) runs in a southeast to northwest direction from LA 4 east of Jonesboro to US 167 north of Hodge. ==Louisiana Highway 812== Louisiana Highway 812 (LA 812) ran in an east–west direction along Zion Rest Road from LA 811 to the Zion Rest Primitive Baptist Church east of Jonesboro. ==Louisiana Highway 813== Louisiana Highway 813 (LA 813) currently consists of one road segment with a total length of that is located in and near the Jackson Parish village of Hodge. Two of the original three segments, which existed in the nearby town of Jonesboro, have been deleted from the state highway system. *LA 813-1 ran along Old Winnfield Road from US 167 to LA 147 at Walker Road in Jonesboro. The route became part of US 167 in 2004. *LA 813-2 ran , primarily along Country Road and 3rd Street, from Bear Creek west of Jonesboro to US 167 (Polk Avenue) in town. *LA 813-3 runs along East Pine Street and its extension from US 167 (Main Street) in Hodge to LA 542 (Beech Springs Road) east of town. As of 2018, the portion from US 167 to the Hodge city boundary is under agreement to be removed from the state highway system and transferred to local control. ==Louisiana Highway 814== Louisiana Highway 814 (LA 814) ran in a northwest to southeast direction from LA 4 to a local road southeast of Chatham. ==Louisiana Highway 815== Louisiana Highway 815 (LA 815) runs in an east–west direction from LA 147 to LA 507 southeast of Simboro. ==Louisiana Highway 816== Louisiana Highway 816 (LA 816) ran in a northwest to southeast direction from LA 563 south of Simsboro to a local road southwest of Grambling. ==Louisiana Highway 817== Louisiana Highway 817 (LA 817) currently consists of one road segment with a total length of that is located in the Lincoln Parish village of Simsboro. Two of the original three segments have been deleted from the state highway system. *LA 817-1 ran along Martha Street, Braswell Lane, and Walnut Creek Road from the junction of US 80 and LA 507 to Cranford Street. The route is now mostly part of LA 507, which was extended northward to connect with I-20. *LA 817-2 ran along Tiger Drive and Rose Street in a loop off of US 80 around the perimeter of Simsboro High School. The route was deleted in 2008. *LA 817-3 runs along 2nd Street from LA 507 (Martha Street) to Tiger Drive opposite Simsboro High School. ==Louisiana Highway 818== Louisiana Highway 818 (LA 818) runs in a north–south direction from the junction of US 167 and LA 148 at Clay, Jackson Parish to LA 150 in Ruston, Lincoln Parish. A spur described in the official route description became LA 3012\. ==Louisiana Highway 819== Louisiana Highway 819 (LA 819) consists of five road segments with a total length of that are located in the Lincoln Parish village of Choudrant. *LA 819-1 runs along Oak Street from LA 819-5 (North Depot Street) to a dead end north of US 80. *LA 819-2 runs along Pecan Street from LA 819-3 (Green Street) to US 80. *LA 819-3 runs along Green Street from LA 819-2 (Pecan Street) to LA 819-1 (Oak Street). *LA 819-4 runs along Allen Street from LA 819-1 (Oak Street) to LA 145 (Elm Street). *LA 819-5 runs along North Depot Street from LA 819-1 (Oak Street) to LA 145 (Elm Street). ==Louisiana Highway 820== Louisiana Highway 820 (LA 820) runs in a north–south direction from LA 145 in Choudrant to the concurrent LA 33/LA 822 at Cedarton. ==Louisiana Highway 821== Louisiana Highway 821 (LA 821) runs in an east–west direction from LA 33 north of Ruston to LA 145 in Sibley. ==Louisiana Highway 822== Louisiana Highway 822 (LA 822) runs in a general east–west direction from LA 146 northwest of Vienna to LA 145 in Downsville. ==Louisiana Highway 823== Louisiana Highway 823 (LA 823) runs in an east–west direction from LA 151 to the Lincoln–Union parish line northeast of Dubach. ==Louisiana Highway 824== Louisiana Highway 824 (LA 824) consists of three road segments with a total length of that are located in the Lincoln Parish town of Dubach. *LA 824-1 runs along Main Street from LA 151 (Annie Lee Street) to LA 824-2 (Wynn Street). *LA 824-2 runs along Wynn Street from the concurrent US 63/US 167 (McMullen Street) to LA 824-1 (Main Street). *LA 824-3 runs along East Hico Street from the junction of US 63/US 167 (McMullin Street) and LA 151 (Hico Street) to LA 824-1 (Main Street). ==Louisiana Highway 825== Louisiana Highway 825 (LA 825) ran in a north–south direction from LA 15 in Spearsville to the Arkansas state line east of Junction City. The route had a spur that ran from LA 15 and LA 825 eastward to the Spearsville school. ==Louisiana Highway 826== Louisiana Highway 826 (LA 826) runs in an east–west direction from LA 33 to the junction of two local roads north of Marion. ==Louisiana Highway 827== Louisiana Highway 827 (LA 827) runs in an east–west direction from LA 143 in Marion to the junction of two local roads at Dean. ==Louisiana Highway 828== Louisiana Highway 828 (LA 828) runs in an east–west direction from the Farmerville corporate limits to a junction with LA 2 east of Farmerville. The route formerly extended west into Farmerville to a junction with LA 33, but this mileage was transferred to local control in 2019 as part of the La DOTD's Road Transfer Program. ==Louisiana Highway 829== Louisiana Highway 829 (LA 829) ran in an east–west direction from a local road west of Humphreys to a junction with LA 142 northwest of Beekman. ==Louisiana Highway 830== Louisiana Highway 830 (LA 830) consists of six road segments with a total length of that are located in the Morehouse Parish city of Bastrop. One of the original five routes was deleted soon after the 1955 renumbering, and two more have since been added. *LA 830-1 runs , primarily along Van Avenue and Pleasant Drive, from US 425 (North Washington Street) to LA 592 (Cave Off Road). *LA 830-2 runs along Shelton Road from US 425 (Crossett Road) to Crestwood Drive. *LA 830-3 runs along Cherry Ridge Road and Peach Orchard Road from US 425 (North Washington Street, Crossett Road) to the concurrent US 165/US 425/LA 2 (Mer Rouge Road). *LA 830-4 runs along Cooper Lake Road from US 165/US 425/LA 2 (East Madison Avenue) to LA 830-3 (Cherry Ridge Road). *LA 830-5 originally ran along Pruett Street and West Cypress Avenue from US 165/LA 2 (West Madison Avenue) to LA 139 (North Washington Street). The route was deleted around 1957. *LA 830-5 currently runs along Elm Street from LA 593 (Collinston Road) to US 165/US 425/LA 2 (East Madison Avenue, East Jefferson Avenue). The route was added in 1970. *LA 830-6 runs along McCreight Street from US 165/US 425/LA 2 (East Madison Avenue) to US 425 (Crossett Road). The route was added in 1970. ==Louisiana Highway 831== Louisiana Highway 831 (LA 831) ran in a general east–west direction from the junction of LA 139 and LA 554 west of Collinston to LA 138 southwest of Collinston. ==Louisiana Highway 832== Louisiana Highway 832 (LA 832) ran in an east–west direction from US 165 to LA 599 south of Bonita. ==Louisiana Highway 833== Louisiana Highway 833 (LA 833) runs in a southwest to northeast direction along Jones Cutoff Road from LA 140 west of Bonita to US 165 in Jones. ==Louisiana Highway 834== Louisiana Highway 834 (LA 834) runs in an east–west direction, primarily along Hopkins Hill Road, from LA 591 west of Jones to the junction of US 165 and LA 835 in Jones. The route initially heads due east from LA 591\. After , it begins a winding path that soon follows the north side of Bayou Bartholomew. Near the end of its route, LA 834 crosses the bayou and turns to the southeast toward the community of Jones. Here, the highway turns sharply to the east, immediately crossing the Union Pacific Railroad (UP) tracks at grade and intersecting US 165\. The road continues eastward across US 165 as LA 835 toward Kilbourne. LA 834 is an undivided two-lane highway for its entire length. ==Louisiana Highway 835== Louisiana Highway 835 (LA 835) runs in an east–west direction from the junction of US 165 and LA 834 in Jones, Morehouse Parish to LA 585 southwest of Kilbourne, West Carroll Parish. ==Louisiana Highway 836== Louisiana Highway 836 (LA 836) ran in a northwest to southeast direction from US 165 north of Jones to LA 835 east of Jones. ==Louisiana Highway 837== Louisiana Highway 837 (LA 837) runs in a general southeast to northwest direction from LA 151 at Carlton to a second junction with LA 151 at Pleasant Valley. ==Louisiana Highway 838== Louisiana Highway 838 (LA 838) runs in an east–west direction along New Natchitoches Road from LA 546 northeast of Cadeville to LA 617 south of West Monroe. The route heads northeast from LA 546 and parallels it for several miles. It then turns east as it nears the Kansas City Southern Railway (KCS) tracks. Near the end of its route, LA 838 intersects LA 3033 (Washington Street), after which it proceeds due east a short distance to an intersection with LA 617 (Thomas Road) just outside the corporate limits of West Monroe. LA 838 is an undivided two-lane highway for its entire length. ==Louisiana Highway 839== Louisiana Highway 839 (LA 839) ran in a north–south direction from a local road at the Caldwell–Ouachita parish line to a junction with LA 557 at Luna. ==Louisiana Highway 840== Louisiana Highway 840 (LA 840) currently consists of two road segments with a total length of that are located in and near the adjacent Ouachita Parish cities of Monroe and West Monroe. Four of the original six segments have been deleted from the state highway system. *LA 840-1 runs along Smith Street from LA 3033 (Washington Street) to LA 34 (Jonesboro Road) south of West Monroe. *LA 840-2 ran along Reagan Street, Montgomery Avenue, and Coleman Avenue from LA 34 (Jonesboro Road) to Phillips Street in West Monroe. The route was deleted around 1957. *LA 840-3 ran along North 7th Street from LA 34 (Natchitoches Street) to the concurrent US 80/LA 15 (Dixie Overland Highway) in West Monroe. The route was deleted in 1962. *LA 840-4 ran along South Grand Street from US 165 (Jackson Street) to Vernon Street in Monroe. The route was deleted around 1957. *LA 840-5 ran along DeSiard Street from South 26th Street to the junction of US 80 and US 165 at the intersection of Louisville Avenue, Powell Avenue, and Island Road in Monroe. The route was deleted around 1957. *LA 840-6 runs along North 18th Street, Forsythe Avenue, and Forsythe Bypass from the concurrent US 80/US 165 Bus. (Louisville Avenue) to mainline US 165 (Sterlington Road) in Monroe. ==Louisiana Highway 841== Louisiana Highway 841 (LA 841) runs in a north–south direction along Prairie Road from US 165 to LA 15 south of Monroe. ==Louisiana Highway 842== Louisiana Highway 842 (LA 842) ran in a north–south direction from US 165 south of Kelly to LA 506 in Kelly. ==Louisiana Highway 843== Louisiana Highway 843 (LA 843) runs in a north–south direction from LA 124 east of Olla, LaSalle Parish to LA 506 in Kelly, Caldwell Parish. The route's mileposts increase from the northern end contrary to common practice. The route from its intersection with US-165 to its Southern terminus at LA-124 is set to be deleted (transferred to local government) under Louisiana DOTD's "right-sizing" program. ==Louisiana Highway 844== Louisiana Highway 844 (LA 844) runs in a southwest to northeast direction from US 165 south of Clarks to a second junction with US 165 between Clarks and Grayson. ==Louisiana Highway 845== Louisiana Highway 845 (LA 845) runs in a north–south direction from LA 547 in Clarks to LA 126 west of Grayson. ==Louisiana Highway 846== Louisiana Highway 846 (LA 846) runs in a general north–south direction from a local road northwest of Mount Pleasant to the Caldwell–Ouachita parish line. Under the Louisiana DOTD's "right-sizing" program, the first 5.566 miles of the route (from Countrywood Drive to LA-4) is set to be deleted and transferred to the local government. ==Louisiana Highway 847== Louisiana Highway 847 (LA 847) runs in an east–west direction from US 165 north of Columbia to LA 133 northwest of Hebert. ==Louisiana Highway 848== Louisiana Highway 848 (LA 848) runs in a north–south direction from a local road southeast of Hebert to a junction with LA 561 in Hebert. The route's mileposts increase from the northern end contrary to common practice. The entire route is set to be deleted and transferred to local control as part of the Louisiana DOTD's "right-sizing" program. ==Louisiana Highway 849== Louisiana Highway 849 (LA 849) runs in a general north–south direction from LA 506 east of Kelly to US 165 south of Columbia. Under the Louisiana DOTD's "right-sizing" program, the Southern end (the first 3.181 miles) of the route is set to be deleted and transferred to local control. ==See also== * * ==References== ==External links== *Maps / GIS Data Homepage, Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development |
William George "Jock" Ross (born 5 August 1943) is a Scottish-born Australian outlaw biker, best known as the founder and the "Supreme Commander" of the Comanchero Motorcycle Club and for his involvement in the Milperra massacre of 1984. ==Youth== Ross was born in Glasgow, Scotland into a working class family. Ross grew up in the Gorbals neighborhood of Glasgow, where his father worked as a lorry (truck) driver. Ross stated of his youth: "In the old Glasgow days you never backed off, that’s how you survived. The Gorbals was tough and you had to be tough too." He served in the British Army in the Royal Engineers. Ross joined the British Army at the age of 17 and served for 7 years. As an engineer, he was involved in clearing minefields left over from the Second World War in Libya as well as laying minefields in the Aden Protectorate (modern Yemen) and Hong Kong. After his honorable discharge, he settled in Australia, making his home in New South Wales. In 1966, he settled in a coastal flat and then moved to Point Clare. Ross-who was known to his friends as "Jock" instead of William-worked variously as a lorry driver and as an apprentice blacksmith. ==The Comancheros== ===The "Supreme Commander"=== Ross befriended a number of Australian veterans of the Vietnam war, saying in a 2019 interview: "I came out of the army, came here. People come out of the army, especially soldiers coming back from Vietnam back in the '70s, the late '70s … they came, and they were treated like lepers … not real good. Me, as an ex-soldier, I empathised with them". Ross founded Comanchero Motorcycle Club in 1968 with the name being taken from a 1961 John Wayne Western film The Comancheros that Ross adored. The Australian journalists Lindsay Simpson and Sandra Harvey described Ross as a natural "leader of men", an extremely charismatic man whose machismo and toughness inspired much devotion from other men. In 1971, Ross purchased a property along the then rural Mangrove Mountain Road for $800 dollars that became his home. Settling with Ross in his caravan were his first wife Sandy and their infant daughter Deidre. Ross found the sunny New South Wales countryside to be a refreshing change from the decaying industrial neighborhoods of the Gorbals where he had grown up. Ross had known a number of motorcycle riders who liked to drink in the pubs along a coastal road north of Sydney and persuaded them to join the Comancheros. In late 1973, Ross led the Comancheros in series of brawls against another outlaw biker club, the Kings. In response to a warning from the Newcastle police, Ross relocated the Comancheros to the Sydney suburb of Parramatta. Ross hung a sign on the wall of the Comancheros' clubhouse that read: "If it's white, sniff it/If it's female or it moves, fuck it/If it narks-kill it". Ross had an intensely authoritarian leadership style shaped by his military background and he gave himself the grandiose title of the "Supreme Commander". He was described as leading with "an iron fist". Like many other outlaw bikers, Ross's politics tended towards the extreme right and he had a gigantic Nazi swastika flag prominently hanging on the wall of the Parramatta clubhouse. Ross had the new members of the Comancheros swear allegiance to not only the Comanchero club, but also to himself as the "Supreme Commander". Ross led his men on weekly para-military drills intended to prepare them for brawls against rival bikers. The Comancheros were considered to be the most violent of Australia's many outlaw biker clubs in the 1970s and 1980s as Ross was constantly engaged in biker wars. The Canadian journalists Julian Sher and William Marsden wrote that Ross was well known for planning his attacks "with military precision". Besides for the endless drilling, Ross formed his own elite force of especially tough fighters, which he called the Strike Force. Many Comancheros disliked Ross as one former member told the media: "If I wanted to march around in the fuckin' backyard, I would had joined the fuckin' army". One member who joined the Comancheros in 1974 who idolised Ross was Anthony "Snodgrass" Spencer who saw him as a surrogate father who provided him with the love he never received from the father he had never known. Peter Edwards, the crime correspondent of The Toronto Star, described Spencer as very much a surrogate son to Ross. However, relations between Ross and Spencer went into decline when Spencer was not invited to Ross's second wedding. Ross's bride, Vanessa Eaves, had vetoed having Spencer at the wedding under the grounds that: "Snoddy is always stoned and you know how stupid he gets. I'm not going to have him ruin my wedding". In June 1983, the Comancheros became involved in a dispute with the Loners Motorcycle club. Ross led a raid on the Loners' clubhouse that ended with the three Loners present at the time of the raid being beaten bloody. Ross then suggested a meeting to discuss a truce, which proved to be a ruse. When the Loners arrived in the back alley for the meeting, they were surrounded and beaten up by a superior forces of Comancheros armed with baseball bats who took away their "colours". Ross forced the Loners to become a "feeder club" (i.e a puppet club) for the Comancheros, which he named the Bandileros. There was continuing tension between the former Loners versus the original Comancheros. In addition, many Comancheros disliked Ross's leadership style, which was considered to be too authoritarian. The British journalist Annie Brown described Ross as "manipulative, violent and domineering". Colin "Caesar" Campbell, one of the anti-Ross Comancheros alleges that he and his brothers discovered that Ross was having an affair with another member's wife, which was a violation of the Comanchero rules. The spokesman for the discontent in the ranks was Spencer. To avoid having to answer the charges that he violated his own rules against sleeping with the wife of another Comanchero, Ross split the Comancheros into two chapters; the ones unhappy with his leadership, led by Spencer, were assigned to a new chapter in Birchgrove. The Birchgrove chapter at 105 Louisa Road with Spencer as the chapter president opened in August 1983. Shortly afterwards, Ross was involved in an incident when he attempted to enter a pub in Kings Cross while being visibly drunk. Ross was refused admittance by the pub's Maori bouncers and was beaten up when he attempted to force his way in. Ross called upon all Comancheros to join him in beating up the bouncers in revenge, and was furious when Spencer declared that the Birchgrove chapter would not be involved. Spencer's decision to declare his neutrality was in turn sparked by his resentment at being excluded from Ross's wedding, which he took as a personal insult. Continuing tensions between the two chapters led to the Birchgrove chapter under Spencer breaking away to join the Bandidos Motorcycle Club in November 1983. In February 1984, Ross opened up a new chapter under his leadership in Harris Park. Ross demanded the return of the former Comanchero colours, a demand that was only partially met as a number of the Comanchero colours had been mailed off to Texas, which proved to be a major sore point. ===The Milperra Massacre=== Over the course of 1983 and 1984, relations between the Bandidos and the Comancheros grew increasingly tense. Following an incident on 9 August 1984 when three Comancheros were beaten up by the Bandidos at the Bull and Bush Hotel, the two clubs became involved in a biker war starting on 11 August 1984. Later on 11 August, Ross had the Comanchero clubhouse fortified. During a phone call, Ross and Spencer laid out their rules for their biker war such as no fights in public places or the homes of members, which both sides completely ignored. Ross believed wrongly that Spencer and the other Bandidos were terrified of him, and all that was required was a show of force on the part of the Comancheros to win the biker war. On 2 September 1984 at the parking lot of the Viking Tavern in the Sydney suburb of Milperra, the two gangs clashed during a swap meet hosted by the British Motorcycle Club of Sydney. During a swap meet, used and new motorcycle parts along with motorcycle-related memorabilia and trinkets were put on the market while barbecue food and alcohol were sold in plentiful quantities. Despite his later claims at his trial in 1985 and 1986 that no violence was planned, Ross had his men armed with knives, baseball bats, shotguns and rifles as he knew that Spencer and the Bandidos would be attending the swap meet that day. Ross devoted much time beforehand to plotting an ambush as he planned to have the Comancheros encircle the Bandidos when they arrived at the Viking Tavern. Ross and the Comancheros had arrived first at about 1 pm, armed and ready for a fight should the Bandidos arrive. Ross planned to use himself as bait by standing in the centre while the rest of the Comancheros would stage a "bullhorn" ambush. Ross had learned about the "horns of the bull" ambush tactic used by the impis (regiments) of the Zulus in the 19th century from a history book he had read. The plan was aborted when the Bandidos failed to arrive at the time they were expected. The Bandidos were half an hour late to the swap meet. Ross had failed to anticipate that Spencer and the other Bandidos would also be well armed as the Comancheros. By the time Bandidos arrived, the Comancheros were out of formation, giving up the advantage of a strong defensive position. Ross had gone into the Viking Tavern to drink and was still drinking when the Bandidos finally arrived. During the clash in the parking lot of the Viking Tavern, the Comancheros and Bandidos fought each other with their fists, baseball bats and guns. Upon hearing the shooting out in the parking lot, Ross left his pint of beer, ran outside waving about a machete in the air and shouted "Kill 'em all!", only to be shot down by the Bandidos. By the time the police arrived, four Comancheros, two Bandidos and Leanne Walters, an innocent teenage girl caught in the crossfire, were all dead. Ross took a bullet to the brain and shrapnel in his chest, but survived his wounds. ==Trial and Imprisonment== In the aftermath of the massacre, 43 men were charged with murder. Ross was charged with "constructive first degree murder", meaning that though he had not killed anyone himself, that the Crown felt he was responsible for the killings. The Crown in its indictment of Ross alleged that his position as the Comanchero "supreme commander"; his orders to his followers to arm themselves beforehand with a variety of weapons; and his decision for the Comancheros to go to the Viking Tavern in the full knowledge that violence was likely to occur made him just as guilty of murder as the men who actually pulled the triggers and killed during the Viking Tavern incident. The trial under Justice Anthony Roden in 1985-1986 lasted 332 days and cost $12 million Australian dollars, making it one of the longest and most expensive trials in Australian history. Ross was convicted of first-degree murder and sentenced to life imprisonment with Roden chiding him as one of the men most responsible for the shoot-out at the Viking Tavern. Justice Roden in his verdict stated that: "Ross was primarily responsible for the decision that members of his club go to Milperra in force and armed". Ross served his sentence at the Long Bay Central Industrial Prison. In 1989, an appeal court agreed to hear Ross's appeal of the verdict and in 1992 an appeal court ruled in his favor. Ross's conviction was reduced from murder to manslaughter, which reduced his sentence. Ross served a total of 5 years and three months in prison and was released on parole on 7 December 1989 per the "complicated" parole rules in Australia. Ross received an automatic one-third remission in his sentence because it was his first major criminal conviction and received further remissions in his sentence by taking adult education courses and industrial skills courses. Raymond "Sunshine" Kucler deposed Ross as the "Supreme Leader" of the Comancheros. ==Later life== Ross together with his wife Vanessa settled in the Wiseman's Ferry area in rural New South Wales after his release from prison. In a 2019 interview Ross stated: ""We got here in late '93 and, um, the January fires started. All this place was on fire, so I went down to help, and I stayed. I'm still there, 25 years later." Ross worked as a volunteer captain with the New South Wales Rural Fire Service at Spencer. Ross states that his body is still full of shotgun pellets from the Father's Day massacre as he noted that he took: "Quite a few shots...head, neck, chest, face". In an interview in 1994 to mark the 10th anniversary of the massacre, Ross stated: “I can look at myself in the mirror and know that I was not to blame...I did not cause what happened. Of course I regret what happened. I lost four good men and we got totally screwed. I was the one who ended up being shot up, so how could I have killed anyone? They judged me for who I am, not what I did." In the 2012 television mini-series Bikie Wars: Brothers in Arms, Jock Ross was played by Matt Nable. In September 2019, Ross was badly injured when he was run over by Nicola Annabel Teo, the daughter of the famous brain surgeon Charlie Teo. The police have alleged that Teo was engaged in careless driving at the time of the traffic incident. Ross was in a coma for four months after the accident and both of his legs had to fitted with titanium plates to allow him to walk again. On 21 June 2021, the Crown dropped the charges against Teo just hours before she was due to go on trial on charges of "dangerous driving occasioning grievous bodily harm". ==Books== * * * * * * * ==References== Category:Living people Category:1943 births Category:20th-century Australian criminals Category:Australian male criminals Category:Australian organised crime figures Category:Australian crime bosses Category:Scottish emigrants to Australia Category:People from Gorbals Category:Criminals from Glasgow Category:Criminals from New South Wales Category:Organised crime in Sydney Category:Australian firefighters Category:Scottish military engineers Category:British Army personnel Category:Australian shooting survivors Category:British shooting survivors Category:People convicted of murder by New South Wales Category:Australian people convicted of murder Category:Australian people convicted of manslaughter Category:Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by New South Wales Category:Australian prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment Category:Scottish prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment Category:Scottish people imprisoned abroad |
Vacation is a 2015 American road comedy film written and directed by Jonathan Goldstein and John Francis Daley (in their directorial debuts). It stars Ed Helms, Christina Applegate, Leslie Mann, Beverly D'Angelo, Chris Hemsworth, and Chevy Chase. It is the fifth and final theatrical installment of the Vacation film series, serving as a standalone sequel to Vegas Vacation (1997). It is also the second not to carry the National Lampoon name after Vegas Vacation, and was released by New Line Cinema and Warner Bros. on July 29, 2015. It grossed $104 million on a $31 million budget and received generally negative reviews. ==Plot== Rusty Griswold is now working as a pilot for the low budget regional airline Econo-Air, living in Suburban Chicago and in a stale relationship with his wife Debbie and their two sons, shy and awkward 14-year-old James, and sadistic 12-year-old Kevin, who constantly bullies and torments his older brother. The gloating from his friends Jack and Nancy Peterson about a family trip they had in Paris does not help matters. Desiring to relive his childhood family vacations and holiday gatherings, Rusty surprises his family with an alternative summer vacation. Rather than their annual trip to a cabin in Cheboygan, Michigan (which everyone else secretly hated), he plans a road trip from Chicago to Walley World, just like he did with his parents and sister. For the trip, Rusty rents a Tartan Prancer, an ugly, over-complicated Albanian SUV. Along the way, the Griswolds take many detours. The first stop is in Memphis, where it is revealed that the otherwise mild-mannered Debbie was an extremely promiscuous Tri Pi sorority sister nicknamed 'Debbie Do Anything'. To prove that she was the rebellious student, Debbie attempts to run an obstacle course while drunk, but fails miserably. While staying at a motel, James meets Adena, a girl his age that he saw while driving on the highway, but she is scared off by Rusty's failed attempts to be a "wingman". In Arkansas, they are led to a supposedly hidden hot spring by a "helpful" local, eventually realizing that it is actually a raw sewage dump. They return to their SUV, only to see that it has been broken into, sprayed with graffiti, and emptied of their luggage and cash. Stopping in Plano, Texas, they get help from Rusty's sister Audrey and her attractive husband Stone Crandall. Rusty begins to fear problems in his relationship with Debbie due to her seeming acceptance of Stone's obvious sexual advances, but she rebuffs his suspicions; Stone then walks in on them and shows off his muscular body and oversized genitalia. Spending the following night at a Wigwam Motel in Holbrook, Arizona, Rusty and Debbie sneak away and attempt to have sex at the Four Corners Monument, where officers from all four states of Utah, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico confront them. When the officers start arguing about who gets to make the arrest, Rusty and Debbie sneak away. James encounters Adena again, and finally asserts himself against Kevin thanks to her encouragement. The next morning, they nearly get killed by Chad, a Grand Canyon rafting guide, who had just been dumped by his fiancé. Later, their SUV runs out of gas in the middle of the desert, and Rusty's unfamiliarity with the key fob causes the vehicle to explode, leading him to walk off dispirited and alone, thinking about the disastrous trip. Unfortunately, they have been tracked down by a seemingly unstable truck driver, who they think has been stalking them throughout the trip. In actuality, he has been actually trying to return Debbie's missing wedding ring. He ends up giving them a lift to San Francisco, California. There, they spend the night at a bed and breakfast run by Rusty's parents, Clark and Ellen. They intend to fly home the next day, but Rusty and Debbie face each other about their stale marriage and decide to start over again. With some encouragement from Clark the next morning, Rusty borrows his father's Wagon Queen Family Truckster and drives Debbie and the boys to Walley World to ride their newest roller coaster, the Velociraptor. After spending the entire day waiting in line, they are cut off by Ethan, a rival pilot who Rusty knows from Chicago, and his family before the announcement of the park's closing. A fight breaks out, which the Griswolds win, forcing the other family to flee. The Griswolds finally board the ride, but it stalls halfway up the butterfly inversion, and they are rescued several hours later. Rusty uses his airline connections to book a vacation in Paris for just Debbie and himself after sending the boys home where their neighbors will look after them. On the plane to Paris, they are seated in jump seats next to a lavatory. Exasperated, Debbie learns that it will be a 12-hour flight. ==Cast== * Ed Helms as Russell "Rusty" Griswold, a pilot for Econo-Air living in Suburban Chicago ** Anthony Michael Hall, Jason Lively, Johnny Galecki, and Ethan Embry appear in archival photos from the previous Vacation films. * Christina Applegate as Debbie Fletcher Griswold, Rusty's wife. ** Emily Kincaid as young Debbie Fletcher * Skyler Gisondo as James Griswold, Rusty and Debbie's older son. ** Cameron McIntyre as young James Griswold * Steele Stebbins as Kevin Griswold, Rusty and Debbie's younger son. * Chris Hemsworth as Stone Crandall, an up-and-coming anchorman and Audrey's husband. * Leslie Mann as Audrey Griswold-Crandall, Rusty's sister. ** Dana Barron, Dana Hill, Juliette Lewis, and Marisol Nichols appear in archival photos from the previous Vacation films. * Chevy Chase as Clark Griswold, Rusty and Audrey's father who now owns a bed and breakfast in San Francisco. * Beverly D'Angelo as Ellen Griswold, Rusty and Audrey's mother who now owns a bed and breakfast in San Francisco. * Charlie Day as Chad, a suicidal river rafting guide who was recently dumped by his girlfriend. * Catherine Missal as Adena, James' love interest. * Ron Livingston as Ethan, an airline pilot and Rusty's rival. * Norman Reedus as Trucker, an unnamed truck driver who stalks the Griswold family. * Keegan-Michael Key as Jack Peterson, a friend of the Griswold family. * Regina Hall as Nancy Peterson, the wife of Jack and friend of the Griswold family. * Elizabeth Gillies as Heather, a member of the Tri Pi sorority that is a fan of Debbie. * Tim Heidecker as Utah Cop * Nick Kroll as Colorado Cop * Kaitlin Olson as Arizona Cop * Michael Peña as New Mexico Cop * Hannah Davis Jeter as The Girl in the Red Ferrari, a different girl driving a Red Ferrari who tries to flirt with Rusty only to get struck by a semi-trailer truck. * David Clennon as Co-Pilot * Colin Hanks as Jake * Ryan Cartwright as Terry * John Francis Daley as Robert * Miguel Caxeta as Plane Passenger ==Production== ===Development=== In February 2010, it was announced by New Line Cinema (owned by Warner Bros., which released the previous films) that a new Vacation film was being produced. Executive Producer was Steven Mnuchin. Produced by David Dobkin and written and directed by John Francis Daley and Jonathan Goldstein, the story focuses on Rusty Griswold as he takes his own family to Walley World. ===Casting=== In July 2012, it was announced that Ed Helms would star in the sequel as Rusty Griswold, who now has his own family misadventures on the road. On March 28, 2013, Variety announced that original series stars Beverly D'Angelo and Chevy Chase were in talks to reprise their roles, most likely in the form of a torch-passing cameo role. No mention was made of other series regulars, such as Randy Quaid's Cousin Eddie. On April 23, 2013, it was reported that the film had been delayed indefinitely, due to creative differences. Later, Chris Hemsworth and Charlie Day were also reported to co-star. Skyler Gisondo and Steele Stebbins played Rusty Griswold's sons along with Helms and Christina Applegate. On September 15, Leslie Mann joined the film to play Rusty's sister, Audrey Griswold. On September 29, Keegan-Michael Key and Regina Hall were cast to play family friends of the Griswolds. On October 10, director Daley revealed in an interview that he might have a cameo with Samm Levine and Martin Starr, which would be a reunion of cult comedy show Freaks and Geeks, though it was not confirmed. On November 12, four actors joined to play Four Corners cops, Tim Heidecker, Nick Kroll, Kaitlin Olson, and Michael Peña. ===Filming=== Principal photography began on September 16, 2014, in Atlanta, Georgia. On September 16, scenes were filmed on location at the Olympic Flame Restaurant. thumb|The Twelve Oaks during filming On September 30 and October 1, 2014, scenes were filmed on location at The Twelve Oaks Bed and Breakfast in historic Covington, Georgia. The Twelve Oaks was staged as Christina Applegate's character's sorority house, Triple Pi, and the location of her attempt to run the obstacle course once more to prove that she is the Chug Run champion. Other scenes were shot around Piedmont and 6th avenues from October 6 to 8, including at the Shellmont Inn. On October 22, 2014, scenes were filmed at the U.S. National Whitewater Center in Charlotte, North Carolina. Scenes for Walley World were filmed at Six Flags Over Georgia. In a similar vein to the original film's "Wagon Queen Family Truckster", the film features a custom-designed minivan named the "Tartan Prancer". Dubbed the "Honda of Albania", it is a heavily modified Toyota Previa and features unconventional styling elements such as a mirror-image front and rear clip, complete with two sets of headlights (pulled from the Land Rover LR3/Discovery) and rearview mirrors, as well as dashboard buttons marked by nonsensical symbols. As part of a promotional tie-in with the film, Edmunds.com released a tongue-in-cheek review comparing the Tartan Prancer against the 2015 Honda Odyssey. ==Music== The musical score for the film was composed by Mark Mothersbaugh. A soundtrack album was released by WaterTower Music on July 24, 2015. In addition to Mothersbaugh's score, it features many contemporary songs, along with several renditions of Lindsey Buckingham's "Holiday Road" (including a remixed and remastered version of the original that plays at the start of the film, and again near the end). ==Release== The film was originally set to be released on October 9, 2015, but it was moved to July 31, 2015, before finally being pushed up to July 29, 2015, the 32nd anniversary of the release of the first Vacation film. Warner Bros. spent a total of $35.2 million on advertisement for the film. === Home media === The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray on November 3, 2015 by Warner Home Video. ==Reception== ===Box office=== Vacation grossed $58.9 million in North America and $45.8 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $104.7 million, against a budget of $31 million. The film grossed $1.2 million from its early Tuesday preview showings, and a combined $6.3 million on Wednesday and Thursday. In its opening weekend, it grossed $14.7 million, finishing second at the box office behind Mission: Impossible – Rogue Nation ($55.5 million). ===Critical response=== On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 27% based on 177 reviews and an average rating of 4.30/10. The site's consensus reads, "Borrowing a basic storyline from the film that inspired it but forgetting the charm, wit, and heart, Vacation is yet another nostalgia-driven retread that misses the mark." On Metacritic, it has a score of 34 out of 100 based on 33 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". On CinemaScore, audiences gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale. Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times gave the film a positive review and praised the Kevin Griswold character, saying, "The kid with the potty mouth may cost Warner Bros. some business at the box office, but in a strange way he elevates Vacation, a very funny R-rated movie with a PG-13 heart." Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly gave it a "B−" rating and wrote, "The new Vacation is both better than I'd feared and not as hilarious as I'd hoped. It's intermittently funny and instantly forgettable." Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times wrote, "It's a vile, odious disaster populated with unlikable, dopey characters bumbling through mean-spirited set pieces that rely heavily on slapstick fight scenes, scatological sight gags and serial vomiting." Rolling Stone reviewer Peter Travers gave it 1.5 out of 4 stars, saying: "Leslie Mann and wild-card Chris Hemsworth, as her cock-flashing hubby, get the heartiest hoots. The rest is comic history warmed over." ===Accolades=== Award Category Nominee Result Ref. Golden Raspberry Awards Worst Supporting Actor Chevy Chase MTV Movie Awards Best Kiss Leslie Mann and Chris Hemsworth ==References== ==External links== * * * Category:2015 comedy films Category:2015 directorial debut films Category:2015 films Category:2010s adventure comedy films Category:2010s comedy road movies Category:American adventure comedy films Category:American comedy road movies Category:American sequel films Category:Dune Entertainment films Category:2010s English-language films Category:Films about families Category:Films about vacationing Category:Films scored by Mark Mothersbaugh Category:Films set in Michigan Category:Films set in New Mexico Category:Films shot in Atlanta Category:Films shot in Louisiana Category:Films shot in North Carolina Category:National Lampoon's Vacation (film series) Category:New Line Cinema films Category:Warner Bros. films Category:Films directed by Jonathan Goldstein and John Francis Daley Category:2010s American films |
Anarchism in Armenia emerged as part of the Armenian national liberation movement, with its roots in various heretical Christian sects that practiced in the region. It took on an organized form with the establishment of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation in 1890, before being suppressed by the various empires and authoritarian regimes that ruled over Armenia during the 20th century. It eventually re-emerged in the 21st century, as part of the anti-establishment movement that spread throughout the country in the wake of its independence. == History == ===Christianity in Medieval Armenia=== Until the 3rd century, Armenia was predominantly Zoroastrian, as the ruling Arsacid dynasty had itself been founded by a Zoroastrian priest. Christianity was first brought to Armenia by early Christians fleeing persecution. Monastic communities like Geghard were established by these Christians, who found safe haven in the mountains. But these first Armenian Christians were also persecuted by the Arsacids. This was until 301, when the Kingdom of Armenia became the first country to convert to Christianity, in a process spearheaded by Gregory the Illuminator. The establishment of the Armenian Apostolic Church as the institutional arm of the new state religion and the construction of the feudal Nakharar system began to concentrate vast amounts of territory in the hands of the clergy and the nobility. As Armenian peasants were subjected to increasingly restricted conditions, there were a number of anti-feudal uprisings by dissident Christian movements in the country, particularly the Borborites, Messalians, Paulicianists and Tondrakians. With the peace of Acilisene, Western Armenia was conquered by the Byzantine Empire in 387. Eastern Armenia remained an independent kingdom until 428, when the local nobility overthrew king Artaxias IV and the Sasanian Empire installed Veh Mihr Shapur in his place as governor. The nakharars saw their feudal power restricted in Western Armenia, leading to an insurrection against the Byzantine empire. In the East they mostly maintained their rights, until Peroz I attempted to forcibly reconvert the country to Zoroastrianism. This ignited a guerilla war against Sassanid rule, led by Vartan Mamikonian, resulting in the successful ratification of the treaty of Nvarsak, which granted greater autonomy to the nakharar. ====The Paulicians==== Shortly after the Muslim conquest of Armenia, Constantine-Silvanus was inspired by the gospel and Pauline epistles to found the Paulician movement, an adoptionist Christian sect that rejected feudal land-ownership, social inequality and the superstitions of the church. From 660, workers, low clergy and smallholders throughout Armenia began to convert to Paulician Christianity.Nersessian, Vrej: The Tondrakian Movement, Princeton Theological Monograph Series, Pickwick Publications, Allison Park, Pennsylvania, 1948, p.53. But in 687, Silvanus was arrested by imperial authorities, tried for heresy and stoned to death. The sect continued to grow in Armenian communities throughout the Byzantine Empire, but in the early 9th century they became subject to persecution by the empire. By 843, over 100,000 Paulicians lost their lives and all of their property and lands were confiscated by the empire. The Paulicians then fled to the Emirate of Armenia, where they built the cities of Amara and Tephrike, establishing an independent Paulician territory. However, their power was finally broken at the Battle of Bathys Ryax, where they experienced heavy casualties. Many of the remaining Paulicians were resettled in Thrace, where their ideas spread across the Balkans and into Europe, influencing the formation of Bogomilism and Catharism. Others fled east to Arminiya, where the movement evolved into Tondrakianism. ====The Tondrakians and Armenian peasant revolts==== In 884, the Emirate of Armenia was disestablished after a successful revolt by Ashot I, who established the independent kingdom of Bagratid Armenia. This allowed for the reinstitution of the feudal Nakharar system and led to the founding of several other Armenian kingdoms and principalities, each with their own feudal hierarchies. Peasants (known as ramiks) formed the lowest class in the economic stratum and largely busied themselves with raising livestock and farming. Many of them did not own land, and lived as tenants and worked as hired hands or even slaves on the lands owned by wealthy feudal magnates. Peasants were forced to pay heavy taxes to the government and the Armenian Apostolic Church in addition to their feudal lords. Ter-Ghevondyan, Aram N. «Բագրատունիների Թագավորություն» (Bagratuni Kingdom). Soviet Armenian Encyclopedia. vol. ii. Yerevan, Armenian SSR: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1976, p. 202. These tensions ultimately culminated in a series of peasant revolts against these new feudal lords and landowners, particularly in Ayrarat and Syunik. These revolts were supported by the Tondrakians, an anti-feudal, heretical Christian sect that had emerged from Paulicianism. They advocated for the abolition of the Church and feudalism, instead supporting the property rights of peasants and equality between men and women. This attracted many of the Armenian lower classes to join the sect, forming their own communities along Tondrakian principles. The peasant struggle eventually evolved into outright insurrection. When the feudal Tatev Monastery took possession of its surrounding land and villages, the local peasants protested against it, leading to an open revolt against the feudal clergy. In 990, the revolt was put down by the King of Syunik, who razed the peasants' villages and dispersed its population throughout the country. After the suppression of the revolts, the Tondrakians suffered a brief decline, before experiencing a resurgence at the beginning of the 11th century. Tondrakian communities spread throughout Armenia, worrying the various rulers of the country. They experienced another brief resurgence following the fall of the Bagratid state, but were eventually eliminated by the Byzantines. Armenia was subsequently ruled by a series of foreign powers, eventually leading to another partition of the country. In the 16th century, Western Armenia fell under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and Eastern Armenia became part of the Safavid Empire. ===The Armenian Enlightenment=== In the late 17th century, the Age of Enlightenment took hold in Eastern Armenia, with intellectuals spreading anti-feudal, democratic and revolutionary ideologies throughout the country. The most notable of these figures was Shahamir Shahamirian, a philosopher who rejected the monarchical order, considering obedience to rulers to be an insult to human intelligence. Instead he wanted to create a secular democratic system in Armenia, where all official posts (including the judiciary) were freely elected by popular vote. He wrote about his ideas of an independent Armenian nation in the book Snare of Glory: After the Qajar defeat in the Russo-Persian War, Eastern Armenia was annexed into the Russian Empire and the Armenian national liberation movement began to forge ties with the nascent Russian Revolutionary movement. An influential figure during this period was Mikayel Nalbandian, an advocate of secularism and a vocal critic of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Nalbandian became known for his efforts to create national literature, written in the modern Armenian language, which would reflect the social aspirations of the Armenian people. He was also a staunch advocate of land reform, arguing that "only the equal distribution of land could bring prosperity and happiness to the people." His work also indirectly inspired an uprising in Western Armenia, which successfully forced Ottoman forces to withdraw from the region of Zeitun. During his travels throughout Europe, he became an associate of the Russian anarchist Mikhail Bakunin, the anti-serfdom activist Nikolay Ogarev and the "father of Russian socialism" Alexander Herzen, with whom he participated in the foundation of the revolutionary organization Land and Liberty and organized the distribution of the Kolokol. In 1862, Nalbandian returned to Petrograd, where he participated in the activities of Land and Liberty, before being arrested for inciting anti-Tsarist sentiment with his literature. He was subsequently exiled to Kamyshin, where he died from tuberculosis. ===The Armenian Revolutionary Federation=== Inspired by Nalbandian, the Armenian anarchist Christapor Mikaelian took part in the foundation of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF), a political organization made up of a broad coalition of anarchists, socialists and nationalists. The organization itself was decentralized, allowing local branches in the various partitions of Armenia to act independently in accordance with the needs of their locality. Its goal was the establishment of a libertarian socialist society in Armenia, one based on the principles of freedom of assembly, freedom of speech, freedom of religion and agrarian reform. Mikaelian himself was a former supporter of Bakunin and defended the ideas of direct action and self-government, encouraging the ARF to put these principles into practice in their activities. The ARF became a major political force in Armenian life. It was especially active in the Ottoman Empire, where it organized or participated in many revolutionary activities. The influence of the ARF led to the widespread adoption of anarchist ideals among Armenians in the empire, with roughly 70% of Ottoman state surveillance reports on the anarchist movement concentrating on the Armenians. In 1894, the ARF took part in the Sasun Resistance, supplying arms to the local population to help the people of Sasun defend themselves against the Hamidian purges. It was around this time that the Armenian anarcho-communist Alexander Atabekian formed ties with the organization, publishing articles about the ARF's resistance to Ottoman persecution in the Armenian language anarchist periodical Hamayankh. To raise awareness of the massacres of 1895–96, members of the ARF led by Papken Siuni, occupied the Ottoman Bank on 26 August 1896. The purpose of the raid was to dictate the ARF's demands of reform in the Armenian populated areas of the Ottoman Empire and to attract European attention to their cause since the Europeans had many assets in the bank. The operation caught European attention but at the cost of more massacres by Sultan Abdul Hamid II. For his part, Alexander Atabekian attempted to raise awareness of the massacres by sending a declaration to the Socialist International, arguing that European states were directly participating in the crimes of the Sultan, and that the Armenian libertarians were declaring "the dawn of the social revolution" in response. On 30 March 1904, the ARF played a major role in the Second Sasun Uprising. The ARF sent arms and fedayi to defend the region for the second time. Among the 500 fedayees participating in the resistance were famed figures such as Kevork Chavush, Sepasdatsi Murad and Hrayr Djoghk. Although they managed to hold off the Ottoman army for several months, despite their lack of fighters and firepower, Ottoman forces captured Sasun and massacred thousands of Armenians. In 1905, Christapor Mikaelian and other members of the ARF planned an assassination attempt against Sultan Abdul Hamid II, in an act of propaganda of the deed. Mikaelian himself was killed in an explosion during the planning stages, and the attempt itself failed after the explosive missed its target.Assembly of Turkish American Associations (ATAA): Armenakan, Hunchaks and Dashnaktsutiun: Revolutionary Parties; Terror as Method. Nationalism Spreads From the Church to Secular Organizations The Belgian anarchist Edward Joris was among those arrested and convicted for their part in the plot. ===The Revolutionary period=== ====The 1905 Russian Revolution==== Though the Russian Empire was initially sympathetic towards the Armenian Revolutionary Federation, a Tsarist edict that brought all property of the Armenian Apostolic Church under imperial ownership saw resistance from the ARF, which dispatched militias and held mass demonstrations against the edict. This led the federation to entirely break ties with the Tsarist authorities, engaging in acts of terrorism against the state and establishing separate institutions in Russian Armenia. In 1905, workers' strikes and peasant uprisings began to break out across the empire. During this period, anarcho-communist ideas spread throughout the Caucasus. Caucasian anarchists organized armed workers' detachments, expropriating land and property from the wealthy classes, while they also established agricultural communes, self- managed workers' collectives and the country's first trade unions. In November 1905, a general strike was called in Alaverdi, becoming the largest strike in the history of the Caucasus and managing to force the bosses into conceding to their workers' demands. Armenian rail workers also went on strike, seizing control of the country's entire rail network and forming armed battalions for self-defense. The Imperial Russian Army eventually intervened, putting down the Moscow uprising, which led to the collapse of the workers' movement in Armenia. When the Armenian-Tatar massacres broke out, the ARF held the Russian authorities responsible. On 11 May 1905, the Dashnak revolutionary Drastamat Kanayan assassinated Russian governor general Mikhail Nakashidze, who was considered by the Armenian population as the main instigator of hate and confrontation between the Armenians and the Tatars. ====The Young Turk Revolution==== The actions of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation had gone on to inspire the Young Turks, who ignited a revolution that overthrew the absolutist regime of Abdul Hamid II, re-establishing the empire as a constitutional monarchy. This act legalized the ARF, which gained seats in the new parliament, but greater Armenian autonomy was not achieved. In 1909, an Ottoman counter-coup attempted to restore absolutist rule, carrying out a massacre in AdanaRaymond H. Kévorkian, "The Cilician Massacres, April 1909" in Armenian Cilicia, eds. Richard G. Hovannisian and Simon Payaslian. UCLA Armenian History and Culture Series: Historic Armenian Cities and Provinces, 7. Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers, 2008, pp. 339-69. which resulted in the deaths of over 20,000 Armenians. In the aftermath, the ARF cut ties with the Young Turks, leading to further division between the Turks and Armenians of the empire. ====The Persian Constitutional Revolution==== When a constitutionalist revolt broke out against the absolutist rule of the Qajar dynasty over Iran, the Iranian branch of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation elected to participate. The ARF contributed to the military aspect of the struggle, sending militias into Iran, led by Yeprem Khan, Arshak Gavafian and Khetcho. After the bombardment of the Majlis, the ARF militias rallied together with the Persian revolutionaries, eventually managing to depose Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar and re-establish the constitution. ===World War I and the Armenian genocide=== In 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, formally entering into World War I with a surprise attack on Russian positions in the Black Sea. During its invasion into Russian and Iranian territories, the Ottomans carried out massacres on the local Armenian populations, escalating the violence into a genocide that ultimately resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1 million Armenians. Many of the leading figures in the Armenian Revolutionary Federation were among those that were deported and murdered by the Ottoman authorities on April 24, 1915. This led the ARF to coordinate the Armenian resistance, which had its epicenter in the city of Van, where tens of thousands of Armenians successfully resisted the genocidal ambitions of the local Ottoman authorities. When the war drew to a close, many members of the Young Turks movement were assassinated by the ARF during Operation Nemesis. ===The Armenian Republic=== After the disintegration of the Russian Empire during World War I and the subsequent rise to power of the Bolsheviks, the treaty of Brest-Litovsk permitted the reoccupation of Western Armenia by Ottoman forces, which began to encroach on Eastern Armenian territory. The Armenian Revolutionary Federation coordinated an armed resistance to the Ottomans, which halted their advances at Sardarabad, Abaran and Karakilisa, thus securing the independence of Armenia. The Democratic Republic of Armenia was subsequently established by the ARF, which began a period of reconstruction in the country. But this independence was short lived, as the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic formed an alliance with the newly established Republic of Turkey, with the intention of partitioning and occupying Armenia. The ensuing Turkish–Armenian War devastated the Armenian Republic, forcing it to cede Western Armenia to Turkey..Hovannisian, Richard G. "Armenia and the Caucasus in the Genesis of the Soviet-Turkish Entente." International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 4, No. 2 (April, 1973), pp. 129–147. Days after the signing of the Treaty of Alexandropol, the weakened republic in Eastern Armenia was invaded and occupied by the 11th Soviet Red Army, which established the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic in its place. The Armenian Revolutionary Federation was banned by the new Bolshevik authorities, which transformed Armenia into a one- party state and brought the country under the Red Terror. In response to the state terrorism perpetrated by the Cheka, on February 13, 1921, the ARF led an uprising against Bolshevik rule. The rebel forces managed to liberate large swathes of the country, including the capital of Yerevan, and freed many Armenian revolutionaries from prison. Battles continued to take place with the Red Army forces, which vastly outnumbered the ARF, eventually ending on April 2 with the recapture of Yerevan. The ARF retreated into the mountains of Syunik, where they proclaimed the independence of the Republic of Mountainous Armenia, at a congress held on April 26 in Tatev Monastery. The Red Army responded by conducting a massive military operation into the mountains,Hovannisian, Richard G. Republic of Armenia, Vol. IV: Between Crescent and Sickle, Partition and Sovietization. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996, pp. 405-07. forcing the republic to capitulate on July 13. The last remnants of the ARF fled into exile, where they lost any trace of their anarchist and socialist ideology, moving towards an explicitly nationalist and anti-communist party line. ===Soviet Armenia=== Due to the alienation that these heavy-handed repressions had caused in Armenia, the Council of People's Commissars appointed the Armenian Bolshevik Alexander Miasnikian as Chairman of the new Armenian Soviet government, under orders to moderate government policies and slow down the transition to socialism. One of Miasnikian's first decrees as chairman was to declare Mountainous Karabakh to be a part of the Armenian SSR. Despite initially promising to integrate Nagorno-Karabakh into Armenia, the Kavbiuro reversed its promise within days, establishing the territory as an autonomous oblast of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic. This decision was ratified by the People's Commissariat for Nationalities under Joseph Stalin, later also transferring the Nakhichevan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic to Azerbaijan. The Armenian Communist Party appealed this decision, as the two regions had been promised to the Armenian SSR during the Red Army invasion, but they were unsuccessful. In 1925, Miasnikian died in a plane crash under suspicious circumstances. The Armenian SSR was thereafter brought into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, one of the four founding republics that formed the Soviet Union. Throughout the 1920s, Armenia suffered through an anti-religious campaign during which church property was confiscated by the state and priests were harassed, briefly subsiding in order to ease relations with the Armenian diaspora.Matossian. Impact of Soviet Policies, p. 150. In 1928, a new phase of religious persecution accelerated again, following the consolidation of power by Stalin.Matossian. Impact of Soviet Policies, pp. 150, 194. This period of ideological repression in Armenia eventually evolved into targeted political repression. Just as the Armenian SSR was reinstated by the Stalinist constitution, the country fell under the Great Purge, during which thousands of Armenians were killed. Armenian victims of the Great Purge included leaders of the clergy, prominent Bolshevik party officials (many accused of Trotskyism) and former members of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation, such as the anarchist Alexander Atabekian. During World War II, the Soviet Union initiated a policy of population transfer of ethnic minorities. Tens of thousands of Armenians were deported to Siberia in the process,Bauer- Manndorff, Elisabeth (1981). Armenia: Past and Present. New York: Armenian Prelacy, p. 178. followed by the further deportation of Armenians and Hamshenis to Central Asia. Meanwhile, an estimated 300–500,000 Armenians were sent to fight on the Eastern Front, almost half of whom did not return. To revitalize the country's population, members of the Armenian diaspora were invited to repatriate the Armenian SSR, resulting in the resettlement of hundreds of thousands of Armenian immigrants throughout the country.Dekmejian. "The Armenian Diaspora", p. 416.Yousefian, Sevan, "The Postwar Repatriation Movement of Armenians to Soviet Armenia, 1945-1948," Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 2011. These immigrants soon fell victim to discrimination by the native population as well as the Soviet government, which targeted many for deportation to Siberia and Central Asia. This went on until the Khrushchev Thaw, following the death of Stalin, during which the Armenian national identity was reaffirmed and the country went through a period of de-Stalinization. On April 24, 1965, demonstrations in Yerevan marked the 50th anniversary since the beginning of the Armenian genocide, beginning the first steps in the recognition of the Armenian genocide. The Armenian soviet government responded with the construction of a memorial complex on the hill of Tsitsernakaberd. Following the introduction of glasnost and perestroika, many Hamshenis in Central Asia petitioned the government to allow their resettlement in Armenia, which the Soviet government rejected. On February 20, 1988, the Supreme Soviet of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast voted to unify with Armenia, a decision that led to the beginning of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. Escalating tensions between the Armenian SSR and the Soviet authorities culminated in a declaration of State Sovereignty by the Armenian Supreme Soviet, followed by the 1991 Armenian independence referendum, in which Armenians voted overwhelmingly in favor of independence.Маркедонов Сергей Самоопределение по ленинским принципамДекларация о независимости Армении ===Independent Armenia=== Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, the right-wing Republican Party of Armenia began to consolidate power as the country's ruling political party. When the republican-supported Robert Kocharyan was elected as President of Armenia, he legalized the formerly banned Armenian Revolutionary Federation, which went on to form a coalition government with the republicans following the 1999 parliamentary election. On October 27, 1999, the Armenian parliament shooting took place, in which the prime minister Vazgen Sargsyan and the speaker Karen Demirchyan were both killed in a terrorist attack led by the former ARF member Nairi Hunanyan. This event led to a rise authoritarian rule by Kocharyan and the republican party. In the 2000s, the anarchist movement re-emerged in Armenia, rising up in reaction to the restoration of the rites of the nobility and the Apostolic Church, as well as the resurgence of authoritarian governance. In 2003, a branch of Autonomous Action was established in Armenia, followed by the establishment of the Armenian Libertarian-Socialist Movement in 2007. The rise of anti-establishment sentiment culminated in the 2008 protest, in which people rose up against alleged electoral fraud after the election of Kocharyan's successor Serzh Sargsyan as president. The demonstrations were violently dispersed and a state of emergency was invoked by the republican government, banning freedom of assembly and censoring the media, accelerating the violence which resulted in the deaths of 10 protesters. Political repression in the country became so intense that many of the newly established anarchist groups were forced to dissolve themselves, including the Armenian branch of Autonomous Action, which fled into exile in Europe. Further protests in 2011 eventually provoked a number of reforms, including the reinstitution of freedom of assembly and an amnesty for political prisoners. The anarchist movement subsequently re-organized itself, attending May Day protests as part of the "Left Alternative" organization, as well as establishing autonomous social centers such as the DIY Club in Yerevan. Animal rights activists staged "shut 'em down" events in cities throughout the country, during which meat and fur shops were closed down with glue and locks. Anarchists participated in the 2015 protests against a price hike on electricity rates, they were violently repressed by police, but nevertheless managed to achieve the reversal of the price increase and the sale of the monopolistic electricity distributor. Anarcha-feminists responded to the 2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict by denouncing the nationalism which drove the conflict, arguing that the conflict was used as a distraction by the authoritarian regimes in Armenia and Azerbaijan to justify the continued oppression of their own people. They claimed that the only way to achieve peace was through the destruction of the patriarchal and militarist systems that perpetuate war, by means of non-violent methods of collective direct action. Furthermore, anarchists criticized the subsequent Yerevan hostage crisis as a product of nationalism, misogyny and statism, seeing no point in participating in the solidarity protests, instead hoping for anti-government protests to develop a distinct element of class struggle. Anarchists also described the Velvet revolution as mere "regime change", which changed little materially about the Armenian state. They analyzed how it would affect the country's alliance with Russia, as well as the potential for future clashes in Nagorno-Karabakh. With the outbreak of the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war, many anarchists from Armenia, Azerbaijan and other countries unequivocally condemned the war, adopting an anti-militarist stance and calling for peace. == See also == *Anarchism in Azerbaijan *Anarchism in Georgia *Anarchism in Russia *Anarchism in Turkey == References == == External links == * Armenia section - The Anarchist Library * Armenia section - Libcom.org Armenia Anarchism |
Shambhu Das (born 1934) is an Indian classical musician and educator. He is best known for his long association with Ravi Shankar, on whose behalf Das has acted as an ambassador for Indian music in Canada since the early 1970s, and his friendship with George Harrison of the Beatles, whom Das helped teach sitar in 1966. His assistance in Harrison's immersion in Indian culture helped inspire the Beatles' career direction and, due to the band's popularity and influence, the direction of the 1960s counterculture. In 1970, Das established the Indian Music Department at Toronto's York University, where he taught for four years. Das recruited the Indian musicians and played sitar on Harrison's 1968 solo album Wonderwall Music, which was partly recorded in Bombay. He occasionally accompanied Shankar at his concerts and has performed himself throughout North America, Europe and India. From the 1990s, Das's work has increasingly drawn on the connection between music and meditation as a means of physical and spiritual healing. In the early 2000s, he formed the Indo jazz ensemble Shanti. A 24-hour sitar recital he gave in Toronto in October 2004, undertaken as a benefit for those affected by floods in India and Bangladesh, is recognised by Guinness World Records as the longest non-stop sitar performance. ==Early years and musical apprenticeship== Das was born in the Hindu holy city of Benares, in the north Indian state of Uttar Pradesh.Steve Turner, Beatles '66: The Revolutionary Year, Ecco (New York, NY, 2016; ), p. 326. He was brought up in the Bengali Hindu tradition. His father was a restaurateur who supplied food to the Allied forces during World War II. Das says his first memory of hearing an Indian classical raga was a performance by a shehnaist outside a temple.Geoffrey Clarfield, "Good Enough to Teach the Beatles, But Not to Record", National Post, 15 November 2010, p. A12 (retrieved 3 February 2019). Das was first taught sitar by a music tutor who visited his home. He then attended Theosophical college, where his studies continued under the Dagar brothers. He also studied tabla and vocal technique. During a concert held at the college, Das met Ravi Shankar, whom Das asked to accept him as a sitar student. He attended Benares Hindu University, graduating with a master's degree in music in 1959.Ajit Jain, "Shambhu Das Regales Audiences in Monterrey", India Abroad (Toronto Edition), 2 November 2007, p. 1; available at shambhudas.com. That year, Das joined Shankar in Bombay,Turner, p. 321. where he became part of Shankar's household, occasionally accompanied his guru in concert, and also served as his personal assistant. He studied sitar under Shankar in the strict guru–shishya traditionJeffrey W. Cupchik, "Polyvocality and Forgotten Proverbs (and Persons): Ravi Shankar, George Harrison and Shambhu Das", Popular Music Journal, April 2013 (vol. 8, no. 1), p. 81; available at academia.edu (retrieved 6 February 2019). in which Shankar had trained under Allauddin Khan.Peter Lavezzoli, The Dawn of Indian Music in the West, Continuum (New York, NY, 2006; ), p. 51. ==Kinnara School of Music== By the early 1960s, Das was one of Shankar's most advanced students, or protégés, along with Shamim Ahmed Khan, Kartick Kumar and Amiyo Das Gupta.Ravi Shankar, Raga Mala: The Autobiography of Ravi Shankar, Welcome Rain (New York, NY, 1999; ), p. 170. He was among the musicians selected to teach instrumental classes when Shankar founded his Kinnara School of Music in Bombay, which opened in July 1962.Shankar, pp. 168, 70. The school staged recitals and productions of Shankar's orchestral works, such as Nava Rasa Ranga in 1964, performed by the teachers and students.Shankar, pp. 171–72. In September 1966, Das assisted in teaching sitar to George Harrison of the Beatles.Shankar, pp. 192–93. After fans and the press learnt of Harrison's presence in Bombay, prompting scenes of Beatlemania outside his hotel, Das accompanied Shankar and Harrison to Dal Lake in Kashmir,Turner, pp. 325–26. where Harrison's training continued.Lavezzoli, p. 177. He and Das struck up a friendship as the majority of Harrison's musical education involved learning Indian scales,Neil Spencer, "Eastern Rising", Mojo Special Limited Edition: 1000 Days That Shook the World (The Psychedelic Beatles – April 1, 1965 to December 26, 1967), Emap (London, 2002), p. 78. a task that Shankar delegated to Das.Alan Clayson, George Harrison, Sanctuary (London, 2003; ), p. 206. During this visit by Harrison, Das escorted him to Benares and other sites of cultural significance.Clayson, pp. 206–07.Cupchik, pp. 76, 79. There, Harrison saw first-hand the aspects of Hindu culture and religiosity that would inform his work with the Beatles, including their 1967 album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, and influence the direction of the 1960s counterculture in the West.Paul Oliver, Hinduism and the 1960s: The Rise of a Counter-Culture, Bloomsbury Academic (London, 2014; ), pp. 65–66.Cupchik, pp. 87–88. When Shankar moved to Los Angeles in 1967 and set up a branch of the Kinnara school there,Shankar, pp. 162, 196. Das took over the running of the Bombay school.Bill Harry, The George Harrison Encyclopedia, Virgin Books (London, 2003; ), p. 61. In January 1968, he played sitar on Harrison's Wonderwall Music album, which was recorded at HMV Studios in Bombay. Das recruited the other local musicians for the sessions,Clayson, p. 235. which also produced the Beatles' 1968 B-side "The Inner Light".Lavezzoli, pp. 182–84. He appeared in the film Raga,Credits, Raga: A Film Journey into the Soul of India DVD, East Meets West/Apple Films, 2010 (produced and directed by Howard Worth; reissue produced by Shyama Priya & Cat Celebrezze). a documentary on Shankar that includes scenes filmed over 1967–68 at the two Kinnara centres.Lavezzoli, p. 184.Howard Thompson, "Screen: Ravi Shankar; 'Raga,' a Documentary, at Carnegie Cinema", The New York Times, 24 November 1971, p. 23 (retrieved 26 August 2015). In an interview in 2005, Das told The New Indian Express that he recalled visiting Chennai (formerly Madras) in 1968 to film the scenes there for Raga.K. Praveen Kumar, "Shambu Das: 'Westerners enjoy Carnatic music'", The New Indian Express, 21 January 2005; available at shambhudas.com. Writing in 2013 in the journal Popular Music History, ethnomusicologist Jeffrey Cupchik said that Das's contribution to Harrison's musical and spiritual development, and its considerable influence on Western culture, had arguably been overlooked, as historians tend to focus only on the enduring association between Harrison and Shankar.Cupchick, pp. 68–70. He described Das and Harrison's friendship as "a relationship that has yet to be addressed fully by popular music historians".Cupchik, p. 83. ==Toronto== In 1970, Shankar organised for Das to move to Canada to help promote Indian classical music in North America, through a program of lectures, public performances and private tuition.Times of India staff, "Shambhu Das Sets World Record", The Times of India, 29 July 2005; available at shambhudas.com. Between 1970 and 1974, Das taught at York University in Toronto, where he co-founded the Indian Music Department. He then taught sitar and vocal technique at Sangeet, a private music school. Continuing his association with his guru, Das helped organise Shankar's concerts in Canada.Cupchik, p. 70. He also acted as Shankar's business manager, negotiating fees for private recitals for celebrities such as Peter Sellers.Clayson, p. 340. In August 1976, Das played tambura at Shankar's dusk- to-dawn recital at the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York City, a concert celebrating the twentieth anniversary of his first public appearance in the US."Ravi Shankar's 1976 All-Night Concert Out on East Meets West Music", Unfinished Side, 16 July 2014 (retrieved 4 February 2019). Das himself performed concerts in India, North America and Europe, and made appearances on CBC television and radio. In 1994, Das made two cassette recordings, titled Dhyanam and Shanti Vani, of musical pieces designed to accompany yoga and meditation practice. The two collections were endorsed by Sri Chinmoy of the United Nations Meditation Centre in New York, and became popular among practitioners throughout Canada and the United States. In 1996, Das published the book Music and Meditation, written with Samprasad Majumdar. The book sought to further understanding of the connection between Indian classical music and meditation incorporating Vedic mantras. It introduced a musical–spiritual concept termed DH3M (deep hypnosis music-meditation method), which Das espoused as a cure for psychological and physical pain.Cupchik, pp. 69, 86. In the book, he describes DH3M as a "combination of Western science and Eastern wisdom, of ancient philosophy and collaboration of celestial music".Cupchik, p. 86. In the early 2000s, Das formed the band Shanti, an Indo jazz ensemble. The name was taken from the Sanskrit word for peace, since the band's music was intended to "raise one's sense of inner divine peace".Barry Prophet, "East Meets West at Harbourfront", M(a)gizone, fall 2003; available at shambhudas.com (retrieved 5 February 2019). In 2003, the ten-piece ensemble comprised three sitars, tambura, two tablas, electric keyboard, soprano saxophone, electric guitar, bass guitar and vocals. Das credited Harrison and the Wonderwall Music project with inspiring his move towards Indo jazz. In 2004, Das responded to an initiative launched by the Ontario premier, Dalton McGuinty, to contribute humanitarian aid to citizens of India, Bangladesh and Nepal after the region had been subject to devastating floods.Ajit Jain, "Floods in India Move McGuinty", India Abroad, 27 August 2004, p. 6; available at shambhudas.com. On 8–9 October, Das performed a 24-hour sitar marathon at the University of Toronto's William Doo AuditoriumAjit Jain, "Shambhu Das Makes It to Guinness Book", India Abroad (Toronto Edition), 5 August 2005, p. 1; available at shambhudas.com. to raise awareness and funds for those affected in India and Bangladesh.Cupchik, p. 82fn. Das overcame poor health to complete the day-long performance; as stipulated beforehand, he left the stage only for toilet breaks, during which his place was taken by one of his students. The performance was recognised by Guinness World Records as the longest sitar recital. In September 2005, the Federation of Bangladeshi Associations in North America (FOBANA) presented him with an award for "his outstanding contribution in promoting Bengali culture to the new generation"."Shambhu Das Biography", shambhudas.com (retrieved 5 February 2019). After debuting the work in Chicago in 2007, Das presented In Search of Peace – Music and Meditation, a combination of performance and lecture, in Chennai in February 2008. A solo presentation, it included an alap (based on raga Komal Rishabh Asavari) that incorporated aspects of Hindustani classical, fusion, and Indo jazz, accompanied by a video projection of scenes from Benares and the Ganges.Lalithaa Krishnan, "Subdued, Emotive", The Hindu, 7 March 2008 (retrieved 16 February 2019). The Toronto Star has described Das as "one of India's most distinguished musicians".Dakshinaa concert programme for 28 February 2008, Malayalee Club, Chennai; available at shambhudas.com (retrieved 5 February 2019). When asked in a 2010 interview for Canada's National Post why he had never attempted to become a commercial recording artist, Das replied: "I love to perform, but I am not sure that what I have to offer is as good as or better than my guru ... If my guru's work is a work of gold, perhaps I can compare my style to silver, with a few glints of gold that I have received from my teacher." ==Personal life== Since the late 1970s, Das has lived with him family in Scarborough in the east of Toronto. In 1992, his only son died in an automobile accident. As a result of this loss, Das returned to India and lived in monasteries there, a period of reflection and re-energising that led to his meditation-based recordings and book later in the 1990s. Several years after his return to Toronto, Das suffered a major heart attack. He was persuaded to re-engage with his passion for music by Shankar, whose son Shubho had also died in 1992, and who himself has begun to suffer serious heart problems at this time.Shankar, pp. 257, 263, 324.Lavezzoli, p. 197. According to Cupchik, who interviewed Das at his Toronto home in 2003, Das was intending to write an autobiography at that time.Cupchik, pp. 71, 76. With reference to Das's stated wish that he be more widely recognised for his contribution to Harrison's introduction to Indian culture, Cupchick said that, rather than opportunism on Das's part, such an account would be more "a way of affirming his own identity". ==Notes== ==References== Category:Indian male classical musicians Category:Sitar players Category:Musicians from Varanasi Category:Pupils of Ravi Shankar Category:Hindustani instrumentalists Category:Bengali Hindus Category:Indian expatriates in Canada Category:The Beatles and India Category:20th-century Indian musicians Category:21st-century Indian musicians Category:20th-century male musicians Category:21st-century male musicians |
alt=Courthouse, Bremer County|thumb|Bremer County Courthouse in Waverly Iowa, 1935 Waverly is a city in Bremer County, Iowa, United States. The population was 10,394 at the time of the 2020 census. It is the county seat of Bremer County and is part of the Waterloo–Cedar Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area. The sister city of Waverly is the German city of Eisenach, which is famous for the Wartburg castle. Waverly is the location of Wartburg College, which is named after this castle. ==Early Waverly history== === Indian reservation=== The first permanent residents of Waverly were settled there against their will. Because of their alleged assistance given to Chief Black Hawk during the Blackhawk War of 1832, the Winnebago were forced to cede their lands east of the Mississippi and to move to Neutral Ground in what is now northeastern Iowa. They were to receive $270,000 ($10,000 per year for 27 years) and were required to surrender several of their tribesmen accused of murdering whites during the war. At that time there were three tribes living in the area, the Winnebagoes numbering about 500, the Mesquakie numbering about 100 and the Pottawattomies numbering about 50. With Iowa statehood in 1846, the Winnebago were moved again. In an 1845 treaty, the Winnebago exchanged their Iowa lands for the Long Prairie (Crow Wing River) reserve in Minnesota and $190,000. In 1848, a detachment of United States troops from Fort Atkinson, Iowa, came to enforce the removal. All told, between 1840 and 1863, the Winnebagoes were moved five times. They were pushed first to northeastern Iowa, then to Long Prairie, Minnesota, then to Blue Earth, Minnesota, then to Crow Creek, South Dakota. In 1865, after the constant upheaval cost 700 tribal members’ lives, the current Winnebago Reservation in Nebraska was established by the treaties of 1865 and 1874. The tribe lost more than two thirds of this land in the General Allotment Act of 1887. By 1913, only of cropland, woodland, and pasture remained. The tribe is federally recognized and organized under the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act. The Winnebago Tribe established a constitution in 1936 which was amended in 1968. ===Settlement=== Frederick Cretzmeyer is credited with being the first European settler in Waverly. Having purchased in 1852, he built a log hut on the east side of the Cedar River (or what was once called the Red Cedar River). Soon more homes were constructed as other settlers arrived, with some of their later homes built just over the hill behind the old recycling center. William Patterson Harmon came to Waverly in the spring of 1853 with the idea of establishing a town and a saw mill. He purchased most of what is now Waverly from the United States Government for $1.25 an acre. The area was incorporated as a town on April 25, 1859, according to the Library of the State of Iowa. (A centennial celebration was held in August 1956.) Two stories exist on how the town was named. The speaker at the ceremony was said to have been a fan of Sir Walter Scott's Waverley novels and when it came time to name the town (which settlers had wanted to call Harmonville or Harmon) he inadvertently called it Waverly. The myth goes that Jennie Harmon Case later wrote that it was her father who was the speaker and that he made the decision to name the town after the favorite book, instead of the proposed "Harmonville." Coincidentally, Bremer County's name also honors a person eminent in literature. Bremer was named in 1850 by Governor Hempstead, who was an admirer of the Swedish feminist author Fredrika Bremer. The first school was started by Charles Ensign in a log cabin in 1854. A stone school house was erected by 1855 and additional schools were built in 1861 and 1868. The first graduating class of the Waverly High School was the class of 1875 with two students. Wartburg College moved to Waverly from Clinton, Iowa, in 1856. The public library was established in 1866. In 2014, the Waverly East Bremer Avenue Commercial Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Among the noted buildings in the listing is the WPA-era post office, which contains a mural designed by artist Mildred W. Pelzer for the Section of Painting and Sculpture, later called the Section of Fine Arts, of the Treasury Department. The painting, called "A Letter from Home in 1856", depicted a farm family pausing during plowing to read a letter from their former home. ==Geography== Waverly's longitude and latitude coordinates in decimal form are 42.726530, −92.475366. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water. ==Demographics== ===2010 census=== At the 2010 census, there were 9,874 people, 3,546 households and 2,294 families in the city. The population density was . There were 3,732 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 95.3% White, 1.7% African American, 0.1% Native American, 1.2% Asian, 0.3% from other races, and 1.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 1.3% of the population. There were 3,546 households, of which 29.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.2% were married couples living together, 8.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 2.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 35.3% were non-families. 28.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34 and the average family size was 2.86. The median age was 33.1 years. 20.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 21.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 19.9% were from 25 to 44; 21.5% were from 45 to 64; and 16.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup was 47.4% male and 52.6% female. ===2000 census=== At the 2000,census, there were 8,968 people, 3,238 households and 2,143 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 3,394 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup was 97.11% White, 1.05% African American, 0.11% Native American, 0.87% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.12% from other races, and 0.72% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 0.61% of the population. There were 3,238 households, of which 30.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.1% were married couples living together, 6.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.8% were non-families. 28.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 2.90. 21.5% of the population were under the age of 18, 20.4% from 18 to 24, 21.5% from 25 to 44, 20.3% from 16.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 88.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.4 males. The median household income was $39,587 and the median family income was $52,656. Males had a median income of $36,369 and females $22,031. The per capita income was $18,285. About 2.1% of families and 6.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.0% of those under age 18 and 5.8% of those age 65 or over. ==Education== thumb|right|Statue of St. Francis at Wartburg College Wartburg College, maintained by the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, is a four-year liberal-arts college in Waverly that opened in 1852. In the 2016–2017 school year, the college had an enrollment of 1,482 students., Wartburg College, December 14, 2016. Retrieved December 14, 2016. The Waverly-Shell Rock Community School District operates local public schools and is made of seven schools including four elementary schools, a middle school (grades 5 through 8), a high school, and a residential alternative high school. The district strives "to create a passion for learning that will sustain students for a lifetime". In the 2005–06 school year, the district had 2,020 K-12 students, of whom 1,823 were regular education students and 197 were special education students. Thirty-four of the special education students are served in Greenview High School, an alternative high school program. Waverly-Shell Rock Senior High completed building a new auditorium and gymnasium in 2008. St. Paul's Lutheran School "is committed to providing quality education in an environment where Christian faith is taught, learned and lived". In the 2010–2011 school year, 139 students were enrolled in K-6 and 87 students in pre-school. More than half of the students come from neighboring congregations and assistance is given to families who demonstrate financial need. The school offers a Gifted and Talented program, a "Partners in Education Program", which allows students and residents at Bartels Lutheran Retirement Community to work together, and several unique opportunities in the fine arts. ==Economy== Major employers in Waverly include CUNA Mutual Group, Waverly Health Center, Wartburg College, Nestlé Beverage, Waverly-Shell Rock Community School District, Peoples Insurance Agency and the GMT Corporation. ==Government== The City of Waverly has a mayor council form of government. The city has a professional city administrator who is hired by the city council. There is a seven-member city council: five elected members from wards, two members elected at-large. The mayor is elected by all citizens. ===Police and fire departments=== Waverly's police department consists of 16 officers.Waverly Police Department, City of Waverly. Retrieved February 12, 2021. The fire department is a volunteer force of 30 to 40 citizens.Welcome to the Waverly Volunteer Fire Department , City of Waverly. Retrieved November 2, 2007. ==Infrastructure== ===Utilities=== ====Renewable energy==== In 1993, Waverly Light & Power Company became the first public power system in the Midwest to own and operate wind generation. The Zond 80 kW turbine was installed on a farm just outside the city. In 1999, two 75 kW turbines were added near Alta, Iowa. They are part of the 259 turbines on a wind farm near Storm Lake. In 2001, the first turbine was replaced by a 90 kW turbine which has produced 111,000kwh in 15 days. WLP has set a goal known as "20 by 20-20" which means they are striving to generate 20% of its energy with renewable sources by the year 2020. The latest step in reaching that goal is to build a new ISEP energy park in Dallas County. Waverly Light & Power has also helped development of soybean-based transformer oil. ===Health care=== Waverly Health Center is a 25-bed critical access hospital in Waverly. It provides inpatient care, ambulatory surgery, outpatient services, specialty clinics and emergency room care to area residents. More than 50 health care providers and visiting specialists care for patients there, allowing residents local access to specialized care. Waverly Health Center is accredited by the Joint Commission. ==Local radio== KWAY (AM) and KWAY-FM are located on the south side of Waverly. Studios and transmitters are there. ==Evangelical Lutheran Church in America== Waverly may have the highest national per capita concentration of ordained Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) clergy. One estimate in the 1990s suggested Waverly had 37 ordained ELCA clergy, with a population of about 9,000. This estimate was made during the days preceding the ELCA decision regarding Called to Common Mission. If accurate, this would equal a ratio of one clergy member for every 243 people. Waverly also has St. John Lutheran Church, which is affiliated with the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod. ==Notable people== *A. J. Hinch (1974– ), former Major League Baseball catcher, 1998–2004; former manager of 2017 World Series champion Houston Astros *John Sladek (1937–2000), science fiction, mystery and non-fiction author *Michael Talbott, actor best known for his role in TV's Miami Vice *Dennis Wagner, college football coach * Clint Barton, Marvel superhero also known as Hawkeye ==Media references== The fictional biography of the Marvel Comics character Hawkeye, who is part of the Avengers superhero group, puts his birthplace in Waverly. The film Ice Castles and its 2010 remake use Waverly as a locales, including being the hometown of the protagonists. ==Sister cities== * Sister city since 1992 - Eisenach, Germany ==References== ==External links== *Welcome to Waverly - portal style website; government, library, Chamber of Commerce and more *City-Data - comprehensive statistical data and more about Waverly Category:Cities in Bremer County, Iowa Category:Cities in Iowa Category:County seats in Iowa Category:Waterloo – Cedar Falls metropolitan area |
The Arms of Canada (), also known as the Royal Coat of Arms of Canada () or, formally, as the Arms of His Majesty the King in Right of Canada (), is the arms of dominion of the Canadian monarch and, thus, also the official coat of arms of Canada. In use since 1921, it is closely modelled after the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom, with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version. The maple leaves in the shield, blazoned "proper" (i.e., in natural colour), were originally drawn vert (green), but were redrawn gules (red) in 1957 and a circlet of the Order of Canada was added to the arms for limited use in 1987. The arms are registered with the Canadian Heraldic Authority and protected under Crown copyright; they are used to signify national sovereignty and the federal government uses the arms to represent the state under the Federal Identity Program. Elements of the coat of arms are also used in other designs, with the shield being used in the various royal standards belonging to members of the royal family and the crest of the arms serving as the focal point of the governor general's flag. ==History== Prior to Confederation in 1867, the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom served in Canada as the symbol of royal authority. Arms had not been granted to any of the colonies in British North America, apart from 17th century grants to Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. Arms were then granted by royal warrant, on 26 May 1868, to Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. (That Nova Scotia had previously been granted arms was forgotten and it took until 1929 for the historic arms granted in the 17th century to be reinstated.) In that warrant, Queen Victoria authorized the four arms of the first provinces to be quartered for use on the Great Seal of Canada. While this was not done for the first Great Seal, it was through that reference that the arrangement became the de facto arms for Canada until 1921, which were used on the first Red Ensign carried by Canadian troops at Vimy Ridge in 1917. As more provinces and territories joined Canada, the original four arms were marshalled with the arms of the new members of Confederation, eventually resulting in a shield with nine quarterings. This occurred by way of popular and even Canadian governmental usage; flag-makers took to using the complex shield on Canadian Red Ensigns. None of those shields, besides the original four-segment version of 1868, were ever official in any sense, nor were any of these shields a national "coat of arms", as they had never been approved by the monarch. Heraldists considered nine quarterings on a shield as too convoluted for a national symbol and, by 1915, a push had begun to design a new coat of arms for Canada. A committee, which included Dominion Archivist Arthur Doughty, was formed in 1919 to pursue the issue, eventually agreeing that the elements of the new arms would reference the royal arms of England, Ireland, Scotland, and France, with maple leaves representing Canada, though there was at the time no consensus on how the leaves were to be used. A 1917 proposal by Edward Marion Chadwick (who had designed the crest, supporters, and motto of the coat of arms of Ontario) sparked a discussion about featuring First Nations figures as supporters. Though Chadwick had depicted the clothing and regalia accurately, Joseph Pope rejected the idea, stating, "I myself do not see any necessity for commemorating the Indians at all." The arms' design was settled by the following year and the committee conferred with the College of Arms in London, only to face resistance to the use of the UK's royal arms from the Garter King of Arms, as well as concern over whether the inclusion of the fleurs-de-lis would imply Canada claimed sovereignty over France. The Canadian Commissioner-General in Paris discreetly confirmed with French officials that the coat of arms would not spark a diplomatic spat. A counter- proposal from the college added the flags to the supporters and a crown to the lion, as in the British arms, and placed the three fleurs-de-lis between two green maple leaves in the fifth charge on the shield, below the four charges of the arms of the UK. After some manoeuvring, including the personal intervention of Winston Churchill, the new arms of Canada were eventually formally requested by an order-in-council on 30 April 1921 and adopted on 21 November of the same year, by proclamation of King George V, as the Arms or Ensigns Armorial of the Dominion of Canada; the committee records were preserved with Library and Archives Canada. The new layout closely reflected the arms of the United Kingdom, with the addition of maple leaves in the base and the reference to the French royal arms in the fourth quarter. Eugène Fiset, the Deputy Minister of Defence, claimed in 1918 that the design of the arms would determine the national colours of Canada. In the 1940s, military historian Archer Fortescue Duguid suggested King George V had chosen red and white as Canada's official colours because those were the colours in the wreath and mantling on the arms. However, Forrest Pass, a curator at Library and Archives Canada, determined there is no record of either the King or the committee giving much importance to the mantling and the royal proclamation of the coat of arms makes no mention of national colours, specifically. With the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931, Canada and other Dominions became fully sovereign from the United Kingdom. This had the effect of elevating the Canadian coat of arms, which had been granted as deputed arms for particular uses in a colony, to the status of the royal arms of the King in right of the country, for general purposes throughout the country. They thus replaced the British coat of arms, which had previously been arms of general purpose throughout the British Empire, in courtrooms and on government buildings to represent the reigning monarch. This change can be seen in the Great Seal of Canada of King George VI, where the royal arms of Canada replaced the British arms, and is even more evident in the Great Seal of Canada for Queen Elizabeth II, on which the title Queen of Canada is used. By 1957, the arms were redrawn by Alan Beddoe so as to have red leaves and to change the royal crown from a Tudor design to one more resembling St Edward's Crown, as preferred by Queen Elizabeth II. To mark the 1982 patriation of the Canadian constitution, which finally ended the last vestiges of the British parliament's role in amending the constitution, a McGill University student named Bruce Hicks proposed to Secretary of State Gerald Regan that the motto of the Order of Canada—at the time, the country's highest civilian honour for merit—be placed around the shield in order to bring these royal arms into line with other royal arms displayed in Canada—holdovers from the time of French, Scottish, and English colonisation—on which a symbol of those countries' highest national order of honour appeared around the shield (the British arms displayed the Order of the Garter, the Scottish royal arms the Order of the Thistle, and the royalist arms of the French Regime the Order of the Holy Spirit and Order of Saint Michael). While unsuccessful in this first attempt, Hicks continued his campaign and was joined by a number of other amateur and professional heraldists. As a journalist in the parliamentary press gallery in Ottawa in the late 1980s and early '90s, Hicks strategically recast the change as something worth doing to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the Order of Canada's founding, in 1992; an idea that was endorsed by the Advisory Committee on the Order of Canada. It took until 1994 for the Queen to approve the new design for general use; though, the Canadian Heraldic Authority, established by the Queen in 1988, began to allow for its limited use beginning in 1987, where the arms were used to represent the Queen personally on letters patent granting new arms for distinguished Canadians. These letters patent carried the shield from the royal arms along with the annulus behind the shield bearing the motto of the Order of Canada—Desiderantes meliorem patriam. As soon as royal approval was forthcoming, the full achievement was redesigned for use by the federal government within the Federal Identity Program. The present design of the arms of Canada was drawn by Cathy Bursey-Sabourin, Fraser Herald at the Canadian Heraldic Authority. Member of Parliament Pat Martin introduced, in June 2008, a motion into the House of Commons calling on the government to amend the coat of arms to incorporate symbols representing Canada's First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples, as Chadwick had suggested in 1917. After the coronation of King Charles III and Queen Camilla on 6 May 2023, the Canadian Heraldic Authority revealed a new Canadian Royal Crown featuring maple leaves, a snowflake, and symbols with meaning to Canada's Indigenous peoples. The authority stated changes will take place in due course. ===Armorial evolution=== Arms of Canada 1868.svg|1868–1870, quartering the arms of the four founding provinces Arms of Canada 1870.svg|1870–1873, addition of Manitoba Arms of Canada 1873.svg|1873–1907, addition of British Columbia and Prince Edward Island Arms of Canada 1907.svg|1907–1921, addition of Saskatchewan and Alberta Royal Coat of Arms of Canada (1921–1957).svg|1921–1957 Royal Coat of Arms of Canada (1957–1994).svg|1957–1994 Royal Coat of Arms of Canada.svg|Since 1994 ==Use== The coat of arms, being those of the sovereign and the state, is used to signify national sovereignty and ownership. The federal government uses the arms to represent the state under the Federal Identity Program and as a mark of authority for various government agencies and representatives, including Cabinet, and the prime minister within it, and the Supreme Court, as well as the Canadian Armed Forces and Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP). In the latter two, the most senior non-commissioned ranks wear the 1957 version of the arms as a badge of rank, representing the fact that they have received the King's warrant (as opposed to the King's Commission for officers). The arms of Canada is also present on all pre-polymer denominations of Canadian banknotes—printed on each bill in a way that functions as a security feature,—as well as the 50¢ coin and on the cover of Canadian passports. Permanent resident cards issued from 2015 feature a holographic representation of the 1957 version of the coat of arms. The full achievement of the coat of arms has been used by the Canadian government on occasion on a plain red flag, such as in 1967 for the country's centennial celebrations. It is also used on a flag in its full achievement in military ceremonies, such as Canadian Armed Forces Tattoo performances. As the royal arms are personal to the sovereign, they cannot be used without the King's consent. The coat of arms "as designed in 1921 and revised in 1957 [...] [and] in 1994" are "protected under the Trade-marks Act and the Copyright Act and cannot be used or reproduced without authorization." Further, "marks and designs similar to the official symbols are pursued as a copyright or trade-mark infringement." The Trade-marks Act further states that, "no person shall adopt in connection with a business, as a trade-mark or otherwise, any mark consisting of, or so nearly resembling as to be likely to be mistaken for [...] the arms, crest, or flag adopted and used at any time by Canada." In addition, under Crown copyright, "permission is always required when the work is being revised, adapted, or translated, regardless if the purpose of the reproduction is for personal or public non- commercial distribution." ===Designs derived from the arms=== The banner of the arms was in 2023 made the sovereign's flag, for use by the monarch in Canada and when representing Canada abroad. Between 1962 and 2022, the banner of arms defaced with a variant of the Queen's cypher formed the Queen's Personal Canadian Flag, for use by Queen Elizabeth II. Six additional standards for use by other members of the Canadian royal family were created in the 2010s, all using a similar design with the banner of the arms as their base. The personal flag of the governor general has, since 1981, featured the crest of the royal arms of Canada on a blue background. With the support of former Speakers of the House of Commons John Fraser and Gilbert Parent, Bruce Hicks campaigned for the Canadian Parliament to have a distinct heraldic symbol, along the lines of the portcullis (variations of which are used by the Commons and Lords in the British Parliament). In response, Member of Parliament Derek Lee tabled a motion calling for a committee to be struck, which passed and Hicks and Robert Watt, the first Chief Herald of Canada, were called as the only two expert witnesses; though, Senator Serge Joyal joined the committee ex-officio, on behalf of the Senate. The Commons' Speaker, Peter Milliken, then asked the Canadian Heraldic Authority to design such a symbol and, on 15 February 2008, the Governor General authorized the House of Commons to begin using a badge, consisting of the shield of the royal arms superimposed on the ceremonial mace (assigned to the House of Commons as a symbol of the royal authority under which it operates). Following the Commons example, the Senate then requested and obtained, exactly two months later, a similar badge for itself, with the shield of the royal arms surmounted on the mace assigned to the Senate. ==Blazon== The heraldic blazon of Canada's coat of arms, as declared in the 1921 proclamation, is: > Tierced in fesse the first and second divisions containing the quarterly > coat following, namely, 1st, gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or, > 2nd, Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory gules, > 3rd, azure a harp Or stringed argent, 4th, azure, three fleurs-de-lis Or, > and the third division argent three maple leaves conjoined on one stem > proper. And upon a royal helmet mantled argent doubled gules the crest, that > is to say, on a wreath of the colours argent and gules a lion passant > guardant Or imperially crowned proper and holding in the dexter paw a maple > leaf gules. And for supporters on the dexter a lion rampant Or holding a > lance argent, point Or, flying therefrom to the dexter the Union Flag, and > on the sinister, a unicorn argent armed crined and unguled Or, gorged with a > coronet composed of crosses-patée and fleurs-de-lis a chain affixed thereto > reflexed of the last, and holding a like lance flying therefrom to the > sinister a banner azure charged with three fleurs-de-lis Or; the whole > ensigned with the Imperial Crown proper and below the shield upon a wreath > composed of roses, thistles, shamrocks and lillies a scroll azure inscribed > with the motto A mari usque ad mare. The circlet of the Order of Canada was added around the shield for limited use in 1987 and for general use in 1994. ==Symbolism== Element Description Image Crown The coat of arms are surmounted by a rendition of St. Edward's Crown, which has been used in the coronations of Canada's monarchs. This element represents Canada's status as a constitutional monarchy headed by a sovereign king or queen. This style of crown was that preferred by Queen Elizabeth II, and was modernized in 1957 from the 1921 design, which used the Tudor crown. 130x130px Crest The crest is based on the Royal Crest of the United Kingdom but differenced by the addition of a maple leaf, and symbolizes the sovereignty of Canada. It appears on the flag of the Governor-General, symbolizing that the Governor-General is a representative of the Sovereign. The crest consists of a crowned gold lion standing on a twisted wreath of red and white silk and holding a maple leaf in its right paw. 130x130px Helm The arms show a royal helmet, which is a barred helm of gold embossed with a maple leaf design looking outward, with mantling of white and red, stylized in the official version to look like maple leaves. 130x130px Escutcheon The escutcheon is divided into five sections. The first division at the viewer's top left contains the three golden lions that have been a symbol of England since at least the reign of King Richard I. The second quarter bears the red lion rampant of Scotland in a double treasure border with fleurs-de-lis, used as a symbol of Scotland since at least the reign of William I. The third quarter shows the Irish harp of Tara. The fourth quarter shows the Royal Banner of France or "Bourbon Flag" with three gold fleurs-de-lis on blue field arranged two and one, symbolizing royal France. The fifth charge, a sprig of red maple leaves at the bottom, is a distinctly Canadian symbol that became gradually identified with the country throughout the 19th century. The arrangement of three leaves on one sprig was first seen on a Saint-Jean- Baptiste Day poster in 1850. They were first proposed as a symbol in 1834, were established in 1868 on the arms of Quebec and Ontario and officially became the national emblem in 1965, with the proclamation of the Flag of Canada. Initially, the leaves were depicted as coloured green on the coat of arms because it was thought to represent youth, as opposed to the red colour of dying leaves in autumn. However, they are blazoned as "proper", so could be shown as either red or green, and it is the blazon, rather than any depiction, which is regarded as authoritative. The leaves were later redrawn in official depictions in 1957 with the current colour to be in line with the official colours of Canada. They are further stylized in that natural maple leaves do not grow in sprigs of three. Beginning in the 1960s, there developed an interpretation of the leaves as symbolic of Canadian multiculturalism; the country's different groups of people separate, but also joined together. There is, however, no record from the designing committee indicates there was any intention behind the particular arrangement of the leaves; the choice of three leaves appears to have been aesthetic. The shield forms the basis of the royal standards of Canada. 130x130px Ribbon The ribbon is marked desiderantes meliorem patriam, meaning "desiring a better country," which is the motto of the Order of Canada, taken from Hebrews 11:16. This component was added by the Queen in 1987 on the advice of her Prime Minister. With the patriation of oversight of arms to Canada through the Canadian Heraldic Authority the following year, the constitution of the Order of Canada was amended to include entitlement by all recipients to encircle their own arms with the ribbon if arms are granted to them. Since 1994 the arms used by government ministers and institutions have slowly changed to reflect the new version with the ribbon. 130x130px Motto The motto of Canada is in Latin a mari usque ad mare (From sea to sea), a part of Psalm 72:8. This phrase was suggested by Joseph Pope, then- Under Secretary of State, when the Arms were redesigned in 1921. The motto was originally used in 1906 on the head of the mace of the Legislative Assembly of Saskatchewan. In March 2006, the premiers of Canada's three territories called for the amendment of the motto to better reflect the vast geographic nature of Canada's territory, as Canada has coastlines on the Arctic, Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans. Two suggestions for a new motto are A mari ad mare ad mare (from sea to sea to sea) and A mari usque ad maria (from the sea to the other seas). 130x130px Supporters Supporting the shield on either side are the English lion and Scottish unicorn, which are also the supporters of the UK coat of arms. The English lion stands on the viewer's left and holds a gold- pointed silver lance flying the Royal Union Flag. The Scottish unicorn has a gold horn, a gold mane, gold hooves, and around its neck a gold, chained coronet of crosses and fleurs-de-lis; it holds a lance flying a banner of royalist France, the three gold fleurs-de-lis on a blue background. Unlike the British version, the lion is not crowned, nor is it facing the viewer. The broken chain on the unicorn symbolizes the unicorn's resistance to oppression. 130x130px Compartment The entire coat of arms rests on the compartment, which is made up of the floral emblems of the founding nations. The Tudor rose is the floral badge of England and Wales, combining the White Rose of York and the Red Rose of Lancaster. The thistle and shamrock are the symbols of Scotland and Ireland, respectively, while the fleur-de-lis has been the royal symbol of France since the 12th century. 130x130px ==See also== ==References== ==External links== *Registration of the Arms and Supporters of Her Majesty The Queen in Right of Canada *Arms & Badges – Royal Arms of Canada, A Brief History Canada Category:Monarchy in Canada Category:Canadian heraldry Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada |
Idol: Jakten på en superstjerne 2006 was the fourth season of Idol Norway based on the British singing competition Pop Idol. It premiered one year after the third season and was aired in the first half of 2006. Kåre Magnus Bergh remained as the co-host of Solveig Kloppen who was pregnant during the show. Between March 3 and April 27 she was replaced by the following (in order of appearance): Berte Rommetveit, Guri Solberg, Sandra Lyng Haugen, Marion Ravn and Silje Stang who each hosted one show next to Bergh. Tone-Lise Skagefoss and Tor Milde remained as judges and were joined by Amund Bjørklund and Hans Olav Grøttheim. Aleksander Denstad With auditioned with his girlfriend Vivian Sørmeland. The two of them were lead singers of the unsigned project WimpyLine. Both managed to advance through the semifinals to the top 12 and while Sørmeland placed third her boyfriend Width went on winning the entire show making him the youngest winner of the show (he was 18 at that time). Peaking at no. 4 in Norway, first album coming home also managed to become a success in Japan.ALEKSANDER DENSTAD WITH - Hvilken kroppsdel sliter du mest med? - Side2 ==Finals== ===Finalists=== (ages stated at time of contest) Contestant Age Hometown Voted Off Liveshow Theme Aleksander Denstad With 18 Trondheim Winner Grand Finale Jonas Thomassen 17 Rygge May 19, 2006 Vivian Sørmeland 19 Trondheim May 12, 2006 Judge's choice Marita Johansen 17 Tromsø May 05, 2006 Duets Wisnu Witono Adhi 22 Oslo Apr 28, 2006 Big Band Ørjan Hatlevik 22 Fitjar Apr 21, 2005 Made in Sweden Siri Helene Erland 20 Skaun Apr 07, 2006 1980s Mar 03, 2006 Contestant's choice Oda Evjen Gjøvåg 17 Bergen Mar 31, 2006 Unplugged Stine Hansen 17 Skedsmokorset Mar 24, 2006 Made in Norway Anders Mjaaland 17 Kristiansand Mar 17, 2006 Disco Fever Iselin Andresen 18 Haugesund Withdrew Audun Rensel 19 Tromøya Mar 10, 2006 Movie Songs ==Elimination Chart== Did Not Perform Female Male Top 40 Wild Card Top 12 Winner Safe Bottom 3 Bottom 2 Eliminated Stage: Stage: Semi Semi Semi Semi Semi Finals Finals Finals Finals Finals Finals Finals Finals Finals Finals Finals Week: Week: 02/08 02/10 02/16 02/18 02/22 02/24 03/03 03/10 03/17 03/31 04/07 04/14 04/21 04/28 05/05 05/12 05/19 Place Contestant Result Result Result Result Result Result Result Result Result Result Result Result Result Result Result Result Result 1 Aleksander Denstad With 56% Btm 3 Winner 2 Jonas Thomassen 42% Runner-Up 3 Vivian Sørmeland 40% Btm 3 Btm 2 Elim 4 Marita Johansen 18% 40% Btm 3 Btm 2 Btm 2 Elim 5 Wisnu Witono Adhi 10% Btm 3 Btm 3 Btm 2 Elim 6 Ørjan Hatlevik 41% Elim 7 Siri Helene Erland 19% Elim Btm 2 Elim 8 Oda Evjen Gjøvåg 28% Btm 3 Btm 2 Btm 2 Btm 2 Elim 9 Stine Hansen 21% Elim 10 Anders Mjaaland 16% Elim 11 Audun Rensel 17% 14% Btm 2 Elim 12 Iselin Andresen 24% Wdrw Wild Card Melanie Helmichsen Elim 12% Yolanda Myrbostad 11% 10% Cindy Selven Røe 8% Elim Mari Steinnes 4% Maria Holand Tøsse 12% Quang Tran Trung Elim Semi- Final 5 Stine Muri 9% Johan Sørum Elim Kim Dahl Maria Medina Heskestad Matias Kildahl Fjeld Semi- Final 4 Marius Hildal Vik 10% Ivar Ole Vik Elim Mariann Svendsen Vegard Dahl Veronika J. Klemetsen Semi- Final 3 Cindy E. Kvinlaug 17% Anthony Hegglund Sabado Elim Bob Mørk Ole Jørgen Gravaas Semi- Final 2 Sara Ristesund 4% Christine Valencia Elim Solveig Nymoen Thomas Seeberg Semi- Final 1 Bente Tednes Elim Flavio Diaz Gabrielle Leithaug Leif H. T. Pettersen Notes: *Because Iselin withdrew after the second liveshow Siri Helene returned as her replacement after Audun (who was voted off the latest at that point) declined. ===Live show details=== ====Heat 1 (8 February 2006)==== Order Artist Song (original artists) Result 1 Gabrielle Leithaug "Sisters Are Doin' It for Themselves" (Annie Lennox & Aretha Franklin) Eliminated 2 Leif H. T. Pettersen "The Scientist" (Coldplay) Eliminated 3 Maria Holand Tøsse "A Whole New World" (Peabo Bryson & Regina Belle) Eliminated 4 Flavio Diaz "Drops of Jupiter (Tell Me)" (Train) Eliminated 5 Bente Tednes "How Come U Don't Call Me Anymore?" (Alicia Keys) Eliminated 6 Jonas Thomassen "Hurt" (Johnny Cash) Advanced 7 Yolanda Myrbostad "A Thousand Miles" (Vanessa Carlton) Eliminated 8 Anders Mjaaland "Dreams" (Gavin DeGraw) Advanced ;Notes *Jonas Thomassen and Anders Mjaaland advanced to the top 12 of the competition. The other 6 contestants were eliminated. *Maria Holand Tøsse and Yolanda Myrbostad returned for a second chance at the top 12 in the Wildcard Round. ====Heat 2 (10 February 2006)==== Order Artist Song (original artists) Result 1 Sara Ristesund "Ironic" (Alanis Morissette) Eliminated 2 Christine Valencia Kjøsnes "Can't Take My Eyes Off You" (Frankie Valli) Eliminated 3 Quang Tran Trung "You and Me" (Lifehouse) Eliminated 4 Thomas Seeberg "Easy" (Commodores) Eliminated 5 Solveig Nymoen "Stop!" (Sam Brown) Eliminated 6 Mari Steinnes "Big Mistake" (Natalie Imbruglia) Eliminated 7 Vivian Sørmeland "Foolish Games" (Jewel) Advanced 8 Ørjan Hatlevik "Birthright" (A-ha) Advanced ;Notes *Ørjan Hatlevik and Vivian Sørmeland advanced to the top 12 of the competition. The other 6 contestants were eliminated. *Quang Tran Trung and Mari Steinnes returned for a second chance at the top 12 in the Wildcard Round. ====Heat 3 (16 February 2006)==== Order Artist Song (original artists) Result 1 Melanie Helmichsen "Super Duper Love" (Joss Stone) Eliminated 2 Ole Jørgen Gravaas "This Love" (Maroon 5) Eliminated 3 Cindy E. Kvinlaug "Just Like Jesse James" (Cher) Eliminated 4 Marita Johansen "Tir n'a Noir" (Vamp) Eliminated 5 Anthony Hegglund Sabado "He Ain't Heavy, He's My Brother" (The Hollies) Eliminated 6 Iselin Andresen "Nine Million Bicycles" (Katie Melua) Advanced 7 Siri Helene Erland "Fix You" (Coldplay) Advanced 8 Bob Mørk "Bad Day" (Daniel Powter) Eliminated ;Notes *Iselin Andresen and Siri Helene Erland advanced to the top 12 of the competition. The other 6 contestants were eliminated. *Melanie Helmichsen and Marita Johansen returned for a second chance at the top 12 in the Wildcard Round. ====Heat 4 (18 February 2006)==== Order Artist Song (original artists) Result 1 Mariann Svendsen "A Woman's Worth" (Alicia Keys) Eliminated 2 Marius Hildal Vik "She Will Be Loved" (Maroon 5) Eliminated 3 Veronika J. Klemetsen "Burn for You" (John Farnham) Eliminated 4 Audun Rensel "If You're Not the One" (Daniel Bedingfield) Eliminated 5 Ivar Ole Wik "Love is a Matter of Distance" (Will Young) Eliminated 6 Stine Hansen "Think Twice" (Celine Dion) Advanced 7 Vegard Dahl "Never Again" (Justin Timberlake) Eliminated 8 Oda Evjen Gjøvåg "Smooth" (Santana & Rob Thomas) Advanced ;Notes *Oda Evjen Gjøvåg and Stine Hansen advanced to the top 12 of the competition. The other 6 contestants were eliminated. *Audun Rensel returned for a second chance at the top 12 in the Wildcard Round. ====Heat 5 (22 February 2006)==== Order Artist Song (original artists) Result 1 Johan Sørum "Wonderwall" (Oasis) Eliminated 2 Kim Dahl "Heaven" (Bryan Adams) Eliminated 3 Wisnu Witono Adhi "Follow Through" (Gavin DeGraw) Advanced 4 Cindy Selven Røe "Breakaway" (Kelly Clarkson) Eliminated 5 Matias Kildahl Fjeld "Stuck in a Moment You Can't Get Out Of" (U2) Eliminated 6 Stine Muri "Hallelujah" (Leonard Cohen) Eliminated 7 Aleksander Denstad With "Chariot" (Gavin DeGraw) Advanced 8 Maria Medina Heskestad "The Closest Thing to Crazy" (Katie Melua) Eliminated ;Notes *Aleksander Denstad With and Wisnu Witono Adhi advanced to the top 12 of the competition. The other 6 contestants were eliminated. *Cindy Selven Røe returned for a second chance at the top 12 in the Wildcard Round. ====Wildcard round (24 February 2006)==== Order Artist Song (original artists) Result 1 Mari Steinnes "I'm with You" (Avril Lavigne) Eliminated 2 Maria Holand Tøsse "A Whole New World" (Peabo Bryson & Regina Belle) Eliminated 3 Melanie Helmichsen "(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman" (Aretha Franklin) Eliminated 4 Quang Tran Trung "Kiss from a Rose" (Seal) Eliminated 5 Cindy Selven Røe "Fields of Gold" (Sting) Eliminated 6 Marita Johansen "Desperado" (Eagles) Advanced 7 Audun Rensel "When You Say Nothing at All" (Ronan Keating) Advanced 8 Yolanda Myrbostad "Stickwitu" (The Pussycat Dolls) Eliminated ;Notes *Marita Johansen and Audun Rensel received the highest number of votes, and completed the top 12. ====Live Show 1 (3 March 2006)==== Theme: Your Idol Order Artist Song (original artists) Result 1 Oda Evjen Gjøvåg "Trick Me" (Kelis) Bottom three 2 Anders Mjaaland "Advertising Space" (Robbie Williams) Safe 3 Stine Hansen "You Had Me" (Joss Stone) Safe 4 Audun Rensel "The Reason" (Hoobastank) Bottom two 5 Vivian Sørmeland "Joe Dallesandro" (Briskeby) Safe 6 Wisnu Witono Adhi "U Remind Me" (Usher) Safe 7 Siri Helene Erland "Fragile (Free)" (Maria Mena) Eliminated 8 Ørjan Hatlevik "In My Place" (Coldplay) Safe 9 Iselin Andresen "Don't Save Me" (Marit Larsen) Safe 10 Aleksander Denstad With "Trouble" (Coldplay) Safe 11 Marita Johansen "Another Day in Paradise" (Phil Collins) Safe 12 Jonas Thomassen "Smooth" (Santana & Rob Thomas) Safe ====Live Show 2 (10 March 2006)==== Theme: Movie Songs Order Artist Song (original artists) Result 1 Jonas Thomassen "Iris" (Goo Goo Dolls) Safe 2 Iselin Andresen "Embrace Me" (Karen Jo Fields) Bottom three 3 Wisnu Witono Adhi "His Eye Is on the Sparrow" (Lauryn Hill & Tanya Blount) Safe 4 Marita Johansen "You've Got a Way" (Shania Twain) Safe 5 Aleksander Denstad With "American Woman" (Lenny Kravitz) Safe 6 Audun Rensel "You Are So Beautiful" (Joe Cocker) Eliminated 7 Stine Hansen "Please Remember" (LeAnn Rimes) Safe 8 Ørjan Hatlevik "Wherever You Will Go" (The Calling) Safe 9 Oda Evjen Gjøvåg "Pure Shores" (All Saints) Bottom two 10 Anders Mjaaland "She" (Elvis Costello) Safe 11 Vivian Sørmeland "Respect" (Aretha Franklin) Safe ====Live Show 3 (17 March 2006)==== Theme: Disco Order Artist Song (original artists) Result N/A Iselin Andresen N/A Withdrew 1 Vivian Sørmeland "I Want You Back" (The Jackson 5) Safe 2 Anders Mjaaland "Celebration" (Kool & the Gang) Eliminated 3 Oda Evjen Gjøvåg "I'm So Excited" (The Pointer Sisters) Bottom two 4 Aleksander Denstad With "Have Fun, Go Mad" (Blair) Safe 5 Marita Johansen "Hung Up" (Madonna) Safe 6 Jonas Thomassen "Relight My Fire" (Dan Hartman) Safe 7 Stine Hansen "Car Wash" (Rose Royce) Safe 8 Wisnu Witono Adhi "You to Me Are Everything" (The Real Thing) Bottom three 9 Siri Helene Erland "I Will Survive" (Gloria Gaynor) Safe 10 Ørjan Hatlevik "Play That Funky Music" (Wild Cherry) Safe ====Live Show 4 (31 March 2006)==== Theme: Made in Norway Order Artist Song (original artists) Result 1 Stine Hansen "Everything" (M2M) Eliminated 2 Wisnu Witono Adhi "Won't Go Near You Again" (Unni Wilhelmsen) Bottom three 3 Marita Johansen "En natt forbi" (Jan Eggum) Safe 4 Ørjan Hatlevik "Going Down That Lonely Road" (Jim Stärk) Safe 5 Vivian Sørmeland "Love Explains It All" (Venke Knutson) Safe 6 Aleksander Denstad With "Unloved" (Espen Lind) Safe 7 Oda Evjen Gjøvåg "Just Hold Me" (Maria Mena) Bottom two 8 Jonas Thomassen "Splitter pine" (DumDum Boys) Safe 9 Siri Helene Erland "Lady of My Life" (Maria Solheim) Safe ====Live Show 5 (7 April 2006)==== Theme: Unplugged Order Artist Song (original artists) Result 1 Jonas Thomassen "The River" (Bruce Springsteen) Safe 2 Oda Evjen Gjøvåg "Emotion" (Samantha Sang) Eliminated 3 Siri Helene Erland "Anything About June" (Unni Wilhelmsen) Bottom two 4 Aleksander Denstad With "I Don't Want to Be" (Gavin DeGraw) Bottom three 5 Marita Johansen "Sunrise" (Norah Jones) Safe 6 Wisnu Witono Adhi "Let's Get It On" (Marvin Gaye) Safe 7 Ørjan Hatlevik "Creep" (Radiohead) Safe 8 Vivian Sørmeland "Nothing Else Matters" (Metallica) Safe ====Live Show 6 (14 April 2006)==== Theme: 1980s Order Artist Song (original artists) Result 1 Marita Johansen "I Love Rock 'n' Roll" (Joan Jett) Bottom three 2 Wisnu Witono Adhi "Faith" (George Michael) Bottom two 3 Ørjan Hatlevik "Dancing in the Dark" (Bruce Springsteen) Safe 4 Vivian Sørmeland "First Time" (Robin Beck) Safe 5 Jonas Thomassen "Livin' on a Prayer" (Bon Jovi) Safe 6 Siri Helene Erland "Where the Streets Have No Name" (U2) Eliminated 7 Aleksander Denstad With "The Way You Make Me Feel" (Michael Jackson) Safe ====Live Show 7 (21 April 2006)==== Theme: Made in Sweden Order Artist Song (original artists) Result 1 Ørjan Hatlevik "Max 500" (Kent) Eliminated 2 Jonas Thomassen "Balladen om herr Fredrik Åkare och den söta fröken Cecilia Lind" (Cornelis Vreeswijk) Safe 3 Vivian Sørmeland "The Winner Takes It All" (ABBA) Bottom three 4 Marita Johansen "Communication" (The Cardigans) Bottom two 5 Aleksander Denstad With "Glorious" (Andreas Johnson) Safe 6 Wisnu Witono Adhi "Never Be Afraid Again" (Christian Walz) Safe ====Live Show 8 (28 April 2006)==== Theme: Big Band Order Artist Song (original artists) Result 1 Wisnu Witono Adhi "Sway" (Dean Martin) Eliminated 2 Marita Johansen "Fever" (Peggy Lee) Bottom two 3 Aleksander Denstad With "Spider-Man Theme" (Michael Bublé) Safe 4 Vivian Sørmeland "Big Spender" (Shirley Bassey) Safe 5 Jonas Thomassen "You'll Never Walk Alone" (Christine Johnson) Safe ====Live Show 9 (5 May 2006)==== Theme: Duets Order Artist Song (original artists) Result 1 Jonas Thomassen "Born to Be Wild" (Steppenwolf) Safe 2 Vivian Sømeland "Because of You" (Kelly Clarkson) Bottom two 3 Marita Johansen "Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now)" (Phil Collins) Eliminated 4 Aleksander Denstad With "Everybody Hurts" (R.E.M.) Safe 5 Jonas Thomassen & Marita Johansen "Where the Wild Roses Grow" (Nick Cave & Kylie Minogue) N/A 6 Aleksander Denstad With & Vivian Sømeland "One" (U2 & Mary J. Blige) N/A ====Live Show 10: Semi-final (12 May 2006)==== Theme: Judge's Choice Order Artist First song (original artists) Second song Result 1 Vivian Sørmeland "Since U Been Gone" (Kelly Clarkson) "Nothing Compares 2 U" (Sinéad O'Connor) Eliminated 2 Jonas Thomassen "Lonely No More" (Rob Thomas) "Behind Blue Eyes" (Limp Bizkit) Safe 3 Aleksander Denstad With "I've Been Losing You" (A-ha) "Kiss from a Rose" (Seal) Safe ====Live final (19 May 2006)==== Order Artist First song Second song Third song Result 1 Jonas Thomassen "Iris" "White Wedding" "A Little Too Perfect" Runner-up 2 Aleksander Denstad With "Glorious" "Kiss from a Rose" "A Little Too Perfect" Winner ==References== ==External links== *Profiles of the top 12 finalists Season 04 Category:2006 Norwegian television seasons |
Sara Sidle is a fictional character portrayed by actress Jorja Fox on the CBS crime drama CSI: Crime Scene Investigation and its sequel, CSI: Vegas. Sidle is a forensic scientist and one of the core characters of the show, which revolves around a Crime Scene Investigation team in Clark County, Nevada, that investigates cases in and around Las Vegas. Fox appeared in both the first eight seasons and the final five seasons of the original show as a series regular. She also recurred throughout the ninth and tenth seasons of the series and headlined Immortality alongside Ted Danson. She returned in the sequel CSI: Vegas. ==Appearances== === Original Tenure === In each of the original series' first seven seasons, Fox appeared in all but one episode, and then appeared in the first seven episodes of the eighth season before departing the main cast. === Guest star === During her absence from the main cast, Fox guest starred in twenty episodes. === Return === Upon rejoining the regular cast in the series' eleventh season, Fox once again appeared in most episodes, including the series finale. She returned in the sequel CSI: Vegas for its first season. ==Fictional character biography== Sidle was born on September 16, 1971, in Tomales Bay, an hour and a half north of San Francisco. Her father was an abusive alcoholic and was killed by Sidle's schizophrenic mother in 1984. Afterward, she spent time in the foster care system, which didn't keep her from graduating from high school as valedictorian at age 16.Marrinan and Parker (2006), p. 59 She attended Harvard on a scholarship, moving on to graduate school at the University of California, Berkeley. While at Berkeley, she started a work-study position at the San Francisco Coroner's Office, where she would also audit lectures to keep up with new developments; it was at one of these that she met Gil Grissom.CBS.com "CSI"s characters official biographies Retrieved on 2007-10-21. Some time later, while she was working in San Francisco, Grissom called her because he needed someone outside the Las Vegas team. Sidle went to Las Vegas and helped resolve some Internal Affairs problems within the CSIs while also providing a replacement for Holly Gribbs, who had been shot."Cool Change". Anthony E. Zuiker (writer) & Michael Watkins (director). CSI. CBS. 2000-10-13. Season 1 Ep. 2. Some episodes later, she became a permanent member of the night shift as a CSI Level 3 at the LVPD Criminalistics Bureau, specialising in materials and element analysis. In Season 8, Sidle briefly changed from nights to swing shifts. In the Season 10 premiere, it is revealed she is married to Grissom. In Season 13, Episode 15, she reveals that Grissom had split up with her. However in series finale "Immortality", she and Grissom are reunited. ==Character development== Perhaps because of her traumatic childhood, Sidle has demonstrated compassion and empathy for victims of domestic violence, and fury against their abusers.Marrinan and Parker (2006), p. 60 She also has a soft spot for animals, and became a vegetarian after she saw Grissom conduct an experiment on a dead pig."Burden of Proof". Ann Donahue (writers) & Kenneth Fink (director). CSI. CBS. 2002-02-07. Season 2 Ep. 15. She has also shown a tendency to become very aggressive when under pressure or annoyed, especially in cases involving abused women – such as her arguments with Catherine and Ecklie, and engaging in a heated argument with a man suspected of murdering his wife. In recent years, perhaps because of her mother's schizophrenia, she has been seen to work several cases with a mental health aspect. In the early years of the show, Sidle is depicted as antisocial. Her hobbies are all work- related (listening to her police scanner and reading forensic journals); and she claims to prefer working with corpses over live people. In a mid-second season episode, she realizes how much she is missing out on and decides to "get a life" outside of work."You've Got Male". Marc Dube, Corey Miller (writers) & Charlie Correll (director). CSI. CBS. 2001-12-20. Season 2 Ep. 12. During season three she dates a paramedic named Hank Pettigrew, but this relationship ends later in the season when she discovered that he had a longtime girlfriend. Later in the third season, she is injured in an explosion in the lab in search of Grissom, at the end of the episode she decides to ask Grissom to dinner though he turns her down, stating he doesn't know what to do about "this.". left|thumb|200px|Sara Sidle breaks down on the fifth season episode "Nesting Dolls". During the fourth and fifth seasons, Sidle seems to be on a downward spiral as her memories of childhood resurface, with cases becoming more difficult for her emotionally. Also, the fact that Grissom decided to promote Nick Stokes instead of Sidle, did not help. Season Four concludes with Sidle being stopped by a traffic cop. Although she is driving under the influence, she is not charged, but Grissom, as her supervisor, is informed of her arrest. He arrives at the station to bring her home, and finally seems to notice her emotional state."Bloodlines". Sarah Goldfinger, Carol Mendelsohn, Naren Shankar, Eli Talbert (writers) & Kenneth Fink (director). CSI. CBS. 2004-05-20. Season 4 Ep. 23. Later, in season five, she loses her temper with a domestic abuse suspect and then argues with supervisors Catherine Willows and Conrad Ecklie, which results in her suspension. Following this incident, she admits to Grissom that she has a problem with authority, has chosen emotionally unavailable men (like Grissom), and has a self-destructive streak. Sidle then opens up to him and reveals her family story;"Nesting Dolls". Sarah Goldfinger (writers) & Bill Eagles (director). CSI. CBS. 2005-2-3. Season 5 Ep. 13. it is during this season that she apparently starts bonding with Grissom. During the subsequent seasons (sixth and seventh), after it is revealed that they are in a relationship,"Way To Go". Jerry Stahl (writers) & Kenneth Fink (director). CSI. CBS. 2006-05-18. Season 6 Ep. 24. she appears to be happier and on a more even keel."Ending Happy". Evan Dunsky (writer) & Kenneth Fink (director). CSI. CBS. 2007-04-26. Season 7 Ep. 21. In CSIs eighth season, when Fox decided to leave the show,Jorja Fox: Why I Quit 'CSI' Retrieved on 2007-11-18. both she and the writers decided not to kill the character, so as to leave the door open for a possible comeback.Exclusive: CSI Boss Vows Jorja Fox is "Coming Back" Consequently, she becomes severely depressed after being abducted in the season seven finale (she is rescued in the first episode of the new season), and, even though she accepts Grissom's marriage proposal on the season's fourth episode, she shows signs of burnout during the subsequent episodes, breaking down on the season's seventh episode, leaving Las Vegas with only a goodbye letter for Grissom in which she tells him she loves him - also kissing him out of the blue in front of another colleague - and a good luck note for Ronnie Lake (played by Jessica Lucas). In the letter she states that ever since her father's death she has been living with "ghosts" and that she now needs to go away and deal with them before self-destructing. In the season eight episode "You Kill Me", Grissom indicates he has talked with her and that she is in San Francisco visiting her mother. Promos for the season nine premiere announced that actress Jorja Fox would return, and showed her in three clips. However, Sidle left again after the second episode. She appeared again in the final scene of the tenth episode of season nine when she appears to be working on a research team in Costa Rica, where Grissom joins her after leaving CSI. Then they are married."About that sentimental "CSI" sendoff for Grissom""Goodbye and Good Luck". Sarah Goldfinger, Allen MacDonald, Naren Shankar (writers) & Kenneth Fink (director). CSI. CBS. 2007-11-15. Season 8 Ep. 7."You Kill Me" Naren Shankar, Sarah Goldfinger (writers) & Paris Barclay (director). CSI. CBS. 2007-11-22. Season 8 Ep. 8 During the tenth season, Fox returned to CSI on a recurring basis.Exclusive: Jorja Fox makes her 'CSI' return (more) permanent! This recurring role continued until the eleventh season of the show. She is brought back by Under-Sheriff Ecklie to aid the lab, which has undergone staffing cuts as a result of Warrick's death and the resignation of his replacement, Riley Adams. Adams was revealed to have resigned as a result of Catherine's poor management and lack of teamwork; when Catherine reveals this to Sara, she reminds Catherine that Grissom had Catherine as a number two, prompting the promotion of Nick Stokes to Assistant Supervisor. ==Relationships== Sara Sidle's romantic relationships have been largely unsuccessful. In the first season she named a college boyfriend, Ken Fuller, with whom she had an unsatisfactory relationship, also saying that they had joined the Mile high club (Unfriendly Skies). In season seven she mentioned a college boyfriend who cheated on her. It is unclear whether Fuller was also the boyfriend who cheated on her. In the third season she had a casual relationship with Hank Pettigrew, who was an emergency medical technician. He was involved in several of her cases, but they later broke up after she found out Hank had a longtime girlfriend."Crash and Burn". Josh Berman (writers) & Richard J. Lewis (director). CSI. CBS. 2003-03-13. Season 3 Ep. 17. During the first seasons, coroner David Phillips, laboratory technician Greg Sanders, and fellow CSI Nick Stokes occasionally flirted with her, but nothing more than friendship resulted from those flirtations. ===Gil Grissom=== Since CSI's first season there were hints that both Sara Sidle and Gil Grissom were interested in each other romantically; in fact, the show's producers initially introduced Sara Sidle as a future love interest for Grissom.Deseret Morning News -Apparently, autopsies and romance do mix Retrieved on 2007-11-06. However, during the show's first three seasons Grissom flirted with other female characters, and when she asked him out to dinner he rejected her, saying that he didn't know what to do about what was going on between them."Play with Fire". Andrew Lipsitz, Naren Shankar (writers) & Kenneth Fink (director). CSI. CBS. 2003-5-8. Season 3 Ep. 22. In season four, Grissom's true feelings were revealed in "Butterflied", an episode that centers entirely around Grissom exploring his attraction to Sidle when confronted with a dead woman who bore a striking resemblance to her. In this episode, Grissom admitted that he was unable to risk his career to be with her. In this season Sara Sidle apparently developed a drinking problem, which Grissom acknowledged in the season finale. In the next season, Sidle was suspended for insubordination and told Grissom about her tormented childhood. He refused to fire her and had her working with him in almost every episode from season six and season seven. It was not until the sixth season finale that it is revealed that Grissom and Sidle have worked through whatever issues they had and are, in fact, a couple."Way To Go". Jerry Stahl (writers) & Kenneth Fink (director). CSI. CBS. 2006-5-18. Season 6 Ep. 24. In season eight it was revealed they have been intimately involved for two years. This revelation caused mixed emotions from fans, some of whom see this relationship as CSI "jumping the shark," an attempt to include more drama and romance to the show to compete with the medical drama Grey's Anatomy, which airs in the U.S. at the same time.CSI in JumpTheShark.com Retrieved on 2007-10-21. By resolving the sexual tension between the two characters, critics posited that the show might appeal to some of Grey's younger audience.TVguide-"Note to CSI—Don't Do It" Retrieved on 2007-10-21. This has been denied by the writers. In one interview, producer Carol Mendelsohn said that she has never been able to see Grissom with any other character other than Sidle and that this episode was seen by the writers as the right time to reveal the relationship. Jorja Fox and William Petersen have also said that the relationship between their characters is not new.Chicago Tribune - "A 'terrifying' romance on 'CSI'" Retrieved on 2007-10-21. Throughout season seven the audience saw Grissom and Sidle as a couple, but the relationship was kept secret from the others in the lab until Sidle's abduction by The Miniature Killer in the season finale, during which Grissom reveals to the team that Sara is the only person he's ever loved."Living Doll". Sarah Goldfinger, Naren Shankar (writers) & Kenneth Fink (director). CSI. CBS. 2007-5-17. Season 7 Ep. 24. In season eight, they become engaged to be married, but this storyline is left inconclusive when Sara leaves Grissom with a note three episodes later."The Case of the Cross- Dressing Carp". David Rambo, Jacqueline Hoyt (writers) & ... (director). CSI. CBS. 2007-10-18. Season 8 Ep. 4. A Season 8 scene - cut from its intended episode due to time constraints - showed Catherine Willows visiting Grissom's apartment to update him on a case. While he is in his bedroom, she snoops around and finds a woman's dressing robe in his closet. She then notices a photograph of Gil and Sara together on the fridge. When Grissom emerges from his room, she asks him "How long have you and Sara been together?" He tries to make a quick exit but not before she tells him she'd always thought he was a lonely bachelor, to which his response is to laugh and leave. In the tenth episode of season nine, "One to Go", Grissom is seen walking through a rain forest holding a GPS System that places him in Costa Rica. He spots a bug on a leaf, but continues, eventually arriving at a camp where Sidle is seen taking a picture of a monkey in a tree. Sidle then sees Grissom, who removes his backpack and walks into Sidle's arms and greets her with a passionate kiss. In "Family Affair", the first episode of Season 10, Sidle returns to work in the laboratory on a temporary basis, revealing that she and Grissom are now married and have been living in Paris while Grissom conducts a seminar at the Sorbonne. In "The Two Mrs. Grissoms", Sara attends a party for a school for the deaf. She then gets a call from Grissom during a Taiko drum performance. It was revealed that Grissom was in Peru consulting for the government. She then meets Grissom's mother, Betty, and two deaf professors, one of whom ends up dead in a car explosion. Grissom's mother ends up criticising Sara for not spending much time with Grissom. At the end of the episode, she is shown talking with Grissom on a webcam, eventually having his mother walk into the office. Grissom then said that he will return to Vegas to have dinner with Sara and his mother. At the end of "Malice in Wonderland" Grissom sends Sara two plants with a note saying "From Grissom" Hints of a troubled relationship appear in several episodes in Season 13. In the episode "Forget Me Not" Sara finally reveals that she and Grissom had split up. In the end of the episode, she admitted to Nick and Greg that at the night of the murder she was expecting to see Grissom; Nick even admits that he and everyone else that worked with Grissom liked having them both together to sort of hang on to but realized that if the relationship is over, it's over. After remaining separated for a number of years, Grissom and Sara are re-united in the series finale Immortality, when a case involving a suicide bomber brings Grissom temporarily back to the Las Vegas crime lab. The series ends with the pair sailing away together into the sunset, their relationship apparently rekindled. William Petersen has said that what Grissom loves about Sidle is her tenacity. "She's a bulldog. And he always saw that in her. And he always knew that subconsciously the only person who'd be able to give him a second look is someone who's not willing to take the first look for granted."Chicago Tribune - "Bound for home: Chicago's William Petersen looks beyond CSI to a return to the stage" Retrieved on 2007-11-06. On her side, Jorja Fox has said that "The story of Sara and Grissom is a little like a fable. And most great fables don't really have 100 percent resolution."Entertainment Weekly - "Jorja Fox: Why I Quit 'CSI'" Retrieved on 2007-11-06. ==Public reaction== Sara Sidle has gained an extensive fan base throughout the years. A romantic relationship between Sidle and her supervisor, Gil Grissom, was hinted at during the first years of the show; but it was only in Season 6 that the relationship was confirmed and then made definitive with Grissom's marriage proposal in Season 8. 260px|right|thumb|In season 11 episode Unleashed Grissom and Sidle's relationship has been the subject of intense debate in the press and on-line forums, between fans of the romantic relationship and those who believe the romance detracts from what was once a show devoted mainly to mysteries and a forensics laboratory.Chicago Tribune - "A 'Terrifying' Romance on CSI" Retrieved on 2007-11-06. In early August 2007, upon rumors of Jorja Fox leaving the show, a grassroots campaign started.TVGuide.com - Is CSI On the Hunt for a New Jorja Fox? Retrieved on 2007-11-06. Thousands of fans donated to the cause, and they had a plane flying over the Universal Studios of Los Angeles weekly on Tuesdays and Thursdays with a "Keep Jorja Fox on CBS" banner for a month.DollarsFroSense.com/Flyover Retrieved on 2007-11-06. The online forum Your Tax Dollars at Work, which has about 15,000 members and has organized the campaign, created another campaign that includes mailing the show's producers a dollar, so as to keep Fox on the show. By October 5, 2007, more than $3,500 had reportedly been mailed to the Universal Studios from forty-nine countries. The campaign had started less than a week before, on September 29, 2007.EW.com - 'CSI' Fans Launch Save Jorja Fox Campaign Retrieved on 2007-10-21. Though the effort garnered media coverage, it was announced in late October, 2007 that Jorja Fox's final appearance as a full cast member would be in the episode Goodbye and Good Luck, which aired on November 15, 2007. Both writers and Fox have said that they believe that Sara Sidle "will be back" sometime in the future. Fox and CSI writer Carol Mendelsohn chose to donate the money sent to the studios to CASA, a national association that supports and promotes court-appointed advocates for abused or neglected children.CSI Files - Fans donate to charity Retrieved on 2008-January 15.Jorja Fox on “The View” Retrieved on 2007-11-17. CBS initially confirmed that Jorja Fox would be returning to CSI in the tenth season for the season premiere and four subsequent episodes. Executive producer Carol Mendelsohn has amended that Fox's tenure on the show has been extended indefinitely. CBS states that the season premiere would deal with where life has taken Sara and what brings her back to Las Vegas. ==Video games== Jorja Fox voiced Sara Sidle in the first two CSI video games, CSI: Crime Scene Investigation and CSI: Dark Motives. The other two video games, CSI: Hard Evidence and CSI: 3 Dimensions of Murder, were recorded by Kate Savage.CSI: 3 Dimensions of Murder (VG) in Imdb.com Retrieved on 2007-10-21.CSI: Crime Scene Investigation - Hard Evidence in Imdb.com Retrieved on 2007-10-21. Rachel Robinson voiced Sara in the ninth CSI game, CSI: Fatal Conspiracy. == Career == ==References== ==Further reading== * Marrinan, Corinne and Parker, Steve, Ultimate CSI: Crime Scene Investigation (2006), DK Publishing, Inc. Category:CSI: Crime Scene Investigation characters Category:CSI: Vegas Category:Adoptee characters in television Category:Fictional characters from San Francisco Bay Area Category:Fictional Harvard University people Category:Fictional Las Vegas Police Department detectives Category:Fictional female scientists Category:Television characters introduced in 2000 Category:Fictional forensic scientists |
The Civil Marriage Act received royal assent on July 20, 2005. During the 2006 federal election campaign, Conservative leader Stephen Harper pledged to re- open the issue of same-sex marriage should his party form government. Following the Conservative victory in the election, Harper promised to bring the matter to the House of Commons of Canada "sooner than later" in the form of a resolution on whether parliament should consider a new law banning same- sex marriage. Should such a resolution pass, a new bill would have to pass both the House of Commons and the Senate of Canada in order to become law. (See also Members of the 39th Canadian Parliament and same-sex marriage) The composition of the Senate has changed little since the debate on the Civil Marriage Act. Eight new Senators have been appointed since July 19, 2005 when the Civil Marriage Act passed third reading in the upper house. These are Senators Larry Campbell, Andrée Champagne, Dennis Dawson, Francis Fox, Yoine Goldstein, Sandra Lovelace Nicholas, Hugh Segal and Rod Zimmer (all are Liberals except for Champagne and Segal who are Conservatives). Four Senators have died or retired since the Bill's passage: Shirley Maheu (Liberal), William Doody (Progressive Conservative), Landon Pearson (Liberal) and James Kelleher (Conservative). Maheu and Pearson voted for the Bill, Kellehrer opposed while Doody was absent. On December 7, 2006, a motion calling on "the government to introduce legislation to restore the traditional definition of marriage without affecting civil unions and while respecting existing same-sex marriages" was defeated in the House of Commons by a margin of 175 to 123 and Prime Minister Stephen Harper declared the issue settled pledging not to reopen it even if his party wins a majority government in the next election. Therefore, the issue will not be brought to the Senate in the foreseeable future. The table below is a hypothetical projection of how senators might vote on the issue of same-sex marriage based on the votes of those senators who were present during the 2005 debate on the Civil Marriages Act and statements made since then by those senators and senators appointed subsequent to the vote. == Senate == (tally adjusted to remove former senators and add new senators) Group For Against Abstained Absent Total Liberals 44 5 2 13 64 Conservatives 2 12 1 8 23 Independents 3 0 0 2 5 Progressive Conservatives 2 0 0 1 3 Independent NDP 1 0 0 0 1 Totals 52 17 3 24 96 *For the purposes of this table, the Speaker of the Senate, who did not vote, is counted as an absentee since the official Senate tabulation does not list him as an abstainer. ==Liberals== Name 2nd Reading 3rd Reading Province Willie Adams Absent Absent Nunavut Willie Adams ActWin.com lists Adams as voting positively on 2 previous gay-related bills. He received an A+ rating, which the site deems as: "extremely pro-gay". ActWin.com lists Adams as voting positively on 2 previous gay-related bills. He received an A+ rating, which the site deems as: "extremely pro-gay". ActWin.com lists Adams as voting positively on 2 previous gay-related bills. He received an A+ rating, which the site deems as: "extremely pro-gay". ActWin.com lists Adams as voting positively on 2 previous gay-related bills. He received an A+ rating, which the site deems as: "extremely pro-gay". Jack Austin Absent Yes British Columbia Jack Austin ActWin.com lists Austin as voting positively on 2 previous gay-related bills. He received an A+ rating, which the site deems as: "extremely pro-gay". During the debate on second reading, Austin was the second Senator to speak in favour of the bill. ActWin.com lists Austin as voting positively on 2 previous gay- related bills. He received an A+ rating, which the site deems as: "extremely pro-gay". During the debate on second reading, Austin was the second Senator to speak in favour of the bill. ActWin.com lists Austin as voting positively on 2 previous gay-related bills. He received an A+ rating, which the site deems as: "extremely pro-gay". During the debate on second reading, Austin was the second Senator to speak in favour of the bill. ActWin.com lists Austin as voting positively on 2 previous gay-related bills. He received an A+ rating, which the site deems as: "extremely pro-gay". During the debate on second reading, Austin was the second Senator to speak in favour of the bill. Lise Bacon Yes Yes Quebec Lise Bacon George Baker Yes Yes Newfoundland and Labrador George Baker Voted against Bill C-33 (1996), however, voted in favour of Bill C-38 on second reading. Voted against Bill C-33 (1996), however, voted in favour of Bill C-38 on second reading. Voted against Bill C-33 (1996), however, voted in favour of Bill C-38 on second reading. Voted against Bill C-33 (1996), however, voted in favour of Bill C-38 on second reading. Tommy Banks No No Alberta Tommy Banks Voted against Bill C-250 (2003). Real Women of Canada stated on its website he was one of a few senators along with Anne Cools to stall the bill as much as possible so that it wouldn't enter committee. Voted against Bill C-250 (2003). Real Women of Canada stated on its website he was one of a few senators along with Anne Cools to stall the bill as much as possible so that it wouldn't enter committee. Voted against Bill C-250 (2003). Real Women of Canada stated on its website he was one of a few senators along with Anne Cools to stall the bill as much as possible so that it wouldn't enter committee. Voted against Bill C-250 (2003). Real Women of Canada stated on its website he was one of a few senators along with Anne Cools to stall the bill as much as possible so that it wouldn't enter committee. Michel Biron Yes Yes Quebec Michel Biron John G. Bryden Yes Yes New Brunswick John G. Bryden ActWin.com lists Bryden as voting positively on 2 previous gay-related bills. He received an A+ rating, which the site deems as: "extremely pro-gay". Therefore, his likely vote is "YES". ActWin.com lists Bryden as voting positively on 2 previous gay-related bills. He received an A+ rating, which the site deems as: "extremely pro-gay". Therefore, his likely vote is "YES". ActWin.com lists Bryden as voting positively on 2 previous gay- related bills. He received an A+ rating, which the site deems as: "extremely pro-gay". Therefore, his likely vote is "YES". ActWin.com lists Bryden as voting positively on 2 previous gay-related bills. He received an A+ rating, which the site deems as: "extremely pro-gay". Therefore, his likely vote is "YES". Catherine Callbeck Yes Yes Prince Edward Island Catherine Callbeck Larry Campbell N/A N/A British Columbia Larry Campbell New appointment New appointment New appointment New appointment Sharon Carstairs Absent Absent Manitoba Sharon Carstairs ActWin.com lists Carstairs as voting positively on 2 previous gay-related bills. Carstairs is listed as seconder of the bill in the Senate. July 5, 2005: She defended the Deputy Leader of the Government's time allocation motion to limit debate since the opposition could not reach an agreement how much time would be allotted to C-38 before entering committee. July 6, 2005: "Let's try the same on the prohibited grounds of race, national or ethnic origin. ... Maybe we could say the following: `Notwithstanding the superiority of the white race as ordained by God and illustrated by his divine wisdom in separating the races into different continents, non-white persons for the purposes of civil law shall be considered equal to white persons." "I often wondered what I would do if one of my daughters had come to me and said: `Mom, I have chosen a partner and the partner I have chosen is of the same gender." "How can I, who have had the glorious pleasure of 39 years of that experience, deny it to any other person?" ActWin.com lists Carstairs as voting positively on 2 previous gay-related bills. Carstairs is listed as seconder of the bill in the Senate. July 5, 2005: She defended the Deputy Leader of the Government's time allocation motion to limit debate since the opposition could not reach an agreement how much time would be allotted to C-38 before entering committee. July 6, 2005: "Let's try the same on the prohibited grounds of race, national or ethnic origin. ... Maybe we could say the following: `Notwithstanding the superiority of the white race as ordained by God and illustrated by his divine wisdom in separating the races into different continents, non-white persons for the purposes of civil law shall be considered equal to white persons." "I often wondered what I would do if one of my daughters had come to me and said: `Mom, I have chosen a partner and the partner I have chosen is of the same gender." "How can I, who have had the glorious pleasure of 39 years of that experience, deny it to any other person?" ActWin.com lists Carstairs as voting positively on 2 previous gay-related bills. Carstairs is listed as seconder of the bill in the Senate. July 5, 2005: She defended the Deputy Leader of the Government's time allocation motion to limit debate since the opposition could not reach an agreement how much time would be allotted to C-38 before entering committee. July 6, 2005: "Let's try the same on the prohibited grounds of race, national or ethnic origin. ... Maybe we could say the following: `Notwithstanding the superiority of the white race as ordained by God and illustrated by his divine wisdom in separating the races into different continents, non-white persons for the purposes of civil law shall be considered equal to white persons." "I often wondered what I would do if one of my daughters had come to me and said: `Mom, I have chosen a partner and the partner I have chosen is of the same gender." "How can I, who have had the glorious pleasure of 39 years of that experience, deny it to any other person?" ActWin.com lists Carstairs as voting positively on 2 previous gay-related bills. Carstairs is listed as seconder of the bill in the Senate. July 5, 2005: She defended the Deputy Leader of the Government's time allocation motion to limit debate since the opposition could not reach an agreement how much time would be allotted to C-38 before entering committee. July 6, 2005: "Let's try the same on the prohibited grounds of race, national or ethnic origin. ... Maybe we could say the following: `Notwithstanding the superiority of the white race as ordained by God and illustrated by his divine wisdom in separating the races into different continents, non-white persons for the purposes of civil law shall be considered equal to white persons." "I often wondered what I would do if one of my daughters had come to me and said: `Mom, I have chosen a partner and the partner I have chosen is of the same gender." "How can I, who have had the glorious pleasure of 39 years of that experience, deny it to any other person?" Maria Chaput Yes Yes Manitoba Maria Chaput Says she will vote in favour of same-sex marriage Says she will vote in favour of same-sex marriage Says she will vote in favour of same-sex marriage Says she will vote in favour of same-sex marriage Ione Christensen Yes Yes Yukon Ione Christensen Joan Cook Yes Yes Newfoundland and Labrador Joan Cook ActWin.com lists Cook as voting positively on 2 previous gay-related bills. She received an A+ rating, which the site deems as: "extremely pro-gay". Likely to vote in favour. ActWin.com lists Cook as voting positively on 2 previous gay-related bills. She received an A+ rating, which the site deems as: "extremely pro-gay". Likely to vote in favour. ActWin.com lists Cook as voting positively on 2 previous gay-related bills. She received an A+ rating, which the site deems as: "extremely pro-gay". Likely to vote in favour. ActWin.com lists Cook as voting positively on 2 previous gay-related bills. She received an A+ rating, which the site deems as: "extremely pro-gay". Likely to vote in favour. Eymard Corbin Abstained Abstained New Brunswick Eymard Corbin Jane Cordy Yes Yes Nova Scotia Jane Cordy Jim Cowan Yes Absent Nova Scotia Jim Cowan Joseph A. Day Yes Absent New Brunswick Joseph A. Day Roméo Dallaire Absent Yes Quebec Roméo Dallaire Indicated his support of SSM in Globe and Mail interview the day after his appointment. July 5, 2005: Criticized Senator Anne C. Cools' speech. "We cannot use the terms 'dictatorship' and 'Parliament' in the same sentence. That cannot exist. It is impossible. We are in an institution that reflects the democratic history of a country. The Liberal Party was elected and the Liberal Party has a leader who becomes the Prime Minister. It is up to the Prime Minister to take decisions such as appointing Senators. It is an extension of the democratic process. I do not see the urgent need to call an election when valuable and pertinent work is being done." Indicated his support of SSM in Globe and Mail interview the day after his appointment. July 5, 2005: Criticized Senator Anne C. Cools' speech. "We cannot use the terms 'dictatorship' and 'Parliament' in the same sentence. That cannot exist. It is impossible. We are in an institution that reflects the democratic history of a country. The Liberal Party was elected and the Liberal Party has a leader who becomes the Prime Minister. It is up to the Prime Minister to take decisions such as appointing Senators. It is an extension of the democratic process. I do not see the urgent need to call an election when valuable and pertinent work is being done." Indicated his support of SSM in Globe and Mail interview the day after his appointment. July 5, 2005: Criticized Senator Anne C. Cools' speech. "We cannot use the terms 'dictatorship' and 'Parliament' in the same sentence. That cannot exist. It is impossible. We are in an institution that reflects the democratic history of a country. The Liberal Party was elected and the Liberal Party has a leader who becomes the Prime Minister. It is up to the Prime Minister to take decisions such as appointing Senators. It is an extension of the democratic process. I do not see the urgent need to call an election when valuable and pertinent work is being done." Indicated his support of SSM in Globe and Mail interview the day after his appointment. July 5, 2005: Criticized Senator Anne C. Cools' speech. "We cannot use the terms 'dictatorship' and 'Parliament' in the same sentence. That cannot exist. It is impossible. We are in an institution that reflects the democratic history of a country. The Liberal Party was elected and the Liberal Party has a leader who becomes the Prime Minister. It is up to the Prime Minister to take decisions such as appointing Senators. It is an extension of the democratic process. I do not see the urgent need to call an election when valuable and pertinent work is being done." Dennis Dawson N/A N/A Quebec Dennis Dawson New appointment New appointment New appointment New appointment Pierre de Bané Absent Absent Quebec Pierre de Bané Percy Downe Absent Yes Prince Edward Island Percy Downe Art Eggleton Yes Yes Ontario Art Eggleton Joyce Fairbairn Absent Yes Alberta Joyce Fairbairn D. Ross Fitzpatrick Yes Yes British Columbia D. Ross Fitzpatrick Francis Fox N/A N/A Quebec Francis Fox New appointment New appointment New appointment New appointment Joan Fraser Yes Absent Quebec Joan Fraser April 1, 2004: While debating C-250, Fraser made a speech: "I cannot possibly support an amendment that deletes the reference to sexual orientation — that is what this bill is all about. It is about coming to the public, official, formal, solemn defence of an extremely vulnerable minority. We have supported this bill at second reading and in committee. I personally support it strongly. I want it on the record that when — I hope before too long — this chamber, in a second bill, is asked to include sex as one of the grounds in this same portion of the Criminal Code, I will gladly support that." July 5, 2005: "In my view, six hours of debate is a long debate. The motion now before us proposes six hours of debate. That length of time allows for 24 speakers, plus the five we have already heard, which makes 29. How many bills on second reading are addressed by 29 speakers in this chamber?" April 1, 2004: While debating C-250, Fraser made a speech: "I cannot possibly support an amendment that deletes the reference to sexual orientation — that is what this bill is all about. It is about coming to the public, official, formal, solemn defence of an extremely vulnerable minority. We have supported this bill at second reading and in committee. I personally support it strongly. I want it on the record that when — I hope before too long — this chamber, in a second bill, is asked to include sex as one of the grounds in this same portion of the Criminal Code, I will gladly support that." July 5, 2005: "In my view, six hours of debate is a long debate. The motion now before us proposes six hours of debate. That length of time allows for 24 speakers, plus the five we have already heard, which makes 29. How many bills on second reading are addressed by 29 speakers in this chamber?" April 1, 2004: While debating C-250, Fraser made a speech: "I cannot possibly support an amendment that deletes the reference to sexual orientation — that is what this bill is all about. It is about coming to the public, official, formal, solemn defence of an extremely vulnerable minority. We have supported this bill at second reading and in committee. I personally support it strongly. I want it on the record that when — I hope before too long — this chamber, in a second bill, is asked to include sex as one of the grounds in this same portion of the Criminal Code, I will gladly support that." July 5, 2005: "In my view, six hours of debate is a long debate. The motion now before us proposes six hours of debate. That length of time allows for 24 speakers, plus the five we have already heard, which makes 29. How many bills on second reading are addressed by 29 speakers in this chamber?" April 1, 2004: While debating C-250, Fraser made a speech: "I cannot possibly support an amendment that deletes the reference to sexual orientation — that is what this bill is all about. It is about coming to the public, official, formal, solemn defence of an extremely vulnerable minority. We have supported this bill at second reading and in committee. I personally support it strongly. I want it on the record that when — I hope before too long — this chamber, in a second bill, is asked to include sex as one of the grounds in this same portion of the Criminal Code, I will gladly support that." July 5, 2005: "In my view, six hours of debate is a long debate. The motion now before us proposes six hours of debate. That length of time allows for 24 speakers, plus the five we have already heard, which makes 29. How many bills on second reading are addressed by 29 speakers in this chamber?" George Furey Absent Yes Newfoundland and Labrador George Furey Aurélien Gill Absent Absent Quebec Aurélien Gill Yoine Goldstein N/A N/A Quebec Yoine Goldstein New appointment New appointment New appointment New appointment Jerry Grafstein Yes Yes Ontario Jerry Grafstein Mac Harb Yes Yes Ontario Mac Harb Harb Supported SSM as an MP, according to marriagevote.ca Harb Supported SSM as an MP, according to marriagevote.ca Harb Supported SSM as an MP, according to marriagevote.ca Harb Supported SSM as an MP, according to marriagevote.ca Daniel Hays Did not vote Did not vote Alberta Daniel Hays Hays was speaker of the Senate at the time of the 2005 vote. Unlike the House speaker, he votes regardless of whether or not there was a tie, and is free to vote by his conscience rather than by convention. He is Leader of the Opposition in the Senate in the 39th parliament. Hays was speaker of the Senate at the time of the 2005 vote. Unlike the House speaker, he votes regardless of whether or not there was a tie, and is free to vote by his conscience rather than by convention. He is Leader of the Opposition in the Senate in the 39th parliament. Hays was speaker of the Senate at the time of the 2005 vote. Unlike the House speaker, he votes regardless of whether or not there was a tie, and is free to vote by his conscience rather than by convention. He is Leader of the Opposition in the Senate in the 39th parliament. Hays was speaker of the Senate at the time of the 2005 vote. Unlike the House speaker, he votes regardless of whether or not there was a tie, and is free to vote by his conscience rather than by convention. He is Leader of the Opposition in the Senate in the 39th parliament. Céline Hervieux-Payette Abstained No Quebec Céline Hervieux-Payette Elizabeth Hubley Yes Yes Prince Edward Island Elizabeth Hubley Mobina Jaffer Absent Yes British Columbia Mobina Jaffer Serge Joyal Yes Yes Quebec Serge Joyal Wrote letter in support of C-38. Copy on his website. July 4, 2005: Joyal opened the second reading debate arguing in favour of the bill and is listed as Bill C-38's mover in the Senate. Says that "Bill C-38 is about restoring full human dignity to a minority that has long been the object of persecution, marginalization and outrage. It is an issue of minority rights." Says that the Senate was in fact structured to provide for the protection of minorities. Wrote letter in support of C-38. Copy on his website. July 4, 2005: Joyal opened the second reading debate arguing in favour of the bill and is listed as Bill C-38's mover in the Senate. Says that "Bill C-38 is about restoring full human dignity to a minority that has long been the object of persecution, marginalization and outrage. It is an issue of minority rights." Says that the Senate was in fact structured to provide for the protection of minorities. Wrote letter in support of C-38. Copy on his website. July 4, 2005: Joyal opened the second reading debate arguing in favour of the bill and is listed as Bill C-38's mover in the Senate. Says that "Bill C-38 is about restoring full human dignity to a minority that has long been the object of persecution, marginalization and outrage. It is an issue of minority rights." Says that the Senate was in fact structured to provide for the protection of minorities. Wrote letter in support of C-38. Copy on his website. July 4, 2005: Joyal opened the second reading debate arguing in favour of the bill and is listed as Bill C-38's mover in the Senate. Says that "Bill C-38 is about restoring full human dignity to a minority that has long been the object of persecution, marginalization and outrage. It is an issue of minority rights." Says that the Senate was in fact structured to provide for the protection of minorities. Colin Kenny Absent Yes Ontario Colin Kenny Michael Kirby Absent Absent Nova Scotia Michael Kirby Jean Lapointe Yes Absent Quebec Jean Lapointe July 5, 2005: Was one of a few senators that said "no" to allowing Conservative Senator Anne C. Cools an extension of time during 2nd reading debate. Also voted on the motion that passed, which limited debate to six hours in 2nd reading. July 5, 2005: Was one of a few senators that said "no" to allowing Conservative Senator Anne C. Cools an extension of time during 2nd reading debate. Also voted on the motion that passed, which limited debate to six hours in 2nd reading. July 5, 2005: Was one of a few senators that said "no" to allowing Conservative Senator Anne C. Cools an extension of time during 2nd reading debate. Also voted on the motion that passed, which limited debate to six hours in 2nd reading. July 5, 2005: Was one of a few senators that said "no" to allowing Conservative Senator Anne C. Cools an extension of time during 2nd reading debate. Also voted on the motion that passed, which limited debate to six hours in 2nd reading. Rose-Marie Losier- Cool Absent Yes New Brunswick Rose-Marie Losier-Cool Sandra Lovelace Nicholas N/A N/A Sandra Lovelace Nicholas New appointment New appointment New appointment New appointment Frank Mahovlich Yes Yes Ontario Frank Mahovlich July 5, 2005: "Mahovlich responded to Senator Tkachuk saying he misinterpreted Senator Joyal, when Joyal said the Minister of Justice could make comments and answer questions at the committee, via videoconferencing while in France before Friday due to his schedule in France. Tkachuk says it is a ploy to get the bill out of 2nd reading by that time. July 5, 2005: "Mahovlich responded to Senator Tkachuk saying he misinterpreted Senator Joyal, when Joyal said the Minister of Justice could make comments and answer questions at the committee, via videoconferencing while in France before Friday due to his schedule in France. Tkachuk says it is a ploy to get the bill out of 2nd reading by that time. July 5, 2005: "Mahovlich responded to Senator Tkachuk saying he misinterpreted Senator Joyal, when Joyal said the Minister of Justice could make comments and answer questions at the committee, via videoconferencing while in France before Friday due to his schedule in France. Tkachuk says it is a ploy to get the bill out of 2nd reading by that time. July 5, 2005: "Mahovlich responded to Senator Tkachuk saying he misinterpreted Senator Joyal, when Joyal said the Minister of Justice could make comments and answer questions at the committee, via videoconferencing while in France before Friday due to his schedule in France. Tkachuk says it is a ploy to get the bill out of 2nd reading by that time. Paul J. Massicotte Absent Yes Quebec Paul J. Massicotte Terry M. Mercer Yes Yes Nova Scotia Terry M. Mercer Mentioned SSM in a list of measures he is proud of: Hansard, February 12, 2004. April: Confirmed once again he will support. Mentioned SSM in a list of measures he is proud of: Hansard, February 12, 2004. April: Confirmed once again he will support. Mentioned SSM in a list of measures he is proud of: Hansard, February 12, 2004. April: Confirmed once again he will support. Mentioned SSM in a list of measures he is proud of: Hansard, February 12, 2004. April: Confirmed once again he will support. Pana Merchant Absent No Saskatchewan Pana Merchant Voted against Bill C-250 Voted against Bill C-250 Voted against Bill C-250 Voted against Bill C-250 Lorna Milne Yes Yes Ontario Lorna Milne Grant Mitchell Yes Yes Alberta Grant Mitchell Wilfred P. Moore Absent Abstained Nova Scotia Wilfred P. Moore Senator Moore indicated he would have voted against the bill had he not abstained due to pairing. Senator Moore indicated he would have voted against the bill had he not abstained due to pairing. Senator Moore indicated he would have voted against the bill had he not abstained due to pairing. Senator Moore indicated he would have voted against the bill had he not abstained due to pairing. Jim Munson Absent Yes Ontario Jim Munson Lucie Pépin Yes Yes Quebec Lucie Pépin She was the sponsor of C-250 in the Senate. She was the sponsor of C-250 in the Senate. She was the sponsor of C-250 in the Senate. She was the sponsor of C-250 in the Senate. Robert Peterson Yes Yes Saskatchewan Robert Peterson Gerard A. Phalen No No Nova Scotia Gerard A. Phalen Marie-Paule Poulin Absent Yes Ontario Marie-Paule Poulin Vivienne Poy Yes Yes Ontario Vivienne Poy Responded to a letter saying she will vote in favour of C-38. Responded to a letter saying she will vote in favour of C-38. Responded to a letter saying she will vote in favour of C-38. Responded to a letter saying she will vote in favour of C-38. Pierrette Ringuette Yes Yes New Brunswick Pierrette Ringuette Fernand Robichaud Yes Yes New Brunswick Fernand Robichaud June 29: C-38 entered 1st reading in the Senate today. Senator Prud'homme wanted to accelerate debate to the next sitting of the Senate. While some senators disagreed, Robichaud stated "move it into committee". June 29: C-38 entered 1st reading in the Senate today. Senator Prud'homme wanted to accelerate debate to the next sitting of the Senate. While some senators disagreed, Robichaud stated "move it into committee". June 29: C-38 entered 1st reading in the Senate today. Senator Prud'homme wanted to accelerate debate to the next sitting of the Senate. While some senators disagreed, Robichaud stated "move it into committee". June 29: C-38 entered 1st reading in the Senate today. Senator Prud'homme wanted to accelerate debate to the next sitting of the Senate. While some senators disagreed, Robichaud stated "move it into committee". Bill Rompkey Yes Yes Newfoundland and Labrador Bill Rompkey Rompkey is Deputy Government House Leader in the Senate and thus is expected to vote in favour. On July 4, 2005 he tabled a notice of motion to restrict debate on second reading to six hours. Rompkey is Deputy Government House Leader in the Senate and thus is expected to vote in favour. On July 4, 2005 he tabled a notice of motion to restrict debate on second reading to six hours. Rompkey is Deputy Government House Leader in the Senate and thus is expected to vote in favour. On July 4, 2005 he tabled a notice of motion to restrict debate on second reading to six hours. Rompkey is Deputy Government House Leader in the Senate and thus is expected to vote in favour. On July 4, 2005 he tabled a notice of motion to restrict debate on second reading to six hours. Nick Sibbeston Absent No Northwest Territories Nick Sibbeston Voted against Bill C-250 Voted against Bill C-250 Voted against Bill C-250 Voted against Bill C-250 David P. Smith Absent Yes Ontario David P. Smith Peter Stollery Yes Absent Ontario Peter Stollery Claudette Tardif Yes Yes Alberta Claudette Tardif Marilyn Trenholme Counsell Yes Yes New Brunswick Marilyn Trenholme Counsell July 6, 2005: While C-38 was in 2nd reading, she said ``As a Christian, I often ask myself: `What would Jesus do?'." "In this case, in this time, I believe he would say `Yes.'" July 6, 2005: While C-38 was in 2nd reading, she said ``As a Christian, I often ask myself: `What would Jesus do?'." "In this case, in this time, I believe he would say `Yes.'" July 6, 2005: While C-38 was in 2nd reading, she said ``As a Christian, I often ask myself: `What would Jesus do?'." "In this case, in this time, I believe he would say `Yes.'" July 6, 2005: While C-38 was in 2nd reading, she said ``As a Christian, I often ask myself: `What would Jesus do?'." "In this case, in this time, I believe he would say `Yes.'" Charlie Watt Absent Absent Quebec Charlie Watt Rod Zimmer N/A N/A Manitoba Rod Zimmer New appointment New appointment New appointment New appointment 44 5 (2 abstained, 13 absent) ==Conservatives== Name 2nd Reading 3rd Reading Province Raynell Andreychuk Abstained Saskatchewan Raynell Andreychuk July 5, 2005: Made a speech criticizing time allocation of the bill in 2nd reading. However, he did say "this is an issue about human rights. Any violation of human rights commands urgency. This is not just about same sex. This is about the right to freedom of expression and religion. It is about how we balance those elements." July 5, 2005: Made a speech criticizing time allocation of the bill in 2nd reading. However, he did say "this is an issue about human rights. Any violation of human rights commands urgency. This is not just about same sex. This is about the right to freedom of expression and religion. It is about how we balance those elements." July 5, 2005: Made a speech criticizing time allocation of the bill in 2nd reading. However, he did say "this is an issue about human rights. Any violation of human rights commands urgency. This is not just about same sex. This is about the right to freedom of expression and religion. It is about how we balance those elements." W. David Angus Absent No Quebec W. David Angus Voted against Bill C-250 Voted against Bill C-250 Voted against Bill C-250 Pat Carney Absent Absent British Columbia Pat Carney May 2, 1980: As an MP, Pat Carney introduced Bill C-242, an act to prohibit discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation, The bill, which would have inserted "sexual orientation" into the Canadian Human Rights Act, didn't pass. May 2, 1980: As an MP, Pat Carney introduced Bill C-242, an act to prohibit discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation, The bill, which would have inserted "sexual orientation" into the Canadian Human Rights Act, didn't pass. May 2, 1980: As an MP, Pat Carney introduced Bill C-242, an act to prohibit discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation, The bill, which would have inserted "sexual orientation" into the Canadian Human Rights Act, didn't pass. Andrée Champagne N/A N/A Quebec Andrée Champagne New appointment New appointment New appointment New appointment Ethel M. Cochrane No No Newfoundland and Labrador Ethel M. Cochrane Voted against Bill C-250 Voted against Bill C-250 Voted against Bill C-250 Gerald J. Comeau No No Nova Scotia Gerald J. Comeau Anne C. Cools No No Ontario Anne C. Cools Voted against Bill C-250 Former Liberal senator. Says the Government of Canada has a moral obligation to go to the people of Canada. Sept 17, 2003: Says her position is that of the majority of Canadians. "Because Children and procreation are the result of that unit--it is one of those mysteries and miracles of life." April 9, 2005: Was one of several speakers at the "March 4 Marriage" rally in Ottawa. April 25, 2005: Stated in the senate: "This Parliament votes in one direction one day and goes in the opposite direction the next day. I saw that on the question of marriage. The Attorney General of Canada argued on one side of the issue one day and on the other side the next." Voted against Bill C-250 Former Liberal senator. Says the Government of Canada has a moral obligation to go to the people of Canada. Sept 17, 2003: Says her position is that of the majority of Canadians. "Because Children and procreation are the result of that unit--it is one of those mysteries and miracles of life." April 9, 2005: Was one of several speakers at the "March 4 Marriage" rally in Ottawa. April 25, 2005: Stated in the senate: "This Parliament votes in one direction one day and goes in the opposite direction the next day. I saw that on the question of marriage. The Attorney General of Canada argued on one side of the issue one day and on the other side the next." Voted against Bill C-250 Former Liberal senator. Says the Government of Canada has a moral obligation to go to the people of Canada. Sept 17, 2003: Says her position is that of the majority of Canadians. "Because Children and procreation are the result of that unit--it is one of those mysteries and miracles of life." April 9, 2005: Was one of several speakers at the "March 4 Marriage" rally in Ottawa. April 25, 2005: Stated in the senate: "This Parliament votes in one direction one day and goes in the opposite direction the next day. I saw that on the question of marriage. The Attorney General of Canada argued on one side of the issue one day and on the other side the next." Consiglio Di Nino No No Ontario Consiglio Di Nino July 6, 2005: Responding to a Senator who said she was a Christian and believes if Jesus were asked to vote, He would say "yes", Di Nino said "I don't have the same relationship with Jesus, obviously, as [Senator] Trenholme Counsell." July 6, 2005: Responding to a Senator who said she was a Christian and believes if Jesus were asked to vote, He would say "yes", Di Nino said "I don't have the same relationship with Jesus, obviously, as [Senator] Trenholme Counsell." July 6, 2005: Responding to a Senator who said she was a Christian and believes if Jesus were asked to vote, He would say "yes", Di Nino said "I don't have the same relationship with Jesus, obviously, as [Senator] Trenholme Counsell." John Trevor Eyton Absent No Ontario John Trevor Eyton Michael Fortier N/A N/A Quebec Michael Fortier Appointed by Harper Appointed by Harper Appointed by Harper Leonard Gustafson Absent No Saskatchewan Leonard Gustafson Voted against Bill C-33 (1996) Voted against Bill C-33 (1996) Voted against Bill C-33 (1996) Janis G. Johnson Absent Absent Manitoba Janis G. Johnson Wilbert Joseph Keon No No Ontario Wilbert Joseph Keon Noël A. Kinsella No No New Brunswick Noël A. Kinsella Kinsella, the opposition leader, said in the February 11 Moncton Times & Transcript, "I will approach the bill objectively. I am not going to prejudge anything." July 4, 2005: C-38 speech in 2nd reading: "by introducing Bill C-38, the government is attempting to link Charter rights and human rights to the sacrament of marriage. Marriage has nothing to do with Charter rights or human rights, in the view of many of us. This debate is about a political and social policy decision made by the government." Says there alternative approaches instead of dividing Canadians by passing the bill and legalizing same-sex marriage. Voted No on second reading. Kinsella, the opposition leader, said in the February 11 Moncton Times & Transcript, "I will approach the bill objectively. I am not going to prejudge anything." July 4, 2005: C-38 speech in 2nd reading: "by introducing Bill C-38, the government is attempting to link Charter rights and human rights to the sacrament of marriage. Marriage has nothing to do with Charter rights or human rights, in the view of many of us. This debate is about a political and social policy decision made by the government." Says there alternative approaches instead of dividing Canadians by passing the bill and legalizing same-sex marriage. Voted No on second reading. Kinsella, the opposition leader, said in the February 11 Moncton Times & Transcript, "I will approach the bill objectively. I am not going to prejudge anything." July 4, 2005: C-38 speech in 2nd reading: "by introducing Bill C-38, the government is attempting to link Charter rights and human rights to the sacrament of marriage. Marriage has nothing to do with Charter rights or human rights, in the view of many of us. This debate is about a political and social policy decision made by the government." Says there alternative approaches instead of dividing Canadians by passing the bill and legalizing same-sex marriage. Voted No on second reading. Marjory LeBreton Abstained Abstained Ontario Marjory LeBreton Michael A. Meighen Absent Yes Ontario Michael A. Meighen Pierre Claude Nolin Absent Absent Quebec Pierre Claude Nolin In January 2005, Nolin announced that the Quebec-wing of the CPC would be bringing forward a host of "moderate" principles to the March 2005 CPC Policy Convention in Montreal, including a motion to support the rights of married same-sex couples to equal status in the courts of law. July 5, 2005: While in 2nd reading, he critiqued Senator Rompkey's adopted motion to limit debate to 6 hours due to what Rompkey sees as stalling tactics. "I agree with the government's bill. Just because the rest of the world or the country took part in a debate is no reason for us not to have one. Not to have one would be a disservice to our institution." In January 2005, Nolin announced that the Quebec-wing of the CPC would be bringing forward a host of "moderate" principles to the March 2005 CPC Policy Convention in Montreal, including a motion to support the rights of married same-sex couples to equal status in the courts of law. July 5, 2005: While in 2nd reading, he critiqued Senator Rompkey's adopted motion to limit debate to 6 hours due to what Rompkey sees as stalling tactics. "I agree with the government's bill. Just because the rest of the world or the country took part in a debate is no reason for us not to have one. Not to have one would be a disservice to our institution." In January 2005, Nolin announced that the Quebec-wing of the CPC would be bringing forward a host of "moderate" principles to the March 2005 CPC Policy Convention in Montreal, including a motion to support the rights of married same-sex couples to equal status in the courts of law. July 5, 2005: While in 2nd reading, he critiqued Senator Rompkey's adopted motion to limit debate to 6 hours due to what Rompkey sees as stalling tactics. "I agree with the government's bill. Just because the rest of the world or the country took part in a debate is no reason for us not to have one. Not to have one would be a disservice to our institution." Donald H. Oliver Absent Absent Nova Scotia Donald H. Oliver Nancy Ruth Absent Yes Ontario Nancy Ruth Ruth is openly gay. She is a prominent feminist and gay rights advocate. Was a Progressive Conservative in the last parliament but has crossed the floor and now sits as a Conservative. Ruth is openly gay. She is a prominent feminist and gay rights advocate. Was a Progressive Conservative in the last parliament but has crossed the floor and now sits as a Conservative. Ruth is openly gay. She is a prominent feminist and gay rights advocate. Was a Progressive Conservative in the last parliament but has crossed the floor and now sits as a Conservative. Gerry St. Germain Absent No British Columbia Gerry St. Germain Voted against Bill C-250 September 16, 2003: "Common sense and a respect for the origins of life dictated the evolution of this tradition as embraced in both religious practice and secular conduct". June 29, 2005: C-38 entered 1st reading today. When the Speaker asked when the bill shall be read a second time, Germain said "Never!". July 4, 2005: When C-38 entered 2nd reading debate today, Germain said the Senate should sit through the fall on this very important issue. "By introducing Bill C-38, the government is attempting to link Charter rights and human rights to the sacrament of marriage. Marriage has nothing to do with Charter rights or human rights, in the view of many of us. This debate is about a political and social policy decision made by the government." Says the Supreme Court of Canada didn't rule the traditional definition of marriage unconstitutional. Also believes same-sex marriage will erode the family. Voted against Bill C-250 September 16, 2003: "Common sense and a respect for the origins of life dictated the evolution of this tradition as embraced in both religious practice and secular conduct". June 29, 2005: C-38 entered 1st reading today. When the Speaker asked when the bill shall be read a second time, Germain said "Never!". July 4, 2005: When C-38 entered 2nd reading debate today, Germain said the Senate should sit through the fall on this very important issue. "By introducing Bill C-38, the government is attempting to link Charter rights and human rights to the sacrament of marriage. Marriage has nothing to do with Charter rights or human rights, in the view of many of us. This debate is about a political and social policy decision made by the government." Says the Supreme Court of Canada didn't rule the traditional definition of marriage unconstitutional. Also believes same-sex marriage will erode the family. Voted against Bill C-250 September 16, 2003: "Common sense and a respect for the origins of life dictated the evolution of this tradition as embraced in both religious practice and secular conduct". June 29, 2005: C-38 entered 1st reading today. When the Speaker asked when the bill shall be read a second time, Germain said "Never!". July 4, 2005: When C-38 entered 2nd reading debate today, Germain said the Senate should sit through the fall on this very important issue. "By introducing Bill C-38, the government is attempting to link Charter rights and human rights to the sacrament of marriage. Marriage has nothing to do with Charter rights or human rights, in the view of many of us. This debate is about a political and social policy decision made by the government." Says the Supreme Court of Canada didn't rule the traditional definition of marriage unconstitutional. Also believes same-sex marriage will erode the family. Hugh Segal N/A N/A Ontario Hugh Segal New appointment New appointment New appointment New appointment Terry Stratton No No Manitoba Terry Stratton Voted against Bill C-250, Bill C-33 (1996) July 4, 2005: Moved a motion to adjourn the debate on C-38 in 2nd reading today. Voted against Bill C-250, Bill C-33 (1996) July 4, 2005: Moved a motion to adjourn the debate on C-38 in 2nd reading today. Voted against Bill C-250, Bill C-33 (1996) July 4, 2005: Moved a motion to adjourn the debate on C-38 in 2nd reading today. David Tkachuk No No Saskatchewan David Tkachuk Voted against Bill C-250, Bill C-33 (1996) Voted against Bill C-250, Bill C-33 (1996) Voted against Bill C-250, Bill C-33 (1996) 2 12 (1 abstained, 8 absent) ==Independents== Name 2nd Reading 3rd Reading Province Raymond Lavigne Yes Absent Quebec Raymond Lavigne Expelled from Liberal caucus on June 8, 2006. Expelled from Liberal caucus on June 8, 2006. Expelled from Liberal caucus on June 8, 2006. P. Michael Pitfield Absent Absent Ontario P. Michael Pitfield Marcel Prud'homme Abstained Yes Quebec Marcel Prud'homme Close Trudeau ally and known civil libertarian. Feb 10, 2004: Senator Gérald-A. Beaudoin (and others) comment on his 40th year as a parliamentarian, pointing out that he has stayed true to his father's word, "we must believe in the universality of the protection of human rights or else hold our peace." June 29, 2005: Moved to try have C-38 read a 2nd time at the next sitting of the Senate as opposed to waiting 2 days. July 5, 2005: Says he has yet to make up his mind on the issue, but is against limiting debate. "I will vote against the closure motion if I am in the Senate. If I am not here, just remember that I said I was against this motion. I want to thank Senator Nolin for inspiring my comments yet again." Close Trudeau ally and known civil libertarian. Feb 10, 2004: Senator Gérald-A. Beaudoin (and others) comment on his 40th year as a parliamentarian, pointing out that he has stayed true to his father's word, "we must believe in the universality of the protection of human rights or else hold our peace." June 29, 2005: Moved to try have C-38 read a 2nd time at the next sitting of the Senate as opposed to waiting 2 days. July 5, 2005: Says he has yet to make up his mind on the issue, but is against limiting debate. "I will vote against the closure motion if I am in the Senate. If I am not here, just remember that I said I was against this motion. I want to thank Senator Nolin for inspiring my comments yet again." Close Trudeau ally and known civil libertarian. Feb 10, 2004: Senator Gérald-A. Beaudoin (and others) comment on his 40th year as a parliamentarian, pointing out that he has stayed true to his father's word, "we must believe in the universality of the protection of human rights or else hold our peace." June 29, 2005: Moved to try have C-38 read a 2nd time at the next sitting of the Senate as opposed to waiting 2 days. July 5, 2005: Says he has yet to make up his mind on the issue, but is against limiting debate. "I will vote against the closure motion if I am in the Senate. If I am not here, just remember that I said I was against this motion. I want to thank Senator Nolin for inspiring my comments yet again." Jean- Claude Rivest Absent Absent Quebec Jean-Claude Rivest Feb 02, 2005: Expressed support for C-38. Feb 02, 2005: Expressed support for C-38. Feb 02, 2005: Expressed support for C-38. Mira Spivak Yes Yes Manitoba Mira Spivak Held a civil liberties meeting at her house decades ago for a gay couple looking to get married. Held a civil liberties meeting at her house decades ago for a gay couple looking to get married. Held a civil liberties meeting at her house decades ago for a gay couple looking to get married. 3 0 (2 absent) (2 absent) (2 absent) ==Progressive Conservatives== (Although the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada has merged into the Conservative Party of Canada, these senators have refused to join the new Conservative Party and have chosen to sit in the Senate as "Progressive Conservatives".) Name 2nd Reading 3rd Reading Province Norman K. Atkins Absent Yes Ontario Norman K. Atkins Elaine McCoy Yes Absent Alberta Elaine McCoy Lowell Murray Absent Absent Ontario Lowell Murray July 4, 2005: Critiqued the official opposition leader, Noel Kinsella: "Honourable senators, I wish to ask the Leader of the Opposition why, on several occasions in his speech, he persisted in blaming the drafters for the flaws that he identified in the bill. Surely the drafters were acting on political instructions of the appropriate ministers." July 4, 2005: Critiqued the official opposition leader, Noel Kinsella: "Honourable senators, I wish to ask the Leader of the Opposition why, on several occasions in his speech, he persisted in blaming the drafters for the flaws that he identified in the bill. Surely the drafters were acting on political instructions of the appropriate ministers." July 4, 2005: Critiqued the official opposition leader, Noel Kinsella: "Honourable senators, I wish to ask the Leader of the Opposition why, on several occasions in his speech, he persisted in blaming the drafters for the flaws that he identified in the bill. Surely the drafters were acting on political instructions of the appropriate ministers." 2 0 (1 absent) ==Independent New Democrat== Name 2nd Reading 3rd Reading Province Lillian Dyck Yes Yes Saskatchewan Lillian Dyck Voted "Yes" on second reading Voted "Yes" on second reading Voted "Yes" on second reading Voted "Yes" on second reading 1 0 (0 abstained or absent) Category:Same-sex marriage in Canada Category:2005 in LGBT history Category:2006 in LGBT history |
thumb A leitmotif or leitmotiv () is a "short, recurring musical phrase" associated with a particular person, place, or idea. It is closely related to the musical concepts of idée fixe or motto-theme. The spelling leitmotif is an anglicization of the German Leitmotiv (), literally meaning "leading motif", or "guiding motif". A musical motif has been defined as a "short musical idea ... melodic, harmonic, or rhythmic, or all three", a salient recurring figure, musical fragment or succession of notes that has some special importance in or is characteristic of a composition: "the smallest structural unit possessing thematic identity." In particular, such a motif should be "clearly identified so as to retain its identity if modified on subsequent appearances" whether such modification be in terms of rhythm, harmony, orchestration or accompaniment. It may also be "combined with other leitmotifs to suggest a new dramatic condition" or development. The technique is notably associated with the operas of Richard Wagner, and most especially his Der Ring des Nibelungen, although he was not its originator and did not employ the word in connection with his work. Although usually a short melody, it can also be a chord progression or even a simple rhythm. Leitmotifs can help to bind a work together into a coherent whole, and also enable the composer to relate a story without the use of words, or to add an extra level to an already present story. By association, the word has also been used to mean any sort of recurring theme (whether or not subject to developmental transformation) in literature, or (metaphorically) the life of a fictional character or a real person. It is sometimes also used in discussion of other musical genres, such as instrumental pieces, cinema, and video game music, sometimes interchangeably with the more general category of theme. ==Classical music== ===Early instances in classical music=== The use of characteristic, short, recurring motifs in orchestral music can be traced back to the early seventeenth century, such as L'Orfeo by Monteverdi. In French opera of the late eighteenth century (such as the works of Gluck, Grétry and Méhul), "reminiscence motif" can be identified, which may recur at a significant juncture in the plot to establish an association with earlier events. Their use, however, is not extensive or systematic. The power of the technique was exploited early in the nineteenth century by composers of Romantic opera, such as Carl Maria von Weber, where recurring themes or ideas were sometimes used in association with specific characters (e.g. Samiel in Der Freischütz is coupled with the chord of a diminished seventh). The first use of the word leitmotif in print was by the critic Friedrich Wilhelm Jähns in describing Weber's work, although this was not until 1871. Motifs also figured occasionally in purely instrumental music of the Romantic period. The related idea of a musical idée fixe was employed by Hector Berlioz in reference to his Symphonie fantastique (1830). This purely instrumental, programmatic work (subtitled Episode in the Life of an Artist … in Five Sections) features a recurring melody representing the object of the artist's obsessive affection and depicting her presence in various real and imagined situations. Though perhaps not corresponding to the strict definition of leitmotif, several of Verdi's operas feature similar thematic tunes, often introduced in the overtures or preludes, and recurring to mark the presence of a character or to invoke a particular sentiment. In La forza del destino, the opening theme of the overture recurs whenever Leonora feels guilt or fear. In Il trovatore, the theme of the first aria by Azucena is repeated whenever she invokes the horror of how her mother was burnt alive and the devastating revenge she attempted then. In Don Carlos, there are at least three leitmotifs that recur regularly across the five acts: the first is associated with the poverty and suffering from war, the second is associated with prayers around the tomb of Carlos V, and the third is introduced as a duet between Don Carlo and the Marquis of Posa, thereafter accentuating sentiments of sincere friendship and loyalty. ===Wagner=== [[File:Siegfried's Horn Call E flat version 02.png|thumb|350px|Siegfried's horn call leitmotif from the prologue to Act I of Wagner's opera Götterdämmerung, the fourth of his Ring cycle The theme is broader and more richly orchestrated than its earlier appearances, suggesting the emergence of Siegfried's heroic character.thumb|]] [[File:Leitmotif transformed in Hagen's Watch 02.png|thumb|350px|A more sinister version of the horn call motif, articulated as a half-diminished seventh arpeggio, “music of dark strength and magnificence,” occurs in “Hagen’s Watch” towards the end of Act 1 of Götterdämmerung. Hagen, who eventually murders Siegfried, contemplates ways of using the benighted hero to further his own ends.thumb|]] Richard Wagner is the earliest composer most specifically associated with the concept of leitmotif. His cycle of four operas, Der Ring des Nibelungen (the music for which was written between 1853 and 1869), uses hundreds of leitmotifs, often related to specific characters, things, or situations. While some of these leitmotifs occur in only one of the operas, many recur throughout the entire cycle. Wagner had raised the issue of how music could best unite disparate elements of the plot of a music drama in his essay Opera and Drama (1851); the leitmotif technique corresponds to this ideal. Some controversy surrounded the use of the word in Wagner's own circle: Wagner never authorised the use of the word leitmotiv, using words such as Grundthema (basic idea), or simply Motiv. His preferred name for the technique was Hauptmotiv (principal motif), which he first used in 1877; the only time he used the word Leitmotiv, he referred to "so-called Leitmotivs". The word gained currency with the overly literal interpretations of Wagner's music by Hans von Wolzogen, who in 1876 published a Leitfaden (guide or manual) to the Ring. In it he claimed to have isolated and named all of the recurring motifs in the cycle (the motif of "Servitude", the "Spear" or "Treaty" motif, etc.), often leading to absurdities or contradictions with Wagner's actual practice. Some of the motifs he identified began to appear in the published musical scores of the operas, arousing Wagner's annoyance; his wife Cosima Wagner quoted him as saying "People will think all this nonsense is done at my request!". In fact Wagner himself never publicly named any of his leitmotifs, preferring to emphasize their flexibility of association, role in the musical form, and emotional effect. The practice of naming leitmotifs nevertheless continued, featuring in the work of prominent Wagnerian critics Ernest Newman, Deryck Cooke and Robert Donington. The resulting lists of leitmotifs also attracted the ridicule of anti-Wagnerian critics and composers (such as Eduard Hanslick, Claude Debussy, and Igor Stravinsky). They identified the motif with Wagner's own approach to composing, mocking the impression of a musical "address book" or list of "cloakroom numbers" it created. However, later commentators have defended Wagner’s use of the leitmotif. According to Pierre Boulez, “Wagner’s was the first music in which forms never return literally, are never repeated. As the music progresses, it carries all the thematic elements with it, linking them in new ways, placing them in different relations to each other, showing them in unfamiliar lights and giving them unexpected meanings.” Boulez adds: “Leitmotivs are in fact anything but the traffic signals to which they have been mistakenly compared, for they have a double virtue – both poetic and dramatic, as well as formal. They are essential to the structure of both music and drama as well as to the different characters and situations. Their evolution is a kind of ‘time-weave’, an integrating of past and present; and they also imply dramatic progression.” ===After Wagner=== Since Wagner, the use of leitmotifs has been taken up by many other composers. Richard Strauss used the device in many of his operas and several of his symphonic poems. Despite his sometimes acerbic comments on Wagner, Claude Debussy utilized leitmotifs in his opera Pelléas et Mélisande (1902). Arnold Schoenberg used a complex set of leitmotifs in his choral work Gurre-Lieder (completed 1911). Alban Berg's opera Wozzeck (1914–1922) also utilizes leitmotifs. The leitmotif was also a major feature of the opera The Immortal Hour by the English composer Rutland Boughton. His constantly recurrent, memorably tuneful leitmotifs contributed significantly to the widespread popularity of the opera. In Prokofiev's Peter And The Wolf (1936) each character or animal has its own leitmotif played on a particular instrument. ===Critique of the leitmotif concept=== The critic Theodor W. Adorno, in his book In Search of Wagner (written in the 1930s), expresses the opinion that the entire concept of the leitmotif is flawed. The motif cannot be both the bearer of expression and a musical "gesture", because that reduces emotional content to a mechanical process. He notes that "even in Wagner's own day the public made a crude link between the leitmotifs and the persons they characterised" because people's innate mental processes did not necessarily correspond with Wagner's subtle intentions or optimistic expectations. He continues: > The degeneration of the leitmotiv is implicit in this ... it leads directly > to cinema music where the sole function of the leitmotif is to announce > heroes or situations so as to allow the audience to orient itself more > easily. ==Entertainment== The main ideology behind leitmotif is to create a sense of attachment to that particular sound that evokes audiences to feel particular emotions when that sound is repeated through the film. Leitmotifs in Adorno's "degenerated" sense frequently occur in film scores, and have since the early decades of sound film. One of the first people to implement leitmotif in early sound films was Fritz Lang in his revolutionary hit M. Lang set the benchmark for sound film through his use of leitmotif, creating a different type of atmosphere in his films. *In the film Psycho (1960), composer Bernard Herrmann created a 3 note leitmotif that is first heard when Norman Bates covers up the murder of Marion Crane committed by his "mother" and can be heard throughout the film in certain scenes involving both Norman and/or his Mother. John Williams would later pay tribute to Herrmann by using a similar 3 note leitmotif in Star Wars: Episode IV - A New Hope (1977) when Han Solo, Obi-Wan Kenobi, Luke Skywalker, and Chewbacca emerge from the Millennium Falcon's smuggling compartments. *In the Jaws franchise, the main "shark" theme, composed by John Williams in 1975, stands out as a suspenseful motif that is a simple alternating pattern of two notes, E and F. *In the first Star Wars film in 1977, John Williams used a large number of themes specifically associated with people and concepts, and he would expand upon this concept for the following films of the original trilogy (for example, a particular motif is attached to the presence of Darth Vader, another to the concept of the Death Star, and another to the concept of the Force). Williams would later revisit this material for the prequel trilogy starting in 1999, and then again for the sequel trilogy starting in 2015, each time crafting new themes while incorporating the old. Other composers would utilize some of Williams' iconic leitmotifs in spin-off material. *In the 1989 film Batman, Danny Elfman composed the heroic theme for the titular character, which is also used in the later film. *In Titanic (1997), composer James Horner used a number of recurring leitmotifs that are associated with the film's romance, tragedy and the disaster. *John Williams composed the music for the first three Harry Potter movies starting in 2001, and leitmotifs are prominently utilized to represent specific characters, feelings, and locations, most notably the track entitled Hedwig's Theme. While Williams did not score the rest of the franchise, this theme would consistently return in the scores of later composers Patrick Doyle, Nicholas Hooper, Alexandre Desplat, and James Newton Howard as they worked on the final films and spin-offs. *In The Lord of the Rings film series starting in 2001, composer Howard Shore prominently utilizes a vast amount of interconnecting leitmotifs to convey the ideas supporting specific characters, locations, and overall landscape of Middle-earth. His score is noteworthy because there is no singular "main theme" for the series, but a selection of several could hold this title, including the themes for the Fellowship, the Ring of Power, Lothlórien, the Shire, Isengard, Mordor, Rohan, and Gondor. Variations in these themes convey the changes that occur to the corresponding subjects throughout the trilogy. For the prequel Hobbit trilogy starting in 2012, Shore revisits some of these themes while introducing new leitmotifs for some of the new characters, and is expected to do so again for the show The Lord of the Rings: The Rings of Power alongside Bear McCreary. *Composed by Hans Zimmer, Klaus Badelt, and Geoff Zanelli, the Pirates of the Caribbean film series consists of several motifs and themes associated with the protagonists, villains and moods starting in 2003. One prominent motif is "He's a Pirate", which is associated with pirates in general and the heroic action sequences they are involved in. Besides the general leitmotifs, specific characters such as Jack Sparrow, Davy Jones, Angelica, and Salazar each have their own unique motifs. *The Dark Knight trilogy features several recurring themes and motifs for Batman, the villainous characters, and action scenes composed by Hans Zimmer and James Newton Howard starting in 2005. *While the Marvel Cinematic Universe has been criticized for its lack of iconic leitmotifs across its ever-expanding repertoire of films and shows, two recurring themes are prominently featured particularly towards the end of Phase Three: Alan Silvestri's theme for the Avengers team and Ludwig Göransson's theme for the Wakanda setting. *Premiering in 2015, Hamilton: An American Musical uses several leitmotifs throughout to introduce characters and reinforce connections, composed and written primarily by Lin-Manuel Miranda. Almost all characters have a trademark leitmotif; for example, the way the name Alexander Hamilton is sung. *In Toby Fox's soundtrack for his video game Undertale (2015), which has been well received by critics as part of the success of the game, thematic and character connections are frequently portrayed using leitmotifs. In particular, "Hopes and Dreams", the boss theme when fighting the final boss in the run-through where the player avoids killing any monsters, brings back most of the main character themes. ==See also== * Image song * Motif (music) * Motif (literature) * Motif (art) * Ostinato * Theme music ==References== Category:Motifs (music) Category:Formal sections in music analysis Category:Opera terminology Category:Richard Wagner Category:German words and phrases |
James Kimberley Corden (born 22 August 1978) is an English actor, comedian, singer, writer, producer, and television host. In the United Kingdom, he is best known for co-writing and starring in the critically acclaimed BBC sitcom Gavin & Stacey. In the United States, he is best known as the host of The Late Late Show with James Corden, a late-night talk show that aired on CBS from 2015 to 2023. Originally airing from 2007 to 2010, Corden co-wrote and co- starred with Welsh actress Ruth Jones in Gavin & Stacey, for which he won the BAFTA Television Award for Best Comedy Performance. He was featured, along with grime artist Dizzee Rascal, on the UK No.1 single "Shout", an unofficial anthem of the England football team for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. Appearing on the UK charity telethon Comic Relief in 2011, Corden created his Carpool Karaoke sketch when he drove around London singing songs with George Michael. In 2009, he co-presented the Brit Awards with Kylie Minogue and Mathew Horne. Corden returned to host the ceremony solo between 2011 and 2014. He hosted the Tony Awards in 2016 and 2019 and the Grammy Awards in 2017 and 2018. Since 2010, Corden has presented the sports-based comedy panel show A League of Their Own on Sky One. He has appeared in films, including Gulliver's Travels (2010), Into the Woods (2014), Kill Your Friends (2015), and Peter Rabbit (2018) and its 2021 sequel (in which he voiced the title character). He's also known for his roles in the musical films Cats (2019), The Prom (2020), and Cinderella (2021). In 2011, Corden played the lead part in the comedy play One Man, Two Guvnors, which transferred from the National Theatre to the West End and then to Broadway and was also cinecast worldwide via National Theatre Live. For his performance in the Broadway run of the play, Corden won the Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play.Profile, United Agents; accessed 28 December 2014. In 2015, he received the BAFTA Britannia Award for British Artist of the Year. As a presenter and talk show host, Corden has been nominated for 22 Primetime Emmy Awards, winning 9 in total, including for The Late Late Show, Carpool Karaoke and hosting the 70th Tony Awards. Corden was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2015 New Year Honours for services to drama. In 2018, the Seatbelt Psychic television series was produced by Corden and his production company Fulwell 73 for Lifetime platform. ==Early life== Corden was born in Hillingdon, Greater London, the son of Margaret and Malcolm Corden. His father was a musician in the Central Band of the Royal Air Force, and later became a salesman of Christian books and Bibles.The Howard Stern Show radio interview June 5, 2019 Corden's mother was a social worker. He grew up in Hazlemere, Buckinghamshire, and attended Park Middle School and Holmer Green Upper School. He has two sisters. ==Career== ===Early career=== Corden's first stage appearance was at the age of 18, with a one-line part in the 1996 musical Martin Guerre. His first TV reporter role was on the BBC's Good Morning with Anne and Nick, interviewing Meat Loaf. His early television work included Gareth Jones in the 1999 series Boyz Unlimited. He also starred in Tango advertisements in 1998 and had a role as a bookish student in Teachers and in 2000 a small part in an episode of Hollyoaks. Corden had guest appearances on Little Britain and Dalziel and Pascoe, both in 2004. Corden's early film credits include Whatever Happened to Harold Smith? (1999), Mike Leigh's All or Nothing (2002), Heartlands (2002), and Cruise of the Gods (2002). ===Rise to prominence=== From 2000 to 2005, Corden starred on the British television series Fat Friends as Jamie Rymer. He garnered a nomination for the 2000 Royal Television Society Award for Network Newcomer On Screen for his work. Beginning in 2004 Corden played the role of Timms in the original London stage production of Alan Bennett's play The History Boys, as well as in the Broadway, Sydney, Wellington, and Hong Kong productions. He also was in the radio and 2006 film adaptation versions of the play. In 2006, he appeared in the film Starter for 10. From 2007 to 2010, Corden co-starred in his own series, the BBC Three sitcom Gavin & Stacey. He co-wrote the series with his Fat Friends costar Ruth Jones; Corden and Jones played the friends of the title characters, with Corden starring as Smithy. The series proved popular and was well-received critically. For the show, Corden won Best Male Comedy Performer and Gavin & Stacey won Best New British Television Comedy at the 2007 British Comedy Awards. At the 2008 Television BAFTAs, Corden won the BAFTA for Best Male Comedy Performance, and Gavin & Stacey won the BAFTA's Audience Award for Programme of the Year. In December 2008, the show won Best TV Comedy in the 2008 British Comedy Awards. Gavin & Stacey also won the award for Most Popular Comedy Programme at the National Television Awards in 2010. In 2019, Gavin & Stacey returned for a Christmas special, with the episode achieving the highest Christmas Day viewership in the UK for more than a decade. ===Work outside Gavin & Stacey=== During the two year and seven months run of Gavin & Stacey, Corden's professional endeavours outside the successful series proved somewhat chequered. He guest hosted Big Brother's Big Mouth, with Gavin & Stacey co-star Mathew Horne, in August 2007. In 2008, he appeared in the film of Toby Young's 2001 autobiography How to Lose Friends & Alienate People. He collaborated again with Horne on a 2009 sketch show named Horne & Corden, described by the BBC as a "traditional comedy entertainment show in the style of Morecambe and Wise". The show ran for only one series and was poorly received by the critics, with Corden later admitting "the absolute truth is I wasn't good enough." In 2009, Corden starred as the lead character in the film Lesbian Vampire Killers, which was not successful. That year he played Clem Cattini in the Joe Meek biopic Telstar, and likewise in the animated Planet 51 along with Mathew Horne. In February 2009, he co-presented the Brit Awards with Horne and Kylie Minogue. In March 2009, he appeared in a sketch for the UK charity telethon Comic Relief giving the England football team a motivational talk, and later presented a section with Horne showing their best bits of comedy from the previous two years along with highlights from the night. In March 2010, Corden began hosting the Sky 1 comedy/sports panel show A League of Their Own alongside team captains Andrew Flintoff and Jamie Redknapp. In March 2010, he presented Sport Relief 2010 alongside Davina McCall and others, contributing a "sequel" to the 2009 England football team sketch, this time giving a motivational talk to various sports stars including David Beckham and motor racing driver Jenson Button. In March 2010, Corden took part in Channel 4's Comedy Gala, a benefit show held in aid of Great Ormond Street Children's Hospital, filmed live at the O2 Arena in London. On 5 June 2010, he performed his England World Cup single with Dizzee Rascal on the finale of Britain's Got Talent. The proceeds from the single went to London's Great Ormond Street Hospital. In June 2010, Corden played Craig Owens in the Doctor Who episode "The Lodger", in which the Doctor moved in with him. Corden returned as Owens in "Closing Time" in the sixth series. In December 2010, This Is JLS, an hour-long Christmas special featuring the boyband and The X Factor runners-up, was aired on ITV1, with Corden writing and producing some of the sketches featured in the special. In 2010, he was in the main cast of the film Gulliver's Travels. In December 2010, he was part of an ensemble voice cast in the English dub of the German animated film Animals United alongside Jim Broadbent, Jason Donovan, Joanna Lumley, Billie Piper, Andy Serkis and others. In February 2011, Corden presented the 2011 Brit Awards. In March, Corden reprised his Gavin & Stacey role as Smithy in a Red Nose Day sketch for the charity telethon Comic Relief. The sketch included appearances by then UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown, JLS, Paul McCartney, and Justin Bieber. The show also saw the first appearance of his Carpool Karaoke sketch, which saw him singing songs with pop star George Michael while driving around London. In 2011, he appeared in The Three Musketeers. Starting in June 2011, Corden played the lead role in the hit comedy play One Man, Two Guvnors. The play was cinecast worldwide as part of the National Theatre Live cinecasts, and transferred from the National Theatre to the West End after touring. The show received universal critical acclaim and won Best Play at the Evening Standard Theatre Awards for 2011. The Guardian deemed it "A triumph of visual and verbal comedy. One of the funniest productions in the National's history." The Daily Telegraph described it as "the feelgood hit of the Summer"; while The Independent called it a "massive hit", and the Evening Standard "a surefire hit". Corden made a cameo appearance in the music video for the single "Mama Do the Hump" by Rizzle Kicks, released in December 2011, which reached #2 in the charts. In April 2012, One Man, Two Guvnors transferred to Broadway, with Corden continuing to play the lead. In June 2012, he won the Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Play for his performance. In February 2012, Corden hosted the Brit Awards for the third time. Corden starred as the Baker in the Disney film adaptation of the musical Into the Woods (film) (2014). In 2015, Corden narrated Roald Dahl's Esio Trot, a BBC television film adaptation of Roald Dahl's classic novel. Adapted by Richard Curtis and co-starring Dustin Hoffman and Judi Dench, it was broadcast on BBC One on 1 January 2015. In 2016, he appeared in the animated comedy film Trolls as Biggie, a chubby friendly Troll. For his next project, Corden teamed up with friend and fellow Gavin & Stacey star Mathew Baynton to create, write, and star on The Wrong Mans, a six-part comedy-thriller for BBC Two. The premiere was in September 2013. The series was co-produced by online television provider Hulu.com in the United States and it began airing in November 2013. === The Late Late Show (2015–2023) === In March 2015, Corden succeeded Craig Ferguson as host of the American late-night talk show The Late Late Show. Corden's Carpool Karaoke through the streets of London with pop singer Adele, a sketch that was featured on his talk show in January 2016, was the biggest YouTube viral video of 2016. Corden's special Carpool Karaoke: When Corden Met McCartney, Live From Liverpool was a viral and critical success earning a Primetime Emmy Award nomination and win for Outstanding Variety Special. In the special, Corden and McCartney sang the Beatles songs "Drive My Car", "Penny Lane", and "Let It Be". The pair stopped by a Penny Lane street sign, which McCartney signed, McCartney pointed out various Liverpool landmarks including Saint Barnabas Church, where he had been a choir boy, and also visited his childhood home. The special ended with McCartney and his band surprising a small group of locals at Liverpool's Philharmonic Pub with a 13-song set that included "A Hard Day's Night", "Back in the U.S.S.R" and his new single, "Come On to Me". In April 2022, Corden announced that he would be leaving The Late Late Show in 2023. === Musical films === In 2019, Corden starred in Tom Hooper's feature film adaptation of Andrew Lloyd Webber's popular musical Cats as Bustopher Jones, which received widespread negative attention. The film starred Jennifer Hudson, Idris Elba, Taylor Swift, Ian McKellen, and Judi Dench. Some critics called it one of the worst films of the year due to its poorly conceived CGI and off kilter comedic performances from Rebel Wilson and Corden. For his performance, Corden received the Razzie Award for Worst Supporting Actor of the year. Lloyd Webber was a vocal critic of the film, specially criticizing Corden's performance adding he "begged for it to be cut". Corden's leading role in the 2020 musical comedy film The Prom received negative reviews, and was named "one of the worst performances of the 21st century" by Vanity Fair's Richard Lawson. Lawson elaborated writing, "Corden, flitting and lisping around in the most uninspired of caricatures, misses all potential for nuance, and thus never finds even a hint of truth in the role". His portrayal of a gay man while he himself is straight was deemed offensive by many film critics and members of the LBGTQ community with critics adding that the performance perpetuated and capitalized on stereotypes of gay white men. Corden received an even larger amount of backlash when this performance earned him a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy Film. Corden also received negative reviews for his performance in the 2021 adaptation of Cinderella, a film that he produced. Clarisse Loughrey of The Independent wrote, "James Corden has made a #Girlboss fairytale only a voracious capitalist could love". === Awards host === Corden hosted the Tony Awards in 2016 and 2019, and the Grammy Awards in 2017 and 2018. ===Influences=== Corden has said that his comedy influences are Graham Norton, Chris Evans, Jonathan Ross, Conan O'Brien, David Letterman, and Stephen Colbert. == Personal life == Corden shared a flat with The History Boys co-star Dominic Cooper for several years. Cooper introduced Corden to his future wife Julia Carey, whom Cooper had known for years. Corden married Carey on 15 September 2012. The Cordens have three children. Corden is a supporter of Premier League football club West Ham United. Corden traced his life’s ups and downs very frankly on the BBC radio show Desert Island Discs in September 2012 in which he discussed his controversial acceptance speech after receiving a Tony Award that year. Corden was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the 2015 New Year Honours for services to drama.2015 New Year Honours List He received the honour from Princess Anne during a ceremony at Buckingham Palace in June 2015. Corden resides in Los Angeles with his family. He maintains a home in Belsize Park, London, and Templecombe House at Wargrave in Berkshire. In April 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic, Corden paid the salaries of furloughed employees on the Late Late Show. He also launched a fundraising campaign with the NBA to benefit Feed the Children. In January 2022, Corden announced that he had tested positive for COVID-19. He mentioned that he was fine and that he was already fully vaccinated and boosted. In 2022, Corden was banned from New York restaurant Balthazar by proprietor Keith McNally, after reportedly being "abusive" and "extremely nasty" to staff. The ban was later rescinded after Corden apologised to McNally in private and in public, admitting that he had been "ungracious." ==Filmography== ===Film=== Year Title Role Notes 1997 Twenty Four Seven Carl 'Tonka' Marsh 1999 Whatever Happened to Harold Smith? Walter 2002 All or Nothing Rory Heartlands Shady 2005 Pierrepoint Kirky 2006 Heroes and Villains Sam The History Boys Timms Starter for 10 Tone 2008 How to Lose Friends & Alienate People Post Modern Review Staff #2 2009 Lesbian Vampire Killers Fletch Telstar Clem Cattini The Boat That Rocked Bernard Deleted scenes only Planet 51 Soldier Vernkot (voice) 2010 Gulliver's Travels Jinks Animals United Billy the Meerkat (voice) English dub 2011 The Three Musketeers Planchet 2013 One Chance Paul Potts Begin Again Steve 2014 Into the Woods The Baker 2015 Kill Your Friends Waters The Lady in the Van Street trader 2016 Norm of the North Laurence (voice) UK version Trolls Biggie (voice) 2017 The Emoji Movie Hi-5 (voice) 2018 Peter Rabbit Peter Rabbit (voice) Ocean's 8 John Frazier Smallfoot Percy (voice) 2019 Yesterday Himself Cats Bustopher Jones 2020 Trolls World Tour Biggie (voice) Superintelligence Superintelligence (voice) The Prom Barry Glickman 2021 Peter Rabbit 2: The Runaway Peter Rabbit (voice) Cinderella James Also producer ===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 1996 Out of Tune Lee Episode: "1.1" 1998 Renford Rejects Razor #1 Episode: "Don Bruno" 1999 Boyz Unlimited Gareth 6 episodes 1999–2000 Hollyoaks Wayne Episode #1.524 2000–05 Fat Friends Jamie Rymer 20 episodes 2001 Jack and the Beanstalk: The Real Story Bran the Giant's son TV movie 2001–03 Teachers Jeremy 9 episodes 2002 Cruise of the Gods Russell TV movie 2004 Little Britain Dewi Thomas Episode: "2.3" 2004 Dalziel and Pascoe Ben Forsythe Episode: "The Price of Fame" 2007–10; 2019 Gavin & Stacey Smithy 21 episodes; also creator, writer, associate producer 2009 Horne & Corden Various characters 6 episodes; also writer 2009 2009 Brit Awards Himself (co-host) TV special 2009 The Gruffalo Mouse (voice) TV special 2010 James Corden's World Cup Live Himself (host) 14 episodes 2010–11 Doctor Who Craig Owens 2 episodes: "The Lodger" and "Closing Time" 2010–19 A League of Their Own Himself (host) Series 1–14 2011 Little Charley Bear Narrator (voice) 22 episodes 2011 2011 Brit Awards Himself (host) TV special 2011 The Gruffalo's Child Mouse (voice) TV special 2012 Stella Steven Episode: "1.10" 2012 2012 Brit Awards Himself (host) TV special 2013 2013 Brit Awards Himself (host) TV special 2013–14 The Wrong Mans Phil Bourne 8 episodes; also creator, writer 2014 2014 Brit Awards Himself (host) TV special 2014 Celebrity Deal or No Deal Himself (contestant) Won £32,000 2015 Roald Dahl's Esio Trot Narrator TV movie 2015 The Price is Right Himself/Guest Model Episode: "Big Money Week Day 1" 2015–2023 The Late Late Show with James Corden Himself (host) Also writer and producer 2016 70th Tony Awards Himself (host) TV special 2016 Beat Bugs Morgs the Stick Bug (singing voice) Episode: "I'm a Loser" 2016 Matilda and the Ramsay Bunch Guest Series 2 Episode 4 2017 59th Annual Grammy Awards Himself (host) TV special 2017 Trolls Holiday Biggie (voice) Christmas special 2017–present Carpool Karaoke: The Series Himself Also executive producer; appeared in 3 episodes as a guest 2017–2019 Drop the Mic Himself Also executive producer; appeared in 3 episodes as a guest 2018 60th Annual Grammy Awards Himself (host) TV special 2018 Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway Himself (guest announcer) Episode #15.3 2018 Happy Together Himself Episode: "Pilot" 2018 Us & Them — 7 episodes; executive producer 2018 Seatbelt Psychic Producer / Creator Worked on all of 2 seasons 2019 The World's Best Himself (host) 12 episodes; also executive producer 2019 73rd Tony Awards Himself (host) TV special 2019 Saturday Night Live Boris Johnson / Himself Episode: "Jennifer Lopez/DaBaby" 2019 2020 Breakthrough Prize Ceremony Himself (host) TV special 2020 Game On! Himself Episode: "James Corden and Landon Donovan"; also executive producer 2021 Friends: The Reunion Himself (host) TV special 2022 Mammals Jamie Also executive producer ===Theatre=== Year Title Role Location 1996 Martin Guerre (bit part) Prince Edward Theatre, West End 2004 The History Boys Timms Lyttelton Theatre, Royal National Theatre, London 2006 The History Boys Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts, Hong Kong 2006 The History Boys St James, Wellington 2006 The History Boys Sydney Theatre, Sydney 2007 The History Boys Broadhurst Theatre, Broadway 2007 A Respectable Wedding Friend Young Vic, South Bank, London 2011 One Man, Two Guvnors Francis Henshall Lyttelton Theatre, Royal National Theatre, London 2011 One Man, Two Guvnors Francis Henshall Waterside Theatre, Aylesbury 2011 One Man, Two Guvnors Francis Henshall Theatre Royal, Plymouth 2011 One Man, Two Guvnors Francis Henshall Lowry Theatre, Salford 2011 One Man, Two Guvnors Francis Henshall New Alexandra Theatre, Birmingham 2011 One Man, Two Guvnors Francis Henshall King's Theatre, Edinburgh 2011 One Man, Two Guvnors Francis Henshall Adelphi Theatre, West End 2012 One Man, Two Guvnors Francis Henshall Music Box Theatre, Broadway ===Video games=== Year Title Voice 2008 Fable II Monty ===Music videos=== Year Title Artist 2011 "Happy Now" Take That "Mama Do the Hump" Rizzle Kicks 2013 "Queenie Eye" Paul McCartney 2016 "Can't Stop the Feeling! (First Listen)" Justin Timberlake ===Advertising=== Year Title Role 1998 Tango TV Ad Bullying Victim 2012 Windows Phone (Microsoft) ? 2014 Cadbury's Free the Joy ? 2015 Samsung Galaxy Note Edge Alter-ego Wilf 2016 Apple Music ? Sainsbury's ? 2016 - 18 Confused.com Himself For all current entries in Advertising table as of April 7th 2022 - https://www.campaignlive.co.uk/article/worst-best-james-corden- advertising/1490614 ==Discography== ===Singles=== List of singles, with selected chart positions Title Year Peak chart positions Album UK IRL "Shout" (as Shout for England with Dizzee Rascal) 2010 1 41 "Only You" (with Kylie Minogue) 2015 — — Kylie Christmas "The Greatest Gift" (with Bret McKenzie) 2016 — — rowspan=3 "I Promise You" 2018 — — "Percy's Pressure" 2018 — — "—" denotes items which were not released in that country or failed to chart. ===Other appearances=== Title Year Album Other artist(s) "Bustopher Jones: The Cat About Town" 2019 Cats: Highlights from the Motion Picture Soundtrack "The Kind of Friend I Need" 2020 Music Played by Humans Gary Barlow ==Published works== * ==References== ==External links== * * * Category:1978 births Category:20th-century English comedians Category:21st-century English comedians Category:20th-century English male actors Category:21st-century English male actors Category:21st- century English writers Category:Best Comedy Performance BAFTA Award (television) winners Category:British male television writers Category:Comedians from London Category:Drama Desk Award winners Category:English autobiographers Category:English expatriates in the United States Category:English male comedians Category:English male film actors Category:English male singers Category:English male stage actors Category:English male television actors Category:English male voice actors Category:English male non-fiction writers Category:English television producers Category:English television writers Category:Living people Category:Male actors from London Category:People from High Wycombe Category:People from Hillingdon Category:People from Wargrave Category:Primetime Emmy Award winners Category:Officers of the Order of the British Empire Category:The Late Late Show with James Corden Category:Tony Award winners Category:Writers from London |
Palestinians in Lebanon include the Palestinian refugees who fled to Lebanon during the 1948 Palestine War, their descendants, the Palestinian militias which resided in Lebanon in the 1970s and 1980s, and Palestinian nationals who moved to Lebanon from countries experiencing conflict, such as Syria. There are roughly 3,000 registered Palestinians and their descendants who hold no identification cards, including refugees of the 1967 Naksa. Many Palestinians in Lebanon are refugees and their descendants, who have been barred from naturalisation, retaining stateless refugee status. However, some Palestinians, mostly Christian women, have received Lebanese citizenship, in some cases through marriage with Lebanese nationals. In 2017, a census by the Lebanese government counted 174,000 Palestinians in Lebanon. Estimates of the number of Palestinians in Lebanon ranged from 260,000 to 400,000 in 2011.Human Rights Watch estimated 300,000 in 2011.Human Rights Watch "World Report 2011: Lebanon" accessed April 7, 2011. The United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) counted 475,075 registered Palestine refugees as of 31 December 2019.UNRWA - Where We Work - Lebanon, accessed December 27, 2019. As part of its 2021 crisis response, UNRWA, estimated 180,000 Palestinian residents of Lebanon plus 27,700 Palestinian residents of Syria.Lebanon Crisis Response Plan, p.9 Most Palestinians in Lebanon do not have Lebanese citizenship and therefore do not have Lebanese identity cards, which would entitle them to government services, such as health and education. They are also legally barred from owning property or entering a list of desirable occupations. Employment requires a government-issued work permit, and, according to the New York Times in 2011, although "Lebanon hands out and renews hundreds of thousands of work permits every year to people from Africa, Asia and other Arab countries... until now, only a handful have been given" to Palestinians. Palestinians in Lebanon also have to heavily rely on the UNRWA for basic services such as healthcare and education, because they are not granted much access to the social services the Lebanese government provides. This reliance on healthcare and education does not guarantee that this reliance has always been visible, often times UNRWA for instance was not allowed to enter certain areas, this was especially the case when tensions were high. Nonetheless, while UNRWA currently is allowed to enter inside these camps, many critique the manner in which UNRWA operates, they point out towards the lack of basic healthcare or any other form of relief inside these Palestinian camps. In February 2011, a decree was signed by Boutros Harb, the caretaker labor minister of Lebanon, on carrying out labor law amendments from August 2010. If these labor law amendments go into effect, it will make it easier for work permits to be acquired by Palestinians. The amendments are seen as "the first move to legalize the working status of Palestinians since the first refugees arrived, fleeing the 1948 Arab-Israeli war". In 2019, Minister of Labor Camille Abousleiman instituted a law that Palestinian workers must obtain a work permit, under the justification that Palestinians are foreigners in Lebanon despite their long-standing presence. Palestinians are in a 'grey area' of Lebanon's labor laws: although they are categorized as foreigners, they are excluded from the rights foreigners enjoy, and their rights as refugees are not fairly protected. The ruling catalyzed a swell of frustration and protests across the Palestinian camps in Lebanon. Activists claimed the law unfairly targeted Palestinian refugees, and would narrow down an already limited set of employment opportunities. ==Definition== UNRWA defines a Palestinian refugee as "any person whose normal place of residence was Palestine during the period June 1, 1946 to May 15, 1948. And who lost both home and means of livelihood as a result of the 1948 conflict." Descendants of male refugees are also able to register with UNRWA. Palestinians in Lebanon include Palestinian refugees registered with UNRWA and the Lebanese authorities, Palestinian refugees registered only with the Lebanese authorities, and Non-ID Palestinians. According to the 2017 - 2021 Lebanon crisis response plan, there are an estimated 3000 to 5000 Non-ID Palestinians who reside in Lebanon. Some of whom were previously registered as UNRWA refugees in Egypt and Jordan, but now hold expired, unrenewable or unrecognizable identity cards by the respective issuing authorities. Non-ID Palestinians also refer to members of the PLO, who came to Lebanon following Black September. Non-ID Palestinians are able to obtain temporary identification papers by the Lebanese government, although these must be renewed yearly and are subject to conditions, such as inability to register formalities such as marriage, divorce and death. As a result of the Syrian civil war, 44,000 Palestinian refugees from Syria fled to Lebanon. Recent figures in the 2017-2021 Lebanon crises response plan places the number at 29,000. ==Demographics== Estimates of the number of Palestinians in Lebanon ranged from 260,000 to 400,000 in 2011. In 2018 Human Rights Watch estimated 174,000 "longstanding" Lebanese refugees and 45,000 Lebanese refugees more recently displaced from Syria. The UNRWA counted 475,075 registered Palestine refugees as of 1 Jan 2019 in its twelve refugee camps in Lebanon. In 2017, a Lebanese government census counted 174,000 Palestinians in Lebanon. Distribution of the Palestinian refugee population by regions in 2017, including Palestinian refugees of Lebanon (PRL) and Palestinian refugees of Syria (PRS) Lebanese Palestinian Dialogue Committee, Central Administration of statistics, Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (2019). The Population and Housing Census in Palestinian Camps and Gatherings - 2017, Detailed Analytical Report, Beirut, Lebanon. http://www.lpdc.gov.lb/DocumentFiles/8-10-2019-637068152405545447.pdf Region Population of PRL Population of PRS Total population Share of the total North 41,495 3,859 45,354 24.7% Beirut 22,149 1,619 23,768 13% Mount Lebanon 11,752 1,978 13,730 7.5% Saida 59,201 5,550 64,751 35.3% Tyre 24,410 2,706 27,116 14.8% Beqaa 6,542 1,994 8,536 4.7% Total 165,549 17,706 183,255 100% ==Legal status== ===Nationality=== Most Palestinians in Lebanon are stateless. They are not entitled to Lebanese citizenship, though most were born in Lebanon and irrespective of how many generations their families have lived in Lebanon. Some Palestinians, mostly Palestinian Christian women, have received Lebanese citizenship through marriage with a Lebanese national, and some by other means. (Lebanese nationality law does not provide for a Lebanese wife conferring Lebanese nationality to a foreign husband or to a child with a foreign father.) During the Syrian occupation of Lebanon in 1994, the government naturalized over 154,931 foreign residents of Palestinian (mostly Palestinian Christians) and Syrian (mostly Syrian Sunnis and Christians) descent. It was argued that the purpose of these naturalizations was to sway the elections to a pro-Syrian government. This allegation is based on how these new citizens were bussed in to vote and displayed higher voting rates than the nationals did. ===Other restrictions=== thumb|288x288px|Mar Elias Refugee Camp, Beirut Without citizenship, Palestinians in Lebanon do not have Lebanese identity cards, which also entitles the holder to health care, education and other government services. Palestinians living in and outside the 12 official camps, can receive health care, education and other social services from UNRWA. According to Human Rights Watch, Palestinian refugees in Lebanon live in "appalling social and economic conditions." Following a 2001 amendment on foreign ownership of property, which stated that the foreign person must hold the citizenship of an internationally recognized country, Palestinian refugees came to be excluded from land and property ownership. Non-citizen Palestinians are legally barred from owning property, and barred from entering a list of liberal professions. Employment requires a government- issued work permit, and, according to the New York Times, although "Lebanon hands out and renews hundreds of thousands of work permits every year to people from Africa, Asia and other Arab countries... until now, only a handful have been given" to Palestinians. They labor under legal restrictions that bar them from employment in at least 39 professions, "including law, medicine, and engineering," a system that relegates them to the black market for labor. According to the 2017 census conducted by the Lebanese government, more than 90% of Palestinian refugees in Lebanon are informally employed. In 2016, Lebanese authorities began constructing a concrete wall with watch towers around the Ain al-Hilweh refugee camp, the largest Palestinian refugee camp in Lebanon.Security wall, watchtowers to surround Ain al-Hilweh, Daily Star, November 2016 The wall has faced some criticism, being called "racist" by some and supposedly labeling residents as terrorists or islamists.Lebanon freezes plan for Ain al-Hilweh's 'racist wall', AlJazeera, November 2016 As of May 2017, the wall construction was nearing completion.Ain al-Hilweh wall nearly completed, Daily Star, Feb 2017Ain al-Hilweh wall construction at tough area, Daily Star, May 2015 For travel abroad non-citizen Palestinian residents of Lebanon can obtain travel documents that serve in place of passports. Travellers who hold only a Palestinian passport are refused entry to Lebanon. ==Social status== thumb|Refugee camp of El Buss Palestinians in Lebanon also have to heavily rely on UNRWA for basic services such as health care and education, because they do not have much access to the social services the Lebanese government provides. In February 2011, a decree was signed by Boutros Harb, the caretaker labor minister (of Lebanon), on carrying out labor law amendments from August 2010. If these labor law amendments go into effect, it will make it easier for work permits to be acquired by Palestinians. The amendments are seen as "the first move to legalize the working status of Palestinians since the first refugees arrived, fleeing the 1948 Arab-Israeli war". Share of Palestinian refugees by employment status for individuals aged 15 and above Activity status Female Male Total Employed 11.9% 59% 35.3% Unemployed 4.5% 12.5% 8.5% Inactive (not looking for a job) 83.6% 28.5% 56.2% thumb|Street in Ain El helweh Israeli Arab journalist, Khaled Abu Toameh accused Lebanon of practicing apartheid against Palestinian Arabs who have lived in Lebanon as stateless refugees since 1948.Kahled Abu Toameh "Where’s the international outcry against Arab apartheid?," March 17, 2011, Jerusalem Post.Khaled Abu Toameh "Where Is The Outcry Against Arab Apartheid?", Hudson Institute, March 11, 2011Adia Massoud "Left in Lebanon," The Guardian, May 25, 2007 According to Human Rights Watch, "In 2001, Parliament passed a law prohibiting Palestinians from owning property, a right they had for decades. Lebanese law also restricts their ability to work in many areas. In 2005, Lebanon eliminated a ban on Palestinians holding most clerical and technical positions, provided they obtain a temporary work permit from the Labor Ministry, but more than 20 high-level professions remain off-limits to Palestinians. Few Palestinians have benefited from the 2005 reform, though. In 2009, only 261 of more than 145,679 permits issued to non-Lebanese were for Palestinians. Civil society groups say many Palestinians choose not to apply because they cannot afford the fees and see no reason to pay a portion of their salary toward the National Social Security Fund, since Lebanese law bars Palestinians from receiving social security benefits."Human Rights Watch [34] "Lebanon: Seize Opportunity to End Discrimination Against Palestinians; Remove Restrictions on Owning Property and Working" June 18, 2010 In one of his series of articles accusing the government of Lebanon of practising "apartheid" against the resident Palestinian community, Toameh described the "special legal status" as "foreigners" assigned uniquely to Palestinians, "a fact which has deprived them of health care, social services, property ownership and education. Even worse, Lebanese law bans Palestinians from working in many jobs. This means that Palestinians cannot work in the public services and institutions run by the government such as schools and hospitals. Unlike Israel, Lebanese public hospitals do not admit Palestinians for medical treatment or surgery."Khaled Abu Toameh , "What About The Arab Apartheid?" March 16, 2010, Hudson Institute Journalist Ben-Dror Yemini describes Palestinians in Lebanon as living "under various restrictions that could fill a chapter on Arab apartheid against the Palestinians. One of the most severe restrictions is a ban on construction. This ban is enforced even in the Nahr al-Bared refugee camp, bombed by the Lebanese army in 2007.Ben-Dror Yemini, Jerusalem Post, "The humanitarian show," July 7, 2010. Calling on Lebanon to change the systematic discrimination against his people, Palestinian journalist Rami George Khouri compared Lebanese treatment of Palestinians to the "Apartheid system" of South Africa.Rami Khouri, Lebanon's Palestinians, Agence Global, June 30, 2010. Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon contain armed groups which sometimes deal in illegal drugs, and that would cause infighting among the rivals. In June 2020, a woman was shot dead in the Shatila refugee camp as she was walking on the street carrying her child during a shooting exchange between rival gangs. ==Sectarian tensions== Due to sectarian tensions carried from the civil war, some discriminatory social attitudes are still held towards Palestinian refugees in Lebanon. These attitudes, are further complicated by Lebanon's delicate sectarian makeup. Despite the annulment of the 1969 Cairo Agreement, the Lebanese army does not enter the 12 camps, based on an informal understanding between the Palestinian factions and the Lebanese army. There exists some cooperation between the Palestinian factions and Lebanese army. ==See also== * PLO in Lebanon ==References== Category:Ethnic groups in Lebanon Category:Middle Eastern diaspora in Lebanon Category:Arabs in Lebanon Category:Palestinian diaspora in the Arab world Category:Palestinian refugees Category:Statelessness Category:Ethnic groups in the Middle East |
is an adult Japanese visual novel developed by Hooksoft which was released on June 29, 2007, for Windows. Kadokawa Shoten published a PlayStation 2 port of the game on September 3, 2009. HoneyComing is Hooksoft's sixth title, along with other games such as Orange Pocket, and _Summer. A fan disc called @HoneyComing RoyalSweet was released on August 28, 2009. The gameplay in HoneyComing follows a plot line which offers pre-determined scenarios with courses of interaction, and focuses on the appeal of the five female main characters. The game offers three different modes: Amusement, Feeling, and Only One. The story revolves around Kōichirō Ogata, a young man entering his first year of high school into a former all-girls school. However, at this school, there are still mandatory subjects taught on love and romance, much to the dislike of Kōichirō. There have been three manga adaptations based on HoneyComing published by ASCII Media Works and Kadokawa Shoten. Five character song CDs were released between December 2006 and April 2007. Many drama CDs have also been produced. Two light novel series were published by GoodsTrain and Harvest, and another light novel adaptation consisting of one volume was published by Eagle Publishing. ==Gameplay== thumb|225px|left|Example of what average conversation looks like in HoneyComing. Here, Kōichirō is talking with Asahi. The gameplay requires little interaction from the player as most of the duration of the game is spent on simply reading the text that will appear on the screen; this text represents either dialogue between the various characters, or the inner thoughts of the protagonist. Every so often, the player will come to a "decision point" where he or she is given the chance to choose from options that are displayed on the screen, typically two to three at a time. During these times, gameplay pauses until a choice is made that furthers the plot in a specific direction, depending on which choice the player makes. There are five main plot lines that the player will have the chance to experience, one for each of the heroines in the story. In order to view the five plot lines to their entirety, the player will have to replay the game multiple times and choose different choices during the decision points in order to further the plot in an alternate direction. The game begins with a choice of three modes: Amusement, Feeling, and Only One. Amusement Mode is intended for beginners where each of the heroines will have a favorable impression, and an icon on the screen shows the player how far in the game they have progressed. The Feeling Mode does not have an icon to show how far the player has progressed, and is seen as the typical setting for an adult visual novel. The last mode, Only One, starts with a selection for the player to choose one of the five heroines. Whichever girl the player chooses will determine which route the player will experience. ==Plot== ===Story=== HoneyComing's story revolves around the protagonist Kōichirō Ogata, a male first-year high school student who does not have any interest in matters such as love or romance. The high school he is admitted to, named , used to be an all-girl school formally named , and still carries a high population of female students. He starts school with his childhood friend Asahi Kamijō, his younger stepsister Mio Ogata, and best male friend Masanori Shinozaki. Kōichirō eventually meets two more female upperclassmen from the same school named Clarissa Satsuki Maezono, and Yuma Shichiri, along with a female underclassman from an affiliated school named Marino Tagaya; Kōichirō becomes friends with them. Since the school used to only have female students, there are certain classes oriented towards girls which are still required to take, such as lessons on love and romance. These lessons are known as , and students at Aikyō are required to take these classes on how to fall in love, and the ways of proper romance techniques. Each lesson, two people (of the opposite sex) pair up to make something, such as a meal for example, and they must form good communication if they intend to pass the test. There are also tests on practical skills which required note taking to later be studied for tests. During these lessons, students from Aikyō, and a nearby affiliated junior-high school, are combined for a total range of six grades from the lowest to the highest. Each time, forty new students from either school are chosen to take part in a special class for the Love-making Lessons. The students in the special class this year include: Kōichirō, Asahi, Clarissa, Mio, Yuma, Marino, Kaoru, Masanori, and Hiroko. Two teachers are assigned to this class: Ichigo Raidō (who is in charge of the boys), and Tsukasa Kurebayashi (who is in charge of the girls).thumb|350px|left|The girls of HoneyComing (from left to right): Yuma, Clarissa, Asahi, Marino, and Mio. ===Characters=== ====Main characters==== ; :Kōichirō is a first-year high school student and is the protagonist of the story. He lives in a four-person household with his father Hajime, his stepmother Minatsu, and his younger stepsister Mio; Mio is Minatsu's daughter, and is not related by blood with Kōichirō. Due to the relationship between his father and birth-mother, Kōichirō dislikes matters such as love or romance. Kōichirō's father wants to change this side of his son, so he enrolls him into Aikyō Academy because they teach lessons on love and romance. He dislikes sweet food. ; : (PC), Kyōko Fujimoto (PS2) :Asahi is Kōichirō's childhood friend, and is the same age as him; since they have known each other for a long time, she likes to address him as . She has a strong personality, however she is sometimes shown to be shy. Unlike Kōichirō, she is very interested in love and romance, and gets excited about the lessons at Aikyō about them. Again in contrast to Kōichirō, she loves sweet food, especially chocolate, so much so that Kōichirō sometimes refers to Asahi as a "chocolate junkie". ; : (PC), Aiko Okubo (PS2) :Clarissa, or simply , is a second-year student at Aikyō. Her father is Italian and her mother is Japanese, making her half Italian, and half Japanese. A year before the story began, Clarissa's grandmother on her mother's side was sick and Clarissa and her family moved back to Japan from Italy. She has a gentle personality accentuating through her kind heart and speech patterns. Due to this, she is seen as an idol at school and around her neighborhood. She is in the Gardening Club, and will often help out at the local senior citizen's home as a volunteer. ; : (PC), Maki Kobayashi (PS2) :Mio is Kōichirō younger stepsister, not related by blood, but since their age difference is not by much, she is also a first-year student at Aikyō, and is in Kōichirō's class. She has a small build, is short, and has a quiet personality. She is a delicate person, and is known to be a crybaby. She loves her brother very much, and will often go to great lengths to please him. She is in the Drama Club at school. ; : (PC), Tomo Adachi (PS2) :Yuma is a third-year student at Aikyō. Despite Aikyō transitioning to a school with both male and female students, Yuma still embraces the school as an all-girls school, and is seen as an upper-class type of girl. However, she loves the lesser expensive food of the working class, and is known to be quite a glutton in this respect. She is always reserved, and expressionless, though when she wants to talk, she will often speak with a wicked tongue. Yuma is in the Naginatajutsu Club, and is very skilled at the sport. ; : (PC), Rika Ogaki (PS2) :Marino is a third-year student at an affiliated junior-high school of Aikyō's. She was once the daughter of a rich man, but her father's business eventually went bankrupt. Due to this, she has taken a part-time job so she does not have to willingly live in poverty. She still has pride for her upbringing, and will add at the end of some of her sentences. Her school's students are combined into Aikyō's love and romance lessons, of which she is an unwilling participant; this is because she has androphobia, a fear of men. ====Supporting characters==== ; : (PC), Shinya Takahashi (PS2) :Hajime is Kōichirō's father. He is the manager of a small company, and returns home early most of the time. Unlike his son, Hajime can go on and on about how wonderful love and romance is, and he wants his son to be the same way; Kōichirō just treats him like an annoyance when he is like this, which is almost all the time. If he is in a quarrel, or gets excited, he yells very loudly, which is something the neighborhood has grown accustomed to. ; : (PC), Yūko Gotō (PS2) :Minatsu is Mio's mother, and Kōichirō's stepmother after his father remarried. She often gets mistaken for Mio's older sister due to her young appearance. Kōichirō and Mio were still very young when the Minatsu married Hajime. ; : (PC), Shintarō Ōhata (PS2) :Masanori is Kōichirō's best male friend, and is a fellow first-year student at Aikyō. He is a skinhead and has a strong build. Due to this, he appears as though he would fit in with the Japanese Yakuza, but he is just impulsive by nature. He has a younger sister named Koyori that he dots on constantly due to his sister complex and lolicon behavior. ; : (PC), Megu Ashiro (PS2) :Koyori is Masanori's younger sister. She does not like her brother at all and thinks of him as if he were trash. ; : (PC), Akane Tomonaga (PS2) :Kaoru, like Masanori, is a good friend of Kōichirō. He has a small build and has a reserved personality, and many of the girls at school think he is cute. ; : (PC), Natsumi Yanase (PS2) :Ichigo is Kōichirō's homeroom teacher and is in charge of the lessons on love and romance for Kōichirō's class; she heads the boys in such lessons. When she gets angry, her speech becomes rude, and with wield a naginata; she is a very enthusiastic teacher. Since Yume is in the Naginatajutsu Club, Ichigo often advises her on the sport. ; : (PC), Kei Mizusawa (PS2) :Tsukasa is another teacher at Aikyō Academy, and is also in charge of the lessons on love and romance for Kōichirō's class; he heads the girls in such lessons. He appears to be female, but almost all the students know he is male. He is always seen wearing traditional female Japanese-style clothing. He differs from Ichigo in that Tsukasa has a calm personality. Tsukasa often gives advice to Mio in the Drama Club. ; : (PC), Hitomi Nabatame (PS2) :Hiroko is Marino's roommate in the women's dormitory, and is her close friend. She wears glasses, and is a plain member of the working class. Hiroko and Marino often call each other , and as terms of endearment. ; : (PC), Akane Tomonaga (PS2) :Ryōko is a girl in the same class as Clarissa. She has a bright, vigorous personality. Without knowing exactly why, Ryōko finds herself thinking about Clarissa often. ; : (PC), Kei Mizusawa (PS2) :Mana is Marino's younger sister, and is the youngest of her three siblings. She has a similar competitive spirit as with her older sister, and is also very strong-willed. ; : (PC), Natsumi Yanase (PS2) :Mamoru is Marino's younger brother. He still has a childish attitude and is mischievous. However, he takes great care with Mana. ; : (PC), Shinya Takahashi (PS2) :Mitsutaka is a son of the distinguished Saionji family. He has a haughty attitude typical of such an upbringing. ; : :Manato is a female maid in the Saionji household. She is in charge of looking after the Saionji family, but flat-out dislikes her line of work. ==Development and release history== The producer for HoneyComing was Akira Asami, while supervision of the project was headed by Mujin Kawanami, who was also the main scenario writer. The art director for the game was Shitano, but the character artwork was headed by Makako Matsushita, and Racco. General computer graphics was headed by Rohei Yamane, who was accompanied by Mitsuki, and Mahiro. The music in the game was composed by Takao Matsūra, while sound in general was done by VII. On May 16, 2007, a free game demo of HoneyComing, "Ver. 1.00", for Clarissa's scenario became available for download at HoneyComing's official website via a direct download link or BitTorrent. More free game demos followed, one for each heroine, and then yet another free game demo, "Ver. 1.02", for all five heroines later became available for download in early July 2007. An update for Ver. 1.02 was released on September 13, 2007. The full game was first introduced in Japan as a limited edition version on June 29, 2007 as a DVD playable on a Microsoft Windows PC. The regular edition was released on August 24, 2007. A fan disc of HoneyComing, called @HoneyComing RoyalSweet, was released in both premium and basic editions for the PC on August 28, 2009. @HoneyComing RoyalSweet features short stories for the five heroines of HoneyComing and contains additional scenarios for four sub-heroines. A version of HoneyComing without adult content playable on the PlayStation 2 was published by Kadokawa Shoten and released on September 3, 2009 titled SweetHoneyComing. ==Related media== thumb|180px|right|HoneyComing: Sweet Love Lesson manga volume 1. ===Manga=== A manga adaptation, under the title , was serialized in Kadokawa Shoten's Comptiq magazine under their Kadokawa Comics Ace imprint between the February 2007 and October 2008 issues, illustrated by Ui Takano. Three bound volumes were released for the series between August 10, 2007, and October 10, 2008. A second manga, this time a four-panel comic strip, under the title , was serialized in ASCII Media Works' Dengeki G's Magazine under their Dengeki Comics EX imprint between February 28, 2007, and January 30, 2008, illustrated by Yuki Kiriga. The manga was subsequently transferred to Dengeki G's Festival! Comic, a special edition version of Dengeki G's Magazine, on April 26, 2008, and ran in that magazine until the publication of its sixth volume on April 25, 2009. The four-panel comic strip had also appeared in Dengeki G's Festival! Comic with the first issue sold on November 26, 2007. A single bound volume for HoneComi The 4-koma was released on July 27, 2009, by ASCII Media Works. A short-lived third manga entitled illustrated by Akuru Uira was serialized in Kadokawa Shoten's Comp Ace magazine under their Kadokawa Comics Ace imprint between the March and July 2009 issues. ===Light novels and books=== There are two erotic light novel series based on HoneyComing. The first series is written by Jōji Kamio, with illustrations by Makako Matsumoto and Rakko, and is published by GoodsTrain under their TwinTail Novels label. The first novel was released on October 25, 2007, featuring Asahi on the cover, and the second novel was released in February 2008 featuring Clarissa on the cover. The third and final novel was released on July 25, 2008, featuring Marino on the cover. The second light novel series is written by Hack and Masamune Yotsuya with the same illustrators, and is published by Harvest, under their Harvest Novels label. Three novels were published in the second series released between December 1, 2007, and March 2008. Lastly, an adult light novel based on the game's fan disc @HoneyComing RoyalSweet, was published by Eagle Publishing on January 15, 2010, under their Pumpkin Novels label. It was written by Renri Akatsuki, and illustrated by Makako Matsumoto. A 60-page visual fan book for HoneyComing, entitled HoneyComing Official Perfect Visual Book, was published by ASCII Media Works on December 7, 2007. The book includes a promotional illustration gallery, a character and story introduction, interviews with staff and voice actors, and more. Another visual fan book, for @HoneyComing RoyalSweet, entitled @HoneyComing RoyalSweet Official Fan Book, was published by Eagle Publishing on January 15, 2010, consisting of 111 pages. ===Music and audio drama=== HoneyComing's opening theme is "Love Hell Rocket" by Haruko Aoki. The short version of the opening theme is available for download at HoneyComing's official website; an "eight- bit-shooting" arrange version of the song is also available for download. The game's ending theme is by Miki Tsuchiya. A music album entitled HoneyComing Variety Sound Collection "IF" was sold with the limited edition version of the game; the album contained the opening and ending themes along with background music featured in game. Five character song CDs under the main title of HoneyComing First Impression were released; each CD covers one of the heroines from the game. The first, Asahiism, was released on December 29, 2006; the second, Clairism, followed on January 26, 2007; the third, Mioism, went on sale on February 23, 2007. The last two, Yumaism, and Marinoism, were released on March 23, 2007, and April 27, 2007, respectively. The game's original soundtrack was released on January 9, 2008. A drama CD entitled HoneyComing: one more chime! was released by Marine Entertainment on December 29, 2007. The voices were the same as provided for the visual novel. Three different drama CDs were released on May 25, 2007, all of which containing two drama tracks and an insert song for one of the heroines. One of these drama CDs was HoneyComing Getchuya Original Drama CD, which was released by Getchuya. The second drama CD, titled HoneyComing LAOX Original Drama CD, was released by LAOX; and a third, titled HoneyComing Messe Sanoh Original Drama CD, was released by Messe Sanoh. Lastly, Sofmap released a drama CD titled HoneyComing Sofmap Original Drama CD, which consists of two discs, each disc containing two audio drama tracks and an insert song. ==Reception== In the October 2007 issue of Dengeki G's Magazine, poll results for the fifty best bishōjo games were released. Out of 249 titles, HoneyComing ranked nineteenth with fourteen votes, and was tied with ToHeart. Two character popularity polls were held on the official website. The first character poll started on June 8, 2007, and results were announced on June 22, 2007. A total of 28,960 votes were counted. Clarissa came first; Asahi came second; Marino came third ; Mio came fourth, and Yuma came fifth. Four other characters were included in the poll. As a prize for gathering the most votes, Clarissa received both a wallpaper and screensaver. A second character poll ran on the official website from June 29, 2007, from July 31, 2007, notably longer than the first one. A total of 18,211 votes were made, and Clarissa resulted in gathering the most votes again, respectively. HoneyComing was the highest selling game for the month of June 2007 on Getchu.com, and dropped to eleventh in the ranking the following month. HoneyComing was the third most widely sold game for the first half of 2007 on Getchu.com, just behind D.C.II Spring Celebration in second and Kimi ga Aruji de Shitsuji ga Ore de in first. Furthermore, HoneyComing was the fourth most widely sold game of 2007 on Getchu.com. ==References== ==External links== *HoneyComing official website *SweetHoneyComing official website * Category:2007 Japanese novels Category:2007 manga Category:2007 video games Category:2010 Japanese novels Category:ASCII Media Works manga Category:Kadokawa Dwango franchises Category:Bishōjo games Category:Dengeki G's Magazine Category:Drama anime and manga Category:Eroge Category:Harem anime and manga Category:High school-themed video games Category:Japan- exclusive video games Category:Light novels Category:Manga based on video games Category:Kadokawa Shoten manga Category:PlayStation 2 games Category:Romance anime and manga Category:Romance video games Category:School life in anime and manga Category:Seinen manga Category:Video games developed in Japan Category:Visual novels Category:Windows games Category:Yonkoma |
Westport is a town in Fairfield County, Connecticut, United States, along the Long Island Sound within Connecticut's Gold Coast. It is northeast of New York City. The town is part of the Western Connecticut Planning Region. Westport's public school system is ranked as the top public school district in Connecticut and 17th best school district in the United States. ==History== The earliest known inhabitants of the Westport area as identified through archaeological finds date back 7,500 years. Records from the first white settlers report the Pequot Indians living in the area which they called Machamux translated by the colonialists as beautiful land. Settlement by colonialists dates back to the five Bankside Farmers; whose families grew and prospered into a community that continued expanding. The settlers arrived in 1693, having followed cattle to the isolated area. The community had its own ecclesiastical society, supported by independent civil and religious elements, enabling it to be independent from the Town of Fairfield. As the settlement expanded its name changed: it was briefly known as "Bankside" in 1693, officially named Green's Farm in 1732 in honor of Bankside Farmer John Green and in 1835 incorporated as the Town of Westport. thumb|left|Historic map of Westport During the Revolutionary War, on April 25, 1777, a British force of 1,850 under the command of the Royal Governor of the Province of New York, Major General William Tryon, landed on Compo Beach to destroy the Continental Army's military supplies in Danbury. Minutemen from Westport and the surrounding areas crouched hiding while Tryon's troops passed and then launched an offensive from their rear. A statue on Compo Beach commemorates this plan of attack with a crouching Minuteman facing away from the beach, looking onto what would have been the rear of the troops. A sign on Post Road East also commemorates this event. The Town of Westport was officially incorporated on May 28, 1835, with lands from Fairfield, Weston and Norwalk. Daniel Nash led 130 people of Westport in the petitioning of the Town of Fairfield for Westport's incorporation. The driving force behind the petition was to assist their seaport's economic viability that was being undermined by neighboring towns' seaports. For several decades after that, Westport was a prosperous agricultural community, distinguishing itself as the leading onion- growing center in the U.S. Blight caused the collapse of Westport's onion industry, leading to mills and factories replacing agriculture as the town's economic engine. Agriculture was Westport's first major industry. By the 19th century, Westport had become a shipping center in part to transport onions to market. Starting around 1910 the town experienced a cultural expansion. During this period artists, musicians, and authors such as F. Scott Fitzgerald moved to Westport to be free from the commuting demands experienced by business people. The roots of Westport's reputation as an arts center can be traced back to this period during which it was known as a "creative heaven." In the 20th century, a combination of industrialization and popularity among New Yorkers attracted to fashionable Westport—which had attracted many artists and writers—resulted in farmers selling off their land. Westport changed from a community of farmers to a suburban development. In the 1950s through to the 1970s, New Yorkers relocating from the city to the suburbs discovered Westport's culture of artists, musicians and authors. The population grew rapidly, assisted by the ease of commuting to New York City and back again to rolling hills and the "natural beauty of the town." By this time Westport had "chic New York-type fashion shopping" and a school system with a good reputation, both factors contributing to the growth. By the 21st century, Westport had developed into a center for finance and insurance, as well as professional, scientific and technical services. ==Geography== According to a publication by the 2010 Census, Westport has a total area of of which (59.67%) is land with the remaining area of (40.20%) water. Westport is bordered by Norwalk on the west, Weston to the north, Wilton to the northwest, Fairfield to the east and Long Island Sound to the south. ===Climate=== ===Topography=== Both the train station and a total of 26 percent of town residents live within the 100-year floodplain. The floodplain was breached in 1992 and 1996 resulting in damage to private property, the 1992 flooding of the train station parking lot and the implementation of flood mitigation measures that include town regulations that affect renovations and additions to building within the floodplain zone. ===Neighborhoods=== thumb|upright|Neighborhoods of Westport * Saugatuck – around the Westport railroad station near the southwestern corner of the town – a built-up area with some restaurants, stores and offices. Saugatuck originates from the Paugussett tribe meaning "mouth of the tidal river" ** Saugatuck Shores – a curved peninsula surrounded by the Long Island Sound, this area was once part of the town of Norwalk. Today several hundred residents live on the peninsula, which became part of Westport in the 1960s. ** Saugatuck Island – founded in the 1890s as Greater Marsh Shores, the island was renamed to its current name in 1920 and became a special taxing district on November 5, 1984. * Westport Village – The area around Post Road and Main Street on and near the Saugatuck River that serves as the center of Westport, with many shops and restaurants. There has been recent growth in the downtown area, including Levitt Pavilion, and Bedford square, a mixed-use development incorporating the Bedford Mansion * Greens Farms – Westport's oldest neighborhood, starting around Hillspoint Road and ending at Westport's boundary on the east side. Greens Farms has its own post office and train station * Cockenoe Island (pronounced "KuhKEEnee") – just off the southeastern coast of the town. Cockenoe Island is an uninhabited island that was purchased by Westport for $212,740 from the United Illuminating Company in 1969 so that the company could not use the land to build a nuclear plant * Old Hill – west of the Saugatuck River and north of the Post Road, a historic section of town with many homes from the Revolutionary and Victorian eras. Prior to the road being called the Boston Post Road it was called the Connecticut Turnpike * Coleytown – Located at the northern edge of town, near the Weston town line. Home to Coleytown fire station, Middle and Elementary school. Named for Farmer Coley, who owned lots of land in this area * Compo – Located around the main beach in the town, Compo Beach. Compo (Compaug), can be traced back to the early Paugussett tribe and means the bear's fishing ground * SewTrol – The area containing the Town Sewage Treatment Plant, the Town Animal Control, and the State Boat Launch ==Demographics== The 2019 US Census reported a population estimate of 28,491 with the median household income at $206,466. The 2010 US Census counted the total number of households in Westport being 9,573 of which 7,233 (75.6%) were family households. The population density was . There were 10,065 housing units at an average density of . According to the 2010 Census, the population of Westport was 92.6% White, 4.0% Asian, 1.2% Black or African American, and 0.1% American Indian. Individuals from other races made up 0.6% of Westport's population while individuals from two or more races made up 1.6%. In addition, Latinos of any race made up 3.5% of Westport's population. About 29.8% of Westport residents were younger than age 18 as of 2010; higher than the U.S. average of 24%. According to the 2000 Census, there were 9,586 households, of which 38.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 66.1% were married couples living together, 6.8% have a woman whose husband does not live with her, and 25.2% were non-families. 20.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.66 and the average family size was 3.10. In the town, the population was spread out, with 27.9% under the age of 18, 2.7% from 18 to 24, 26.2% from 25 to 44, 28.0% from 45 to 64, and 15.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.3 males. According to a 2007 estimate, the median income for a household in the town was $147,391, and the median income for a family was $176,740. As of the 2000 Census, males had a median income of $100,000 versus $53,269 for females. The per capita income for the town was $73,664. 2.6% of the population and 1.5% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 2.7% are under the age of 18 and 2.1% are 65 or older. In July 2008, Westport was named the fifth top-earning city in the US, with a median family income of $193,540 and median home price of $1,200,000. In 2018, data from the American Community Survey revealed that Westport was the 9th wealthiest city in the United States. ==Economy== ===Commerce and industry=== The financial services sector employs 7,171 in Westport; half of whom commute daily to Westport. The financial services industry is a major segment of the local economy. The major financial services companies in Westport now are Bridgewater Associates, a global investment manager and Westport's largest employer, Canaan Partners, an early stage venture capital firm focusing on IT and life sciences, and BNY Mellon. Professional, scientific, and technical services companies include Terex, a Fortune 500 company manufacturing industrial equipment and offering professional and technical services around those products, and dLife, a multimedia diabetes education (and marketing) company. ===Nonprofits=== * Save the Children, the American charity, governed entirely separately from the British charity of the same name, was headquartered in Westport before moving to Fairfield * The Smith Richardson Foundation, a public policy think tank, is headquartered in Westport, Connecticut ==Arts and culture== thumb|right|alt=Westport Library taken from the opposite side of the Saugatuck River.|Westport Library across Saugatuck River ===Attractions=== *The Westport Country Playhouse, founded in 1930, is a regional theater. After Paul Newman moved to Westport in 1960, he became a principal "driving force" behind the playhouse. * Museum of Contemporary Art (MoCA) Westport, part of the Westport Arts Center; the facility was expanded in 2019 to include the permanent contemporary art collection.https://mocawestport.org/about/ About MoCA Westport * Westport Museum for History and Culture, founded in 1889, is dedicate to the history of Westport. * The Wakeman Town Farm is a historic working farm and sustainability demonstration center. * The Rolnick Observatory is located on a former Nike missile site. * Earthplace, The Nature Discovery Center, is a natural history museum, nature center and wildlife sanctuary. ==Parks and recreation== Comprising , Sherwood Island State Park is located on Long Island Sound and includes beach access. Compo Beach and Burying Hill Beach are municipal beaches that are open to out-of-town visitors in the summer for a fee. The state's 9/11 memorial was put in Sherwood Island State Park in Westport; on a clear day the New York City skyline can be seen. In 1960, Westport purchased Longshore Club Park. In 2011, Paul Newman's estate gave land to Westport to be managed by the Aspetuck Land Trust. ==Government== Westport town vote by party in presidential elections Year Democratic Republican Third Parties 2020 74.46% 13,048 24.09% 4,222 1.45% 253 2016 68.99% 10,655 26.99% 4,169 4.01% 620 2012 56.45% 8,495 42.79% 6,439 0.76% 114 2008 65.05% 10,067 34.52% 5,342 0.43% 66 2004 59.47% 9,115 39.56% 6,063 0.98% 150 2000 57.35% 8,304 38.61% 5,590 4.05% 586 1996 51.61% 7,331 40.73% 5,785 7.67% 1,089 1992 48.10% 7,799 38.02% 6,166 13.88% 2,251 1988 44.32% 6,519 54.73% 8,051 0.95% 140 1984 38.58% 5,774 61.21% 9,162 0.21% 31 1980 30.26% 4,381 53.95% 7,810 15.79% 2,285 1976 40.97% 6,053 58.73% 8,677 0.30% 44 1972 40.23% 5,937 58.98% 8,705 0.79% 116 1968 42.34% 5,435 54.82% 7,037 2.84% 365 1964 59.54% 6,939 40.46% 4,716 0.00% 0 1960 35.86% 3,825 64.14% 6,842 0.00% 0 1956 24.60% 2,232 75.40% 6,842 0.00% 0 Westport, like Connecticut as a whole, is heavily Democratic. Hillary Rodham Clinton outscored Donald J. Trump by 42 points in 2016. Joe Biden outscored Donald J. Trump by more than 50 points in 2020, marking the best performance for a Democratic presidential nominee in the town in over 60 years. Westport was one of five towns in Connecticut that backed former Governor John Kasich over Donald J. Trump in the 2016 Republican presidential primary. Kasich received 1,098 votes (46.19 percent) ahead of Trump who garnered 1,053 votes (44.30 percent). U.S. Senator Ted Cruz of Texas finished third with 165 votes (6.94 percent).https://portal.ct.gov/-/media/SOTS/ElectionServices/StatementOfVote_PDFs/April2016RepublicanPPPSOVpdf.pdf?la=en The town switched to a Representative Town Meeting style governance in 1949. The government consists of a three-member Board of Selectmen, a Representative Town Meeting (RTM), a Board of Finance, a Board of Education, a Planning and Zoning Commission, and various other commissions, boards, and committees. Voter registration and party enrollment as of October 26, 2021 Voter registration and party enrollment as of October 26, 2021 Voter registration and party enrollment as of October 26, 2021 Voter registration and party enrollment as of October 26, 2021 Voter registration and party enrollment as of October 26, 2021 Voter registration and party enrollment as of October 26, 2021 Party Party Active voters Inactive voters Total voters Percentage Democratic 8,495 729 9,224 42.51% Republican 3,845 404 4,249 19.58% Unaffiliated 7,289 731 8,020 36.97% Minor parties 186 17 203 0.94% Total Total 19,815 1,881 21,696 100% === Taxes === As of 2019, the current mill rate of Westport is 16.86. ==Education== ===Schools=== ====Public schools==== thumb|right|alt=View of Staples High School, December 2011|Staples High School Staples High School is Westport's only public high school. Staples High School was ranked No. 1 for best high schools in Connecticut and 279th best nationwide." The school is in the Staples neighborhood. The district has two middle schools, Bedford Middle School and Coleytown Middle School. In September 2009, Bedford Middle School was awarded the government-honored Blue Ribbon Award. In 2020, Bedford Middle and Coleytown Middle schools were ranked No. 3 and No. 7 in the state, respectively. There are five elementary schools with a total of 2,556 students: * Coleytown Elementary School * King's Highway Elementary School * Green's Farms Elementary School * Saugatuck Elementary School * Long Lots Elementary School ====Private schools==== Greens Farms Academy, located in the 1920s Vanderbilt estate overlooking Long Island Sound, is a K–12 private preparatory school located in the Greens Farms section of town. ==Media== Westport's first newspaper dates back to the printing and publication of the first issue of The Saugatuck Journal on December 26, 1828. Westport is served by both English-language newspapers and news websites including Westport News and WestportNow. The town is also home to a monthly magazine Westport. ==Infrastructure== ===Transportation=== Interstate 95, the Merritt Parkway, and U.S. 1, as well as the Saugatuck River, run through Westport. Westport has two train stations, Green's Farms and Westport on the Metro-North Railroad's New Haven Line, which serves Stamford and Grand Central Terminal in New York City or New Haven-Union Station. This line is shared with Amtrak trains as it is part of the Northeast Corridor, but no Amtrak services stop at Green's Farms or Westport. The nearest Amtrak stations are at Bridgeport (10 miles) and Stamford (12 miles). As of 2019, Westport has the highest per capita electric vehicle ownership among municipalities in Connecticut, and #3 overall. ==== "Main to Train" study ==== A recent initiative by residents of the Town of Westport, Connecticut, culminating in a 2019 report. It is part of a greater interest to improve pedestrian and cyclist options from the major places of interest in town: downtown Westport to the Westport Train Station. This approximate two-mile stretch of road is most directly accessible via Post Road East (U.S. Route 1) to Riverside Avenue. The third iteration of the study will more specifically address ways in which this path can be improved for people not traveling by car; the first report considered the conditional state of the path and the second analyzed traffic conditions. The Norwalk Transit District offers transit options. === Police department === As of 2020, the Westport Police Department has a full- time complement of 64 sworn police officers that serve the Town of Westport. This department has purchased electric and hybrid fleets. ===Fire department=== The town of Westport is protected by the paid, full-time firefighters of the Westport Fire Department. Established in 1929, the Westport Fire Department currently operates out of 4 fire stations, located throughout the town, and maintains a fire apparatus fleet of 6 Engines, (4 first line and 2 reserve) 1 truck, 1 rescue, 1 fireboat, 1 High Water Unit, 1 utility unit and 1 Shift Commander's unit. The fire department also holds the Fairfield County Hazardous Materials Truck, housed at Westport Fire Headquarters. The Westport Fire Department responds to, on average, approximately 4,000 emergency calls annually.Town of Westport, CT : Fire Department . Westportct.gov (August 17, 2012). Retrieved on August 16, 2013. == Notable people == Among the many actors, singers and other entertainers who have lived in town is Paul Newman who resided in Westport from 1960 until his death in 2008. His wife, Joanne Woodward, still resides in town. Fala (1940–1952), President Franklin D. Roosevelt's dog, was an early Christmas gift from Mrs. Augustus G. Kellogg, a town resident. Actress Grace Carney moved to Westport in 1979, when she became president of United Tool and Die, a company started by her father.Frahm, Robert A., From Footlights to Philanthropy,The Hartford Courant, February 28, 1998 She died in the city in 2009.Obituary, ‘’The Hartford Courant’’, March 28, 2009 Actress Gene Tierney grew up in Greens Farms. Adult film star Marilyn Chambers grew up in Westport under her given name Marilyn Briggs. Martha Stewart also lived in Westport at her historic estate of Turkey Hill. Jean Donovan, a lay Roman Catholic missioner martyred in El Salvador in 1980 grew up in Westport and graduated from Staples High School. She is honored on the litany of saints by the Lutheran World Federation and by The Anglican Communion. Academy Award winner Sandy Dennis lived in Westport until her death in 1992. Former FDA chief Scott Gottlieb is a resident of Westport. Former FBI director, James Comey, was a long-time resident of the town. Scott and Elda Fitzgerald also lived in Westport around 1920. ==In popular culture== *In the television series The West Wing, Josh Lyman is a native of Westport *Westport was the location of the fictional residence (1164 Morning Glory Circle) of Darrin and Samantha Stephens on the television series Bewitched *In the sixth and final season of I Love Lucy, the Ricardos and Mertzes leave New York and move to Westport * The Twilight Zone had one episode called "A Stop at Willoughby", wherein the main character worked in NYC and commuted by train to his home in Westport. It aired on May 6, 1960, and the episode was written by then-Westport resident Rod Serling *The 1955 film The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit includes a scene where Jennifer Jones meets Gregory Peck at the Westport station * The Swimmer (1968), a film starring Burt Lancaster, is based on a short story by John Cheever. Most of the film was shot in backyard pool locations in Westport * The Stepford Wives (1975) filmed in various Westport locations and used a colonial house in the Williamsburg district as the home of the main characters * Don DeLillo's Underworld (1997) features an ad executive named Charlie Wainwright who in 1961 lives in WestportDon DeLillo, Underworld. New York: Scribner's (1997), pp. 526-35. *The 1998 production This Is My Father was partly filmed in Westport *The 2004 film The Girl Next Door was vaguely based on Westport – director Luke Greenfield grew up in town. It was filmed and set in California. That same decade parts of the 2008 production of The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants 2 were filmed in Westport "The recent Warner Bros. release "The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants 2" features parts of Bridgeport standing in for Providence, R.I. and Manhattan; the Westport Country Playhouse is passed off as a Vermont summer stock theater; and WestConn in Danbury fills in for the Rhode Island School of Design" * American Housewife takes place in Westport * Robert Lawson's children's novel Rabbit Hill depicts a colony of anthropomorphic rabbits living in the countryside near Westport * In The Last Olympian, the final novel of the Percy Jackson & the Olympians series by Rick Riordan, the titular character, Percy Jackson, travels to Westport to visit antagonist Luke Castellan's childhood home *The Land of Steady Habits is set in Westport ==Sister cities== , Westport has four sister cities: * Lyman, Ukraine * Marigny-le-Lozon, France * Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China * St. Petersburg, Russia == References == == External links == * Category:Populated coastal places in Connecticut Category:Towns in Connecticut Category:Towns in Fairfield County, Connecticut Category:Towns in the New York metropolitan area Category:1835 establishments in Connecticut Category:Populated places established in 1835 Category:Towns in Western Connecticut Planning Region, Connecticut |
Galloping Coroners (Hungarian: Vágtázó Halottkémek, , also known as VHK and Rasende Leichenbeschauer) is a Hungarian rock band active between 1975–2001, and since 2009. The band established a unique "shaman punk" or "psychedelic hardcore" sound, and is regarded as one of the most important alternative bands of the 1980s from the Eastern European block. Permanent restrictions by Hungarian authorities made worldwide tours difficult for the band, but its ecstatic concerts garnered surprising success across Western Europe. Though relatively obscure and commercially limited outside of Eastern Europe, Maximumrocknroll described the band as "equal in spirit and grit to faves like Sonic Youth or Big Black but with an identity all its own".Maximum Rock’N Roll (USA), July 1991, #98 VHK has been praised as a highly important band by Iggy Pop, Henry Rollins, Jello Biafra and Einstürzende Neubauten. The band played repetitive, wild, yet melodic music, combining tribal shamanic music with rock guitars and drumming to form a uniquely pulsating and obsessive sound. Songs regularly feature ritualistic improvisation, and live shows were often accompanied by ecstatic on-stage actions. The New York Times described their music as "basic and elemental and filled with obsessive, galvanizing passion." The band's musical philosophy was shaped and influenced by its frontman, Attila Grandpierre. Beginning in 2005, Grandpierre continued VHK's concept with Vágtázó Csodaszarvas on solely acoustic instruments. == History == Galloping Coroners (VHK) was formed in Budapest in 1975 by Attila Grandpierre (singer) and his friends independently from Western world's punk movement that started 1–2 years later. Initial lineup: Attila Grandpierre (vocal), Sándor Czakó (guitar), László Ipacs (drums), Tamás Pócs (bass guitar), Molnár György (solo guitar). More of them were graduated professionals: The group's leader and main theoretician, Attila Grandpierre is also astrophysicist, a candidate of physical sciences, employed by the Hungarian Mathematics Institute. Guitarist Sándor Czakó is a nuclear physicist, later worked on the safety system of Paks Nuclear Power Plant,Documentary film: Private Rock History / 47. - Vágtázó Halottkémek - VHK, ed. Gábor Gellért, 2009 László Ipacs is a physicists, Lajos Soós is a teacher. === Formation === In early 70's, Budapest youngsters were talking stories about a mysterious, eccentric teenage boy, Attila Grandpierre, who was doing scandalous actions with his friends e.g. creating home-made rockets etc. As a physicstudent Grandpierre gave private lessons to the 5 year younger high-school student, László Ipacs. Grandpierre and Ipacs's mates become friends, and formed a subcultural creative community mainly driven by Grandpierres inconvenient visions of life and music. When Ipacs and his friend Sándor Czakó the only educated musician, formed an amateur band, Grandpierre first just helped the band with musical ideas as an external consultant. Surprisingly they won army's countrywide amateur rock contest. By that time Grandpierre as a well-known personality of Budapest underground life was invited to be singer by several amateur bands. But he was only impressed enough by the Ipacs-Czakó formation, so he joined the band in 1975. The band started to use the name Vágtázó Halottkémek (abbr.: VHK, eng.: Galloping Coroners) suggested by Grandpierre. As he remembers, he wanted a name that expresses their musical and life philosophy regarding that "people should find their way to the basic, elemental natural power of the Universe and being charged with this power should live a more perfect and active life." He felt it must be a two word band name. First, 'Galloping' tag was to express the activity, energy. The second tag took longer to find out, finally they found that 'Coroners' expresses their feeling greatly that people on Earth live on a very basic level, almost like 'living deads', and the band is like the Coroners who say the diagnosis of this state. === Underground years in late Hungarian communist era === In 1975 the band recorded their first songs. They aroused their first public acclaim among Budapest teenagers when bandmates walked along Váci Street playing VHK on cassette recorder demonstratively. VHK gave the first concert at a high-school event in 1976. The concert was stopped after 20 minutes by event supervisor singing-teacher finding the band and the audience too excited and scandalous. Fans had to wait 2 years for the next concert. In 1978 the concert again was stopped because the organizers were afraid about the allegedly 'violent consequences'. Next 6 concerts were also interrupted by the authorities. In Soviet-block, Goulash- communist Hungary Galloping Coroners' ecstatic music was extremely scandalous sound compared to the state-controlled music scene. Though VHK didn't play political songs, authorities were afraid of a band that seemed to have 'subversive effect on youth'. VHK soon became the No.1 banned rock band and had been officially banished within Hungary for 11 years. Members were harassed by the police, observed by the secret agent network and not allowed to release an LP and make concerts legally. So in the seventies VHK had only a few concerts, still the band continuously found ways to play underground concerts at various scenes. Vágtázó Halottkémek was helped to the stage by the fans of other bands, or there were concert-organizers taking the risk to be kicked out because of allowing them to play. They used fake names, played as guest musicians of other bands without revealing themselves as VHK at the concert. Due to these concerts, and fan-made cassette recordings VHK's fame spread rapidly among youth communities in Budapest. By the end of 70's VHK gained countrywide reputation among youth regarded as "the wildest band in Hungary". Experimental film director Gábor Bódy recognised VHK for his 1983 film "Dog's Night Song" featuring the band and lead howler Attila Grandpierre as an actor. ===International success from 1980s=== VHK had no LP and was forbidden to concert within Hungary, but by the 80's the band's fame reached Western Europe, first Germany through personal channels. In Gábor Bódy movie "Nachtlied des Hundes" (1983) the West-Berlin artist, author and philosopher Wolfgang Müller from the cult-band Die Tödliche Doris discovered the band and invited them to West-Berlin, where they were totally unknown. The band played 1984 in Berlin-Kreuzberg Frontkino, which was already a famous underground space.Wolfgang Müller, Subkultur Westberlin 1979 - 1989.Freizeit, S. 84 - 87 Now they started to build a growing fan-base in Germany. In 1981 the first VHK song was published on a German Ata Tak's Fix Planet compilation LP. From 1984 VHK played regularly in Western Europe, despite Hungarian authorities tried to obstruct administratively, not giving passport to VHK's members to get concerts in Western Europe. In 1986 VHK was invited to Amsterdam, that was the "Cultural Capital of Europe" in that year. Dutch Queen, Beatrix should have personally pressure Hungarian authorities to give passports and allow band's performance. In 1987 Austrian chancellor, Fred Sinowatz also had to make diplomatic steps toward the Hungarian Ministry of Culture to let VHK play in Austria. In 1982 Kristen Dehlholm avantgarde theater director and VHK-related artists founded 'VHK's Ritual Theatre' accompanying concerts with movement and sound theater elements. Thanks to this, VHK played in the Mythen, Monstren and Mutationen festival in Berlin. In 1988 Einstürzende Neubauten, Henry Rollins, Jello Biafra and Iggy Pop met VHK and all of them were impressed by VHK's obsessive performance. In the last years before the collapse of Hungarian communist soft regime, VHK played with Rollins Band in Hungary. Rollins Band invited VHK for a tour in England in 1989. In 1992 they released their 3rd LP "Hammering on the Gates of Nothingness" both in Europe and the US. LP's title song reached 2nd position on the top-list of a Belgian music radio station, and VHK were played in numerous US college radios. First international manager of the band was Dietmar Lupfer. VHK released with him their first 3 records, Teach Death a Lesson (1988), Jump Out the World-Instinct (1990), Hammering on the Gates of Nothingness (1992) at Sonic Boom Records for Europe, while these LPs were released by Alternative Tentacles in the US. Despite Jello Biafra's offer to manage the band in the US, the band decided to leave Alternative Tentacles and produce the next LP in the US themselves, but VHK's self- promotion has failed. === 2001 and beyond === Between 2001-2009 VHK didn't give concerts. From 2005 band leader Attila Grandpierre continued VHK's musical concept in neotraditional Vágtázó Csodaszarvas ("Galloping Wonder Stag"), changing electronic instruments into traditional Hungarian acoustic folk instruments, developed a clear, modern still ancient style. In 2009 Grandpierre renewed VHK, releasing Forgószél! ("Tornado!") LP, under "Galloping Life Power" band name. The "Coroners" tag was changed to "Life Power" to express more directly Grandpierre's fully positive life attitude, as he said. Later they started to use Galloping Coroners band name again and released Bite the Stars! LP in 2012. Attila Grandpierre is still active nowadays, occasionally touring with Galloping Wonder Stag playing acoustic repertoire and with Galloping Coroners performing the rock-instrumental line. == Musical style == In 1975 Galloping Coroners started with basic rock instruments, 3 electronic guitars and drum, enriched with a kettle drum to enhance roaming tribal sound. By the 90's VHK kept their psychedelic-shaman- punk musical ideology while their music developed to a more complex instrumentation. On 1997 Reconquering Eden I LP they used tablas, kettle drums, roto, earthen drum, acoustic guitar, reed pipe, whistle, percussion, bass, electric guitar, vocals with guests adding violin, flute, double bass, hurdy gurdy and vocals. This trend got its peak point with full acoustic performances of Galloping Wonder Stag, Grandpierre's later formation from 2005. Galloping Coroners, including their international career have sung exclusively Hungarian lyrics. Galloping Coroners' music may best describe as "shaman punk" or "psychedelic hardcore" - new categories created by western critics in the '80s to define the original sound of the band. Historically Galloping Coroners started 1–2 years before punk movement in 1975, from independent roots. Galloping Coroners' music was mainly determined by band founder Attila Grandpierre's vision of music and the Universe. He said, he was not interested in music like western punk bands, Iggy & The Stooges and others. He was impressed by psychedelic, progressive rock music: "I liked very much early Pink Floyd, especially See Emily Play and the first Blue Cheer album, Vincebus Eruptum. The most important song for me was Out of Focus." He was also influenced by German progressive rock, especially krautrock (early Amon Düül, Popol Vuh, Ash Ra Tempel). As Grandpierre remembers the first years "We had no idea that our music had any connection with shamanism. [...] We didn't know what had bursted out from us, our friends just said, 'it's total craziness'. [...] Our definite goal was to become the world's best band [...] we talked along many nights how to make a world revolution [...]. In the morning we started the day with bright eyes and feeling huge forces lit in us. [...] We felt, we are able to change the course of the world, and there must be a music that can move deeper powers any social movement can." Later, when punk movement developed Galloping Coroners recognised common points with punk and hardcore, as Grandpierre expressed in his manifesto Punk As a Rebirth of Shamanist Folk Music in 1984, and VHK built connections and toured with punk and hardcore bands like Rollins Band. Some critics regarding tribal shamanic music as an ancient form of folk music suggest to use ethno punk definition and regard VHK's shaman punk as a subgenre of folk punk. But while folk punk groups include national folk elements in their punk music, VHK's repetitive, ecstatic sound with distorted guitars and inarticulated howls in vocal is much closer to hardcore or even industrial rock. In contrast with aggressive, angry, anti-establishment, direct protest features of punk and hardcore, VHK's unrestrained dynamism is rather a positive, ecstatic, sublimed and transcendent often with harmonious tones in lead vocals over the repetitive base rhythm. Their mission is to express "world instinct". "The VHK is definitively the best from the East. The Coroners are a musical excess, a 50 minutes trance. They are insane drums, overmodulated guitars, screaming Shamans." - NMI Messitsch (Germany), 08/92 Vágtázó Halottkémek themselves describe their music as "an instinctive primeval music liberating the elementary powers of nature creating ourselves and revolting to its high completion in a free spontaneity and overwhelming energy." VHK played pre- written songs as a basis, exposed with improvisations and instinctive physical performances on stage, with an open end to a total ecstatic state "liberating the deepest musical creative power". Grandpierre said "Improvisation is not the correct word to describe our music. At our best, we are in touch with life-completing, primordial powers and our attempt is to hand over the control of our musical activities to these powers." VHK's music referred to by many as shamanistic ethno or psychedelic hardcore, Band leader Attila Grandpierre explains this as "an unrestricted outburst of life energy" that is not only a music but an attitude to grasp the essence of life with our deepest nature and let it grow by its own laws. The group says: "it is a magical folk-music, a cosmic vision about the role of earthly life on the destination of the Universe." This approach is expressed in LP titles like Jump Out the World- Instinct (1990) or Hammering on the Gates of Nothingness (1992). "The songs of VHK are growing towards a dreamlike ecstasy coming from the heart, the usual song-structure and singing style are completely missing, the magic dance- rhythm captures and raptures the audience, which you can not find in the today's stylised neon-coolness only at the natural tribes living in other era. Permanent rhythm-accelerations, abrupt speeding-up of the almost brutal- ancient drums, amorphous collage of the head-voices, animal voice playbacks and volcanically exploding guitar riffs - all these things are completed with an unconsciousness jungle of sounds in which you get lost and cannot come back easily, since the perception of time and space is changing into completely new forms." - Zitty Berlin, fanzine, 1988, Nr. 14 "Each time I hear a new VHK record I relive this atavistic reverie - it's like reentering the womb. VHK are so improbable, so wonderful and yet so seemingly necessary (were they not to exist they would have to be invented), that they function for me like my favourite fairy tales used to when I was a kid. When I first discovered their 1988 LP "Teach Death a Lesson", I was bowled over by its combination of monastic psychedelia, rock 'n roll codpiece swagger and sheer alien abduction logical completeness, this wondering is with me yet. VHK sound like they 're from another world and another time." - Bananafish, San Francisco fanzine, 1995, No. 10 == Live performances == Galloping Coroners concerts were well- known for trance-fuelled ecstatic performances also involving the audience. Concerts during the first Hungarian underground period in the 70's usually ended up scandalously finally interrupted by authorities. In the 80's, VHK continued their impulsive, high-energy live performances in Western Europe: "As the singer spins around inside the band's mesmeric voodoo howl like whirling dervish the effect is almost hypnotizing. Incredible. Watching them play in Cologne, I was fascinated, not just by the band's performance (which was amazing) but by the frenzied reaction of the crowd. Seeing VHK, I realized just what a dangerous proposition rock'n roll can be." - Melody Maker (U. K.), September 26, 1992 In concert, they regularly danced in ancient, tribal, shamanic costumes of leather and feathers, using backdrops like an Inuit design they copied from Siberian art. VHK's concerts often contained ecstatic physical performances, e.g. band members tumbled in honey and feather in an ecstatic state playing feather-covered in a frenzy during the entire concert, or hanging fishes on their bodies and jumping into a fishing net fastened on the stage. Frontman Grandpierre recalls a concert when he had been injured on stage in an ecstatic state where he continued to perform bleeding, with significant blood loss by the end of the concert. In 2021, he will appear on the show Akusztik. == Legacy == Due to the band's East-European geopolitical situation, the banned, underground status of the first 9-10 years in Hungary, the late and obstructed getting out to the Western European music market, VHK haven't reached a worldwide, global international band status. As explained in Forced ExposureForced Exposure, # 16, 1990 "Had this [VHK] LP come in '73 in a tiny enough press run, it would be one of the most legendary 'lost' records of that decade." Critics and fellow musicians celebrated Galloping Coroners as a highly important brand of the time. Maximum Rock'N Roll (US) told the band "equal in spirit and grit to faves like Sonic Youth or Big Black but with an identity all its own". VHK is admired as highly important band by Iggy Pop, Henry Rollins, Jello Biafra (Dead Kennedys) and Einstürzende Neubauten. Danish fanzine, Moshable summarised in 1995: "This band have been around for many years now and have played almost everywhere in Europe but still they remain one of Europe's best kept secret. This is one of the most interesting bands you're likely to come across this year." == Discography == * Teach Death a Lesson - LP, MC, Sonic Boom (1988), Germany, Hungary; also released by Alternative Tentacles, US, 1990 (LP, CD) * Jumping Out The World-Instinct - live LP, MC, Sonic Boom (1990), Germany; released also by Alternative Tentacles, US, 1990 (LP, CD) * Hammering On The Gates Of Nothingness - Sonic Boom and Alternative Tentacles, CD, LP, MC, 1992, US, Great-Britain, Germany, Hungary * Giant Space! - live CD, MC, VHK - Rockland, Hungary, 1994 *Reconquering Eden - 1st attack, 1997 March, VHK-MCD, Hungary *Reconquering Eden - 2nd attack, 1998 August, VHK-Periferic Records, Hungary *Dancing with the Sun - 1999 December, Hungary/2000 /May, US, Europe, VHK-Neurot Recordings *Whirlwind! (Forgószél!) - under 'Galloping Life Power' band name, 2009, VHK *Bite the Stars! (Veled haraptat csillagot) – 2012, VHK, Ektro Records *At the very Depth of the Soul (A Lélek Mélyén) Author's edition, 2016 *Lifecascade (Életzuhatag) Author's edition, 2019 == Compilations, demos == *Fix Planet - A track on a compilation LP, An international record. ATATAK, Düsseldorf, 1981 *Galloping Coroners - demo tape, 1985, Budapest *Siberian Shamans/Galloping Coroners - cassette tape, Center for Shamanic Studies, 1987, Mill Valley, California, US *Mind-deepening, poem with musical action, published on tape, Solidart-Minifest, Talentum, Szkárosy Endre &ÚHF, Budapest, 1990 *Garage III, Magyar Rock (Hungarian Rock) - compilation tape, No. MK 014, Rockland, Hungary, 1992 *The Futility of a Well Ordered Life - A Catalogue Sampler. Virus 147CD, US. ==References== ==Bibliography== # Contemplating the Heavens with VHK's Atilla Grandpierre, by Jordan N. Mamone, at www.vice.com, 2013. # Rock Music of Eastern Europe: So Western, So Familiar, So Old, by Jon Pareles, New York Times, February 28, 1990. # Short Biography, VÁGTÁZÓ HALOTTKÉMEK/VHK (cca. Galloping Coroners, Rasende Leichenbeschauer), Neurot Recordings, US pdf >> # Attila Grandpierre: Punk As a Rebirth of Shamanist Folk Music # Documentary film: VHK - The Ones Who Taught Death a Lesson, 2012 # Documentary film: VHK - The Ones Who Taught Death a Lesson, 2012 imdb.com # Archie Patterson: Interview with Attila Grandpierre, Eurock.com # Anna Szemere: Up from the Underground: The Culture of Rock Music in Postsocialist Hungary, The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, 2001. # Edwin Pouncy: VHK: Hammering On The Gates Of Nothingness (Alternative Tentacles) The New Musical Express, 22 August 1992 # Kathryn Milun: Rock Music and National Identity in Hungary, Surface, 24 pp, 1992, internet: www.pum.umontreal.ca # A Punkrock Összefüggései a Sámán-zenével Mint Népzenével: A Művészet Mágikus Erőinek Hatásmechanizmusa, (1984) in Jó Világ ed. Beke and Szöke, Bölcsész Index, Budapest, Elte Btk pp. 91–97. # Documentary film: Private Rock History / 47. - Vágtázó Halottkémek - VHK, ed. Gábor Gellért, 2009 #ed. Reebee Garofalo: Rockin' the Boat: Mass Music and Mass Movements, chapter: Anna Szemere: Hungarian protest rock, South End Press, 1991 == External links == * Official Website Category:Hungarian hardcore punk groups Category:Folk rock groups Category:Folk punk groups Category:Hungarian folk rock musicians Category:Shaman punk |
Panair do Brasil was an airline of Brazil. it ceased operations in 1965. Between 1945 and 1965, it was considered to be the largest carrier not only in Brazil but in all of Latin America. == History == === NYRBA do Brasil (1929–1930) === Panair do Brasil began operations on October 22, 1929, as NYRBA do Brasil S.A., a Brazilian subsidiary of NYRBA, Inc. (New York, Rio, and Buenos Aires Line), forerunner of Pan American. Both airlines were established by Ralph Ambrose O'Neill for the transportation of post and passengers using seaplanes between the United States, Brazil and Argentina, flying over the east coast of the continent. NYRBA do Brasil came as an American competitive response to a service that had been provided by Germans since 1927. Starting that year, Condor Syndikat and later its successor Deutsche Luft Hansa explored the Brazilian market by establishing the subsidiary Syndicato Condor, and the Brazilian airline Varig. Initially, O'Neill tried to purchase ETA – Empresa de Transporte Aéreo, a Brazilian airline which claimed to have exclusive concessions to fly within Brazil. The legality of the sale and purchase contract was questioned and the operation was aborted. O'Neill decided then to create his own Brazilian subsidiary, which would operate in partnership with NYRBA. At that time, if a foreign airline wanted to operate in Brazilian territory, it was required to create a subsidiary. This allowed a fair competition between national and foreign carriers. Advised by politicians, O'Neill established NYRBA do Brasil. The creation of this subsidiary was authorized on October 15, 1929, and on January 24, 1930, its operations were authorized in all Brazilian territory, with extensions to Uruguay, Argentina, and the Guianas, pending on bi-lateral agreements. The first flight took off from the Calabouço Airport (which in 1936 would be officially named Santos Dumont Airport) in Rio de Janeiro to Buenos Aires with intermediate stops on December 23, 1929, and in January 1930 it started flying between Rio de Janeiro and Fortaleza with intermediate stops in Campos dos Goytacazes, Vitória, Caravelas, Ilhéus, Salvador, Aracaju, Maceió, Recife and Natal. The first successful cargo operation between Buenos Aires and Miami, a joint-venture with NYRBA, took place between February 19 and 25, 1930. In this operation, 8 different seaplanes were used. On April 30, 1930, NYRBA was sold to Pan American and, as a consequence, on November 21, 1930, the new owner of the subsidiary renamed NYRBA do Brasil as Panair do Brasil. === Domestic and Regional Expansion (1930–1945) === Regular passenger services began on March 2, 1931, with a flight between Belém and Rio de Janeiro, a journey that took 5 days. This service was later extended to Buenos Aires and the operations enhanced to the point that it took the same 5 days, with overnight stops in Fortaleza, Salvador, Rio de Janeiro and Porto Alegre. Starting in 1933, Panair do Brasil, competing with Syndicato Condor established services to the interior of Brazil. Panair specialized in water- landing operations in the Amazon basin, whereas Condor invested in land operations using the route of Mato Grosso. In 1937, Panair opened its own dedicated headquarters at Santos Dumont Airport in Rio de Janeiro, a project inspired by the Pan American Seaplane Base and Terminal Building in Miami, including not only passenger operations but also offices and hangars. It remained its headquarters until it was forced to cease operations in 1965. Presently, it houses the Third Regional Air Command of the Brazilian Air Force. In October 1937, Panair received its first land planes, a Lockheed Model 10 Electra, and started operations not restricted by water-landing. It was used on services to Belo Horizonte, locations in the state of Minas Gerais reaching later Goiânia and to São Paulo. New domestic services were continually opened to the point that in the 1940s, the airline had one of the most extensive domestic networks in the world, covering most of Brazil via the coast and inland and the Amazon region. As World War II erupted, Panair gained a clear advantage in relation to its fiercest competitor, Syndicato Condor, controlled by German capital. Furthermore, since the newly created Ministry of Air Force did not have the capacity or technique to build and maintain air fields, by the Federal Decree-Law 3.462 of June 25, 1941, Panair was authorized to build, enhance and maintain the airports of Macapá, Belém, São Luís, Fortaleza, Natal, Recife, Maceió, and Salvador, which remain operational to the present day. They had crucial strategic importance in the defense of the South Atlantic and in the transportation logistics between Brazil and West Africa. The authorization lasted for 20 years. NYRBA do Brasil/Panair do Brasil remained under full control of NYRBA/Pan American until 1942, when the latter sold a big portion of shares to Brazilian capital. On December 7, 1943, the participation of Pan American was further reduced to 58%. That same year Panair was authorized to fly to all South American countries. Panair also innovated by starting on September 2, 1943, the first overnight service in Brazil: Rio/Belém with intermediate stops. === Intercontinental Expansion (1945–1965) === thumb|arrival of Lockheed L-049 Constellation PP-PCF in March 1946 thumb|German advertising of Panair DC-7 service from Europe to South America Shortly after the end of World War II, Panair seized the opportunity to grow further. In 1946, the majority of its shares – 52% - was in the hands of Brazilian nationals and thus satisfied one of the preconditions to operate abroad. The last lot of shares in the hands of Pan Am was sold in 1961. As such the Brazilian government granted to Panair the concession to operate services to Europe, being the only Brazilian airline with such a concession. In March 1946, Panair received its first Lockheed L-049 Constellation, being the first airline outside the United States to operate this aircraft. The first flight took off on April 27, 1946, from Rio de Janeiro to Recife, Dakar, Lisbon, Paris and London. Panair was also the first international airline to land on the then newly inaugurated London Heathrow Airport. As Panair received further equipment, flights to Madrid and Rome were inaugurated. In 1947, services were extended to Cairo and Istanbul, and in 1948 to Zurich and Frankfurt. The same year, services to Montevideo and Buenos Aires began. Santiago de Chile, Lima and Beirut were added in 1950 and Hamburg and Düsseldorf in 1954. The airline gradually set such a high standard for its customer services, and for many years in Brazil the expression padrão Panair (), became a synonym of excellence in aviation. In fact, the excellence was so well known at the time that years later its DC-8-33 appeared in a handful of movies, including the Italian-French co-production, Copacabana Palace (1962), and the French productions La Peau Douce (1964), and L'homme de Rio (1964). In 1953, Panair placed an order for four de Havilland Comet 2 with an option for two Comet 3. Panair was the second airline to place an order for such aircraft, only behind BOAC. Those orders were canceled in 1954 due to flaws found on the plane's original design. In 1955, the unused funds of the Comet order were used to purchase four Douglas DC-7C, at that time the ideal aircraft for long-haul operations. The first arrived in 1957. In 1961, Panair purchased 4 Sud Aviation Caravelle, which entered into service in 1962, operating on domestic trunk routes. In terms of agreements, between 1956 and 1958, Panair and Lóide Aéreo Nacional maintained an agreement to avoid harmful competition, in which the Brazilian territory was divided into areas of influence. The agreement also included leasing of aircraft. Between November 30, 1960, and 1965 Panair operated with TAP-Transportes Aéreos Portugueses the Voo da amizade (), between São Paulo-Congonhas, Rio de Janeiro-Galeão, and Lisbon, with stops in Recife and Sal, using a dedicated Douglas DC-7C aircraft bearing the names of both airlines, TAP flight numbers and crew of the two airlines. Only Brazilian and Portuguese citizens or foreigners with permanent residence in Brazil or Portugal could purchase tickets for those flights, which were extremely popular due to their low fares. In 1961, Panair started operating the Douglas DC-8-33 to Europe. However, in spite of its excellent service, Panair faced increasing competition from other foreign state-run airlines. Addressing the situation, Panair formed an operational pool with Aerolíneas Argentinas, Alitalia, and Lufthansa. In 1962, Panair incorporated SUD SE-210 Caravelle 6-R jet aircraft for its main domestic and South American routes. === Shutdown (1965) === Panair do Brasil was forced to cease operations abruptly on February 10, 1965, when the Brazilian military government, which seized power the year before, suspended its operational certification and allotted its international route concessions to Varig and domestic to Cruzeiro do Sul. In fact, that very night, the Douglas DC-8-33 scheduled to operate flight PB22, departing at 10:30 PM from Rio de Janeiro- Galeão to Recife, Lisbon, Paris-Orly and Frankfurt was immediately replaced by a Varig Boeing 707. There were no flight cancellations. The operation also involved the transfer of 3 of its Caravelles and 3 of its Catalinas to Cruzeiro do Sul, and 2 of its DC-8-33 to Varig. It is known today that Varig and Cruzeiro had previous knowledge of the government's decision and time to prepare. The sudden suspension of Panair shocked the country. Since its financial problems were not serious enough to justify the government's actions, the company tried to protect its assets by filing for bankruptcy protection while its lawyers debated the issue in Court. Pressured by the military, the judge that was studying the carrier's plea declared Panair officially bankrupt on February 15, 1965. It has since been determined that the shutdown of Panair do Brasil was not based on financial or technical reasons, but on other political factors, such as the military government persecution of the company's shareholders, businessmen Celso da Rocha Miranda and Mário Wallace Simonsen. === Beyond the Forced Bankruptcy (1965-ongoing) === The controversial decision to liquidate Panair so suddenly triggered a lengthy legal battle. On December 14, 1984, the Brazilian Supreme Federal Court acknowledged that the airline had operated within regular technical and financial parameters when it was shut down and the Federal government was sentenced to pay reparations to its former owners and/or heirs. The forced bankruptcy was suspended on May 5, 1995, and since then Panair seeks indemnification from the Ministry of Justice. On August 27, 2009, after a 44-year delay, the Air Command of the Brazilian Ministry of Defence revoked Panair's route and schedule concessions, which are mandatory for airline operations. Former employees of Panair do Brasil, their families and friends attend an annual reunion on the week of October 22, the airline's birthday, in Rio de Janeiro. This tradition has been religiously preserved since 1966 and there is a movement to include it in the Guinness World Records. Panair do Brasil has been featured in a number of Brazilian television productions, such as Anos Rebeldes (1992), Hilda Furacão (1998), JK (TV series) (2006) and Maysa: Quando Fala o Coração (2009). In 2008 the documentary Panair do Brasil was released. The film, directed by Marco Altberg and screenwritten by Daniel Leb Sasaki summarises the history of the airline. In October 2012, director Ricardo Pinto e Silva and journalist Daniel Leb Sasaki began production for a new feature documentary film called Mario Wallace Simonsen, entre a memória e a história, still unreleased. The pair interviewed former Panair employees during their 2012 reunion. On March 23, 2013, the Brazilian National Truth Commission, established in 2012 by the Brazilian government to investigate acts of human rights violations between 1946 and 1988, held a public event in Rio de Janeiro to address the circumstances behind the shutdown of Panair do Brasil. The group has recently had access to unpublished documentation which would prove that the company's owners were victims of the country's military regime. On March 11, 2019, Brazilian newspaper O Globo informed that Daniel Leb Sasaki's book about the demise of Panair do Brasil, called "Pouso forçado: a história por trás da destruição da Panair do Brasil pelo regime militar", will become a TV series directed by Mauro Lima and screenwritten by Rosana Rodini and the author himself. == Destinations == == Fleet == Panair do Brasil fleet Aircraft Total Years of Operation Notes Consolidated Commodore 7 1930–1940 Sikorsky S-38 6 1930–1938 Lockheed Air Express 1 1930-1930 Fairchild XA-942A 2 1935–1944 Sikorsky S-43 Baby Clipper 7 1936–1947 Lockheed Model 10 Electra 2 1937–1943 Douglas DC-2 2 1941–1942 Lockheed Model 18 Lodestar 14 1941–1947 Douglas DC-3 23 1945–1965 Lockheed Model 12 Electra Junior 2 1945–1946 Lockheed L-049/149 Constellation 14 1946–1965 Consolidated PBY-5A/6A Catalina 8 1948–1965 3 to Cruzeiro do Sul in 1965 Douglas DC-7C 6 1957–1965 Douglas DC-6A 4 1959–1961 Douglas DC-8-33 4 1961–1965 2 to Varig in 1965 Sud Aviation SE-210 Caravelle VI R 4 1962–1965 3 to Cruzeiro do Sul in 1965 == Accidents and incidents == === Accidents === *18 August 1941: a Lockheed Model 18 Lodestar registration PP-PBD en route from Curitiba-Bacacheri to São Paulo- Congonhas crashed on the Cantareira mountain range near São Paulo. 8 out of 13 passengers and crew aboard died. *28 September 1942: a Lockheed Model 18 Lodestar registration PP-PBG en route from Rio de Janeiro-Santos Dumont to São Paulo-Congonhas crashed on the location of Pedra Branca, near Santo André. All 15 passengers and crew died. *31 August 1944: a Lockheed Model 18 Lodestar registration PP-PBI crashed while on night approach to Congonhas-São Paulo Airport under heavy fog. All 16 occupants died. *21 September 1944: a Lockheed Model 18 Lodestar registration PP-PBH crashed shortly after take-off from Salvador da Bahia. All 18 occupants died. *27 September 1946: a Douglas DC-3-228D registration PP-PCH flying from Belo Horizonte-Pampulha to Rio de Janeiro-Santos Dumont crashed into a mountain near the location of Alto Rio Doce near Barbacena probably due to bad weather. All 25 passengers and crew died. *3 January 1947: a Sikorsky S-43B Baby Clipper registration PP-PBN crashed in São Paulo de Olivença. 11 out of 14 occupants died. *28 July 1950: a Lockheed L-049 Constellation registration PP-PCG operating Flight 099 from Rio de Janeiro-Galeão to Gravataí Air Force Base (presently Canoas Air Force Base) struck power lines and crashed on a hill after and aborted landing and while holding in bad weather near São Leopoldo. All 50 passengers and crew died. At the time of the accident, the runway at São João Airport (presently Salgado Filho) was not yet paved, therefore the Constellations used the Air Base runway. *28 February 1952: a Douglas DC-3A-393 registration PP-PCN flying from Rio de Janeiro-Santos Dumont to Goiânia via Uberlândia, a wing struck a tree during operations to land at Uberlândia. 8 out of the 31 occupants died. *17 June 1953: a Lockheed L-049 Constellation registration PP-PDA, operating Flight 263 from London to Buenos Aires with multiple stops, crashed on final approach to São Paulo-Congonhas. Apparently causes are related to night operations with little visibility. All 17 passengers and crew died. *16 June 1955: a Lockheed L-149 Constellation registration PP-PDJ operating Flight 263 from Rio de Janeiro-Galeão to Buenos Aires-Ezeiza via São Paulo-Congonhas and Asunción hit a 12 m tree while on final approach to land at Asunción. Part of the wing broke off, the aircraft crashed and caught fire. 16 out of 24 passengers and crew aboard died. *18 April 1956: a Consolidated PBY-5A/6A Catalina registration PP-PDB flying from Belém to Parintins broke in two after striking a submerged object or debris on landing procedures. 3 out of the 12 passengers and crew aboard died. *1 November 1961: a Douglas DC-7C registration PP-PDO en route from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro-Galeão via Sal and Recife, during its final approach at Recife, struck an 84 m hill 2,7 km away from the runway and broke up. The aircraft was doing a night approach too low and outside the regular traffic pattern. 45 passengers and crew out of the 88 persons aboard died. The aircraft was operating the Voo da amizade (). *20 August 1962: Flight 026, a Douglas DC-8-33 registration PP-PDT taking-off from Rio de Janeiro-Galeão to Lisbon overran the runway into the ocean during an aborted operation. 14 out of 120 passengers and crew aboard died. *14 December 1962: a Lockheed L-049 Constellation registration PP-PDE en route from Belém- Val de Cans to Manaus-Ponta Pelada crashed in the jungle, during a night approach, due to unknown causes, approximately 45 km from Manaus at the location of Paraná da Eva. All 50 passengers and crew died. === Incidents === *25 September 1932: a Sikorsky S-38 registration P-BDAD still bearing the titles of Nyrba do Brasil was seized in the company's hangar by three men, who took a fourth as one hostage. None were aviators but they managed to take-off. However the aircraft crashed in São João de Meriti, killing the four men. Apparently the hijack was related to the events of the Constitutionalist Revolution in São Paulo and it is considered to be the first hijack that took place in Brazil. *2 December 1959: a Lockheed L-049/149 Constellation registration PP-PCR operating Flight 246 en route from Rio de Janeiro-Santos Dumont to Belém-Val de Cans, with 44 passengers and crew aboard, was seized and hijacked by officers of the Brazilian Air Force and made to land at Aragarças, Goiás. Their intention was to use the aircraft in a bombing of Government buildings in Rio de Janeiro, starting thus a revolt against President Juscelino Kubitschek de Oliveira. The revolt faded after 36 hours and the aircraft was commanded to fly to Buenos Aires where the hijackers requested asylum. There were no victims. == See also == *NYRBA (New York, Rio, and Buenos Aires Line) *Pan American World Airways *List of defunct airlines of Brazil == References == == Bibliography == * * * * * * * * * * * == External links == * Panair do Brasil accidents as per Aviation Safety Network * Timetable images of Panair do Brasil * Panair do Brasil Photo Archive at airliners.net * Wings across the Amazon: Panair in northern Brazil * Airport Development Program: Panair do Brasil's role in WWII * Grounded by Force: A detailed article of the forced end of Panair * Too Many Wings: An article contemporary to the shutdown of Panair, later contradicted by Brazilian Justice * Obra da ditadura: An account of the end of Panair Category:Defunct airlines of Brazil Category:Airlines established in 1929 Category:Airlines disestablished in 1965 Category:Pan Am Category:1929 establishments in Brazil Category:1965 disestablishments in Brazil Category:Defunct seaplane operators |
thumb|right|Eileen Cowin, One Night Stand (clock/flowers), Photograph, 20" x 24", 1977–8. [https://collections.lacma.org/node/204080 Los Angeles County Museum collection]. Eileen Cowin (born 1947) is a Los Angeles-based artist known for photography, video and mixed-media installations that draw on the language of mass media and art history and explore the relationship between narrative, fiction and non-fiction, memory and experience.Drohojowska-Philp, Hunter. "Eileen Cowin Papers," Archives of American Art Journal, Spring 2016, p. 86-87. Retrieved June 27, 2019.McGovern, Thomas. "Still (And More to Come)," Afterimage, May/June 2000.Knight, Christopher. "Revealing More Than Meets the Eye," Los Angeles Times, January 29, 2000. Associated with the 1970s Los Angeles experimental photography scene and the Pictures Generation artists, her work combines familiar human situations and carefully chosen gestures, expressions and props to create enigmatic images whose implied, open-ended stories viewers must complete.Heartney, Eleanor. "Eileen Cowin at Jayne H. Baum," Art in America, April 1989.Durant, Mark Alice. "Eileen Cowin", in Still (and all) Eileen Cowin 1971-1998, Pasadena, CA: Armory Center for the Arts, 2000).Zellen, Jody, "Double Take: Narrative Interventions in Photography," Afterimage, March 2012. Cowin has exhibited in more than forty solo shows in the United States and abroad, including at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA), Museum of Contemporary Photography, Armory Center for the Arts and Contemporary Arts Center.Smithsonian Archives of American Art. "Eileen Cowin papers, 1961-2015," Collections. Retrieved June 27, 2019.Museum of Contemporary Photography. "Eileen Cowin," People. Retrieved June 27, 2019.Armory Center for the Arts. Still (and all) Eileen Cowin 1971-1998, Pasadena, CA: Armory Center for the Arts, 2000). Her work is included in more than forty institutional collections, including LACMA,Los Angeles County Museum of Art. "Eileen Cowin," Collections. Retrieved June 27, 2019. the J. Paul Getty Museum,J. Paul Getty Museum. "Eileen Cowin," Artists, Collection. Retrieved June 27, 2019. Brooklyn Museum, Art Institute of Chicago,Art Institute of Chicago. "Eileen Cowin," Artists. Retrieved June 27, 2019. San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (SFMOMA),San Francisco Museum of Modern Art. Eileen Cowin," Artists. Retrieved June 27, 2019. and Smithsonian American Art Museum.Smithsonian American Art Museum. "Eileen Cowin," Artists. Retrieved June 27, 2019. She has been recognized with awards and commissions from the National Endowment for the Arts, LACMA, the City of Los Angeles (COLA), Public Art Fund (New York), and the Sundance and USA film festivals.Wilson, William. "'COLA' Puts Spotlight on Local Winners," Los Angeles Times, May 8, 1998. Retrieved June 27, 2019.Public Art Fund. "Untitled, Eileen Cowin,". Exhibitions. Retrieved June 27, 2019.Los Angeles Artworks. "Justice, Advocacy and Art," Artists, 2013. Retrieved June 27, 2019. New York Times critic Andy Grundberg wrote that her multi-image work "sets up a tension between the familiar and the mysterious, creating a climate of implied danger, sexual intrigue and violence" in which clues abound to intimate various narratives.Grundberg, Andy. "Amid Train Data, Images of Danger and Intrigue," The New York Times, August 17, 1990. Retrieved June 27, 2019. Jody Zellen observed that Cowin "manipulates the conventions of photography, film, and video to tell a different kind of story—one that explores where truth and fiction merge, yet presents no conclusions. Cowin's work provokes."Zellen, Jody. "Eileen Cowin," Artscene, April 2000. Retrieved June 27, 2019. ==Life and career== Cowin was born in Brooklyn, New York and attended State University of New York at New Paltz (BS, 1968), where artist and professor Robert Schuler was a key influence.Wasonoredjo, Erika. "Eileen Cowin," Golden Age of New Paltz, Wired Gallery, 2017. Retrieved June 27, 2019. She continued her studies at IIT Institute of Design in Chicago, (MS, Photography, 1970) with modernist photographers Aaron Siskind and Arthur Siegel.Grundberg, Andy. "Photography," The New York Times, December 8, 2002. Retrieved June 27, 2019. Cowin exhibited during and just after graduate school, including group shows at the Museum of Modern Art, Philadelphia Museum of Art and Fogg Museum, and a solo exhibition at the Witkin Gallery in New York (1972).Museum of Modern Art. "New Museum Exhibit Includes Unique Photographs and Multiple Sculpture," Exhibitions, 1972. Retrieved June 27, 2019. From 1971–5, she taught photography at Franconia College in New Hampshire, before becoming a professor at California State University, Fullerton in 1975, where she taught until retiring in 2008.Smithsonian Archives of American Art. "Eileen Cowin papers, 1961-2015; Teaching Files, 1974-2008" Collections. Retrieved June 27, 2019.VoyageLA. "Check out Eileen Cowin’s Artwork," Interview, March 4, 2019. Retrieved June 27, 2019. Cowin's work quickly became associated with key postmodern and feminist currents, drawing attention on both coasts.Museum of Modern Art. "Pleasures and Terrors of Domestic Comfort," Exhibitions, 1991. Retrieved June 27, 2019. She had notable solo exhibitions at LACMA (1985), Museum of Contemporary Photography (1991), Cleveland Museum of Art (1998), a traveling retrospective at the Amory Center for the Arts and Contemporary Arts Center in Cincinnati (2000), and gallery shows at OK Harris and Jayne H. Baum (New York City) and Roy Boyd Gallery (Santa Monica), among others. Her work was also included in the Whitney Biennial (1983),Larson, Kay. "All American Energy," New York Magazine, April 11, 1983, p. 61. Retrieved June 27, 2019.Grundberg, Andy. "Photography: Biennial Show," The New York Times, April 1, 1983. Retrieved June 27, 2019. the traveling exhibitions "Photography in California, 1945 – 1980" (SFMOMA, 1984–6)Grundberg, Andy. "Reappraising Photography's Status," The New York Times, June 7, 1984. Retrieved June 27, 2019. and "Defining Eye: Women Photographers of the Twentieth Century" (Saint Louis Art Museum, 1997),Gonzalez, Olivia. Defining Eye: Women Photographers of the Twentieth Century, St. Louis, MO: St. Louis Art Museum, 1997. the three-person exhibition, "Narrative Interventions in Photography" (Getty Museum, 2011),J. Paul Getty Museum. "Getty Museum Presents Narrative Interventions in Photography," ArtDaily, 2011. Retrieved June 27, 2019. and the survey, "Under the Big Black Sun: California Art 1974-81" (Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, 2011).Schimmel, Paul and Lisa Gabrielle Mark. Under the Big Black Sun: California Art 1974-1981, Los Angeles: Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, 2011. thumb|right|290px|Eileen Cowin, Family Docudrama, Photograph, 20" x 24", 1980–3. [http://www.getty.edu/art/collection/objects/244171/eileen- cowin-untitled-american-1980-1983/ J. Paul Getty Museum collection]. ==Work== Cowin's work has been associated with two emerging movements of the 1970s: the Los Angeles experimental photography scene (which also included John Divola, Robert Heinecken and Darryl Curran) and the East Coast Pictures Generation artists. Cowin, and others such as James Casebere, Cindy Sherman, Laurie Simmons and Jeff Wall, challenged the realist, documentary aesthetic of preceding photographers with explicitly fabricated images that partook in artifice and the boundlessness associated with painting and cinema;Grundberg, Andy. "Cindy Sherman: A Playful and Political Post-Modernist," The New York Times, November 22, 1981. Retrieved June 27, 2019. critics suggest their work influenced the later generation of mise-en-scène photographers.Goldberg, Vicki. "The Artist Becomes a Storyteller Again," The New York Times, March 8, 1992. Retrieved June 27, 2019. While exploring media and formats from staged tableaux to multi-image, multimedia installations, Cowin's work retains a strategic and thematic consistency, combining objects, gestures, expressions, words and visual referents whose charged associations probe romantic, familial and social relationships, and themes involving public and private, truth and fiction, and the gulf between representation, the inexpressible and interpretation.Spaid, Sue. "The Impossibility of Expression," Still (and all) Eileen Cowin 1971-1998, Pasadena, CA: Armory Center for the Arts, 2000. ===Early work: 1969–1979=== In her early career, Cowin pushed against photographic conventions, incorporating appropriated imagery and unusual techniques into her images.Curtis, Cathy. "A Movie and a Shaker," Los Angeles Times, March 24, 1994. Retrieved June 27, 2019. She frequently layered transparencies of her own photographs—often of domestic subjects—with war and news images from magazines or sewed seemingly unrelated images onto print surfaces, reflecting feminist concerns.Frank, Peter. "Evidence Rooms," LA Weekly, December 5, 2007. Retrieved June 27, 2019. Her gum bichromate prints (1972–5) featured pale, washed-out colors that played against sensual, erotic imagery evoking the sexual liberation of the era; she multiplied the perspectives and readings of each work with layered personal symbols, cultural motifs and sewn elements. Her One Night Stand suite (1977-9) anticipated the conceptual and narrative concerns, formal rigor and emotional depth of her mature work. Shot in the flat, unaffected tones and color of the day's minimalist and non-theatrical aesthetic, these playfully sparse compositions offered fragmented clues intimating a sexual tryst: Polaroid snapshots of people disrobing tucked behind phone cords and alarm clocks, rumpled sheets, nightstands. Absence was a key theme, with the Polaroids and nightstands—both humble holders of mundane personal effects and silent witnesses to life's most intimate moments—standing in for protagonists. Her concurrent "Lady Killer" series similarly explored absence but featured a more direct, aggressive tone and aesthetic. ===Photography and installations: 1980s & 1990s=== In the 1980s, Cowin continued to blur fiction and non-fiction in more fully constructed, cinematic scenes—an approach now sometimes called mise-en-scène photography—taking on a directorial mode that included storyboarding, scripting, staging actors, set design and framing.Davenport, Alma. The History of Photography: An Overview, University of New Mexico Press, 1999. Carefully controlling eye contact, the direction of gazes, gesture, expression and props, she clustered her "sets" with charged symbols and elements in order to create multiple, contradictory readings, while alluding to timeless themes such as romance, abandonment, danger, corruption, and salvation.Johnstone, Mark, "Real Images of an Illusory World," Tokyo, Japan: Gallery Min, 1987.Price, Aleedra. "Eileen Cowin," Ruth Chandler Williamson Gallery, Scripps College, June 28, 2010. Retrieved June 27, 2019. Her widely recognized Family Docudrama series (1980–3) featured consciously staged domestic moments that critics situated in a liminal space between soap opera and conceptual art.Hagen, Charles. "Eileen Cowin at Jayne H. Baum," Artforum, November 1991. Retrieved June 27, 2019. Shot in Cowin's home and cast with herself and family members including her twin sister, these tableaux evoked familial intimacy and tension (marital, parental, sibling and professional), as well as a sense of artifice that subtly undermined the illusion of spontaneous documentary. In several works, Cowin used doubling devices—black-and-white background images and her twin—to suggest memory, history, a ghostly or other self, and the challenges of female identity from multiple vantage points. The series' images function as stand-alone multi-layered works, and collectively, as commentary on contemporary American family life, the web of social construction, and the media's blurring of public and the private, which can distort personal moments into pathologically self-conscious "performances." thumb|left|340px|Eileen Cowin, I’ll Give You Something to Cry About, Photographic installation, 96" x 120", 1998. In the latter 1980s, Cowin shifted toward more broadly resonant, sparsely staged images that The New York Times compared to the stylized theater work of Robert Wilson and Peter Sellars. Working with models and archetypal, symbolic gestures emerging from inky, black backgrounds, she drew, alternately, on the language of film noir (men in trench coats, women in slinky red dresses, billowing curtains, shadowed backgrounds) and Renaissance tableau vivant paintings.Muchnic, Suzanne. "From the Street to the Studio," Los Angeles Times, September 1, 1982. Retrieved June 27, 2019.Curtis, Cathy. "Suburban Visions, Middle Class Dreams Opens Centennial Series," Los Angeles Times, July 25, 1988. Retrieved June 27, 2019.Grundberg, Andy. "Urbane Images of Alienation and Voyeurism," The New York Times, December 2, 1988. Retrieved June 27, 2019. The film noir-ish images evoke elliptical narratives and themes of sexual tension, voyeurism, and rituals of male bonding and competition. Works such as Magritte and Mirror of Venus (1988) invoke and challenge art historical conventions such as the objectification of women or religious narratives, eschewing elaborate sets and period costumes for subtle expressions, dramatic gestures, and recognizable poses.L'Œil de la Photographie. "Encore: Reenactment in Contemporary Photography,", Photo Events, March 20, 2019. Retrieved June 27, 2019. In the 1990s, Cowin began creating multiple-image works and installations (often mixing photography and video stills) that suggested loose, non-chronological narratives based on the interrelationships of the images and their characters and props.Wride, Tim. "Collection Highlight: Eileen Cowin’s Based on a True Story," Los Angeles County Museum of Art Members Magazine, October 1996. This work included, among others, a 1990 public installation commissioned for New York's Penn Station; Lot’s Wife (1991), which redressed the Biblical story in film noir; the moody, six-image Based on a True Story (1993); and the ominous I’ll Give You Something to Cry About (1996), which distills the passion and dissolution of an actual or conjectured union (including the hint of domestic violence) down to a small cluster of image/memories.Harvey, Doug, "Sue Spaid; Used & Amused," LA Weekly, February 4, 2000. Retrieved June 27, 2019. Writers described the works' pared visuals as "almost calligraphic in their emotional intensity," noting how Cowin's use of alternating darkness and imagery evoked cinema, the guilty pleasure of voyeurism, memory and the unconscious. thumb|right|350px|Eileen Cowin, Shelf Life, Photographic installation, Los Angeles International Airport, Terminal 6, 63', 2018. ===Video, photography and public installations: 1996– === In her later work, Cowin continues to consider the relationship of narrative, gesture, expression and symbolic objects to fact, fiction and truth, often with a greater emphasis on language and sociopolitical issues.Black, Ezrha Jean. "Eileen Cowin, Glendale Community College," Artillery, July 2, 2018. Retrieved June 27, 2019. The installation, I See What You're Saying (2002/2011), explored storytelling, truth and lying with images and diptychs that juxtapose altered books with close-ups of eyes and mouths—symbols of seeing and speaking—suggesting stories that migrate from the text to more ambiguous human gestures and expressions. Blow Me a Kiss (2013), one of two public, site-themed works at Los Angeles International Airport (LAX), comprised four video panels of faces blowing kisses that the Los Angeles Times called "hypnotic."Gelt, Jessica. "An 'Influx' at LAX," Los Angeles Times, October 20, 2013. Retrieved June 27, 2019.Lenihan, Jean. "An Arts Festival at LAX. Yes, LAX," LA Weekly, October 1, 2013. Retrieved June 27, 2019. Much of Cowin's video work,Eileen Cowin website. "Videos." Retrieved June 27, 2019. beginning with It Goes Without Saying (1996) and It’s So Good to See You (1999), paradoxically constricts the medium's most useful storytelling device—motion—in favor of stillness, suggestion, and commonplace, intimate gesture and expression.Wilson, William. "As Cowin Views it, Life is Not Always a Fairy Tale," Los Angeles Times, September 5, 1998. Retrieved June 27, 2019. I give you my word (Best Experimental Film Award, 2003 USA Film Festival), investigates memory and subjectivity with simultaneous split- screens of two people telling the story of the same event. The tightly composed, charged "Your Whole Body is a Target" (2006) explores the appropriation of gesture, self-preservation, fear and communal space, impressionistically depicting self-defense lessons that Cowin undertook in which she plays the roles of empowered and disempowered, assaulter and defender.Wood, Eve, "Eileen Cowin, Los Angeles," Art Papers, March/April 2007.Frank, Peter. "Manuela Friedmann, Valerie Green, Eileen Cowin," LA Weekly, December 6, 2006. Retrieved June 27, 2019.Fringe Exhibitions. "Eileen Cowin, Lessons" 2006. Retrieved June 27, 2019. The videos in her show, Do Nothing Until You Hear From Me (2018), offered ambiguous, suspenseful, and contradictory images that investigated the apprehension and construction of reality and sociopolitical issues such as immigration. Cowin's 63-foot, photographic public mural, Shelf Life (2018, LAX), focused on objects, with a film-frame-like sequence of images of shelves containing carefully chosen books, photos and keepsakes; the interplay of text, titles and objects suggest narratives on contemporary social themes such as identity, citizenship, travel, place, and universal connection.Zellen, Jody, "Eileen Cowin, Shelf Life on the Fly at LAX," Art Now LA, October 3, 2017. Retrieved June 27, 2019.Los Angeles World Airports "Eileen Cowin, Shelf Life, Los Angeles World Airports Art Program, 2017. Retrieved June 27, 2019. Cowin's other commissioned public works include billboards for LACMA's "Made in California" show (2000) and MAK Center for Art and Architecture's "How Many Billboards?" show (2010).Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Made in California: Art, Image, and Identity, 1900-2000", Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 2000. Retrieved June 27, 2019.California Community Foundation. "Eileen Cowin," Fellowship for Visual Artists, 2012. Retrieved June 27, 2019. an installation for Los Angeles MTA's inaugural Metro Rail Light Boxes project, (2001), and a 14-sequence installation for the system's Martin Luther King Jr. station (future).Broverman, Neal. "An Early Look at All the Artwork Coming to the Metro Crenshaw Line Los Angeles Magazine," Los Angeles Magazine, January 22, 2018. Retrieved June 27, 2019.Los Angeles Metro. "I see what you’re saying (train of thought), 2001", Artworks. Retrieved June 27, 2019. ==Recognition and collections== Cowin's work belongs to the permanent collections of more than 40 museums and institutions, including the LACMA,Muchnic, Suzanne. "Reaping the Rewards of 'Avarice'," Los Angeles Times, July 8, 1992. Retrieved June 27, 2019. the J. Paul Getty Museum, Brooklyn Museum, Art Institute of Chicago, SFMOMA, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Denver Art Museum, Hammer Museum, Museum of Contemporary Photography, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Museum of Modern Art, National Gallery of Canada, Seattle Art MuseumSlemmons, Rod. Photography in the Collection of the Seattle Art Museum, Seattle: Seattle Art Museum, 1990. and Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography, as well as many private collections. Her work has been included in numerous art historical books,Hitchcock, Barbara. The Polaroid Book: Selections from the Polaroid Collections of Photography, New York: Taschen, 2008. Retrieved June 13, 2019.Hoy, Anne. Fabrications: Staged, Altered, and Appropriated Photographs, New York: Abbeville Press, 1987. Retrieved June 13, 2019. monographs,Johnstone, Mark. Eileen Cowin, American Contemporary Photography series, Tokyo: MIN Gallery, 1987.Muchnic, Suzanne. "American Photography as Seen From Japan : American Contemporary Photography," Los Angeles Times, December 20, 1987. Retrieved June 27, 2019. and catalogues,Crimp. Douglas. Image Scavengers, Philadelphia: Institute of Contemporary Art, 1982. including The History of Photography: An Overview (1999), A History of Women in Photography (1994),Rosenblum, Naomi. A History of Women in Photography, New York: Abbeville Press, 1994. and New American Photography (1985).Gauss, Kathleen. New American Photography, Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1985. Cowin has received awards, grants and commissions from Los Angeles World Airports (2019–20, 2017–8, 2013), Metropolitan Transit Authority (Los Angeles, 2015–20), the City of Santa Monica (2014–5; 2012), California Community Foundation (2012), Center for Cultural Innovation (2011), Sundance Film Festival (2002), California Arts Council (2001), LACMA (2000), City of Los Angeles (1997), Art Matters (1994), Public Art Fund, New York (1990), and National Endowment for the Arts (1990, 1982, 1979, 1974), among others.City of Los Angeles. COLA 2009, Department of Cultural Affairs. Retrieved June 27, 2019. ==References== ==External links== *Eileen Cowin official website *Eileen Cowin papers, 1961-2015, Smithsonian Archives of American Art *Eileen Cowin, Museum of Contemporary Photography profile *Eileen Cowin on her series I See What You're Saying *Eileen Cowin, I see what you’re saying (train of thought), 2001, LA Metro *Conversation with Eileen Cowin, The Getty Category:American women artists Category:21st-century American photographers Category:Photographers from New York City Category:American conceptual artists Category:State University of New York at New Paltz alumni Category:Illinois Institute of Technology alumni Category:Artists from Brooklyn Category:1947 births Category:Living people Category:21st-century American women photographers Category:21st-century American women |
Theodor George Henry Strehlow (6 June 1908 – 3 October 1978) was an Australian anthropologist and linguist. He notably studied the Arrernte (Aranda, Arunta) Aboriginal Australians and their language in Central Australia. ==Life== ===Early life=== Strehlow's father was Carl Strehlow, Lutheran pastor and Superintendent, since 1896, of the Hermannsburg Mission, southwest of Alice Springs on the Finke River. (Carl was also a gifted linguist who studied and documented the local languages, and Ted later built upon his work.) Strehlow was born, a month premature, at Hermannsburg, the native place name being Ntaria. He was raised trilingually, speaking, in addition to English, also Arrernte with the Aboriginal maids and native children, and German with his immediate family. After a family visit to Germany when he was three years old (1911), he returned with his parents, and grew up parted from his four elder brothers and a sister, Frederick, Karl, Rudolf, Hermann and Martha, who were raised in Germany. He studied both Latin and Greek as part of his home school curriculum. ===Education and early career=== When Strehlow was 14 years of age his domineering and charismatic father contracted dropsy and the story of the transport of his dying father to a station where medical help was available was recalled in Strehlow's book Journey to Horseshoe Bend. The tragic death of his father marked Strehlow for life. He left Hermannsburg for secondary schooling at Immanuel College, a boarding school for country boys of German stock, in Adelaide. He was top of the State in Latin, Greek and German in his final year Leaving Certificate examinations in 1926, and thus won a government bursary to study at the University of Adelaide. At university Strehlow eventually enrolled in a joint honours course in Classics and English, graduating in 1931 with Honours in both. With support from his tutor, and from both A. P. Elkin and Norman Tindale, Strehlow received a research grant from the Australian National Research Council to study Arrernte culture, and to that purpose returned to his home in Central Australia which was stricken by four years of drought and disease that had carried off many people, and emptied the land of wildlife. The tribes of Central Australia had already become the object of worldwide interest through the joint work of exploration and ethnographic enquiry undertaken by Baldwin Spencer and Frank Gillen, whose researches exercised a notable impact on both sociological and anthropological theory, in the works of Émile Durkheim and James G. Frazer, and on psychoanalysis, in the thesis proposed by Sigmund Freud in his Totem and Taboo. One of Freud's disciples, Géza Róheim, had actually conducted fieldwork while based in Hermannsburg among the Arrernte in 1929. His first major informants, old and fully initiated men, were Gurra, from the northern Arrernte, and Njitia and Makarinja from Horseshoe Bend, later to be joined by Rauwiraka, Makarinja, Kolbarinja, Utnadata and Namatjira, the father of the famous painter of that name. Mickey Gurra (Tjentermana), his earliest informant and last of the ingkata or ceremonial chiefs of the bandicoot totem centre known as Ilbalintja, confided in Strehlow in May 1933 that neither he nor any of the other old men had sons or grandsons responsible enough to be trusted with the secrets of their sacred objects (tjurunga) (many of which were being sold for food and tobacco as the native culture broke down), together with the accompanying chants and ceremonies. They were worried that all their secrets would die with them. Several, such as Rauwiraka, confided to Strehlow their secret knowledge, and even their names, trusting him to conserve the details of all their sacred lore and rites. He was considered a member of the Arrernte people, by dint of his ritual adoption by the tribe. In the following two years, covering more than 7,000 gruelling miles of desert to witness and record Aboriginal ways, Strehlow witnessed and recorded some 166 sacred ceremonies dealing with totemic acts, most of which are no longer practised. His academic stature firmed with the publication of Aranda Traditions (1947). This work had been assembled in 1934 but Strehlow delayed publication until all his informants were dead. ===Travel and academia=== Soon after, in 1949, he received an ANU fellowship, which, though, as he soon found out, carried with it no prospect for an academic career in Canberra, enabled him to complete further studies in the field, and travel to England for research. His sojourn left him disappointed, both with England, and with many of its leading anthropologists, such as Raymond Firth and J. R. Firth, who in his view failed to extend to him the support and interest his research required, since they were critical of his lack of formal anthropological credentials. He toured the continent and lectured, with considerable success, in France and Germany, and met up with his siblings and mother in Bavaria. He gained recognition for the linguistic work which his father had begun. After the war, in 1946, he was appointed lecturer in English and Linguistics, and then Reader in Linguistics at Adelaide University in 1954, and became a full professor when awarded a personal chair in linguistics in 1970. In 1978 Strehlow received an honorary doctorate from the Faculty of Humanities at Uppsala University, Sweden. ===Max Stuart case=== In 1958 a nine-year-old girl, Mary Hattam, was found raped and murdered on the beach at Ceduna. The police subsequently arrested an Aboriginal man, Rupert Max Stuart, for the crime. Stuart was convicted and condemned to death in late April 1959. The case quickly assumed the character of a cause célèbre as civil rights groups questioned the evidence based solely on a confession made to the police which the prosecution and officers affirmed had been taken down word for word. The verdict was appealed, went to the High Court and the Privy Council in London and concluded with a review by a Royal Commission. Strehlow's involvement came after a Catholic priest who was convinced of Stuart's innocence asked him for an informed judgement on the language of the evidence by which the Aborigine had been convicted. Strehlow, it turned out, had known during his days as a Patrol Officer at Jay Creek both Stuart's grandfather, Tom Ljonga, and Stuart himself. Ljonga had been his trusted companion through many long journeys through the Central Australian deserts. Four days before the appointed hanging, Strehlow, with the Catholic chaplain, interviewed Stuart at Yatala prison. In the subsequent review process, Strehlow testified several times on what he saw as the incompatibility between the English of the confession and the dialect vernacular Stuart used. Familiar with white men in the Centre who had raped Aboriginal girls of that age, Strehlow did not think this crime fitted with Aboriginal behaviour. Stuart's conviction was upheld, but he escaped the death penalty. ===Later career=== In November 1971, after many years of difficulty due also to the special fonts required to reproduce his text, he published Songs of Central Australia, a monumental study of the ceremonial poetry of the Arrernte tribes. Although reviewed with condescending hostility in the TLS, it was acclaimed by Australian experts like A. P. Elkin as one of the three most significant books ever published on Australian anthropology. The last three decades of his life were intermittently troubled by the question of the ownership and custodianship on the objects, and records on the Aboriginals which he had accumulated during his fieldwork over a long career. The Government and two universities, who had subsidized his labours, and, towards the end, a younger generation of Aranda people on the Land Rights Council, believed they were the proper bodies for taking over the care and housing of this extensive material. Strehlow felt a personal responsibility for this material, as the man exclusively entrusted by a generation of elders with myths and songs, their secret knowledge and ceremonial artifacts, and held a grievance for what he considered to be the shabby treatment he had received during his life by the establishment. He set difficult and exacting conditions through many negotiations, and when the issue came to a head, determined to will his private collection to his new family, who would house and conserve it in their own home. Strehlow justified his retention of these objects by the personal expense he had laid out, and by the fact, he insisted, that they had been formally handed into his care by 'surrender ceremonies'. In an apparent paradox, once the Lutheran mission at Hermannsburg had sufficient confidence in the Christianised native community to accord them autonomy, and yield church leases on the area to their Aboriginal congregation, many local natives moved out, claimed their tjurunga rights to the land, and began to re- celebrate the older ceremonies. In his final return to the area, he was surprised to discover that his 'twin', Gustav Malbunka, who had once saved his life, and who had not only renounced his culture but become an evangelical preacher, was capable of singing tjilpa (totemic quoll) verses that once formed a key part of rituals that Strehlow thought were extinct. The culture, even among Christian converts, had been secretly passed on. ===Death and legacy=== Strehlow died of a heart attack in 1978, just before the opening of an exhibition of his collection of artifacts, while conversing with Justice Kirby and his friend and colleague Ronald Berndt on the extinction of the bilby (the key animal in the bandicoot ritual) by introduced rabbits, a metaphor for what was happening to the Aboriginal people and their culture with the spread of white civilisation. He was cremated. His career and his role as the custodian of Aboriginal secrets have been dogged by controversy. A decade later, negotiations between his widow and the Northern Territory government led to the finalisation of the purchase of most of the collection in 1987. It was described by John Morton as containing "some '700 objects' (largely secret-sacred), '15 kilometres of movie film, 7,000 slides, thousands of pages of genealogical records, myths, sound recordings' and '42 diaries', as well as 'paintings, letters, maps' and 'a 1,000-volume library.' " The Strehlow Research Centre at Alice Springs was established for the preservation and public display of these works. The collection is often accessed by Arrernte people as well as other Central Australian Aboriginal groups. Contemporary anthropologist Jason Gibson has shown how Strehlow's collection is actively used and interpreted by descendent Arrernte and Anmatyerr communities. He has also recorded how Strehlow is remembered and respected by some senior men as a 'ceremony man' while others feel betrayed by his use of their ceremonial material. ===Marriages and children=== He married twice, to Bertha James, in Prospect, Adelaide, on 21 December 1935, with whom he had three children, Theo, Shirley and John, and to Kathleen Stuart in 1972, with whom he had a son, Carl. ==Notable remarks== : > "There had been no kinder folk anywhere than the Australian natives." : > "We have to train ourselves to look upon the land of our birth with the > eyes, not of conquerors, overcoming an enemy, but of children looking at the > face of their mother. Only then shall we truly be able to call Australia our > home. Our native traditions can help us to become finer and better > Australians."Barry Hill, Broken Song, p. 473. ==Bibliography== * Aranda Phonetics and Grammar, with introduction by Professor A.P. Elkin (Australian National Research Council, [1944]) * Aranda Traditions (1947) * An Australian Viewpoint (Printed for the author by Hawthorn Press, 1950) * Rex Battarbee (Sydney: Legend, [1956]) * Friendship with South-East Asia: a Cultural Approach (Riall Bros., Printers, 1956) * Nomads in No-man's-land (Aborigines Advancement League of South Australia, 1961) * Dark and White Australians (Aborigines Advancement League of South Australia, 1964) * Assimilation Problems: the Aboriginal Viewpoint (Aborigines Advancement League Inc. of South Australia, 1964) * The Sustaining Ideals of Australian Aboriginal Societies (Aborigines Advancement League Inc. of South Australia, 1966, originally published: Melbourne: Hawthorn Press, 1956) * Comments on the Journals of John McDouall Stuart (Libraries Board of South Australia, 1967) * Journey to Horseshoe Bend (1969) * Songs of Central Australia (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1971) * Central Australian Religion (Australian Association for the Study of Religions, 1978) ==Notes== ===Citations=== ==Sources== * * * * * ==Further reading== * Flight of Ducks F.J.A Pockley journal entry from 1933 January 23 with description of an encounter with Strehlow (includes photograph). * Journey to Horseshoe Bend T.G.H Strehlow an account (in blog form) of his father's death in October 1922. ==External links== * Strehlow Research Centre * Philip Jones, Strehlow, Theodor George (Ted) (1908–1978) at Australian Dictionary of Biography * Mr Strehlow's Films - documentary film 2001, 52 minutes, written and directed by Hart Cohen Category:1908 births Category:1978 deaths Category:Australian anthropologists Category:Linguists from Australia Category:Australian Lutherans Category:Australian people of German descent Category:Linguists of Pama–Nyungan languages Category:20th-century anthropologists Category:20th- century linguists Category:People educated at Immanuel College, Adelaide Category:20th-century Lutherans Category:Anthropological linguists |
Mononegavirales is an order of negative-strand RNA viruses which have nonsegmented genomes. Some members that cause human disease in this order include Ebola virus, human respiratory syncytial virus, measles virus, mumps virus, Nipah virus, and rabies virus. Important pathogens of nonhuman animals and plants are also in the group. The order includes eleven virus families: Artoviridae, Bornaviridae, Filoviridae, Lispiviridae, Mymonaviridae, Nyamiviridae, Paramyxoviridae, Pneumoviridae, Rhabdoviridae, Sunviridae, and Xinmoviridae. ==Use of term== The order Mononegavirales (pronounced: ) According to the rules for taxon naming established by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV), the name Mononegavirales is always to be capitalized, italicized, and never abbreviated. The names of the order's physical members ("mononegaviruses" or "mononegavirads") are to be written in lower case, are not italicized, and used without articles. is a virological taxon that was created in 1991 and amended in 1995, 1997, 2000, 2005, 2011, 2016, 2017, and 2018. The name Mononegavirales is derived from the Ancient Greek adjective μóνος monos (alluding to the monopartite and single-stranded genomes of most mononegaviruses), the Latin verb negare (alluding to the negative polarity of these genomes), and the taxonomic suffix -virales (denoting a viral order). ==Order inclusion criteria== thumb|The genome organization and RNA synthesis of order Mononegavirales A virus is a member of the order Mononegavirales if * its genome is a linear, typically (but not always) nonsegmented, single-stranded, non-infectious RNA of negative polarity; possesses inverse-complementary 3' and 5' termini; and is not covalently linked to a protein; * its genome has the characteristic gene order 3'-UTR–core protein genes–envelope protein genes–RNA-dependent RNA polymerase gene–5'-UTR (3'-N-P-M-G-L-5') (there are, however, some exceptions); * it produces 5–10 distinct mRNAs from its genome via polar sequential transcription from a single promoter located at the 3' end of the genome; mRNAs are 5' capped and polyadenylated; * it replicates by synthesizing complete antigenomes; * it forms infectious helical ribonucleocapsids as the templates for the synthesis of mRNAs, antigenomes, and genomes; * it encodes an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp, L) that is highly homologous to those of other mononegaviruses; and/or * it typically (but not always) produces enveloped virions with a molecular mass of 300–1,000; an S20W of 550–>1,045; and a buoyant density in CsCl of 1.18–1.22 g/cm3. ==Life cycle== The mononegavirus life cycle begins with virion attachment to specific cell- surface receptors, followed by fusion of the virion envelope with cellular membranes and the concomitant release of the virus nucleocapsid into the cytosol. The virus RdRp partially uncoats the nucleocapsid and transcribes the genes into positive-stranded mRNAs, which are then translated into structural and nonstructural proteins. Mononegavirus RdRps bind to a single promoter located at the 3' end of the genome. Transcription either terminates after a gene or continues to the next gene downstream. This means that genes close to the 3' end of the genome are transcribed in the greatest abundance, whereas those toward the 5' end are least likely to be transcribed. The gene order is therefore a simple but effective form of transcriptional regulation. The most abundant protein produced is the nucleoprotein, whose concentration in the cell determines when the RdRp switches from gene transcription to genome replication. Replication results in full-length, positive-stranded antigenomes that are in turn transcribed into negative-stranded virus progeny genome copies. Newly synthesized structural proteins and genomes self-assemble and accumulate near the inside of the cell membrane. Virions bud off from the cell, gaining their envelopes from the cellular membrane they bud from. The mature progeny particles then infect other cells to repeat the cycle. ==Paleovirology== Mononegaviruses have a history that dates back several tens of million of years. Mononegavirus "fossils" have been discovered in the form of mononegavirus genes or gene fragments integrated into mammalian genomes. For instance, bornavirus gene "fossils" have been detected in the genomes of bats, fish, hyraxes, marsupials, primates, rodents, ruminants, and elephants. Filovirus gene "fossils" have been detected in the genomes of bats, rodents, shrews, tenrecs, and marsupials. A Midway virus "fossil" was found in the genome of zebrafish. Finally, rhabdovirus "fossils" were found in the genomes of crustaceans, mosquitoes, ticks, and plants. ==Taxonomy== thumb|Mononegavirales phylogenetic tree|upright=1 The order has eleven families that include numerous genera, which consist of many different species: * Artoviridae * Bornaviridae * Filoviridae * Lispiviridae * Mymonaviridae * Nyamiviridae * Paramyxoviridae * Pneumoviridae * Rhabdoviridae * Sunviridae * Xinmoviridae Table of the order showing all families, genera, species, and their viruses: Family Genus Species Virus (Abbreviation) Bornaviridae Carbovirus Queensland carbovirus* jungle carpet python virus (JCPV) Southwest carbovirus southwest carpet python virus (SWCPV) Orthobornavirus Elapid 1 orthobornavirus Loveridge’s garter snake virus 1 (LGSV-1) Mammalian 1 orthobornavirus* Borna disease virus 1 (BoDV-1) Borna disease virus 2 (BoDV-2) Mammalian 2 orthobornavirus variegated squirrel bornavirus 1 (VSBV-1) Passeriform 1 orthobornavirus canary bornavirus 1 (CnBV-1) canary bornavirus 2 (CnBV-2) canary bornavirus 3 (CnBV-3)) Passeriform 2 orthobornavirus estrildid finch bornavirus 1 (EsBV-1) Psittaciform 1 orthobornavirus parrot bornavirus 1 (PaBV-1) parrot bornavirus 2 (PaBV-2) parrot bornavirus 3 (PaBV-3) parrot bornavirus 4 (PaBV-4) parrot bornavirus 7 (PaBV-7) Psittaciform 2 orthobornavirus parrot bornavirus 5 (PaBV-5) Waterbird 1 orthobornavirus aquatic bird bornavirus 1 (ABBV-1) aquatic bird bornavirus 2 (ABBV-2) Filoviridae Cuevavirus Lloviu cuevavirus* Lloviu virus (LLOV) Dianlovirus Měnglà virus (MLAV) Ebolavirus Bundibugyo ebolavirus Bundibugyo virus (BDBV) Reston ebolavirus Reston virus (RESTV) Sudan ebolavirus Sudan virus (SUDV) Tai Forest ebolavirus Taï Forest virus (TAFV) Zaire ebolavirus* Ebola virus (EBOV) Marburgvirus Marburg marburgvirus* Marburg virus (MARV) Ravn virus (RAVV) Mymonaviridae Sclerotimonavirus Sclerotinia sclerotimonavirus* Sclerotinia sclerotiorum negative-stranded RNA virus 1 (SsNSRV-1) Nyamiviridae Nyavirus Midway nyavirus Midway virus (MIDWV) Nyamanini nyavirus* Nyamanini virus (NYMV) Sierra Nevada nyavirus Sierra Nevada virus (SNVV) Peropuvirus Pteromalus puparum peropuvirus* Pteromalus puparum negative-strand RNA virus 1 (PpNSRV-1) Socyvirus Soybean cyst nematode socyvirus* soybean cyst nematode virus 1 (SbCNV-1) Paramyxoviridae Aquaparamyxovirus Salmon aquaparamyxovirus* Atlantic salmon paramyxovirus (AsaPV) Avulavirus Avian avulavirus 1* avian paramyxovirus 1 (APMV-1) Avian avulavirus 2 avian paramyxovirus 2 (APMV-2) Avian avulavirus 3 avian paramyxovirus 3 (APMV-3) Avian avulavirus 4 avian paramyxovirus 4 (APMV-4) Avian avulavirus 5 avian paramyxovirus 5 (APMV-5) Avian avulavirus 6 avian paramyxovirus 6 (APMV-6) Avian avulavirus 7 avian paramyxovirus 7 (APMV-7) Avian avulavirus 8 avian paramyxovirus 8 (APMV-8) Avian avulavirus 9 avian paramyxovirus 9 (APMV-9) Avian avulavirus 10 avian paramyxovirus 10 (APMV-10) Avian avulavirus 11 avian paramyxovirus 11 (APMV-11) Avian avulavirus 12 avian paramyxovirus 12 (APMV-12) Avian avulavirus 13 avian paramyxovirus 13 (APMV-13) Avian avulavirus 14 avian paramyxovirus 14 (APMV-14) Avian avulavirus 15 avian paramyxovirus 15 (APMV-15) Avian avulavirus 16 avian paramyxovirus 16 (APMV-16) Avian avulavirus 17 Antarctic penguin virus A (APV-A) Avian avulavirus 18 Antarctic penguin virus B (APV-B)) Avian avulavirus 19 Antarctic penguin virus C (APV-C) Ferlavirus Reptilian ferlavirus* Fer-de-Lance virus (FDLV) Henipavirus Cedar henipavirus Cedar virus (CedV) Ghanaian bat henipavirus Kumasi virus (KV) Hendra henipavirus* Hendra virus (HeV) Mojiang henipavirus Mòjiāng virus (MojV) Nipah henipavirus Nipah virus (NiV) Morbillivirus Canine morbillivirus canine distemper virus (CDV) Cetacean morbillivirus cetacean morbillivirus (CeMV) Feline morbillivirus feline morbillivirus (FeMV) Measles morbillivirus* measles virus (MeV) Small ruminant morbillivirus peste-des-petits-ruminants virus (PPRV) Phocine morbillivirus phocine distemper virus (PDV) Rinderpest morbillivirus rinderpest virus (RPV) Respirovirus Bovine respirovirus 3 bovine parainfluenza virus 3 (BPIV-3) Human respirovirus 1 human parainfluenza virus 1 (HPIV-1) Human respirovirus 3 human parainfluenza virus 3 (HPIV-3) Murine respirovirus* Sendai virus (SeV) Porcine respirovirus 1 porcine parainfluenza virus 1 (PPIV-1) Rubulavirus Achimota rubulavirus 1 Achimota virus 1 (AchPV-1) Achimota rubulavirus 2 Achimota virus 2 (AchPV-2) Bat mumps rubulavirus bat mumps virus (BMV) Canine rubulavirus parainfluenza virus 5 (PIV-5) Human rubulavirus 2 human parainfluenza virus 2 (HPIV-2) Human rubulavirus 4 human parainfluenza virus 4a (HPIV-4a) human parainfluenza virus 4b (HPIV-4b) Mapuera rubulavirus Mapuera virus (MapV) Menangle rubulavirus Menangle virus (MenPV) Mumps rubulavirus* mumps virus (MuV) Porcine rubulavirus La Piedad Michoacán Mexico virus (LPMV) Simian rubulavirus simian virus 41 (SV-41) Sosuga rubulavirus Sosuga virus Teviot rubulavirus Teviot virus (TevPV) Tioman rubulavirus Tioman virus (TioPV) Tuhoko rubulavirus 1 Tuhoko virus 1 (ThkPV-1) Tuhoko rubulavirus 2 Tuhoko virus 2 (ThkPV-2) Tuhoko rubulavirus 3 Tuhoko virus 3 (ThkPV-3) Pneumoviridae Metapneumovirus Avian metapneumovirus* Avian metapneumovirus (AMPV) Human metapneumovirus human metapneumovirus (HMPV) Orthopneumovirus Bovine orthopneumovirus bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) Human orthopneumovirus* human respiratory syncytial virus A2 (HRSV-A2) human respiratory syncytial virus B1 (HRSV-B1) Murine orthopneumovirus murine pneumonia virus (MPV) Rhabdoviridae Almendravirus Arboretum almendravirus Arboretum virus (ABTV) Balsa almendravirus Balsa virus (BALV) Coot Bay almendravirus Coot Bay virus (CBV) Puerto Almendras almendravirus* Puerto Almendras virus (PTAMV) Rio Chico almendravirus Rio Chico virus (RCHV) Curiovirus Curionopolis curiovirus* Curionopolis virus (CURV) Iriri curiovirus Iriri virus (IRIRV) Itacaiunas curiovirus Itacaiunas virus (ITAV) Rochambeau curiovirus Rochambeau virus (RBUV) Cytorhabdovirus Alfalfa dwarf cytorhabdovirus alfalfa dwarf virus (ADV) Barley yellow striate mosaic cytorhabdovirus barley yellow striate mosaic virus (BYSMV) Broccoli necrotic yellows cytorhabdovirus broccoli necrotic yellows virus (BNYV) Colocasia bobone disease-associated cytorhabdovirus Colocasia bobone disease-associated virus (CBDaV) Festuca leaf streak cytorhabdovirus festuca leaf streak virus (FLSV) Lettuce necrotic yellows cytorhabdovirus* lettuce necrotic yellows virus (LNYV) Lettuce yellow mottle cytorhabdovirus lettuce yellow mottle virus (LYMoV) Northern cereal mosaic cytorhabdovirus northern cereal mosaic virus (NCMV) Sonchus cytorhabdovirus sonchus virus (SonV) Strawberry crinkle cytorhabdovirus strawberry crinkle virus (SCV) Wheat American striate mosaic cytorhabdovirus wheat American striate mosaic virus (WASMV) Dichorhavirus Coffee ringspot dichorhavirus coffee ringspot virus (CoRSV) Orchid fleck dichorhavirus* orchid fleck virus (OFV) Ephemerovirus Adelaide River ephemerovirus Adelaide River virus (ARV) Berrimah ephemerovirus Berrimah virus (BRMV) Bovine fever ephemerovirus* bovine ephemeral fever virus (BEFV) Kimberley ephemerovirus Kimberley virus (KIMV) Malakal virus (MALV) Koolpinyah ephemerovirus Koolpinyah virus (KOOLV) Kotonkan ephemerovirus kotonkan virus (KOTV) Obodhiang ephemerovirus Obodhiang virus (OBOV) Yata ephemerovirus Yata virus (YATV) Hapavirus Flanders hapavirus Flanders virus (FLAV) Hart Park hapavirus Hart Park virus (HPV) Gray Lodge hapavirus Gray Lodge virus (GLOV) Joinjakaka hapavirus Joinjakaka virus (JOIV) La Joya hapavirus La Joya virus (LJV) Kamese hapavirus Kamese virus (KAMV) Landjia hapavirus Landjia virus (LANV = LJAV) Manitoba hapavirus Manitoba virus (MANV = MNTBV) Marco hapavirus Marco virus (MCOV) Mosqueiro hapavirus Mosqueiro virus (MQOV) Mossuril hapavirus Mossuril virus (MOSV) Ngaingan hapavirus Ngaingan virus (NGAV) Ord River hapavirus Ord River virus (ORV) Parry Creek hapavirus Parry Creek virus (PCV) Wongabel hapavirus'*' Wongabel virus (WONV) Ledantevirus Barur ledantevirus Barur virus (BARV) Fikirini ledantevirus Fikirini virus (FKRV) Fukuoka ledantevirus Fukuoka virus (FUKV) Kanyawara ledantevirus Kanyawara virus (KYAV) Kern Canyon ledantevirus Kern Canyon virus (KCV) Keuraliba ledantevirus Keuraliba virus (KEUV) Kolente ledantevirus Kolente virus (KOLEV) Kumasi ledantevirus Kumasi rhabdovirus (KRV) Le Dantec ledantevirus* Le Dantec virus (LDV) Mount Elgon bat ledantevirus Mount Elgon bat virus (MEBV) Nkolbisson ledantevirus Nkolbisson virus (NKOV) Nishimuro ledantevirus Nishimuro virus (NISV) Oita ledantevirus Oita virus (OITAV) Wuhan ledantevirus Wǔhàn louse fly virus 5 (WLFV-5) Yongjia ledantevirus Yǒngjiā tick virus 2 (YTV-2) Lyssavirus Aravan lyssavirus Aravan virus (ARAV) Australian bat lyssavirus Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV) Bokeloh bat lyssavirus Bokeloh bat lyssavirus (BBLV) Duvenhage lyssavirus Duvenhage virus (DUVV) European bat 1 lyssavirus European bat lyssavirus 1 (EBLV-1) European bat 2 lyssavirus European bat lyssavirus 2 (EBLV-2) Gannoruwa bat lyssavirus Gannoruwa bat lyssavirus (GBLV) Ikoma lyssavirus Ikoma lyssavirus (IKOV) Irkut lyssavirus Irkut virus (IRKV) Khujand lyssavirus Khujand virus (KHUV) Lagos bat lyssavirus Lagos bat virus (LBV) Lleida bat lyssavirus Lleida bat virus (LLEBV) Mokola lyssavirus Mokola virus (MOKV) Rabies lyssavirus* rabies virus (RABV) Shimoni bat lyssavirus Shimoni bat virus (SHIBV) West Caucasian bat lyssavirus West Caucasian bat virus (WCBV) Novirhabdovirus Hirame novirhabdovirus hirame rhabdovirus (HIRV) Piscine novirhabdovirus viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) Salmonid novirhabdovirus* infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) Snakehead novirhabdovirus snakehead rhabdovirus (SHRV) Nucleorhabdovirus Datura yellow vein nucleorhabdovirus datura yellow vein virus (DYVV) Eggplant mottled dwarf nucleorhabdovirus eggplant mottled dwarf virus (EMDV) Maize fine streak nucleorhabdovirus maize fine streak virus (MSFV) Maize Iranian mosaic nucleorhabdovirus maize Iranian mosaic virus (MIMV) Maize mosaic nucleorhabdovirus maize mosaic virus (MMV) Potato yellow dwarf nucleorhabdovirus* potato yellow dwarf virus (PYDV) Rice yellow stunt nucleorhabdovirus rice yellow stunt virus (RYSV) rice transitory yellowing virus (RTYV) Sonchus yellow net nucleorhabdovirus sonchus yellow net virus (SYNV) Sowthistle yellow vein nucleorhabdovirus sowthistle yellow vein virus (SYVV) Taro vein chlorosis nucleorhabdovirus taro vein chlorosis virus (TaVCV) Perhabdovirus Anguillid perhabdovirus eel virus European X (EVEX) Perch perhabdovirus* perch rhabdovirus (PRV) Sea trout perhabdovirus lake trout rhabdovirus (LTRV) Sigmavirus Drosophila affinis sigmavirus Drosophila affinis sigmavirus (DAffSV) Drosophila ananassae sigmavirus Drosophila ananassae sigmavirus (DAnaSV) Drosophila immigrans sigmavirus Drosophila immigrans sigmavirus (DImmSV) Drosophila melanogaster sigmavirus* Drosophila melanogaster sigmavirus (DMelSV) Drosophila obscura sigmavirus Drosophila obscura sigmavirus (DObsSV) Drosophila tristis sigmavirus Drosophila tristis sigmavirus (DTriSV) Muscina stabulans sigmavirus Muscina stabulans sigmavirus (MStaSV) Sprivivirus Carp sprivivirus* spring viremia of carp virus (SVCV) Pike fry sprivivirus grass carp rhabdovirus (GrCRV) pike fry rhabdovirus (PFRV) tench rhabdovirus (TenRV) Sripuvirus Almpiwar sripuvirus Almpiwar virus (ALMV) Chaco sripuvirus Chaco virus (CHOV) Niakha sripuvirus* Niakha virus (NIAV) Sena Madureira sripuvirus Sena Madureira virus (SMV) Sripur sripuvirus Sripur virus (SRIV) Tibrovirus Bas-Congo tibrovirus Bas-Congo virus (BASV) Beatrice Hill tibrovirus Beatrice Hill virus (BHV) Coastal Plains tibrovirus Coastal Plains virus (CPV) Ekpoma 1 tibrovirus Ekpoma virus 1 (EKV-1) Ekpoma 2 tibrovirus Ekpoma virus 2 (EKV-2) Sweetwater Branch tibrovirus Sweetwater Branch virus (SWBV) Tibrogargan tibrovirus* Bivens Arm virus (BAV) Tibrogargan virus (TIBV) Tupavirus Durham tupavirus* Durham virus (DURV) Klamath tupavirus* Klamath virus (KLAV) Tupaia tupavirus tupaia virus (TUPV) Varicosavirus Lettuce big-vein associated varicosavirus* lettuce big-vein associated virus (LBVaV) Vesiculovirus Alagoas vesiculovirus vesicular stomatitis Alagoas virus (VSAV) American bat vesiculovirus American bat vesiculovirus (ABVV) Carajas vesiculovirus Carajás virus (CJSV) Chandipura vesiculovirus Chandipura virus (CHPV) Cocal vesiculovirus Cocal virus (COCV) Indiana vesiculovirus* vesicular stomatitis Indiana virus (VSIV) Isfahan vesiculovirus Isfahan virus (ISFV) Jurona vesiculovirus Jurona virus (JURV) Malpais Spring vesiculovirus Malpais Spring virus (MSPV) Maraba vesiculovirus Maraba virus (MARAV) Morreton vesiculovirus Morreton virus (MORV) New Jersey vesiculovirus vesicular stomatitis New Jersey virus (VSNJV) Perinet vesiculovirus Perinet virus (PERV) Piry vesiculovirus Piry virus (PIRYV) Radi vesiculovirus Radi virus (RADV) Yug Bogdanovac vesiculovirus Yug Bogdanovac virus (YBV) Unassigned Moussa virus Moussa virus (MOUV) Sunviridae Sunshinevirus Reptile sunshinevirus 1* Sunshine Coast virus (SunCV) Unassigned Anphevirus Xincheng anphevirus* Xīnchéng mosquito virus (XcMV) Unassigned Arlivirus Lishi arlivirus* Líshí spider virus 2 (LsSV-2) Unassigned Chengtivirus Tacheng chengtivirus* Tǎchéng tick virus 6 (TcTV-6) Unassigned Crustavirus Wenzhou crustavirus* Wēnzhōu crab virus 1 (WzCV-1) Unassigned Wastrivirus Sanxia wastrivirus* Sānxiá water strider virus 4 (SxWSV-4) Table legend: "*" denotes type species. == Notes == ==References== ==External links== * International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) Category:Animal viral diseases Category:Viral plant pathogens and diseases Category:Zoonoses Category:Virus orders |
The following events occurred in October 1918: == October 1, 1918 (Tuesday) == * The Desert Mounted Corps captured Damascus, ending the Battle of Megiddo. The battle was a complete loss for the Ottoman Empire, with only 6,000 out of the 35,000 troops deployed escaping. In comparison, total British casualties were 782 killed, 4,179 wounded and 382 missing out of 57,000 men in the corps. * Battle of the Canal du Nord - The British First and Third Armies, with support from the Canadian Corps, captured the entire Canal du Nord in north France along with 36,500 German prisoners and 380 guns. The Allies lost 30,000 casualties but were now in attacking distance of the German-held French city of Cambrai. In all, 12 Victoria Crosses were awarded for bravery and action during the battle. * Fifth Battle of Ypres - Allied forces captured the left bank of the Lys River. * Liberation of Serbia, Albania and Montenegro - Allied forces conquered Berat, Albania. * The Red Army captured the city of Syzran, Russia and forced the People's Army of Komuch to retreat to Samara.Н.Е.Какурин, И.И.Вацетис "Гражданская война. 1918–1921" (N.E.Kakurin, I.I.Vacietis "Civil War. 1918–1921") - Sankt-Peterburg, "Polygon" Publishing House, 2002. * A landslide caused a train to derail in Getå, Östergötland, Sweden, killing 41 passengers and injuring another 41 people in what was the worst railroad accident in Swedish history. * The Royal Air Force established air squadron No. 152. * The Communist Party of Lithuania was established. * Born: James R. Browning, American judge, justice of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit from 1961 to 1988, in Great Falls, Montana (d. 2012) == October 2, 1918 (Wednesday) == * Fifth Battle of Ypres - German reinforcements forced the Allies to halt their advance further into Belgium. The British lost and the Belgians had and , but had advanced a total and captured prisoners, and * Battle of St Quentin Canal - British and Australian forces launched attacks to break the Hindenburg Line at Beaurevoir, France, and succeeded in creating a 17 km breach. * Meuse–Argonne offensive - American forces forced a gap in the German line in Argonne Forest in France and advanced into enemy territory. * Lost Battalion - Nine companies of the 77th Infantry Division, composed of 554 men under command of Major Charles W. Whittlesey, were cut off from the main attacking force in Argonne Forest. * Battle of Durazzo - The Italian Navy, supported by British and American vessels, attacked the port of Durazzo, Albania held by Austria- Hungary.Halpern, Paul G., Koburger Jr., Charles W., The central powers in the Adriatic, 1914–1918: War in a narrow sea Wstport CT (2001), , p. 112 The attack damaged several Austro-Hungarian navy ships and destroyed three key coastal defences, along with the Royal Palace of Durrës. * The 3rd Light Horse Brigade of the Australian Mounted Division charged Ottoman forces 17 miles (27 km) north of Damascus and captured 2,000 Ottoman troops.Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 594 * Pursuit to Haritan - The Yildirim Army Group abandoned Rayak, Lebanon to join defense forces in Aleppo.Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 605 * The experimental Kettering Bug aircraft, designed by the U.S. Army Signals Corps to carry unmanned aerial torpedoes, failed on its first test flight and crashed. Later test flights proved successful.Remote Piloted Aerial Vehicles : The 'Aerial Target' and 'Aerial Torpedo' in the USA * The Selwyn Theatre, designed by architect George Keister and built by the Selwyn brothers Edgar and Archie, opened on 42nd Street of Manhattan in New York City.Henderson, Mary C., The City and the Theatre: New York playhouses from Bowling Green to Times Square (1973), p. 275: "Selwyn Theatre 229 West Forty-second Street, Standard house. Architect: George Keister. Opening production: October 2, 1918, Information Please." * Born: Charles J. Loring Jr., American air force pilot, commander of the 36th Fighter-Bomber Squadron during the Korean War, recipient of the Medal of Honor, Distinguished Flying Cross, and 12 Air Medals, in Portland, Maine (d. 1952, killed in action) * Died: John Barnett, Australian rugby player, second-row for the Newtown Jets from 1910 to 1915, gold medalist at the 1908 Summer Olympics, member of the Australia national rugby league team from 1907 to 1910 (b. 1880); Granville Stuart, American pioneer, prominent settler of the Montana Territory, earning the nickname "Mr. Montana" (b. 1834) == October 3, 1918 (Thursday) == * Kaiser Wilhelm appointed Prince Maximilian of Baden Chancellor of Germany. * King Ferdinand abdicated in the wake of the Bulgarian military collapse, with his son, Boris succeeding him. * Prince Faisal, leader of the Arab rebellion, lead his forces into Damascus.Roberts, P.M., World War I, a Student Encyclopedia, 2006, ABC-CLIO, p. 657 * Lost Battalion - German forces attacked the "lost" portion of the American 77th Infantry Division dug into a hill in Argonne Forest that they had taken the previous day. The communications line had been cut making it impossible to call for reinforcements or emergency supplies, and an attempt break out left heavy casualties. Despite heavy fire, the Americans held onto the hill.Laplander 2007, p. 452 * Pursuit to Haritan - The Desert Mounted Corps left Haifa, Palestine to pursue the remaining Yildirim Army Group into Syria.Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 563 * British ocean liner collided with another vessel and sank, killing at least 170 people. * German destroyers and were both lost at the same time in the North Sea, when S34 struck a mine and sank and S33 was torpedoed by Royal Navy submarine while rescuing survivors from the other ship. At least 70 sailors were lost. * Royal Navy submarine was sunk in the Heligoland Bight by two German destroyers with the loss of all 38 crew. * Belgian pilot Willy Coppens survived an attempt on his life when German troops loaded the basket of an observation balloon, his favorite target, with explosives and used artillery fire on Allied units to lure him into the trap. The Germans detonated the explosives when Coppens arrived in his Hanriot plane to attack the balloon, but he flew through the explosion and emerged uninjured.fly.historicwings.com Flight Stories 25 April 2015. * The Soviet Red Army established the 11th Army. * British writer Siegfried Sassoon visited his mentor journalist Robbie Ross for the last time. Sassoon later wrote that Ross, in saying goodbye, gave him a "presentiment of final farewell." == October 4, 1918 (Friday) == * Now Chancellor of Germany, Prince Maximilian of Baden formed a new and more liberal government and sued for peace.Haffner 2002, p. 44 * Lost Battalion - With no way to escape and German soldiers shooting the army unit's messengers, the lost units of the 77th Infantry Division resorted to using carrier pigeons to get word back to headquarters. One carrier pigeon nicknamed Cher Ami managed to get to base despite being severely wounded from a shell burst. It carried the message to call off a "friendly fire" barrage that also gave the unit's position: "We are along the road parallel to 276.4. Our own artillery is dropping a barrage directly on us. For heavens sake stop it."Laplander 2007, p. 354 * Explosions at a shell- manufacturing plant in Sayreville, New Jersey killed more than 100 people and destroyed enough ammunition to supply the Western Front for six months. * Japanese ocean liner Hirano Maru was torpedoed and sunk in the Atlantic Ocean south of Ireland by German submarine with the loss of 292 of the 320 people on board. * German submarine was shelled and sunk in the Mediterranean Sea with the loss of one of her 34 crew. * Born: Kenichi Fukui, Japanese chemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for research supporting the frontier molecular orbital theory in chemical reactions, in Nara, Japan (d. 1998); Adrian Kantrowitz, American surgeon, member of the surgical team to perform the first pediatric heart transplant, inventor of the intra-aortic balloon pump, New York City (d. 2008) == October 5, 1918 (Saturday) == * Liberation of Serbia, Albania and Montenegro - Serbians and French forces liberated Vranje, Serbia from the control of the Central Powers.Falls 1935 pp.246-253 * Battle of St Quentin Canal - Australian forces captured Montbrehain, France, and began clearing the Hindenburg Line of German defenses. * Lost Battalion - German forces continued to attack the hill held by the "lost" American units of the 77th Infantry Division while the 28th Infantry Division and 82nd Infantry Division were dispatched to rescue the surrounded units. The Americans would lose 766 men over the four days of fighting.“Lost Battalions: The Great War and the Crisis of American Nationality” by Richard Slotkin, Henry Holt & Co, New York NY, 2005, p. 343 * Pursuit to Haritan - British units left Damascus to pursue the retreating Ottoman forces.Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 601, 667 * French flying ace Roland Garros died from wounds received after being shot down over Vouziers, Ardennes, France by German ace Hermann Habich from Jagdstaffel 49. * German submarines , , , and were scuttled when they could not be moved along with the other retreating Imperial German Navy vessels from the Zeebrugge and Ostend ports in West Flanders, Belgium. * The art exhibition hall Kunsthalle Bern opened in Bern, Switzerland. * Born: Robert S. Strauss, American politician, chairman of the Democratic National Committee from 1972 to 1977, in Lockhart, Texas (d. 2014) * Died: Robbie Ross, Canadian-British journalist, literary executor and lover to Oscar Wilde (b. 1869); Eddie Grant, American baseball player, third baseman for the Philadelphia Phillies, Cincinnati Reds and New York Giants ball clubs, member of the "Lost Battalion" (killed in action) (b. 1883) == October 6, 1918 (Sunday) == * Australia's first electric train service was established between Newmarket and Flemington Racecourse in Melbourne. * Pursuit to Haritan - The Yildirim Army Group withdraw from Lebanon to Syria, with units from the Ottoman Seventh Army defending the rear.Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 613 note, p. 617 note Meanwhile, the British were able to occupy Rayak without resistance.Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 602 * Battle of St Quentin Canal - The British 25th Division captured Beaurevoir, France.Terraine 1978, p. 177 * Lost Battalion - American fighter pilot Erwin R. Bleckley of the 50th Aero Squadron was shot down and killed while attempting to resupply the 77th Division surrounded by German forces in Argonne Forest, France. He was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions. * The Royal Air Force established air squadron No. 269. * Royal Navy cruiser collided with in the Atlantic Ocean north east of Ireland before it was driven ashore and wrecked with the loss of 431 lives. * Silent film star Theda Bara starred in the film adaptation of Salomé, which roused controversy for its mix of biblical and sexual themes and resulted in some American church groups picketing the film. * Born: Goh Keng Swee, Singaporean state leader, second Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore, in Malacca, Malaysia (d. 2010); George Moore, American track athlete, silver medalist at the 1948 Summer Olympics, in St. Louis (d. 2014); Henry M. Morris, American engineer religious leader, proponent of creationism, co-founder of the Creation Research Society and Institute for Creation Research, in Dallas (d. 2006) * Died: Erwin R. Bleckley, United States Army fighter pilot, posthumous Medal of Honor recipient, killed in action (b. 1894) == October 7, 1918 (Monday) == * The Polish Regency Council declared Polish independence from the German Empire. * The Red Army captured the city of Samara, giving them strategic control of the Volga River to strike the Whites holding territory in Buguruslan and Uralsk, Russia. * The Soviet Red Army established the 25th Rifle Division. * Born: Mimmo Rotella, Italian artist, noted member of the Ultra-Lettrist and Nouveau réalisme art movements, in Milan (d. 2006); Helmut Dantine, Austrian-American actor and film producer, best known roles in Mrs. Miniver and Casablanca, producer of Bring Me the Head of Alfredo Garcia, The Killer Elite and The Wilby Conspiracy, in Vienna (d. 1982) * Born: R. H. C. Davis, British historian, leading expert on the European Middle Ages, in Oxford (d. 1991); Annie Jiagge, Ghanaian judge and activist, author of the Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women and co-founder of Women's World Banking, in Lomé, French Togoland (d. 1996); Harry V. Jaffa, American academic, leading thinker for the Claremont Institute, in New York City (d. 2015) * Died: Hubert Parry, English composer, best known for his choral work "Jerusalem", "I was glad", Blest Pair of Sirens, and "Repton" (b. 1848); Edward Sigerfoos, American Army officer, officer of the 5th Infantry Regiment during the Philippine–American War, commander of the 56th Infantry Brigade during the Meuse–Argonne offensive, recipient of the U.S. Army Distinguished Service Medal (only American general to die while serving in World War I) (b. 1868) == October 8, 1918 (Tuesday) == * Liberation of Serbia, Albania and Montenegro - Austro-Hungarian forces withdrew from Kotor, Montenegro. * Battle of Cambrai - British forces launched a major attack on the Germans involving 730,000 British, Canadian and Australian troops and 324 tanks, supported by artillery and aircraft. With German defenses so weakened, the Canadian Corps was able to occupy the French city of Cambrai by the end of the day with little resistance. * Lost Battalion - Army scout Private Abraham Krotoshinsky of the "lost" American units of the 77th Infantry Division found a path through the German line in Argonne Forest and met up with an infiltrating American relief force sent to rescue the stranded unit. Krotoshinsky lead the unit back to relieve the defending units and take the 194 surviving soldiers to safety. Six members of the "Lost Battalion" were awarded the Medal of Honor and unit commander Charles W. Whittlesey was promoted to lieutenant colonel. * Pursuit to Haritan - The Desert Mounted Corps units entered Beirut where they captured 600 Ottoman prisoners without resistance.Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 603 * U.S. Army Corporal Alvin York almost single-handedly killed 25 German soldiers and captured 132 more near Chatel- Chéhéry, France, during the Meuse–Argonne offensive. He was awarded the Medal of Honor and eventually became the most decorated American soldier of World War I. * Born: Jens Christian Skou, Danish biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of the enzyme found in the cell membrane of all animals, in Lemvig, Denmark (d. 2018) * Died: James B. McCreary, American politician, 27th and 37th Governor of Kentucky, U.S. Senator from Kentucky from 1903 to 1909 (b. 1838); James W. Dawes, American politician, 5th Governor of Nebraska (b. 1845) == October 9, 1918 (Wednesday) == * Prince Frederick Charles of Hesse was elected King of Finland in attempt for the country to retain close ties to the German Empire. * Pursuit to Haritan - British Field Marshall Edmund Allenby ordered the Desert Mounted Corps to capture Tripoli. * Born: Lila Kedrova, Russian-French actress, recipient of the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for Zorba the Greek, in Petrograd (d. 2000); E. Howard Hunt, American intelligence officer, member of the American intelligence team involved in the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état, Watergate break-in coordinator, in Hamburg, New York (d. 2007); Charles Read, Australian air force officer, Chief of Air Force from 1972 to 1975, recipient of the Distinguished Flying Cross, Order of the British Empire, Order of the Bath, and Air Force Cross, in Sydney (d. 2014) * Died: Raymond Duchamp-Villon, French sculptor, known for his works in Cubism including The Large Horse and La Maison Cubiste (b. 1876); Hanns Braun, German runner, bronze and silver medalist in the 1908 Summer Olympics and silver medalist in 1912 Summer Olympics (killed in action) (b. 1886) == October 10, 1918 (Thursday) == * Liberation of Serbia, Albania and Montenegro - French forces liberated Pristina, Kosovo. * Battle of St Quentin Canal - Most of the fighting around the Hindenburg Line ended. British casualties were 8,802, while the Americans had suffered 13,182 on the opening day of fighting. The Australians had 2,577 casualties. German casualties were unknown but 36,000 soldiers were taken prisoner. * Battle of Cambrai - The French city of Cambrai was fully in British hands. The Germans suffered 10,000 casualties while the British had 12,000 casualties.Keegan 1999, pp. 396-397 * British cargo ship was sunk in the Irish Sea by German submarine with the loss of over 523 lives. * Pursuit to Haritan - British forces occupied Baalbek, Lebanon, a strategic supply hub, as units advanced on Homs.Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 605 * The American Expeditionary Forces established the Second United States Army with General John J. Pershing selecting Lieutenant General Robert Lee Bullard to command.United States Army Center of Military History, Lineage and Honors, Second United States Army, dated 30 April 2012. Retrieved 7 February 2017 * The Northwestern Army was established to fight for the White Russians that held Pskov, Russia during the Russian Civil War. * Born: Yigal Allon, Israeli politician, cabinet minister for the Levi Eshkol and Golda Meir administrations, in Kfar Tavor, Ottoman Empire (d. 1980) * Died: Henry Dobson, Australian politician, 17th Premier of Tasmania (b. 1841) == October 11, 1918 (Friday) == * Liberation of Serbia, Albania and Montenegro - Allied forces liberated Niš, Serbia before German forces could reach it.Falls 1935, pp. 246-253 * An earthquake measuring 7.1 in magnitude shook Puerto Rico, killing between 76 and 116 people, including a destructive tsunami that contributed to $29 million in property damage. * The Imperial German Navy air command proposed that merchant ships be converted into Germany's first aircraft carriers with flight decks.Layman, R.D., Before the Aircraft Carrier: The Development of Aviation Vessels 1849–1922, Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1989, , p. 28 * The Soviet Red Army established the 8th Rifle Division. * The Royal Air Force established air squadron No. 156. * Born: Jerome Robbins, American choreographer, five-time Tony Award winner for his work on many musicals including Peter Pan, The King and I, West Side Story, Gypsy, and Fiddler on the Roof, in New York City (d. 1998) * Died: Archibald Willard, American painter, best known for the artwork The Spirit of '76 (b. 1836) == October 12, 1918 (Saturday) == * The city of Cloquet, Minnesota and nearby areas were destroyed in a fire that killed 453 people.Roberts, Kate (2007). Minnesota 150: The People, Places, and Things That Shape Our State, p. 27. Minnesota Historical Society Press. * The Imperial German Navy Airship Division flew its last combat mission.Phythyon, John R., Jr., Great War at Sea: Zeppelins, Virginia Beach, Virginia: Avalanche Press, Inc., 2007, p. 14. * Troopship RMS Niagara returned to New Zealand, with future New Zealand prime ministers William Massey and Joseph Ward on board. Although it was carrying a number of people ill with influenza, it was not quarantined. Although later cited as the cause of the Spanish flu epidemic in the country, six persons had already died in the three days preceding the ship's arrival.New Zealand History online: RMS Niagara - the 1918 influenza pandemic * The Australian Labor Party established its own newspaper, The Labor News, in Sydney. It was later absorbed by the Labor Daily in 1924. * The football club Capivariano was established in Capivari, Brazil. * Died: Mary Hannay Foott, Australian poet, known for her poetry collections including Where the Pelican Builds and Other Poems (b. 1841) * The Volcano Katla Katla (volcano) in Iceland erupted, the eruption lasted for 24 days. == October 13, 1918 (Sunday) == * The League of Free Nations Association and the League of Nations Society merged to form the League of Nations Union to promote a new system of international relations, human rights and world peace through disarmament. * The Republic of Zakopane was established in Zakopane, Galicia. Headed by president Stefan Żeromski, the government's primary goal was to push for a unified independent Poland. * Pursuit to Haritan - The Desert Mounted Corps occupied Tripoli without resistance.Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 607 * Football club Kvik defeated Brann 4–0 in the final championship game for the Norwegian Football Cup. * Born: Jack MacGowran, Irish actor, best known for his performances in the Samuel Beckett plays with Abbey Theatre, and for film roles in The Quiet Man, Cul-de-sac and The Exorcist, in Dublin (d. 1973); Colin Pittendrigh, British-American biologist, developer of chronobiology, in Tyne and Wear, England (d. 1996); Robert Walker, American actor, best known for lead roles in Strangers on a Train and Since You Went Away, first husband to Jennifer Jones, in Salt Lake City (d. 1951) == October 14, 1918 (Monday) == * Battle of Courtrai - Allied forces began attacking German defenses along the River Lys from Comines- Warneton to Dixmude, Belgium, capturing Cortemarck and Moorslede by the end of the day. * Meuse–Argonne offensive - American forces began a series of assaults on the Hindenburg Line around Montfaucon, France. * The provisional government for Czechoslovakia was formed with Czech nationalist leader Tomáš Masaryk as president (even though he was still in exile in the United States).Kalvoda, Josef, The Genesis of Czechoslovakia, Eastern European Monographs: Boulder, 1986, p. 421 * The first all-U.S. Marine Corps air combat action in history took place, with eight Airco aircraft bombing Pitthem, Belgium. German aircraft attacked the bombing squadron on the return flight, causing marine pilot Ralph Talbot and gunner Robert G. Robinson to be separated from the rest of their unit. The two ran into a squadron of 12 German fighters but were able to hold them off during the resulting dogfight until Talbot was able to land at a Belgian hospital where Robinson was treated for wounds. The two both received the Medal of Honor for their exploit.Knapp, Walter, "The Marines Take Wing", Aviation History, May 2012, pp. 50-53Borch, Fred L., and Robert E. Dorr, "Bravery Over Belgium," Military History, March 2012, p. 17 * Malleson mission - A force of 570 British and Indian soldiers defeated soviet forces at the village of Dushak, Turkestan, inflicting 1,000 Bolshevik casualties while losing 60 killed and 180 wounded.Ellis, C. H, "The British Intervention in Transcaspia 1918–1919", University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1963 p 75 * After surviving a major attempt on his life days earlier, Belgian flying ace Willy Coppens was wounded after shooting down a German observation balloon near Praatbos, Belgium. It was the last of his 37 victories, 34 of them observation balloons. He was forced to crash-land near Torhout, Belgium, but with the war ending four weeks later, he retained his title as the top-scoring "balloon buster."O'Connor, M. "Airfields & Airmen of the Channel Coast". Pen & Sword Military, 2005. p. 93 * German submarine SM U-139 attacked two Portuguese naval trawlers near the Azores and sunk one, killing six crew, before being hit and forced away. It was the only time a naval battle occurred in the mid-Atlantic during World War I.João Medina, Aniceto Afonso, História contemporânea de Portugal: Primeira República (2 v.) (1990), p. 127 * The British Red Cross began operating a military hospital out of the Charlton House in Charlton, London, England for World War I soldiers. * The silent film drama The Goddess of Lost Lake, produced and starring Louise Glaum and directed by Wallace Worsley, was released. The film is now considered lost.The Library of Congress American Silent Feature Film Survival Catalog:The Goddess of Lost Lake * Born: Thelma Coyne Long, Australian tennis player, winner of 19 Grand Slams, in Sydney (d. 2015); Doug Ring, Australian cricketer, bowler for the Victoria cricket team from 1938 to 1953 and the Australia national cricket team from 1948 to 1953, in Hobart (d. 2003); Ellen Faull, American opera singer, best known for her performances with New York City Opera, in Pittsburgh (d. 2008) * Born: Premindra Singh Bhagat, Indian army officer, leading commanding officer during the Sino-Indian War, recipient of the Victoria Cross and Param Vishisht Seva Medal, in Gorakhpur, India (d. 1975); Marcel Chaput, Canadian scientist and activist, founding member of the Quebec nationalist organization Rassemblement pour l'Indépendance Nationale, in Hull, Quebec (d. 1991) * Died: Nikolai Skrydlov, Russian naval officer, recipient of the Order of St. George for action during the Russo-Turkish War (executed) (b. 1844); Louis Lipsett, British-Canadian army officer, commander of the 3rd Canadian Division, recipient of the Order of the Bath and the Order of St Michael and St George (killed in action) (b. 1874) == October 15, 1918 (Tuesday) == * Gleb Bokii, leading member of the Cheka secret police in Russia, officially announced the end of the Red Terror, with 800 alleged enemies executed in Petrograd and another 6,229 imprisoned. Official press released estimated total casualties from the crackdown were between 10,000 and 15,000 based on lists of people executed by the state. Arrests and execution continued throughout the Russian Civil War in 1919 and 1920.Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin (2000). The Mitrokhin Archive: The KGB in Europe and the West. Gardners Books. , p. 34 * Battle of Courtrai - French forces captured the city of Roulers from the Germans. * Royal Navy Q-ship HMS Cymric mistook fellow naval submarine as an enemy vessel in the North Sea and shelled it, killing 15 of the 45 crew on board. * Born: Ratan Shankar Mishra, Indian mathematician, noted for finding the mathematical solutions for unified fluid theory by Albert Einstein, recipient of the Padma Shri in Ajgaon, India (d. 1999) * Died: Sai Baba of Shirdi, Indian spiritual leader, noted for combining Hindu and Muslim philosophies in yoga (b. 1838); Antonio Cotogni, Italian opera singer, best known for his collaborations with Giuseppe Verdi and instruction at the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia (b. 1831) == October 16, 1918 (Wednesday) == * Liberation of Serbia, Albania and Montenegro - Allied forces liberated Durrës, Albania. * Battle of Courtrai - British forces crossed the River Lys at several points into Belgium. * Pursuit to Haritan - British forces occupied Homs, Lebanon.Falls 1930 Vol. 2 p. 606 * German submarine was torpedoed and sunk in the Skagerrak off the coasts of Norway and Sweden by Royal Navy sub with the loss of all 38 crew. * Born: Louis Althusser, French philosopher, developed foundations to structural Marxism, in Birmendreis, French Algeria (d. 1990); Géori Boué, French opera singer, known for her performances with Capitole de Toulouse, in Toulouse, France (d. 2017); Jimmy Keddie, Scottish air force officer, member of the escape team from the German POW camp Stalag Luft III, in Milnathort, Scotland (d. 2000); Tony Rolt, British racing driver, 1953 24 Hours of Le Mans champion, in Bordon, England (d. 2008) * Died: William V. Rinehart, American army officer and politician, commander of the First Oregon Cavalry and infantry regiments during the Rogue River Wars and American Civil War, member of the Washington State Senate from 1889 to 1890 (b. 1835) == October 17, 1918 (Thursday) == * Liberation of Serbia, Albania and Montenegro - Serbian and French forces liberated Peć, Kosovo. * Battle of Courtrai - Allied forces recaptured from the Germans the Belgian towns of Thourout and Ostend, and the French towns of Lille and Douai. * Battle of the Selle - British forces under command of General Henry Rawlinson launched a major attack to push German forces off the east bank of Selle River in France, capturing the French commune of Le Cateau by the end of the day. * Meuse–Argonne offensive - American forces pushed the Germans out of Argonne Forest in France, while the French reached the Aisne River. * California University of Pennsylvania and Indiana University of Pennsylvania began an annual football game rivalry that eventually became known as the Coal Bowl after the trophy was sponsored by the Pennsylvania Coal Association. * Student newspaper The Ubyssey published its first edition for the student body at the University of British Columbia.Hawthorn, T. The Ubyssey marks a checkered past. The Globe and Mail, 22 October 2008 * Born: Rita Hayworth, American actress, best known for her lead roles in Gilda, Cover Girl and The Lady from Shanghai, in New York City (d. 1987); Ralph Wilson, American sports executive, founder and first owner of the Buffalo Bills, in Columbus, Ohio (d. 2014) * Died: Malak Hifni Nasif, Egyptian activist, co-founder of the Union for the Education of Women in Egypt (b. 1886) == October 18, 1918 (Friday) == * The Washington Declaration proclaimed Czechoslovakia an independent republic. * The Ukrainian National Council was established in Lemberg to be the governing body of soon to be formed West Ukrainian People's Republic. Володимир Кубійович, Західньо- Українська Народна Республіка, Енциклопедія українознавства, НТШ, V. 2, P. 762. * Royal Navy submarine was torpedoed and sunk in the North Sea by German submarine with the loss of all 28 of her crew. * German submarine departed on patrol and was never seen again. It was believed to have sunk off Gibraltar on or before 9 November with the loss of all 38 crew. * The Fortaleza Sports Club was established in Fortaleza, Brazil. It was primarily involved in association football but also included futsal, handball and basketball in its activities. * Born: Konstantinos Mitsotakis, Greek state leader, Prime Minister of Greece from 1990 to 1993, in Halepa, Greece (d. 2017); Bobby Troup, American jazz musician and actor, best known hits "(Get Your Kicks on) Route 66" and in his role the 1970s television drama Emergency!, in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania (d. 1999); Grady Louis McMurtry, American occultist, student of Aleister Crowley, head of the Ordo Templi Orientis from 1971 to 1985, in Big Cabin, Oklahoma (d. 1985) * Died: Radko Dimitriev, Bulgarian and Russian army officer, noted commander in the First and Second Balkan Wars, and World War I, recipient of the Order of St. George and Legion of Honour (executed) (b. 1859); Fritz Otto Bernert, German air force officer, commander of Jagdstaffel 2 in World War I (killed in action) (b. 1893); Thomas Kearns, Canadian-American industrialist and politician, U.S. Senator from Utah from 1901 to 1905 (b. 1862) == October 19, 1918 (Saturday) == * Battle of Courtrai - Allied forces successfully reclaimed the Belgian cities of Bruges, Courtrai, and Zeebrugge that put the German army into full retreat. Over 12,000 German troops and 550 artillery guns were captured. The battle was also noted for having the last cavalry charge staged in the war, when two squadrons of the Belgian Guides Regiment charged and overran German defenses at Burkel Forest between the villages of Oedelem and Maldegem in Belgium. * A referendum was held in Iceland on becoming a separate kingdom under the Danish Crown. It was approved by 92% of voters.Nohlen, D & Stöver, P (2010) Elections in Europe: A data handbook, pp. 961, 966 * The West Ukrainian People's Republic was established in the former territories of Austria-Hungary.Енциклопедія українознавства vol. 2, p. 762. * The Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was established within Russia next to Kazakh. * German submarine struck a mine in the North Sea and sank with all 36 crew killed. * Royal Navy minesweeper struck a mine and was damaged in the North Sea off Ostend, West Flanders, Belgium. She was beached but was declared a total loss. * The American National Standards Institute was established to oversee standardization processes in products, services, processes and personnel in the United States.ANSI history- Retrieved 2011-09-27 * The hit musical comedy The Better 'Ole, by Bruce Bairnsfather with music by Herman Darewski, opened for its second successful run on Broadway with Charles Coburn in the lead role. The show ran for 353 performances, first at the Cort Theatre and later at the Booth Theatre in New York City."Bairnsfather Play Down in Greenwich". The New York Times, 21 October 1918, accessed 27 October 2010. * The Yser Medal was established by royal decree for members of the Belgian Army that served during the Battle of the Yser in 1914. * Born: Ian Bazalgette, Canadian air force officer, commander of the No. 635 Squadron during World War II, recipient of the Distinguished Flying Cross and Victoria Cross, in Calgary (d. 1944, killed in action); John Fraser Drummond, British air force officer, member of the No. 46 and No. 92 Squadrons during the Battle of Britain, recipient of the Distinguished Flying Cross, in Liverpool (d. 1940, killed in action); Russell Kirk, American political scientist, author of The Conservative Mind, in Plymouth, Michigan (d. 1994) * Died: Harold Lockwood, American actor, known for lead film roles in Hearts Adrift and David Harum (died in the Spanish flu pandemic) (b. 1887) == October 20, 1918 (Sunday) == * Battle of Courtrai - British forces liberated the French towns of Roubaix and Tourcoing. * Malleson mission - British forces occupied Tejend, Turkistan. Later, Bolshevik forces left the city of Merv, allowing Transcaspian militia to occupy it and control the entire region.Ellis, C. H, "The British Intervention in Transcaspia 1918–1919", University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1963 p 76 * The United States Army established the 96th Sustainment Brigade at Camp Wadsworth, South Carolina.Global Security.org, U.S. Army 96th Regional Readiness Command * Charlie Chaplin released his second film with First National Pictures, the war comedy Shoulder Arms, which co-starred Chaplin's older brother Sydney and regular female lead Edna Purviance. This proved to be Chaplin's most popular and critically acclaimed film up to that point. * Born: Erwin Ballabio, Swiss football player, goalkeeper for Grenchen from 1934 to 1956 and the Switzerland national football team from 1939 to 1947, in Bettlach, Switzerland (d. 2008); Raul Manglapus, Filipino politician, co- founder of the Progressive Party and Christian Democratic Socialist Movement in the Philippines, member of the Senate of the Philippines from 1961 to 1967 and 1987, in Manila (d. 1999) * Died: Frank Granger Quigley, Canadian air force officer, commander of the No. 70 Squadron, recipient of the Distinguished Service Order and Military Cross for over 30 kills including German ace Walter von Bülow-Bothkamp (died in the Spanish flu pandemic) (b. 1894) == October 21, 1918 (Monday) == * Germany suspended all submarine warfare and ordered all subs to port, ending its Atlantic U-boat campaign. * Parliamentary elections were held in Norway, with a first round of votes in October and a second in early November.Nohlen, D & Stöver, P (2010) Elections in Europe: A data handbook, p.1 438 * Pursuit to Haritan - Rampant illness and exhaustion among British troops forced Field Marshal Edmumd Allenby to reorganize units among the Desert Mounted Corps and 21st Corps before ordering to occupy Hama, Lebanon and advance north to Aleppo.Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 611–2 note * German naval cruiser collided with fellow naval submarine in the port of Kiel, Germany, killing seven crew on board. The submarine was raised on October 30. * Leon Trotsky established the Registration Agency as a foreign intelligence agency for the Red Army, the predecessor for the Main Intelligence Directorate (GRU), with Semyon Aralov as its first director.Earl F. Ziemke, Russian Review 60 (2001), p. 130 * The Ministry of Finance for the government of Azerbaijan was established. * The Royal Air Force established air squadron No. 185. * Canadian Northern Railway opened the Mount Royal Tunnel for regular traffic between Montreal and Toronto. * The American Club held its inaugural meeting at the Savoy Hotel in London, reflecting the growing community of American expatriates in England.Anthony Lejeune, The Gentlemen's Clubs of London (Macdonald and Jane's, London, 1979) pp.20-5 * Born: Hulett C. Smith, American politician, 27th Governor of West Virginia, in Beckley, West Virginia (d. 2012); Albertina Sisulu, South African activist, opponent to apartheid with husband Walter Sisulu, in Tsomo, South Africa (d. 2011) * Died: Charles Sanford Olmsted, American clergy, Bishop of Colorado from 1902 to 1918 (b. 1853) == October 22, 1918 (Tuesday) == * Battle of Courtrai - British forces reached the Scheldt River in Belgium from Valenciennes to Avelghem. * Pursuit to Haritan - British forces reached Khan al-Sabil, Syria where they sighted the enemy for the first time. * Died: Myrtle Gonzalez, American actress, first known Hispanic movie star, known for lead film roles in The Kiss and Captain Alvarez (b. 1891) == October 23, 1918 (Wednesday) == * Battle of Sharqat - British Indian forces under the command of Alexander Cobbe were dispatched to engage the Ottoman Sixth Army under command of İsmail Hakkı Bey who were defending the line between Baghdad and Mosul.Dicle Grubu 7, 9, 43, 18 ve 22'nci Alaylarla Avcı Alayından oluşmuştur., Gazi Mustafa Kemal, "1'nci Ordu Komutanı Ali İhsan Paşa'nın yarattığı durum", Nutuk. * Józef Świeżyński was appointed prime minister to begin the process towards for an independent Poland and to establish the Polish Army.Richard M. Watt, Bitter Glory: Poland and Its Fate, 1918–1939 (1998) * The Soviet Red Army established the 17th Rifle Division. * Born: Augusta Dabney, American actress, best known for her work in the television soap opera Loving, in Berkeley, California (d. 2008); James Daly, American actor, best known for his role in the 1970s television drama Medical Center, in Wisconsin Rapids, Wisconsin (d. 1978); Paul Rudolph, American architect and academic, designer of Rudolph Hall at Yale University, chair of the Yale School of Architecture, in Elkton, Kentucky (d. 1997); Mato Dukovac, Croatian air force officer, member of the Air Force of the Independent State of Croatia and Royal Yugoslav Air Force during World War II, in Surčin, Belgrade, Croatia (d. 1990) * Died: Henry James Nicholas, New Zealand soldier, recipient of the Military Medal and Victoria Cross for action during the Hundred Days Offensive (killed in action) (b. 1891) == October 24, 1918 (Thursday) == * Battle of Vittorio Veneto - The Italian Army launched a major assault on Austro-Hungarian positions at Vittorio Veneto, Italy, one year after the disastrous Battle of Caporetto. The assault was so intense that over the next seven days, close to 2.5 million shells were fired.Gooch, John. "The Italian Army and the First World War". Cambridge University Press. 30 June 2014, p. 97 As well, The Italian Military Aviation Corps fielded 400 aircraft which were to oppose at least 470 enemy aircraft.Gooch, John, Mussolini and His Generals: The Armed Forces and Fascist Foreign Policy, 1922–1940, Cambridge, U.K: Cambridge University Press, 2007, , p. 53 * A naval order was issued by the German Admiralty, calling on the High Seas Fleet to provoke a decisive battle against the Royal Navy Grand Fleet in the North Sea, but only fueled dissent among fleet sailors that lead to the Kiel mutiny days later.Admiral Water Gladisch (GE) (1965), Der Krieg zur See 1914-18/Nordsee Bd.7 (Frankfurt: Verlag E S Mittler & Sohn), pp. 344-347 * Born: Frank O'Flynn, New Zealand politician, cabinet minister for the David Lange administration, in Greymouth, New Zealand (d. 2003) * Died: Daniel Burley Woolfall, English sports executive, second President of FIFA (b. 1852); César Ritz, Swiss business leader, founder of the famous Ritz hotel chain including the Ritz Hotel in Paris and the Ritz Hotel in London (b. 1850) == October 25, 1918 (Friday) == * Arab forces loyal to Prince Faisal captured Aleppo.Falls 1930 Vol. 2 pp. 612–613 * Battle of the Selle - British forces routed most of the German army from Selle River in France, capturing the French commune of Le Cateau by the end of the day. * The steamer Princess Sophia sank on Vanderbilt Reef near Juneau, Alaska, killing 353 people in the greatest maritime disaster in the Pacific Northwest of North America.Coates, Ken, and Morrison, Bill (1991). The Sinking of the Princess Sophia -- Taking the North Down With Her, 26, 43–57, 66–68, 74–119, University of Alaska Press, Fairbanks, AK 1991 * American marine pilot Ralph Talbot died in a crash during a test flight 11 days after the action for which he received a posthumous Medal of Honor in 1920.Knapp 2012, p. 53 * Japanese electronics manufacturer Nitto Denko was founded in Ōsaki, Tokyo, Japan. * Born: David Ausubel, American psychologist, leading researcher in educational psychology, in New York City (d. 2008); Manuel Carbonell, Cuban-American sculptor, best known for his work for the Brickell Avenue Bridge in Miami, in Sancti Spíritus, Cuba (d. 2011); Bobby Gimby, Canadian musician, best known for hit song "Canada" written specifically for the Canadian Centennial and Expo 67, recipient of the Order of Canada, in Cabri, Saskatchewan (d. 1998); Donald Wiseman, British archaeologist, Professor of Assyriology at the University of London from 1961 to 1982, in Emsworth, England (d. 2010) * Died: Walter Harper, American mountain climber, first person to reach the summit of Mount McKinley (now Denali), member of the Koyukon people in Alaska (died in the sinking of Princess Sophia) (b. 1893) == October 26, 1918 (Saturday) == * Pursuit to Haritan - Two regiments of the British Indian 5th Cavalry Division charged the remaining units of the Ottoman Yildirim Army Group at Haritan, Ottoman Syria in what was the last conflict with Ottoman forces in World War I. The charge left 50 dead on the Ottoman side and 20 prisoners, while the British Indian force suffered 21 dead, 56 wounded and three missing in action. * The Mid-European Union released the Declaration of Common Aims for the many new sovereign nations in central Europe during a forum gathering at Independence Hall in Philadelphia. Roberts, Kenneth Lewis. "Europe's Morning After" (Harper, 1921), p 131"Free Vote Demanded For Subject Peoples; Mid- European Declaration To Be Signed Today; Jugoslav Enjoy Protests Map" New York Times, 26 October 1918, p 7 * Edwin Corboy, 21, won the by-election in the Division of Swan, Australia following the death of the sitting member John Forrest, making him the youngest ever Australian Member of Parliament until Wyatt Roy, aged 20, won the Division of Longman in the 2010 Australian federal election. * English landowner Cecil Chubb donated Stonehenge to the United Kingdom. * Born: Anton Hartman, South African conductor, known for his collaborations with the South African Broadcasting Corporation, in Johannesburg (d. 1982); Arthur W. Murray, American air force officer and test pilot, flew the Bell X-1 and Bell X-5 jet craft prototypes, recipient of the Distinguished Flying Cross and Air Medal, in Cresson, Pennsylvania (d. 2011); Snuffy Stirnweiss, American baseball player, second baseman for the New York Yankees for three World Series championships, in New York City (d. 1958) * Died: Olivier Freiherr von Beaulieu-Marconnay, German air force officer, commander of Jagdstaffel 19, recipient of the Pour le Mérite and Iron Cross (b. 1898) == October 27, 1918 (Sunday) == * Battle of Vittorio Veneto - The Italian army with British and American support established a bridgehead deep and broad into enemy territory. Mutinying troops on the Austro-Hungarian side prevented any counterattack on the position. * German submarine was torpedoed and sunk in the Skagerrak off the coasts of Norway and Sweden by Royal Navy submarine with the loss of all 40 crew. * Italian flying ace Pier Ruggero Piccio was shot down by enemy ground fire and captured by Austro-Hungarian troops. He finished the war with 24 victories, the third-highest-scoring Italian ace of World War I.Paolo Varriale (2009). Italian Aces of World War 1. Osprey Publishing Co, 2009. , pp. 75-78 * Born: Edgar Herschler, American politician, 28th Governor of Wyoming, in Kemmerer, Wyoming (d. 1990); Jens- Anton Poulsson, Norwegian army officer, commander of the Hans Majestet Kongens Garde, recipient of the War Cross and Distinguished Service Order for resistance operations during World War II, in Tinn, Norway (d. 2010); Teresa Wright, American actress, three-time Oscar nominee for roles in The Little Foxes, Mrs. Miniver, and The Pride of the Yankees, in New York City (d. 2005) * Died: Alexander Protopopov, Russian politician, Minister of Interior from 1916 to 1917 (executed) (b. 1866); William Walsh, British clergy, Bishop of Mauritius from 1889 to 1891 and Bishop of Dover from 1898 to 1910 for the Church of England (b. 1836) == October 28, 1918 (Monday) == * Czechoslovakia declared its independence from Austria-Hungary. * The Aster Revolution started when Count Mihály Károlyi proclaimed the newly created Hungarian National Council would seek to dissolve the union between Hungary and Austria. * Battle of Vittorio Veneto - With Austria-Hungary dissolving, the Austro-Hungarian high command ordered a general retreat from all positions in northern Italy.Peter Banyard. "Vittorio Veneto" War Monthly, Issue 31, pp. 37-38 * Liberation of Serbia, Albania and Montenegro - Allied forces captured Makri, Evros in Macedonia, some 30 km from the Turkish border. * German submarine struck a mine and was then depth charged and sunk off the Orkney Island, United Kingdom with the loss of all 36 crew. * French ace Michel Coiffard was gravely wounded during a dogfight with German Fokker fighters over Bergnicourt, France, but managed to fly back to base, where he died of his wounds. His 34 kills made him the sixth-highest scoring French ace of World War I. * American flying ace Field Eugene Kindley and gunner Jesse Orin Creech shared the kill of a German Fokker plane near Villers-Pol, France. It was the last of Kindley's 12 aerial victories.American Aces of World War I. Norman Franks, Harry Dempsey. Osprey Publishing, 2001. , , p. 50 * Several German submarines including , , , , and were scuttled at Pula, Austria-Hungary, while was scuttled at Trieste, Italy. * The Luftstreitkräfte, the air arm of the Imperial German Army, established air squadrons Jagdstaffel 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, and 90. * The London and Lake Erie Railway and Transportation Company ceased operations and was put up for sale, with most of its assets eventually sold to the Niagara, St. Catharines and Toronto Railway.The London Advertiser, October 28, 1918 * The Sancti Petri Lighthouse was installed near Sancti Petri island ruins of the southern Spain coastline. * Died: Albert Hastings Markham, British naval officer and explorer, leading commander of the Nukapu Expedition from 1871 to 1872, member of the British Arctic Expedition of 1875 to 1876, designer of the New Zealand flag, recipient of the Order of the Bath (b. 1841) == October 29, 1918 (Tuesday) == * The provisional State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs was proclaimed in Zagreb, with Anton Korošec as president, from the former monarchies of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, Duchy of Carniola, Kingdom of Dalmatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. * Battle of Sharqat - After six days of retreating from the pursuing British Indian forces, the Ottoman Sixth Army held the line south of Mosul at a cost of many killed and wounded. The British Indian force took 13,000 prisoners and lost 1800 killed or wounded.Kemel, p. 302 * Battle of Vittorio Veneto - Allied forces occupied Vittorio Veneto, Italy.Banyard, pp. 37-38 * Wilhelm Groener replaced Erich Ludendorff as the Deputy Chief of the General Staff under General Paul von Hindenburg. * Crews of several ships in the German High Seas Fleet mutinied at the port of Wilhelmshaven, Germany, or offshore nearby, following a naval order issued five days earlier to engage the Royal Navy in a decisive battle in the North Sea. * Danish Air Lines was established as the national airline for Denmark until it merged with Scandinavian Airlines in 1953. * The All-Union Leninist Young Communist League, or Komsomol, was established as the main youth organization of the new Soviet Union. * Born: Diana Serra Cary, American actress, known for her child actor roles in Captain January and The Family Secret, in San Diego (d. 2020); Ștefan Baciu, Romanian-Brazilian poet, best known for his contributions to the expressionism movement and to the Romanian literary magazine Gândirea, in Brașov, Austria-Hungary (d. 1993) * Died: Rudolf Tobias, Estonian composer, known for his collaborations with the Estonia Theatre and Royal Academy of Music (b. 1873); Michel Oreste, Haitian state leader, 21st President of Haiti (b. 1859) == October 30, 1918 (Wednesday) == * The Armistice of Mudros ended conflict between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies. It was signed by the Ottoman Minister of Marine Affairs Rauf Orbay and Royal Navy Admiral Somerset Gough-Calthorpe on board HMS Agamemnon in Moudros harbor on the Greek island of Lemnos.Karsh, Efraim, Empires of the Sand: The Struggle for Mastery in the Middle East, (Harvard University Press, 2001), p. 327 * The Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen was granted independence from the Ottoman Empire by the Armistice of Mudros.Robert D. Burrowes: Historical Dictionary of Yemen, Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press 2000, p. 190. * The Martin Declaration was published, which included Slovakia in the formation of the Czecho-Slovak state. * Widespread mutiny among the Imperial German Navy forced a plan to attack the Royal Navy to be called off.Prof. Arthur J. Marder (1969), From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, The Royal Navy in the Fisher Era, 1904–1919: Victory and Aftermath volume 5 (Oxford: Oxford University Press), p. 174 * Battle of Sharqat - Ottoman forces under command of İsmail Hakkı Bey dug in to defend the line between Baghdad and Mosul formally surrendered to the British once word of the armistice reached them, ending the Mesopotamian campaign and all fighting between the British and Ottoman empires.Edward J. Erickson, Ordered to Die: A history of the Ottoman Army in the First World War (Greenwood Press, Wesport, CT 2001), p. 203 * Canadian navy patrol vessel was lost in a storm in Barkley Sound, British Columbia with all 39 crew. * American ace Eddie Rickenbacker shot down a German observation balloon near Remonville, France while flying a SPAD fighter plane for his 26th and final aerial victory. His 26 victories (22 airplanes and four balloons) made him the top-scoring American ace of World War I. * German submarine was scuttled at Kotor, Montenegro, while fellow sub was scuttled at Pula, Austria-Hungary. * Born: Frank Minis Johnson, American judge, justice for the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit from 1981 to 1991, in Haleyville, Alabama (d. 1999) * Died: James Walker Hood, American religious leader and activist, bishop for the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church in North Carolina and first president of the Colored Conventions Movement (b. 1831) == October 31, 1918 (Thursday) == * The Aster Revolution ended with a coup, with revolutionaries supported by the Royal Hungarian Army seizing public buildings in Budapest. Prime Minister Sándor Wekerle resigned from his position while former prime minister István Tisza was assassinated in his home. By the end of the day, Austro-Hungarian Emperor Charles accepted the coup and appointed Mihály Károlyi as prime minister, who dissolved the Kingdom of Hungary and proclaimed a new republic.Cornelius 2017, p. 10 * Battle of Vittorio Veneto - Italian forces pushed on Monte Grappa in the Alps and recovered much of the ground lost at the start of the Italian campaign. Fighting was intense and 24,507 Italian casualties were recorded. * Meuse–Argonne offensive - American forces pushed the Germans out of Argonne Forest in France while the French reached the Aisne River. * Liberation of Serbia, Albania and Montenegro - Serbian forces liberated Podgorica, Montenegro, while Italian and French forces recaptured Shkodër, Albania. Meanwhile, British forces had occupied the Bulgarian cities of Pleven, Ruse, and Veliko Tarnovo. * Pursuit to Haritan - British forces learned an armistice had been signed between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies, ending the advance just short of Homs, Syria. In all, the British captured between 75,000 and 100,000 prisoners and 360 guns since the start of the pursuit on September 18. British casualties were recorded at 782 killed and 4,179 wounded soldiers. * German submarine was scuttled at Rijeka, Croatia. * The Polish Telegraphic Agency was established as the official news agency for independent Poland. * The extension to the Daegu railline in Korea was established to link to the seaport Pohang. * War poet Wilfred Owen wrote his last letter home to his mother while seeking shelter in a cellar in France. He was killed in action 4 days later. * Born: Ian Stevenson, Canadian- American psychologist, known for his research into reincarnation, in Montreal (d. 2007) * Died: Egon Schiele, Austrian artist, known for erotic and provocative works including Portrait of Wally (b. 1890) == References == * * 1918 *1918-10 *1918-10 |
The Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act (BIA; ) (the Act) is one of the statutes that regulates the law on bankruptcy and insolvency in Canada. It governs bankruptcies, consumer and commercial proposals, and receiverships in Canada. It also governs the Office of the Superintendent of Bankruptcy, a federal agency responsible for ensuring that bankruptcies are administered in a fair and orderly manner. ==Purpose and scope== The nature of the Act within Canada's legal framework governing insolvency was described by the Supreme Court of Canada in Century Services Inc. v. Canada (Attorney General): With certain exceptions, the Act covers a wide range of entities: :* it covers anyone who has resided or carried on business in Canada :* it "includes a partnership, an unincorporated association, a corporation, a cooperative society or a cooperative organization, the successors of a partnership, of an association, of a corporation, of a society or of an organization and the heirs, executors, liquidators of the succession, administrators or other legal representatives of a person;" but :* partners in a partnership may be placed into bankruptcy with that partnership, but that can only occur where the partnership is located in one of the common-law jurisdictions; the Civil Code of Quebec defines partnership property as being a patrimony independent from its partners :* it does not apply to banks, insurance companies, trust companies or loan companies. :* The Farm Debt Mediation Act provides that farmers cannot be forced into bankruptcy, but they can make a voluntary assignment. :* The Companies' Creditors Arrangement Act provides that a court may order a stay of proceedings with respect to specified large debtors, whether or not they have already been initiated. The Act governs bankruptcy proceedings, which are invoked: :* either voluntarily by a person who is insolvent, :* by a debtor's creditors, where the debtor owes at least $1000 and has committed an act of bankruptcy, or :* where a proposal under the Act has failed. The Act also governs receivership proceedings. Receivers may be appointed by a secured creditor under the terms of a general security agreement (where the debtor voluntarily agrees), or by the court where a secured creditor: :* is enforcing his security, or :* is acting under a court order made under any other federal or provincial statute that authorizes the appointment of a receiver or receiver-manager. Provision is also made for dealing with cross-border insolvencies and the recognition of foreign proceedings. ===Relationship with provincial law=== Several notable cases known as the "bankruptcy quartet", , , and stand for the following propositions about how the Act interacts with provincial legislation:, expanded in #provinces cannot create priorities between creditors or change the scheme of distribution on bankruptcy under s. 136(1) of the Act; #while provincial legislation may validly affect priorities in a non-bankruptcy situation, once bankruptcy has occurred section 136(1) of the Act determines the status and priority of the claims specifically dealt with in that section; #if the provinces could create their own priorities or affect priorities under the Bankruptcy Act this would invite a different scheme of distribution on bankruptcy from province to province, an unacceptable situation; and #the definition of terms such as "secured creditor", if defined under the Bankruptcy Act, must be interpreted in bankruptcy cases as defined by the federal Parliament, not the provincial legislatures. Provinces cannot affect how such terms are defined for purposes of the Act. #in determining the relationship between provincial legislation and the Bankruptcy Act, the form of the provincial interest created must not be allowed to triumph over its substance. The provinces are not entitled to do indirectly what they are prohibited from doing directly. #there need not be any provincial intention to intrude into the exclusive federal sphere of bankruptcy and to conflict with the order of priorities of the Bankruptcy Act in order to render the provincial law inapplicable. It is sufficient that the effect of provincial legislation is to do so. However, there are instances where provincial law will continue to apply: :* where the insolvent person is one that plainly falls within provincial jurisdiction (such as a municipal institution), a province has authority to compel reorganizations of bodies and debt obligations, upholding :* where a stay under federal law has been lifted in order to allow proceedings to take place, a province can still impose a moratorium on proceedings that fall under provincial law, upholding Issues concerning the extent of federal paramountcy continue to come before the Supreme Court of Canada. In the 2015 "paramountcy trilogy," the boundaries were further explored: :* An Alberta Act was held neither to disqualify a person from driving a motor vehicle or to suspend the registration of such vehicles, because of an unsatisfied personal injury debt that had been discharged in bankruptcy., upholding :* An Ontario Act governing the collection of tolls charged by 407 ETR was held not to apply to bar a discharged bankrupt from renewing his license plates upon payment of normal annual fees., upholding :* However, a Saskatchewan Act that required creditors to serve a notice of intention, engage in mandatory mediation, and prove that the debtor has no reasonable possibility of meeting its obligations or is not making a sincere and reasonable effort to meet its obligations before it can begin an action with respect to farm land was held not to be inconsistent with the BIA, as cooperative federalism dictates that provincial legislative power should not be constrained, absent an actual inconsistency., setting aside == History and development == === Consolidation of pre- Confederation legislation === No specific legislation on bankruptcy and insolvency previously existed in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. === Development of federal legislation === Significant amendments to Canadian bankruptcy legislation Year Act In force Highlights 1869 An Act respecting Insolvency32 & 33 Vict., S.C. 1869, c.16 1 September 1869 * applied only to traders (including unincorporated trading companies and copartnerships) * allowed voluntary and involuntary bankruptcy 1875 An Act respecting Insolvency38 Vict., S.C. 1875, c.16 1 September 1875 * extended to incorporated trading companies, except for banks and insurance, telegraph and railway companies * allowed voluntary and involuntary bankruptcy * made official assignees federal cabinet appointees 1880 An Act to Repeal the Acts Respecting Insolvency Now in Force in CanadaSC 43 Vic, c I 1 April 1880 * subject vacated to the provinces 1919 The Bankruptcy Act of 19199 & 10 Geo. V, S.C. 1919, c.36 1 July 1920 * subject reassumed by the Parliament of Canada * covered all individuals, companies and other entities * voluntary and involuntary bankruptcy allowed 1923 The Bankruptcy Act Amendment Act, 192313 & 14 Geo. V, S.C. 1923, c.31 * trustee to be selected by the estate's creditors (they were previously appointed by the government) * creation of the office of Official Receiver, who could appoint a custodian for the estate to administer until a trustee had been appointed 1932 The Bankruptcy Act Amendment Act, 193222 & 23 Geo. V, S.C. 1932, c.39 * creation of the Office of the Superintendent of Bankruptcy * provision for the licensing of trustees in bankruptcy 1949S.C. 1949 (2ndSess.) c.7 1 July 1950 * introduction of summary administration and debtor proposal procedures * clarification of priorities given to various types of debts * abolition of position of custodian * increasing control of process by creditors and inspectors 1966 An Act to Amend the Bankruptcy Act14 & 15 Eliz. 2, S.C. 1966-67, c.32 * extension of anti- fraud and creditor protection measures * discouraging use of debtor proposals as stalling tactics * enabling dissemination of information about bankruptcies, for creditors to be able to assess customers' creditworthiness 1992S.C. 1992, c. 27 30 November 1992 * Act renamed as the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act * provisions for consumer proposals, mandatory counselling for individual debtors, and commercial reorganizations * protection for unpaid suppliers * altering the priority given to Crown claims 1997S.C. 1997, c. 12 30 April 1998 * provisions on the dischargeability of student loan debt * special rules for international and securities firm insolvencies * provisions for the liability of trustees on environmental damage and claims 2005S.C. 2005, c. 47 2007S.C. 2007, c. 36 18 September 2009 * establishment of the Wage Earner Protection Program * protective provisions for unpaid suppliers, collective agreements and eligible financial contracts * equity claims cannot be settled until all creditors' claims have been satisfied * only licensed trustees may act as receivers ==Bankruptcy process== Bankruptcy process under the BIA Scenario Action Result if a person is insolvent he may make an assignment in bankruptcy the person is declared bankrupt, which will continue until discharge if a person is a debtor that owes at least $1,000 and has committed an act of bankruptcy his creditors may apply for a bankruptcy order to be issued against him if an insolvent person makes a proposal under Division I with respect to creditors and where a default is made in the performance of any provision in a proposal (not waived by the inspectors or creditors) which is not remedied within the prescribed time the court may annul the proposal or where it appears to the court that the proposal cannot continue without injustice or undue delay, or that the approval of the court was obtained by fraud or where the insolvent person is subsequently convicted of an offense under the Act if a consumer debtor makes a proposal under Division II with respect to creditors where a default is made in the performance of any provision in a proposal, there is evidence that the debtor is ineligible to make a proposal, the consumer proposal cannot continue without injustice or undue delay, the approval of the court was obtained by fraud, or the debtor is convicted of an offense under the Act the court may annul the proposal where the debtor is in default for an amount greater than or equal to three payments (where payments are made monthly or more frequently), or (if less frequently) three months after being in default of any payment the proposal is deemed to be annulled ===Protective provisions=== A secured creditor cannot enforce security on the business assets of an insolvent person without having given 10 days' advance notice in the prescribed form and manner. No person may terminate or amend – or claim an accelerated payment or forfeiture of the term under – any agreement, including a security agreement, with a bankrupt individual by reason only of the individual's bankruptcy or insolvency. Similar provision is made with respect to any insolvent person upon filing a notice of intention or a proposal. A notice of intention, a Division I proposal, or a Division II proposal, will automatically create a stay of proceedings and "no creditor has any remedy against the debtor or the debtor's property, or shall commence or continue any action, execution or other proceedings, for the recovery of a claim provable in bankruptcy". Similar provision is also made on the bankruptcy of any debtor. Directors of insolvent companies that have filed a notice of intention or a proposal have similar protection. ===Suspension of attachments=== S. 70(1) of the BIA provides that bankruptcy orders and assignments take precedence over "all judicial or other attachments, garnishments, certificates having the effect of judgments, judgments, certificates of judgment, legal hypothecs of judgment creditors, executions or other process against the property of a bankrupt," but that does not extend to: :* those that have been completely executed by payment to the creditor or the creditor's representative, or :* the rights of a secured creditor. The Ontario Court of Appeal has ruled that, in the case of a "requirement to pay" under the Income Tax Act (Canada) that was issued after a notice of application to appoint a receiver (but before the court heard the application), supported by an ex parte "jeopardy order" issued by the Federal Court of Canada under s. 225.1(1) of that Act, the "requirement to pay" was considered to have been completely executed on the date of its issue, and thus took precedence over other creditors' claims. ===Settlement of the insolvent person's estate=== The trustee/receiver must first realize the amount of the proceeds from the property that is available for payment to the different classes of creditors, and different rules apply according to the type of proceeding. They are summarized as follows: Type Notice of intention, or proposal Bankruptcy Receivership Held in trust for another person Exclude Exclude Exclude Exempt from execution or seizure Exclude Exclude Exclude Income tax refunds for the fiscal year of the event Add Add Add Such powers over property as are exercised for the insolvent person's own benefit Add Add Add Garnishments for enforcing notices of assessment for income tax, CPP and EI liability Exclude Exclude Exclude Withholding taxes deducted at source Exclude Exclude Exclude Funds constituting a deemed trust for the Crown (other than for garnishments and withholding taxes deducted at source) Exclude Third party's property in possession of bankrupt Exclude Goods shipped in 30 days prior to the event, and still unpaid Exclude Exclude Exclude Produce of farmer, fisherman or aquaculturist shipped in 15 days prior to the event, and still unpaid Exclude Exclude Exclude Copyrights and manuscripts for works not yet published Revert to owner Property transferred at undervalue Add Add Add The estate is then settled, using the priority of claims outlined in the BIA. The BIA's definition of property is quite broad: As a consequence, the Supreme Court of Canada has ruled that direct payment clauses in contracts (allowing contractors to make payments to creditors of a bankrupt subcontractor) do not release the contractor from its obligations to the trustee of the estate. ===Creditors=== The resulting amount available from the estate is distributed to the creditors in the following order of priority (with each class/subclass paid in full before proceeding to the next): Priority of Claims Type Description "Super-priority" creditors # wages, salaries, commissions and compensation, to a maximum of $2,000 per employee, plus reimbursement of salesman's expenses, to a maximum of $1,000 each (other than for officers and directors) # payroll deductions and normal employer's contributions due but not remitted to a company pension plan Secured creditors in order of priority, and to the extent that they have not realized on their security Preferred creditors # expenses and fees of a trustee # legal costs # levy due to the superintendent # wages, salaries, commissions, compensation, and reimbursement of salesmen's expenses, in excess of the "super-priority" amounts shown above (other than for officers and directors) # the difference between what secured creditors would have received and what they actually received, because of the operation of the super-priority for wages, etc., and reimbursements # the difference between what secured creditors would have received and what they actually received, because of the operation of the super-priority for pension plan contributions # alimony, support and maintenance payments # municipal taxes due and unpaid for the previous two years, to the extent that they do not constitute a secured claim # rent due and unpaid for the previous three months, plus a maximum of three months' accelerated rent due under the terms of the lease (less what is owed by the trustee for occupation rent) # legal costs due to the creditor that first filed execution against the property of the bankrupt # claims resulting from injuries to employees for which workers' compensation laws do not apply Unsecured creditors all remaining creditors (whose claims are not postponed below) subject to any subordination agreements that may be in place Postponed claims # creditors not at arm's length with the debtor # silent partners (i.e., lenders who earn interest that varies with the level of profits, or that share in the profits) # wages, salaries, commissions, compensation and reimbursements due to officers and directors equity claims settled only after all non-equity claims are settled in full There are several important notes to consider in assessing the above priorities: :* claims may include amounts that would have been statute-barred prior to the bankruptcy :* all claims in each class are paid rateably :* receivership and CCAA proceedings may proceed directly into bankruptcy proceedings after the super-priority and secured creditors have been settled in full, in order to vary the priority in which certain other items must be settled :* participation in the claims process does not preclude any other remedies creditors may have available. For example, guarantees may be called, with the guarantors having the subsequent right to make a claim against the estate for the amounts they were required to pay. Guarantees can normally be demanded by suppliers from officers and directors, and parent company guarantees are also common. Financial institutions, in order to fully realize on secured obligations of a debtor, will normally require guarantors to execute a "Guarantee and Postponement of Claim",such as which prevents the guarantor from filing a claim against the estate until the secured creditor has been paid in full. Every creditor must prove his claim and a creditor who does not prove his claim is not entitled to any distribution of the proceeds from bankrupt's estate. The claim must be delivered to the trustee in bankruptcy and the trustee in bankruptcy must examine every proof of claim and can request further proof. The trustee may disallow, in whole or in part, any claim of right to a priority under the BIA or security. Generally, the test of proving the claim before the trustee in bankruptcy is very low, and a claim is proved unless it is too "remote and speculative". The rationale for such a low test is to discharge as many claims as possible to allow the bankrupt to make a fresh start after the discharge. Creditors also have the ability, with the approval of the court, to take over a cause of action that the trustee has decided not to pursue. ===Effect of discharge=== Discharge does not extinguish claims that are provable in bankruptcy. It releases the debtor from such claims, and creditors cease to be able to enforce them. Some liabilities are not released upon discharge, including: #any fine, penalty, restitution or similar order imposed by a court, #any award of damages by a court in civil proceedings arising from bodily harm, sexual assault or wrongful death, #any debt or liability for alimony or alimentary pension, #any debt or liability arising under a judicial decision or agreement relating to maintenance or support, #any debt or liability arising out of fraud, embezzlement, misappropriation or defalcation while acting in a fiduciary capacity,In which case, the definition of who is a fiduciary is quite broad: , discussing #any debt or liability resulting from obtaining property or services by false pretences or fraudulent misrepresentation (other than one arising from an equity claim), #liability for the dividend that a creditor would have been entitled to receive on any provable claim not disclosed to the trustee (unless the creditor knew of the bankruptcy and failed to take steps to prove his claim), #any student loans where the date of bankruptcy occurs while the bankrupt is a student, or within seven years after ceasing to be so (but relief is available where the bankrupt acted in good faith during the bankruptcy and financial difficulties will continue so that such debt can never be paid off), plus #any interest accrued with respect to any of the above debts. Directors and parties related to the bankrupt may still be held personally liable for certain tax debts, and, if a clearance certificate is not obtained from the tax authorities prior to discharge, directors' liability will subsequently resume., discussing Congiu c. Canada 2014 CAF 73 (19 March 2014), Federal Court of Appeal (Canada) and . Leave to appeal dismissed with costs, . Directors can also be held accountable for other liabilities arising from bankruptcy, regulatory and other statutory offences. ===Preferences and transfers at undervalue=== In 2009, the Act was amended to reform the rules relating to setting aside any preferences, or transfers at undervalue, occurring before the initial bankruptcy event: Section Applies to At arm's length Not at arm's length Additional remedies available S. 95 (preferences) A transfer of property made, a provision of services made, a charge on property made, a payment made, an obligation incurred or a judicial proceeding taken or suffered by an insolvent person where: :* the transferor is insolvent at the time of transfer :* the transfer is made with a view to prefer Applies to any payment made within three months of the initial event, and, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, it is presumed to have been made with intent Applies to any payment made within 12 months of the initial event, and there is no need to prove intent A trustee may also make a claim under provincial assignments and preferences legislatione.g., where: :* a debtor mas made a payment to one of its creditors, :* the debtor was insolvent when the payment took place, and :* the debtor intended to prefer that creditor over other creditors S. 96 (transfers at undervalue) A disposition of property or provision of services, for which the consideration received by the debtor is either nil or conspicuously less than the fair market value of the consideration given by the debtor. On application by the trustee, the court may declare a transfer void where: :* the transfer was at undervalue :* it occurred within one year of the initial event :* the debtor was insolvent at the time of transfer, or rendered insolvent by the transfer :* the debtor intended to defraud, defeat or delay creditors (and such intent must be proved) The trustee need only prove to the court that: :* the transfer was under value, and :* it occurred within one year of the initial event A trustee usually makes a claim under provincial fraudulent conveyance legislatione.g., at the same time as a s. 96 claim, in order to set aside the transfer. If valuable consideration has been given for the transfer, the trustee must prove that both the bankrupt and the transferee intended to defeat, hinder or delay the creditors. Recovery actions under ss. 95 and 96, as for other recovery actions with respect to collections, can only be initiated by the trustee, even when they may be of benefit only to a secured creditor (unless creditors seek court approval under s. 38 to pursue the matter directly). The Act already empowered the court to inquire into circumstances where a bankrupt corporation had paid cash dividends or redeemed shares where the corporation was insolvent, or where the transactions made it so, during the 12 months prior to its bankruptcy. In that regard, :* the directors may be held jointly and severally liable for the amounts in question (unless they prove that they acted in good faith, or individual directors can prove that they had protested such payment)BIA, s. 101(2), 101(2.1),101(3) :* shareholders related to any of the directors held liable may also be declared liable for the amount they had received as paymentBIA, s. 101(2.2) :* existing powers under the applicable incorporating Act allowing the directors to recover such payments are not affectedBIA, s. 101(4) S. 95(2) provides that, where a preference is given, the fact that it may have been given under pressure is irrelevant. However, the courts have ruled that a payment may withstand challenge by a trustee where it is made in furtherance of a reasonable business imperative., citing ==Key actors in the procedure== === Bankruptcy court === The provincial Superior Courts have "such jurisdiction at law and in equity" as will enable them to exercise bankruptcy process under the Act. The decisions of the court are enforceable in the courts of other Canadian provinces and all courts and the officers of all courts must act and co-operate in all bankruptcy matters. Appeal from the court's orders lies to the provincial Court of Appeal where: #the point at issue involves future rights; #the order or decision is likely to affect other cases of a similar nature in the bankruptcy proceedings; #the property involved in the appeal exceeds $10,000; #the aggregate unpaid claims of creditors exceed $500 (from the grant of or refusal to grant a discharge); and #in any other case, leave has been granted by a judge of the Court of Appeal (but such appeal is not as of right). Registrars of the provincial Superior Courts have significant powers in relation to procedural matters, unopposed proceedings and in other matters under the Act. === Office of the Superintendent of Bankruptcy === The Office of the Superintendent of Bankruptcy ("OSB") is designed to supervise the administration of all estates and matters to which the Act applies. It grants licenses for the trustees in bankruptcy, inspects and/or investigates bankruptcy estates, reviews the conduct of the trustees in bankruptcy and the receivers, and examines trustee's accounts, receipts, disbursements and final statements. It has specific powers to intervene in any matter or proceeding in court as if the OSB were a party thereto, as well as to issue directives providing official interpretation of the bankruptcy process to the trustees in bankruptcy and the receivers. === Licensed Insolvency Trustee === Trustees either individuals or corporations are licensed by the superintendent, and are appointed to administer an estate by virtue of the assignment, bankruptcy order or proposal that has been filed. By special resolution, the creditors of the estate may appoint or substitute another licensed trustee to assume the role. A trustee is not bound to accept an appointment, but, once appointed, he must perform all duties that are legally required until his discharge or removal. Otherwise, any licensed trustee can be appointed to act, subject to the following constraints: :* where, in the previous two years, the trustee had been a director, officer or employee of the debtor (or related to any such director or officer), or had acted as auditor, accountant or legal counsel for the debtor, the appointment is subject to the court's approval and conditions :* where the trustee was a trustee under a debtor's trust indenture, the court has similar authority :* where the trustee is already the trustee with respect to the bankruptcy or proposal of a person related to the debtor, or is already acting as a receiver with respect to any property of such person, he must make full disclosure of that fact and of the potential conflict of interest on his appointment, as well as at the first meeting of creditors :* the trustee must not act on behalf of a secured creditor without first obtaining independent legal advice that the security is valid and enforceable, and he must notify the Superintendent, creditors and inspectors of that fact :* the court, on the application of an interested person, may remove a trustee for cause and appoint another in his place The trustee acts as receiver for all the estate's property, and is entitled to see its books and records. All moneys he receives must be deposited into a separate trust account. When required, he is obliged to report on the estate's condition, moneys on hand, and property remaining unsold. He is not obliged to continue the business of the bankrupt, where there is no good business case for doing so. When he has completed the duties required of him for administering the estate, he shall apply to the court for a discharge, but any interested person may file an objection to having the discharge take place. All property of the bankruptcy vests in the trustee from the date of the bankruptcy, and the trustee may register a bankruptcy order against any real property in which the bankrupt has any interest or estate. The courts have held that trustees should clearly communicate to the bankrupt their intent to make a claim against the non-exempt equity in the bankrupt's property at the time of the assignment into bankruptcy. Failure to do so may result in: :* the trustee being unable to realize any of the non-exempt equity, or :* the absolute discharge of the bankrupt, without requiring him to pay to the estate the price agreed upon for the right to sell the property., discussing The superintendent may undertake conservatory measures in order to protect an estate, as well as the rights of the creditors and debtors, in specified circumstances: :* the death, removal or incapacity of the trustee :* an inquiry or investigation into the trustee's conduct :* the trustee's insolvency :* a trustee having been found guilty of an indictable offence :* circumstances where the Superintendent is considering the cancellation of the trustee's license === Inspectors === At the first meeting of the creditors, up to five individuals may be appointed to be inspectors of the estate (except where the creditors decide that that is not necessary). No inspector may be appointed if he is a party to any contested action or proceeding against the estate. Where the value of an individual debtor's property is under $15,000, inspectors are not appointed (except where the creditors decide otherwise). The trustee is required to obtain the inspectors' permission before carrying out many of his responsibilities, such as the sale of property of the estate, the institution or defending of actions relating to the property of the bankrupt, settling any debts owing to the bankrupt and exercising trustee's discretion in retaining and assigning bankrupt's contracts. The inspectors must give their approval to the final statement of receipts and disbursements and trustee's fees. Inspectors have a fiduciary duty to the creditors and should be impartial though acting in their interest. They should supervise the trustee's compliance with the Act and the superintendent's directives, and may apply for the removal of the trustee.Re Bryant Isard & Co. (1922), 3 C.B.R. 49, affirmed 4 C.B.R. 537 (Ont C.A.) ===Receivers=== The receiver must do what "practicality demands" to preserve the assets and must not go beyond what is necessary in the circumstances. === Interim receivers === The court may appoint an interim receiver: :* at any time after the filing of an application for a bankruptcy order and before a bankruptcy order is made, :* after a secured creditor has filed an advance notice of intention to enforce his security on the debtor's property, or :* at any time after the filing of a notice of intention or of a Division I proposal In the first case, the applicant must give an undertaking with respect to the debtor's legal rights, and to damages in the event of the application being dismissed. The interim receiver can take conservatory measures and dispose of perishable property in order to comply with the order of the court, but the receiver cannot otherwise unduly interfere with the bankrupt in the carrying on of the debtor's business. In the latter two cases, the court can only make the appointment if it is shown that it is necessary for the protection of the debtor's estate, or in the interest of the creditor(s). The courts have set out the following factorsRe Stuart and Sutterby (1929), ll C.B.R. 1 (Ont, Bktcy.) to be considered in exercising discretion on whether to appoint an interim receiver: :* whether the person is in control of the property :* whether the debtor is acting in bad faith and giving preferences to other creditors :* whether the debtor is fraudulently disposing and concealing his assets :* allegations of criminal offenses have been made :* the debtor's property is in the possession of third parties == See also == * Commercial insolvency in Canada * Consumer bankruptcy in Canada * Insolvency law of Canada ==Notes and references== ===Notes=== ===References=== ==Further reading== * == External links == * Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act * Winding-Up and Restructuring Act * Canada Transportation Act * Farm Debt Mediation Act Category:Canadian federal legislation Category:Canadian insolvency legislation |
William Chaloner (1650 – 22 March 1699) was a serial counterfeit coiner and confidence trickster, who was imprisoned in Newgate Prison several times and eventually proven guilty of high treason by Sir Isaac Newton, Warden of the Royal Mint. He was hanged on the gallows at Tyburn on 22 March 1699. Chaloner grew up in a poor family in Warwickshire, but through a career in counterfeiting and con artistry attained great wealth, including a house in Knightsbridge. He started by forging "Birmingham Groats", then moved on to Guineas, French Pistoles, crowns and half-crowns, Banknotes and lottery tickets. At various times he also made and sold dildos and worked as a quack doctor, soothsayer, and sham anti-Jacobite "agent provocateur" to collect government rewards. In Guzman Redivivus, a posthumous biography published anonymously in 1699, it was stated that "scorning the 'petty Rogueries of Tricking single Men', he aimed rather at 'imposing upon a whole Kingdom'. == Early life and scams == Chaloner was born in Warwickshire in 1650, the son of a weaver. His parents had great difficulty controlling him, so he was apprenticed to a nail maker in Birmingham, a town notorious for coining. At this time groats (worth four pennies) were in short supply, so the forged "Birmingham groat" constituted a significant proportion of the national coinage. Chaloner, a quick learner, became skilled in their production. He soon demonstrated his ambition and, sometime in the 1680s, walked to London but the Craftsmens' Guild system prevented him finding gainful work, so he established himself by manufacturing and hawking "tin watches" containing dildos (Tin Watches, with D-does &c; in 'em.) to cater for the sexually adventurous age. Thomas Levenson stated in Newton and the Counterfeiter that as early as 1660, two years after Oliver Cromwell’s death, "there were reports of imported Italian dildos being sold on St James’s Street".In this period, "dildo" may also have referred to a decorative curlicue, although there is no obvious market-worthy opportunity for street sales of such items.) Next he became a quack doctor and soothsayer. According to the anonymous, posthumous 1699 biography Guzman Redivivus: According to the Oxford National Dictionary of Biography "He may have been the 'William Chaloner' who on 31 March 1684 married Katharine Atkinson at St Katharine's by the Tower, and he certainly had several children. However, this relatively respectable period of Chaloner's life ended when he was suspected of robbery and forced to flee his lodgings." His "trick" for recovering stolen property was "to steal it in the first place". As a result, he made his first appearance in the public record in 1690, as a suspect in a burglary case. But the "tongue-pudding" and the knack for playing two sides against each other were established as hallmarks of his increasingly large-scale criminal enterprises. By early 1690 he was working as a japanner where he probably learned and practised the gilding process. == Coining scams == English currency was in disarray in the late 17th century. Hand-struck silver coins from prior to 1662 had been clipped around the edges and thus their value (weight) reduced so that they were no longer a viable tender, especially abroad. The machine-struck silver coins produced by the Royal Mint in the Tower of London after 1662 were protected from clipping by an engraved, decorated and milled edge, but were instead forged, both by casting from counterfeit moulds and by die stamping from counterfeit dies. By 1696 forged coins constituted about 10% of the nation's currency. The currency also had a third problem: its value as silver bullion in Paris and Amsterdam was greater than the face value in London. Thus vast quantities of coins were melted and shipped abroad — an arbitrage market. New Acts of Parliament were passed in order to create the Bank of England and protect national military security. This situation also prompted William Lowndes of the Treasury to ask Isaac Newton for help. Chaloner was part of one of the many coining gangs that existed. He was taught the subtle techniques of moulding "milled edges" and counterfeiting coins by Patrick Coffey, a goldsmith. Thomas Taylor, a master engraver and printer made the dies. In 1691 Chaloner produced French Pistoles worth about 17 shillings each, using an alloy of silver. Then he produced English guineas that were gilded by Patrick Coffey and Chaloner's own brother- in-law Joseph Gravener. The chain was completed by Thomas Holloway and his wife who passed the coins to petty crooks for circulation. Chaloner was renowned in the coining community for the quality of his work and his prolific success. He purchased a large house in the semi-rural suburb of Knightsbridge, rode in a carriage, bought plate and dressed like a gentleman. Isaac Newton noted that Chaloner was: Chaloner now abandoned his family and had affairs with female coiners, the most significant of whom was Joan Porter (fl. 1692–1699). It was in the guise of a knowledgeable but respectable citizen that he subsequently became able to "offer his services" to Parliament and the Royal Mint. In mid-1692 William Blackford was condemned for passing out counterfeit guineas and denounced Chaloner, so he absconded until after Blackford was hanged. His next scheme was for forgeries of the mint's "machine-struck" coins, so he recruited Thomas Holloway and bought a house in Egham, Surrey, where the noise of coining and hot moulding machines would not be suspicious. It was also outside the legal boundary of London. Among the group was John Peers, a molten metal and moulding specialist, but on 18 May 1697 he appeared before magistrates on an unrelated charge, and denounced Chaloner's Egham operation as part of his plea. Newton heard about this by accident three months later so arrested Peers for questioning and then recruited him as an agent. Peers rejoined Holloway in Egham and produced 18 forged shillings, enabling Newton to arrest Holloway for coining. An inventive coiner, Chaloner taught Thomas Holloway a new method of coining, using small, easily concealed stamps. By the 1690s Chaloner had become: == Royal Mint scams == In December 1692 (or 1694) Chaloner increased his ambition and targeted the Royal Mint. He issued pamphlets describing a "solution"' to currency problems such as restrict/licence access to tools needed for coining; the coinage should be struck with an impression far deeper than coiners' tools or presses would allow; use a deep groove along the edge; extend the treason law; and adjust the silver value. This attracted the interest of Charles Mordaunt, Earl of Peterborough, Earl of Monmouth ex-Lord of the Treasury, ex-king's confidant, who had fallen out of favour with William III of England in the 1690s. Mordant wanted an opportunity to attack what he saw as a weak Chancellor of the Exchequer, Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax. In 1695 Mordant arranged for Chaloner to address His Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council about corrupt practices. This caused the Royal Mint to instigate its own investigations, which thus thwarted Chaloner's ambition to become its overseer. In January 1696 Chaloner was in Newgate prison on suspicion of felony, because following his testimony to the Privy Council in 1695 and the Royal Mint's investigations they had taken evidence from many petty criminals that incriminated him. Nevertheless, on 13 January 1696 he petitioned Charles Montagu, Chancellor of the Exchequer, with details of a conspiracy at the Royal Mint. He was released from Newgate and on 3 February (or by May) testified to an investigative committee of Lord Justices in Whitehall about the crimes of the "moneyers" within the Mint. He claimed that they coined false guineas, struck debased blanks sent in from outside, and sent out stamps for coining (he boasted privately to have benefited from both), and regularly produced underweight coin. He named other coiners, Thomas Carter, John Abbot, and Patrick Coffee, including his own alias, "Chandler". Chaloner testified that: He claimed that the die stamps of the crypto-Jacobite chief engraver, John Roettiers the elder, were loaned out of the Tower, at a time during Newton's "complete recoining" of the nation's currency, an exercise that was to take until 1699 when £7 million of coins had been minted. He also claimed that many mint employees were corrupt and all were too specialised to spot security flaws in other people's areas. What the mint needed was an officer who understood smithing and coining work, but Parliament made him no offer. Yet on 26 March a committee of council reported that Chaloner was himself involved in coining and should remain a prisoner. At Parliament, by chance, he was recognised by Newton, leading to arrest relating to the Egham coining operation and he was sent to Newgate. In order to bring a prosecution Thomas Holloway was needed as a witness, but from inside Newgate Chaloner used a publican called Michael Gilligan to pay Holloway £20 to disappear to Scotland until the case collapsed. He was released seven weeks later. == Anti-Jacobite scams == In 1693 he was tempted by Government rewards to act as an "agent provocateur", providing information about Jacobite activities, plots and printing presses. Thus he paid four Jacobites to print a fresh edition of James II's declaration of May 1693. When Chaloner entertained them on 1 June they were arrested while in possession of copies of the declaration and their press seized. His reward was £1,000. In August 1693, accompanied by Aubrey Price, he unsuccessfully approached the government about a sham Jacobite plot to attack Dover castle, offering to infiltrate the network as couriers so that they could read all the mail. In 1697 Chaloner advised Aubrey Price that: They approached the Government, via Sir Henry Colt, with a fabricated list of Jacobites in various countries. In June they were authorised to investigate further, despite erroneously including Williamites in the list. In August they accused Charles Talbot, 1st Duke of Shrewsbury, Secretary of State of helping Sir John Fenwick's escape in 1696 by providing a false pass. Shrewsbury forestalled this blackmail attempt by declaring it to the 'Lord Justices'. Chaloner claimed an extensive anti-Jacobite role, including the capture of another press and the seizure of thirty-six different titles. He also claimed to have discovered that a merchant, John Comyns, was remitting money to France. Chaloner also spent five weeks in gaol spying on Jacobite prisoners, and allegedly spent £400 on bribes. However the prosecutions often failed. Next, Chaloner proposed that Thomas Coppinger (or Matthew Coppinger), an unscrupulous thief taker specializing in coining offences, should write a treasonable satire, and he would find a Jacobite printer whom they would jointly denounce to the authorities. However, in May 1694 Coppinger denounced Chaloner for coining and Lord Mayor Sir Thomas StampeCaveat - The 'Oxford Dictionary of National Biography' states that Sir Thomas Stampe was responsible in 1694, but according to Wiki 'List of Lord Mayors of London' Sir Thomas Stampe was Lord Mayor of London in 1691, Sir Thomas Lant was Lord Mayor in 1694 and Sir John Houblon held the position in 1695 sent him to Newgate. Chaloner then turned the tables and testified against Coppinger, who was executed on 27 February 1695 (or 22 February 1695). == Bank of England scams == Chaloner's next target was the Bank of England which started trading in 1694 by taking deposits from the wealthy to lend to the government. Depositors could also manage their deposits via 3 transaction types: paper or passbooks to access accounts, promises of complete payment (bank cheques) to transfer payments to specific parties, and "bank-notes" to create running cash for partial payment among third parties. (the start of Fractional-reserve banking). It introduced new £100 'bank notes' in May 1695, printed on partially marbled paper to prevent counterfeiting. However, after Chaloner learned of these notes, he ordered similar stock delivered to his Knightsbridge home, with which he printed £100 counterfeits, an act which, surprisingly, would not become a felony until 1697. The bank then discovered a forged note on 14 August 1695, and ceased their circulation within two months of their introduction. They traced the paper to a printer who unwittingly marbled the paper for Chaloner.(Guzman redivivus, 6–7) Chaloner immediately turned "King's evidence", surrendered his unused stock, named other conspirators to give him credibility, and exposed a major fraud against the bank (one presumably in which he was himself involved). He testified that blank bills on the "City orphans' fund" were cut from the cheque book in the "Chamber of London" by Aubrey Price and the bank paid out amounts up to £1,000.John Gibbons, a porter of Whitehall Palace and a 'pursuer of coiners', arrested the swindlers in the Bank of England/City orphan fund scam. John Gibbons was known privately to Chaloner as an extortioner and operator of protection rackets. For his 'efforts' Chaloner received formal thanks from the Bank of England, received a reward of £200 from the bank, and kept all of his profits from the counterfeiting. An inventive counterfeiter, Chaloner had taught Aubrey Price how to counterfeit the new exchequer bills by altering the denominations after removing the old ink using a liquid that Chaloner had invented. Price was named by Chaloner, tried at the Old Bailey, and condemned to death for 'counterfeiting an excheque'. He was hanged at Tyburn on 22 June 1698. In 1699 Chaloner allegedly told a prisoner in Newgate that: == Lottery ticket scam == In 1698, Chaloner engraved a copperplate of tickets for the lottery on the "malt duty", and though this was not a felony he covered his tracks and hid the plate between printing sessions. In August, another coiner, David Davis, betrayed the affair to James Vernon, under-secretary to Charles Talbot, 1st Duke of Shrewsbury, Secretary of State, (whom he had attempted to blackmail in 1697), and hence a warrant/(bounty) was issued for Chaloner on 6 October. In late October he was again arrested and imprisoned in Newgate, while Newton continued to gather evidence for his final trial. Chaloner immediately accused Thomas Carter (a longtime colleague) of engraving the plate and offered to surrender it in exchange for immunity. == Trial and death == By January 1699 Newton was devoted to a complete investigation of Chaloner that would be water-tight. He used a comprehensive network of spies and informants, taking many statements from all his old contacts. The trial was held at the Old Bailey on 3 March, the Judge was Sir Salathiel Lovell, who had a reputation as a "hanging judge". Chaloner had to conduct his own defence without prior knowledge of Newton's case, evidence or witnesses, and no "presumption of innocence". He faced two indictments for treason—coining French pistoles in 1692, and coining crowns and half-crowns in 1698. Newton fielded eight witnesses that spanned Chaloner's career. Catherine Coffey, wife of goldsmith Patrick Coffey, declared that she had seen him coin French Pistoles. Elizabeth Holloway declared how Chaloner had bribed her husband, the coiner Thomas Holloway, to flee to Scotland and avoid giving evidence at the 1697 trial. Thomas Taylor the engraver in the major coining conspiracy. Catherine Carter, wife of Thomas Carter who had twice previously been named and blamed by Chaloner, testified to Chaloner's skill as a forger and his role in the lottery scam. Whilst in Newgate waiting for the trial, Chaloner had pretended to go mad (Newton noted that at first, ... Chaloner hath feigned himself mad), but in court he resorted to insulting all parties and claiming they were committing perjury to save their own necks, and anyway, the charges related to acts in the City and Surrey, outside the jurisdiction of the Middlesex sessions. The jury needed only a few minutes to reach a verdict, and he was sentenced the next day. Over the following fortnight he wrote a series of letters to both Newton and Justice Railton, the Supervising Magistrate, that were in turn aggressive, blame shifting, begging, accusatory and rambling. None received a reply. Chaloner's final letter to Newton concluded: Chaloner was hanged on the gallows at Tyburn on 22 March 1699, twitching and writhing for several minutes of the 'hangman's dance', whilst "stinking, wet, cold and mercilessly sober". Then, he was publicly disemboweled. == See also == * Catherine Murphy (counterfeiter) (died 1789) the last woman to be executed by burning. == Notes == == References == == Sources == Sources listed by the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, September 2004; Paul Hopkins and Stuart Handley. * Guzman redivivus: a short view of the life of Will. Chaloner, the notorious coyner, who was executed at Tyburn on Wednesday the 22d of March 1698/9 (1699) * The correspondence of Isaac Newton, ed. H. W. Turnbull and others, 7 vols. (1959–77), vol. 4 * Mint depositions, TNA: PRO, MINT 15/17 * Newton papers, TNA: PRO, MINT 19/1–3 * CSP dom. * Letters illustrative of the reign of William III from 1696 to 1708 addressed to the duke of Shrewsbury by James Vernon, ed. G. P. R. James, 3 vols. (1841) * Shrewsbury papers, Northants. RO, Buccleuch papers, vols. 46–7, 63 · JHC, 12–13 (1697–1702) * Chaloner's petitions to William III, 1695, BL, Add. MS 72568, fols. 47–54 * E. Southwell's privy council minutes, BL, Add. MS 35107 · papers of the first earl of Portland, Nottingham UL, PwA * William Arthur Shaw, ed., Calendar of treasury books, [33 vols. in 64], PRO (1904–69), vols. 10–14 * Bank of England Archives, London, F2/160, G4/2, G4/4 * Middlesex sessions rolls, gaol delivery, LMA, MJ/SR/1821–1925 (1693–9) * Sessions rolls and minute books, 1694–9, CLRO, City of London, SF402–39; SM 65–7 * F. E. Manuel, A portrait of Isaac Newton (1968) * R. S. Westfall, Never at rest: a biography of Isaac Newton (1980) * N. Luttrell, A brief historical relation of state affairs from September 1678 to April 1714, 6 vols. (1857) * W. Chaloner, To the honourable, the knights, citizens and burgesses in parliament assembled: proposals humby offered, for passing, an act to prevent clipping and counterfeiting of money (1695) * W. Chaloner, The defects in the present constitution of the mint, humbly offered to the consideration of the present House of Commons [1697] * W. Chaloner, To the honourable the knights, citizens and burgesses in parliament assembled. Reasons humbly offered against passing an act for raising ten hundred thousand pounds, to make good the deficiency of the clipt-money [1694] * H. Haynes, ‘Brief memoires relating to the silver and gold coins of England’, 1700, BL, Lansdowne MS. 801 * Report on the manuscripts of the marquis of Downshire, 6 vols. in 7, HMC, 75 (1924–95), vol. 1 * Sir W. Trumbull's diary, BL, Add. MS 72571 * J. M. Beattie, Policing and punishment in London, 1660–1750 (2001) * [H. Fitzgerald's examination], 1699, BL, Add. MS 21136, fols. 71–2 * C. E. Challis, ed., A new history of the royal mint (1992) * J. Craig, Newton at the mint (1946) * Middlesex sessions papers, Feb. 1695, LMA, MJ/SP/1695/02/028–035, 02/006 * J. Redington, ed., Calendar of Treasury papers, 1–2, PRO (1868–71) * T. Wales, ‘Thief-takers and their clients in later Stuart London’, Londinopolis: essays in the social and cultural history of early modern London, ed. P. Griffiths and N. G. R. Jenner (2000), 67–84 == Further reading == * Newton and the Counterfeiter by Thomas Levenson. Publisher: Faber and Faber (20 August 2009), , * Chaloner, William by Paul Hopkins and Stuart Handley, (September 2004), at Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press (Note — free online access via British 'Library card' number.) * "Curious Colors of Currency: Security Marbling on Financial Instruments During the Long Eighteenth Century" by Jake Benson in American Journal of Numismatics pp. 277–325. == Further listening == * BBC Radio 4, Book of the Week, September 2009, Newton and the Counterfeiter by Thomas Levenson * BBC Radio 4 - The King's Coiner: The True Story of Isaac Newton, Detective. A radio drama by Philip Palmer. BBC Radio Afternoon Theatre. Producer: Toby Swift. Category:17th-century English businesspeople Category:1650 births Category:1699 deaths Category:17th-century English criminals Category:Executed people from Warwickshire Category:People executed for forgery Category:English counterfeiters Category:Coin designers Category:People executed under the Stuarts for treason against England Category:People executed by the Kingdom of England by hanging Category:People executed at Tyburn Category:Confidence tricksters Category:17th-century executions by England |
Holkham Hall ( or ) is an 18th-century country house near the village of Holkham, Norfolk, England, constructed in the Neo-Palladian style for the 1st Earl of Leicester (of the fifth creation of the title)Thomas Coke, 1st Earl of Leicester (fifth creation)(1697–1759), the builder of Holkham, should not be confused with his great-nephew Thomas Coke, 1st Earl of Leicester (seventh creation), the celebrated agrarian known as "Coke of Norfolk", who also lived at Holkham Hall. Thomas Coke, 1st Earl of Leicester (builder of Holkham), died without surviving sons, hence his Earldom terminated. Holkham subsequently passed to Thomas Coke's nephew Wenman Roberts who assumed the Coke surname but could not inherit the title. It was Roberts's son, Thomas Coke, born in 1754, for whom the title "Earl of Leicester, of Holkham in the County of Norfolk", was created in 1837. The new title was an honour granted in recognition of Coke's services to politics and agriculture. As this earldom was of a new creation, he too became the 1st Earl. It is his descendant Thomas Coke, 8th Earl of Leicester, who resides at Holkham today. The surname "Coke" is pronounced "Cook".The Earldom of Leicester has been, to date, created seven times. Thomas Coke, the builder of Holkham, was the 1st Earl of the fifth creation. His grand nephew Thomas Coke was the 1st Earl of the seventh creation. by the architect William Kent, aided by Lord Burlington. Holkham Hall is one of England's finest examples of the Palladian revival style of architecture, and the severity of its design is closer to Palladio's ideals than many of the other numerous Palladian style houses of the period. The Holkham Estate was built up by Sir Edward Coke, the founder of his family's fortune. He bought Neales manor in 1609, though never lived there, and made many other purchases of land in Norfolk to endow to his six sons. His fourth son, John, inherited the land and married heiress Meriel Wheatley in 1612. They made Hill Hall their home, and by 1659, John had complete ownership of all three Holkham manors. It is the ancestral home of the Coke family, who became Earls of Leicester. The interior of the hall is opulent, but by the standards of the day, simply decorated and furnished. Ornament is used with such restraint that it was possible to decorate both private and state rooms in the same style, without oppressing the former.Nicolson, p.237 The principal entrance is through the Marble Hall, which is in fact made of pink Derbyshire alabaster; this leads to the piano nobile, or the first floor, and state rooms. The most impressive of these rooms is the Saloon, which has walls lined with red velvet. Each of the major state rooms is symmetrical in its layout and design; in some rooms, false doors are necessary to fully achieve this balanced effect. ==Architects and patron== thumb|Holkham Hall. Top right: one of the four identical secondary wings. Holkham was built by Thomas Coke, 1st Earl of Leicester, who was born in 1697.Hiskey, Christine. "The Building of Holkham Hall: Newly Discovered Letters". Architectural History. Volume 40, 1997. 144–158. A cultivated and wealthy man, Coke made the Grand Tour in his youth and was away from England for six years between 1712 and 1718. It is likely he met both Burlington—the aristocratic architect at the forefront of the Palladian revival movement in England—and William Kent in Italy in 1715, and that in the home of Palladianism the idea of the mansion at Holkham was conceived.Wilson, Michael I. "William Kent: Architect, Designer, Painter, Gardener, 1685–1748". Routledge, 1984. 173–176. Coke returned to England, not only with a newly acquired library, but also an art and sculpture collection with which to furnish his planned new mansion. However, after his return, he lived a feckless life, preoccupying himself with drinking, gambling and hunting, and being a leading supporter of cockfighting.Hugh Montgomery- Massingberd, Christopher Simon Sykes. "Great houses of England and Wales". London: Laurence King Publishing, 1994. 336. He made a disastrous investment in the South Sea Company and when the South Sea Bubble burst in 1720, the resultant losses delayed the building of Coke's planned new country estate for over ten years. Coke, who had been made Earl of Leicester in 1744, died in 1759—five years before the completion of Holkham—having never fully recovered his financial losses. Thomas's wife, Lady Margaret Tufton, Countess of Leicester (1700–1775), would oversee the finishing and furnishing of the house."Holkham Hall ". Coke Estates Ltd. Retrieved on 19 June 2008. Although Colen Campbell was employed by Thomas Coke in the early 1720s, the oldest existing working and construction plans for Holkham were drawn by Matthew Brettingham, under the supervision of Thomas Coke, in 1726. These followed the guidelines and ideals for the house as defined by Kent and Burlington. The Palladian revival style chosen was at this time making its return in England. The style made a brief appearance in England before the Civil War, when it was introduced by Inigo Jones.Lees-Milne, James. "The Age of Inigo Jones". London: B. T. Batsford, 1953. 54–56. However, following the Restoration it was replaced in popular favour by the Baroque style. The "Palladian revival", popular in the 18th century, was loosely based on the appearance of the works of the 16th-century Italian architect Andrea Palladio. However it did not adhere to Palladio's strict rules of proportion. The style eventually evolved into what is generally referred to as Georgian,Downs, Joseph. "The Tower Hill Room". Bulletin of the Pennsylvania Museum. Volume 21, No. 96, October 1925. 4–11. still popular in England today. It was the chosen style for numerous houses in both town and country, although Holkham is exceptional for both its severity of design and for being closer than most in its adherence to Palladio's ideals. Although Thomas Coke oversaw the project, he delegated the on-site architectural duties to the local Norfolk architect Matthew Brettingham, who was employed as the on-site clerk of works. Brettingham was already the estate architect, and was in receipt of £50 a year (about pounds per year in terms) in return for "taking care of his Lordship's buildings".Colvin, H. M. "A Biographical Dictionary of English Architects, 1660-1840". Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1954. 91. He was also influential in the design of the mansion, although he attributed the design of the Marble Hall to Coke himself. William Kent was mainly responsible for the interiors of the Southwest pavilion, or family wing block, particularly the Long Library. Kent produced a variety of alternative exteriors, suggesting a far richer decoration than Coke wanted. Brettingham described the building of Holkham as "the great work of [my life]", and when he published his "The Plans and Elevations of the late Earl of Leicester's House at Holkham", he immodestly described himself as sole architect, making no mention of Kent's involvement. However, in a later edition of the book, Brettingham's son admitted that "the general idea was first struck out by the Earls of Leicester and Burlington, assisted by Mr. William Kent". In 1734, the first foundations were laid; however, building was to continue for thirty years, until the completion of the great house in 1764.Summerson, 204. ==Design== The Palladian style was admired by Whigs such as Thomas Coke, who sought to identify themselves with the Romans of antiquity. Kent was responsible for the external appearance of Holkham; he based his design on Palladio's unbuilt Villa Mocenigo,Watkin, David. "A History of Western Architecture". Laurence King Publishing, 2005. 375. as it appears in I Quattro Libri dell'Architettura, but with modifications. The plans for Holkham were of a large central block of two floors only, containing on the piano nobile level a series of symmetrically balanced state rooms situated around two courtyards. No hint of these courtyards is given externally; they are intended for lighting rather than recreation or architectural value. This great central block is flanked by four smaller, rectangular blocks, or wings,Jones, Nigel R. "Architecture of England, Scotland and Wales". Greenwood Press, 2005. 145. and at each corners is linked to the main house not by long colonnades—as would have been the norm in Palladian architecture—but by short two-storey wings of only one bay. ===Exterior=== The external appearance of Holkham can best be described as a huge Roman palace.Prior, Nick. "Museums and Modernity: Art Galleries and the Making of Modern Culture". Berg Publishers, 2002. 73. However, as with most architectural designs, it is never quite that simple. Holkham is a Palladian house, and yet even by Palladian standards the external appearance is austere and devoid of ornamentation. This can almost certainly be traced to Coke himself. The on-site, supervising architect, Matthew Brettingham, related that Coke required and demanded "commodiousness", which can be interpreted as comfort. Hence rooms that were adequately lit by one window, had only one, as a second might have improved the external appearance but could have made a room cold or draughty. As a result, the few windows on the piano nobile, although symmetrically placed and balanced, appear lost in a sea of brickwork; albeit these yellow bricks were cast as exact replicas of ancient Roman bricks expressly for Holkham. Above the windows of the piano nobile, where on a true Palladian structure the windows of a mezzanine would be, there is nothing. The reason for this is the double height of the state rooms on the piano nobile; however, not even a blind window, such as those often seen in Palladio's own work, is permitted to alleviate the severity of the facade. On the ground floor, the rusticated walls are pierced by small windows more reminiscent of a prison than a grand house. One architectural commentator, Nigel Nicolson, has described the house as appearing as functional as a Prussian riding school.Nicolson, 234. The principal, or South façade, is 344 feet (104.9 m) in length (from each of the flanking wings to the other), its austerity relieved on the piano nobile level only by a great six-columned portico. Each end of the central block is terminated by a slight projection, containing a Venetian window surmounted by a single storey square tower and capped roof, similar to those employed by Inigo Jones at Wilton House nearly a century earlier.Turner, Jane. The dictionary of art. Grove Publications, 1996. 225. A near identical portico was designed by Inigo Jones and Isaac de Caus for the Palladian front at Wilton, but this was never executed. The flanking wings contain service and secondary rooms—the family wing to the south-west; the guest wing to the north-west; the chapel wing to the south-east; and the kitchen wing to the north-east. Each wing's external appearance is identical: three bays, each separated from the other by a narrow recess in the elevation. Each bay is surmounted by an unadorned pediment. The composition of stone, recesses, varying pediments and chimneys of the four blocks is almost reminiscent of the English Baroque style in favour ten years earlier, employed at Seaton Delaval Hall"John Piper". Renishaw Hall. Retrieved on 2 March 2014. by Sir John Vanbrugh. One of these wings, as at the later Kedleston Hall, was a self- contained country house to accommodate the family when the state rooms and central block were not in use. The one storey porch at the main north entrance was designed in the 1850s by Samuel Sanders Teulon, although stylistically it is indistinguishable from the 18th-century building. ===Interior=== thumb|Marble Hall thumb|upright|View of the Green State bedroom Inside the house, the Palladian form reaches a height and grandeur seldom seen in any other house in England. It has, in fact, been described as "The finest Palladian interior in England."Nicolson, p.230. The grandeur of the interior is obtained with an absence of excessive ornament, and reflects Kent's career- long taste for "the eloquence of a plain surface".Sicca, Cinzia Maria. "On William Kent's Roman Sources". Architectural History, Volume 29, 1986. 134–157. Work on the interiors ran from 1739 to 1773. The first habitable rooms were in the family wing and were in use from 1740, the Long Library being the first major interior completed in 1741. Among the last to be completed and entirely under Lady Leicester's supervision is the chapel with its alabaster reredos. The house is entered through the Marble Hall (though the chief building fabric is in fact pink Derbyshire alabaster), modelled by Kent on a Roman basilica. The room is over 50 feet (15 m) from floor to ceiling and is dominated by the broad white marble flight of steps leading to the surrounding gallery, or peristyle: here alabaster clad Ionic columns support the coffered, gilded ceiling, copied from a design by Inigo Jones, inspired by the Pantheon in Rome. The fluted columns are thought to be replicas of those in the Temple of Fortuna Virilis, also in Rome. Around the hall are statues in niches; these are predominantly plaster copies of classical deities. The hall's flight of steps lead to the piano nobile and state rooms. The grandest, the Saloon, is situated immediately behind the great portico, with its walls lined with patterned red caffoy (a mixture of wool, linen and silk) and a coffered, gilded ceiling.Summerson, 206. In this room hangs Rubens's Return from Egypt. On his Grand Tour, the Earl acquired a collection of Roman copies of Greek and Roman sculpture which is contained in the extensive Statue Gallery, which runs the full length of the house north to south. The North Dining Room, a cube room of 27 feet (8.2 m) contains an Axminster carpet that perfectly mirrors the pattern of the ceiling above. A bust of Aelius Verus, set in a niche in the wall of this room, was found during the restoration at Nettuno. A classical apse gives the room an almost temple air. The apse in fact, contains concealed access to the labyrinth of corridors and narrow stairs that lead to the distant kitchens and service areas of the house. Each corner of the east side of the principal block contains a square salon lit by a huge Venetian window, one of them—the Landscape Room—hung with paintings by Claude Lorrain and Gaspar Poussin. All of the major state rooms have symmetrical walls, even where this involves matching real with false doors. The major rooms also have elaborate white and multi-coloured marble fireplaces, most with carvings and sculpture, mainly the work of Thomas Carter, though Joseph Pickford carved the fireplace in the Statue Gallery. Much of the furniture in the state rooms was also designed by William Kent, in a stately classicising baroque manner. So restrained is the interior decoration of the state rooms, or in the words of James Lees-Milne, "chaste", that the smaller, more intimate rooms in the family's private south- west wing were decorated in similar vein, without being overpowering. The Long Library running the full length of the wing still contains the collection of books acquired by Thomas Coke on his Grand Tour through Italy, where he saw for the first time the Palladian villas which were to inspire Holkham. The Green State bedroom is the principal bedroom; it is decorated with paintings and tapestries, including works by Paul Saunders and George Smith Bradshaw."The Green State Bedroom ". Coke Estates Ltd. Retrieved on 20 June 2008. It is said that when Queen Mary visited, Gavin Hamilton's "lewd" depiction of Jupiter Caressing Juno "was considered unsuitable for that lady's eyes and was banished to the attics". ==Grounds== thumb|left|Obelisk, 1730 thumb|right|Holkham Lake thumb|left|200px|The Leicester Monument, on the grounds of Holkham Hall thumb|right|Map of the estate from 1946 Work to the designs of William Kent on the park commenced in 1729, several years before the house was constructed. This event was commemorated by the construction in 1730 of the obelisk, in height, standing on the highest point in the park. It is located over half a mile to the south and on axis with the centre of the house. An avenue of trees stretches over a mile south of the obelisk. Thousands of trees were planted on what had been windswept land; by 1770 the park covered . Other garden buildings designed by Kent are, near the far end of the avenue the Triumphal Arch, designed in 1739 but only completed in 1752 and the domed doric temple (1730–1735) in the woods near the obelisk. Above the main entrance to the house within the Marble Hall is this inscription: > THIS SEAT, on an open barren Estate > Was planned, planted, built, decorated. > And inhabited the middle of the XVIIIth Century > By THO's COKE EARL of LEICESTERBenjamin, Clarke. "The British Gazetteer, > Political, Commercial, Ecclesiastical, and Historical. Illustrated by a Full > Set of Accurately Laid Down County Maps with All the Railways". H. G. > Collins, 1852. 488. Under Coke of Norfolk, the great-nephew and heir of the builder, extensive improvements were made to the park and by his death in 1842 it had grown to its present extent of over . As well as planting over a million trees on the estate Coke employed the architect Samuel Wyatt to design over a number of buildings,Martins, Susanna Wade. "A Great Estate At Work: The Holkham Estate and its Inhabitants in the Nineteenth Century". Cambridge University Press, 1980. 155. including a series of farm buildings and farmhouses in a simplified neo-classical style and, in the 1780s, the new walled kitchen gardens covering . The gardens stand to the west of the lake and include: A fig house, a peach house, a vinery, and other greenhouses. Wyatt's designs culminated in c. 1790 with the Great Barn, located in the park half a mile south-east of the obelisk. The cost of each farm was in the region of £1,500 to £2,600: Lodge Farm, Castle Acre, cost £2,604 6s. 5d. in 1797–1800. The lake to the west of the house, originally a marshy inlet or creek off the North Sea, was created in 1801–1803 by the landscape gardener William Eames. After his death, Coke was commemorated by the Leicester Monument, designed by William Donthorne and erected in 1845–1848Hassall, W. O. "Ilexes at Holkham". Garden History, Volume 6, No. 1, 1978. 58–60. at a cost to the tenants of the estate of £4,000. The monument consists of a Corinthian column high, surmounted by a drum supporting a wheatsheaf and a plinth decorated with bas- reliefs carved by John Henning Jr. The corners of the plinth support sculptures of an ox, sheep, plough and seed-drill. Coke's work to increase farm yields had resulted in the rental income of the estate rising between 1776 and 1816 from £2,200 to £20,000, and had considerable influence on agricultural methods in Britain. In 1850, Thomas Coke, 2nd Earl of Leicester, called in the architect William Burn to build new stables to the east of the house, in collaboration with W. A. Nesfield, who had designed the parterres. Work started at the same time on the terraces surrounding the house. This work continued until 1857 and included, to the south and on axis with the house, the monumental fountain of Saint George and the Dragon dated c. 1849–57 sculpted by Charles Raymond Smith. To the east of the house and overlooking the terrace, Burn designed the large stone orangery, with a three-bay pedimented centre and three-bay flanking wings. The orangery is now roofless and windowless. ==Holkham today== The cost of the construction of Holkham is thought to have been in the region of £90,000.Dickinson, H. T. "A Companion to Eighteenth-Century Britain". WileyBlackwell, 2002. 321. This vast cost nearly ruined the heirs of the 1st Earl, but had the result that they were financially unable to alter the house to suit the whims of taste. Thus, the house has remained almost untouched since its completion in 1764. Today, this perfect, if severe, example of Palladianism is at the heart of a thriving private estate of some . Though open to the public on Sundays, Mondays and Thursdays, it is still the family home of the Earls of Leicester of Holkham."A Microcosm of Old England". Evening Gazette, Middlesbrough, England. 24 September 2005. 22. ==See also== *Art collections of Holkham Hall *Noble Households – book with inventory of Holkham Hall of 1760 ==Notes== ==References and further reading== *Angelicoussis, E. (2001). The Holkham collection of classical sculptures (Mainz) *Brettingham, Matthew (1761). The Plans, Elevations and Sections, of Holkham in Norfolk. London: J. Haberkorn. *Cornforth, John (200), Early Georgian Interiors. New Haven, CT.; London: Yale University Press for the Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art, pp. 313–24 *Cropplestone, Trewin (1963). World Architecture. London: Hamlyn. *Halliday, E. E. (1967). Cultural History of England. London: Thames & Hudson. *Hiskey, Christine (1997). "The Building of Holkham Hall: Newly Discovered Letters." Architectural History vol. 40. *Hussey, Christopher (1955). English Country Houses: Early Georgian 1715–1760 London, Country Life. (Pages 131–146.) *Hussey, Christopher (1967). English Gardens and Landscapes 1700–1750 London: Country Life. (Pages 45–6.) *Murdoch, Tessa (ed.) (2006). Noble Households: Eighteenth-Century Inventories of Great English Houses. A Tribute to John Cornforth. Cambridge: John Adamson, pp. 207–31 *Nicolson, Nigel (1965). Great Houses of Britain. London: Hamlyn. *Pevsner, Nicholas, and Bill Wilson (1999). Norfolk 2: North-West and South. The Buildings of England. London: Penguin. (Pages 413–424.) *Robinson, John Martin (1983). Georgian Model Farms: A Study of Decorative and Model Farm Buildings in the Age of Improvement 1700–1846. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Page 127.) *Schmidt, Leo and others (2005). "Holkham". Munich; Berlin; London; New York: Prestel. *Summerson, John (1954). Architecture in Britain, 1530 to 1830. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books. *Wilson, Michael I. (1984). William Kent: Architect, Designer, Painter, Gardener, 1685–1748. London, Routledge & Kegan Paul. ==External links== *Holkham Hall Estate *Holkham Hall entry from The DiCamillo Companion to British & Irish Country Houses * Category:1764 establishments in England Category:Agriculture museums in the United Kingdom Category:Art museums and galleries in Norfolk Category:Coke family Category:Country houses in Norfolk Category:Gardens by Capability Brown Category:Gardens in Norfolk Category:Grade I listed buildings in Norfolk Category:Grade I listed houses Category:History museums in Norfolk Category:Houses completed in 1764 Category:Historic house museums in Norfolk Category:Museums in Norfolk Category:Palladian architecture Category:Tourist attractions in Norfolk Category:Transport museums in England Category:Holkham |
Melton Mowbray () is a town and unparished area in the Melton district in Leicestershire, England, north-east of Leicester, and south-east of Nottingham. It lies on the River Eye, known below Melton as the Wreake. The town had a population of 27,670 in 2019. The town is sometimes promoted as Britain's "Rural Capital of Food"; it is the home of the Melton Mowbray pork pie and is the location of one of six licensed makers of Stilton cheese. ==History== ===Toponymy=== The name comes from the early English word Medeltone – meaning 'Middletown surrounded by small hamlets' (as do Milton and Middleton). Mowbray is the Norman family name of early Lords of the Manor – namely Robert de Mowbray. ===Early history=== In and around Melton, there are 28 scheduled ancient monuments, some 705 buildings of special architectural or historical interest, 16 sites of special scientific interest, and several deserted village sites.Essays in Leicestershire History, W. G. Hoskins.The Depopulation Returns for Leicestershire 1607, L. A. Parker. Its industrial archaeology includes the Grantham Canal and remains of the Melton Mowbray Navigation. Windmill sites and signs of ironstone working and smelting suggest that the site was densely populated in the Bronze and Iron Ages. Many small communities existed and strategic points at Burrough Hill and Belvoir were fortified. ===Roman times=== In Roman times, Melton benefited from proximity to the Fosse Way and other major Roman roads, and to military centres at Leicester and Lincoln. Intermediate camps were established, for example, at Six Hills on the Fosse Way. Other Roman trackways passed north of Melton along the scarp of the Vale of Belvoir linking Market Harborough to Belvoir, and south to Oakham and Stamford. ===Danelaw=== Evidence of settlement in the Anglo-Saxon and 8th–9th-century Danelaw periods shows in place names. Along the Wreake Valley, the Danish suffix "-by" is common, e.g. in Asfordby, Dalby, Frisby, Hoby, Rearsby and Gaddesby. A cemetery of 50–60 graves of pagan Anglo- Saxon origin has been found in Melton Mowbray. Most villages and their churches had origins before the Norman Conquest of 1066, shown by stone crosses at Asfordby and Sproxton and Anglo-Saxon cemeteries at Goadby Marwood, Sysonby and Stapleford. Melton Mowbray had six recorded crosses from several centuries: (i) Kettleby Cross near today's filling station near the junction of Dalby Road and Leicester Road, (ii) Sheep Cross at Spital End, now Nottingham Street/Park Road junction, (iii) Corn Cross at Swine Lane/Spittle End junction, remade and re-erected at the Nottingham St/High St junction in 1996 as a memorial to the Royal Army Veterinary Corps, (iv) Butter Cross or High Cross at the west end of Beast Market, again rebuilt from remains of an original Saxon cross in 1986–1987 in the Market Place, (v) Sage Cross at the East end of the Beast Market close to Saltgate, in Sherrard Street opposite Sage Cross Street, and (vi) Thorpe Cross at the end of Saltgate, near the junction of Thorpe Road and Saxby Road. The original crosses were removed or destroyed during the Reformation and other iconoclastic periods, or to make room for traffic or other development.Philip E Hunt, The Story of Melton Mowbray Retrieved 4 October 2011. ===Post-conquest=== left|thumb| Anne of Cleves house The effects of the Norman Conquest recorded in the 1086 Domesday Book show that settlements at Long Clawson and Bottesford were of noteworthy size, and that Melton Mowbray a thriving market town of some 200 inhabitants, with weekly markets, two water mills and two priests. The mills, still in use up to the 18th century, are remembered in the names of Beckmill Court and Mill Street. Melton has thus been a market town for over 1,000 years. Recorded as Leicestershire's only market in the 1086 Domesday Survey, it is the third oldest market in England. Tuesday has been market day since royal approval was given in 1324. The market was founded with tolls before 1077. Legacies from the middle ages include consolidation of village and market-town patterns – in Melton Mowbray, Bottesford, Wymondham and Waltham-on-the-Wolds. The last had a mediaeval market which survived until 1921, and an annual fair of horses and cattle. Many buildings in Melton Market Place, Nottingham Street, Church Lane, King Street and Sherrard Street have ancient foundations. Alterations to No. 16 Church Street revealed a medieval circular stone wall subjected to considerable heat. This is probably the Manor Oven mentioned in 13th-century documents. Surveys of 5 King Street show it belonged to an early medieval open-halled house. It may have been part of the 14th-century castle or fortified manor of the Mowbrays. King Richard I and King John visited the town and may have stayed at an earlier castle. In 1549, after the Dissolution of chantries, monasteries and religious guilds, church plate was sold and land bought for the town. Resulting rents were used to maintain Melton School, first recorded in 1347, making it one of the oldest in Britain. Funds were also used to maintain roads and bridges and repair the church clock. ===Civil War=== During the English Civil War, Melton was a Roundhead garrison commanded by a Colonel Rossiter. Two battles were fought: in November 1643, Royalists caught the garrison unaware and carried away prisoners and booty; in February 1645, Sir Marmaduke Langdale, commanding a Royalist force of 1,500 men, inflicted severe losses on the Roundheads. Some 300 men were said to have been killed. Legend has it that the hillside where the battle was fought was ankle deep in blood, hence the name Ankle Hill. However, the name appears in documents from before the Civil War and the names of Dalby Road and Ankle Hill have been switched, so confusing the true site of the battle. Local notable families seem to have had divided loyalties, though the Civil War ended with rejoicings outside the Limes in Sherrard Street, home of Sir Henry Hudson. His father, Robert Hudson, founded the Maison Dieu almshouses opposite the Church in 1640, complementing the stone Anne of Cleves House opposite. This was built in 1384 and housed chantry priests until the Dissolution. It was then included in the estates of Anne of Cleves by Henry VIII, as a divorce settlement in the 16th century, although there is local debate about whether she ever stayed there. A Grade II* listed building, it is now a public house owned by Everards, a Leicester brewery. ===Modern period=== On 6 April 1837, the 3rd Marquess of Waterford and a hunting party went on a spree through Melton streets causing much damage, according to the London Examiner. Henry Alken's pictures A Spree at Melton Mowbray and Larking at the Grantham Tollgate are said to illustrate this. They featured also in a play, The Meltonians, at The Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in 1838. This incident supposedly either engendered or popularised the phrase 'to paint the town red'. In 1942–1964, RAF Melton Mowbray lay to the south towards Great Dalby. The Class A airfield had been intended for aircraft maintenance, but was taken over by RAF Transport Command. In 1946–1958, it was used as a displaced persons camp by the Polish Resettlement Corps. Melton Mowbray served as a Thor strategic missile site in 1958–1963, when 254(SM) Squadron operated a flight of three nuclear missiles from the base. ==Produce== thumb|A slice of blue Stilton cheese, cut from a wheel made in the traditional cylindrical shape Stilton cheese originated as a commercial venture developed to manufacture cheese for sale at the village of Stilton in Cambridgeshire, which has led to claims that the cheese itself originated outside that village. Historical evidence suggests an evolution of the cheese over many years, with some sourced from Melton Mowbray or surroundings. Stilton is still made in the town at the Tuxford & Tebbutt creamery, one of only six dairies licensed to do so. Makers in Cambridgeshire cannot call their cheese Stilton, even if it is made there. The earliest reference cited is Daniel Defoe, who in 1724 called the cheese he ate at Stilton "the English Parmesan". Growth of business from travellers on the Great North Road and from sales to London led to a need to source more cheese from further afield, including the Melton region, and over time the modern blue cheese developed. Melton Mowbray pork pies are made by a specific "hand- raising" process and recipe. On 4 April 2008 the European Union awarded the Melton Mowbray pork pie Protected Geographical Indication status, after a long-standing application made by the Melton Mowbray Pork Pie Association. Only pies made in a designated zone round Melton using uncured pork may bear the Melton Mowbray name. The pork was originally a by-product of cheese making as the whey was fed to pigs. Melton Mowbray is home to Melton cloth, a tightly woven fabric first mentioned in 1823, heavily milled with a nap raised to a short, dense non-lustrous pile. Sailors' pea coats are traditionally made of it, as are the commonly worn workmen's donkey jackets of Britain and Ireland, and loggers' "cruising jackets" and Mackinaws in North America. ==Governance== Melton is part of Rutland and Melton parliamentary constituency. The MP is currently Alicia Kearns (Conservatives). The town has been the main settlement since the formation of the Borough of Melton local government district in 1974. It sends three councillors to Leicestershire County Council from wards of Melton East, Melton West and Melton Wolds. ===Town Estate=== Melton Mowbray contains a rare example of early town government. The Melton Mowbray Town Estate was founded in 1549, during the Reformation, when two townsfolk sold silver and plate sequestered from the church and bought land to be held in trust for all inhabitants. It provided early forms of education and the first street lighting, and still owns and keeps the town's parks, sports grounds and market. From its inception, the running of the Town Estate was undertaken by Town Wardens. In 1989, a new Scheme of Arrangement drawn up by the Charity Commission after public consultation transferred management to a body of 14 Feoffees, two of whom are known as Senior and Junior Town Warden. Nowadays the Town Warden position is titular, as the public face of the Town Estate on civic or ceremonial occasions. ===Demography=== Melton Mowbray's 1,766 inhabitants in 1801 rose by 1831 to 3,327, by 1841 to 3,740, by 1851 to 4,434, and by 1861 to 4,436. Melton Mowbray's official web site listed the 2009 population of the town as 25,276 and that of Melton Borough as 46,861. ==Economy== Before 1960, the Production Engineering Research Association of Great Britain came to Nottingham Road and employed about 400 people in supporting research and development in industry. It is also houses the East Midlands Manufacturing Advisory Service. The former East Midlands Regional Assembly was also based in Nottingham Road. Petfoods arrived in 1951 as Chappie Ltd, employing at its peak over 2,000. It still employs about 1,000. The firm changed its name to Petfoods in 1957, to Pedigree Petfoods in 1972, and to Masterfoods in January 2002. At Melton, it makes four million items of pet food a day, though this is less than earlier. Masterfoods now has its UK headquarters close to Melton at Waltham-on-the-Wolds. The uPVC windows and door manufacturer TruFrame Trade Frames Ltd relocated from Market Harborough to Saxby Road Industrial Estate, Melton, in December 1999. It was employing about 170 people in August 2013. ==Landmarks== St Mary's Church dates mainly from the 13th–15th centuries. It has been described as "one of the finest parish churches in Leicestershire". ==Entertainment and facilities== right|thumb|Melton Regal Cinema The Melton Carnegie Museum was refurbished in 2010 to cover the history of the town. Included are sounds from the ages, a history of the hunt, a preserved phone box, a buried Saxon, and shrapnel from World War II. The Melton Band, a traditional British-style brass band, can trace its directors back to 1856, and was until recently called Melton Borough Band. The colourful Melton Mowbray Toy Soldiers Marching Band was formed in 1936. Happy Jazz – a Dixieland jazz band – had its headquarters in the town in 1996–2014. The Melton Mowbray Tally Ho Band formed in 1936 and the mixed brass and woodwind Tornado Brass in the 1980s. Some of Melton's many pubs, such as the Generous Britain or Jenny B, continue to encourage live music. The Noels Arms free house was Melton Mowbray District CAMRA Pub of the Year in 2014 and was also briefly home to Gasdog Brewery. One of Melton's oldest surviving pubs, with features from the early fourteenth century, is the Anne of Cleves in Burton Street, close to St Mary's Church; once home to chantry monks, the building was passed after the Dissolution to Anne of Cleves as part of her divorce settlement. The town cinema, The Regal in King Street, occupies a purpose-built theatre complete with period interior design, sumptuous colours, winding staircases and fancy plasterwork. It re-opened in 2013 after refurbishment. Concerts have been held at the Carousel Bandstand in Melton Mowbray Park since August 1909. They take place on summer Sundays. Melton's radio station, 103 FM The Eye, broadcasts to Melton Borough and the Vale of Belvoir and parts of Rushcliffe Borough. It can also be heard on the internet. When launched in 2005, it was the first in the UK to go on the air under the new tier of community radio, licensed by the broadcasting regulator OFCOM. The station has since won awards for its work. It is named after the local River Eye. The Stapleford Miniature Railway, built in 1958, is a private, steam- hauled passenger railway at Stapleford Park about to the east of Melton Mowbray. Famous for a fleet of steam locos and its scenic location, it attracts visitors and tourists for two public charity events each year. It has the same gauge as the Town Estates railway around Play Close Park in Melton. Also to the north-east of Melton is the Twinlakes Theme Park, with a range of family attractions and rides. The Waterfield Leisure Pools include a gym and fitness suite, as well as swimming. The library in Wilton Road is close to the town centre. Adjacent is Melton Theatre, part of Brooksby Melton College, on the junction with Asfordby Road. The theatre, first opened in 1976, was recently refurbished. In the past few years, it has produced ballet, opera and stage plays and provided a venue for bands and acts, pantomime and art shows. Melton has a fire station, a police station, and a hospital that includes St Mary's Maternity Centre. The War Memorial Hospital off Ankle Hill, originally Wyndham Lodge, was donated to the town in 1920 by Colonel Richard Dalgliesh. It was sold in 2010 to help fund St Mary's Hospital. Melton Country Park provides green space. ==Education== thumb|250px| The former King Edward VII School, Melton Mowbray The town's secondary schools are Long Field Academy and John Ferneley College for pupils aged 11–16 and the Melton Vale Post 16 Centre (MV16) for sixth-formers. Its primary schools are Brownlow, Grove, St Francis RC, St Mary's C of E, Sherard and Swallowdale. Birchwood Special School caters for pupils of primary and secondary-school age. Melton's largest school was the King Edward VII, which at one time had some 2,000 pupils aged 11–19. It was founded as a grammar school in 1910, became comprehensive in the late 1960s, and closed after reaching its centenary. Brooksby Melton College provides vocational, further and higher education in a wide range of subjects at a campus in Asfordby Road and at its Brooksby campus out of town. ==Transport== ===Road=== Two main roads intersecting at Melton Mowbray are the A606 between Nottingham and Oakham and the A607 between Leicester and Grantham. Other roads include the A6006 from Asfordby, the second section of the B676 road to Colsterworth, and the B6047 road to Market Harborough, which starts in Melton. ===Rail=== Melton Mowbray railway station, on the Birmingham to Stansted Airport line, also serves Leicester, Peterborough and Cambridge. Trains run hourly. The station offers peak-hour trains to and from Nottingham, Norwich and Sleaford. It is managed by East Midlands Railway, but most services are run by CrossCountry, which intends to enhance its service gradually to half-hourly on this route. Since early 2009, East Midlands Trains has offered a single daily journey from Melton Mowbray to London St Pancras and return. This is notable for being the first regular passenger service to cross the historic Welland Viaduct since 1966. In 2010, the company introduced a single daily return journey to Derby. ===Buses=== Arriva Midlands provide frequent buses to Leicester on service 5A. Centrebus are the main operator of bus services around the town, with some longer-distance routes operating to Syston, Grantham, Loughborough, and Oakham. The service to Nottingham was withdrawn in April 2022. ==Sports== Greyhound racing was held at a stadium on the north side of Saxby Road in 1946–1969. Motorcycle speedway racing was held at the Greyhound Stadium in 1949–1950. The cinder track was laid before and lifted after each meeting. The events, staged on a Sunday, were opposed by the Lord's Day Observance Society for a short time. The stadium was also the venue for a few meetings in 1950 when the Melton Lions faced select teams. Melton Town Football Club competes in the United Counties League Premier Division North, step five in the English Football Pyramid. Known as the Pork Pie Army, they play their home games at Melton Sports Village on a recently installed FIFA Pro Quality 3G pitch. The ground is currently sponsored by local firm Sign Right Creative and the club are coached by Player/Manager Tom Manship. Melton Rugby club competes in Midlands 3 East. The town has its own Sunday Football League, in which some 15 teams compete every Sunday. Asfordby Hill is home to Holwell Sports, which plays in the Leicestershire Senior League premier division. Leicestershire County Cricket Club played first-class cricket at Egerton Park in 1946–1948. There is a parkrun (held in the country park every Saturday morning) and a junior parkrun (held in Play Close Park every Sunday morning). ==Notable people== ===Arts and music=== ===Sport=== ===Stage/screen=== ===Other=== ==Gallery== Image:MeltonNttmRdRH.jpg|Approaching the Market from Nottingham Street Image:Melton Mowbray Butter Cross Rebuilt.JPG|Melton Mowbray butter cross (reconstructed) Image:AnneMeltonRH.JPG|Anne of Cleves public house Image:ColesHallMeltonRH.JPG|The former Coles Hall Image:MeltonManchestersRH.JPG|Rear of the old tourist office, now Melton Toys Image:Melton Mowbray River and Footbridge.JPG|River Eye and footbridge Image:Melton Mowbray Harboro Hotel.JPG|Harboro Hotel Image:Melton Mowbray Burton Street.JPG|Burton Street Image:Melton Mowbray Swan Porch 2011.JPG|Swan porch Image:Melton Mowbray Wesleyan Centenery Buildings.JPG|Wesleyan Centenary Buildings (Sage Cross Methodist Church and Community Centre) Image:MeltonBabtist.JPG|Reused Baptist chapel on Nottingham Street Image:Melton Mowbray The Generous Briton.JPG|The Generous Briton ==See also== *Melton Mowbray Pork Pie Association *Melton, Victoria, Australia ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * *Melton Online *Melton Borough Council services *Melton Tourist information Category:Towns in Leicestershire Category:Unparished areas in Leicestershire Category:Former civil parishes in Leicestershire Category:Borough of Melton |
The List of the Knights of the Order of the Holy Spirit presents the chronological list of knights and commanders of the most important French Order of the Holy Spirit, established by Henry III (1578), abolished under the French Revolution (1791), re-established under the Restoration (1814), abolished in turn by the July Monarchy (1830). == Under Henry III == Henry III was the founder of the order, First sovereign chief of the order. === First promotion (31 December 1578) === * Prelates received on 31 December, in the Church of the Grands-Augustins, in Paris : ** Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon, prince du sang, cardinal (1548), former bishop of Nantes (1550–1554), archbishop of Rouen (1550-1590), Papal legate in Avignon (1565–1590) then bishop-count of Beauvais (1569–1575) and peer of France. ** Louis de Lorraine, Cardinal of Guise, archbishop of Reims. ** René de Birague, Chancellor of France (1573), cardinal (1578), bishop of Lodève (1573 - 1580), later bishop of Lavaur (1582-1583). ** Philippe de Lenoncourt, former bishop of Châlons, bishop of Auxerre (1560–62) and bishop emeritus of Auxerre (1562–92), cardinal (1586), peer of France. ** Pierre de Gondi, cardinal, bishop of Paris. ** Charles de Perusse des Cars, Duke and bishop of Langres. ** René de Daillon du Lude, Abbot of Notre-Dame-des-Châteliers, former bishop of Luçon (1553-1562), later bishop of Bayeux (1590–1600). ** Jacques Amyot, bishop of Auxerre and Grand Almoner of France. * Knights received on the same day : ** Louis IV Gonzaga, prince of Mantoue, Duke of Nevers, Peer of France. ** Philippe Emmanuel de Lorraine, Duke of Mercœur, Peer of France. ** Jacques II de Crussol, Duke of Uzès, Peer of France. ** Charles de Lorraine, Duke of Aumale, Peer of France. ** Honorat II of Savoy, marquess de Villars, marshal of France and admiral of France ** Artus de Cossé-Brissac, Marshal of France and Grand Panetier of France. ** , Lord of Crèvecoeur and Bonnivet. ** , Count of Escars. ** , Lord of Piennes, Marquess of Meignelais, later Duke of Halluin and Peer of France. ** , Lord of Barbézieux. ** Jean d'Escars, prince of Carency. ** , Marquess of Trainel. ** François Le Roy de la Baussonnière, Count of Clinchamp, lieutenant of the lands of Anjou, Touraine and Maine. ** Scipion de Fiesque, Count of Lavagne, Honorary Knight of Queen Catherine de' Medici. ** Antoine, sire de Pons, comte de Marennes, captain of the 100 Gentlemen of la maison du Roi. ** Jacques d'Humières sieur de Monchy, marquis d'Ancre, governor of Péronne. ** Jean VI d'Aumont, comte de Châteauroux, marshal of France. ** Jean de Chourses, seigneur de Malicorne, governor of Poitou. ** Albert de Gondi, comte, then duc de Retz, marshal of France and général of the galleys. ** René de Villequier, governor of Paris and Isle de France. ** Jean Blosset, baron de Torcy, governor of Paris and Isle de France. ** Claude de Villequier, vicomte de la Guerche. ** Antoine d'Estrées, marquis de Cœuvres, Grand master of the Artillery of France. ** Charles-Robert de La Marck, comte de Braine and Maulévrier, captain of the Swiss Guards. ** François de Balsac, seigneur d'Entragues, governor of Orléans. ** Philibert de La Guiche, seigneur de Chaumont, Grand master of the Artillery of France. ** Philippe Strozzi, colonel-général of the French Infantry. === Second promotion (21 December 1579) === * Knights received on 31 December, in the Church of the Grands-Augustins, in Paris. ** François de Bourbon, prince de Conti. ** François de Bourbon, prince dauphin d'Auvergne, duc de Saint-Fargeau, then of Montpensier, pair de France. ** Henri I de Lorraine, duc de Guise, Grand Master of France. ** Louis de Saint-Gelais, dit de Lusignan, honorary Knight of Queen Catherine de Médicis. ** Jean d'Ebrard, baron de Saint-Sulpice. ** Jacques II de Goyon, seigneur de Matignon, comte de Torigny, marshal of France. ** Bertrand de Salignac, seigneur de la Mothe-Fénelon, ambassador to England. === Third promotion (21 December 1580) === * Knights received on 31 December, in the Church of Saint-Sauveur de Blois. ** François de Luxembourg, Duke of Piney-Luxembourg, prince de Tingry, pair de France, ambassador in Rome ** Charles de Birague, State councilor. ** Jean de Léaumont, seigneur de Puygaillard, Marshal General of France. ** René de Rochechouart, baron de Mortemar and seigneur de Lussac. ** Henri de Lénoncourt, private councilor to the King, maréchal de camp. ** Nicolas d'Angennes, seigneur de Rambouillet, vidame du Mans, captain of the Life Guards of King Charles IX, ambassador in Germany and Rome. === Fourth promotion (21 December 1581) === * Knights received on 31 December, in the Church of the Grands-Augustins, in Paris : ** Charles I de Lorraine, duc d'Elbeuf, Grand Squire of France, Grand Huntsman and pair of France. ** Armand de Gontaut-Biron, marshal of France. ** Guy de Daillon, comte du Lude, governor of Poitou and sénéchal of Rouergue. ** François de La Baume, comte de Suze, governor of Provence. ** Antoine de Levis, comte de Quélus, governor of Rouergue. ** Jean de Thévalle, seigneur d'Aviré and Bouillé, governor of Metz. ** Louis d'Angennes, baron de Meslay, seigneur de Maintenon, grand-marshal of the King's chambers. === Fifth promotion (21 December 1582) === * Knights received on 31 December, in the Church of the Grands-Augustins, in Paris : ** Charles de Lorraine, duc de Mayenne, admiral and Grand Chamberlain of France. ** Anne de Joyeuse, pair and admiral de France. ** Jean Louis de Nogaret de La Valette, duc d'Epernon, colonel-général of the French Infantery. ** Tanneguy le Veneur, comte de Tillières, lieutenant général in Normandie. ** Jean de Moy, seigneur de la Meilleraye, vice-admiral of France, lieutenant général in Normandie. ** Philippe de Volvire, marquis de Ruffec, governor of Angoumois. ** François de Mandelot, vicomte de Châlons, governor of Lyonnais. ** Tristan de Rostaing, baron de la Guerche, Grand-master of the waters and forests of France. ** Jean-Jacques de Susanne, comte de Cerny. === Sixth promotion (21 December 1583) === * Prelate received on 31 December, in the Church of the Grands- Augustins, in Paris : ** Charles de Lorraine, cardinal de Vaudemont, bishop and count of Toul. *Knights received on the same day : ** Honorat de Bueil, seigneur de Fontaines, vice-admiral of France, lieutenant général in Bretagne. ** René de Rochefort, baron de Frôlois, governor of Blésois. ** Jean de Vivonne, marquis de Pisany, sénéchal of Saintonge. ** Louis Chasteigner, seigneur de la Rocheposay, governor of la Marche. ** Bernard de Nogaret, seigneur de la Valette, then Admiral of France. ** Henri de Joyeuse, comte du Bouchage, then duc de Joyeuse, pair and marshal of France. ** Nicolas de Grimonville, seigneur de Larchant, captain of the 100 Archers of the King's Guard. ** Louis d'Amboise, comte d'Aubijoux. ** François de La Valette, seigneur de Cornusson, governor and sénéchal of Toulouse. ** François de Cazillac, baron de Cessac. ** Joachim de Dinteville, lieutenant général of the government of Champagne. ** Joachim de Châteauvieux, comte de Confolant, honorary Knight of Queen Marie de Médicis. ** Charles de Balsac, seigneur de Clermont d'Entragues. ** Charles du Plessis, seigneur de Liancourt, then marquis de Guercheville and comte de Beaumont-sur-Oise, governor of Paris. ** François de Chabanes, marquis de Curton, lieutenant général in Auvergne. ** Robert de Combault, first master of the King's chambers. ** François, seigneur de Sénectaire (or Saint-Nectaire) and la Ferté-Nabert. === Seventh promotion (21 December 1584) === * Knights received on 31 December, in the Church of the Grands-Augustins, in Paris : ** Jean de Saint-Larry, baron de Termes, maréchal de camp and governor of Metz. ** Jean de Vienne, baron de Ruffey, governor of Bourbonnais. ** Louis de Castellanne, named Adhémar de Monteil, comte de Grignan, lieutenant général in Provence. === Eighth promotion (21 December 1585) === * Knights received on 31 December, in the Church of the Grands- Augustins, in Paris : ** Charles de Bourbon, comte de Soissons pair and grand- master of France. ** Jean, seigneur de Vassé, baron de la Roche-Mabille. ** Adrien Tiercelin, seigneur de Brosse and Sarcus, then lieutenant général in Champagne. ** François Chabot, marquis de Mirebeau, comte de Charny. ** Gilles de Souvré, marquis de Courtenvaux, marshal of France. ** François d'O, seigneur de Fresnes, first gentleman of the King's chamber, Superintendent of Finances, governor of Paris and Isle de France. ** Claude de La Châtre, baron de la Maisonfort, then marshal of France. ** Giraud de Mauléon, seigneur de Gourdan, governor of Calais. ** Jacques de Loubens, seigneur de Verdalle. ** Louis de Berton, seigneur de Crillon, named le Brave, mestre de camp of the Guards' regiment. ** Jean d'Angennes, seigneur de Poigny, ambassador in Savoy and Vienna. ** François de La Jugie du Puy-Duval, seigneur and baron de Rieux, governor of Narbonne. ** François-Louis d'Agoût de Montauban, comte de Sault. ** Guillaume de Saulx, vicomte de Tavannes, lieutenant général in Bourgogne. ** Meri de Barbezières, seigneur de la Roche-Chémeraut, grand-marshal of the King's chambers. ** François du Plessis, father of the cardinal, grand-provost and captain of the Life Guards. ** Gabriel Nompar de Caumont, comte de Lauzun. ** Hector de Pardaillan, seigneur de Montespan and Gondrin. ** Louis de Champagne, comte de la Suze au Maine. ** René de Bouillé, comte de Crancé, governor of Périgueux. ** Louis Du Bois, seigneur des Arpentis, governor of Touraine. ** Jean d'O, seigneur de Manou, captain of the 100 Archers of the King's Guard. ** Henri de Silly, comte de La Rocheguyon, damoiseau de Commercy. ** Antoine de Bauffremont, named de Vienne, marquis d'Arc en Barrois. ** Jean du Chastelet, seigneur de Thon, governor of Langres. ** François d'Escoubleau, seigneur de Sourdis, then marquis d'Alluye, first squire of the great stable. ** Charles d'Ongnies, comte de Chaulnes. ** David Bouchard, vicomte d'Aubeterre, governor of Périgord. === Ninth promotion (21 December 1586) === * Knights received on 31 December, in the Church of the Grands-Augustins, in Paris : ** Georges de Villequier, vicomte de la Guierche. ** Jacques de Mouy, seigneur de Pierrecourt, state councilor. ** Charles de Vivonne, seigneur de la Chasteigneraye, sénéchal of Saintonge. ** Jacques le Veneur, comte de Tillières, lieutenant général of Haute-Normandie. === Tenth promotion (21 December 1587) === * Prelate received on 31 December 1587 : ** François de Foix-Candale, bishop of Aire. === During the reign of Henry III, Knights and commanders appointed without having been received === Several eminent personages were appointed Knight or Commander of the Order of the Holy Spirit during the reign of Henry III, without having been received, and therefore they cannot be counted as members of the order. However, as proof of their appointments exists either in the archives of the order itself, or in the genealogies of the great officers of the crown, it seemed necessary to recall their names. ==== Year 1578 ==== * Prelate : ** Louis, cardinal d'Este, named commander on 31 December. * Knights : ** François de France, duc d'Alençon. ** Louis II de Bourbon duc de Montpensier. ** Jacques de Savoie, duc de Nemours. ** François de Montmorency, duc de Montmorency, pair de France, Marshal of France and Grand Master of France. ** Léonor Chabot, Grand Squire of France. ** Guillaume II, vicomte de Joyeuse, lieutenant général of the government of Languedoc, Marshal of France. ** Laurent de Maugiron, lieutenant général of the Dauphiné. ** René de Tournemine, baron de La Hunaudaye. ** Gaspard de Montmorin, seigneur de Saint-Hérem. ** Jean de Losse, governor of Verdun. ** Claude Motier de la Fayette, seigneur de Hautefeuille. ** Gilbert III de Lévis, comte de Ventadour, governor of Limousin and then of Lyonnais, pair de France. ==== Year 1580 ==== * Knights : ** Charles de Vendôme de Rubempré, governor of Rue. ** Jean de Pontevés, baron de Cotignac, grand sénéchal and admiral of Provence. ** Jean de Rieux, marquis d'Asserac. ==== Year 1582 ==== * Knight: ** Charles de Belleville, comte de Cosnac, lieutenant général in Saintonge. ==== Year 1584 ==== * Knights: ** Jean Louis de La Rochefoucauld, comte de Randan. ** Charles de Mouy, seigneur de la Meilleraye, vice-admiral of France. ==== Year 1585 ==== * Knights: ** Michel de Castelnau, seigneur de Mauvissère, ambassador in England, governor of Saint-Dizier. ** Hector Renaud de Durfort, comte Launac. ** François de Brailly, seigneur de Mainvilliers. ==== Year 1587 ==== * Knight: **Christophe, baron de Bassompierre. ==== Year 1588 ==== * Commander : ** François de Joyeuse, archbishop of Narbonne, cardinal. * Knights : ** Philippe d'Angennes, seigneur de Fargis, governor of Maine. ** René du Bellay, prince d'Yvetot. ** Artus de Maillé, seigneur de Brézé, governor of Anjou. == Under Henri IV == Henri IV, second sovereign head of the order, did not receive the collar until his coronation, 28 February 1594, and during this interval made the most senior chevalier to preside in his place (it was Marshal de Biron, the father, who presided in the absence of the king). === First promotion (31 December 1591) === * Prelate received in the Mantes church : ** Renaud de Beaune, archbishop of Bourges, then of Sens, Grand Almoner of France. * Knight : ** Charles de Gontaut, baron de Biron, Marshal General of France, then duc de Biron, pair and Marshal of France. === Second promotion (7 December 1595) === * Prelates received in the Grands-Augustins church in Paris : ** Philippe du Bec, archbishop and duc de Reims. ** Henri d'Escoubleau de Sourdis (1548-1615), bishop of Maillezais. * Knights : ** Henri de Bourbon, duc de Montpensier, pair de France, governor of Normandy. ** Henri d'Orléans, duc de Longueville. ** François d'Orléans, comte de Saint-Pol, then duc de Fronsac. ** Antoine de Brichanteau, marquis de Nangis, colonel of the regiment of the French Guards, admiral of France, ambassador. ** Jean de Beaumanoir, marquis de Lavardin, then Marshal of France. ** François d'Espinay, seigneur de Saint- Luc, then Grand Master of the French artillery and governor of Brouage. ** Roger de Saint-Lary and Bellegarde, baron de Termes, Grand Squire of France, first gentleman of the King's chambers and then duc de Bellegarde. ** Henri d'Albret, comte de Marennes, baron de Miossens. ** Antoine, seigneur de Roquelaure, Marshal of France and lieutenant général in Guienne. ** Charles d'Humières, marquis d'Ancre, lieutenant général in Picardy. ** Guillaume de Hautemer, seigneur de Fervaques, comte de Grancey, Marshal of France. ** François de Cugnac, seigneur de Dampierre, Marshal General of France. ** Antoine de Silli, comte de la Rochepot, then governor of Anjou. ** Odet de Matignon, comte de Torigni, lieutenant-général in Normandy. ** François de La Grange, seigneur de Montigny, then Marshal of France. ** Charles de Balsac, baron de Dunes. ** Charles II de Cossé, comte, then duc de Brissac, Marshal of France. ** Pierre de Mornay, seigneur de Buhi, maréchal de camp and lieutenant général in Isle de France. ** François de la Magdelaine, marquis de Ragny, governor of Nivernais. ** Claude de l'Isle, seigneur de Marivaut, governor of Laon. ** Charles de Choiseul, marquis de Praslin, Marshal of France. ** Humbert de Marcilly, seigneur de Cipierre, Marshal General of France. ** Gilbert de Chazeron, governor of Lyonnais. ** René de Viau, seigneur de Chanlivaut, governor of Auxerrois. ** Claude Gruel, seigneur de la Frette, governor of Chartres. ** Georges Babou, seigneur de la Bourdaisière, captain of the 100 Gentlemen of la maison du Roi. === Third promotion (5 January 1597) === * Knights received in the church of the Saint-Ouen Abbey of Rouen : ** Henry I, duke of Montmorency, pair, Marshal and Constable of France. ** Hercule de Rohan, duc de Montbazon, comte de Rochefort, pair, Grand veneur of France and governor of Paris. ** Charles de Montmorency, baron, then duc de Damville, Admiral of France. ** Alphonse d'Ornano, colonel général of the Corsicans, Marshal of France. ** Urbain de Laval, seigneur de Bois-Dauphin, marquis de Sablé, Marshal of France. ** Charles II de Luxembourg, comte de Brienne and Roussy, governor of Metz. ** Gilbert de La Trémoille, marquis de Royan, comte d'Olonne, captain of the 100 Gentlemen of la maison du Roi and sénéchal of Poitou. ** Jacques Chabot, marquis de Mirebeau, comte de Charny, mestre de camp of the regiment of Champagne and lieutenant général in Bourgogne. ** Jean, sire de Bueil, comte de Sancerre and Marans, Grand- échanson de France. ** Guillaume de Gadagne, baron de Verdun, seigneur de Bouthéon, governor of Lyonnais. ** Louis de L'Hôpital, marquis de Vitry, captain of the King's Life guards, governor of Meaux. ** Pons de Lauzières- Thémines-Cardaillac, marquis de Thémines, sénéchal and governor of Quercy, Marshal of France. ** Louis d'Ognies, comte de Chaulnes, governor of Péronne, Montdidier and Roye. ** Edme de Malain, baron de Lux, lieutenant général in Bourgogne. ** Antoine d'Aumont de Rochebaron, comte de Châteauroux, marquis de Nolay, governor of Boulogne. ** Louis de La Châtre, baron de la Maisonfort, governor of Berry, then Marshal of France. ** Jean de Durfort, seigneur de Born, lieutenant général of the artillery of France. ** Louis de Bueil, seigneur de Racan, Marshal General of France, governor of Croizic. ** Claude d'Harville, seigneur de Paloiseau, baron de Nainville, governor of Compiègne and Calais. ** Eustache de Conflans, vicomte d'Ouchy, lieutenant général, governor of Saint-Quentin. ** Louis de Grimonville, seigneur de Larchant, governor of Evreux. ** Charles de Neufville, baron then marquis d'Alincourt and Villeroy, comte de Bury, Grand Marshal of the King's bedchamber and governor of Lyonnais. === Fourth promotion (2 January 1599) === * Knights received in the Grands-Augustins church in Paris. ** Anne de Lévis, duc de Ventadour, pair de France, governor of Limousin, lieutenant général of the government of Languedoc. ** Jacques Mitte de Chevrières, comte de Miolans, seigneur de Chévrières, baron de Saint-Chaumont, lieutenant général of the government of Lyonnais. ** Jean-François de Faudoas d'Averton, comte de Belin, governor of Ham, Paris and Calais. ** Bertrand de Baylens, baron de Poyanne, governor of Acqs and sénéchal of Bordeaux. ** René de Rieux, seigneur de Sourdéac, marquis d'Oixant (Ouessant), governor of Brest. ** Brandelis de Champagne, marquis de Villaines. ** Jacques de l'Hospital, marquis de Choisi, governor and sénéchal of Auvergne. ** Robert de La Vieuville, baron de Rugle, Grand Falconer of France, and governor of Reims. ** Charles de Matignon, comte de Torigni, lieutenant général in Basse-Normandie. ** François Juvénal des Ursins, marquis de Trainel, colonel of the French Reiters, Marshal General of France, ambassador in England. === Fifth promotion (1606) === * Prelate : ** Jacques Davy du Perron, cardinal archbishop of Sens, Grand Almoner of France === Sixth promotion (12 March 1608) === * Knights received in Rome : ** Alexandre Sforza-Conti, duc de Segni, prince de Valmontane, comte de Santafior ** Jean Antoine Ursin, duc de Santo-Gemini, prince de Scandriglia, and comte d'Ercole === During the reign of Henri IV, knights and commanders appointed and died without having been received === * Commandeur : ** Charles, cardinal de Bourbon, archbishop of Rouen. * Knights : ==== Year 1595 ==== * Anne d'Anglure, marquis de Givry * Michel d'Estourmel, seigneur de Guyencourt * Jean de Montluc, Marshal of France * Gaspard de Schomberg, colonel of the Reiters * Jean de Levis, seigneur de Mirepoix * Jean, marquis de Goetquen * Robert de Harlay * François de Senicourt ==== Year 1599 ==== * Sebastien marquis de Rosmadec ==== Year 1604 ==== * Henri de Noailles * Nicolas de Harlay * François de l'Isle * Jean-Paul d'Esparbès de Lussan * Bernard de Beon du Masses * Jean de Gontault * Jérôme de Gondi == Under Louis XIII == Louis XIII, third sovereign head of the order, received the collar on 18 October 1610, the day after his coronation. === First promotion (18 October 1610) === * Knight : ** Henri de Bourbon, II, Prince of Condé, first Peer and Grand Master of France === Second promotion (september 1618) === * Prelate : ** François de La Rochefoucauld, cardinal, Bishop of Senlis, Grand Almoner of France === Third promotion (31 December 1619) === * Prelates received in the Grands-Augustins Church in Paris : ** Henri de Gondi, cardinal of Retz, bishop of Paris, master of l'Oratoire du roi. ** Bertrand d'Eschaud, archbishop of Tours and first almoner of the King. ** Christophe de Lestang, bishop of Carcassonne and master of the King's chapel. ** Gabriel de L'Aubespine, bishop of Orléans. ** Arthur d'Épinay de Saint-Luc, bishop of Marseille. * Knights : ** Gaston Jean-Baptiste de France, duc d'Orléans, brother of King Louis XIII. ** Louis de Bourbon, comte de Soissons, pair and Grand-master of France, governor of Dauphiné. ** Charles de Lorraine, duc de Guise, pair de France, prince de Joinville, governor of Provence. ** Henri de Lorraine, duc de Mayenne and Aiguillon, pair and Grand Chamberlain of France, governor of Guyenne. ** Claude de Lorraine, prince de Joinville, duc de Chevreuse, pair and Grand Chamberlain of France, governor of Haute and Basse Marche. ** César, duc de Vendôme, Beaufort, Étampes and Ponthièvre, prince de Martigues, governor of Bretagne, pair and then Grand master and surintendant général of the navigation and commerce of France. ** Charles de Valois, duc d'Angoulême, comte d'Auvergne, etc., pair de France and colonel général of the light cavalry. ** Charles de Lorraine, duc d'Elbeuf, pair de France, governor of Picardie. ** Henri, duc de Montmorency, pair and admiral of France, governor of Languedoc, then Marshal of France. ** Emmanuel de Crussol, duc d'Uzès, pair de France, honorary knight of Queen Anne of Austria. ** Henri de Gondi, duc of Retz and Beaupreau, pair de France. ** Charles d'Albert, duc de Luynes, pair and Grand Falconer of France, governor of Picardie, Constable of France. ** Honoré d'Albert, duc de Chaulnes, pair and Marshal of France, governor of Picardie. ** Louis de Rohan, comte de Rochefort, then prince de Guémené, duc de Montbazon, pair and Grand veneur de France. ** Joachim de Bellengreville, seigneur de Neuville-Gambetz, de Bomicourt, etc., Provost of l'hôtel du Roi and of France. ** Martin III du Bellay, prince of Yvetot, marquis of Thouarcé, etc., lieutenant général in Normandy, then in Anjou, captain of 50 armed men of the Ordinances, Marshal General of France. ** Charles, sire de Créquy, prince de Poix, comte de Sault, then duc de Lesdiguières, pair and marshal of France. ** Gilbert Filhet, seigneur de la Curée and la Roche-Turpin, captain of 50 armed men, Marshal General of France. ** Philippe de Béthune, comte de Charost, bailli de Mantes and Meulant, ambassador in Scotland, Rome, Savoy and Germany. ** Charles de Coligny, marquis d'Andelot, lieutenant général of the government of Champagne. ** Jean François de La Guiche, seigneur de Saint- Géran, comte de la Palisse, governor of Bourbonnais, then Marshal of France. ** René Du Bec, marquis de Vardes and La Bosse, State councillor, captain of 50 armed men, governor of pays de Thiérache. ** Antoine Arnaud de Pardaillan de Gondrin, seigneur de Pardaillan, Gondrin and Antin, marquis de Montespan, captain of the Life Guards, maréchal de camps, and lieutenant général in the province of Guyenne. ** Henri de Schomberg, comte de Nanteuil, Superintendent of Finances, governor of Haute and Basse Marche and Limousin, Marshal of France. ** François de Bassompierre, colonel général of the Swiss, then Marshal of France. ** Henri de Bourdeille, vicomte de Bourdeille, marquis d'Archiac, captain of 100 armed men, sénéchal and governor of Périgord. ** Jean-Baptiste d'Ornano, comte de Montlor, colonel général of the Corsicans, lieutenant général in Normandy, governor of the King's brother, then Marshal of France. ** Timoléon d'Espinay, seigneur de Saint-Luc, comte d'Estelan, governor of Brouage, lieutenant général in Guyenne and Marshal of France. ** Henri de Bauffremont, marquis de Sénecey, governor of Auxonne. ** René Potier, comte then Duke of Tresmes, pair de France, captain of the Life Guards, lieutenant général of the government of Champagne. ** Philippe-Emmanuel de Gondi, comte de Joigny, général of the galleys. ** Charles d'Angennes, marquis de Rambouillet, vidame du Mans, seigneur d'Arquenay, etc., captain of the 100 Gentlemen of la maison du Roi, ambassadeur extraordinaire in Spain. ** Louis de Crévant, vicomte de Brigueil, marquis d'Humières, captain of the 100 Gentlemen of la maison du Roi and governor of Compiègne. ** Bertrand de Vignolles, dit de la Hire, baron de Vignolles, seigneur de Casaubon and Preschat, lieutenant général in Champagne, First Marshal General of France, governor of Sainte-Ménéhould. ** Antoine II de Gramont, souverain de Bidache, comte de Guiche and Louvignières, then duc de Gramont, vice-roi de Navarre and Béarn, governor of Bayonne. ** François Nompar de Caumont, comte de Lauzun, State councillor, captain of 50 armed men. ** Melchior Mitte, comte de Miolans, marquis de Saint-Chaumontand Montpezal, seigneur de Chevrières, State minister, lieutenant général of the King's armies, and government of Provence, ambassadeur extraordinaire in Rome. ** Léonor de la Magdeleine, Seigneur then marquis de Ragny, King's lieutenant in the county of Charollois. ** Jean de Warignies, seigneur de Blainville, master of the King's wardrobe. ** Léon d'Albert, seigneur de Brantes, captain lieutenant of the Guards light horse, governor of Blaye, then duc de Piney-Luxembourg and pair de France. ** Nicolas de Brichanteau, marquis de Nangis, State councillor, captain of 50 armed men. ** Charles de Vivonne, baron de la Chasteigneraye, governor of Parthenay. ** André de Cochefilet, comte de Vauvineux, baron de Vaucelas, ambassador in Spain. ** Gaspard Dauvet, seigneur des Marêts, State councillor, governor of Beauvais and pays de Beauvaisis, ambassador in England. ** Lancelot, seigneur de Vassé, baron de la Roche-Mabile, seigneur d'Esquilly, etc., State councillor. ** Charles, sire de Rambures, maréchal de camps, governor of Doullens. ** Antoine de Buade, seigneur de Frontenac, baron de Palluau, captain of the Saint-Germain-en-Laye castle, first master of l'hôtel du Roi. ** Nicolas de L'Hospital, marquis then duc de Vitry, Marshal of France, governor of la Brie. ** Jean de Souvré, Marquis de Courtanvaux, State councillor, first gentilhomme of the King's Chamber, and governor of Touraine. ** François de L'Hospital, seigneur du Hallier, comte de Rosnay, captain of the King's Life guards, then Marshal of France and State minister. ** Louis de la Marck, marquis de Mauny, first Squire of Queen Anne of Austria. ** Charles de La Vieuville, marquis then duc de La Vieuville, captain of the King's Life guards, Superintendent of Finances, and Grand Falconer of France. ** Louis d'Aloigny, marquis de Rochefort, baron de Craon and bailli du Berri. ** César- Auguste de Saint-Lary, baron de Termes, Grand Squire of France. ** Alexandre de Rohan, marquis de Marigny, captain of 100 armed men. ** François de Silly, comte then duc de la Rocheguyon, Grand Louvetier de France. ** Antoine-Hercule de Budos, marquis de Portes, vice-amiral de France. ** François V, comte then duc de La Rochefoucauld, governor of Poitou. ** Jacques d'Etampes, seigneur de Valençai, Grand Marshal of the King's bedchamber, then governor of Calais. ** Henri d'Albret, baron de Moissens, mestre de camp of a thousand-foot soldiers maintained for the King in the country of Bigorre. === Fourth promotion (26 July 1622) === At the Grenoble cathedral. * François de Bonne, duc de Lesdiguières, pair and Constable of France, governor and lieutenant général of Dauphiné. === Fifth promotion (28 June 1625) === At the chapel of Somerset House, London, on 28 June 1625. * Antoine Coeffier, dit Ruzé, marquis d'Effiat and Longjumeau, baron de Massy and Beaulieu, governor of Bourbonnais and Auvergne, surintendant of Finances and then Marshal of France. === Sixth promotion (24 March 1632) === * Prelate : ** Alfonse-Louis du Plessis de Richelieu, cardinal and archbishop of Lyon, Grand almoner of France. === Seventh promotion (14 may 1633) === At Fontainebleau. * Prelates : ** Armand- Jean du Plessis, cardinal, duc de Richelieu, pair de France, Grand master and surintendant général of the navigation and commerce, governor of Bretagne. ** Louis de Nogaret, cardinal de la Valette, archbishop of Toulouse. ** Claude de Rebé, archbishop of Narbonne, président of the States of Languedoc. ** Jean- François de Gondi, first archbishop of Paris, master of the King's chapel. ** Henri d'Escoubleau de Sourdis, archbishop of Bordeaux, primate of Aquitaine. * Knights : ** Henri d'Orléans, duc de Longueville, governor of Normandie. ** Henri de Lorraine, comte d'Harcourt, Grand Squire de France. ** Louis de Valois, comte d'Alets, then duc d'Angoulême and governor of Provence. ** Henri de La Trémoille, duc de Thouars, pair de France, prince de Tarente and Talmond, comte de Laval, etc. ** Charles de Lévis, duc de Ventadour, pair de France, lieutenant général in Languedoc and governor of Limousin. ** Henri de Nogaret de La Valette, dit de Foix, duc de Candale, pair de France. ** Charles de Schomberg, duc de Halluin, colonel général of the Reiters, Marshal of the German troops, governor of Languedoc, pair and Marshal of France. ** François de Cossé, duc de Brissac, pair and Grand Panetier of France. ** Bernard de Nogaret, de la Valette and Foix, duc de la Valette and Epernon, colonel général of the French infantery française, governor of Metz. ** Charles-Henri, comte de Clermont and Tonnerre, marquis de Crusy, etc., first baron and hereditary Constable of the Dauphiné, State councillor and captain of 100 armed men. ** François Hannibal d'Estrées, marquis de Cœuvres, Marshal of France, then duc and pair of France. ** Jean de Nettancourt, comte de Vaubecourt, baron d'Orne and Choiseul, State councillor, Marshal General of France, governor of Châlons. ** Henri I de Saint-Nectaire, or Senneterre, marquis de la Ferté-Nabert, ambassador in England and Rome, State minister. ** Philibert, vicomte de Pompadour, the King's lieutenant général in Limousin. ** René aux Epaules, dit de Laval, marquis de Néelle, maréchal de camp. ** Guillaume de Simiane, marquis de Gordes, captain of the Life Guards. ** Charles, comte de Lannoi, first maître d'hôtel du Roi, governor of Montreuil. ** François de Nagu, marquis de Varennes, governor of Aigue-Mortes. ** Urbain de Maillé, marquis de Brézé, Marshal of France, governor of Calais and Saumur. ** Jean de Galard de Béarn, comte de Brassac, governor of Saintonge. ** François de Noailles, comte d'Ayen, State councillor, captain of 100 armed men of the Ordinances, Marshal General of France, lieutenant général in Auvergne. ** Bernard de Baylens, baron de Poyanne, lieutenant général in pays de Béarn. ** Gabriel de La Vallée-Fossés, marquis d'Everly, maréchal de camp, governor of Lorraine and of Montpellier and Verdun. ** Charles de Livron, marquis de Bourbonne, lieutenant général en Champagne, maréchal de camp. ** Gaspard- Armand, vicomte de Polignac, marquis de Chalançon, governor of Puy-en-Velay. ** Louis, vicomte then duc d'Arpajon, marquis de Séverac, lieutenant général of the King's armies. ** Charles d'Escoubleau, marquis de Sourdis and Alluye, State councillor, Marshal General of France, governor of Orléans. ** François de Blanchefort de Bonne de Créqui, comte de Sault, then duc de Lesdiguières, pair de France and governor of Dauphiné. ** François de Béthune, comte d'Orval, then duc de Béthune, first Squire of Queen Anne of Austria. ** Claude de Rouvroy de Saint-Simon, pair and Grand Louvetier de France, then duc de Saint-Simon. ** Charles du Camboût, baron de Pont-Château and la Roche- Bernard, marquis de Coislin, governor of Brest, the King's lieutenant général in Basse-Bretagne. ** François de Vignerot, marquis du Pont-de-Courlai, governor of Havre de Grâce, then général of the galleys of France. ** Charles de La Porte, marquis then duc de la Meilleraye, pair, Grand master of the artillery and Marshal of France. ** Gabriel de Rochechouart, marquis then duc de Mortemart, pair of France, and governor of Paris. ** Antoine d'Aumont de Rochebaron, seigneur de Villequier, then duke, pair and Marshal of France ** Just-Henri, comte de Tournon and Roussillon, sénéchal d'Auvergne, maréchal de camp. ** Louis de Mouy, seigneur de la Meilleraye, lieutenant général of the government of Normandie. ** Charles de Damas, comte de Thianges, maréchal de camp, lieutenant général of pays de Bresse and Charollois. ** Hector de Gelas de Voisins, marquis de Leheron and Ambres, vicomte de Lautrec, sénéchal and governor of Lauragais. ** Henri de Baudean, comte de Parabère, marquis de la Mothe-Sainte-Heraye, vicomte de Pardaillan, seigneur de Castelnau, etc., State councillor, governor of Haut and Bas-Poitou. ** Jean de Monchy, marquis de Montcavrel, governor of Ardres and Etampes. ** Roger du Plessis, seigneur de Liancourt, marquis de Guercheville, comte de la Rocheguyon, then duc de Liancourt and pair de France. ** Charles de Rouvroy de Saint-Simon, a.k.a. marquis de Saint-Simon, seigneur du Plessis and Pont-Sainte-Maixence, colonel of the regiment of Navarre, lieutenant général of the King's armies and governor of Senlis. === Eighth promotion (22 may 1642) === At camp before the city of Perpignan. * Knight : ** Honoré II Grimaldi, prince de Monaco, first duc de Valentinois, pair de France === Knights appointed during the reign of Louis XIII, who died without having been received === ==== 1611 ==== * François de Monceaux d'Auxi, baron de Mérigny, vice-admiral of Normandy * François Damas, seigneur de Thianges * Christophe de Harlay, Count of Beaumont, ambassador in England. * Pierre de Harcourt, marquis de Beuvron ==== 1612 ==== * François d'Esparbès de Lussan, marquis d'Aubeterre, Marshal of France * Isaac de La Rochefoucauld, baron de Montendre ==== 1613 ==== * Armand-Léon de Durfort, seigneur de Born, lieutenant général of the artillery of France ==== 1614 ==== * Antoine d'Authun, seigneur de la Baume, sénéchal of Lyon * Charles comte d'Escars, baron d'Aix ==== 1615 ==== * Louis de Montbron, seigneur de Fontaines and Chalandray * César de Dizimieu, governor of the city and castle of Vienne * Étienne de Bonne, vicomte de Tallard ==== 1616 ==== * Léon de Durfort * Louis de Gouffier, duc de Rouannois ==== 1618 ==== * Emmanuel de Savoie, baron de Pressigny, sénéchal and governor of Châtellerault * Henri des Prez, seigneur de Montpezat * Charles de Balzac, bishop and comte de Noyon, pair of France * Claude de Joyeuse, comte de Grand-Pré ==== 1619 ==== * Alexandre de Vieuxpont, marquis de Coëmur, vice-amiral of Bretagne * André d'Oraison * Jacques de Castille, baron de Castelnau * Claude-François de la Baume, comte de Mont-Revel * Henri de Balzac, seigneur de Clermont d'Entragues * Edme de Rochefort, marquis de la Boullaye, lieutenant général in Nivernois ==== 1621 ==== * Jacques du Blé, marquis d'Uxelles. ==== 1625 ==== * François de Savary, marquis de Maulevrier * François de L'Aubespine, baron de Hauterive ==== 1626 ==== * Adrien de Montluc Montesquiou, prince de Chabannois, lieutenant général in pays de Foix ==== 1629 ==== * César de Balzac d'Entragues, seigneur de Gré * Jean-Louis de Rochechouart, seigneur de Chandenier * Louis de Marillac, comte de Beaumont-le-Roger, Marshal of France ==== 1633 ==== * Emmanuel-Philibert de la Beraudière * Jean Caylar d'Anduze de Saint-Bonnet, seigneur de Thoiras, Marshal of France * Charles de Levis, comte de Charlus * Entio, marquis de Bentivoglio * Georges de Brancas, duc de Villars, pair de France == Under Louis XIV == Louis XIV, known as 'the great', fourth head and sovereign Grand maître de l'Ordre, received the collar of l'Ordre the day after his coronation on 8 June 1654. === First promotion (Paris, 28 April 1653) === * Prelate : ** Antoine Barberini, cardinal bishop of Palestrine, archbishop and duc de Reims, named Grand aumônier de France. === Second promotion (Reims, 8 June 1654) === * Knight : ** Philippe de France, duc d'Anjou, then duc d'Orléans, only brother of the King. === Third promotion (Paris, 31 December 1661) === * Prelates : ** Camille de Neufville de Villeroy, archbishop of Lyon ** François Adhémar de Monteil, de Grignan, archbishop of Arles ** Georges d'Aubusson de la Feuillade, bishop of Metz, before archbishop of Embrun ** François Harlay de Champvallon, pair de France, archbishop of Rouen, then archbishop of Paris ** Léonor Goyon de Matignon, bishop of Lizieux ** Gaspard de Daillon du Lude, bishop of Albi ** Henri de La Mothe-Houdancourt, bishop of Rennes, then archbishop of Auch ** Philibert- Emmanuel de Beaumanoir de Lavardin, bishop of Le Mans * Knights : ** Louis II de Bourbon-Condé, prince de Condé, first pair de France, duc d'Enghien ** Henri Jules de Bourbon-Condé, duc d'Enghien, prince de Condé, pair and Grand Master of France. ** Armand de Bourbon-Conti, prince de Conti, governor of Languedoc ** Henri de Bourbon, duc de Verneuil, pair de France ** Louis, duc de Vendôme et de Mercœur, pair de France, governor of Provence, then cardinal and Papal legate in France ** François de Vendôme, duc de Beaufort, pair de France, Grand Master and superintendent of navigation and commerce of France ** François de Crussol, duc d'Uzès, pair de France ** Louis Charles d'Albert de Luynes, duc de Luynes, pair and Grand Falconer of France ** Charles d'Albert, dit d'Ailly, duc de Chaulnes, pair de France, governor of Bretagne ** François, duc de La Rochefoucauld, prince de Marcillac, pair de France and governor of Poitou ** Pierre de Gondi, duc de Retz, pair de France and général of the galleys. ** Antoine III, duc de Gramont, pair and marshal of France ** César de Choiseul, duc de Choiseul, pair and marshal of France, comte du Plessis-Praslin ** Nicolas de Neufville de Villeroy, duc de Villeroy, pair and marshal of France ** Charles, duc de Créqui, prince de Poix, pair de France, governor of Paris ** Jacques d'Étampes, marquis de la Ferté-Imbaud and Mauny, marshal of France ** Henri II de Saint-Nectaire ou Sennecterre, duc de la Ferté, pair and marshal of France, governor of Metz ** Philippe de Montaut, duc de Navailles, marshal of France ** Jacques Rouxel, comte de Grancey and Médavi, marshal of France ** Gaston-Jean-Baptiste, duc de Roquelaure, governor of Guyenne ** Philippe-Julien Mazarini-Mancini, duc de Nevers, governor of Nivernois and pays d'Aunis ** Jules Cesarini, duc de Cittanova, Roman baron romain (gets his collier only in 1662 in Rome) ** François Honorat de Beauvilliers, duc de Saint-Aignan, pair de France, first gentleman of the King's chamber. ** Henri de Daillon, comte then duc de Lude, Grand master of the artillery of France ** Louis de Béthune, duc de Charost, dit de Béthune, lieutenant général in Picardy ** Anne de Noailles, duc de Noailles, comte d'Ayen, pair de France and governor of the county of Roussillon ** François de Comminges, seigneur de Guitaut, governor of Saumur ** François de Clermont, comte de Tonnerre and Clermont, vicomte de Tallard ** Alexandre-Guillaume de Melun, prince d'Épinoy, hereditary constable of Flanders. ** César Phoebus d'Albret, marshal of France, governor of Guyenne ** François-René Crespin Du Bec, marquis de Vardes, Captain of the Swiss Guards of the King. ** Charles- Maximilien de Belleforière, marquis de Soyecourt, Grand Huntsman of France ** François de Paule de Clermont, marquis de Monglat, comte de Chiverny, Grand master of the King's wardrobe ** Philippe de Clérembault, comte de Palluau, marshal of France, governor of Berry ** Jean de Schulemberg, comte de Montdejeu, marshal of France ** , governor of Saumur ** François de Simiane and Pontevès, marquis de Gordes, Grand sénéchal of the Provence ** Henri de Beringhen, seigneur d'Armainvilliers, first squire of the small stable of the King. ** Jean Du Bouchet, marquis de Sourches, provost of the King's house and of France. ** Charles, comte de Froulai, Grand marshal of the King's Chambers ** Jacques-François, marquis de Hautefort, comte de Montignac, first squire of the Queen ** François Goyon de Matignon, comte de Torigny, lieutenant général in Basse-Normandie ** Charles de Sainte-Maure, duc de Montausier, pair de France, governor of Monseigneur le Dauphin ** François d'Espinay, marquis de Saint-Luc, lieutenant général in Guyenne ** Hippolite de Béthune, comte de Selles, a.k.a. comte de Béthune, honorary Knight of the Queen ** Ferdinand de La Baume, comte de Montrevel, lieutenant général in the pays de Bresse, Bugei, etc. ** Louis-Armand, vicomte de Polignac, marquis de Chalançon, governor of the city of Puy ** Antoine de Brouilly, marquis de Piennes, governor of Pignerol ** Jean, marquis de Pompadour, lieutenant général in Limousin ** Louis de Cardaillac and Lévis, comte de Biculés, lieutenant général in Languedoc ** Scipion de Grimoard de Beauvoir, comte de Roure, lieutenant général in Languedoc ** François de Monstiers, comte de Mérinville and Rieux, lieutenant général in Provence ** Henri de Baylens, marquis de Poyanne, lieutenant général in Béarn ** Léon de Sainte-Maure, comte de Jonzac, lieutenant général of pays de Saintonge and Angoumois ** Jacques Stuer, comte de La Vauguyon, marquis de Saint-Mégrin, Grand sénéchal of Guyenne ** Charles- François de Joyeuse, comte de Grandpré, governor of Mouzon and Beaumont ** Timoléon de Cossé, comte de Chateaugiron, Grand panetier de France ** Charles- Martel, comte de Clère, captain of the French Life Guards of Monsieur, only brother of the King ** Jean-Paul de Gourdon de Genouillac, comte de Vaillac, captain of the Life Guards of Monsieur, only brother of the King ** Nicolas- Joachim Rouault, marquis de Gamaches, governor of Saint-Valeri and Rue ** Godefroi, comte d'Estrades, governor of Dunkerque, life-time maire of Bordeaux, vice-roy of New France, marshal of France ** René-Gaspard de la Croix, marquis de Castries, governor of Montpellier ** Guillaume de Pêchepeyrou et de Comminges, comte de Guitaut, chamberlain and first gentleman of the chamber of M. le prince de Condé === Fourth promotion (Paris, 4 November 1663) === * Knight : ** Christian Louis I, Duke of Mecklenburg === Fifth promotion (12 December 1671) === * Prelate : ** Emmanuel-Théodose de La Tour d'Auvergne, cardinal of Bouillon, Grand Almoner of France. === Sixth promotion (Rome, 29 September 1675) === * Knights : ** Flavio Orsini, Duke of Bracciano, Roman baron and prince de Soglio ** Luigi di Sforza-Conti, Duke of Ognano and Segni ** Filippo Colonna, prince of Sonnino === Seventh promotion (Saint-Germain-en-Laye, 22 December 1675) === * Knight : ** François de Béthune, marquis de Chabris, ambassadeur extraordinaire in Poland === Eighth promotion (Żółkiew, Poland, 30 November 1676) === * Knight : ** John III Sobieski, King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania === Ninth promotion (Saint- Germain-en-Laye, 1 January 1682) === * Knight : ** Louis de France, dauphin de Viennois, only son of Louis XIV. === Tenth promotion (Versailles, 2 June 1686) === * Knights : ** Philippe d'Orléans, duc d'Orléans, de Chartres, etc., son of Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, the King's only brother. Later regent of France. ** Louis III de Bourbon-Condé, duc de Bourbon, prince du sang, pair and Grand Master of France, then duc d'Enghien ** François Louis de Bourbon- Conti, prince de Conti ** Louis Auguste de Bourbon, legitimized son of the King, duc du Maine, pair de France, Grand master of the artillery of France, colonel général of the Swiss and Grisons. === Eleventh promotion (Versailles, 31 December 1688) === 350px|thumb|Reception of the Knights of the Order of the Holy Spirit in the Chapel of Versailles on 1 January and 2 February 1689 * Prelates : ** César d'Estrées, cardinal of Trinité-des-Monts, before bishop and Duke of Laon, pair de France ** Pierre de Bonzi, cardinal of Saint- Onuphre, archbishop of Narbonne ** Charles-Maurice Le Tellier, archbishop and Duke of Reims, First pair de France ** Pierre du Cambout de Coislin, later cardinal of Trinité-des-Monts, bishop of Orléans, first Almoner of the King, then Grand Almoner of France. * Knights : ** Louis-Joseph, duc de Vendôme, pair de France, général of the galleys. ** Louis, Count of Armagnac, Grand Squire of France, governor of Anjou. ** Henri, Count of Brionne, received in survival of the charge of Grand Squire of France. ** Philippe, Chevalier de Lorraine. ** Charles de Lorraine, comte de Marsan. ** Charles-Belgique- Hollande, sire de la Trémouille, duc de Thouars, pair de France, prince of Tarente and First Gentleman of the King's Chamber. ** Emmanuel II de Crussol, duke of Uzès, pair de France. ** Maximilien Pierre François de Béthune, 3rd duc de Sully, pair de France, marquis de Rosny. ** Charles Honoré d'Albert, duc de Luynes and Chevreuse, pair de France. ** Armand-Jean de Vignerot du Plessis-Richelieu, duc de Richelieu and Fronsac, pair de France. ** François VII, duc de La Rochefoucauld, pair and Grand Huntsman of France. ** Louis Grimaldi, prince de Monaco, pair de France and duc de Valentinois. ** François Annibal III d'Estrées de Lauzière, duc d'Estrées, pair de France and marquis de Thémines. ** Antoine Charles IV de Gramont, duc de Gramont, comte de Guiche and pair de France. ** Armand Charles de La Porte de La Meilleraye, duc de Mazarin and Mayenne, pair de France and Grand Master of the artillery. ** François de Neufville, duc de Villeroy, pair and marshal of France. ** Paul de Beauvilliers, 2nd duc de Saint-Aignan, pair de France and grandee of Spain. ** Henri-François de Foix de Candale, duc de Randan, pair de France and captal de Buch. ** Léon Potier, Duke of Tresmes, a.k.a Duke of Gesvres, pair de France, First Gentleman of the King's Chamber. ** Anne Jules, duc de Noailles, pair and marshal of France. ** Armand de Camboust, duc de Coislin, comte de Crécy, pair de France. ** César, duc de Choiseul, pair de France, lieutenant général and later Marshal of France. ** Louis-Marie-Victor d'Aumont de Rochebaron, duc d'Aumont, pair de France, marquis de Villequier. ** François-Henri de Montmorency, duc de Piney-Luxembourg, pair and marshal of France. ** François III, vicomte d'Aubusson, comte de la Feuillade, duc de Rouanez, marshal of France, Viceroy of Sicily and governor of the Dauphiné. ** Bernardin Gigault, marquis de Bellefons, marshal of France. ** Louis de Crevant, duc d'Humières, marshal of France and Grand Master of the artillery. ** Jacques-Henri de Durfort, duc de Duras, governor of Franche-Comté, marshal of France. ** Guy Aldonce II de Durfort, comte de Lorges, then duc de Quintin, marshal of France. ** Armand de Béthune, duc de Charost, pair de France, lieutenant général in the government ofe Picardy. ** Jean II d'Estrées, vice-admiral and marshal of France, viceroy of New France, lieutenant général in Bretagne. ** Charles II, duc de La Vieuville, governor of Poitou, honorary Knight of the Queen and governor of Philippe d'Orléans, duc de Chartres. ** Jean-Baptiste de Cassagnet, marquis de Tilladet, captain of the Swiss Guards in the King's Guards. ** Louis de Caillebot, marquis de la Salle, master of the King's wardrobe. ** Jacques-Louis de Beringhen, comte de Châteauneuf, first squire of the King. ** Philippe de Courcillon, marquis de Dangeau, governor of Touraine, honorary Knight of Madame la Dauphine. ** Philibert de Gramont, comte de Gramont, governor of pays d'Aunis and la Rochelle. ** Louis François, duc de Boufflers, pair and marshal of France, Knight of the Golden Fleece, colonel of the French Guards. ** François d'Harcourt, marquis de Beuvron, lieutenant général in the government of Normandy. ** Henri de Mornay, marquis de Montchevreuil, captain and governor of Saint-Germain en Laye. ** Édouard- François Colbert, comte de Maulevrier, lieutenant général. ** Joseph de Pons and Guimera, baron de Monclar, lieutenant général. ** Henri-Charles de Beaumanoir, marquis de Lavardin, lieutenant général in Bretagne. ** Pierre de Villars, marquis de Villars, State Counciller, lieutenant général, ambassador in Savoy, Denmark and Spain. ** François Adhémar de Monteil, comte de Grignan, lieutenant général in Provence. ** Claude de Choiseul, marquis de Francières, named comte de Choiseul, mashal of France. ** Jacques III de Goyon, sire de Matignon, comte de Thorigny, lieutenant général in Basse-Normandie. ** Jean- Armand de Joyeuse, named marquis de Joyeuse, marshal of France. ** François de Calvo, lieutenant général des armées du Roi, governor of the city of Aire. ** Charles, comte d'Aubigné, governor of Berri. ** Charles de Montsaunin, comte de Montval, lieutenant général. ** Claude de Thiard, comte de Bissy, lieutenant général. ** Antoine Coëffier, dit Ruzé, marquis d'Effiat, first squire of Monsieur, the King's only brother. ** François, comte de Montberon, lieutenant général. ** Philippe-Auguste Le Hardy, marquis de La Trousse, captain-lieutenant of the Gendarmes-dauphins, lieutenant général. ** François de Monestay, marquis de Chazeron, lieutenant général. ** Bernard de La Guiche, comte de Saint-Géran, lieutenant général. ** François d'Escoubleau, comte de Sourdis, lieutenant général. ** Philippe-Emmanuel de Croÿ, prince de Solre, lieutenant général. ** André de Béthoulat de Cossagne, comte de La Vauguyon, State Concillor, ambassador in Spain. ** Georges de Monchy, marquis d'Hocquincourt, lieutenant général. ** Olivier de Saint-Georges, marquis de Coüé-Vérac, lieutenant général and the King's commander in Poitou. ** René Martel, marquis d'Arcy, ambassador in Savoy, governor of M. le duc de Chartres and State Councillor. ** Alexis-Henri de Châtillon, marquis de Châtillon, irst gentleman of the chamber of Monsieur, the King's only brother. ** Nicolas Chalon du Blé, marquis d'Uxelles, marshal of France. ** René de Froulay, comte de Tessé, marshal of France, first squire of Madame la Dauphine and grandee of Spain. ** Charles de Mornay, marquis de Villarceaux, captain-lieutenant of the Light Horse of Monsieur le Dauphin ** Charles d'Étampes, marquis de Mauny, seigneur la Ferté-Imbaut, captain of the guards of Philippe de France, duc d'Orléans ** Hyacinthe Quatrebarbes, marquis de La Rongère, honorary Knight of Madame, duchesse d'Orléans ** Jean d'Audibret, comte de Lussan, first gentleman of the chamber of M. le prince de Condé === Twelfth promotion (Versailles, 29 May 1689) === * Prelate : ** Toussaint Forbin de Janson, cardinal de Janson, bishop and count of Beauvais, Grand Almoner of France after the death of cardinal de Coislin, in 1706 === Thirteenth promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1693) === * Knight : ** Louis-Alexandre de Bourbon, legitimized son of Louis XIV, comte de Toulouse, pair, admiral and Grand Huntsman of France === Fourteenth promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1694) === * Prelate : ** Guillaume-Egon de Fürstenberg, cardinal, bishop and prince of Strasbourg === Fifteenth promotion (Zhovkva, Russia, 13 April 1694) === * Knight : ** Henri de la Grange, marquis d'Arquien, then cardinal === Sixteenth promotion (Versailles, 22 May 1695) === * Knights : ** Louis de France, duc de Bourgogne, then Dauphin de Viennois. ** Philippe de France, duc d'Anjou, then King of Spain. === Seventeenth promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1696) === * Prelate : ** François de Clermont-Tonnerre, bishop and count of Noyon, pair de France * Knights : ** Louis de Guiscard, comte de Neuvy-sur-Loire, marquis de Guiscard-Magny, governor of Sedan and Namur, lieutenant-général. === Eighteenth promotion (Rome, 4 December 1696) === * Knight : ** Antonio de Lanti de la Rouère, Roman prince, duc de Mommars === Nineteenth promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1698) === * Prelate : ** Louis Antoine de Noailles, Archbishop of Paris, duc de Saint-Cloud and Peer of France, later cardinal === Twentieth promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1699) === * Knight : ** Charles de France, duc de Berri === Twenty first promotion (Versailles, 7 June 1699) === * Knight : ** Guido Vaïni, prince de Cantaloupe, duc de Selci === Twenty second promotion (Rome, 19 December 1700) === * Knights : ** Aleksander Benedykt Sobieski, prince of Poland. ** Konstanty Władysław Sobieski, brother of the previous. === Twenty third promotion (Versailles, 15 May 1701) === * Prelates : ** Daniel de Cosnac, archbishop of Aix, First Almoner of the Duke of Orléans. ** Henri-Charles du Cambout de Coislin, Bishop of Metz, First Almoner of the King. * Knight : ** Camille d'Hostun, marquis de la Beaume, duc de Tallard, marshal of France. === Twenty fourth promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1703) === * Knight : ** Ferdinand, comte de Marchin and Saint-Empire, marquis de Clermont, marshal of France. === Twenty-fifth promotion (Versailles, 27 May 1703) === *Knight : ** Charles-Amédée de Broglie, comte de Revel, lieutenant général. === Twenty sixth promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1705) === * Prelate : ** Jean d'Estrées, abbot of Évron, Préau and St-claude, ambassador in Portugal * Knight : ** Roger Brulart, marquis de Sillery, vicomte de Puisieux, lieutenant général and ambassadeur extraordinaire in Switzerland === Twenty seventh promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1705) === * Knights : ** Henri, duc d'Harcourt, pair and marshal of France. ** Victor Marie d'Estrées, comte, puis duc d'Estrées, pair, vice-admiral and marshal of France, a.k.a. maréchal de Cœuvres then maréchal d'Estrées. ** Hector de Villars, duc de Villars, pair and marshal of France, grandee of Spain First class, Knight in the order of the Golden Fleece and governor of the Provence. ** Noël Bouton, marquis de Chamilly, marshal of France, governor of Strasbourg. ** François-Louis de Rousselet, marquis de Châteaurenaut, vice- admiral and marshal of France. ** Sébastien Le Prestre, seigneur de Vauban, marshal of France, general commissioner of the fortifications. ** Conrad de Rozen, comte de Bolweiller, marshal of France. ** Nicolas Auguste de La Baume, marquis de Montrevel, marshal of France. === Twenty eighth promotion (Versailles, 1 March 1705) === * Knight : ** Don Isidoro de la Cueva y Benavides, marquis de Bedmar, grandee of Spain, general commander of the Southern Netherlands, viceroy of Sicily === Twenty ninth promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1709) === * Knight : ** Louis IV Henri de Bourbon- Condé, duc d'Enghien, prince de Condé, pair and Grand Master of France, governor of Bourgogne. === Thirtieth promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1711) === * Knights : ** Louis Armand II de Bourbon-Conti, prince de Conti, pair de France ** Jacques-Léonor Rouxel, comte de Grancey and baron of Médavi, marshal of France ** Léonor-Marie du Maine, comte du Bourg, baron de l'Espinasse, marshal of France, director general of the Cavalery. ** François-Zénobe- Philippe Albergoti, lieutenant général ** Louis-Vincent, marquis de Goësbriant, lieutenant général === Thirty first promotion (Versailles, 2 December 1712) === * Knight : ** Louis, duc d'Aumont, pair de France, marquis de Piennes, comte de Berzé, etc., first gentleman of the King's chamber and ambassadeur extraordinaire in England. === Thirty second promotion (Versailles, 7 June 1713) === * Prelate : ** Armand Gaston Maximilien, cardinal de Rohan, grand almoner of France, bishop and prince of Strasbourg === During the reign of Louis XIV, Knights named who died without being received === ==== Year 1643 ==== * Roger de Bossost, baron d'Espenan * Louis Goth, marquis de Rouillac, Marshal General of France ==== Year 1644 ==== * Giulio Cesare Colonna di Sciarra, II prince de Carbognano, duc de Bassanello * N. de Soyecourt, Marshal General of France ==== Year 1646 ==== * Rostaing Antoine d'Eure-du-Puis Saint-Martin, seigneur d'Aiguebonne * Antoine d'Estourmel, first Squire of Marguerite of Lorraine, Duchess of Orléans ==== Year 1648 ==== * Władysław IV Vasa, King of Poland, Knight in the Order of the Golden Fleece. * Philippe de La Mothe-Houdancourt, marshal of France ==== Year 1649 ==== * N. marquis de Trans * Dominique Séguier, bishop of Meaux ==== Year 1650 ==== * N. marquis d'Hautefort * Claude Yves, marquis d'Allègre ==== Year 1651 ==== * Jacques de Mauvisière de Castelnau, marshal of France * Roger- Hector de Pardaillan, marquis d'Antin * Sébastien de Rosmadec, marquis de Molac * Louis Châlon du Blé, marquis d'Huxelles * Gabriel de Caumont, comte de Lauzun * François Sicaire, marquis de Bourdeilles * Charles-Antoine de Ferrières, marquis de Sauvebeuf * Jean-Pierre, marquis d'Aubeterre * Louis de Caillebot, marquis de la Salle * N. de Barrault * Isaac de Pas, marquis de Feuquières * François de Choiseul, marquis de Praslin * Louis Olivier, marquis de Leuville * N. d'Aumont * Henri Bourcier de Barry de Saint-Aulnès * François de Gontaut de Biron * Georges Isauré, marquis d'Hervaut * Philibert de Pompadour, marquis de Laurière * Jean de Lambert * Philippe, baron de Meillars. * Paul-Antoine de Cassagnet, marquis de Fimarcon * Charles de Monchy d'Hocquincourt, marshal of France ==== Year 1652 ==== * N. d'Hauterive * N. de Souillac de Maumeige * N. baron de Clairavault * Louis de Bridieu * Hilaire de Laval, marquis de Trèves * Achille de Harlay, marquis de Bréval-Chanvalon * François-Marie de Broglio de Revel * François de la Béraudière * Odet de Harcourt, comte de Croisy * N., marquis de Cauvisson * Armand-Jean Mitte, marquis de Saint-Chaumont * Nicolas Dauvet, comte Desmarêts, Grand fauconnier de France * Antoine-François de Lamet ==== Year 1653 ==== * N., marquis du Bec, comte de Moret * François, comte d'Estain ==== Year 1658 ==== * Jean de Peyre, comte de Troisvilles ==== Year 1661 ==== * Abraham de Fabert d'Esternay, Marshal of France, Governor of Sedan, appointed Knight on the Orders of the King, but did not take advantage of this honor, "not being in a position to prove himself. The letter whose Majesty honored him on the invincibility of this obstacle manifests the greatness and goodness of the master and eternalizes the merit of the subject. " (Catalogue des Chevaliers de l'Ordre du Saint-Esprit, p. 306.) ==== Year 1703 ==== * Don Juan Claros Pérez de Guzmán, 11th Duke of Medina Sidonia * Don Francisco Casimiro Pimentel de Quiñones y Benavides, 9th Duke of Benavente. * Don Fadrique de Toledo Osorio y Ponce de León, marquis de Villa-Franca, Grandee of Spain * Don Juan Francesco Pacheco Gomez de Sandoval, count of La Puebla de Montalbán, etc. * Don Luis Manuel Fernández de Portocarrero, cardinal archbishop of Toledo. ==== Year 1708 ==== * Joseph-Emmanuel de la Tremoille de Noirmoustier, cardinal archbishop of Cambrai. == Under Louis XV == The fifth head and sovereign Grand maître de l'Ordre du Saint-Esprit, Louis XV received the collar of l'Ordre the day after his coronation, at Reims, on 27 October 1722. === 1st promotion (26 July 1717) === Proclaimed at Versailles, but reception done at Madrid : * Knights : ** Louis I of Spain, future King of Spain, still Prince of Asturias. ** Rostain Cantelini, duke of Popoli, prince de Pettorano, master of the Artillery of the Kingdom of Naples. === 2nd promotion (27 October 1722) === * Knights : ** Louis d'Orléans, duc d'Orléans, then duc de Chartres, first prince du sang and first pair de France. ** Charles de Bourbon-Charolais, comte de Charolais. === 3rd promotion (3 June 1724, Versailles) === * Prelates : ** Henri-Pons de Thiard de Bissy, cardinal-bishop of Meaux. ** Léon Potier de Gesvres, archbishop of Bourges, then cardinal, abbot of Saint-Remi de Reims. ** François Paul de Neufville de Villeroy, archbishop of Lyon, Primate of the Gauls. ** Charles Gaspard Guillaume de Vintimille du Luc, archbishop of Aix, then of Paris, duc de Saint-Cloud and pair de France. ** René François de Beauvau, archbishop of Narbonne. * Knights : ** Louis de Bourbon-Condé (1709-1771), comte de Clermont-en-Argonne. ** Charles de Lorraine, known as prince Charles, Grand Squire of France. ** Charles-Louis de Lorraine, prince de Mortagne, sire de Pons, lieutenant general. ** Jean-Charles de Crussol, duc d'Uzès, first pair de France, governor of Saintonge and Angoumois. ** Maximilien-Henri de Béthune, duc de Sully, pair de France, prince d'Enrichemont, governor of Mantes. ** Louis-Antoine de Brancas, duc de Villars, pair de France, comte de Lauragais. ** François, duc de la Rochefoucauld, pair de France, Grand master of the King's wardrobe. ** Charles-François-Frédéric de Montmorency-Luxembourg, duc de Piney-Luxembourg, pair de France, governor of Normandy. ** Louis Nicolas de Neufville de Villeroy, duc de Villeroy, pair de France, captain of the Life Guards. ** Louis de Rochechouart, duc de Mortemart, pair de France, first gentleman of the King's Chamber. ** Paul-Hippolyte de Beauvilliers, duc de Saint-Aignan, pair de France, first gentleman of the King's Chamber and governor of Le Hâvre-de-Grâce. ** François-Bernard Potier, duc de Tresme, pair de France, first gentleman of the King's Chamber. ** Adrien Maurice de Noailles, duc de Noailles, pair de France, Knight of the Golden Fleece, Grandee of Spain first class, captain of the 1st company of the Life Guards and governor of Roussillon. ** Armand de Béthune, duc de Charost, pair de France, captain of the Life Guards. ** Jacques Fitz-James, duc de Berwick, Fitz-James, Léria and Xérica, peer of France and England, Grandee of Spain first class, Knight of the Order of the Garter and of the Golden Fleece, marshal of France. ** Louis Antoine de Pardaillan de Gondrin, duc d'Antin, marquis de Montespan, pair de France, governor of Orléanais. ** Louis Auguste d'Albert d'Ailly, duc de Chaulnes, pair de France, captain-lieutenant of the Guards light horse. ** Marie-Joseph, duc d'Hostun, comte de Tallard, pair de France, governor of comté de Bourgogne. ** Louis de Brancas, des comtes de Forcalquier, comte de Cereste, known as marquis de Brancas, Grandee of Spain, Knight of the Golden Fleece, etc., marshal of France. ** Jacques Bazin, seigneur de Bezons, marshal of France, governor of Cambrai. ** Pierre de Montesquiou d'Artagnan, marshal of France, governor of city and citadel of Arras. ** Louis-Nicolas Le Tellier, marquis de Souvré, master of the King's wardrobe. ** Louis Sanguin, marquis de Livry, first master of the King's Chambers. ** Louis-Jean-Baptiste Goyon de Matignon, known as comte de Matignon, comte de Gacé, governor of pays d'Aunis. ** Anne-Jacques de Bullion, marquis de Fervaques, governor of Maine. ** Charles-François de Vintimille du Luc, des comtes de Marseille, comte du Luc, State councillor of the sword, King's lieutenant in the Provence. ** Louis de Prie, marquis de Planès, known as marquis de Prie, ambassador in Turin. ** Louis de Mailly, marquis de Nesle and Mailly en Boulonois, prince of Orange. ** François-Marie de Hautefort, marquis de Hautefort, Pompadour and Sarcelles, lieutenant général. ** Joseph de Montesquiou, known as comte d'Artagnan, lieutenant général and captain-lieutenant of the 1st company of Mousquetaires. ** François, comte d'Estaing, marquis de Murole, lieutenant général. ** Armand de Madaillan de Lesparre, marquis de Lassay, lieutenant général of the government of Bresse and Bugey. ** Pierre Bouchard d'Esparbez de Lussan, comte d'Aubeterre, lieutenant général. ** Joachim de Montaigu, vicomte de Beaune, marquis de Bouzoles, lieutenant général of the province of Auvergne. ** François de Franquetot, comte de Coigny, lieutenant général and colonel- général of the dragoons, then duc de Coigny and marshal of France. ** Jean de Montboisier, comte de Canillac, lieutenant général, captain-lieutenant of the 2nd company of Mousquetaires and governor of cities and citadels of Amiens and Corbie. ** Jacques-Joseph Vipart, marquis de Silly, State councillor of the sword, lieutenant général. ** Jacques de Cassagnet-Tilladet-Narbonne, marquis de Fimarcon, lieutenant général of the province of Roussillon, governor of Mont-Louis. ** Henri de Saint-Nectaire, known as marquis de Sennecterre, lieutenant général and ambassador in England. ** Pierre-Magdeleine de Beauvau, comte de Beauvau, lieutenant général. ** Louis de Gand de Mérode de Montmorency, prince d'Isenghien, lieutenant général. ** Louis-Pierre Engilbert de la Marck-Bouillon, known as comte de la Marck, lieutenant général. ** César de Saint-Georges, marquis de Coué-Vérac, lieutenant général of the province of Poitou. ** Alain-Emmanuel, marquis de Coëtlogon, marshal and vice-admiral of France, grand-cross in the Order of Saint-Louis. ** Jean-Baptiste François Desmarets, marquis de Maillebois, master of the King's wardrobe, lieutenant général of Languedoc and governor of Saint-Omer. ** Charles-Henri Gaspard de Saulx, vicomte de Tavannes, lieutenant général of the province of Bourgogne. ** Gaspard de Clermont-Tonnerre, marquis de Vauvillars and Crusy, commissaire général of the cavalry, then marshal of France. ** François de Simiane, marquis d'Esparron, first gentleman of the Chamber of the duc d'Orléans. ** Joseph-François de la Croix, marquis de Castries, honorary knight of Madame la duchesse d'Orléans, governor and sénéchal of Montpellier. ** Pierre-Gaspar, marquis de Clermont-Gallerande, first Squire of the duc d'Orléans, brigadier in the King's army and bailli of Dôle. === 4th promotion (1 January 1725) === * Knight : **Marie-Thomas-Auguste Goyon, chevalier marquis de Matignon, baron de Briquebec, comte de Gacé, brigadier des armées du Roi. === 5th promotion (1 January 1726) === * Knight: ** Mikołaj Tarło of Tenczyn and Szczekarzewice, count of Melsztyn and Zakliczyn, colonel of the guards of Stanisław Leszczyński, King of Poland, lieutenant général. === 6th promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1728) === * Knights : ** Louis Auguste de Bourbon (1700-1755), prince de Dombes, colonel général of the Swisses and Grisons. ** Louis Charles de Bourbon (1701-1775), comte d'Eu, Grand master of the artillery of France. ** Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon, pair de France, Grandee of Spain first class and ambassadeur extraordinaire in Spain. ** Antoine Gaston de Roquelaure, duc de Roquelaure, marquis de Biran, marshal of France. ** Yves, marquis d'Alègre and baron de Tourzel, marshal of France. ** Louis, comte, then duc de Gramont, brigadier des armées du Roi, lieutenant- général and colonel of the regiment of the French Guards. === 7th promotion (Versailles, 16 May 1728) === * Knights : ** Jacques-Henri de Lorraine, prince de Lixen, Grand master of the house of the Duke de Lorraine, brigadier des armées du Roi. ** Alexandre de La Rochefoucauld, duc de la Roche-Guyon, pair de France, Grand master of the King's wardrobe and brigadier des armées du Roi. ** Louis-Antoine-Armand, duc de Gramont, pair de France, lieutenant général, colonel of the French Guards. ** François-Joachim-Bernard Potier, duc de Gesvres, pair de France, first gentleman of the King's Chamber. ** Paul- François de Béthune, duc de Charost, pair de France, captain of the King's Life Guard and lieutenant général. ** François, duc d'Harcourt, pair de France, captain of the King's Life Guard and lieutenant général of the comté de Bourgogne. ** Réné Mans, sire de Froulai, comte de Tessé, grandee of Spain, lieutenant général, first squire of the Queen. ** Louis-Armand de Brichanteau, marquis de Nangis, lieutenant-général, honorary knight of the Queen. === 8th promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1729) === * Knight : ** Louis François Armand de Vignerot du Plessis, duc de Richelieu and Fronsac, first gentleman of the King's Chamber, pair and marshal of France. === 9th promotion (Seville, Spain, 25 April 1729) === * Knights : ** Ferdinand, prince of Asturias, son of King Philip of Spain, later also King of Spain. ** Charles, infante of Spain, Duke of Parma and Piacenza, hereditairy prince of Toscany, King of the Two Sicilies in 1735 and King of Spain in 1759. ** José María Téllez-Girón, 7th Duke of Osuna, Grandee of Spain first class, ambassadeur extraordinaire in France. ** Manuel de Benavides y Aragón, 1st Duke of Santisteban del Puerto, Grandee of Spain, representative of Spain at the Congress of Cambrai (1722-1725). ** Alfonso Fernández Manrique de Lara, 1st Duke of Arco, Grandee of Spain, Knight of the Golden Fleece, grand and first Squire of the King of Spain. ** Antonio del Giudice, 3rd duke of Giovinazzo, prince of Cellamare, grandee of Spain, Knight in the Order of Santiago, governor and captain général of Old Castile, grand Squire of the Queen of Spain, ambassadeur extraordinaire in France. === 10th promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1731) === *Knights : **Charles Eugène de Lévis-Charlus, duc de Lévis and pair de France, comte de Charlus and Saignes, lieutenant général. **Christian Louis de Montmorency-Luxembourg, prince de Tingry, comte souverain de Luxe, lieutenant général. **Alexandre- Magdeleine-Rosalie de Châtillon, baron d'Argenton, known as comte de Châtillon, grand bailli of Haguenau, lieutenant général. **Henri-Camille, marquis de Beringhen, de Châteauneuf and Uxelles, first Squire of the King. === 11th promotion (Versailles, 13 May 1731) === *Knights: **Jean-Baptiste de Durfort, duc de Duras, comte de Rozan, baron de Pujols, lieutenant général and later marshal of France. **François-Marie de Broglie, comte de Revel, baron de Ferrières, then duc de Broglie and marshal of France. **Philippe Charles de La Fare, marquis de la Fare, Knight in the Order of the Golden Fleece, Marshal General of France, lieutenant général in the province of Languedoc. === 12th promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1733) === * Prelate: ** Melchior de Polignac, cardinal-priest of Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri in Rome, archbishop of Auch. * Knight: ** Louis François de Bourbon-Conti, prince de Conti, duc de Mercoeur, pair of France. === 13th promotion (Versailles, 24 May 1733) === * Prelates : ** Armand Pierre de La Croix de Castries, archbishop of Albi. ** Henri Oswald de La Tour d'Auvergne, des ducs de Bouillon, archbishop of Vienne, first Almoner of the King and later cardinal. === 14th promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1735) === *Knight : **Charles Louis Auguste Fouquet, duc de Belle-Isle, comte de Gisors, prince of the Holy Empire, Knight of the Golden Fleece, marshal of France and minister of War. === 15th promotion (Madrid, 22 March 1736) === * Knights : ** Philip, infante of Spain, later Duke of Parma and Piacenza. ** Álvaro Benavides Bazán, 7th Marquis of Santa Cruz, Grandee of Spain, Knight of the Golden Fleece, etc. === 16th promotion (Versailles, 20 May 1736) === * Knight : ** Jean-Hercules de Rosset, marquis de Rocozel, baron de Pérignan, then duc de Fleury and pair de France. === 17th promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1737) === * Knights : ** Francois-Louis de Neufville, duc de Villeroy, pair de France, captain of the Life Guards. ** Charles-Armand de Gontaut, duc de Biron, pair and marshal of France. ** Franciszek Maksymilian Ossoliński, prince of the Empire, before Grand Treasurier of Poland. ** Antoine-Félix, marquis de Monti, lieutenant général, ambassadeur extraordinaire in Poland. === 18th promotion (Rome, 15 September 1737) === * Knights : ** Jerôme Vaini, prince de Cantaloupe, duc de Selci. === 19th promotion (Versailles, 17 May 1739) === * Knights : ** Jacques François de Chastenet de Puységur, comte de Chessy, marshal of France. ** Claude- Théophile de Béziade, marquis d'Avarey-sur-Loire, lieutenant général, governor of Péronne. ** Louis de Regnier, marquis de Guerchy, lieutenant général ** Antoine de la Font, marquis de Savine, lieutenant général and director général of the cavalry. ** François de Bricqueville, comte de la Luzerne, seigneur de Monfreville, lieutenant général, vice-amiral of the Flotte du Ponant. ** Louis-Dominique de Cambis, marquis de Cambis-Velleron, lieutenant général, ambassador in England. ** Jacques de Monceaux d'Auxy, marquis d'Auxy, colonel of the Royal-Comtois Regiment. === 20th promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1740) === * Knight : ** Jaime Miguel de Guzmán de Avalos y Spinola, Marquis of la Mina, Duke of Palata and Prince of Masa, Knight of the Golden Fleece, ambassador of Spain to France. === 21st promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1740) === * Knight : ** Gabriel-Jacques de Salignac de La Motte, marquis de Fénelon, lieutenant général, ambassador in the Netherlands. === 22nd promotion (Versailles, 5 June 1740) === *Knight : **Louis Philippe d'Orléans (1725-1785), duc de Chartres, then duc d'Orléans, first prince du sang and as such first pair de France. === 23rd promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1741) === * Knight : ** Gaston-Charles-Pierre de Lévis de Lomagne, marquis de Mirepoix, Hereditary Marshal of the Faith, then marshal of France and captain of the Life Guards. === 24th promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1742) === * Prelates : ** Frédéric Jérôme de La Rochefoucauld de Roye (1701-1757), archbishop of Bourges, then cardinal and Grand aumônier de France. ** Gilbert de Montmorin de Saint-Herem, bishop and duke of Langres, pair de France. * Knight : ** Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon, duc de Penthièvre, Admiral of France and Grand Huntsman of France. === 25th promotion (Fontainebleau, 13 May 1742) === *Prelate : **Jean-Louis Des Balbes de Berton de Crillon, archbishop and primate of Narbonne. *Knight : **Louis de France (1729-1765), dauphin de Viennois, only son of the King and heir to the throne. === 26th promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1743) === *Prelate : **Pierre Guérin de Tencin, cardinal, archbishop-count of Lyon, Primate of the Gauls, State minister. === 27th promotion (Versailles, 2 June 1743) === *Knight : **Jean de Gassion, chevalier marquis de Gassion and Alluye, lieutenant général. === 28th promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1744) === *Knights : **Jean-Paul-Thimoléon de Cossé, due de Brissac, pair and Grand panetier de France. **Charles-François- Frédéric de Montmorency-Luxembourg, duc de Luxembourg, Piney and Montmorency, pair and marshal of France, captain of the Life Guards. **Joseph-Marie de Boufflers, duc de Boufflers, pair de France, lieutenant général for the King in Flandres and Hainaut Province. **Louis Charles, marquis de La Mothe- Houdancourt, Grandee of Spain first class, honorary knight to the Queen, then marshal of France. **Louis-Antoine de Gontaut de Biron, duc de Biron, pair and marshal of France. **Daniel-François, comte de Gélas de Voisins d'Ambres, known as comte de Lautrec, lieutenant général, inspector général of the infantry, the marshal of France. **Jean-Antoine-François de Franquetot, comte de Coigny, colonel général of the dragoons. === 29th promotion (Versailles, 6 January 1745) === *Prelate : **Armand de Rohan, cardinal de Soubise, bishop and prince of Strasbourg, Grand Almoner of France. === 30th promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1745) === *Knights : **Louis-Marie-d'Aumont, duc d'Aumont, pair de France, first gentleman of the King's Chamber, then lieutenant général and governor of Boulonnais. **Guy Michel de Durfort de Lorges, duc de Randan, lieutenant général. **Charles-Louis de Montsaulnin, comte de Montal, lieutenant général. **Jean-Charles de Sennectaire ou Sennetaire, chevalier-marquis of Sennectaire and Brinon, lieutenant général, then marshal of France. **Henri-Louis de Choiseul, marquis de Meuze, lieutenant général. **Henri-Charles de Saulx, comte de Tavannes, marquis de Trichâteau, lieutenant général for the King in Bourgogne. === 31st promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1746) === *Knight : **Louis Riggio Saladino- Branciforti-Colonna, prince of Campo-Florido, Grandee of Spain first class, captain général of the Guards of the King of Spain, ambassador in France. === 32nd promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1746) === *Prelate : **Louis-Jacques Chapt de Rastignac, archbishop of Tours. *Knights : **Nicolas-Joseph-Balthasar de Langlade, vicomte du Chayla, lieutenant général, director général of the cavalry. **Ulrich Frédéric Woldemar de Lowendal, lieutenant général, then marshal of France. **Pierre de Bérenger, comte de Charmes and Gua, lieutenant général. **Louis Charles César Le Tellier, comte d'Estrées, baron de Montmirail, inspector général of the cavalry, lieutenant général, then marshal of France. **Claude Annet d'Apchier, known as comte d'Apchier, lieutenant général. === 33rd promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1747) === * Knights : ** Charles O'Brien, comte de Thomond, vicomte de Clare, Peer of the Kingdom of Ireland, lieutenant général, then marshal of France. ** Jacques-François Milano Franco-Arragon, 2nd prince of Ardore and the Holy Empire, gentleman of the chamber of the King of the Two Sicilies and his ambassador in France. === 34th promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1748) === * Prelates : ** Christophe de Beaumont du Repaire, archbishop of Paris, duc de Saint-Cloud and pair de France. ** Nicolas de Saulx-Tavannes, archbishop of Rouen, pair de France, then cardinal and grand Almoner of France. ** Abraham-Louis de Harcourt, marquis de Beuvron, abbot of the Signy Abbey and Saint-Taurin, former dean of the church of Paris. === 35th promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1748) === *Knights : **Charles-Philippe d'Albert, duc de Luynes, comte de Tours and Montfort-l'Amaury, pair de France. **Jean-Hector de Fay, marquis de La Tour- Maubourg, lieutenant général, inspector général of the infantry, then marshal of France. **François de Bulkeley, known as comte de Bulkeley, lieutenant général. **Henri François, comte de Ségur, lieutenant général, inspector général of the cavalry and dragoons. **Louis Philogène Brûlart de Sillery, marquis de Puissieux and Sillery, Secretary of State for foreign affairs. === 36th promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1749) === *Knight : **Alphonse-Marie- Louis, comte de Saint-Séverin d'Arragon, ministre plénipotentiaire for the King at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). === 37th promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1749) === *Knights : **Louis de Noailles, duc d'Ayen, marquis de Maintenon, marshal of France, captain of the 1st company of the King's Life Guards, governor of Roussillon. **Louis-Armand-François de La Rochefoucauld, duc d'Estissac, grand master of the King's wardrobe. **François-Marie de Villers la Faye, comte de Vaulgrenant, ministre plénipotentiaire in Dresden, ambassadeur extraordinaire in Spain. === 38th promotion (Versailles, 25 May 1749) === *Knights : **Louis César de La Baume Le Blanc, duc de La Vallière, pair and Grand Falconer of France. **Charles- François, marquis de Sassenage, honorary knight of madame la Dauphine. **Louis, comte de Mailly, lieutenant général, first Squire of madame la Dauphine. **Anne-Léon, baron de Montmorency, leader of his house, lieutenant général. **Louis de Talaru, marquis de Chalmazel, first master of the Queen's Chambers. **François-Louis le Tellier, comte de Rebellac, marquis de Souvré and Louvois, lieutenant général. === 39th promotion (Versailles, 17 May 1750) === *Knight : **Louis François Joseph de Bourbon-Conti, prince de Conti, comte de la Marche. === 40th promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1751) === *Knight : **Michel-Ferdinand d'Albert d'Ally, duc de Chaulnes, pair de France, lieutenant général, governor of Picardy and Artois. === 41st promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1752) === *Knight : **Louis V Joseph de Bourbon-Condé, prince de Condé. === 42nd promotion (Versailles, 21 May 1752) === *Knights : **Louis-Charles de Lorraine, comte de Brionne and Charny, Grand Squire of France. **Louis-Jules Mancini-Mazarini, duc de Nivernois, pair de France, Grandee of Spain first class, ambassadeur extraordinaire in Rome. === 43rd promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1753) === *Knight : **Emmanuel d'Hautefort, marquis d'Hautefort and Sarcelles, comte de Montignac, Marshal General of France, ambassadeur extraordinaire in the Germanic Empire. === 44th promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1753) === *Knights : **André-Hercule de Rosset, duc de Fleury, pair de France, lieutenant général, first gentleman of the King's Chamber. **Bufile-Hyacinthe-Toussaint de Brancas, des comtes de Forcalquier, comte de Céreste. **Paul-Gallucio de l'Hôpital, marquis de Châteauneuf-sur- Cher, lieutenant général, ambassadeur extraordinaire in Saint Petersburg, inspector général of the cavalry and dragoons, first Squire of Adélaïde de France. **Antoine-Paul-Jacques de Quélen, prince de Carency, comte de la Vauguyon, lieutenant général, governor of the King's children, first gentleman of the King's Chamber, Grand master of the King's wardrobe. **Louis de Conflans, marquis d'Armentières, marshal of France. **Pierre-Emmanuel, marquis de Crussol, Marshal General of France, ministre plénipotentiaire in Parma. === 45th promotion (Versailles, 10 June 1753) === *Prelates : **Charles Antoine de La Roche-Aymon, archbishop of Narbonne, then Reims, and in this capacity, first ecclesiastical peer, Grand Almoner of France and cardinal, in charge of the sheet of benefices. **Louis Constantin de Rohan, bishop and prince of Strasbourg, cardinal. **François-Claude de Beaufort-Montboissier-Canillac, auditor in Rome. === 46th promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1756) === * Knights : ** Camille-Louis de Lorraine, known as prince Camille, sire de Pons, prince de Mortagne, etc., Marshal General of France, then lieutenant général. ** Anne-Pierre, duc d'Harcourt, pair and marshal of France, lieutenant général of the province of Normandy. ** Charles de Fitz-James, duc de Fitz-James- Warti, pair de France, lieutenant général. ** Emmanuel Armand de Vignerot du Plessis, duc d'Aiguillon, pair de France, lieutenant général, commander-in- chief in Bretagne, minister and State secretary in the Foreign affairs and War departement. === 47th promotion (Versailles, 6 June 1756) === *Knights : **Jacques-Antoine, comte de S. Vital et de Fontanellato, marquis de Belleforte, etc., honorary knight to the infante duchess of Parma. **Józef Aleksander Jabłonowski, prince of the Empire, voivode of Novogrudok, grand sénéchal of the Duchy of Lithuania. === 48th promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1757) === * Knight : ** François, des comtes de Baschi, comte de Baschi-Saint- Estève, ambassador for France in Portugal. === 49th promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1757) === *Knights : ** Charles Juste de Beauvau-Craon, prince du Saint-Empire, Grandee of Spain first class, captain of the Life Guards, Marshal General of France. ** Charles-Antoine-Armand de Gontault-Biron, duc de Gontault, lieutenant général . ** Yves Marie Desmarets de Maillebois, known as comte de Maillebois, master of the King's wardrobe, lieutenant général in the province of Languedoc. ** Armand, marquis de Béthune and Chabris, mestre de camp général of the light cavalry of France, then colonel général of the same cavalry. ** Joseph-Henri d'Esparbès-de-Lussan-Bouchard, marquis d'Aubeterre, Marshal General of France, ambassador in Spain. ** Charles-François de Broglie, known as comte de Broglie, ambassadeur extraordinaire for France in Poland, first colonel attaché to the grenadiers of France. === 50th promotion (Versailles, 29 May 1757) === * Knight : ** Étienne François de Choiseul, duc de Choiseul, pair de France, Marshal General of France, ambassadeur extraordinaire in Rome and Vienna, Foreign Minister. === 51st promotion (Versailles, 14 May 1758) === * Prelate : ** François-Joachim de Pierre de Bernis, cardinal, archbishop of Albi, Foreign Minister. === 52nd promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1759) === * Prelate : ** Paul d'Albert de Luynes, cardinal, archbishop of Sens, Primate of the Gauls and Germany. === 53rd promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1759) === * Prelate : ** Étienne-René Potier de Gesvres, cardinal, bishop and count of Beauvais, pair de France. * Knights : ** Marie-Charles-Louis d'Albert, duc de Luynes and Chevreuse, pair de France, colonel général of the dragoons, governor and lieutenant général in Paris. ** Louis Georges Érasme de Contades, marquis de Contades, seigneur de la Verne, Montgeoffroy and La Roche-Thibaut, Colonel of the Flanders infantry regiment, Brigadier des armées du roi, Maréchal de camp, lieutenant général, then inspector général of the infantry in 1745, Marshal of France in 1758, chevalier des ordres du Roy and governor of Strasbourg. ** Louis-Robert Mallet de Graville, dit comte de Graville, comte de Chamilly, lieutenant général, inspector général of the cavalry and the dragoons, commander-in-chief in the province of Roussillon, Conflans and Cerdagne. ** François-Charles, comte de Rochechouart, marquis de Faudoas, lieutenant général, governor of Orléans and the Orléanais, ministre plénipotentiaire at the court of Infante Don Philippe, Duke of Parma. ** Claude-Louis-François Regnier, comte de Guerchy, lieutenant général. ** Emmanuel de Croÿ, prince du Saint-Empire, Marshal General of France, the King's commander in Artois, Picardy, Calaisis and Boulonnais. ** Hyacinthe-Gaëtan de Lannion, known as comte de Lannion, baron de Malestroit, pair de Bretagne, life-time president of the States of Bretagne, governor and lieutenant général of the island of Minorca. === 54th promotion (18 May 1760) === * Knight : ** Don Charles Antoine de Bourbon, prince of Asturias, eldest son of King Charles III, future King Charles IV of Spain. === 55th promotion (21 July 1760) === * Knight : ** Don Luis Antonio, infante of Spain, third son of King Philip V and Elisabeth Farnese. === 56th promotion (22 July 1760) === *Knights : ** Felipe Portocarrero, comte de Montijo, gentleman of the chamber of the King of Spain. ** Fernando de Silva y Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba. === 57th promotion (8 September 1760) === * Knight : ** Ferdinand IV, King of the Two Sicilies. === 58th promotion (Versailles, 10 May 1761) === * Prelate : ** Louis-Sextius de Jarente de La Bruyère, bishop of Orléans. === 59th promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1762) === * Knight : ** César Gabriel de Choiseul-Praslin, duc de Praslin, pair de France, ambassador to the Germanic Emperor, minister of Foreign Affairs. === 60th promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1762) === * Knights : ** Victor-François, duc de Broglie, marshal of France. ** Jerónimo Grimaldi, 1st Duke of Grimaldi, ambassadeur extraordinaire of Spain to France. === 61st promotion (Versailles, 30 May 1762) === * Prelate : ** Jean-François-Joseph de Rochechouart, bishop and duke of Laon, and in this capacity, second ecclesiastical peer of the Kingdom, cardinal. * Knights : ** Louis Philippe d'Orléans, duc de Chartres. ** Charles Eugène Gabriel de La Croix de Castries, marquis de Castries, marshal of France, minister and State Secretary of the departement of the Navy, commandant général and inspector of the gendarmerie corps. === 62nd promotion (25 August 1762) === * Knight : ** Don Ferdinand, infante of Spain, future Duke of Parma. === 63rd promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1763) === * Knight : ** Louis Alexandre de Bourbon, prince de Lamballe. === 64th promotion (Versailles, 2 February 1764) === * Knights : ** Charles-Gaspar-Michel, comte de Saulx-Tavannes, lieutenant général in the government of the Duchy of Burgundy, honorary Knight to the Queen. ** Louis Nicolas Victor de Félix d'Ollières, comte du Muy, marshal of France, minister and State Secretary of the departement of War. === 65th promotion (Versailles, 10 June 1764) === *Knight : ** Louis-Marie-Florent de Lomont, duc du Châtelet, ambassador to the Germanic Emperor and Empress-Queen (Austria). === 66th promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1767) === * Knight : ** Charles Henri, comte d'Estaing, vice-admiral of France, lieutenant général. === 67th promotion (2 February 1767) === * Knights : ** Louis-Auguste, Dauphin de France, future King of France (Louis XVI). ** Louis-Stanislas-Xavier de France, comte de Provence, future King of France (Louis XVIII). ** Emmanuel- Félicité de Durfort, duc de Duras, pair and marshal of France, first gentleman of the King's Chamber. ** Joaquín Atanasio Pignatelli de Aragón y Moncayo, conde de Fuentes, Grandee of Spain first class, ambassador of Spain to France. === 68th promotion (Versailles, 7 June 1767) === * Knights : ** Philippe de Noailles, duc de Mouchy, marshal of France, Grandee of Spain first class. ** Marie de Talleyrand, comte de Périgord, Grandee of Spain first class, Marshal General of France, governor and lieutenant général of the province of Haut et Bas Berry. ** Louis-Paul, marquis de Brancas, Grandee of Spain first class, lieutenant général, lieutenant général in the government of Provence. ** Claude Guillaume Testu de Balincourt, marquis de Balincourt, marshal of France. ** Charles-François-Christian de Montmorency-Luxembourg, prince de Tingry, lieutenant général, captain of the Life Guardes of the King. ** Charles-Léonard de Baylens, marquis de Poyanne, lieutenant général, mestre-de- camp, inspector and commander of the carabiniers corps. ** Emmanuel-Louis- Auguste, comte de Pons-Saint-Maurice, lieutenant général, first gentleman of the duc d'Orléans. ** Philippe Henri de Ségur, marquis de Ségur, then marshal of France and secretary of State of War. === 69th promotion (1 January 1768) === * Knight : ** Jules-César Barberini, prince de Palestrina. === 70th promotion (22 May 1768) === * Knight : ** Don Francisco Javier, infante of Spain (1757-1771). === 71st promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1771) === * Prelate : ** Jean-Joseph Chapelle de Jumillac-Saint-Jean, archbishop of Arles. * Knight : ** Charles-Philippe de France, comte d'Artois, future King of France (Charles X). === 72nd promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1773) === * Knights : ** Louis VI Henri de Bourbon-Condé, duc de Bourbon. ** Gabriel Louis François de Neufville de Villeroy, duc de Villeroy and Retz, pair de France, captain of the 1st French company of the King's Life Guards, lieutenant général, governor of Lyon, and the provinces of Lyonnais, Forez and Beaujolais. ** Louis Potier de Gesvres, duc de Tresmes, pair de France, lieutenant général, governor and lieutenant général of the province of Île-de- France. ** Jean-Baptiste-Joachim Colbert, marquis de Croissy, lieutenant général. ** Louis II du Bouchet de Sourches, marquis de Sourches, lieutenant général, Grand Prevost of France. ** Jean-Baptiste-François, marquis de Montmorin de Saint-Hérem, lieutenant général. === During the reign of Louis XV, Knights and commanders appointed and died without having been received === ==== 1724 ==== * Prelate : ** Filippo Antonio Gualterio, cardinal, papal nuncio. * Knights : ** Antoine Grimaldi, prince de Monaco, duc de Valentinois, pair de France. ** Charles Auguste de Goyon de Matignon, marshal de France (In view of his great age, the King appointed his son, the Marquis de Matignon, in his place, who was received on 1 January 1725). ** Antonio Gaspar de Moscoso Osorio y Aragón, 8th Count of Altamira. ** Francisco María Spínola y Spínola, 3rd Duke of San Pedro de Galatino, Grandee of Spain. ==== 1725 ==== * Stanislas Leszczyński, King of Poland. ==== 1731 ==== * Conrad-Alexandre, comte de Rottembourg. ==== 1745 ==== * Francesco III d'Este, Duke of Modena. ==== 1746 ==== * Cristóbal Gregorio Portocarrero, 5th Count of Montijo, Grandee of Spain, marshal of Castille, etc. * Annibal Déodat, marquis de Scotti. ==== 1748 ==== * Anne-Louis de Thiard, marquis de Bissy, mestre-de- camp général of the cavalry, named chevalier des Ordres du Roi in an extraordinary session called by the king at Choisy on 4 May 1748. This appointment was cancelled when news arrived that he had died of wounds sustained during the Siege of Maastricht, however by a brêvet on 17 May 1748 his family was granted permission to add the honour of the order to their coat of arms. ==== 1749 ==== * Marc-Antoine Front de Beaupoil de Saint-Aulaire, marquis de Lanmary, etc., ambassador in Sweden. Receiving appointment to the order on 1 January 1749, he died in Stockholm before he could be formerly enrolled. His family obtained a brêvet on 25 May of that year to allow them to display the honour in their coat of arms. * Fernando de Silva y Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Huescar, etc., Spanish ambassador to France between 1746 and 1749 ==== 1750 ==== * Stanislas Prus Jablonowski, prince of the Holy Empire, palatine of Rava, etc. ==== 1756 ==== * Louis-Eugène, prince of Württemberg ==== 1757 ==== * Pierre-Paul d'Ossuna, marquis of Ossuna ==== 1760 ==== * César Gabriel de Choiseul-Praslin, named comte de Choiseul, appointed on 1 January 1760, admitted on 2 February. ==== 1761 ==== * Don Gabriel, infante of Spain. ==== 1767 ==== * Charles Henri, comte d'Estaing, vice-admiral of France, lieutenant général. * Don Antonio, infante of Spain ==== 1768 ==== * Jules-César Barberini, prince of Palestrina. * Don Francisco Javier, infante of Spain (1757-1771). == Under Louis XVI == The sixth head and sovereign Grand maître de l'ordre du Saint-Esprit, Louis XVI received the collar of l'Ordre on 2 February 1767, seven years after his coronation. === 1st promotion (Versailles, 1 January 1776) === * Knights : ** Jean-Louis-Roger de Rochechouart, marquis de Rochechouart. ** Antoine Louis François de La Roche- Aymon, marquis de La Roche-Aymon. ** Charles Daniel de Talleyrand-Périgord, comte de Talleyrand-Périgord. ** Jean François de La Rochefoucauld, vicomte de La Rochefoucauld, marquis de Surgères, seigneur de Doudeauville. ** Jean François de Talaru, vicomte de Talaru, seigneur de Montpeyroux. * Commanders : ** Jean-Gilles du Coëtlosquet, bishop of Limoges. ** Arthur Richard Dillon, bishop of Evreux, then arch bishop of Toulouse, then archbishop of Narbonne. === 2nd promotion (26 may 1776) === * Knights : ** François Emmanuel de Crussol, comte de Crussol, then duc d'Uzès and pair de France, prince de Soyons and marquis de Montsalés. ** Louis Hercule Timoléon de Cossé, marquis de Cossé (known as de Brissac), then duc de Brissac and pair de France, captain-colonel of the Swiss Guards and Grand Panetier of France. ** René Mans de Froulay, marquis de Tessé and Lavardin. ** Augustin-Joseph de Mailly, comte de Mailly, marquis d'Haucourt, marshal of France. ** Philippe Claude de Montboissier-Beaufort-Canillac, comte de Montboissier. ** François Gaston de Lévis, duc de Lévis, marshal of France. ** Anne-François d'Harcourt, duc de Beuvron. ** . ** Louis Charles Auguste Le Tonnelier, baron de Breteuil. === 3rd Promotion (1 January 1777) === * Knights : ** Charles-Eugène de Lorraine, prince de Lambesc, comte de Brionne, duc d'Elbeuf and pair de France, Grand Squire of France. ** Marie François Henri de Franquetot, duc de Coigny and pair de France, marquis de Bordage and La Moussaye, colonel général of the Dragoons and marshal of France. === 4th Promotion (2 February 1777) === * Knights : ** Louis Alexandre Céleste d'Aumont, duc d'Aumont, pair de France. ** Louis Melchior Armand de Polignac, vicomte de Polignac, marquis de Chalencon. ** Pierre Raymond de Bérenger, marquis de Bérenger, comte de Gua. === 5th Promotion (9 November 1777) === * Commander : ** Louis René Édouard de Rohan-Guéménée, cardinal, bishop-prince of Strasbourg, Grand Almoner of France. === 6th Promotion du (1 January 1778) === * Commander : ** Pierre Augustin Bernardin de Rosset de Rocozels de Fleury, bishop of Chartres, grand almoner of the Queen. === 7th Promotion (2 February 1778) === * Knight : ** Pierre Paul d'Ossun, seigneur de Saint-Luc and Bartrès, French Ambassador to Spain. === 8th Promotion (9 June 1778) === * Knights : ** Charles François Elzéar de Vogüe, marquis de Vogüe, comte de Montlaur, baron d'Aubenas. ** Alexandre Marie Léonor de Saint-Mauris de Montbarrey, prince de Montbarrey and of the Holy Empire. ** Louis Bruno de Boisgelin, comte de Boisgelin, marquis de Cucé, baron de La Rochebernard. === 9th Promotion (1 January 1780) === * Commander : ** Jean-Armand de Bessuéjouls Roquelaure, archbishop of Malines, abbot In commendam of Saint-Germer. === 10th Promotion (14 may 1780) === * Commander : ** Dominique de La Rochefoucauld, archbishop of Albi, abbot of Cluny, then archbishop of Rouen, abbot of Fécamp, cardinal. === 11th Promotion (1 January 1781) === * Knight : ** Ercole III d'Este, Duke of Modena, Reggio and La Mirandola, prince of Carpi and Corregio. Died before being received. === 12th Promotion (2 February 1782) === * Commander : ** Étienne-Charles de Loménie de Brienne, bishop of Condom, then archbishop of Toulouse, then archbishop of Sens, cardinal. === 13th Promotion (1 January 1784) === * Knights : ** Maximilien Antoine Armand de Béthune, duc de Sully and pair de France, sovereign prince of Henrichemont and Boisbelle, marquis de Lens, comte de Béthune and Montgommery, baron of La Chapelle d'Aiguillon and Mêle-sur- Sarthe. ** Paul François de Quelen de La Vauguyon, duc de La Vauguyon and pair de France, prince de Carency. ** Marie Louis Caillebot, marquis de La Salle, seigneur de Montpinçon. ** Louis Auguste Augustin d'Affry, comte d'Affry, seigneur de Saint-Barthélémy and Brétigny. ** Charles Claude Andrault, marquis de Maulévrier-Langeron. ** Luc Urbain du Bouëxic, comte de Guichen. ** Auguste Louis Hennequin, marquis d'Ecquevilly, seigneur de La Motte-Verigny, Gouzon, Presles. ** Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau, marshal of France. ** Louis Antoine Auguste de Rohan-Chabot, duc de Chabot, vicomte de Bignan, baron de Kerguehéneuc. ** François Claude Amour de Bouillé du Chariol, « marquis » de Bouillet, seigneur de Saint-Giron, baron d'Alleret. ** Adrien Louis de Bonnières, duc de Guines. ** Charles Léopold de Jaucourt, seigneur de Chazelles, « marquis » de Jaucourt. ** Jean Baptiste Charles François de Clermont d'Amboise, marquis de Reynel. ** Anne-Pierre de Montesquiou, seigneur de Pont-Saint-Pierre, « marquis » de Montesquiou-Fezensac. ** Charles François Gaspard Fidèle de Vintimille, seigneur de Figanières and Vidauban, « marquis » de Vintimille. ** Charles François Casimir de Saulx, duc de Tavannes. ** Louis François Marie de Pérusse, comte des Cars and Saint-Bonnet. ** Joseph Hyacinthe François de Paule Rigaud, comte de Vaudreuil and pair de France, Grand Falconer of France. ** Valentin Ladislas Esterhazy de Galantha, comte de Grodeck and Magnate of Hungary. ** Louis Étienne François, comte de Damas- Crux. ** Armand Marc de Montmorin, comte de Saint-Hérem. ** Alexandre Charles Emmanuel de Crussol-Florensac, baron de Crussol and pair de France, bailiff of the Order of Malta. === 14th Promotion (30 may 1784) === * Knights : ** François Alexandre Frédéric de La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, duc de La Rochefoucauld and pair de France. ** Jules Charles Henri de Clermont-Tonnerre, duc de Clermont-Tonnerre and pair de France. ** Antoine Marie d'Apchon, comte de Saint-Germain, baron de Corgenon. ** Pierre André de Suffren de Saint- Tropez, bailiff of the Order of Malta, vice-admiral of France. === 15th Promotion (1 January 1785) === * Commander : ** Yves-Alexandre de Marbeuf, canon-count of Lyon, then bishop of Autun, then archbishop of Lyon. === 16th Promotion (2 February 1785) === * Knight : ** François-Henri d'Harcourt, duc d'Harcourt and pair de France, marquis de Saint-Bris and baron de Chitry. === 17th Promotion (2 February 1786) === * Knights : ** Anne Ferdinand François de Croÿ, duc de Croÿ, prince de Solre and of the Holy Empire. ** Anne Louis Alexandre de Montmorency, prince de Robecq, Grandee of Spain. ** Jacques Philippe de Choiseul, duc de Stainville, marshal of France. ** Joseph Louis Bernard de Cléron, comte d'Haussonville, seigneur de Bazarne, Grand Louvetier de France. ** Esprit François Henri de Castellane. ** Augustin Gabriel de Franquetot, comte de Coigny. === 18th Promotion (11 June 1786) === * Commander : ** Louis-Joseph de Montmorency-Laval, cardinal, prince-bishop of Metz, grand almoner of France. === 19th Promotion (12 November 1786) === * Knight : ** Louis de Bourbon, infante of Spain, hereditary prince of Parma, then King of Etruria. === 20th Promotion (27 may 1787) === * Knight : ** Louis Antoine d'Artois, Duke of Angoulême, then Dauphin de France, Pretender King of France under then name of Louis XIX. === 21st Promotion (2 February 1788) === * Knight : ** Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon-Condé, duc d'Enghien. === 22nd Promotion (1 January 1789) === * Knights : ** Louis Marie Athanase de Loménie, comte de Brienne. ** Anne Paul Emmanuel Sigismond de Montmorency-Luxembourg. === 23rd Promotion (2 February 1789) === * Knight : ** Louis Philippe d'Orléans, Duke of Chartres, then of Orléans, later King of France as Louis- Philippe I. === 24th Promotion (31 may 1789) === * Knight : ** Charles Ferdinand d'Artois, duc de Berry. ** Henri Charles Gabriel de Thiard de Bissy. == Under Louis XVII == == Under Louis XVIII == === First promotion (1808) === * Commandeur : ** Alexandre Angélique de Talleyrand-Périgord, archbishop-duke of Reims, duke and pair, Grand Almoner of France, then archbishop of Paris. :::Monseigneur de Talleyrand-Périgord, who was part of the Council of King Louis XVIII and who had followed this prince to Germany and from there to England, was appointed in 1808 Grand Almoner of France and Prelate Knight of the Order of the Holy Spirit, in the death of Cardinal de Montmorency. === Second promotion (1810) === * Knights : ** Francis, Hereditary Prince of the Two Sicilies, later King Francis I. ** Leopold, Prince of Salerno, brother of the previous. === Third promotion (1811) === * Knights : ** George Augustus Frederick, prince of Wales, regent of the United Kingdom, later King George IV. ** Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, brother of the previous. ** William Henry, Duke of Clarence, brother of the previous, later King William IV. ** Ferdinand VII, King of Spain. ** Infante Carlos María Isidro of Spain (don Carlos), brother of the previous. === Fourth promotion (1815) === * Knights : ** Francis I, Emperor of Austria. ** Alexander I, Emperor of Russia. ** Konstantin Pavlovich of Russia, Grand Duke, brother of the Emperor. ** Michael Pavlovich of Russia, Grand Duke, brother of the Emperor. ** Frederick William III, King of Prussia. ** Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, prince of Waterloo, etc., Peer of England. === Fifth promotion (1816) === * Knights : ** Ferdinand Charles Leopold, Hereditary Prince and Archduke of Austria, later Emperor Ferdinand I. ** Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg, Duke of Krumau, Austrian Fieldmarshal. ** Don Carlos-Luis, infante of Spain, later Duke of Parma. ** Louis-Aloysius, prince of Hohenlohe-Bartenstein, lieutenant général, pair and Marshal of France. === Sixth promotion (1818) === * Knights : ** Frederick VI, King of Denmark. ** Armand-Emmanuel-Sophie- Septimanie de Vignerot du Plessis-Richelieu, duc de Richelieu, pair de France, State minister, president of the council. === Seventh promotion (Paris, 30 September 1820) === * Prelates : ** Louis-François, cardinal de Bausset, duke and pair de France. ** Charles François d'Aviau du Bois de Sanzay, archbishop of Bordeaux. ** François-Xavier-Marc-Antoine, abbot-duke of Montesquiou- Fézensac, pair de France. ** César-Guillaume de La Luzerne, cardinal * Knights : ** Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, prince de Talleyrand-Périgord, pair and Grand Chamberlain of France. ** Charles-Emmanuel-Sigismond de Montmorency, duc de Luxembourg, pair de France, lieutenant général. ** Antoine-Louis-Marie, duc de Gramont, pair de France, lieutenant général, captain of the 2nd company of the Life Guards. ** Louis-Marie-Céleste, duc d'Aumont, pair de France. ** Anne-Adrien-Pierre de Montmorency, duc de Laval- Montmorency, pair de France, grandee of Spain first class, Knight of the Golden Fleece, lieutenant général. ** Amédée-Bretagne-Malo de Durfort, duc de Duras, pair de France, maréchal de camp. ** Charles-Arthur-Jean-Tristan- Languedoc de Noailles, duc de Mouchy, prince de Poix, pair de France, captain of the Life Guards, Knight of the Golden Fleece. ** Pierre-Marc-Gaston, duc de Lévis, pair de France, maréchal de camp, one of the 40 member of the Académie française. ** Armand-Louis, duc de Serent, pair de France, lieutenant général. ** Émerich-Joseph-Wolfgang-Héribert, duc de Dalberg, pair de France, State minister. ** Bon Adrien Jeannot de Moncey, duc de Conégliano, pair and marshal of France. ** Claude-Victor Perrin, duc de Bellune, pair and marshal of France. ** Jacques-Étienne-Joseph-Alexandre Macdonald, duc de Tarente, pair and marshal of France, Grand Chancellor of the Légion d'honneur. ** Nicolas Oudinot, duc de Reggio, pair and marshal of France. ** Auguste Frédéric Louis Viesse de Marmont, duc de Raguse, pair and marshal of France. ** Louis Gabriel Suchet, duc d'Albuféra, pair and marshal of France. ** Claude-Louis, duc de La Châtre, pair de France, lieutenant général. ** Claude Antoine de Bésiade, duc d'Avaray, pair de France, lieutenant général. ** Élie, duc Decazes, pair de France, Prime Minister of France. ** Charles-Joseph-Hyacinthe du Houx, comte then marquis de Vioménil, pair and marshal of France. ** Marie-Victor-Nicolas de Fay, marquis de la Tour-Maubourg, pair de France, minister of War. ** Jean- Charles-François de Nettancourt Hannouville, marquis Vaubecourt, lieutenant général. ** Jean-Joseph-Paul-Augustin, marquis Dessole, pair de France, lieutenant général. ** Charles François de Riffardeau, marquis puis duc de Rivière, pair de France, lieutenant général, ambassador in Constantinople. ** Victor-Louis-Charles de Riquet, marquis puis duc de Caraman, pair de France, ambassador in Vienna. ** Pierre-Louis-Jean-Casimir, duc de Blacas, pair de France, ambassador in Rome. ** Joseph-Henri-Joachim, vicomte Lainé, pair de France, State minister. ** Hercule, comte de Serre, ambassador in Naples. ** Étienne-Denis, baron Pasquier, pair de France, Minister of Justice, Keeper of the Seals, then Duke and Chancellor of France, one of the 40 member of the Académie française. ** François-Nicolas-Pierre de Pérusse, comte then duc d'Escars, pair de France. ** Pierre Riel de Beurnonville, pair and marshal of France. === Eighth promotion (1821) === * Prélats : ** Anne-Louis-Henri, cardinal-duc de la Fare, archbishop of Sens, pair de France. ** Gustave- Maximilien-Just, cardinal-prince de Croy, archbishop of Rouen, Grand Almoner of France. * Knights : ** Don Fabrizio Ruffo, prince de Castel-Cicala, ambassador of the Two Sicilies. ** Joseph-François-Louis-Charles de Damas, comte, then duc de Damas d'Antigny, pair de France. ** Ferdinando Carlo, duc de Noto, eldest son of Francis I of the Two Sicilies, later King Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies. ** Hélie-Charles de Talleyrand-Périgord, prince-duc de Chalais, pair de France, Grandee of Spain First class, etc... === Ninth promotion (1823) === * Knights : ** John VI, King of Portugal. ** Don Pedro de Alcantara, prince royal of Portugal, regent and Emperor of Brazil. ** Don Miguel, infante of Portugal, brother of the previous. ** Jacques-Alexandre- Bernard Law, marquis de Lauriston, pair and marshal of France. ** Don José Miguel de Carvajal, duke of San Carlos, Grandee of Spain first class, ambassador in France. ** Joseph, comte de Villèle, minister-president of the council, pair de France, Knight of the Golden Fleece, etc. === Tenth promotion (5 February 1824) === * Knights : ** Archduke Franz Karl of Austria, third son of Emperor Francis I. ** Alexandere, Grand Duke of Russia, later Emperor Alexander II of Russia. ** Charles Albert, prince de Carignan, later King Charles Albert of Sardinia. ** Frederick William, prince royal of Prussia, later King Frederick William IV of Prussia. ** Charles-Robert, comte de Nesselrode, vice-Chancellor of the Russian Empire. ** François-René-Auguste, vicomte de Chateaubriand, pair de France, Knight of the Golden Fleece, one of the 40 member of the Académie française, etc. ** Ambroise-Polycarpe de La Rochefoucauld, duc de Doudeauville, pair de France, Grandee of Spain first class, etc. ** Étienne-Charles, duc de Damas-Crux, lieutenant général, pair de France, first gentlemen of M. le Dauphin, etc. ** Louis Justin, marquis de Talaru, pair de France, ambassador in Madrid, Knight of the Golden Fleece, etc. == Under Charles X == The ninth head and sovereign Grand maître de l'Ordre du Saint-Esprit, Charles X received the collar of l'Ordre on 1er January 1771. === First promotion (Reims, 30 May 1825) === Promotion's made on the occasion of the coronation. * Prelates : ** Anne-Antoine-Jules, cardinal- duc de Clermont-Tonnerre, archbishop of Toulouse, pair de France. ** Jean- Baptiste-Marie-Anne-Antoine, cardinal-duc de Latil, archbishop of Reims, pair de France. * Knights : ** Clément-Venceslas-Népomucène-Lothaire, prince de Metternich-Wineburg, Chancellor of the Crown, House and State of Austria. ** Ferdinand-Philippe-Louis-Charles-Henri d'Orléans, duc de Chartres, prince royal and duc d'Orléans in 1830. ** Marie-François-Emmanuel de Crussol, duc d'Uzès, pair de France, lieutenant général. ** Charles Marie Paul André d'Albert de Luynes, duc de Chevreuse, pair de France. ** Augustin-Marie-Paul- Pétronille-Timoléon, duc de Brissac, pair de France. ** Casimir-Louis- Victurnien de Rochechouart, duc de Mortemart, pair de France, captain-colonel of the Swiss Guards, lieutenant général, etc. ** Édouard, duc de Fitz-James, pair de France, first gentleman of the chamber of Monsieur until 1824. ** Jean-Laurent de Durfort-Civrac, comte puis duc de Lorges, pair de France, lieutenant général. ** Armand XXIV Jules Marie Héraclius, duc de Polignac, pair de France, maréchal de camp. ** Charles François Armand de Maillé deLa Tour-Landry, duc de Maillé, pair de France, first aide de camp of the King. ** Armand Charles Augustin de La Croix, duc de Castries, pair de France, lieutenant général. ** Raimond-Jacques-Marie, duc de Narbonne-Pelet, pair de France, State minister. ** Jean-Baptiste, comte Jourdan, pair and marshal of France. ** Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult, duc de Dalmatie, pair and marshal of France. ** Louis-François Chamillart, marquis de la Suze, pair de France. ** Henri Evrard, marquis de Dreux-Brézé, pair and Grand master of the ceremonies of France. ** Claude-Emmanuel de Pastoret, pair de France, member of the institute. ** Auguste-Pierre-Marie Ferron, comte de La Ferronays, pair de France, ambassador in Russia, etc. ** Antoine-Jean, vicomte d'Agoult, pair de France, first squire of Madame la Dauphine. ** Jean Thérèse de Beaumont d'Autichamp, governor of the Louvre. ** Auguste Ravez, president of the Chamber of Deputies, State councillor. ** Just, comte de Noailles. === Second promotion (Paris, 14 May 1826) === * Knights : ** Charles Ferdinand, Prince of Capua (1811-1862), Prince of Capua, son of Ferdinand I, King of Naples. ** Prince Leopold, Count of Syracuse, brother of the previous. ** Charles Bretagne Marie de La Trémoille, duc de la Trémoille, prince de Tarente, pair de France. ** Emmanuel Marie Maximilien de Croÿ-Solre,son of Anne Emmanuel, 8th Duke of Croÿ (1718-1784), marshal of France. prince de Solre, captain of the 1st company of the King's Life Guard, then pair de France. ** Auguste- Jules-Armand-Marie, prince de Polignac, pair de France, minister of Foreign Affairs. ** Pyotr Mikhailovich Volkonsky, ambassadeur extraordinaire of Russia in France. === Third promotion (Paris, 3 June 1827) === * Knights : ** Charles Paul François de Beauvilliers, duc de Saint-Aignan, pair de France and lieutenant général. ** Jules-Gaspard-Aymard, duc de Clermont-Tonnerre, pair de France. ** Gabriel-Jean-Joseph, comte Molitor, pair and marshal of France. ** Pierre-Denis, Comte de Peyronnet, pair de France, minister of Justice and then of the Interior. ** Jacques-Joseph-Guillaume-Pierre, comte de Corbière, pair de France, minister of the Interior ** Philibert-Jean-Baptiste-Joseph, comte Curial, lieutenant général, pair de France, master of the King's wardrobe. ** Jean, baron de La Rochefoucauld-Bayers, pair de France, lieutenant général. ** Anne-Victor-Denis Hurault, marquis de Vibraye, pair de France, lieutenant général, honorary knight of Madame la Dauphine. ** Armand-Charles, comte Guilleminot, pair de France, lieutenant général and ambassador in Constantinople. ** Louis Charles Pierre Bonaventure, comte de Mesnard, pair de France, first squire of Madame la duchesse de Berri. ** Édouard-Thomas, comte Burgues de Missiessy, vice-amiral. === Fourth promotion (Paris, 25 May 1828) === * Prelates : ** Denis, comte Frayssinous, bishop of Hermopolis, first Almoner of the King, Minister of Ecclesiastical Affairs and Public Instruction. * Knights : ** Christophe, comte de Chabrol de Crouzol, pair de France, minister of the Navy. ** Bermudès de Castro, Duke of Villahermosa, ambassador of Spain. === Fifth promotion (Paris, 19 February 1829) === * Knights : ** Prince Antonio, Count of Lecce, son of King Francis I of the Two Sicilies. ** Louis-Charles-Philippe-Raphaël d'Orléans, duc de Nemours. === Sixth and final promotion (Tuileries, 31 May 1830, Pentecost) === * Prelates : ** Hyacinthe-Louis de Quélen, archbishop of Paris, pair de France, one of the 40 members of the Académie française. ** Jean Lefebvre, cardinal de Cheverus, archbishop of Bordeaux. * Knights : ** Alphonse-Gabriel-Octave, prince de Broglie-Revel, maréchal de camp. ** Étienne Narcisse, comte de Durfort, pair de France, lieutenant général. ** Antoine Roy, pair de France, former minister of Finances. ** Armand François Hennequin, marquis d'Ecquevilly, pair de France, inspector general of the corps of geographical engineers. ** Honoré- Charles-Michel-Joseph, comte Reille, pair de France, lieutenant général and then marshal of France. ** Olivier de Saint-Georges de Vérac, pair de France and lieutenant général. ** Charles Louis Gabriel de Conflans, marquis d'Armentières (1772-1849), pair de France, maréchal de camp, first squire of Madame la Dauphine. ** Étienne Tardif de Pommereux, comte de Bordesoulle, pair de France and lieutenant général. ** Artus-Hugues-Gabriel-Timoléon, comte de Cossé, first master of the King's Chambers. == See also == * Order of the Holy Spirit * Order of Saint Michael == Annexes == === Bibliographie === * ; * ; * ; * ; == Notes and references == Holy Spirit Holy Spirit, Order of the Holy Spirit Category:1578 establishments in France Holy Spirit, Order of the |
In 2022 and 2023, Canadian media reports alleged that the People's Republic of China had made attempts to interfere in the 2019 Canadian federal election and 2021 Canadian federal election and threatened Canadian politicians. In late 2022, the Global News television network reported on a suspected attempt by the People's Republic of China to infiltrate the Parliament of Canada by funding a network of candidates to run in the 2019 Canadian federal election. In early 2023, The Globe and Mail newspaper published a series of articles reporting that the Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS), in several classified documents, advised that China's Ministry of State Security (MSS) and United Front Work Department had employed disinformation campaigns and undisclosed donations to support preferred candidates during the 2021 Canadian federal election, with the aim of ensuring that the Liberals would win again, but only with a minority. Canadian opposition political parties demanded a public inquiry into what it called failures by the Canadian government of Justin Trudeau to warn parliamentarians of China's activities, notify parliamentarians whom China had targeted, and further protect Canadian democratic procedures. In May 2023, the Canadian government expelled Chinese diplomat Zhao Wei, accused of intimidating a Canadian politician. Rejecting a full public inquiry, Trudeau nominated former Governor General of Canada David Johnston to investigate the allegations. Johnston filed an interim report in May 2023. In his report, he described China's interference as a danger to Canadian democracy, stated that some of the media reports were partially incorrect, and that the Canadian intelligence services and Canadian government needed to make several improvements to counter the threat and protect members of Parliament. While several opposition political parties had called for a full-scale judicial inquiry into the allegations, Johnston recommended against this, stating that the intelligence information is considered "top secret" and could not be discussed in a fully-open inquiry. Johnston intended to continue his inquiry with public hearings and a final report in October 2023, but instead resigned as the special rapporteur on June 9. The Canadian opposition political parties continue to call for a full-scale public inquiry. ==Background== According to former Canadian and U.S. intelligence officials, Chinese overseas operations in Canada have risen to the extent that they represent an alarming security threat to the United States, which has conducted a secret probe of the issue. These operations are said to consist of espionage, compromise of politicians and government officials, election interference, and control of individuals and companies with ties to China, such as via foreign police stations. By the time of the 2021 election, the Conservative Party had adopted a tough stance on China, which included a proposed withdrawal from the Beijing-led Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, a reduction in dependence on Chinese imports, and a ban on the use of Huawei network equipment. This tough stance was noticed by the Chinese government, which described it as "smearing China", threatening that it would "invite counterstrikes." ==Advance warnings by intelligence officials== In June 2017, the Canadian National Security Advisor drafted a Memorandum for the Prime Minister, advising Prime Minister Justin Trudeau that Chinese agents were "assisting Canadian candidates running for political offices." This document, which was copied to the Clerk of the Privy Council, went on to say that officials had documented evidence of China attempting to infiltrate "all levels of government" and alleged that, “[t]here is a substantial body of evidence that Chinese officials are actively pursuing a strategy of engagement to influence Canadian officials in ways that can compromise the security of Canada and the integrity of Canadian institutions.” Trudeau received a classified report from the National Security and Intelligence Committee of Parliamentarians (NSICOP) in August 2019. It warned that public officials across all levels of government were being targeted and the government had been "slow to react to the threat of foreign interference" and "must do better". A redacted copy of the report was subsequently released in March 2020. Security officials reportedly gave an "urgent, classified briefing" to Liberal Party officials three weeks before the federal election in 2019, "warning them that one of their candidates was part of a Chinese foreign interference network"—referring to Han Dong—but, this was ignored by the Liberal Party. ==Alleged interference during the 2019 election == The alleged plot to infiltrate the 2019 election was made public through a November 7, 2022, investigative report by Global News. Unconfirmed, anonymous sources for the report claimed that gathered intelligence suggested that a Chinese Communist Party (CCP) proxy group mobilized around CA$250,000 to fund the infiltration network through a staffer for an election candidate and a member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario, who both acted as intermediaries. Recipients of the donations allegedly included at least 11 candidates and members of their campaign staff, 13 or more federal aides, an Ontario MPP, and unelected public officials according to a January 2022 Privy Council Office (PCO) "Special Report." The PCO "Special Report" was prepared from information derived from 100 Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) documents. The sources also said that the candidates were members of Canada’s two main political parties (the Liberal Party of Canada and Conservative Party of Canada), and that some of them were “witting affiliates of the Chinese Communist Party.” On February 24, 2023, Global News reported that its intelligence sources with knowledge of Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) affairs reported that Dong was an alleged "witting affiliate" in China's election interference networks. Sources claim that Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and senior Liberal party officials ignored CSIS warnings about Dong, which has been denied by Trudeau. The same article also claimed that a "Liberal insider" and former Ontario MPP Michael Chan had possibly arranged Geng Tan's ouster in Don Valley North in favour of Dong in advance of the 2019 federal election because the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was unhappy with Tan. Chan, Dong, and the Chinese embassy denied the accusations, with Dong describing the leaks as "seriously inaccurate". Dong and the Liberal Party also said that his 2019 nomination victory had followed all of the party's rules. According to an anonymous intelligence official and intelligence documents viewed by Global News, CSIS had also been investigating Dong due to an alleged meeting between Dong and a senior official from the CCP's United Front Work Department in New York state. Dong has denied the allegations made against him, saying his 2019 nomination was "open and followed the rules" and that he was not a witting affiliate. In March 2023, he said that he was yet to be contacted by the RCMP, Elections Canada, or CSIS concerning the allegations, and that he wanted the truth to come out. In March 2023, Global News reported that Vincent Ke was the Ontario MPP alleged to have served as a financial intermediary for the Chinese consulate as part of election interference efforts. On the same day, Ke denied the allegations and resigned from his role as parliamentary secretary and from the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario caucus, to sit as an independent. The office of the Premier of Ontario had received a CSIS briefing about Ke in November 2022. In April 2023, Ke said that he had served Global News with a libel notice concerning their reporting about him. ==Alleged interference during the 2021 election == One year following the 2021 Canadian federal election, Conservative Party politicians, including former leader Erin O'Toole, blamed Chinese government interference as a factor behind the loss for the party. In a 2022 interview on the UnCommons podcast with Nathaniel Erskine-Smith, O'Toole opined that media outfits linked to the CCP could have cost the Conservatives up to "eight or nine seats." The Conservative Party believes that their candidates were targeted by foreign interference in 13 federal ridings. The Conservative party was regularly briefed by CSIS on foreign interference during the 2021 election campaign. The party believes that foreign influence included foreign government-paid campaign workers, illegal advertising, and manipulation and misinformation on social media, including WeChat and Weibo. O'Toole's beliefs were supported by Conservative MP and foreign affairs critic Michael Chong, who stated that while the party was initially hesitant to blame China for influencing the vote due to inconclusive evidence at the time, he now believed, "The communist leadership in Beijing did interfere in the last federal election by spreading disinformation through proxies on Chinese- language social media platforms that contributed to the defeat of a number of Conservative MPs", citing a report by McGill University. Similar views were shared by O'Toole's director of parliamentary affairs Mitch Heimpel, who claimed Canadian national security officers had contacted the Conservatives around election day to express concerns about potential foreign interference. Heimpel also cited the example of former Conservative MP Kenny Chiu who had been targeted by a misinformation campaign on the Chinese social media platform WeChat. Research into alleged electoral interference by McGill University indicated that there was no specific data to draw a full conclusion on the impact of potential interference and noted, "Canadian-Chinese issues were not central to the campaign, nor were they top of mind for voters" but concurred that researchers had found Chinese state media had worked "with an apparent aim to convince Canadians of Chinese origin to vote against the Conservative Party." In February 2023, The Globe and Mail published a series of articles, reporting that CSIS, in several classified documents, advised that China had employed disinformation campaigns and undisclosed donations to support preferred candidates during the campaign, all with the aim of ensuring that the Liberals would win again, but only with a minority. Other illegal tactics under the Canada Elections Act were also alleged, such as directing international students to work for preferred candidates (ostensibly as volunteers, but being paid by sympathetic business owners), and arranging for sympathetic donors to contribute to such campaigns, with the difference between their payments and the resulting tax credits being returned to them. The Procedure and House Affairs Committee of the House of Commons met to discuss these reports, and voted to expand their current inquiry into the 2019 election to include the 2021 election as well. Global News reported allegations that, in February 2021, Dong told the Chinese Consul General in Toronto not to release Michael Spavor and Michael Kovrig because doing so would politically benefit the Conservatives. Subsequently, Justin Trudeau announced that Kovrig and Spavor had been released from detention four days after the 2021 election. Upon voluntarily stepping down from the Liberal caucus, Dong confirmed that he spoke to the Consul General, but denied that he advised against releasing Spavor or Kovrig. The Globe and Mail reported that a few weeks earlier, the PMO had reviewed a transcript of the conversation but concluded that it was not “actionable evidence”. Following the allegations, Dong said he had retained a lawyer and intended to sue Global News for defamation. Global News stood by its reporting, with its editor-in-chief saying Global follows "a rigorous set of journalistic principles and practices". In April, Dong filed a defamation lawsuit against Global News and some of its reporters. == Parties allegedly involved == === Chinese Consulate in Toronto=== According to the Global News report, the consulate directed the transfer of funds during the 2019 election. The report also said that a member in the consulate directed a staffer for unnamed federal election candidates to monitor and interfere with their engagement activities. The interference efforts included preventing meetings with representatives of Taiwan. === Chinese Consulate in Vancouver=== According to classified CSIS reports reviewed by the Globe and Mail, China’s former consul-general in Vancouver, Tong Xiaoling, boasted in 2021 about how she helped defeat two Conservative MPs. After this was reported in the press, senior officials at Global Affairs of Canada reached out to Tong. A January 10, 2022, CSIS report viewed by The Globe and Mail outlined how the consulate and Tong also interfered in the 2022 Vancouver municipal election to replace the mayor and elect pro-Beijing councillors. Previous Vancouver mayor Kennedy Stewart, who was critical of the Chinese government, would like to see Ottawa expand its inquiry into Beijing’s interference in the 2019 and 2021 federal elections to municipal and provincial politics as well. Current Vancouver mayor Ken Sim denounced the accusations of interference as racially-motivated. ===United Front Work Department=== According to the Global News report, several candidates in the alleged 2019 election infiltration network met with officials from the CCP's United Front Work Department. CSIS's documents said the organizations activities in Canada have facilitated interference operations by the Ministry of State Security, China's principal civilian intelligence agency, and that its members in Canada had operated from Chinese consulates in Canada. == Immediate aftermath == Four months after the 2019 election, details of the alleged Chinese infiltration network were described in a PCO report entitled "PRC Foreign Interference: 2019 Elections." The PCO report was presented to senior Liberal Party officials, and described how the Chinese Consulate in Toronto used an extensive network of community groups to conceal the flow of funds between Chinese officials and network members. “This network involves the Chinese consulate, local community leaders, Canadian politicians, and their staff,” the 2020 PCO report said. “Under broad guidance from the consulate, co-opted staff of targeted politicians provide advice on China- related issues, and community leaders facilitate the clandestine transfer of funds and recruit potential targets.” In December 2021, a report by CSIS that was later reviewed by Global News described Chinese consulate officials as believing that "it is easy to influence Chinese immigrants to agree with PRC's stance." The report also claimed that “[t]he Liberal Party of Canada is becoming the only party that the People's Republic of China can support." The report was distributed to the CIA and FBI, as well as Australian, New Zealand, and British intelligence services. Following news reports in November 2022, CSIS said they had identified PRC foreign interference in Canada, which they defined to include election interference through covert foreign political financing. Trudeau said that although China has been “continuing to play aggressive games with our institutions, with our democracies”, his government has been undertaking measures to combat “foreign interference of our democracy and institutions.” On November 9, a request was made by a bipartisan group of Canadian MPs to convene an emergency meeting in order to discuss the interference allegations detailed in the Global News report. Prime Minister Justin Trudeau stated in 2021 regarding the alleged plot, "I do not have any information, nor have I been briefed on any federal candidates receiving any money from China". In the fall of 2022, the Chinese government applied for a visa for a new position at its Embassy in Ottawa. Following a review of the application by Global Affairs Canada, the department concluded that the position was "transparently not a diplomatic position", likely meant instead for a political operative. A diplomatic visa was denied. In response to further reports in February 2023, Justin Trudeau claimed that he "never got briefings on candidates receiving money from China." However, anonymous, unconfirmed sources who spoke to Global News described years of "interactive" dialogue between senior intelligence officials and Trudeau's office regarding China's incursions into Canadian elections. These same officials stated that the prime minister's office has been reticent to adopt legal reforms already undertaken by Canada's allies, and one of the officials described this inaction as "inexcusable." According to an anonymous CSIS official, “the floodgates have been opened in the last five years. There has been ample evidence placed in front of the Liberal Party of Canada, and they have done essentially nothing.” Faced with questions from reporters on March 8, 2023, Trudeau said, "I know that no matter what I say, Canadians continue to have questions about what [the government] did and what we didn't". The Coordinator for Strategic Communications for the US National Security Council, John Kirby, said later in March that intelligence leaks and allegations of election interference had not damaged Canada's relationship with other Five Eyes partners, and that the investigations and Parliamentary reviews underway were the correct way to proceed. ===Effect of interference on Conservative Party stance towards China=== Beijing critics had expressed concern that the Conservative Party had softened its stance on China since Erin O'Toole's defeat in the 2021 election. According to Michel Juneau-Katsuya, a former head of CSIS's Asia-Pacific desk, moderation in the Conservative stance indicates that "the Chinese have successfully scared and bullied the Conservatives." Pierre Poilievre's office denied that the party had changed its position after the last election, but Mehmet Tohti, head of the Uyghur Rights Advocacy Project, noted that the Conservative Party stopped raising the issue of the Uyghur genocide in China in Question Period immediately after the 2021 election, a dramatic change which "shows the interference is working." Concerns about the Conservatives' softening China stance were raised when Poilievre sat next to two individuals with known ties to the CCP at a January 2023 luncheon - individuals noted for criticizing Canada's public condemnation of human rights abuses in China, supporting Chinese unification, and blaming Canada for instigating the diplomatic feud that resulted in the imprisonment of Michael Spavor and Michael Kovrig. One of these individuals at the luncheon had reportedly urged O'Toole to resign after the 2021 election, citing the Conservative platform's central focus on challenging the Chinese government and its policies. ==Investigations== In the aftermath of the reporting, various investigations have begun, including by the National Security and Intelligence Review Agency (NSIRA), by NSICOP, and parliamentary investigations. ===Committee on Procedure and House Affairs=== On March 7, 2023, Liberal MPs filibustered an opposition motion in the Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee on Procedure and House Affairs (PROC) which sought to require the Prime Minister’s chief of staff, Katie Telford, to testify concerning election interference and intelligence briefings. When the committee was to resume in the afternoon, Liberal committee members did not attend, denying the committee the quorum needed to resume. Liberal members of the PROC continued a filibuster the following week, where they read newspaper articles into the record, talked about personal overseas travel and their university days, in order to prevent a vote on a motion to subpoena Telford. Conservative MP Michael Cooper asked the committee to vote on the motion, saying that the filibuster had already continued for "more than 14 hours, over four days". The committee meeting was suspended after 10:00 pm without the motion coming to a vote. On March 20, Conservative MPs tabled a motion in the House of Commons to compel Telford to testify before the Committee on Access to Information, Privacy and Ethics concerning election interference. The following day, hours before the motion was scheduled to be voted on, it was announced that the government would permit Telford to testify at the PROC. Following the announcement, the Conservative motion was defeated 177 to 145, with Liberal and NDP MPs voting against the motion. A related motion requiring Telford to testify, and inviting Jenni Byrne and others, ultimately passed at the PROC. Shortly before Telford testified before the committee on April 14, 2023, PCO tabled documents with the committee showing that Trudeau had received at least six briefings on foreign election interference since 2018. Telford refused to answer questions about when Trudeau was briefed about specific documents or information, citing national-security secrecy and saying other informal briefings also occurred. She also cast doubt on some of the reporting, saying some of the claims "don't add up". Two weeks later, former Liberal campaign director Jeremy Broadhurst and former Conservative director Fred DeLorey testified before the committee. Broadhurst testified that CSIS officials had told him something about a Liberal candidate in 2019 and as a result, he briefed Trudeau the next day, but he declined to answer questions about the nature or details of the conversation, citing national security. He said that intelligence officials never would have recommended the party replace a candidate, as doing so would be outside of their role. Broadhurst also declined to answer questions about whether the party had discussed replacing Dong as the candidate for Don Valley North, saying that he could not answer such questions without revealing the contents of intelligence briefings. === National Security and Intelligence Committee of Parliamentarians === In March 2023, Trudeau instructed NSICOP to investigate foreign interference in Canada, with a special eye on election meddling. During the press conference, Trudeau admitted that his government had not acted on many of the recommendations made in previous reports from NSICOP. In its 2021 review, provided to Trudeau in May 2022, the body had asked the government to respond to the recommendations made in its previous seven reviews. In the March 2023 press conference, Trudeau said that his government would now respond to those recommendations within 30 days. NSICOP will not have access to cabinet documents, unless the government decides to waive cabinet confidentiality. NSICOP previously wrote to Justin Trudeau in the fall of 2022 requesting the right to access cabinet documents, saying that without access, its ability to provide oversight was limited. === Possible public inquiry === The House of Commons passed a non-binding motion on March 23, calling for a public inquiry into foreign election interference. The motion passed 172 to 149, with Conservative, NDP, Bloc Québécois, and Green MPs voting in favour, and Liberals voting against. Han Dong, sitting as an independent, also voted in favour of the motion. In May, the House of Commons passed a non-binding motion calling on the government to expel Chinese diplomats involved in interference. The motion also called on the government to establish a public inquiry and a foreign agent registry, and to force the closure of Chinese police stations operating in Canada. ===Appointment of Special Rapporteur=== Trudeau announced in March 2023 that he would be appointing a special rapporteur to "make expert recommendations on protecting and enhancing Canadians' faith in our democracy", stating the rapporteur would be named within weeks. A week later, Trudeau committed to naming a special rapporteur "in the coming days or week". Trudeau named former governor general David Johnston as independent special rapporteur the next day, tasking him with helping "protect the integrity of Canada's democracy". ====Reception==== The leaders of the Conservative and Bloc parties raised concerns about the appointment, pointing to Johnston's membership in the Trudeau Foundation, his relationship with the Trudeau family, and his performance as the commissioner of the Leaders' Debates Commission. They reacted to news of the appointment by demanding a public inquiry over it, with Bloc leader Yves-François Blanchet saying that his party would not put forth any candidates without one and that "Trudeau appears unwilling to launch an inquiry and he should not use the rapporteur role to keep Parliament and the general public in the dark." Journalists raised similar concerns and added criticism over state visits to China he made as governor general at the direction of Harper in 2013 and of Trudeau in 2017, other perceived connections to China, past efforts to improve Canada–China relations, and his role in framing the investigation of Mulroney, known as the Olipaht Commission. Rick Salutin at the Toronto Star, aspersed Johnston for not defending himself against Poilievre's imputations by raising his past work for Harper in framing the terms of that commission. While Trudeau claimed that all parties had been consulted prior to Johnston's appointment, the NDP indicated that Johnston's name was not raised with them during the consultations, though they expressed their support for his appointment. Similarly, journalists praised the choice of Johnston, citing his experience as a legal scholar and dean of law, as well as the trust put in him by the Conservative Harper to act as an impartial referee as governor general during a time of parliamentary instability, and calling Johnston an "inspired choice" and one of the few "figures in Canadian life whose word can[not] be more trusted". While Ibbitson also lamented that the appointment may damage Johnston's reputation, ====Follow-up==== Cabinet released the terms of reference on March 21, 2023. Johnston was to reach a decision about whether the government should call a public inquiry by May 23, 2023, and complete the remainder of his review by October 31, 2023. The government said that Johnston would have access to classified and unclassified documents to perform his review but did not commit to provide him access to all cabinet documents, saying only that he would have access "where necessary". ====Review==== During the review, party leaders Justin Trudeau, Jagmeet Singh, and Yves-François Blanchet met with Johnston to discuss interference. Elizabeth May said her party was not consulted by Johnston's office. Pierre Poilievre was contacted in the week prior to the release of the first report but declined to meet with Johnston. While his office answered email requests from Johnston for information, Poilievre said he would not meet with Johnston, calling the rapporteur position a "fake job" and questioned Johnston's impartiality, saying Johnston is "a ski buddy, cottage neighbour, family friend and member of the Beijing-financed Trudeau Foundation". Previous Conservative leader Erin O'Toole was also contacted for a meeting with Johnston in the week prior to release of first report, but discovered at the meeting that the report had already been finalized and sent for French translation. ====Release of first report==== Johnston tabled his first report on May 23, 2023. He found that there were "substantial gaps in the communication and processing of intelligence information" but he said that he had not found any evidence of "the Prime Minister or their offices knowingly ignoring intelligence, advice, or recommendations on foreign interference or being driven by partisan considerations". Johnston asked NSICOP and NSIRA to review his findings, but recommended against calling a public inquiry, as he felt doing the opposite would effectively duplicate the work he had just completed, since an inquiry would, in Johnston's opinion, reveal no new information and would have to be held in camera (i.e. not publicly), due to security concerns. Near the end of the report, Johnston directly criticized opposition leader Pierre Poilievre, saying that "[w]hile I recognize that in normal political circumstances an opposition leader may not want to be subject to the constraints of the [Secrets of Information Act], the matter is too important for anyone aspiring to lead the country to intentionally maintain a veil of ignorance on these matters". Johnston also said that allegations reported by Global News that Han Dong had told Chinese officials to extend the detention of Kovrig and Spavor were false. In response, Global News stood by its reporting. Johnston acknowledged during questioning by the Procedure and House Affairs Committee that he did not interview Han Dong as part of his investigation. Following the release of Johnston's report, Trudeau said he would not call a public inquiry and that the government would follow Johnston's other recommendations. Poilievre criticized the report, calling it an attempted "whitewash" and saying that Johnston was in a conflict of interest. NDP Leader Jagmeet Singh said he disagreed with the findings, urged David Johston to step aside, and called on the government to hold a public inquiry. Bloc Quebecois Leader Yves- Francois Blanchet also rejected Johnston's report, calling its conclusions illegitimate and saying that the Prime Minister should not have chosen a friend as special rapporteur. Both the Toronto Star and Globe and Mail Editorial boards rejected Johnston's report, calling instead for a full independent public inquiry to reassure Canadians that their elections are "free and fair". Democracy Watch also rejected the report and filed a complaint with the federal ethics commissioner, claiming that Johnston's appointment as special rapporteur violated the Conflict of Interest Act. In addition to Johnston's potential conflict of interest, Democracy Watch also flagged a potential conflict of interest with the primary advisor hired to review inquiry materials for his investigation, who is a long-time Liberal Party donor, filing a second complaint with the federal ethics commissioner. Canadian-Chinese dissident, religious, and human rights activist groups targeted by Beijing also rejected Johnston's findings, calling for a full public inquiry. Journalists and pundits, including former NDP leader Tom Mulcair writing for CTV News, widely panned the report, criticizing Johnston's perceived conflict of interest, and lamenting damage that Johnston may have inflicted on his own reputation and legacy. Johnston was, however, defended by at least one columnist, who implored for Johnston to be trusted as special rapporteur, since public inquiries are too expensive and time-consuming. In response to criticism over Johnston's report, Trudeau dismissed calls for Johnston's resignation, defended Johnston's extraordinary commitment to his country, and accused the opposition of partisan attacks. ====Resignation==== On May 30, the NDP introduced a non-binding motion in the House of Commons, calling on Johnston to resign, citing "serious questions [that] have been raised about the special rapporteur process, the counsel [Johnston] retained in support of [the] work, his findings, and his conclusions." Jagmeet Singh said the "appearance of a conflict of interest" undermined Johnston's work. The following day, the House of Commons passed the motion 174 to 150 with all opposition parties in support, and Liberal MPs opposing the motion. Following the vote, Johnston committed to continuing his work saying "I deeply respect the right of the House of Commons to express its opinion about my work going forward, but my mandate comes from the government." A couple of weeks later, Johnston announced his resignation effective the end of June citing a "highly partisan atmosphere around [his] appointment and work". ==See also== *Foreign electoral intervention *Entryism *2019 Australian Parliament infiltration plot *1996 United States campaign finance controversy *Geng Tan *Trudeau cash-for- access scandal ==References== Category:2019 in Canadian politics Category:2019 in international relations Canada Category:Canada–China relations Category:2022 in Canadian politics Category:2022 in international relations Category:2019 Canadian federal election Category:Surveillance scandals Category:Political scandals in Canada Category:Foreign electoral intervention in Canada |
thumb|260px|alt=text|The Coca-Cola logo The Coca-Cola Company has used various advertising slogans since its inception in 1886. ==United States (also Canada, UK, and Ireland)== (Slogans used by Coca-Cola in the United States are typically also the ones used in Canada, Ireland, and the United Kingdom.) * 1886 – Drink Coca-Cola * 1905 – Coca-Cola revives and sustains. * 1906 – The Great National Temperance Beverage. * 1908 – Good til the last drop. * 1910 – Whenever you see an Arrow think of Coca-ColaAdvertisement for Coca-Cola in Good Housekeeping magazine, August 1910, p. 5. * 1917 – Three million a day. * 1922 – Thirst knows no season. * 1923 – Enjoy thirst. * 1924 – Refresh yourself. * 1925 – Six million a day. * 1926 – It had to be good to get where it is. * 1927 – Pure as Sunlight. * 1927 – Around the corner from anywhere. * 1928 – Coca-Cola ... pure drink of natural flavors. * 1929 – The pause that refreshes. * 1932 – Ice-cold sunshine. * 1938 – The best friend thirst ever had. * 1938 – Thirst asks nothing more. * 1939 – Coca-Cola goes along. * 1939 – Whoever You Are, Whatever You Do, Wherever You May Be, When You Think of Refreshment Think of Ice Cold Coca-Cola * 1942 – The only thing like Coca-Cola is Coca-Cola itself. * 1945 – Passport to refreshment. * 1947 – Coke knows no season. * 1948 – Where There's Coke There's Hospitality. * 1949 – Along the Highway to Anywhere. * 1952 – What you want is a Coke. * 1954 – For people on the go. * 1956 – Coca-Cola... makes good things taste better. * 1957 – Sign of good taste. * 1958 – The Cold, Crisp Taste of Coke. * 1959 – Be Really Refreshed. * 1963 – Things go better with Coke. * 1969 – It's the Real Thing. (see also "I'd Like to Buy the World a Coke") * 1975 – Look up, America. * 1976 – Coke adds life. * 1979 – Have a Coke and a smile (see also "Hey Kid, Catch!") * 1980 – Coke is it! * 1985 – America's real choice * 1985 – We've Got a Taste for You * 1986 – Red, White & You (for Coca-Cola Classic) * 1986 – Catch the Wave (for New Coke) * 1987 – When Coca-Cola is a Part of Your Life, You Can't Beat the Feeling * 1988 – Can't Beat the Feeling * 1989 – Official Soft Drink of Summer * 1990 – Can't Beat The Real Thing. * 1993 – Always Coca- Cola. * 1995 – Always and Only Coca-Cola (test marketed, secondary radio jingle). * 1998 – Born to be red. (US) * 1998 – Coca-Cola always the real thing! (UK) * 1999 – Coca-Cola. Enjoy. * 2001 – Life tastes good. * 2003 – Real. * 2005 – Make It Real. * 2006 – The Coke side of life * 2009 – Open Happiness * 2016 – Taste the Feeling * 2020 – Turn Up Your Rhythm * 2020 – Together Tastes Better * 2021 – Real Magic ==Australia/New Zealand== (Coca- Cola has been in Australia since 1938, and around the same time for New Zealand.) * 1961 – "Be refreshed" * 1964 – "Things go better with Coke" * 1972 – "It's the real thing" * 1977 – "Coke adds life" * 1980 – "Smile" * 1982 – "Coke is it!" * 1989 – "You Can't Beat the Feeling" * 1993 – "Always Coca- Cola" * 2000 – "Enjoy" * 2001 – "Life tastes good" * 2004 – "Real" * 2005 – "As it should be" * 2007 – "The Coke side of life" * 2008 – "Real taste. Uplifting refreshment" * 2010 – "Open Happiness" * 2011 – "Share A Coke" * 2013 – "Real Taste. Uplifting Refreshment" * 2016 – "Taste The Feeling" * 2020 – "Together Tastes Better" * 2021 – "Real Magic" ==Spain== * 1929 – ('The Pause That Refreshes') * 1959 – ('Coca-Cola Refreshes You Best') * 1963 – ('Things Go Better With Coke') * 1970 – ('It's The Real Thing') * 1976 – ('Coke gives more life') * 1982 – ('Coke is it') * 1987 – ('You Can't Beat the Feeling') * 1993 – ('Always Coca-Cola') * 2000 – ('Live It') * 2001 – ('Life Tastes Good') * 2003 – ('Coca-Cola, Real') * 2006 – ('The Coke Side of Life') * 2008 – ('Spreading Happiness since 1886') * 2008 – ('The Coke Side of Life') * 2009 – ('Open Happiness') * 2016 – ('Taste the Feeling') * 2021 – "Real Magic" ==Latín America== * 1929 – ('The Pause That Refreshes') * 1959 – ('Coca-Cola Refreshes You Best') * 1963 – ('Things Go Better With Coke') * 1970 – ('It's The Real Thing') * 1976 – ('Coke gives more life') * 1979 – ('Coke and a Smile') * 1982 – ('Coke is it') * 1987 – / (Mexico) ('You Can't Beat the Feeling') * 1993 – ('Always Coca-Cola') * 2000 – ('Live It') * 2001 – ('Life Tastes Good') * 2003 – ('Coca-Cola, Real') * 2006 – ('The Coke Side of Life') * 2008 – ('Spreading Happiness since 1886') * 2008 – ('The Coke Side of Life') * 2009 – ('Open Happiness') * 2016 – ('Taste the Feeling') * 2021 – ('Real Magic') ==Hungary== * 1989 – ("You Can't Beat the Feeling") * 1993 – ("Always Coca-Cola") * 2000 – ("Coca-Cola. Enjoy") * 2001 – ("Living is good") * 2006 – ("The Coke Side of Life") * 2009 – ("Open Happiness") * 2016 – ("Taste the Feeling") * 2021 – "Real Magic" ==India== (In Hindi) * "Always the Real Thing!" * (Thanda matlab Coca-Cola!, 'Cold means Coca-Cola!') * (Pī'ō sar uṭhā kē, 'Drink with pride') * (Jo Chaho ho jaye, Coca-Cola enjoy!, 'Whatever you wish will come true, enjoy Coca-Cola!') * "Open Happiness" * ('Coke opens, the conversation starts') * "Taste The Feeling" * * "Say it with Coke" * "Real Magic" ==Indonesia / Malaysia== * 1970 – Minumlah Coca-Cola ('Drink Coca- Cola') * 1982 – Coca-Cola Tentu! (Indonesia), Tentulah Coca-Cola (Malaysia) ('Coke is it!', 'Coca-Cola is it!') * 1990 - Nikmatnya Tak Terhingga! ('You Can't Beat the Feeling') * 1993 – "Always Coca-Cola" * 2000 – Semangat Coca- Cola ('Coca-Cola Enjoy') * 2001 – Rasakan Semangat Hidup ('Life Tastes Good') * 2003 – Segarkan Harimu ('Refresh Your Day') * 2004 – Segarnya Mantap ('Feel Refreshed') * 2006 – Rasakan Hidup ala Coca-Cola ('Feel Alive on The Coke Side of Life') * 2007 – Hidup ala Coca-Cola ('Live on The Coke Side of Life') * 2008 – Brrr... Hidup ala Coca-Cola ('Brrr... Live on The Coke Side of Life') * 2008 – "Coca-Cola Zero no sugar" ('Great Taste, Zero Sugar') (for Coca-Cola Zero) * 2009 – Buka Coca-Cola, Buka Semangat Baru ('Open Coca-Cola, Open Happiness') * 2009 – Buka Semangat Baru ('Open Happiness') * 2010 – Segarkan Semangatmu ('Refresh Your Spirit') * 2013–2017 – Buka Semangat ('Open Happiness') * 2015 – Nikmati Coca-Cola Bersama ('Share A Coke') * 2015 – Nikmati Segarnya Coca-Cola Bersama ('Share A Coke') * 2016 – Rasakan Momennya ('Feel The Moment') * 2017 – Coca-Cola Brrr... Rasakan Momennya ('Coca-Cola Brrr... Feel The Moment') * 2017 – Buka Momennya ('Open The Moment') * 2017 – Rasai Semangatnya * 2020 – Hidupkan Semangatmu ('Live on Your Spirit') * 2020 – Hidupkan Rentakmu ('Live Your Beat') * 2020 – Bersama Berasa Lebih ('Together Tastes Better') * 2021 – Rasakan Keajaiban ('Real Magic' or 'Feel The Magic') == Israel == * 1989 - (You Can't Beat the Feeling) * 1994 - (Always Coca-Cola) * 2007 – (, 'Love the Life') * 2016 – (, 'The Taste of Life') * 2021 – "Real Magic" == Italy == * 1959 – Il miglior Ristoro (Coca- Cola refreshes you best) * 1963 – Tutto è meglio con Coca Cola (Everything is better with Coke) * 1963 – Tutto va meglio con Coca Cola (Things go better with Coke) * 1969 – Coca Cola da più vita (The Real Thing) * 1982 – Coca-Cola di più (Coke is it) * 1987 – Sensazione unica (You can't beat the feeling) * 1993 – Sempre Coca-Cola (Always Coca-Cola) * 1999 – Enjoy * 2001 – Life tastes good * 2006 – Taste the coke side of life * 2007 – Make every drop count * 2008 – Vivi il lato Coca Cola della vita (Long live the Coca-Cola side of life) * 2009 – Stappa la felicità (Open Happiness) * 2009 – Vivi la musica e accendi l'estate (Experience music and light up the summer) * 2010 – Buon appetito con Coca-Cola (Enjoy your meal with Coca-Cola) * 2011 – Open Happiness * 2013 – Stappa la felicità (Open Happiness) * 2016 – Taste The Feeling * 2021 – "Real Magic" ==Japan== * 1962 – (, 'Sparkling and refreshing Coca-Cola') * 1976 – Come on in. (Drink) Coke. * 1980 – Yes Coke Yes * 1985 – Coke is it. * 1987 – I feel Coke. * 1991 – (, 'A moment that refreshes') * 1993 – Always Coca-Cola * 2000 – Enjoy * 2001 – No Reason * 2004 – Special Magic * 2007 – The Coke Side of Life * 2010 – Open Happiness * 2012 – Refreshing & Uplifting * 2016 – Taste The Feeling * 2021 – "Real Magic" ==Pakistan== * ('Only Coca Cola makes everyone happy') * ('Open Happiness') * ('Eat Drink Live') * ('Come Eat Together') * ('Drink in Excitement') * ('Fun of every Moment') * ('O Tyrant! Feed me Coca-Cola') * 2017 – ('Taste The Feeling') * 2021 – "Real Magic" ==Philippines== * 1912 – Drink Coca Cola * 1923 – Enjoy Life * 1954 – Ice Cold Coca Cola * 1971 – I'd Like To Buy The World A Coke * 1976 – Coke Adds Life * 1982 – Coke Is It! * 1988 – Can't Beat The Feeling * 1991 – Coca Cola Is It! * 1994 – Always Coca-Cola * 1998 – Nothing refreshes like the real thing. * 2000 – Enjoy Coca Cola * 2001 – Buti na lang, nag Coca-Cola ka muna. * 2003 – * 2005 – * 2006 – * 2008 – "Great Taste, Zero Sugar" (for Coca-Cola Zero) * 2009 – * 2010 – Open Happiness * 2011 – * 2012 – * 2013 – * 2013 (Christmas) – Coke With Names! * 2014 – Breaktime is Coca-Cola Time * 2014 – * 2015 – * 2015 (Christmas) – * 2016 – Taste The Feeling * 2020 – Together Tastes Better * 2021 - Real Magic ==Poland== * 1971 – ". ('Coca-Cola refreshes') * 1982 – – Agnieszka Osiecka ('Coke is it!') * 1993 – ('Always Coca-Cola') * 2000 – ('Coca-Cola: such a joy') — part of international "Enjoy!" branding; created by professor Jerzy Bralczyk, authority in linguistics. * 2007 – ('Welcome to the Coke side of life') * 2011–2017 – ('Open Happiness') * 2017 – ('Taste The Feeling') * 2021 – Prawdziwa Magia ('Real Magic') ==Russia== * 1993 – (, 'Always Coca-Cola') * 2010 – " (, 'Coca-Cola is going to the house!') * 2011–2015 – " (, 'Open Happiness') * " () * 2016 – ('Taste The Feeling') * 2021 – ('Magic Moments') ==Czech Republic== * 1982? – ("This is it!") * 1990 – ("The Real Thing!") * 1994 – ("Always Coca-Cola") * 1994 (Special) – ("All of them are Yo-yo") * 1995 – ("Refreshment you have yet to experience!") (for Coca-Cola Light) * 1996 (Special) – ("World partner of the Olympics") * 1996 – ("Live differently!") (for Coca-Cola Cherry) * 1996 (Christmas) – ("Coca-Cola, the real Christmas refreshment") * 1997 (Special) – ("Coca-Cola Is Good With Food") * 1997 – "(Surprise under every cap") * 1997 (Christmas) – ("The real Christmas refreshment") * 1998 – ("Quenches thirst, refreshes mind") * 1998 – ("Just for the feeling") (for Coca-Cola Light) * 1999 (Special) – ("Refresh yourself and win!") * 200x – ("Real taste. Zero sugar") (for Coca-Cola Zero) * 2000–2002 – ("Enjoy!") * 2001 (Christmas) – ("Enjoy the real Christmas refreshment") * 2002 – ("A taste the whole world loves") * 2002–2003 (Special) – ("Refresh yourself in one shot") * 2003 – ("Chihuahua! Together on one wave!") * 2003 (Christmas) – ("The real Christmas refreshment") * 2004 – ("Always Refreshes") * 2006 – ("Enjoy life with happiness") * 2006 – ("Irresistible taste") (for Coca-Cola Light) * 2007 (Christmas) – ("Pass On The Christmas Spirit") * 2008 (Christmas) – ("Christmas with taste") * 2009 – ("Open joy") * 2012 – ("Real taste. Zero sugar. Possible?") (for Coca-Cola Zero) * 2016 – "Taste the Feeling" * 2021 – "Real Magic" ==References== ==External links== * Official Coca-Cola website * The Coca-Cola Company Category:Lists of advertising slogans Category:Promotional campaigns by Coca- Cola Category:American advertising slogans |
American rock band All Time Low has released nine studio albums, six EPs, two live albums, twenty-nine singles and thirty-nine music videos. Beginning as a high school band in 2003, All Time Low released their debut EP The Three Words to Remember in Dealing with the End EP in 2004 through local label Emerald Moon Records, and their first studio album The Party Scene in 2005. While on tour with other bands, they caught the attention of Hopeless Records and signed to them, releasing the Put Up or Shut Up EP in 2006 which reached number 20 on the US Billboard Independent Albums chart. All Time Low's second studio album, So Wrong, It's Right came out in 2007 and became an underground success. Despite never entering the charts or attaining commercial radio play, the album's second single "Dear Maria, Count Me In" was certified three-times platinum in 2023 by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments of 3,000,000 copies. Nothing Personal was released as the band's third studio album, debuting at number four on the US Billboard 200 and exceeding commercial expectations with 63,000 sales in its first week. The lead single, "Weightless", peaked at number four on the US Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart, with the follow-up single, "Damned If I Do Ya (Damned If I Don't)", becoming the band's first appearance on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 67. All Time Low released their first live album, Straight to DVD, in 2010. During the recording of All Time Low's fourth studio album, the band contributed the song "Painting Flowers" to the Almost Alice soundtrack. "Painting Flowers" debuted and peaked at number five on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart. Dirty Work was released the band's fourth album in 2011 as the band's major label debut on Interscope Records. It debuted and peaked at number six on the Billboard 200 with 45,000 first-week sales. Its lead single "I Feel Like Dancin'" reached number 13 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart and number 39 on the Pop Songs chart. All Time Low announced their departure from Interscope in May 2012, and uploaded "The Reckless and the Brave" on their website as a free download. In July 2012, All Time Low returned to Hopeless Records and released their fifth studio album on October 9, Don't Panic. The album was re-released as a deluxe edition on September 30, 2013 under the revised title, Don't Panic: It's Longer Now!. The single "A Love Like War" is exclusive to the re-release and features guest vocals by Vic Fuentes of Pierce the Veil. It reached number 23 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart and number 17 on the Rock Songs chart, becoming the band's first single to chart in the US since "Time-Bomb" in 2011. All Time Low's 2017 song "Good Times" became the band's most successful single on radio to date, peaking at number 13 on the Adult Pop Songs chart. It was later surpassed by their 2020 single "Monsters", which peaked at number one on the Alternative Songs chart, remaining there for 18 weeks. It made an appearance on the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at No. 55, their first entry in a decade. ==Albums== ===Studio albums=== List of studio albums, with selected chart positions and certifications Title Album details Peak chart positions Certifications US AUS Peak chart positions for albums in Australia: *All except noted: *Nothing Personal: BEL (FL) CAN GER JPN IRL NLD SWE UK Peak chart positions for albums in the United Kingdom: * All except noted: * Nothing Personal, Straight to DVD and MTV Unplugged: All Time Low: The Party Scene * Released: July 19, 2005 (US) * Label: Emerald Moon (EMR008) * Formats: CD — — — — — — — — — — So Wrong, It's Right * Released: September 25, 2007 (US) * Label: Hopeless (HR693) * Formats: CD, DL, LP 62 — — — — 167 — — — — * RIAA: Gold * BPI: Silver Nothing Personal * Released: July 7, 2009 (US) * Label: Hopeless (HR710) * Formats: CD, DL, LP 4 71 — 22 — 69 — 86 22 104 * RIAA: Gold * BPI: Gold Dirty Work *Released: June 7, 2011 (US) *Label: DGC (B0015352-02FL02) *Formats: CD, DL, LP 6 13 83 13 — 41 34 67 — 20 *BPI: Silver Don't Panic *Released: October 9, 2012 (US) *Label: Hopeless (HR760) *Formats: CD, DL, LP 6 13 65 18 — 55 25 34 43 9 * BPI: Silver Future Hearts *Released: April 3, 2015 (US) *Label: Hopeless (HR2129) *Formats: CD, CS, DL, LP 2 4 27 3 60 37 7 18 53 1 * BPI: Silver Last Young Renegade *Released: June 2, 2017 (US) *Label: Fueled by Ramen *Formats: CD, DL, LP 9 5 28 38 47 81 18 45 — 7 Wake Up, Sunshine *Released: April 3, 2020 (US) *Label: Fueled by Ramen *Formats: CD, CS, DL, LP 31 12 — 92 49 171 — — — 3 Tell Me I'm Alive *Released: March 17, 2023 (US) *Label: Fueled by Ramen *Formats: CD, CS, DL, LP — 38 — — 87 — — — — 12 "—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory. ====Re-recordings==== List of re-recorded albums Title Album details It's Still Nothing Personal: A Ten Year Tribute *Released: November 8, 2019 (US) *Label: Fueled by Ramen *Formats: DL ===Live albums=== List of live albums, with selected chart positions Title Album details Peak chart positions Certifications US US Rock AUS BEL (FL) FIN JPN NLD SCO Peaks in Scotland: * Straight to DVD II: Past, Present and Future Hearts: SWE UK Straight to DVD *Released: May 25, 2010 (US) *Label: Hopeless *Formats: CD+DVD-V, DL 58 16 — — — 169 — — 52 126 * RIAA: Gold * BPI: Silver Straight to DVD II: Past, Present and Future Hearts *Released: September 9, 2016 *Label: Hopeless *Formats: CD+DVD-V, DVD-V+LP, DL 41 13 22 78 7 — 88 26 — 40 "—" denotes releases that did not chart or were not released in that territory. ==Extended plays== List of extended plays, with selected chart positions Title Album details Peak chart positions US US Alt. US Rock UK All Time Low Demo *Released: November 2003 *Label: Self-released *Formats: CD-R — — — — The Three Words to Remember in Dealing with the End EP *Released: October 1, 2004 *Label: Emerald Moon *Formats: CD — — — — Put Up or Shut Up *Released: July 25, 2006 (US) *Label: Hopeless *Formats: CD, DL, LP — — — — Live from MySpace Secret Shows *Released: August 14, 2009 (US) *Label: Myspace *Formats: DL — — — — Live Session *Released: November 17, 2009 (US) *Label: Hopeless *Formats: DL — — — — MTV Unplugged: All Time Low *Released: January 12, 2010 (US) *Label: Hopeless *Formats: CD+DVD-V, DL 92 24 34 176 Everything Is Fine On Your Birthday *Released: September 28, 2018 *Label: Fueled By Ramen *Formats: DL, 7" — — — — "—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory. ==Singles== List of singles, with selected chart positions and certifications, showing year released and album name Title Year Peak chart positions Certifications Album US US Pop Peaks on the Pop Songs chart: * For all except noted: * For "Dear Maria, Count Me In": US Rock AUS DL BEL (FL) Tip CAN Rock CZ HUN Peaks in Hungary: * For "Monsters": SCO Peaks in Scotland: * Lost in Stereo: * For Baltimore: * Somewhere in Neverland: * A Love Like War: * Something's Gotta Give: * Kids in the Dark: * Dirty Laundry: * Last Young Renegade: UK Peak chart positions for singles in the United Kingdom: All except noted: *"For Baltimore" and "Somewhere in Neverland": *"Kids in the Dark": "Dear Maria, Count Me In" 2008 — 88 × — — — — — — — * RIAA: 3× Platinum * BPI: Gold So Wrong, It's Right "Poppin' Champagne" — — × — — — — — — — "Weightless" 2009 — — — — — — — — — 100 * RIAA: Platinum * BPI: Silver Nothing Personal "Damned If I Do Ya (Damned If I Don't)" 67 — — — — — — — — — * RIAA: Gold "Lost in Stereo" 2010 — — — — — — — — 57 63 "I Feel Like Dancin'" 2011 — 39 — — — — — — — 85 Dirty Work "Forget About It" — — — — — — — — — — "Time-Bomb" — — — — 73 — — — — — "Guts" 2012 — — — — — — — — — — "For Baltimore" — — — — — — — — 83 136 Don't Panic "Somewhere in Neverland" — — — — — — — — 70 111 "Backseat Serenade" 2013 — — — — 70 — — — — — "A Love Like War" (featuring Vic Fuentes) — — 17 — 90 — — — 45 56 *RIAA: Gold "Something's Gotta Give" 2015 — — 14 — — — — — 40 84 Future Hearts "Kids in the Dark" — — 24 — — — — — 49 105 "Dirty Laundry" 2017 — — 16 — — — — — 34 91 Last Young Renegade "Last Young Renegade" — — 33 — — — — — 84 — "Life of the Party"https://www.kerrang.com/all-time-low-release-life-of-the-party — — — — — — — — — — "Nice2KnoU" — — — — — — — — — — "Good Times" — — 23 — — — — — — — "Everything Is Fine" 2018 — — — — — — — — — — Everything Is Fine On Your Birthday "Birthday" — — — — — — — — — — "Some Kind of Disaster" 2020 — — 27 — — — — — — — Wake Up, Sunshine "Sleeping In" — — — — — — — — — — "Getaway Green" — — — — — — — — — — "Monsters" (featuring Blackbear or Blackbear and Demi Lovato) 55 18 6 49 — 33 2 27 — — *RIAA: Gold * BPI: Silver * MC: Platinum "Once in a Lifetime" 2021 — — 40 — — 44 — — × — rowspan="2" "PMA" (featuring Pale Waves) — — — — — — — — × — "Ghost Story" (with Cheat Codes) — — — — — — — — × — Hellraisers, Pt. 2 "Sleepwalking" 2022 — — 45 — — — — — × — Tell Me I'm Alive "Tell Me I'm Alive" 2023 — — — — — — 60 — × — "Modern Love" — — — — — — — — — — "Calm Down" — — — — — — — — × — "—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory. "×" denotes periods where charts did not exist or were not archived. ===Promotional singles=== List of promotional singles, with selected chart positions, showing year released and album name Title Year Peak chart positions Album US Bub. US Rock DL CZ Rock "Coffee Shop Soundtrack" 2006 — — — Put Up or Shut Up "Six Feet Under the Stars" 2007 — — — So Wrong, It's Right "Umbrella" 2009 — — — Punk Goes Crunk "Toxic Valentine" — — — Jennifer's Body "Painting Flowers" 2011 5 13 — Almost Alice "The Reckless and the Brave" 2012 — — — Don't Panic "Good Times" (orchestral arrangement) 2017 — — — "Melancholy Kaleidoscope" 2020 — — 16 Wake Up, Sunshine "Trouble Is" — — — "Wake Up, Sunshine" — — — "—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory. ===As featured artist=== List of singles as featured artist, showing year released and album name Title Year Album "Crashed the Wedding 2.0" (Busted featuring All Time Low) 2023 ==Other charted and certified songs== List of songs, with selected chart positions, showing year released, album name and certifications Title Year Peak chart positions Certifications Album US Rock DL "Remembering Sunday" (featuring Juliet Simms) 2007 — * RIAA: Gold So Wrong, It's Right "Take Cover" 2016 39 Straight to DVD II "—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory. ==Music videos== Year Title Director 2005 "Circles" Matt Grube 2006 "The Girl's a Straight-Up Hustler" "Coffee Shop Soundtrack" Jesse Burton 2007 "Six Feet Under the Stars" 2008 "Dear Maria, Count Me In" Travis Kopach "Poppin' Champagne'" 2009 "Weightless" Matthew Stawski "Damned If I Do Ya (Damned If I Don't)" 2010 "Lost in Stereo" 2011 "I Feel Like Dancin'" Matthew Stawski "Forget About It" Jonathan Bregel "Time- Bomb" Asher Levin "Merry Christmas, Kiss My Ass" Jon Danovic 2012 "For Baltimore" Brett Jubinville 2013 "Somewhere in Neverland" Raul Gonzo "Backseat Serenade" Jeremy Rall "A Love Like War" (featuring Vic Fuentes) Drew Russ 2014 "The Irony of Choking on a Lifesaver" 2015 "Something's Gotta Give" Chris Marrs Piliero "Kids in the Dark" Sitcom Soldiers "Runaways" 2016 "Missing You" Patrick Tracy "Take Cover" Rafa Alcantara 2017 "Dirty Laundry" PTracy "Last Young Renegade" "Life of the Party" "Nice2KnoU" "Good Times" 2018 "Drugs and Candy" (live) "Afterglow" Joshua Halling "Birthday" PTracy 2020 "Some Kind Of Disaster" Lewis Cater "Sleeping In" Max Moore "Getaway Green" "Monsters (Acoustic)" 2021 "Once In A Lifetime" Max Moore 2022 "Sleepwalking" Edoardo Ranaboldo 2023 "Tell Me I'm Alive" Alex Gaskarth & DJay Brawner "Modern Love" Guadalupe Bustos "Calm Down" Alex Gaskarth & DJay Brawner ==Compilation appearances== Year Song contributed Release title 2006 "Time to Break Up" (Blink-182 cover) A Tribute to Blink 182: Pacific Ridge Records Heroes of Pop- Punk 2007 "Jasey Rae" (acoustic) Punk Goes Acoustic 2 2007 "Break Out! Break Out!" (acoustic) Another Hopeless Summer 2007 2008 "Dear Maria, Count Me In" (Connect Sets acoustic) I'm So Hopeless, You're So Hopeless 2008 "Umbrella" (Rihanna cover) Punk Goes Crunk 2009 "Toxic Valentine" Jennifer's Body: Music from the Motion Picture 2010 "Painting Flowers" Almost Alice 2010 "Alejandro" (Lady Gaga cover) Radio 1's Live Lounge – Volume 5 2011 "I Feel Like Dancin'" (acoustic) Another Hopeless Summer 2011 2013 "True Colors" (Cyndi Lauper cover) Love Is Hopeless 2013 2013 "Fool's Holiday" Punk Goes Christmas 2015 "Something's Gotta Give" NOW! That's What I call Music 55 2017 "Longview" (Green Day cover) Green Day: The Early Years ==See also== * List of songs recorded by All Time Low ==Notes== ==References== Category:Discographies of American artists Category:Pop punk group discographies |
It's Okay to Not Be Okay () is a 2020 South Korean television series written by Jo Yong and directed by Park Shin-woo. It stars Kim Soo-hyun, Seo Yea-ji, Oh Jung-se and Park Gyu-young. The series follows Ko Moon-young, an antisocial children's book writer who moves to her hometown to pursue her love interest Moon Gang-tae, a psych ward caretaker, who has dedicated his life for taking care of his autistic older brother Moon Sang-tae. The series broadcast for 16 episodes on tvN and Netflix from June 20, 2020, to August 9, 2020. According to Nielsen Korea, it recorded an average nationwide TV viewership rating of 5.4%. It was the most popular show of 2020 in the romance genre on Netflix in South Korea. Critical response were primarily positive; some commentators criticized the writing in the latter half of the series but praised the acting by the cast. The New York Times named It's Okay to Not Be Okay one of "The Best International Shows of 2020". At the 57th Baeksang Arts Awards, it received eight nominations with two wins (Best Supporting Actor – Television and Technical Award for costume design). It received a nomination at the 49th International Emmy Awards in the Best TV Movie or Miniseries categories. ==Plot== Moon Gang-tae lives with his older brother Moon Sang-tae who is autistic. They frequently move from town to town ever since Sang-tae witnessed their mother's murder. Gang-Tae works as a caregiver in a psychiatric ward at every place they settle in. While working in a hospital, he meets a famous children's book writer, Ko Moon-young, who is rumored to have antisocial personality disorder. Circumstances lead Gang-tae to work at the OK Psychiatric Hospital in the fictional Seongjin City, the same city where they all lived when they were young. Meanwhile, Moon-young forms a romantic obsession for Gang-tae after finding out that their pasts overlap. She follows him to Seongjin, where the trio (including Sang-tae) slowly begins to heal each other's emotional wounds. They unravel many secrets, seek comfort from each other and move forward in their lives. ==Cast members== thumb|300px|Kim Soo-hyun, Seo Yea-ji and Oh Jung-se at a promotional interview. ===Main=== * Kim Soo-hyun as Moon Gang-tae ** Moon Woo-jin as young Moon Gang-tae : An orphaned caregiver working at OK Psychiatric Hospital. While he is empathetic to everyone around him, he struggles with self-esteem as a result of his past experiences and avoids having close relationships with anyone other than his older brother. * Seo Yea-ji as Ko Moon-young ** Kim Soo-in as young Ko Moon- young : A popular children's book author with antisocial personality disorder. She had a troubled childhood and a turbulent relationship with her parents. She develops a romantic obsession over Gang-tae after a coincidental encounter and often goes to extreme lengths to get his attention. * Oh Jung-se as Moon Sang-tae ** Lee Kyu-sung as young Moon Sang-tae : Moon Gang-tae's older brother, who is autistic. He is a fan of Moon-young, as well as an aspiring illustrator. He was the sole witness of his mother's murder, which resulted in his irrational fear of butterflies, as they reminded him of this traumatic experience. His fear develops into nightmares every spring, and forces Gang- tae to move towns with him in order to "run away from the butterflies". *Park Gyu-young as Nam Ju-ri ** Park Seo-kyung as young Nam Ju-ri : A nurse and Gang-tae's co-worker at OK Psychiatric Hospital. She has an unrequited crush on Gang-tae, and is shown to be shy and easily jealous of others who are close with her romantic interests. She dislikes Moon-young, with whom she had a brief friendship in elementary school. ===Supporting=== ====SangsangESang Publishing Company==== * Kim Joo-hun as Lee Sang-in : The CEO of SangsangESang Publishing Company, which publishes Moon-young's children's books. * Park Jin- joo as Yoo Seung-jae : The art director at SangsangESang Publishing Company who assists Sang-in. ====OK Psychiatric Hospital Officials==== * Kim Chang-wan as Oh Ji-wang : The director of OK Psychiatric Hospital. Despite his use of unconventional methods, he genuinely cares about his patients and often succeeds at helping them get better. * Kim Mi-kyung as Kang Soon-deok : A skilled chef at the hospital and Ju-ri's mother. * Jang Young-nam as Park Haeng-ja : The head nurse of the hospital. She is later revealed to be Do Hui- jae, the mother of Ko Moon-young, in disguise. * Jang Gyu-ri as Sun Byul : A nurse with three years of experience who is Ju-ri's co-worker and friend. * Seo Joon as Kwon Min-seok : A psychiatrist at the hospital. * Choi Woo-sung as Oh Cha-yong : A young and careless caregiver who often sleeps at work. He is the son of hospital director Oh Ji-wang. ====OK Psychiatric Hospital Patients==== * as Ko Dae-hwan : Moon-young's father, who is a patient at the hospital. He suffers from dementia and is bedbound. He was an architect who designed the Ko's family house, which is nicknamed the "Cursed Castle" after his wife Do Hui-jae's disappearance. * as Kan Pil-ong : A kind-hearted yet troubled Vietnam War veteran who suffers from post-traumatic stress disorder. * Jung Jae-kwang as Joo Jeong-tae : A patient content with life who was originally admitted to the hospital for alcoholism. He is the boyfriend of Lee Ah-reum. * Ji Hye-won as Lee Ah-reum : A shy patient who was admitted for anxiety after escaping from her abusive ex-husband. She is the girlfriend of Joo Jeong-tae. * Kang Ji-eun as Park Ok-ran : A mysterious fan of Hui-jae who torments Dae-hwan. * Joo In-young as Yoo Sun-hae ** Ko Do-yeon as young Sun- hae (Ep. 13) : A patient with dissociative identity disorder that she developed as a coping mechanism because of the troubled relationship with her father. ====Others==== * Kang Ki-doong as Jo Jae-soo :Moon Gang-tae's best friend, who follows him and Sang-tae whenever they move. *Choi Hee-jin as Moon Sang-tae and Moon Gang-tae's mother : A single parent murdered over a decade ago under mysterious circumstances. * / Jang Young-nam as Do Hui-jae :A best- selling novelist and Moon-young's mother. She was emotionally abusive to Moon- young and is a big part of the reason why she is the way she is. She disappeared under mysterious circumstances over a decade before Moon-young meets Gang-tae again. ===Special appearances=== * Kwak Dong-yeon as Kwon Ki-do (Ep. 3–4, 16) : A patient at the hospital diagnosed with mania, who is the son of an assemblyman. * Bae Hae-sun as Kang Eun-ja (Ep. 4–7, 16) : A patient at the hospital diagnosed with psychotic depression, which she developed after losing her daughter to a car accident. * Jung Sang-hoon as a love motel owner (Ep. 5) * Choi Daniel as CEO Choi Daniel, who is a fan of Ko Moon-young (Ep. 8) ==Production== It's Okay to Not Be Okay was created by Studio Dragon, written by Jo Yong, directed by Park Shin-woo, and produced by Story TV and Gold Medalist. Jo Yong based the drama on her relationship with a man who had a personality disorder. She developed Moon Sang-tae's character by listening to the stories of people with autistic brothers and referred to the books recommended by the CEO of Bear Better, a social enterprise where people with developmental disabilities work. Fashion director Cho Sang-kyung managed costumes, while fashion designer Minju Kim designed some of Ko Moon-young's dresses. In the second half of 2019, Kim Soo-hyun considered It's Okay to Not Be Okay to be his comeback drama following his obligatory military enlistment, and his casting was confirmed by his agency in February 2020. At the press conference for the drama he said that he joined the project after being drawn to its title and Moon Gang-tae's character. In the same month, Seo Yea-ji was confirmed to be cast as Ko Moon-young. In March 2020, veteran actor Oh Jung-se accepted the role of Moon Sang-tae; when asked about his character at the press conference, he commented that "autism isn't an illness, but something you're born with". The first script reading photos were released on May 8, 2020, and filming was completed on July 31, 2020, without a wrap party out of concerns for the COVID-19 pandemic. Filming locations for the drama included Cafe Sanida in Wonju, Gangwon, which provided the background for the "cursed castle", completed with CGI effects, and Secret Blue Cafe in Goseong County, Gangwon, which was transformed into OK Psychiatric Hospital for the shooting using props. Outside locations included streets and beaches in Goseong, as well as locations in Yangju (Gyeonggi) and Incheon. Some of the furniture used in the drama were antiques and 100 to 200 years old. It's Okay to Not Be Okay was broadcast on tvN on Saturdays and Sundays at 9:00 pm Korea Standard Time (KST) from June 20, 2020, to August 9, 2020; episodes were released on Netflix in South Korea and internationally after their television broadcast. ==Media== ===Tie-in literature=== The five children's storybooks that appeared in the drama were written by Jo Yong and illustrated by concept artist Jamsan. They were published in Korean by Wisdom House in July and August 2020. According to the Kyobo Book Centre and YES 24, all five books were listed in the top 20 bestselling books of the month. Due to its popularity Kyobo Book Centre recorded a ninefold increase in the number of drama- and film-related books. In 2021, all five books were translated by Woo Jae-Hyung into Brazilian Portuguese and published by Intrínseca in March and May. Title (English translation) Pages Publication date 1 The Boy Who Fed on Nightmares (악몽을 먹고 자란 소년) 16 July 18, 2020 2 Zombie Kid (좀비아이) 24 July 13, 2020 3 The Dog of Spring Day (봄날의 개) 16 July 30, 2020 4 The Hand, the Monkfish (손, 아귀) 20 August 15, 2020 5 Finding the Real Faces (진짜 진짜 얼굴을 찾아서) 24 August 31, 2020 The series' script, also illustrated by Jamsan, was published in two books; each covers eight episodes. Title (English translation) Pages Publication date 1 It's Okay to Not Be Okay 1 (사이코지만 괜찮아) 504 July 30, 2020 2 It's Okay to Not Be Okay 2 (사이코지만 괜찮아) 520 August 27, 2020 ===Soundtrack=== It's Okay to Not Be Okay soundtrack album executively written by music director Nam Hye-seung was digitally released on August 9, 2021. It contains 16 songs (including singles) and 20 score pieces from the series. It features vocal performances from Janet Suhh, Heize, Sam Kim, Park Won, Lee Su-hyun, Kim Feel, Cheeze, Yongzoo and Elaine. Pre-orders for the physical version began on August 5, and was officially released on August 13. The physical version debuted at number fourteen on the weekly Gaon Album Chart for the week ending August 15, and peaked at number ten the following week. ====Tracklist==== ====Singles==== Title Artist(s) Peak chart position KOR Gaon "You're Cold"– "Breath"– "My Tale"– "In Your Time"– "Hallelujah"– "Little By Little"– KOR Hot "You're Cold"– "Breath" and "My Tale"– "In Your Time"– "Hallelujah"– "Little By Little"– "You're Cold" Heize 62 57 "Breath" Sam Kim 59 61 "My Tale" Park Won 92 62 "In Your Time" Lee Su-hyun 31 32 "Hallelujah" Kim Feel 80 67 "Little By Little" Cheeze 107 86 "Puzzle" Yongzoo – – ==Reception== ===Commercial performance=== According to the big data analytics firm Good Data Corporation, It's Okay to Not Be Okay was the most talked about drama online in South Korea for eight consecutive weeks. It became a hot topic on social media when Oh spent a day with an autistic fan. It also topped CJ E&M; and AGB Nielsen Media Research's Content Power Index (CPI) report during its eight-week run with its highest CPI of 373.2 in the first week of August; it was the highest rated tvN drama of 2020 in CPI. Smart Media Rep (SMR), which distributes VoD (video on demand) clips of major broadcasters to online platforms like Naver and YouTube, reported the drama had over 110 million cumulative views as of December 10, 2020. An analysis performed by SMR found that the majority of viewers were in their 20s. Studio Dragon recorded its highest quarterly performance in the second quarter of 2020 with sales of , which was attributed to the growth of overseas sales of major dramas including It's Okay to Not Be Okay. CJ ENM, parent company of tvN, found that operating profits for the third quarter of 2020 increased by 17.9% when compared to the same period of 2019, due to an increase in digital-related sales as a response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Following the popularity of the drama, the outfits worn by Seo Yea-ji garnered attention and raised the profile of Korean fashion designers and brands of earrings, handbag and nightwear. When the soft toys, nightmare doll (Mang-tae) and dinosaur doll that were used in the drama were put on sale, the site quickly sold out. ===Critical response=== It's Okay to Not Be Okay largely received positive critical feedback, primarily for its unique premise, visual storytelling, acting by the cast and importance given to mental health. Joan MacDonald of Forbes called it "the most visually appealing drama of 2020" and said, "Not only are the actors beautiful, but the drama's graphics, cinematography and costumes are also gorgeous." Contributors to Manila Bulletin considered it "unafraid to introduce fresh elements" with necessary clichés in a romantic K-drama, and praised Moon-young as a "headstrong" and "independent woman". However, when the series debuted, culture critic Chung Deok-hyun was concerned that Moon-young's "exaggerated words and actions" could decrease viewers' immersion in the drama. In the Filipino version of Cosmopolitan, Jacinda A. Lopez found that the "messages the drama was relaying are where the beauty truly lies". Rumaiysa M Rahman of Prothom Alo praised writing that "this drama makes people realise, societies should stop looking at those who seem different." John Lui and Jan Lee of The Straits Times gave the drama a rating of 3.5/5 stars and said that Kim "pull[ed] off a sensitive portrayal of a young man whose life has been derailed by tragedy". The New York Times' Mike Hale called Seo's performance "mesmerizing" and made the drama work. S. Poorvaja of The Hindu, praised Moon- Young as a character "excellently played by Seo Yea-ji", but criticized the writing, saying that "the show could have gone into more nuance – especially after the character was marketed as someone having Anti-Social Personality disorder". Poorvaja also said that the show's portrayal of a person with autism spectrum disorder was good, commenting that "Oh Jung-se's Moon Sang-tae is perhaps the show's biggest victory." Edmund Lee from South China Morning Post gave a rating of 3/5 stars, pointing out that the series would disappoint "detective fiction fans" because of the limited explanation of mystery surrounding the murder. Kim Jae-Ha of Teen Vogue described the storyline as "vigorous" and said, "The series finale offers hope and a sense of peace. But it will also make even the most stoic viewers tear up." ====Sexually inappropriate scenes==== The series was criticized on social media and the Korea Communications Standards Commission received over 50 formal complaints, largely for a scene in which Moon-young overtly stares and touches Gang-tae's body as he gets dressed. In another scene a male character, who suffers from manic depression and exhibitionism, reveals parts of his body, with his genitals being covered by a drawing of an elephant. Some viewers defended these scenes as ways of expressing the characters' personalities. On August 26, 2020, the broadcast censorship body issued a legal sanction to the television series for sexually inappropriate scenes in episode three, judging it to be against the broadcast deliberation regulations. It cited Article 27, on duties of integrity, and Article 30, on gender equality. The subcommission gave the reasoning: "Even considering the fact that they were meant to exaggeratedly express a character's personality, (the scenes in question) show how insensitive the drama's producers are to gender equality in broadcasting content that may belittle a certain gender and hold the possibility to justify sexual harassment and molestation." ===Viewership=== It's Okay to Not Be Okay was the most popular show of 2020 on Netflix in South Korea in its romance genre. It was the most popular Korean drama series on Netflix in Taiwan, and the "most enduring Korean drama" in Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand, being in Netflix's top 10 list for more than 100 days.* * The series was also one of the most popular Korean drama of 2020 on Netflix in Australia, Hong Kong, India, Japan and South Africa.* * * * * * It's Okay to Not Be Okay aired on tvN, which normally has a relatively smaller audience compared to free-to-air TV/public broadcasters (KBS, SBS, MBC and EBS). The series logged 6.1% in viewership for its first episode Saturday but dropped to 4.7% for the next one. The series maintained its ratings in 4-6% range throughout its run, peaking at 7.4% for the last episode, entering the list of highest-rated Korean dramas in cable television history. Part Original broadcast date TitleEach of the episode titles is excerpted from well-known works of fiction, such as fairy tales, fables, novels and plays, both real and fictitious (from the series). Average audience share (Nielsen Korea) Nationwide Seoul 1 June 20, 2020 The Boy Who Fed On NightmaresExcerpted from the fairy tale of the same title written by Ko Moon- young in the drama. 6.093% 7.036% 2 June 21, 2020 The Lady In Red ShoesExcerpted from The Red Shoes by Hans Christian Andersen. 4.722% 5.474% 3 June 27, 2020 Sleeping WitchExcerpted from Sleeping Beauty. 5.940% 6.529% 4 June 28, 2020 Zombie KidExcerpted from the fairy tale of the same title written by Ko Moon-young in the drama. 4.942% 6.000% 5 1 July 4, 2020 Rapunzel and the Cursed CastleExcerpted from Rapunzel by the Brothers Grimm. 4.661% 5.285% 2 5.248% 5.782% 6 1 July 5, 2020 Bluebeard's SecretExcerpted from Bluebeard by Charles Perrault. 5.056% 5.114% 2 5.647% 5.748% 7 1 July 11, 2020 The Cheerful DogExcerpted from the fairy tale of the same title written by Ko Moon-young in the drama. 5.054% 5.434% 2 5.555% 5.753% 8 1 July 12, 2020 Beauty and the BeastExcerpted from Beauty and the Beast by Gabrielle- Suzanne de Villeneuve. 4.744% 5.160% 2 5.634% 6.407% 9 1 July 18, 2020 The King Has Donkey EarsExcerpted from The King with Donkey Ears. 4.995% 5.416% 2 5.814% 6.501% 10 1 July 19, 2020 The Girl Who Cried WolfExcerpted from The Boy Who Cried Wolf in Aesop's Fables. 2 5.481% 5.995% 11 1 July 25, 2020 The Ugly DucklingExcerpted from The Ugly Duckling by Hans Christian Andersen. 4.552% 4.681% 2 5.681% 5.661% 12 1 July 26, 2020 Romeo and JulietExcerpted from Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare. 5.145% 5.597% 2 5.264% 6.108% 13 1 August 1, 2020 The Father of the Two SistersExcerpted from The Story of Janghwa and Hongryeon, a Joseon-era Korean folktale. 4.794% 5.155% 2 5.696% 6.151% 14 1 August 2, 2020 The Hand, The MonkfishExcerpted from the fairy tale of the same title written by Ko Moon-young in the drama. 5.403% 6.042% 2 5.947% 6.654% 15 1 August 8, 2020 The Tale of Two BrothersExcerpted from Heungbu and Nolbu, a Joseon-era Korean story. 5.567% 6.198% 2 6.492% 7.365% 16 1 August 9, 2020 Finding The Real FaceExcerpted from the fairy tale of the same title written by Ko Moon-young in the drama. 6.224% 7.296% 2 Average * represent the lowest ratings and represent the highest ratings. * Starting from July 4, 2020, each episode was aired in two parts. * This drama airs on a cable channel/pay TV which normally has a relatively smaller audience compared to free-to-air TV/public broadcasters (KBS, SBS, MBC, and EBS). ==Accolades== The magazine Elle ranked it #2 on its list of "The 10 Best K-Dramas To Binge- Watch On Netflix". It's Okay to Not Be Okay on year-end lists Critic/Publication List Forbes The 13 Best Korean Dramas Of 2020 La Tercera The most applauded Netflix series of the past 2020 NME Korean dramas of 2020: the good Teen Vogue 11 Best K-Dramas of 2020 The New York Times The Best International Shows of 2020 Awards for It's Okay to Not Be Okay Year Ceremony/Organization Award Recipient Result 2020 Daejeon Visual Art Tech Awards Visual of the Year Award (Special Video) It's Okay to Not Be Okay Asia Artist Awards Grand Prize (Daesang) Kim Soo-hyun Best Artist Award Seo Yea-ji AAA Hot Issue Award Kim Soo-hyun Seo Yea-ji Korean Academy of Theater Arts Art of the Year Award It's Okay to Not Be Okay 2021 APAN Star Awards Best Drama It's Okay to Not Be Okay Top Excellence Award, Actor in a Miniseries Kim Soo- hyun Excellence Award, Actress in a Miniseries Seo Yea-ji Best Supporting Actor Oh Jung-se Popular Star Award, Actor Kim Soo-hyun Popular Star Award, Actress Seo Yea-ji KT Seezn Star Award Kim Soo-hyun Seo Yea-ji Best OST Lee Su-hyun – "In Your Time" Seoul Music Awards OST Award Lee Su-hyun – "In Your Time" Baeksang Arts Awards Best Drama It's Okay to Not Be Okay Best Director – Television Park Shin-woo Best Screenplay – Television Jo Yong Best Actor – Television Kim Soo-hyun Best Actress – Television Seo Yea-ji Most Popular Actress Seo Yea-ji Best Supporting Actor – Television Oh Jung-se Best Supporting Actress – Television Jang Young-nam Technical Award (Costume design) Cho Sang-kyung International Emmy Awards Best TV Movie or Miniseries It's Okay to Not Be Okay ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * * * * Category:TVN (South Korean TV channel) television dramas Category:2020 South Korean television series debuts Category:2020 South Korean television series endings Category:South Korean romance television series Category:Korean- language Netflix exclusive international distribution programming Category:Television series by Studio Dragon Category:Autism in television Category:Television about mental health Category:Television series by Story TV Category:Television series by Gold Medalist (company) |
==Events== ===Pre-1600=== * 934 - Meng Zhixiang declares himself emperor and establishes Later Shu as a new state independent of Later Tang. *1190 - Massacre of Jews at Clifford's Tower, York. *1244 - Over 200 Cathars who refuse to recant are burnt to death after the Fall of Montségur. ===1601–1900=== *1621 - Samoset, a Mohegan, visits the settlers of Plymouth Colony and greets them, "Welcome, Englishmen! My name is Samoset." *1660 - The Long Parliament of England is dissolved so as to prepare for the new Convention Parliament. *1792 - King Gustav III of Sweden is shot; he dies on March 29. *1802 - The Army Corps of Engineers is established to found and operate the United States Military Academy at West Point. *1815 - Prince Willem proclaims himself King of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, the first constitutional monarch in the Netherlands. *1872 - The Wanderers F.C. win the first FA Cup, the oldest football competition in the world, beating Royal Engineers A.F.C. 1–0 at The Oval in Kennington, London. *1898 - In Melbourne, the representatives of five colonies adopt a constitution, which would become the basis of the Commonwealth of Australia. ===1901–present=== *1916 - The 7th and 10th US cavalry regiments under John J. Pershing cross the US–Mexico border to join the hunt for Pancho Villa. *1918 - Finnish Civil War: Battle of Länkipohja is infamous for its bloody aftermath as the Whites execute 70–100 capitulated Reds. *1924 - In accordance with the Treaty of Rome, Fiume becomes annexed as part of Italy. *1926 - History of Rocketry: Robert Goddard launches the first liquid-fueled rocket, at Auburn, Massachusetts. *1935 - Adolf Hitler orders Germany to rearm herself in violation of the Treaty of Versailles. Conscription is reintroduced to form the Wehrmacht. *1936 - Warmer-than-normal temperatures rapidly melt snow and ice on the upper Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, leading to a major flood in Pittsburgh. *1939 - From Prague Castle, Hitler proclaims Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate. *1941 - Operation Appearance takes place to re-establish British SomalilandOperations in the Red Sea *1945 - World War II: The Battle of Iwo Jima ends, but small pockets of Japanese resistance persist. * 1945 - Ninety percent of Würzburg, Germany is destroyed in only 20 minutes by British bombers, resulting in at least 4,000 deaths. *1962 - Flying Tiger Line Flight 739 disappears in the western Pacific Ocean with all 107 aboard missing and presumed dead. *1966 - Launch of Gemini 8 with astronauts Neil Armstrong and David Scott. It would perform the first docking of two spacecraft in orbit. *1968 - Vietnam War: My Lai Massacre occurs; between 347 and 500 Vietnamese villagers are killed by American troops. *1969 - A Viasa McDonnell Douglas DC-9 crashes in Maracaibo, Venezuela, killing 155. *1977 - Assassination of Kamal Jumblatt, the main leader of the anti-government forces in the Lebanese Civil War. *1978 - Former Italian Prime Minister Aldo Moro is kidnapped; he is later murdered by his captors. * 1978 - A Balkan Bulgarian Airlines Tupolev Tu-134 crashes near Gabare, Bulgaria, killing 73. * 1978 - Supertanker Amoco Cadiz splits in two after running aground on the Portsall Rocks, three miles off the coast of Brittany, resulting in the largest oil spill in history at that time. *1979 - Sino-Vietnamese War: The People's Liberation Army crosses the border back into China, ending the war. *1984 - William Buckley, the CIA station chief in Lebanon, is kidnapped by Hezbollah; he later dies in captivity. *1985 - Associated Press newsman Terry Anderson is taken hostage in Beirut; he is not released until December 1991. *1988 - Iran–Contra affair: Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North and Vice Admiral John Poindexter are indicted on charges of conspiracy to defraud the United States. * 1988 - Halabja chemical attack: The Kurdish town of Halabja in Iraq is attacked with a mix of poison gas and nerve agents on the orders of Saddam Hussein, killing 5,000 people and injuring about 10,000 people. * 1988 - The Troubles: Ulster loyalist militant Michael Stone attacks a Provisional IRA funeral in Belfast with pistols and grenades. Three persons, one of them a member of PIRA are killed, and more than 60 others are wounded. *1995 - Mississippi formally ratifies the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, becoming the last state to approve the abolition of slavery. The Thirteenth Amendment was officially ratified in 1865. *2001 - A series of bomb blasts in the city of Shijiazhuang, China kill 108 people and injure 38 others, the biggest mass murder in China in decades. *2003 - American activist Rachel Corrie is killed in Rafah by being run over by an Israel Defense Forces bulldozer while trying to obstruct the demolition of a home. *2005 - Israel officially hands over Jericho to Palestinian control. *2014 - Crimea votes in a controversial referendum to secede from Ukraine to join Russia. *2016 - A bomb detonates in a bus carrying government employees in Peshawar, Pakistan, killing 15 and injuring at least 30. * 2016 - Two suicide bombers detonate their explosives at a mosque during morning prayer on the outskirts of Maiduguri, Nigeria, killing 24 and injuring 18. *2020 - The Dow Jones Industrial Average falls by 2,997.10, the single largest point drop in history and the second-largest percentage drop ever at 12.93%, an even greater crash than Black Monday (1929). This follows the U.S. Federal Reserve announcing that it will cut its target interest rate to 0–0.25%. *2021 - Atlanta spa shootings: Eight people are killed and one is injured in a trio of shootings at spas in and near Atlanta, Georgia, U.S. A suspect is arrested the same day. *2022 - A 7.4-magnitude earthquake occurs off the coast of Fukushima, Japan, killing 4 people and injuring 225. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== *1399 - The Xuande Emperor, ruler of Ming China (d. 1435) *1445 - Johann Geiler von Kaysersberg, Swiss priest and theologian (d. 1510) *1465 - Kunigunde of Austria, Duchess of Bavaria (d. 1520) *1473 - Henry IV, Duke of Saxony (d. 1541) *1559 - Amar Singh I, successor of Maharana Pratap of Mewar (d. 1620) *1581 - Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft, Dutch historian and poet (d. 1647) *1585 - Gerbrand Bredero, Dutch poet and playwright (d. 1618) *1590 - Ii Naotaka, Japanese daimyō (d. 1659) *1596 - Ebba Brahe, Swedish countess (d. 1674) ===1601–1900=== *1609 - Michael Franck, German poet and composer of hymns (d. 1667) * 1609 - Agostino Mitelli, Italian painter (d. 1660) *1621 - Georg Neumark, German poet and composer of hymns (d. 1681) *1631 - René Le Bossu, French literary critic (d. 1680) *1638 - François Crépieul, Jesuit missionary (d. 1702) *1654 - Andreas Acoluthus, German scholar (d. 1704) *1670 - François de Franquetot de Coigny, French general (d. 1759) *1673 - Jean Bouhier, French jurist and scholar (d. 1746) *1687 - Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, queen consort of Frederick William I (d. 1757) *1693 - Malhar Rao Holkar, Indian nobleman (d. 1766) *1701 - Daniel Lorenz Salthenius, Swedish theologian (d. 1750) *1729 - Maria Louise Albertine (d. 1818) *1741 - Carlo Amoretti, Italian scientist (d. 1816) *1744 - Nicolas-Germain Léonard, Guadeloupean poet and novelist (d. 1793) *1750 - Caroline Herschel, German-English astronomer (d. 1848) *1751 - James Madison, American academic and politician, 4th President of the United States (d. 1836) *1753 - François Amédée Doppet, French general (d. 1799) *1760 - Johann Heinrich Meyer, Swiss painter and writer (d. 1832) *1766 - Jean-Frédéric Waldeck, French antiquarian, cartographer, artist and explorer (d. 1875) *1771 - Antoine-Jean Gros, French painter (d. 1835) *1773 - Juan Ramón Balcarce, Argentinian general and politician, 6th Governor of Buenos Aires Province (d. 1836) *1774 - Matthew Flinders, English navigator and cartographer (d. 1814) *1789 - Francis Rawdon Chesney, English general and explorer (d. 1872) * 1789 - Georg Ohm, German physicist and mathematician (d. 1854) *1794 - Ami Boué, Austrian geologist and ethnographer (d. 1881) *1797 - Alaric Alexander Watts, English poet and journalist (d. 1864) *1799 - Anna Atkins, English botanist and photographer (d. 1871) *1800 - Emperor Ninkō of Japan (d. 1846) *1805 - Ernst von Lasaulx, German philologist and politician (d. 1861) *1806 - Félix De Vigne, Belgian painter (d. 1862) *1808 - Hannah T. King, British-born American writer and pioneer (d. 1886) *1813 - Gaëtan de Rochebouët, French prime minister (d. 1899) *1819 - José Paranhos, Brazilian politician (d. 1880) *1820 - Enrico Tamberlik, Italian tenor (d. 1889) *1821 - Eduard Heine, German mathematician and academic (d. 1881) *1822 - Rosa Bonheur, French painter and sculptor (d. 1899) * 1822 - John Pope, American general (d. 1892) *1823 - William Henry Monk, English organist and composer (d. 1889) *1825 - Camilo Castelo Branco, Portuguese writer (d. 1890) *1828 - Émile Deshayes de Marcère, French politician (d. 1918) *1834 - James Hector, Scottish geologist and surgeon (d. 1907) *1836 - Andrew Smith Hallidie, English-American engineer and inventor (d. 1900) *1839 - Sully Prudhomme, French poet and critic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1907) * 1839 - John Butler Yeats, Irish painter (d. 1922) *1840 - Shibusawa Eiichi, Japanese industrialist (d. 1931) * 1840 - Georg von der Gabelentz, German linguist and sinologist (d. 1893) *1845 - Umegatani Tōtarō I, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 15th Yokozuna (d. 1928) *1846 - Gösta Mittag-Leffler, Swedish mathematician and academic (d. 1927) * 1846 - Rebecca Cole, American physician and social reformer (d. 1922) * 1846 - Jurgis Bielinis, Lithuanian book smuggler (d. 1918) *1848 - Axel Heiberg, Norwegian financier and diplomat (d. 1932) *1851 - Otto Bardenhewer, German theologian (d. 1935) * 1851 - Martinus Beijerinck, Dutch microbiologist and botanist (d. 1931) *1856 - Napoléon, Prince Imperial of France (d. 1879) *1857 - Charles Harding Firth, English historian (d. 1936) *1859 - Alexander Stepanovich Popov, Russian physicist and inventor (d. 1906) *1865 - Patsy Donovan, Irish-American baseball player and manager (d. 1953) *1869 - Willy Burmester, German violinist (d. 1933) *1871 - Hans Merensky, South African geologist and philanthropist (d. 1951) * 1871 - Frantz Reichel, French rugby player and hurdler (d. 1932) *1874 - Frédéric François-Marsal, French prime minister (d. 1958) *1877 - Léo-Ernest Ouimet, Canadian director and producer (d. 1972) *1878 - Clemens August Graf von Galen, German cardinal (d. 1946) * 1878 - Paul Jouve, French painter (d. 1973) *1881 - Fannie Charles Dillon, American composer (d. 1947) *1882 - James Lightbody, American runner (d. 1953) *1883 - Ethel Anderson, Australian poet, author, and painter (d. 1958) *1884 - Eric P. Kelly, American journalist and author (d. 1960) *1885 - Giacomo Benvenuti, Italian composer and musicologist (d. 1943) * 1885 - Sydney Chaplin, English actor (d. 1965) *1886 - Herbert Lindström, Swedish tug of war player (d. 1951) *1887 - Emilio Lunghi, Italian runner (d. 1925) * 1887 - S. Stillman Berry, American marine zoologist (1984) *1889 - Reggie Walker, South African athlete (d. 1951) *1892 - César Vallejo, Peruvian poet (d. 1938) *1895 - Ernest Labrousse, French historian (d. 1988) *1897 - Antonio Donghi, Italian painter (d. 1963) * 1897 - Conrad Nagel, American actor (d. 1970) *1900 - Cyril Hume, American novelist and screenwriter (d. 1966) * 1900 - Mencha Karnicheva, Macedonian revolutionary and assassin (d. 1964) ===1901–present=== *1901 - Alexis Chantraine, Belgian footballer (d. 1987) *1903 - Mike Mansfield, American politician and diplomat, 22nd United States Ambassador to Japan (d. 2001) *1906 - Francisco Ayala, Spanish sociologist, author, and translator (d. 2009) * 1906 - Maurice Turnbull, Welsh-English cricketer and rugby player (d. 1944) * 1906 - Henny Youngman, English-American violinist and comedian (d. 1998) *1908 - René Daumal, French author and poet (d. 1944) * 1908 - Ernest Rogez, French water polo player (d. 1986) * 1908 - Robert Rossen, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1966) *1909 - Don Raye, American songwriter (d. 1985) *1910 - Aladár Gerevich, Hungarian fencer (d. 1991) * 1910 - Iftikhar Ali Khan Pataudi, Indian-English cricketer and politician, 8th Nawab of Pataudi (d. 1952) *1911 - Pierre Harmel, former Prime Minister, later foreign minister of Belgium (d. 2009) * 1911 - Josef Mengele, German physician, captain and mass-murderer (d. 1979) * 1911 - Philip Pavia, American painter and sculptor (d. 2005) *1912 - Pat Nixon, First Lady of the United States (d. 1993) *1913 - Rémy Raffalli, French soldier (d. 1952) *1915 - Kunihiko Kodaira, Japanese mathematician (d. 1997) *1916 - Mercedes McCambridge, American actress (d. 2004) * 1916 - Tsutomu Yamaguchi, Japanese engineer and businessman (d. 2010) *1917 - Louis C. Wyman, American lawyer and politician (d. 2002) * 1917 - Laure Pillay, Mauritian lawyer and jurist (d. 2017) * 1917 - Mehrdad Pahlbod, Iranian politician (d. 2018) *1918 - Aldo van Eyck, Dutch architect (d. 1999) * 1918 - Frederick Reines, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998) *1920 - John Addison, English- American soldier and composer (d. 1998) * 1920 - Sid Fleischman, American author and screenwriter (d. 2010) * 1920 - Traudl Junge, German secretary (d. 2002) * 1920 - Leo McKern, Australian-English actor (d. 2002) *1922 - Harding Lemay, American screenwriter and playwright (d. 2018) *1923 - Heinz Wallberg, German conductor (d. 2004) *1925 - Cornell Borchers, Lithuanian-German actress and singer (d. 2014) * 1925 - Mary Hinkson, American dancer and choreographer (d. 2014) * 1925 - Ervin Kassai, Hungarian basketball player and referee (d. 2012) * 1925 - Luis E. Miramontes, Mexican chemist and engineer (d. 2004) *1926 - Charles Goodell, American lawyer and politician (d. 1987) * 1926 - Jerry Lewis, American actor and comedian (d. 2017) *1927 - Vladimir Komarov, Russian pilot, engineer, and cosmonaut (d. 1967) * 1927 - Daniel Patrick Moynihan, American sociologist and politician, 12th United States Ambassador to the United Nations (d. 2003) * 1927 - Olga San Juan, American actress and dancer (d. 2009) *1928 - Wakanohana Kanji I, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 45th Yokozuna (d. 2010) * 1928 - Christa Ludwig, German opera singer (d. 2021) *1929 - Betty Johnson, American singer (d. 2022) * 1929 - Tihomir Novakov, Serbian-American physicist and academic (d. 2015) * 1929 - Nadja Tiller, Austrian actress (d. 2023) *1930 - Tommy Flanagan, American pianist and composer (d. 2001) * 1930 - Minoru Miki, Japanese composer (d. 2011) *1931 - Augusto Boal, Brazilian theatre director, writer and politician (d. 2009) * 1931 - Alan Heyman, American-South Korean musicologist and composer (d. 2014) * 1931 - Anthony Kenny, English philosopher and academic * 1931 - John Munro, Canadian lawyer and politician, 22nd Canadian Minister of Labour (d. 2003) *1932 - Don Blasingame, American baseball player and manager (d. 2005) * 1932 - Walter Cunningham, American astronaut (d. 2023) * 1932 - Kurt Diemberger, Austrian mountaineer and author * 1932 - Herbert Marx, Canadian politician (d. 2020) *1933 - Keith Critchlow, English architect and academic, co-founded Temenos Academy (d. 2020) * 1933 - Sanford I. Weill, American banker, financier, and philanthropist *1934 - Jean Cournoyer, Canadian politician * 1934 - Ray Hnatyshyn, Canadian lawyer and politician, 24th Governor General of Canada (d. 2002) * 1934 - Roger Norrington, English violinist and conductor * 1934 - Howard Schnellenberger, American football player and coach (d. 2021) *1935 - Teresa Berganza, Spanish soprano and actress (d. 2022) * 1935 - Pepe Cáceres, Colombian bullfighter (d. 1987) *1936 - Raymond Vahan Damadian, Armenian-American inventor, invented the MRI (d. 2022) * 1936 - Fred Neil, American folk singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2001) *1937 - David Frith, English historian, journalist, and author * 1937 - Attilio Nicora, Italian cardinal (d. 2017) * 1937 - Amos Tversky, Israeli-American psychologist and academic (d. 1996) *1938 - Carlos Bilardo, Argentinian footballer and manager *1939 - Yvon Côté, Canadian politician and teacher *1940 - Vagif Mustafazadeh, Azerbaijani pianist and composer (d. 1979) * 1940 - Jan Pronk, Dutch academic and politician, Dutch Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment * 1940 - Keith Rowe, English guitarist *1941 - Bernardo Bertolucci, Italian director and screenwriter (d. 2018) * 1941 - Robert Guéï, Ivorian soldier and politician, 3rd President of Côte d'Ivoire (d. 2002) * 1941 - Chuck Woolery, American game show host and television personality *1942 - Roger Crozier, Canadian-American ice hockey player (d. 1996) * 1942 - Gijs van Lennep, Dutch race car driver * 1942 - Jean-Pierre Schosteck, French politician * 1942 - James Soong, Chinese-Taiwanese politician, Governor of Taiwan Province * 1942 - Jerry Jeff Walker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2020) *1943 - Ursula Goodenough, American biologist, zoologist, and author * 1943 - Hans Heyer, German race car driver * 1943 - Álvaro de Soto, Peruvian diplomat *1944 - Andrew S. Tanenbaum, American computer scientist and academic *1946 - Sigmund Groven, Norwegian harmonica player and composer * 1946 - Mary Kaldor, English economist and academic * 1946 - J. Z. Knight, American New Age teacher and author * 1946 - Guesch Patti, French singer *1948 - Michael Owen Bruce, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1948 - Richard Desjardins, Canadian singer-songwriter and director * 1948 - Catherine Quéré, French politician *1949 - Erik Estrada, American actor * 1949 - Victor Garber, Canadian actor and singer * 1949 - Elliott Murphy, American- French singer-songwriter and journalist *1950 - Peter Forster, English bishop * 1950 - Kate Nelligan, Canadian actress * 1950 - Edhem Šljivo, Bosnian footballer *1951 - Ray Benson, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1951 - Abdelmajid Bourebbou, Algerian footballer * 1951 - Oddvar Brå, Norwegian skier * 1951 - Joe DeLamielleure, American football player * 1951 - Alexandre Gonzalez, French long-distance runner *1953 - Claus Peter Flor, German conductor * 1953 - Isabelle Huppert, French actress * 1953 - Rainer Knaak, German chess player * 1953 - Richard Stallman, American computer scientist and programmer *1954 - David Heath, English politician * 1954 - Colin Ireland, English serial killer (d. 2012) * 1954 - Jimmy Nail, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor * 1954 - Tim O'Brien, American singer- songwriter and guitarist * 1954 - Dav Whatmore, Sri Lankan-Australian cricketer and coach * 1954 - Nancy Wilson, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actress *1955 - Svetlana Alexeeva, Russian ice dancer and coach * 1955 - Rimantas Astrauskas, Lithuanian physicist * 1955 - Bruno Barreto, Brazilian director, producer, and screenwriter * 1955 - Linda Lepomme, Belgian actress and singer * 1955 - Bob Ley, American sports anchor and reporter * 1955 - Andy Scott, Canadian politician (d. 2013) * 1955 - Jiro Watanabe, Japanese boxer *1956 - Ozzie Newsome, American football player and manager * 1956 - Clifton Powell, American actor, director, and producer * 1956 - Yoriko Shono, Japanese writer * 1956 - Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf, Swiss lawyer and politician *1958 - Phillip Wilcher, Australian pianist and composer * 1958 - Kate Worley, American author (d. 2004) * 1958 - Jorge Ramos, Mexican- American journalist and author"Biography". jorgeramos.com. Retrieved September 4, 2017. *1959 - Michael J. Bloomfield, American astronaut * 1959 - Sebastian Currier, American composer and educator * 1959 - Greg Dyer, Australian cricketer * 1959 - Flavor Flav, American rapper and actor * 1959 - Charles Hudson, American baseball player * 1959 - Steve Marker, American musician * 1959 - Jens Stoltenberg, Norwegian economist and politician, 27th Prime Minister of Norway, 13th Secretary General of NATO *1960 - John Hemming, English businessman and politician * 1960 - Duane Sutter, Canadian ice hockey player and coach * 1960 - Jenny Eclair, English comedian, actress and screenwriter *1961 - Brett Kenny, Australian rugby league player and coach * 1961 - Todd McFarlane, Canadian author, illustrator, and businessman, founded McFarlane Toys *1962 - Franck Fréon, French race car driver * 1962 - Liliane Gaschet, French athlete *1963 - Jerome Flynn, English actor and singer * 1963 - Kevin Smith, New Zealand actor and singer (d. 2002) *1964 - Patty Griffin, American singer-songwriter * 1964 - Jaclyn Jose, Filipino actress * 1964 - Pascal Richard, Swiss racing cyclist * 1964 - Gore Verbinski, American director, producer, and screenwriter *1965 - Steve Armstrong, American wrestler * 1965 - Cindy Brown, American basketball player * 1965 - Mark Carney, Canadian-English economist and banker * 1965 - Cristiana Reali, Italian-Brazilian actress *1966 - H.P. Baxxter, German musician * 1966 - Chrissy Redden, Canadian cross-country cyclist *1967 - Tracy Bonham, American singer and violinist * 1967 - John Darnielle, American musician and novelist * 1967 - Lauren Graham, American actress and producer * 1967 - Ronnie McCoury, American bluegrass mandolin player, singer and songwriter * 1967 - Heidi Zurbriggen, Swiss alpine skier *1968 - Trevor Wilson, American basketball player and police officer *1969 - Judah Friedlander, American comedian and actor * 1969 - Ottis Gibson, Barbadian cricketer and coach * 1969 - Alina Ivanova, Russian athlete * 1969 - Evangelos Koronios, Greek basketball player and coach *1970 - Joakim Berg, Swedish singer-songwriter and guitarist *1971 - Franck Comba, French rugby player * 1971 - Alan Tudyk, American actor *1972 - Ismaïl Sghyr, French-Moroccan long-distance runner *1973 - Andrey Mizurov, Kazakhstani road bicycle racer * 1973 - Vonda Ward, American boxer *1974 - Georgios Anatolakis, Greek footballer and politician * 1974 - Anne Charrier, French actress * 1974 - Heath Streak, Zimbabwean cricketer *1975 - Luciano Castro, Argentine actor * 1975 - Sienna Guillory, English model and actress * 1975 - Lionel Torres, French archer *1976 - Blu Cantrell, American singer- songwriter and producer * 1976 - Leila Lejeune, French handballer * 1976 - Susanne Ljungskog, Swedish cyclist * 1976 - Abraham Núñez, Dominican baseball player * 1976 - Zhu Chen, Qatari chess Grandmaster *1977 - Mónica Cruz, Spanish actress and dancer * 1977 - Thomas Rupprath, German swimmer *1978 - Brooke Burns, American fashion model, television personality, and actress * 1978 - Annett Renneberg, German actress and singer *1979 - Christina Liebherr, Swiss equestrian * 1979 - Rashad Moore, American football player * 1979 - Sébastien Ostertag, French handball player * 1979 - Leena Peisa, Finnish keyboard player and songwriter * 1979 - Andrei Stepanov, Estonian footballer *1980 - Todd Heap, American football player * 1980 - Felipe Reyes, Spanish basketball player *1981 - Andrew Bree, Irish swimmer * 1981 - Danny Brown, American rapper * 1981 - Curtis Granderson, American baseball player * 1981 - Julien Mazet, French road bicycle racer * 1981 - Fabiana Murer, Brazilian pole vaulter *1982 - Miguel Comminges, Guadeloupean footballer * 1982 - Riley Cote, Canadian ice hockey player and coach * 1982 - Jesús Del Nero, Spanish road bicycle racer * 1982 - Brian Wilson, American baseball player *1983 - Stephen Drew, American baseball player * 1983 - Brandon League, American baseball player * 1983 - Nicolas Rousseau, French road bicycle racer * 1983 - Tramon Williams, American football player *1984 - Levi Brown, American football player * 1984 - Aisling Bea, Irish comedienne and actress * 1984 - Sharon Cherop, Kenyan long-distance runner * 1984 - Michael Ennis, Australian rugby player * 1984 - Hosea Gear, New Zealand rugby player * 1984 - Brandon Prust, Canadian ice hockey player *1985 - Teddy Atine-Venel, French athlete * 1985 - Eddy Lover, Panamanian singer-songwriter * 1985 - Aleksei Sokirskiy, Russian hammer thrower *1986 - Alexandra Daddario, American actress * 1986 - Toney Douglas, American basketball player * 1986 - Kenny Dykstra, American wrestler * 1986 - T. J. Jordan, American basketball player * 1986 - Boaz Solossa, Indonesian footballer * 1986 - Daisuke Takahashi, Japanese figure skater *1987 - Fabien Lemoine, French football player *1988 - Jessica Gregg, Canadian speed skater * 1988 - Patrick Herrmann, German footballer *1989 - Blake Griffin, American basketball player * 1989 - Jung So-min, South Korean actress * 1989 - Magalie Pottier, French racing cyclist * 1989 - Theo Walcott, English footballer *1990 - Andre Young, American basketball player *1991 - Reggie Bullock, American basketball player * 1991 - Wolfgang Van Halen, American bassist *1993 - George Ford, English rugby union player * 1993 - Marine Lorphelin, Miss France *1994 - Joel Embiid, Cameroonian basketball player *1995 - Inga Janulevičiūtė, Lithuanian figure skater *1997 - Florian Neuhaus, German football player *1999 - Vladimir Guerrero Jr., Canadian baseball player ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== *AD 37 - Tiberius, Roman emperor (b. 42 BC) * 455 - Valentinian III, Roman emperor (assassinated; b. 419) * 455 - Heraclius, Roman courtier (primicerius sacri cubiculi ) * 842 - Xiao Mian, chancellor of the Tang dynasty * 933 - Takin al-Khazari, Egyptian commander and politician, Abbasid Governor of Egypt * 943 - Pi Guangye, Chinese official and chancellor (b. 877) *1021 - Heribert of Cologne, German archbishop and saint (b. 970) *1072 - Adalbert of Hamburg, German archbishop (b. 1000) *1181 - Henry I, Count of Champagne *1185 - Baldwin IV of Jerusalem (b. 1161) *1279 - Jeanne of Dammartin, Queen consort of Castile and León (b. 1216) *1322 - Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford, English general and politician, Lord High Constable of England (b. 1276) *1405 - Margaret III, Countess of Flanders (b. 1350) *1410 - John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset, French-English admiral and politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (b. 1373) *1457 - Ladislaus Hunyadi, Hungarian politician (b. 1433) *1485 - Anne Neville, queen of Richard III of England (b. 1456) *1559 - Anthony St. Leger, English-Irish politician Lord Deputy of Ireland (b. 1496) ===1601–1900=== *1649 - Jean de Brébeuf, French-Canadian missionary and saint (b. 1593) *1679 - John Leverett, English general and politician, 19th Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony (b. 1616) *1698 - Leonora Christina Ulfeldt, Danish countess, author of Jammers Minde (b. 1621) *1721 - James Craggs the Elder, English politician, Postmaster General of the United Kingdom (b. 1657) *1736 - Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, Italian composer (b. 1710) *1737 - Benjamin Wadsworth, American minister and academic (b. 1670) *1738 - George Bähr, German architect, designed the Dresden Frauenkirche (b. 1666) *1747 - Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst (b. 1690) *1838 - Nathaniel Bowditch, American ocean navigator and mathematician (b. 1773) *1841 - Félix Savart, French physicist and psychologist (b. 1791) *1868 - David Wilmot, American politician, sponsor of Wilmot Proviso (b. 1814) *1884 - Art Croft, American baseball player (b. 1855) *1888 - Hippolyte Carnot, French politician (b. 1801) *1892 - Samuel F. Miller, American politician (b. 1827) *1898 - Aubrey Beardsley, English author and illustrator (b. 1872) *1899 - Joseph Medill, American journalist and politician, 26th Mayor of Chicago (b. 1823) ===1901–present=== *1903 - Roy Bean, American justice of the peace (b. 1825) *1907 - John O'Leary, Irish republican and journalist (b. 1830) *1912 - Max Burckhard, Austrian theater director (b. 1854) *1914 - Gaston Calmette, French journalist (b. 1858) * 1914 - Charles Albert Gobat, Swiss lawyer and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1843) * 1914 - John Murray, Scottish oceanographer, biologist, and limnologist (b. 1841) *1925 - August von Wassermann, German bacteriologist and hygienist (b. 1866) *1930 - Miguel Primo de Rivera, Spanish general and politician, Prime Minister of Spain (b. 1870) *1935 - John James Rickard Macleod, Scottish physician and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1876) * 1935 - Aron Nimzowitsch, Latvian-Danish chess player (b. 1886) *1936 - Marguerite Durand, French actress, journalist, and activist (b. 1864) *1937 - Austen Chamberlain, English politician, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1863) * 1937 - Alexander von Staël-Holstein, Estonian orientalist and sinologist (b. 1877) *1940 - Selma Lagerlöf, Swedish author and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1858) *1945 - Börries von Münchhausen, German poet (b. 1874) *1955 - Nicolas de Staël, French-Russian painter and illustrator (b. 1914) *1957 - Constantin Brâncuși, Romanian-French sculptor, painter, and photographer (b. 1876) *1958 - Leon Cadore, American baseball player (b. 1891) *1961 - Chen Geng, Chinese general and politician (b. 1903) * 1961 - Václav Talich, Czech violinist and conductor (b. 1883) *1963 - Laura Adams Armer, American author and photographer (b. 1874) *1965 - Alice Herz, German activist (b. 1882) *1967 - Thomas MacGreevy, Irish poet (b. 1893) *1968 - Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Italian-American pianist and composer (b. 1895) * 1968 - Gunnar Ekelöf, Swedish poet and translator (b. 1907) * 1970 - Tammi Terrell, American singer (b. 1945) *1971 - Bebe Daniels, American actress (b. 1901) * 1971 - Thomas E. Dewey, American lawyer and politician, 47th Governor of New York (b. 1902) *1972 - Pie Traynor, American baseball player (b. 1898) *1975 - T-Bone Walker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1910) *1977 - Kamal Jumblatt, Lebanese lawyer and politician (b. 1917) *1979 - Jean Monnet, French economist and politician (b. 1888) *1980 - Tamara de Lempicka, Polish-American painter (b. 1898) *1983 - Arthur Godfrey, American actor and television host (b. 1903) * 1983 - Fred Rose, Polish-Canadian politician (b. 1907) *1985 - Roger Sessions, American composer, critic, and educator (b. 1896) * 1985 - Eddie Shore, Canadian-American ice hockey player (b. 1902) *1988 - Jigger Statz, American baseball player (b.1897) * 1988 - Mickey Thompson, American race car driver (b. 1928) *1990 - Ernst Bacon, American pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1898) *1991 - Chris Austin, American country singer (b .1964) * 1991 - Jean Bellette, Australian artist (b. 1908) *1992 - Yves Rocard, French physicist and engineer (b. 1903) *1994 - Eric Show, American baseball player (b. 1956) *1998 - Derek Barton, English- American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1918) * 1998 - Esther Bubley, American photographer (b. 1921) *1999 - Gratien Gélinas, Canadian actor, director, and playwright (b. 1909) *2000 - Thomas Ferebee, American colonel and pilot (b. 1918) * 2000 - Pavel Prudnikau, Belarusian poet and author (b. 1911) * 2000 - Michael Starr, Canadian judge and politician, 16th Canadian Minister of Labour (b. 1910) * 2000 - Carlos Velázquez, Puerto Rican pitcher (b. 1948) *2001 - Bob Wollek, French race car driver (b. 1943) *2003 - Rachel Corrie, American activist (b. 1979) * 2003 - Ronald Ferguson, English captain, polo player, and manager (b. 1931) *2004 - Vilém Tauský, Czech conductor and composer (b. 1910) *2005 - Todd Bell, American football player (b. 1958) * 2005 - Ralph Erskine, English architect, designed The London Ark (b. 1914) * 2005 - Dick Radatz, American baseball player (b. 1937) *2007 - Manjural Islam Rana, Bangladeshi cricketer (b. 1984) *2008 - Bill Brown, Australian cricketer and soldier (b. 1912) * 2008 - Ivan Dixon, American actor, director, and producer (b. 1931) * 2008 - Gary Hart, American wrestler and manager (b. 1942) *2010 - Ksenija Pajčin, Serbian singer, dancer and model (b. 1977) *2011 - Richard Wirthlin, American religious leader (b. 1931) *2012 - Donald E. Hillman, American colonel and pilot (b. 1918) * 2012 - Takaaki Yoshimoto, Japanese poet, philosopher, and critic (b. 1924) *2013 - Jamal Nazrul Islam, Bangladeshi physicist and cosmologist (b. 1939) * 2013 - José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz, Argentinian economist and politician, Minister of Economy of Argentina (b. 1925) * 2013 - Yadier Pedroso, Cuban pitcher (b. 1986) * 2013 - Ruchoma Shain, American-born teacher and author (b. 1914) * 2013 - Marina Solodkin, Russian-Israeli academic and politician (b. 1952) * 2013 - Frank Thornton, English actor (b. 1921) *2014 - Gary Bettenhausen, American race car driver (b. 1941) * 2014 - Donald Crothers, American chemist and academic (b. 1937) * 2014 - Yulisa Pat Amadu Maddy, Sierra Leonean author, poet, and playwright (b. 1936) * 2014 - Steve Moore, English author and illustrator (b. 1949) * 2014 - Alexander Pochinok, Russian economist and politician (b. 1958) *2015 - Jack Haley, American basketball player and sportscaster (b. 1964) * 2015 - Don Robertson, American pianist and composer (b. 1922) *2016 - Alexander Esenin-Volpin, Russian-American mathematician and poet (b. 1924) * 2016 - Frank Sinatra Jr., American singer and actor (b. 1944) *2017 - Lewis Rowland, American neurologist (b. 1925) *2018 - Louise Slaughter, Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from New York (b. 1929) *2019 - Dick Dale, American surf-rock guitarist, singer, and songwriter (b. 1937) ==Holidays and observances== *Christian feast day: **Abbán **Finian Lobhar (Finian the Leper) **Heribert of Cologne **Hilarius of Aquileia **Julian of Antioch **March 16 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) *Day of the Book Smugglers (Lithuania) *Remembrance day of the Latvian legionnaires (Latvia) *Saint Urho's Day (Finnish Americans and Finnish Canadians) == References == ==External links== * BBC: On This Day * * Historical Events on March 16 Category:Days of the year Category:March |
Reflections upon some Persons and Things in Ireland is an essay, written by Sir William Petty (1620-1687) and published in 1660. It contains a summary of the work carried out by Petty in the so-called Down Survey, and especially a defense against the critics that were cast upon him afterwards. It was a further elaboration of the short pamphlet, titled The Proceedings between Sankey and Petty, that was published by Petty the year before. William Petty, who was educated in France and the Netherlands, became a doctor in physics in Oxford in 1649. The next year he was elected a fellow of Brasenose College. He also became a Gresham Professor of Music. In 1651 he went to Ireland as physician-general in Cromwell's army. In 1655 he was in charge of the Down Survey, and acquired much land. This made him vulnerable for accusations of corruption. Jerome Sankey was among the people that accused Petty in Parliament of bribery and fraud. Petty defended himself and published his Proceedings between Sankey and Petty in 1659. One year later he published his Reflections upon some Persons and Things in Ireland (often shortened to Reflections upon Ireland, or simply Reflections) in continuation of the controversy. In 1659 he also wrote an extensive manuscript on the Down Survey, which was not published during his life, and appeared in print in 1851 as The History of the Survey of Ireland commonly called The Down Survey by Doctor William Petty A.D. 1655-6, edited by Thomas Aiskew Larcom for the Irish Archaeological Society. == Bibliographical information == Title page, 185 pp. + Contents (12 pp.).In 2013 a copy was sold at Christie's for GBP 1,375 (accessed 2018-01-29). References to Bibliographies, Bibliographical databases and online versions References to Bibliographies, Bibliographical databases and online versions References to Bibliographies, Bibliographical databases and online versions References to Bibliographies, Bibliographical databases and online versions References to Bibliographies, Bibliographical databases and online versions Hull:Bibliography number in Bibliography of the Printed Writings of Sir William Petty in: . 5a Keynes:Bibliography number in . Keynes gives an overview of fifteen copies in nine different libraries. 5 Wing's:Reference number in Wing's Short Title Catalogue (as used in Keynes 1971). P1936 ESTC:Reference number in English Short Title Catalogue (ESTC) – see ESTC citation number property in Wikidata. Can be used as a direct link to the ESTC catalogue, e.g. (William Petty's) The Advice to Hartlib (1647): R5444, through: http://estc.bl.uk/R5444. R7319 Thomason Tracts: (237)E.1915[1]See: Thomason Tracts, catalogue, vol. ii, p. 306. British Library: 2892284 BLO:Reference number in Bodleian Library of the University of Oxford. Can be used as a direct link to the BLO catalogue, e.g. (William Petty's) The Advice to Hartlib (1647): 014764413, through: http://solo.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/primo- explore/fulldisplay?docid=oxfaleph014764413&context;=L&vid;=SOLO&search;_scope=LSCOP_OX&tab;=local⟨=en_US; the Oxford Library contains (at least) two copies. 014765875\. search results at Library Hub Discover NLI: vtls000526314 EEBO-TCP:Reference number in Early English Books–Text Creation Partnership; the original scans are (not freely) available on EEBO. n.a. IA: Petty1660Reflections alt=Wikisource logo Wikisource: Reflections upon Ireland alt=Wikidata logo Wikidata: Q55422223 ; edition 1790 In 1790 the Reflections upon Ireland was reprinted in Dublin by Zachariah Jackson, for Grueber, and M'Allister, 1790. Reprint 1790 Reprint 1790 Reprint 1790 Reprint 1790 Reprint 1790 Hull: 5b Keynes:Bibliography number in . Keynes lists 6 copies in 5 different libraries. 6 ESTC: T106540 British Library: 17661834 and 2892285 search results at Library Hub Discover NLI: vtls000211881 IA: Petty1790Reflections Google Books: exFlAAAAcAAJ == Background == thumb|right|260px|Sir William Petty In 1659 Petty published his Brief of Proceedings between Hierom Sankey and William Petty, an eight pages account of the accusations brought against him by Sir Hierom Sankey in Parliament. In the preceding years Petty had organized the 'Down Survey' of Ireland. It was a giant operation, to map large parts of Ireland for the first time. There was urgent need of a mapping of the country, to distribute forfeited lands among soldiers and among 'adventurers', individuals that had raised money to finance the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland. Soldiers and adventurers were to be paid in land in Ireland, as part of the plantation campaign of Oliver Cromwell. During the 'Down Survey', an operation, that was done in very short time, in 1655 and 1656, and that was carried out by a large group of surveyors and other assistants, under the command of Petty, all kind of controversies had risen, concerning the distribution of lands. Petty, being in the centre of the operation, of course also became the centre of criticism by various groups. In the years after the survey, when lands were allotted, conflicts became harsher.See , see also pages 69f. ; see also . Sir Hierom Sankey was the most eminent spokesman of the officers that were in conflict with Petty. In 1659 Petty published a short account, entitled A brief of Proceedings between Sr. Hierom Sankey and Dr. William Petty, in which an overview was given of the accusation brought against him by Sankey, in regard of his conduct in the 'Down Survey' and the following distribution of lands, and in which Petty also gave a brief defence. A year later he published his Reflections, in which he amplified his defence. He provided some information about the Survey, but most of all he tried to defend himself against the allegations made by Sankey. In this, Petty seems to have enjoyed making a caricature of Sankey. Of course the controversies between Sankey and Petty must be placed in the broader context of political conflicts of that period.See ; see also – 'Introduction' to The Economic Writings (), especially pp. xix-xxi. == Contents == The Reflections upon Ireland are structured as a set of letters, written between Petty and an unknown friend, in which the topics, already noted in the Proceedings between Sankey and Petty are treated in more detail. thumb|left|250px|Map of Ireland, 1695; based on Petty's Down Survey maps. The first nine pages, printed in italic, consist of a letter of the unknown friend, M.H., in which he looks back to the time of their common period as students, to the time that Petty became a professor in Oxford, and to the time he became the chief physician to the governors of Ireland. But now he has heard that one Sankey "(I judge the same that I knew a Foot-ball-Player in Cambridge)" has accused him of fraud and bribery. He asks, what is true of these accusations. The letter of M.H. gives Petty "an admirable jumping-off point" for his extensive reply, that covers the next 145 pages. At the end of the text follow twelve pages with "A Letter of M.H. to a Noble Person", and two pages with a short letter by a "H.B.". The last pages are the answer by Petty. When the text is finished twelve pages follow that do contain the "Contents". These contents are divided into sections, that do not coincide with the division in letters, neither are they clearly marked in the text. Keynes remarks that the identity of M.H. is nowhere apparent, and that his style of writing is so remarkably similar to Petty's that Petty may not improbably have been the author of the whole. Fitzmaurice is more explicit when he mentions the letters written by an imaginary correspondent. The whole book is a polemical essay about the Down Survey and the distribution of lands, that followed. Petty had described the details of the Survey in his unpublished History of the Down Survey in 1655-56. "His Reflections was composed in the heat of controversy and was the necessary means by which Petty might seek to justify himself in the eyes of his friends." In general the book gives an impression, especially from the letters by Petty himself of a very aggrieved tone, on which he keeps repeating for many pages that he has been treated so badly by all his adversaries, many of whom he mentions by name, and of whom he creates caricatures. An example: At page 141 of the Reflections Petty announces his History of the Down Survey: "I have employed my late leasure to compile a large Volume, wherein what is here wanting is abundantly supplyed." This text would not be published before 1851. Petty also writes about two further publications on the same subject: "I have also written (...) a profest Answer to Sir Hieromes Eleven last and greatest Articles, containing the proofs of what is herein but barely alledged, which I may not publish till after my tryal. (…) There is another piece of a quite contrary nature, being indeed a Satyre; which though it contain little of seriousness, yet doth it allow nothing of untruth: 'Tis a Gallery wherein you will see the Pictures of my chief Adversaries hang'd up in their proper colours; 'tis intended for the honest recreation of my ingenious friends." These texts are never published.. See also 'Introduction' in , p. xxi, footnote 31. Hull writes that these two works are probably lost, and that they are only known by this account in the Reflections. == Critical reception == The Reflections are mentioned very shortly in (1691/2) – Athenae oxonienses: "written mostly against his busy and envious atagonist Zanchy (…)."See edition 1820, vol. IV in Internet Archive. , who was a Member of Parliament from 1656 to 1659, mentions the defence of Petty in Parliament on Thursday, April 21, 1659 in his diary, that was published in 1828. The editor gives a link to the Reflections in a footnote.See p. 469/470 of vol. IV of Burton's diaries (ed. 1828). , in his Sir William Petty - A Study in English Economic Literature (1894) describes Petty's career in Ireland rather extensively. He notices that John Aubrey, one of the early biographers of Petty, – Brief Lives, written between 1669 and 1996, first (substantial) publication in 1813, after which edition 'Aubrey's Biography of Petty' is given in . does hardly touch upon this (important) period in Petty's life. Bevan derives from Petty's own works, chiefly from the History of the Down Survey, with the help of Prendergast's History of the Cromwellian Settlement of Ireland (1863), an account of Petty's activities in Ireland in the period between 1654 and 1660. At the end of this period, after the publication of the broadside entitled Proceedings between Sankey and Petty in 1659, Petty published in 1660 "a more complete vindication", the Reflections. Bevan writes that the "prefatory letter signed J.H." is "an interesting feature of this work" and that he has not been able to identify the writer. "He was an old friend of Petty. Their acquaintance had begun during Petty's stay in Paris. Like other friends of his youth he had seen (…), with surprise and regret, the course of Petty's career in Ireland. Those who had formerly looked upon him as an ardent devotee of science had lamented his defection from their ranks, and begged for an explanation."; with the abbreviation 'J.H.', Bevan apparently means 'M.H.' Petty, in his reply, used the "rather ingenuous assertion" that the Down Survey was a public demonstration of the utility of a scientific approach. But, according to Bevan, the most interesting part of the text is the conclusion. One year ago Petty had not dared to say the whole truth for fear of offending those in power. But now he feels free to explain his unpopularity. Sectarian groups like the Anabaptists were in opposition to Cromwell's policy, but "hesitated to openly oppose a son of the Lord Protector. They then determined to ruin Petty's reputation in order to discredit the Government under which he served." One year later, , in his Life of Sir William Petty 1623-1687 writes about the Reflections that it purports to be a correspondence between Dr. Petty and a 'candid friend,' but that the whole of it is the work of Dr. Petty himself. Fitzmaurice quotes extensively from the Reflections, to describe the satirical style of Petty, when describing his adversaries, especially Sankey.For instance: In four pages he gives a summary of the doings of Sir Hierome Sankey, and his advisor Benjamin Worsley, the surveyor-general of Ireland, and of Petty's "reflections" on them. == References == == Bibliography == * * * * in two volumes. * == External links == * 16px|alt=Wikisource logo Reflections upon Ireland in Wikisource. Category:Books by William Petty Category:1660 books |
Mansions of Madness is a tabletop strategy game designed by Corey Konieczka and published by Fantasy Flight Games in 2011. Players explore a locale filled with Lovecraftian horrors and solve a mystery. After five years, two big-box expansions, and six print-on-demand scenarios, the original Mansions of Madness was retired and replaced by Mansions of Madness Second Edition. The second edition was designed by Nikki Valens and uses an app in place of the human keeper role to run the game's scenario. == First edition == Mansions of Madness requires two to five players. One player takes the role of the keeper, who is responsible for the monsters and happenings of the game; the other players take on the roles of investigators, who solve a mystery. At the beginning of the game, the players pick a storyline and set up the map accordingly. The keeper consults the rule book to make decisions about the story and to place clues and traps across the board. After setting up, the players begin at the designated starting point and if there is a main character, that player with the main character role goes first. If not, the youngest player goes first. Then the other explorers take turns exploring. Each investigator may move two spaces and carry out one action. Each investigator has a health and sanity value that is depleted when the character is wounded or scared. Each time an investigator suffers damage, the keeper may play trauma cards that inflict further penalties. For instance, an investigator might receive damage of a broken leg and be unable to move as quickly as before. or the investigator could develop nyctophobia after having an encounter with an eldritch horror. During the investigator's turn, the keeper may play mythos cards to attempt to injure the character physically or mentally, degrade or destroy their items, or otherwise set them back. After the investigators complete their turns, the keeper gets to react. The keeper accumulates threat points equivalent to the number of investigators each turn. Threat points are a resource required to use most of the keeper's ability cards. The keeper knows the objective from the beginning while the goal is hidden from the investigators until near the end of the game. === Expansions === Two expansions were published for the first edition of Mansions of Madness. ==== Forbidden Alchemy ==== Forbidden Alchemy was designed by Corey Konieczka, the designer of the base game, and released in 2011. It included the three new scenarios—Return of the Reanimator, Yellow Matter, and Lost in Time and Space. The expansion also contained four new investigators (Carolyn Fern, Dexter Drake, Darrell Simmons, and Vincent Lee), four new monsters (two byakhees and two crawling ones) and six new map tiles as well as additional cards and tokens. A revised printing in May 2012 included corrected cards and map set-ups for all three scenarios. ==== Call of the Wild ==== Call of the Wild was designed by Corey Konieczka and released in 2013. It included the five new scenarios—A Cry for Help, The Stars Aligned, The Mind's Veil, The Dunwich Horror, and A Matter of Trust. This expansion aimed to shift the game's focus to outdoor settings that were designed to be less linear to give players more choice in exploration and investigation. The expansion also introduced allies and non-player characters to the game and added situations where the keeper had to find clues to solve puzzles.Mansions of Madness: Call of the Wild expansion , Forbidden Flight Games, retrieved 31 October 2013 The expansion added four new investigators (Amanda Sharpe, Bob Jenkins, Mandy Thompson, and Monterey Jack), eleven new monsters (two dark druids, two child of the goats, two goat spawns, two nightgaunts, dunwich horror, dark young, and wizard) and eleven new map tiles as well as additional cards and tokens. === Scenarios === Fantasy Flight Games released six print-on-demand scenarios separately. # "Season of the Witch" (2011) # "The Silver Tablet" (2011) # "Til Death Do Us Part" (2011) # "House of Fears" (2012) # "The Yellow Sign" (2012) # "The Laboratory" (2013) ==Second edition== On 4 August 2016 a second edition of Mansions of Madness was released.BoardGameGeek , retrieved 12 February 2017 Aside from some minor modifications, gameplay was fundamentally the same as in the first edition but with the role of the keeper replaced by a companion app that would run through Steam on Mac or PC, Apple iOS, or Android platforms.Fantasy Flight Games , retrieved 12 February 2017 The app expanded the gameplay in several ways including the randomisation of maps and monsters and incorporating an extended range of interactive puzzles into the app. The app allows the game to be played solo. The second edition came with a conversion kit that allowed players who owned the first edition base game and either of its big-box expansions Forbidden Alchemy and Call of the Wild to incorporate their investigator figures, monster figures, and map tiles into the second edition game to add more variety and unlock extra scenarios. Shortly after the second edition base game was released, the two figure and tile collections Recurring Nightmares and Suppressed Memories were released to make all the first edition components available to those who did not own the first edition game or expansions. The base game came with four scenarios of varying length and difficulty and three scenarios that could be unlocked by paying for the downloadable content (DLC). Players who owned either the first edition base game or added the Recurring Nightmares figure and tile collection could play an additional scenario. Players who owned the first edition Call of the Wild expansion or added the Suppressed Memories figure and tile collection could play an additional scenario. === Figure and tile collections === Mansions of Madness Second Edition shipped with a conversion kit that allowed those with the first edition game and either of its two expansions to use their investigators, monsters, and tiles while playing second edition scenarios. It wasn't necessary, but it did add more variety to the randomly generated game maps and monsters and gave players more choice of investigators to play. However, since production of the first edition game and expansions had ceased, Fantasy Flight Games decided to package the old game components into two new figure and tile collections and release them simultaneously. These weren't considered a true expansion but rather a re-packaging of the old, out-of-production first edition components that allowed new players to add them to their second edition game. thumb|Mansion of Madness map ==== Recurring Nightmares ==== The Recurring Nightmares Figure and Tile Collection contained game components from the first edition base game—eight investigators (Jenny Barnes, Joe Diamond, Gloria Goldberg, Sister Mary, Michael McGlen, "Ashcan" Pete, Harvey Walters and Kate Winthrop), eighteen monsters (four Zombies, two Chtonians, two Cult Leaders, two Hounds of Tindalos, two Maniacs, two Mi-Go, two Witches and two Shoggoths) and fifteen double-sided map tiles. The first edition base game actually had twenty-four monster figures but the second edition base game already had the six cultists so these weren't included in this collection. This collection unlocked the "Dearly Departed" scenario for play. ==== Suppressed Memories ==== The Suppressed Memories Figure and Tile Collection contained game components from the Forbidden Alchemy and Call of the Wild expansions—eight investigators (Monterey Jack, Bob Jenkins, Amanda Sharpe, Mandy Thompson, Dexter Drake, Carolyn Fern, Vincent Lee and Darrell Simmons), fifteen monsters (two Children of the Goat, two Dark Druids, two Goat Spawns, two Nightgaunt, two Crawling Ones, two Byakhee, one Wizard, one Dunwich Horror and one Dark Young), and seventeen double-sided map tiles. This collection unlocked the "Cult of Sentinel Hill" scenario for play. === Expansions === ==== Beyond the Threshold ==== The Beyond the Threshold expansion was released in January 2017 and included two new investigators (Akachi Onyele and Wilson Richards), one new monster (four Thralls) and six new double-sided map tiles, as well as additional tokens and cards that expanded the base decks. The expansion introduced key tokens and moving map tiles. The expansion unlocked two new scenarios—"Gates of Silverwood Manor" and "Vengeful Impulses". ==== Streets of Arkham ==== The Streets of Arkham expansion was released in the fourth quarter of 2017 and included four new investigators (Finn Edwards, Diana Stanley, Tommy Muldoon and Marie Lambeau), four new monsters (two Star Vampires, two Skeletons, two Hired Guns and one Lloigor), and seventeen new double-sided map tiles, as well as additional tokens and cards that expand the base decks. The expansion introduced elixir cards and improvement tokens for improving skills and a new Tower of Hanoi style puzzle type. The expansion unlocked the three new scenarios—"Astral Alchemy", "Gangs of Arkham" and "Ill-Fated Exhibit". ==== Sanctum of Twilight ==== The Sanctum of Twilight expansion was released in the first quarter of 2018 and included two new investigators (Lily Chen and Charlie Kane), one new monster (two Wraiths), and five new double-sided map tiles, as well as additional tokens and cards that expand the base decks. The expansion introduced restraint tokens and overlapping map tiles. The expansion unlocked the two new scenarios—"The Twilight Diadem" and "Behind Closed Doors". thumb|Group of friends playing Mansions of Madness ==== Horrific Journeys ==== The Horrific Journeys expansion was released in the fourth quarter of 2018 and included four new investigators (Agnes Baker, Jim Culver, Silas Marsh and Trish Scarborough), four new monsters (two Warlocks, two Dimensional Shamblers, two Hunting Deep Ones and one Formless Spawn), and eighteen new double-sided map tiles, as well as additional tokens and cards that expand the base decks. The expansion introduced agenda cards and water/rift tokens. The expansion unlocked the three new scenarios — "Murder on the Stargazer Majestic", "10:50 to Arkham" and "Hidden Depths" taking place on an airship, a train and a cruise ship. ==== Path of the Serpent ==== The Path of the Serpent expansion was released in the fourth quarter of 2019 and included four new investigators (Daniela Reyes, Leo Anderson, Norman Withers and Ursula Downs), four new monsters (two Feathered Serpents, two Temple Guardians, three Serpent Persons and one Ancient Basilisk), and seventeen new double-sided map tiles, as well as additional tokens and cards that expand the base decks. The expansion unlocked the three new scenarios — "The Jungle Awakens", "Into the Dark" and "Lost Temple of Yig". === Scenarios === Scenario Difficulty Duration (minutes) Physical Requirements "Cycle of Eternity" 2/5 60 - 90 base game "Escape from Innsmouth" 4/5 90–150 base game "Shattered Bonds" 5/5 120–180 base game "Rising Tide" 3/5 240–360 base game "Dearly Departed" 5/5 120–150 Mansions of Madness First Edition or Recurring Nightmares Figure and Tile Collection "Cult of Sentinel Hill" 3/5 120–150 Call of the Wild expansion or Suppressed Memories Figure and Tile Collection "What Lies Within" 4/5 120–150 base game + DLC (paid) "Gates of Silverwood Manor" 4/5 120–180 Beyond the Threshold expansion "Vengeful Impulses" 2/5 90–120 Beyond the Threshold expansion "Dark Reflections" 3/5 180–240 base game + DLC (paid) "Astral Alchemy" 4/5 90–120 Streets of Arkham expansion "Gangs of Arkham" 3/5 180–240 Streets of Arkham expansion "Ill-Fated Exhibit" 5/5 120–180 Streets of Arkham expansion "The Twilight Diadem" 4/5 180–240 Sanctum of Twilight expansion "Behind Closed Doors" 3/5 120–150 Sanctum of Twilight expansion "Altered Fates" 3/5 90–120 base game + DLC (paid) "Murder on the Stargazer Majestic" 3/5 90–150 Horrific Journeys expansion "10:50 to Arkham" 4/5 90–120 Horrific Journeys expansion "Hidden Depths" 5/5 120–180 Horrific Journeys expansion "The Jungle Awakens" 3/5 90-120 Path of the Serpent expansion "Into the Dark" 4/5 150-180 Path of the Serpent expansion "Lost Temple of Yig" 5/5 90-120 Path of the Serpent expansion ==Reception== Both the first and second editions of Mansions of Madness received favourable reviews at Eurogamer, Penny Arcade, Board Games Land, iSlaytheDragon and the Dice Tower podcast. The first edition of the game has been criticised for its complexity and the amount of time it takes to set up and play. These criticisms were largely resolved with the release of the second version. The game has been praised for its replay value, its Lovecraftian theme, and its uniqueness. Watch It Played, a YouTube series, started out as a resource for Mansions of Madness. ==Awards and nominations== Mansions of Madness first and second editions have received numerous awards and nominations: * 2011 Golden Geek Best Thematic Board Game Winner * 2011 Golden Geek Best Board Game Artwork/Presentation Nominee * 2011 The Dice Tower: Best Production Values * 2011 The Dice Tower: Best Game Artwork * 2012 As d'Or - Jeu de l'année Nominee * 2016 The Dice Tower: Best Cooperative Game * 2016 Golden Geek Board Game of the Year Nominee ==References== ==Further reading== * ==External links== * Mansions of Madness archived from the original at Fantasy Flight Games * Mansions of Madness at BoardGameGeek * Mansions of Madness, 2nd Edition at BoardGameGeek Category:Board games introduced in 2011 Category:Horror board games Category:Adventure board games Category:Cooperative board games Category:Cthulhu Mythos board games Category:Fantasy Flight Games games |
is a Japanese anime television series created by Gonzo. It featured a production team led by director Koichi Chigira, character designer Range Murata, and production designer Mahiro Maeda. The three had previously worked together in Blue Submarine No. 6, one of the first CG anime series. Last Exile aired on TV Tokyo from April to September 2003. A sequel series, , aired from October 2011 to March 2012. A film adaptation of the series, Last Exile -Fam, the Silver Wing-: Over the Wishes, was released in February 2016. The story is set on the fictional world of Prester, where its inhabitants use aerial vehicles known as vanships as a means of transportation. On this world which is divided in eternal conflict between the nations of Anatoray and Disith, sky couriers Claus Valca and Lavie Head must deliver a girl who holds the key to uniting the two factions. Although Prester itself is not a representation of Earth, it features technology reminiscent of nineteenth century Europe at the dawn of the Industrial Revolution. Many of its designs were also inspired by Germany's technological advances during the interwar period. The series was licensed in North America by Geneon Entertainment in June 2003, two months after the first episode aired in Japan. Funimation began licensing the series after Geneon ceased production of its titles, later licensing the sequel series. It was also licensed for English releases in the United Kingdom, originally by ADV Films until its closure in 2009, and is now licensed by Manga Entertainment, and in Australia by Madman Entertainment. Other published media included two soundtracks, two manga, and artbooks. Last Exile has received widespread critical acclaim, it is considered as one of the best works of Gonzo with praise for its narrative, visuals, themes, and soundtrack. ==Setting== Last Exile is set on the fictional world of Prester.Although not mentioned during the series, the name "Prester" was published in additional materials released by Gonzo and its subsequent licensors Geneon Entertainment and Funimation Entertainment. Prester's two nations of Anatoray and Disith are separated by a turbulent region of the sky known as the Grand Stream and are engaged in conflict according to the code of chivalric warfare. A superior faction known as the Guild enforces these rules. It also provides the two nations with technology but, unknown to them, has dishonorable intentions, to preserve the status quo and enforce its dominance of both sides. Although the story is set in the future, the technology employed differs from that in a typical space opera. Instead, the show's retro-futuristic setting resembles nineteenth-century Europe at the height of the Industrial Revolution. Inhabitants of Prester operate aerial vehicles known as vanships in the world's Golden Age of Aviation; although the technology is primitive, the aerial vehicles use a form of antigravity (developed by the Guild) and lighter-than-air methods of flight rather than the use of wings. Various scenes in the series also show existing tension between the upper and lower classes. Anatoray's nobility and military officers generally believe that commoners do not understand their codes of chivalry. On the other hand, the lower class also despise the aristocracy for their monopoly on resources.Mad- thane Chief of Staff: "No child or commoner could understand the ways of chivalry, and especially not vanship pilots!" Claus Valca: "That's not true! We understand!" Lavie Head: "Have you ever had a day where you couldn't sleep because you were too hungry? As far as I'm concerned, chivalry can kiss my ass!" This tension extends to the accessibility of clean water, which varies in price according to purity grades. is a high-quality drink sold at Walker's floating repair station, the Casino Royale, for 80 Claudia. Upon learning of the price, Lavie Head, who comes from the rural town of Norkia, reacts with astonishment. is the highest grade of drinking water available at the rural mining town of Norkia and is taken directly from groundwater. In the larger story, the advanced Guild society is portrayed as degenerate and lazy, while the people of Anatoray and Disith are creative and industrious. The series introduces viewers to a wide range of naval and military vocabulary.A glossary defining unfamiliar terms and technology is provided () on the Japanese- language website published by JVC. The English-language version of this glossary was made available on Geneon Entertainment's former Flash-based website under the "Story" section in the menu. More primitive navigational methods such as dead reckoning and instruments such as the sextant are also used in the series.Alister Agrew: (Peering through a sextant) "The stars are becoming unreliable. You can't get a correct bearing even if you look at the stars." ==Plot== ===Last Exile=== The story revolves around fifteen-year-old pilot Claus Valca and navigator Lavie Head, who fly their vanship as sky couriers in the nation of Anatoray. Although they usually take up missions of relatively low difficulty, they are one day asked to complete the mission of a dying courier. The mission, rated seven stars out of ten, is to deliver a young girl named Alvis Hamilton to the mysterious battleship Silvana. Despite their fears, Claus and Lavie deliver Alvis to the battleship but decide to remain aboard to keep her safe. Claus and Lavie are initially treated as intruders but eventually befriend the crew of the Silvana. They learn that the Guild intends to capture Alvis for reasons unknown to them. In the first battle between the Silvana and Guild forces, Guild member Dio Eraclea takes an interest in Claus's flying skills and his signature move, the Immelmann turn. Wanting to learn more about Claus, Dio willingly allows himself to be captured. He reveals to the Silvana's captain, Alex Row, the existence of one of four Mysteria which act as a key to something known as Exile. When the Silvanas executive officer, Sophia Forrester, is revealed to be the Emperor's daughter and heir, she returns to Anatoray at the request of the prime minister. Sophia assumes the throne after the Emperor is killed during a surprise attack at the capital by the Disith nation and pleads for an alliance with Disith in order to capture Exile and end the Guild's control. Sophia reveals to Claus that Alvis is linked to the Mysteria, but as preparations for the assault are made, Alvis is captured by the Guild. Delphine Eraclea, the Maestro of the Guild, reveals that Exile is a colony ship used by those who first settled their world, and she intends to use Alvis and the Mysteria to take control of it. However, Claus and Alvis escape the Guild stronghold and are reunited with Lavie when the alliance fleet attacks. As the fleet follows Exile past the Grand Stream and enters Disith, it is able to destroy Delphine's forces. After Claus and Alvis recite the four Mysteria, Exile reveals itself as a starship that will carry people back to their old home world. ===Last Exile: Travelers from the Hourglass=== A manga set right after the events of Last Exile and before Fam, the Silver Wing, Travelers from the Hourglass continues the story of Claus, Lavie, Alvis, and the others who left Prester and settled on Earth, their ancestors' home world. As they get used to their new home, Al is pursued by the Earth Guild. ===Last Exile: Fam, the Silver Wing=== Taking place two years after the events of Last Exile, Last Exile: Fam, the Silver Wing is set on Earth, the original home world of the colonists of Prester. The new story focuses on Fam Fan Fan and Giselle Collette, two vespa vanship pilots who work as Sky Pirates, capturing and selling battleships for a living. Fam and Giselle get into an adventure when they and the Sky Pirates rescue Liliana il Grazioso Merlo Turan and her younger sister, Millia Il Velch Cutrettola Turan, Princesses of the Turan Kingdom, from the clutches of the mighty Ades Federation. The Federation, led by Empress Sārā Augusta and Premier Luscinia Hāfez, is on an all out war against nations who descended from immigrants who came back to Earth by Exile ships. As Ades was the only nation to stay on Earth when it was in a state of chaos and ruin, Luscinia believes that the Exile immigrants have no right to return to Earth since their ancestors abandoned Earth when it was in chaos only to return when Earth was viable to live on again and force the original inhabitants of Earth off their lands to form their own nations. To return these lands to their original inhabitants, Luscinia leads the Ades Federation to conquer the immigrant nations and destroy their armies, with Turan being one of them. After Luscinia kidnaps Liliana, who has the ability to control an Exile, Luscinia summons an Exile to destroy Iglasia, the capital of Turan, killing its soldiers and the King of Turan, leading to the surrender of Turan to Ades. With everything she cared for lost, Millia is given refuge by the Sky Pirates, where Fam promises to help Millia regain her kingdom. ==Production== Last Exile was created by Gonzo in celebration of the company's 10th anniversary. It featured a production team led by director Koichi Chigira, character designer Range Murata, and production designer Mahiro Maeda. The three had previously worked together to create Blue Submarine No. 6, one of the first CG anime series. ===Art design=== Conceptual designs were created by Range Murata, who was given complete freedom to create the setting. He began drawing detailed sketches of machines and everyday objects from a daily newspaper. His research was given no constraints with the exception of production deadlines. Gonzo initially intended for Last Exile to be shown in a space setting, but producers did not want the characters to wear sterile space suits. Instead, the final product was described by Jonathan Mays as an "ugly" world of "rusting bolts, lots of blues and grays." Murata believed the design took "the course the story had laid out". His character conceptualization included a great amount of time spent on costume design. Wanting to portray each character's personality more fully, he "tried to draw in the kind of material that would have been used in creating their clothes and try to represent the stitches connecting the fabric." In contrast to crewmembers of the battleship Silvana who wear modern and utilitarian uniforms, other characters wear traditionally aristocratic attire. High amount of attention was given to character animation. Animators especially experienced difficulties with Alex Row's hair and flowing cape. Production of Last Exile relied heavily on 3D computer animation. Of the 350 shots used in the first episode, more than 200 included computer-generated animation. In comparison, Gonzo's previous work Vandread used an average of 40 to 50 computer-generated shots per episode. Animation was also supplemented with Victorian era flourishes. In order to combine hand-drawn animation with computer-generated ones, the production team used a technique for non-photorealistic rendering, which could not be used for Blue Submarine No. 6 because of a stylistic conflict. At the 2003 Anime Expo, Maeda, who also worked with Studio Ghibli's production of Castle in the Sky, commented that "[Last Exile] is very advanced in how it will incorporate the two mediums". ===Historical references=== Real- world historical designs were also adapted for the fictional world. Flying battleships of the Anatoray and Disith nations included components of Japanese dreadnoughts in commission at the turn of the twentieth century. Uniform designs for Anatoray's musketeers were based on Napoleon Bonaparte's army and American Civil War soldiers. On the other hand, Soviet Red Army fur coats provided the basis for Disith uniforms. Another inspiration for creators came from a silent film of the airship Hindenburg, which depicted the aircraft's UFO-like silver-plated design in contrast to the traditional buildings below. This imagery was reproduced in the series. Producers selected a specific historical time frame to serve as a point of reference. Several characters were also named after historical figures. The name of Claus Valca's father was derived from Hamilcar Barca, the leading commander of Carthaginian forces during the First Punic War and father of the talented tactician Hannibal.. An Anatoray general was named after Vitellius, who led the Roman Empire for several months during the Year of the Four Emperors.. ==Media== ===Anime=== Last Exile premiered in Japan on April 8, 2003, and aired on TV Tokyo until the airing of its final episode on September 30. A total of 13 DVD compilations were released by Victor Entertainment from July 23, 2003 to July 21, 2004. A complete seven-disc boxed set was released on November 21, 2004. The deluxe edition of this set included a model of Tatiana's and Alister's red vanship, a short story on the fictional Battle of Otranto,In episode 11, "Develop", Vincent Alzey reveals that he and Alex Row once served together in the Anatoray military during the Battle of Otranto. unpublished articles on the series, and illustrations by character designer Range Murata. After receiving a respectable amount of attention in the United States, Pioneer Entertainment (later Geneon Entertainment) licensed the series in June 2003, two months after the first episode aired in Japan, and the first compilation DVD was released on November 18. TechTV premiered the series in English during its Anime Unleashed programming block on March 8, 2004. The first thirteen episodes aired nightly until March 14, and remaining episodes premiered on December 6 after channel was merged into G4techTV, with new episodes airing each weeknight until the series concluded on December 22. All 26 episodes were also aired in a marathon broadcast on Christmas Day. AZN Television and G4techTV Canada also broadcast the series in 2007. After Geneon ceased distribution of its licensed titles in North America, rights to the series were transferred to Funimation, and a four-disc boxed set was released on May 5, 2009, and again on June 14, 2011, under the "Anime Classics" line. ADV Films originally owned the license for the series' English release in the United Kingdom until its parent company's shutdown in 2009. It was then relicensed by Manga Entertainment, while distribution rights in Australia and New Zealand are owned by Madman Entertainment. Last Exile is also licensed for regional language release in France, Germany, Sweden, Russia, and Taiwan. It has been hosted at the streaming media website Crunchyroll. On February 1, 2011, Gonzo revealed that a new Last Exile anime was planned titled Last Exile -Fam, the Silver Wing-, described as "a new series of Last Exile [with] new story, [main] characters, and mechanical designs." Koichi Chigira and Hitomi Kuroishi returned to direct and score the anime, respectively. The series aired in Japan from October 15, 2011 to March 24, 2012 and was also simulcasted on the same day in Asia by Animax Asia, making it the fifth anime to be simulcasted the same time as its Japanese premiere on the channel, after Tears to Tiara, Fullmetal Alchemist: Brotherhood, Inuyasha: The Final Act, and Maid Sama!. Funimation licensed the series for streaming and home video release and simulcast the series as it aired. A film adaptation of the series, titled Last Exile -Fam, the Silver Wing-: Over the Wishes, was released in theaters on February 6, 2016. The film recompiles the events of the television series with some newly animated footage. ===Soundtracks=== Two pieces of theme music were used for the series. "Cloud Age Symphony", performed by Shuntaro Okino, was used as the opening theme for all 26 episodes. It was released by Victor Entertainment as a maxi single on May 21, 2003, and remained on the Oricon music charts for six weeks, where it peaked at 52nd position. Hitomi Kuroishi's "Over the Sky" was used as the ending theme. Music trio Dolce Triade, which includes Kuroishi, produced two CD soundtracks for the series. Last Exile O.S.T. was released by Victor Entertainment on June 21, 2003, and remained on the Oricon music charts for seven weeks, where it peaked at 52nd position. It includes both theme songs and 17 additional instrumental tracks. The second soundtrack, Last Exile O.S.T. 2 was released on September 3, 2003, and remained on the Oricon music charts for five weeks, where it peaked at 55th position. It includes an alternate version of the ending theme song and 19 additional instrumental tracks. Geneon Entertainment licensed both soundtracks for release in North America. The first soundtrack was released on February 17, 2004, and the second was released on April 13. However, both soundtracks are out of print in North America after Geneon ceased production of its licensed titles in 2007. ===Art book=== A 136-page art book titled Last Exile Aerial Log was published in February 2005 but has since been discontinued. It was published in Japanese and was never translated for English-language release. The book contains detailed character sketches and descriptions as well as technical manuals for aircraft that appeared in the series. It also includes exclusive interviews with members of the production staff. ===Manga=== There are two manga. The first is a manga adaptation of Last Exile: Fam, the Silver Wing written by Gonzo and illustrated by Robo Miyamoto, serialized in Young Ace magazine and published by Kadokawa Shoten. The second, titled , tells what happened to the Claus and his friends after the events of Last Exile and before the events of Last Exile: Fam, the Silver Wing. The manga was written by Gonzo and illustrated by Minoru Murao, one of the original animators of the Last Exile anime. Last Exile – Travelers from the Hourglass was serialized in Newtype Ace and published by Kadokawa. ===Live-action film=== On February 11, 2005, a report on Anime News Network mentioned a possible live-action Last Exile film. It was based on a blog post by Patrick Macias, writer for Animerica and author of several books on Japanese pop culture and anime, which noted that while he was attending the Tokyo International Anime Fair, a Gonzo employee suggested that an unnamed New Line Cinema producer was interested in adapting the series for a live-action production.In his blog post, Macias quoted Arthur Smith, president of Gonzo's parent company GDH International: "Joel Silver is not looking at Last Exile as far as I know…although that would be great. There is, however, a producer who works with New Line who is looking into two of our titles for live action adaptation…Last Exile and Burst Angel." On July 8, 2009, a concept art image was leaked on the Internet but was removed at the request of filmmakers. However, as of 2013, there has been no new news about the film, suggesting it has been canceled. ==Reception== After receiving a respectable amount of attention in the United States, the series was licensed to Pioneer Entertainment (later Geneon Entertainment) in June 2003, only two months after the first episode aired in Japan. It received numerous praises for its artwork and production, placing it as one of Gonzo's best work. By integrating music and sounds of a European theme, the soundtrack contributed to the series' unique flavor. Divers Allen of Anime News Network gave it an A, and describes the series as "Last Exile is filled with breathtaking scenery, non-stop action and intriguing characters that will keep even the most casual anime fans glued to the edge of their seats. It is a stunning series that leaves viewers craving for more, it continues to shine as a TV series that has the production values of a theatrical animated film. A visual masterpiece with the story to back it up". Last Exile has been likened to Hayao Miyazaki's classic work Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind and the early steampunk novel trilogy A Nomad of the Time Streams. Enoch Lau of THEM Anime Reviews gave the anime series 5 out of 5 stars. Lau praised the series for its great story, outstanding animation and characters. Saying that "resembling something from Miyazaki more than Gonzo, Last Exile looks different. From the faces of the characters down to the stylings of the battleships, it evokes a classic feel but all the while look entirely new. The vanships and battleships are rendered in CG, and so are the myriad of battle effects and the plot is quite solid and intriguing. Last Exile has one of the most interesting settings that I have come across in recent anime. It is a time of war, and chivalry dictates how the opposing forces battle. But instead of using horses and chariots, they use battleships". When Geneon's compilation DVDs were released, reviewers such as IGN praised them despite the use of Dolby Digital 2.0 audio mix over a 5.1 mix. "The separation is masterfully taken care of with voices, music, and sound effects leveled off very cleanly for both the Japanese and English audio tracks." In an interview with director Koichi Chigira given in July 2004, he was surprised to find that the series had reached a great level of popularity among fans in the United States. TechTV vice president Laura Civiello stated that Last Exile "had more universal appeal than other types of anime shown on the network, which often contained lots of references recognizable only by hard-core fans." When the series premiered on the network, The New York Times recommended it for younger viewers as well with the headline "An Anime Marathon, and It is Not Just for Adults." The network moved its Anime Unleashed programming block into prime time to take advantage of the quality of the series, eventually launching it into a top ten position on the Nielsen VideoScan anime survey in the middle of 2004. Sony Pictures Entertainment selected Last Exile, Blood+, Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte Cristo, and R.O.D the TV as part its promotional campaign throughout 2007 and 2008 targeting audiences ages 15–35. It streamed the four series throughout Europe, Latin America, and other parts of Asia on Animax and Animax Asia through various 3G mobile phone services. ==Notes== ==References== ; General * * ; Specific ==External links== * Last Exile at JVC Music official website * Last Exile at Funimation Entertainment official website * Last Exile at Madman Entertainment official website * * Last Exile -Fam, the Silver Wing at Gonzo's official website * Category:2003 anime television series debuts Category:2011 anime television series debuts Category:2011 manga Category:ADV Films Category:Adventure anime and manga Category:Air pirates Category:Anime with original screenplays Category:Aviation television series Category:Chess books Category:Chess in art Category:Funimation Category:Geneon USA Category:Gonzo (company) Category:Kadokawa Shoten manga Category:Muse Communication Category:Seinen manga Category:Shōnen manga Category:Steampunk anime and manga Category:Television shows about chess Category:TV Tokyo original programming |
Secret Story - Casa dos Segredos 7 is the seventh season of the Portuguese reality television show Secret Story. It is based on the French version of Secret Story, which itself is based on the international format, Big Brother. The reality show is being broadcast on TVI. The castings were opened on December 4, 2017. The launch was on February 25, 2018. Lasting 92 days, the season ended on May 27, 2018, and Tiago was the winner. Manuel Luís Goucha is the host of the main show. == Housemates == === Bruno === Bruno is 28 and lives in Amora, Seixal. He works as a Road Manager and loves the entertainment and night life. Behind his apparent calm and good vibe personality, there is a vigilant and manipulative person. He practices combat sports and loves to have his body defined. He cares a lot about his health and is really careful with his diet. His next goal is to win Secret Story. He was evicted on Day 43. * Secret: I lived 7 months in a country of war. === Carina === Carina is 27 and comes from Porto. She has a degree on Business Management and Marketing, and works as an insurance mediator. She considers herself an intelligent, observer and manipulative person. She doesn't like to be impulsive so she thinks a lot before she acts. She signed up to Secret Story so she could break the stereotype of reality shows contestants. For her, Secret Story is like a job and she is ready to play and win. She was evicted on Day 85. * Secret: I'm the key of the tunnel of secrets. === Cátia === Cátia is 29 and comes from Ponta Delgada, Azores Islands. She is ready to give us a lot of laughs thanks to her fast talking and accent. She has a twin sister, with whom she works along as assistants of a veterinary clinic. She doesn't have a boyfriend since it's difficult for her to find someone cool in the middle of nowhere, but she is ready perhaps to fall in love inside the house. She was evicted on Day 36. * Secret: My father tried to kill me four times. === César === César is 26, comes from Algarve and is a fadista singer. He has a degree on Entertainment Arts and has always been loyal to music. He considers himself a seductive, fearless and adventurous man. He assures that nothing will be boring while he's inside the house. He considers he's a man with a lot of love to give away, but his heart is with fellow housemate Gabriela for the past 5 years. He thinks the way to the victory is "climbing to the stardom". He was evicted on Day 71. * Secret: I was naked for a magazine. === Gabriela === Gabriela is 23 years old, comes from the Algarve and is a dancer and actress. He studied dance at the Olga Roriz Company and film and television, at the Nicholas Breyner Academy. He likes to skate and everything to do with dance. She defines herself as shy and passionate, a relentless and sentimental romantic. He says that Caesar is the love of his life, but he can not imagine what it will be like to live with him under the same roof. She was evicted on Day 85. * Secret: I was terrified by an ex-boyfriend. === Isabela === Isabela lives in Lisbon and is 19 years old. She finished 12th grade and is preparing to enter college. She is addicted to shopping, likes to put on makeup and loves being photographed. She says that behind her sweet and delicate appearance there is a fair woman who knows what she wants. It's not easy to get her out of earnest, but she assumes being terrified of being around people snoring. Despite being the youngest in the group, Isabela knows she has everything to overcome this great challenge. On Day 92 she finished in third place. * Secret: I work in the circus. === Joana C. === Joana is 21 years old and is from Coruche. He finished his 12th year in Management and is waiting to integrate into the job market. While this is not happening, she decided to join the House of Secrets and show that she is a fun, fearless Ribatejana capable of handling all the missions proposed by the Voice. It assumes being "nose in the air" and responds, does not like to give justifications to anyone. Come willing to do everything to reach the final of the House of Secrets. She was evicted on Day 57. * Secret: I entered the House before all housemates. === Joana F. === Joana is 25 years old and comes from the Button, a small village in the municipality of Mealhada. A beautician by profession, Joana loves what she does, despite her great passion being Samba, having already participated in some competitions of this dance mode. It is defined as well-disposed and charismatic, always with the answer at the tip of the tongue. Joana is sure, that her joy will infect everyone in the House. On Day 92 she became the runner up. * Secret: I'm daughter of my stepmother's cousin. === João === João is 25 years old and comes from Valongo. He is a sportsman by vocation, trains daily and enjoys making his own diet. João says he has no "middle ground" and is very insightful. Whoever provokes him, does not remain unanswered. It is single and of heart available. Enter the House of Secrets with your brother Pedro, to add spice to your life. He was evicted on Day 22. * Secret: My brother saved my life. === Luan === Luan is 26 years old and is from Santa Catarina, Brazil. He came to Portugal in Erasmus and fell in love with the country. He currently lives in Lisbon and works in a call center. He considers himself talented in the kitchen, thoughtful in his decisions, and likes to have everything done in his own way. It focuses on the energy and power of the mind, characteristics that it believes are key to winning it. On Day 92 he finished in fourth place. * Secret: We are married. === Margarida === Margarida is 35 years old, lives in Barreiro and is known to have been the founder and president of Clube das Virgens. She graduated in Social Communication, is a true "woman of the seven trades", developed Social Marketing campaigns, was part of the musical duo Barbie and Ken dedicated to children, was dancer of the first female cheerleader of Benfica and worked as security. In his personal blog, he shares the adventures and misadventures of his day-to-day life. Still in search of his enchanted prince, Margarida does not exclude the possibility of finding him inside the House. She was evicted on Day 8. * Secret: I already wrote two books about my sex life. === Marlene === Marlene is 32 years old, lives in Frankfurt, Germany and works in a bar in the city. He loves cooking and singing loud. She says she's temperamental, determined, and single for a few years because she can not find anyone who is up to her standards. It assumes itself as competitive and particularly ironic, with a personality that always generates controversy around him. Fearless, enter the House of Secrets to test your limits. She was evicted on Day 15. * Secret: My sister was taken by a bishop of the IURD. === Nuno === Nuno is 23 years old and comes from Oporto. He likes to take care of his image and goes to the gym every day. Defined as metrosexual and vain, you must always walk tanned and well dressed. Whoever knows him, says that he is frontal and arrogant, leaves nothing to be said. He says that in a capoeira, only one cock crows and he will sing in the House. He was evicted on Day 50. * Secret: I saved thousands of people in Africa. === Pedro === Pedro is 27 years old, lives in Valongo and has a master's degree in Medical Informatics. He is currently participating as an actor in a national fiction. He says that the power of argumentation is its highest quality. He is stubborn and provocative, he can persuade anyone who wants to do what is right for him. Confident and controversial, he is willing to play with the hearts of women and manipulate the minds of opponents. Embark on this adventure with João, his younger brother, to live together another limit experience. He was evicted on Day 64. * Secret: I was blind for a month. === Rui === Rui is 23 years old and lives in Vila Real de Santo António. He is a barber by profession and assumes to be obsessed with his image. He has done some plastic surgery to feel better and believes he has the most beautiful smile in Portugal. He is single and privileges colorful friendships. He says he is very picky with women and has not yet appeared a princess, who "fills" the measures. He was evicted on Day 78. * Secret: I was kidnapped by a mistake in Spain. === Sofia === Sofia is 27 years old and lives in Lisbon. Consider yourself a diva! Beautiful, elegant and very explosive. Likes to go out at night and dance. He appreciates dark, muscular boys, preferably at his feet. As he claims to be in bad shape, he dispatches them as soon as he is fed up with them, which happens all the time. She does not have a boyfriend and is prepared to speed up the hearts of the boys she meets in the House. She was evicted on Day 29. * Secret: I tried to kill my father. === Tiago === Tiago is 25 years old, lives in Lisbon and works in the area of Information Technology. He considers meticulous, thoughtful, and superstitious. It is focused on its goals and the proof of this is that, in about 5 months, it managed to lose more than 50 kg without diets. He says he will manipulate all opponents and become the winner of this edition. He finished as the winner on Day 92. * Secret: We are married. == Secrets == Secret Housemate(s) Discovered by Discovered on I already wrote two books about my sex life. Margarida Not Discovered Revealed on Day 1 My father tried to kill me four times. Cátia Not Discovered Revealed on Day 36 My sister was taken by a bishop of the IURD. Marlene Not Discovered Revealed on Day 15 I'm daughter of my stepmother's cousin. Joana F. Luan & Tiago Day 69 We are married. Luan & Tiago Isabela Day 85 I was kidnapped by a mistake in Spain. Rui Gabriela Day 52 I saved thousands of people in Africa. Nuno Not Discovered Revealed on Day 29 I was naked for a magazine. César Pedro Day 48 I tried to kill my father. Sofia Not Discovered Revealed on Day 29 I was blind for a month. Pedro Isabela Day 61 I lived 7 months in a country at war. Bruno César Day 41 I was terrified by an ex-boyfriend. Gabriela Carina Day 78 I work in the circus. Isabela Luan Day 23 I entered the House before all housemates. Joana C. Not Discovered Revealed on Day 57 My brother saved my life. João Not Discovered Revealed on Day 22 I'm the key to the Tunnel of Secrets. Carina Tiago Day 30 === Extra Secrets === In the 'Tunnel of Secrets' of the house there are seven secrets related to the Seven Deadly Sins. Secret Housemate(s) Discovered by Discovered on Deadly Sin I had 3 boyfriends at the same time. Carina Joana F. Day 42 Lust I lost 50 kg in less than six months. Tiago Carina Day 39 Gluttony Not Revealed Not Revealed Not Discovered Not Discovered Greed Not Revealed Not Revealed Not Discovered Not Discovered Sloth I never forget the people who hurt me. Gabriela César Day 62 Wrath They've always been envious of me, without ever doing anything for it. Joana F. Gabriela Day 75 Envy I underwent three plastic surgeries. Rui Pedro Day 47 Pride == Nominations table == Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Week 9 Week 10 Week 11 Week 12 Week 13 Day 1 Day 3 Day 29 Day 31 Tiago No Nominations Not Eligible Marlene João Bruno Rui César Nuno Bruno Pedro Nuno Bruno Not Eligible Joana C. Joana F. Not Eligible César Rui Joana F. Rui Luan Winner (Day 92) Joana F. No Nominations Isabela Carina Not Eligible Carina Isabela Luan Sofia Carina Isabela Luan Carina Bruno Tiago Luan Not Eligible Isabela Luan Gabriela Isabela Carina Gabriela Luan Runner-Up (Day 92) Isabela No Nominations Not Eligible Not Eligible Not Eligible Not Eligible Not Eligible César César Nuno Not Eligible Not Eligible Joana F. César Joana F. Carina Luan Third place (Day 92) Luan No Nominations Bruno Margarida Marlene Carina João Not Eligible Nuno Not Eligible Nuno Bruno Not Eligible Joana F. Joana C. Not Eligible César Rui Rui Joana F. Tiago Fourth place (Day 92) Carina No Nominations Not Eligible Not Eligible Not Eligible Rui Sofia Nuno Bruno Cátia Not Eligible Nuno Pedro Not Eligible Isabela Pedro Rui Joana F. Rui Joana F. Gabriela Evicted (Day 85) Gabriela No Nominations Tiago Isabela Not Eligible João Isabela Isabela Sofia Secret Room Exempt Not Eligible Nuno Pedro Not Eligible Pedro Rui Rui Joana F. Joana F. Rui Carina Evicted (Day 85) Rui No Nominations Tiago Carina Carina Isabela Carina João Not Eligible Tiago Luan Cátia Banned Not Eligible Joana C. Gabriela Not Eligible Carina Gabriela Carina Gabriela Evicted (Day 78) César No Nominations Isabela Tiago Isabela Sofia Isabela Bruno Not Eligible Carina Isabela Luan Not Eligible Not Eligible Isabela Carina Luan Tiago Luan Tiago Evicted (Day 71) Pedro Nominated Margarida Cátia Carina Marlene Not Eligible Luan Sofia Tiago Not Eligible Gabriela Carina Not Eligible Carina Gabriela Not Eligible Evicted (Day 64) Joana C. No Nominations Tiago Margarida Not Eligible Not Eligible Isabela Luan Tiago Isabela Luan Not Eligible Tiago Luan Not Eligible Evicted (Day 57) Nuno No Nominations Carina Margarida Carina Isabela Carina Cátia Luan Cátia Carina Nominated Not Eligible Not Eligible Rui Evicted (Day 50) Bruno No Nominations Not Eligible Carina Gabriela Not Eligible Not Eligible Carina Not Eligible Not Eligible Evicted (Day 43) Cátia No Nominations Not Eligible Not Eligible Not Eligible Not Eligible Nuno Not Eligible Evicted (Day 36) Sofia No Nominations Carina Marlene Not Eligible Carina Joana C. Not Eligible Joana F. Evicted (Day 29) João Nominated Margarida Cátia Carina Marlene Not Eligible Evicted (Day 22) Marlene No Nominations Not Eligible Not Eligible Evicted (Day 15) Margarida No Nominations Not Eligible Evicted (Day 8) Notes 1 2 3, 4 2 5 6, 7, 8 2, 9 5, 10, 11 12 3, 13, 14 5, 15 none 16 17 18 Up for eviction João Pedro Carina Isabela Margarida Tiago Carina Isabela Marlene Carina Isabela João Isabela Luan Rui Sofia None Cátia Isabela Luan Nuno Bruno Carina Gabriela Nuno Luan Nuno Pedro Tiago Gabriela Joana F. Rui Isabela Luan Pedro César Gabriela Joana F. Rui Carina Joana F. Luan Rui Carina Gabriela Isabela Joana F. Tiago Isabela Joana F. Luan Tiago Evicted João & Pedro 86% Margarida 40% Marlene 46% João 45% Sofia 64% Cátia 45% Bruno 33% Nuno 94% Joana C. 35% Pedro 36% César 47% Rui 48% Gabriela 22% Luan 12% Isabela 14% Carina 42% 35% Tiago 39% === Notes === == Nominations total received == Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Week 9 Week 10 Week 11 Week 12 Week 13 Total Tiago 4 – – – 3 – – 2 – 1 2 0 1 Winner 13 Joana F. – 0 – – 1 – – – 2 – 3 5 0 Runner-Up 11 Isabela 3 3 3 2 – 3 – – 1 2 1 0 0 3rd Place 18 Luan – – – 4 – 4 – 2 – 2 2 – 3 4th Place 17 Carina 4 5 4 – 4 – 2 – 2 – 2 3 1 Evicted 27 Gabriela – 1 – – – – 1 – 2 – 3 2 1 Evicted 10 Rui – – – 2 – – – 0 – 1 4 4 Evicted Evicted 11 César – – – 1 0 – 1 1 – – 3 Evicted Evicted Evicted 6 Pedro – – 0 – 0 1 – 2 – 2 Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted 5 Joana C. – 1 2 – 1 – 1 – 3 Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted 8 Nuno – – – – 4 – 2 3 Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted 9 Bruno 1 – 2 0 0 2 3 Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted 8 Cátia 1 0 1 1 0 2 Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted 5 Sofia – 1 – 4 Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted 5 João – – 4 Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted 4 Marlene 1 3 Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted 4 Margarida 4 Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted Evicted 4 == Nominations: results == : Votes to evict : Votes to save : Votes to win Week Nominees Evicted 1 Carina (37%), Isabela (11%), Margarida (40%), Tiago (12%) Margarida 2 Carina (42%), Isabela (12%), Marlene (46%) Marlene 3 Carina (42%), Isabela (13%), João (45%) João 4 Isabela (13%), Luan (11%), Rui (12%), Sofia (64%) Sofia 5 Cátia (45%), Isabela (6%), Luan (5%), Nuno (44%) Cátia 6 Bruno (33%), Carina (12%), Gabriela (23%), Nuno (32%) Bruno 7 Luan (2% out of 4), Nuno (94% out of 2), Pedro (6% out of 2), Tiago (2% out of 3) Nuno 8 Gabriela (32%), Joana C. (35%), Joana F. (26%), Rui (7%) Joana C. 9 Isabela (30%), Luan (34%), Pedro (36%) Pedro 10 César (47% out of 2), Gabriela (53% out of 2), Joana F. (34% out of 4), Rui (58% out of 3) César 11 Carina (52% out of 2), Joana F. (36% out of 3), Luan (40% out of 4), Rui (48% out of 2) Rui 12 Carina (42% out of 2), Gabriela (22% out of 3), Isabela (58% out of 2), Joana F. (48% out of 4), Tiago (31% out of 5) Gabriela & Carina 13 Isabela (14%), Joana F. (35%), Luan (12%), Tiago (39%) Luan, Isabela & Joana F. == Twists == === Heaven and Hell === Housemates were divided between 2 bedrooms throughout the game, in which they would win advantages or disadvantages in the game according to their position, mostly seen on the nominations process (where in general Hell housemates are immune and nominate Heaven housemates), but also in others such as the takeover of bags at the start of the season. Housemates switch bedrooms each week: Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Week 9 Week 10 Week 11 Week 12 Week 13 Tiago Heaven Hell Hell Heaven Hell Heaven Heaven Hell Hell Heaven Hell Hell Hell Joana F. Hell Hell Hell Heaven Hell Heaven Hell Heaven Heaven Heaven Heaven Hell Hell Isabela Heaven Heaven Heaven Hell Heaven Heaven Hell Hell Hell Heaven Hell Hell Hell Luan Hell Heaven Hell Hell Heaven Heaven Heaven Hell Hell Hell Hell Hell Hell Carina Heaven Hell Heaven Heaven Hell Hell Heaven Hell Heaven Hell Hell Hell Gabriela Hell Heaven Hell Heaven Hell Hell Heaven Hell Heaven Hell Heaven Hell Rui Hell Hell Hell Hell Hell Heaven Heaven Heaven Hell Heaven Heaven César Hell Hell Hell Hell Hell Hell Hell Heaven Heaven Hell Pedro Hell Heaven Heaven Heaven Heaven Heaven Hell Heaven Hell Joana C. Hell Hell Heaven Heaven Hell Hell Hell Heaven Nuno Hell Hell Hell Heaven Heaven Hell Heaven Bruno Heaven Heaven Heaven Hell Heaven Hell Cátia Heaven Heaven Heaven Hell Heaven Sofia Hell Heaven Hell Hell João Hell Heaven Heaven Marlene Heaven Hell Margarida Heaven Note: In the last two weeks as there were few contestants they made all the contestants a "proof of endurance" soon they were all in the "Hell Room". == Ratings == === Live eviction shows === Week Air date Timeslot Viewers Rating Share Rank Source 1 February 25, 2018 Sunday 9:30 p.m. 1.684 17.4 37.6% 1 2 March 4, 2018 1.214 12.5 26.4% 3 March 11, 2018 1.215 12.5 26.5% 4 March 18, 2018 1.124 11.6 25.5% 5 March 25, 2018 1.347 13.9 28.4% 6 April 1, 2018 1.217 12.6 28.3% 7 April 8, 2018 1.143 11.8 24.9% 8 April 15, 2018 1.173 12.1 25.1% 9 April 22, 2018 1.116 11.5 25.8% 10 April 29, 2018 1.166 12.0 25.7% 11 May 6, 2018 1.091 11.3 26.1% 12 May 13, 2018 1.159 12.0 25.9% 13 May 20, 2018 1.039 10.7% 23.4% 14 May 27, 2018 1.465 15.1% 33.3% == References == == External links == * Official Website * Fan Website Category:2018 Portuguese television seasons 07 |
Crystal Palace Baltimore was an American professional soccer team based in Baltimore, Maryland, US. Founded in 2006, the club was originally named Crystal Palace USA and was affiliated with English side Crystal Palace. The club was a member of the old USL Second Division and the temporary USSF Division 2 Professional League. Following its 2010 season, the club severed ties with the London-based Crystal Palace and announced plans to take a one- year hiatus in order to execute a reorganization involving a complete rebranding and the possibility of a new soccer-specific stadium in downtown Baltimore. On December 3, 2010 the franchise stated it intended to relaunch for the start of the 2012 North American Soccer League campaign. However no further announcements were forthcoming from the club. ==History== ===Genesis of the franchise=== Crystal Palace Baltimore was established on May 5, 2006 by Crystal Palace's Chairman Simon Jordan, Vice Chairman Dominic Jordan, Chief Executive Phil Alexander, Director of Football Bob Dowie and Jim Cherneski, the new American-based club's Sporting Director. This was the first trans- Atlantic partnership of its kind in North America."Palace Baltimore To Sit 2011 NASL Season Out," Crystal Palace Baltimore, Friday, December 3, 2010. The Baltimore franchise originally intended to be in the USL Premier Development League (PDL). Instead, it joined the USL Second Division (USL-2) when it began playing a full schedule of contests in 2007. The team's original official title was Crystal Palace F.C. USA until January 27, 2010, when it was changed to the more popularly accepted name Crystal Palace Baltimore."A Whole New Ballgame for Crystal Palace Baltimore," Crystal Palace Baltimore, Wednesday, January 27, 2010. ===The two Crystal Palaces, head-to-head=== Crystal Palace Baltimore's debut, its only match played in 2006, was against its sister club at the United States Naval Academy's Glenn Warner Soccer Facility in Annapolis, Maryland on July 15. The team consisted of the local Maryland-based universities' top players, including Chris Seitz, A. J. DeLaGarza and Maurice Edu. Rade Kokovic scored the Americans' first-ever goal to tie the game in the 30th minute, but the home side eventually lost 3–1. The second contest between the two squads resulted in Baltimore surrendering a goal in the 28th minute and being shut out 1–0 at Selhurst Park on September 7, 2007. The third match of the series was played at Regency Furniture Stadium in Waldorf, Maryland on July 13, 2009. Val Teixeira tied the score at one in the 18th minute and Jordan Seabrook brought the team within a goal at 3–2 in the 59th, but the Americans dropped a 5–2 decision."Crystal Palace Defeats Crystal Palace," Crystal Palace Baltimore, Monday, July 13, 2009. ===Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup=== In its initial appearance in the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup (LHUSOC) tournament, Crystal Palace Baltimore lost its first-round game to the Ocean City Barons 1–0 at Carey Stadium in Ocean City, New Jersey on June 12, 2007. The squad played most of the contest with a one-man disadvantage after Harold Urquijo was red carded in the 22nd minute. The lone goal was surrendered just before halftime."Final score from Ocean City in the Lamar Hunt US Open Cup First Round: Ocean City 1–0 CPFC Baltimore," Crystal Palace Baltimore, Tuesday, June 12, 2007. The 2008 run began on June 10 at Azusa Pacific University in Azusa, California with a 2–1 win over the Los Angeles Legends. Pat Healey scored both goals for the winning side, the second one breaking a 1–1 deadlock in the 89th minute."Result: Los Angeles Legends 1(0)–Crystal Palace 2(1) US Open Cup 1st Round," Crystal Palace Baltimore, Thursday, June 12, 2008. Two weeks later on June 24, Palace earned another away victory by outlasting the Harrisburg City Islanders in a penalty shootout 2–2 (3–1). Baltimore became the only USL-2 team to advance to the quarterfinals of that year's tournament with a 2–0 upset of the New York Red Bulls at Broadneck High School in Annapolis on July 1. The goalscorers were Andrew Marshall in the 18th minute and Gary Brooks in the 75th.Crystal Palace Baltimore 2–0 New York Red Bulls, Tuesday, July 1, 2008 (box score) – Major League Soccer. "Result: Crystal Palace 2(1)–New York Red Bulls 0(0) US Open Cup 3rd Round," Crystal Palace Baltimore, Tuesday, July 1, 2008. Even though they took the defending Cup champion New England Revolution to a penalty shootout, Palace's efforts to reach the semifinals fell short 1–1 (3–5) at Veterans Stadium in New Britain, Connecticut on July 8.New England Revolution 1(5)–(3)1 Crystal Palace Baltimore, Tuesday, July 8, 2008 (box score) – Major League Soccer. "Result: Revolution 1(1)–Palace 1(1) Revs win 5–3 on penalties US Open Cup Quarterfinal," Crystal Palace Baltimore, Tuesday, July 8, 2008. Palace failed to progress beyond the First Round in each of the next two years, being shut out on the road both times. In a match postponed a day due to a soggy pitch caused by rainstorms, they fell at Ocean City again 3–0 on June 10, 2009."Palace Ousted from Open Cup Again by Ocean City Barons," Crystal Palace Baltimore, Thursday, June 11, 2009. They took the Richmond Kickers into overtime on June 15, 2010, but surrendered a Matthew Delicate goal in the 119th minute and lost 1–0."Palace Falls In First Round Of U.S. Open Cup," Crystal Palace Baltimore, Tuesday, June 15, 2010. ===USL Second Division=== Crystal Palace Baltimore's 2007 inaugural year in USL-2 began with a four-game losing streak. After dropping a 4–1 decision in its season opener at the Charlotte Eagles on April 20, Palace endured three straight home shutouts. This was followed up by a seven-match undefeated stretch, but with only three victories. They closed out the campaign winning six of its final seven contests, powered by the midseason acquisition of Brooks, the team's leading scorer with seven goals in only nine games.2007 Season Results & Player Statistics – Crystal Palace Baltimore. He and Matthew Mbuta, who contributed five goals, were named to the All-League First Team."USL2 All- League Teams announced," Crystal Palace Baltimore, Friday, August 17, 2007. Baltimore finished in fifth place, but barely missed the playoffs because it was the final season in which only the top four sides qualified. The beginning of 2008 was the reverse of the previous year as Baltimore ran off five victories, the first four being shutouts.2008 Season Results & Player Statistics – Crystal Palace Baltimore. Despite surrendering the same number of goals as they produced, the ballclub's ascent to fourth place ensured its first postseason appearance.USL Second Division Final Standings – 2008. Like in the U.S. Open Cup seven weeks earlier, its first rounder at home with the defending USL-2 champion City Islanders on August 13 was a 2–2 stalemate that was decided by penalty kicks, with Baltimore prevailing 7–6.Harrisburg City Islanders at Crystal Palace Baltimore 2–2 (6–7), Wednesday, August 13, 2008 (box score) – United Soccer Leagues. Three nights later on August 16, they were denied the opportunity to play in the championship match with a 2–1 loss to the top-seeded Eagles in Charlotte.Crystal Palace Baltimore at Charlotte Eagles 1–2, Saturday, August 16, 2008 (box score) – United Soccer Leagues. Shintaro Harada, Palace's lone representative on the All-League First Team,"League Names Three Palace Players to All-League Teams," Crystal Palace Baltimore, Tuesday, August 19, 2008. scored in the fifth minute for an early lead the squad would take into the second half. Palace entered 2009 without Brooks, whose contract was not renewed even though his seven goals in each of the previous two campaigns led the team both times. Baltimore, scoring a league-low 16 goals, fell to sixth place and missed the playoffs.USL Second Division Final Standings – 2009. They were hurt by a pair of slumps. After opening with two wins and a draw, they went without a victory in seven of its next eight contests (1–2–5). They finished winless in six of seven (1–2–4), including being shut out in its final three games. Teixeira was the top scorer with only five goals. The highlight of the season was Harada receiving All- League First Team honors again for leading the circuit's second-best defense."USL Second Division All-League Honors," United Soccer Leagues news release, Monday, August 24, 2009. ===USSF Division-2 Professional League=== Previously expected to move up to the USL First Division (USL-1),"USL statement regarding Tampa, Baltimore," United Soccer Leagues news release, Friday, November 20, 2009. Crystal Palace Baltimore announced on November 20, 2009 that they instead would join the new North American Soccer League (NASL). After lawsuits were filed and heated press statements exchanged, the United States Soccer Federation (USSF) declared they would sanction neither the NASL nor USL-1 for the coming year, and ordered both to work together on a plan to temporarily allow its teams to play a 2010 season."U.S. Soccer Board of Directors Votes Unanimously Not to Sanction USL or NASL for Division II Status in 2010," United States Soccer Federation, Wednesday, December 30, 2009. The interim solution was announced on January 7, 2010 with the new USSF Division 2 Professional League comprising clubs from both quarreling circuits."Division 2 Professional League To Operate in 2010," United States Soccer Federation, Thursday, January 7, 2010. Pete Medd, the co-manager with Cherneski since the franchise's inaugural campaign, relinquished his sideline duties on April 14, two days before Palace's season opener. He continued as team president, a role he had also held since 2007. The voluntary move enabled him to concentrate more on the ballclub's business development."Medd to Focus on Club's Business Development," Crystal Palace Baltimore, Wednesday, April 14, 2010. Due to a system in which eight of twelve teams qualified for the postseason, Palace was not eliminated from playoff contention until three games remained on its 2010 schedule."Palace Baltimore Set to Face Carolina at Home," Crystal Palace Baltimore, Thursday, September 16, 2010. They finished the season in the USSF Division-2 cellar with a 6–6–18 record, the worst in franchise history. They were outscored 55–24,Crystal Palace Baltimore (2010) & USSF Division-2 Pro League Final Standings – United States Soccer Federation. shut out in 14 of 30 matches and ended the season with a club-record eight consecutive losses. Its 2–2–11 performance at home is attributed to the team hosting contests in five different ballparks within the Baltimore–Washington Metropolitan Area. After starting with four at UMBC Stadium, they eventually played four more at the Maryland SoccerPlex and one each at Baltimore Polytechnic Institute's Lumsden- Scott Stadium and the Ridley Athletic Complex before settling at Calvert Hall College High School's Paul Angelo Russo Stadium for a total of five. ===Reorganization in 2011=== Crystal Palace Baltimore announced on December 3, 2010 the end of its four-year relationship with Crystal Palace and that it would not field a team for the 2011 North American Soccer League season in order to reorganize its operations. The severing of ties was attributed to the financial difficulties that resulted from the (then) English Football League championship side entering administration. At the center of the reorganization was the possibility of a new soccer-specific stadium in downtown Baltimore. The rebranding of the franchise began with plans on changing its name, and it intended to relaunch for the start of the 2012 NASL campaign. However, as previously noted there have been no announcements or actions from the organization to indicate if it will ever re-launch in the NASL or any other league. ===Year-by-year=== Year Division League Regular season Playoffs Open Cup Avg. attendance 2007 3 USL Second Division 5th did not qualify First Round 477 2008 3 USL Second Division 4th Semi Finals Quarter Finals 1,287 2009 3 USL Second Division 6th did not qualify First Round 1,181 2010 2 USSF Division 2 6th, NASL (12th) did not qualify First Round 1,073 ==Players== ===2010 roster=== as at October 1, 2010 ===Staff=== Nation Name Role Randall Medd chairman Pete Medd president Jim Cherneski founder, sporting director and head coach Keith Lupton vice-president, general manager Karim Moumban goalkeeping coach Glen Johnson goalkeeping coach and equipment manager Jen Pagliaro club administrator Matt Smith academy director Todd J. Tredinnick team doctor James Calder director of communications Keith Tabatznik academy curriculum director ==Stadiums== * Glenn Warner Soccer Facility; Annapolis, Maryland (2006 – one match) * Navy–Marine Corps Memorial Stadium; Annapolis, Maryland (2007) * Maryland SoccerPlex; Germantown, Maryland (2007 – one match, 2010 – four matches) * Lawrence E. Knight Stadium at Broadneck High School; Annapolis, Maryland (2008 – one match) * Lumsden-Scott Stadium at Baltimore Polytechnic Institute; Baltimore, Maryland (2008, 2010 – one match each) * UMBC Stadium; Catonsville, Maryland (2008–2010) * Paul Angelo Russo Stadium at Calvert Hall College High School; Towson, Maryland (2010 – five matches) * Ridley Athletic Complex; Baltimore, Maryland (2010 – one match) ==See also== *Crystal Palace L.F.C. ==References== ==External links== * * Goff, Steven. "Foot in U.S., But Eyes On England," Washington Post, Tuesday, May 22, 2007. * Sharrow, Ryan. "Baltimore pitches Port Covington for soccer stadium," Baltimore Business Journal, Monday, August 3, 2009. Category:Association football clubs established in 2006 Category:Crystal Palace F.C. Category:Soccer clubs in Baltimore Category:Soccer clubs in Maryland Category:USL Second Division teams Category:2006 establishments in Maryland Category:2010 disestablishments in Maryland Category:Association football clubs disestablished in 2010 |
In logic and mathematics, second-order logic is an extension of first-order logic, which itself is an extension of propositional logic.Shapiro (1991) and Hinman (2005) give complete introductions to the subject, with full definitions. Second-order logic is in turn extended by higher-order logic and type theory. First-order logic quantifies only variables that range over individuals (elements of the domain of discourse); second-order logic, in addition, also quantifies over relations. For example, the second-order sentence \forall P\,\forall x (Px \lor eg Px) says that for every formula P, and every individual x, either Px is true or not(Px) is true (this is the law of excluded middle). Second-order logic also includes quantification over sets, functions, and other variables (see section below). Both first-order and second-order logic use the idea of a domain of discourse (often called simply the "domain" or the "universe"). The domain is a set over which individual elements may be quantified. ==Examples== First-order logic can quantify over individuals, but not over properties. That is, we can take an atomic sentence like Cube(b) and obtain a quantified sentence by replacing the name with a variable and attaching a quantifier:Professor Marc Cohen lecture notes https://faculty.washington.edu/smcohen/120/SecondOrder.pdf : However, we cannot do the same with the predicate. That is, the following expression : is not a sentence of first-order logic, but this is a legitimate sentence of second-order logic. Here, P is a predicate variable and is semantically a set of individuals. As a result, second-order logic has greater expressive power than first-order logic. For example, there is no way in first-order logic to identify the set of all cubes and tetrahedrons. But the existence of this set can be asserted in second-order logic as : We can then assert properties of this set. For instance, the following says that the set of all cubes and tetrahedrons does not contain any dodecahedrons: : Second-order quantification is especially useful because it gives the ability to express reachability properties. For example, if Parent(x, y) denotes that x is a parent of y, then first-order logic can't express the property that x is an ancestor of y. In second-order logic we can express this by saying that every set of people containing y and closed under the Parent relation contains x: : It is notable that while we have variables for predicates in second-order-logic, we don't have variables for properties of predicates. We can't say, for example, that there is a property Shape(P) that is true for the predicates P Cube, Tet, and Dodec. This would require third-order logic. ==Syntax and fragments== The syntax of second-order logic tells which expressions are well formed formulas. In addition to the syntax of first-order logic, second-order logic includes many new sorts (sometimes called types) of variables. These are: * A sort of variables that range over sets of individuals. If S is a variable of this sort and t is a first-order term then the expression t ∈ S (also written S(t), or St to save parentheses) is an atomic formula. Sets of individuals can also be viewed as unary relations on the domain. * For each natural number k there is a sort of variables that ranges over all k-ary relations on the individuals. If R is such a k-ary relation variable and t1,...,tk are first-order terms then the expression R(t1,...,tk) is an atomic formula. * For each natural number k there is a sort of variables that ranges over all functions taking k elements of the domain and returning a single element of the domain. If f is such a k-ary function variable and t1,...,tk are first-order terms then the expression f(t1,...,tk) is a first-order term. Each of the variables just defined may be universally and/or existentially quantified over, to build up formulas. Thus there are many kinds of quantifiers, two for each sort of variables. A sentence in second-order logic, as in first-order logic, is a well-formed formula with no free variables (of any sort). It's possible to forgo the introduction of function variables in the definition given above (and some authors do this) because an n-ary function variable can be represented by a relation variable of arity n+1 and an appropriate formula for the uniqueness of the "result" in the n+1 argument of the relation. (Shapiro 2000, p. 63) Monadic second-order logic (MSO) is a restriction of second-order logic in which only quantification over unary relations (i.e. sets) is allowed. Quantification over functions, owing to the equivalence to relations as described above, is thus also not allowed. The second-order logic without these restrictions is sometimes called full second-order logic to distinguish it from the monadic version. Monadic second-order logic is particularly used in the context of Courcelle's theorem, an algorithmic meta-theorem in graph theory. The MSO theory of the complete infinite binary tree (S2S) is decidable. By contrast, full second order logic over any infinite set (or MSO logic over for example (\mathbb{N},+)) can interpret the true second-order arithmetic. Just as in first-order logic, second-order logic may include non- logical symbols in a particular second-order language. These are restricted, however, in that all terms that they form must be either first-order terms (which can be substituted for a first-order variable) or second-order terms (which can be substituted for a second-order variable of an appropriate sort). A formula in second-order logic is said to be of first-order (and sometimes denoted \Sigma^1_0 or \Pi^1_0) if its quantifiers (which may be universal or existential) range only over variables of first order, although it may have free variables of second order. A \Sigma^1_1 (existential second-order) formula is one additionally having some existential quantifiers over second order variables, i.e. \exists R_0\ldots\exists R_m \phi, where \phi is a first-order formula. The fragment of second-order logic consisting only of existential second-order formulas is called existential second-order logic and abbreviated as ESO, as \Sigma^1_1, or even as ∃SO. The fragment of \Pi^1_1 formulas is defined dually, it is called universal second-order logic. More expressive fragments are defined for any k > 0 by mutual recursion: \Sigma^1_{k+1} has the form \exists R_0\ldots\exists R_m \phi, where \phi is a \Pi^1_k formula, and similar, \Pi^1_{k+1} has the form \forall R_0\ldots\forall R_m \phi, where \phi is a \Sigma^1_k formula. (See analytical hierarchy for the analogous construction of second-order arithmetic.) ==Semantics== The semantics of second-order logic establish the meaning of each sentence. Unlike first-order logic, which has only one standard semantics, there are two different semantics that are commonly used for second-order logic: standard semantics and Henkin semantics. In each of these semantics, the interpretations of the first-order quantifiers and the logical connectives are the same as in first-order logic. Only the ranges of quantifiers over second-order variables differ in the two types of semantics (Väänänen 2001). In standard semantics, also called full semantics, the quantifiers range over all sets or functions of the appropriate sort. Thus once the domain of the first-order variables is established, the meaning of the remaining quantifiers is fixed. It is these semantics that give second- order logic its expressive power, and they will be assumed for the remainder of this article. Leon Henkin (1950) defined an alternative kind of semantics for second-order and higher-order theories, in which the meaning of the higher-order domains is partly determined by an explicit axiomatisation, drawing on type theory, of the properties of the sets or functions ranged over. Henkin semantics is a kind of many-sorted first-order semantics, where there are a class of models of the axioms, instead of the semantics being fixed to just the standard model as in the standard semantics. A model in Henkin semantics will provide a set of sets or set of functions as the interpretation of higher-order domains, which may be a proper subset of all sets or functions of that sort. For his axiomatisation, Henkin proved that Gödel's completeness theorem and compactness theorem, which hold for first- order logic, carry over to second-order logic with Henkin semantics. Since also the Skolem–Löwenheim theorems hold for Henkin semantics, Lindström's theorem imports that Henkin models are just disguised first-order models.* For theories such as second-order arithmetic, the existence of non-standard interpretations of higher-order domains isn't just a deficiency of the particular axiomatisation derived from type theory that Henkin used, but a necessary consequence of Gödel's incompleteness theorem: Henkin's axioms can't be supplemented further to ensure the standard interpretation is the only possible model. Henkin semantics are commonly used in the study of second- order arithmetic. Jouko Väänänen (2001) argued that the choice between Henkin models and full models for second-order logic is analogous to the choice between ZFC and V as a basis for set theory: "As with second-order logic, we cannot really choose whether we axiomatize mathematics using V or ZFC. The result is the same in both cases, as ZFC is the best attempt so far to use V as an axiomatization of mathematics." ==Expressive power== Second-order logic is more expressive than first-order logic. For example, if the domain is the set of all real numbers, one can assert in first-order logic the existence of an additive inverse of each real number by writing ∀x ∃y (x + y = 0) but one needs second-order logic to assert the least-upper-bound property for sets of real numbers, which states that every bounded, nonempty set of real numbers has a supremum. If the domain is the set of all real numbers, the following second-order sentence (split over two lines) expresses the least upper bound property: : : This formula is a direct formalization of "every , set A ." It can be shown that any ordered field that satisfies this property is isomorphic to the real number field. On the other hand, the set of first-order sentences valid in the reals has arbitrarily large models due to the compactness theorem. Thus the least-upper-bound property cannot be expressed by any set of sentences in first-order logic. (In fact, every real-closed field satisfies the same first-order sentences in the signature \langle +,\cdot,\le\rangle as the real numbers.) In second-order logic, it is possible to write formal sentences that say "the domain is finite" or "the domain is of countable cardinality." To say that the domain is finite, use the sentence that says that every surjective function from the domain to itself is injective. To say that the domain has countable cardinality, use the sentence that says that there is a bijection between every two infinite subsets of the domain. It follows from the compactness theorem and the upward Löwenheim–Skolem theorem that it is not possible to characterize finiteness or countability, respectively, in first-order logic. Certain fragments of second-order logic like ESO are also more expressive than first-order logic even though they are strictly less expressive than the full second-order logic. ESO also enjoys translation equivalence with some extensions of first-order logic that allow non-linear ordering of quantifier dependencies, like first-order logic extended with Henkin quantifiers, Hintikka and Sandu's independence-friendly logic, and Väänänen's dependence logic. ==Deductive systems== A deductive system for a logic is a set of inference rules and logical axioms that determine which sequences of formulas constitute valid proofs. Several deductive systems can be used for second-order logic, although none can be complete for the standard semantics (see below). Each of these systems is sound, which means any sentence they can be used to prove is logically valid in the appropriate semantics. The weakest deductive system that can be used consists of a standard deductive system for first-order logic (such as natural deduction) augmented with substitution rules for second-order terms.Such a system is used without comment by Hinman (2005). This deductive system is commonly used in the study of second-order arithmetic. The deductive systems considered by Shapiro (1991) and Henkin (1950) add to the augmented first- order deductive scheme both comprehension axioms and choice axioms. These axioms are sound for standard second-order semantics. They are sound for Henkin semantics restricted to Henkin models satisfying the comprehension and choice axioms.These are the models originally studied by Henkin (1950). ==Non- reducibility to first-order logic== One might attempt to reduce the second- order theory of the real numbers, with full second-order semantics, to the first-order theory in the following way. First expand the domain from the set of all real numbers to a two-sorted domain, with the second sort containing all sets of real numbers. Add a new binary predicate to the language: the membership relation. Then sentences that were second-order become first-order, with the formerly second-order quantifiers ranging over the second sort instead. This reduction can be attempted in a one-sorted theory by adding unary predicates that tell whether an element is a number or a set, and taking the domain to be the union of the set of real numbers and the power set of the real numbers. But notice that the domain was asserted to include all sets of real numbers. That requirement cannot be reduced to a first-order sentence, as the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem shows. That theorem implies that there is some countably infinite subset of the real numbers, whose members we will call internal numbers, and some countably infinite collection of sets of internal numbers, whose members we will call "internal sets", such that the domain consisting of internal numbers and internal sets satisfies exactly the same first-order sentences as are satisfied by the domain of real numbers and sets of real numbers. In particular, it satisfies a sort of least-upper-bound axiom that says, in effect: Countability of the set of all internal numbers (in conjunction with the fact that those form a densely ordered set) implies that that set does not satisfy the full least-upper-bound axiom. Countability of the set of all internal sets implies that it is not the set of all subsets of the set of all internal numbers (since Cantor's theorem implies that the set of all subsets of a countably infinite set is an uncountably infinite set). This construction is closely related to Skolem's paradox. Thus the first-order theory of real numbers and sets of real numbers has many models, some of which are countable. The second-order theory of the real numbers has only one model, however. This follows from the classical theorem that there is only one Archimedean complete ordered field, along with the fact that all the axioms of an Archimedean complete ordered field are expressible in second-order logic. This shows that the second-order theory of the real numbers cannot be reduced to a first-order theory, in the sense that the second-order theory of the real numbers has only one model but the corresponding first-order theory has many models. There are more extreme examples showing that second-order logic with standard semantics is more expressive than first-order logic. There is a finite second-order theory whose only model is the real numbers if the continuum hypothesis holds and that has no model if the continuum hypothesis does not hold (cf. Shapiro 2000, p. 105). This theory consists of a finite theory characterizing the real numbers as a complete Archimedean ordered field plus an axiom saying that the domain is of the first uncountable cardinality. This example illustrates that the question of whether a sentence in second- order logic is consistent is extremely subtle. Additional limitations of second-order logic are described in the next section. ==Metalogical results== It is a corollary of Gödel's incompleteness theorem that there is no deductive system (that is, no notion of provability) for second-order formulas that simultaneously satisfies these three desired attributes:The proof of this corollary is that a sound, complete, and effective deduction system for standard semantics could be used to produce a recursively enumerable completion of Peano arithmetic, which Gödel's theorem shows cannot exist. * (Soundness) Every provable second-order sentence is universally valid, i.e., true in all domains under standard semantics. * (Completeness) Every universally valid second-order formula, under standard semantics, is provable. * (Effectiveness) There is a proof-checking algorithm that can correctly decide whether a given sequence of symbols is a proof or not. This corollary is sometimes expressed by saying that second-order logic does not admit a complete proof theory. In this respect second-order logic with standard semantics differs from first-order logic; Quine (1970, pp. 90–91) pointed to the lack of a complete proof system as a reason for thinking of second-order logic as not logic, properly speaking. As mentioned above, Henkin proved that the standard deductive system for first-order logic is sound, complete, and effective for second-order logic with Henkin semantics, and the deductive system with comprehension and choice principles is sound, complete, and effective for Henkin semantics using only models that satisfy these principles. The compactness theorem and the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem do not hold for full models of second-order logic. They do hold however for Henkin models.Manzano, M., Model Theory, trans. Ruy J. G. B. de Queiroz (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999), p. xi. ==History and disputed value== Predicate logic was introduced to the mathematical community by C. S. Peirce, who coined the term second-order logic and whose notation is most similar to the modern form (Putnam 1982). However, today most students of logic are more familiar with the works of Frege, who published his work several years prior to Peirce but whose works remained less known until Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead made them famous. Frege used different variables to distinguish quantification over objects from quantification over properties and sets; but he did not see himself as doing two different kinds of logic. After the discovery of Russell's paradox it was realized that something was wrong with his system. Eventually logicians found that restricting Frege's logic in various ways—to what is now called first-order logic—eliminated this problem: sets and properties cannot be quantified over in first-order logic alone. The now-standard hierarchy of orders of logics dates from this time. It was found that set theory could be formulated as an axiomatized system within the apparatus of first-order logic (at the cost of several kinds of completeness, but nothing so bad as Russell's paradox), and this was done (see Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory), as sets are vital for mathematics. Arithmetic, mereology, and a variety of other powerful logical theories could be formulated axiomatically without appeal to any more logical apparatus than first-order quantification, and this, along with Gödel and Skolem's adherence to first-order logic, led to a general decline in work in second (or any higher) order logic. This rejection was actively advanced by some logicians, most notably W. V. Quine. Quine advanced the view that in predicate-language sentences like Fx the "x" is to be thought of as a variable or name denoting an object and hence can be quantified over, as in "For all things, it is the case that . . ." but the "F" is to be thought of as an abbreviation for an incomplete sentence, not the name of an object (not even of an abstract object like a property). For example, it might mean " . . . is a dog." But it makes no sense to think we can quantify over something like this. (Such a position is quite consistent with Frege's own arguments on the concept-object distinction). So to use a predicate as a variable is to have it occupy the place of a name, which only individual variables should occupy. This reasoning has been rejected by George Boolos. In recent years second-order logic has made something of a recovery, buoyed by Boolos' interpretation of second-order quantification as plural quantification over the same domain of objects as first-order quantification (Boolos 1984). Boolos furthermore points to the claimed nonfirstorderizability of sentences such as "Some critics admire only each other" and "Some of Fianchetto's men went into the warehouse unaccompanied by anyone else", which he argues can only be expressed by the full force of second-order quantification. However, generalized quantification and partially ordered (or branching) quantification may suffice to express a certain class of purportedly nonfirstorderizable sentences as well and these do not appeal to second-order quantification. == Relation to computational complexity== The expressive power of various forms of second-order logic on finite structures is intimately tied to computational complexity theory. The field of descriptive complexity studies which computational complexity classes can be characterized by the power of the logic needed to express languages (sets of finite strings) in them. A string w = w1···wn in a finite alphabet A can be represented by a finite structure with domain D = {1,...,n}, unary predicates Pa for each a ∈ A, satisfied by those indices i such that wi = a, and additional predicates that serve to uniquely identify which index is which (typically, one takes the graph of the successor function on D or the order relation <, possibly with other arithmetic predicates). Conversely, the Cayley tables of any finite structure (over a finite signature) can be encoded by a finite string. This identification leads to the following characterizations of variants of second-order logic over finite structures: * REG (the regular languages) is the set of languages definable by monadic, second-order formulas (Büchi-Elgot-Trakhtenbrot theorem, 1960) * NP is the set of languages definable by existential, second-order formulas (Fagin's theorem, 1974). * co- NP is the set of languages definable by universal, second-order formulas. * PH is the set of languages definable by second-order formulas. * PSPACE is the set of languages definable by second-order formulas with an added transitive closure operator. * EXPTIME is the set of languages definable by second-order formulas with an added least fixed point operator. Relationships among these classes directly impact the relative expressiveness of the logics over finite structures; for example, if PH = PSPACE, then adding a transitive closure operator to second-order logic would not make it any more expressive over finite structures. ==See also== * First-order logic * Higher-order logic * Löwenheim number * Omega language * Second-order propositional logic * Monadic second-order logic ==Notes== ==References== * *. Reprinted in Boolos, Logic, Logic and Logic, 1998. * * * . Reprinted in Putnam, Hilary (1990), Realism with a Human Face, Harvard University Press, pp. 252-260\. * * * * ==Further reading== * * Category:Systems of formal logic Category:Charles Sanders Peirce fr:Logique d'ordre supérieur#Logique du second ordre |
Nickel titanium, also known as nitinol, is a metal alloy of nickel and titanium, where the two elements are present in roughly equal atomic percentages. Different alloys are named according to the weight percentage of nickel; e.g., nitinol 55 and nitinol 60. Nitinol alloys exhibit two closely related and unique properties: the shape memory effect and superelasticity (also called pseudoelasticity). Shape memory is the ability of nitinol to undergo deformation at one temperature, stay in its deformed shape when the external force is removed, then recover its original, undeformed shape upon heating above its "transformation temperature". Superelasticity is the ability for the metal to undergo large deformations and immediately return to its undeformed shape upon removal of the external load. Nitinol can deform 10–30 times as much as ordinary metals and return to its original shape. Whether nitinol behaves with the shape memory effect or superelasticity depends on whether it is above the transformation temperature of the specific alloy. Below the transformation temperature it exhibits the shape memory effect, and above that temperature it behaves superelastically. ==History== The word "nitinol" is derived from its composition and its place of discovery: (Nickel Titanium-Naval Ordnance Laboratory). William J. Buehler along with Frederick Wang, discovered its properties during research at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory in 1959. Buehler was attempting to make a better missile nose cone, which could resist fatigue, heat and the force of impact. Having found that a 1:1 alloy of nickel and titanium could do the job, in 1961 he presented a sample at a laboratory management meeting. The sample, folded up like an accordion, was passed around and flexed by the participants. One of them applied heat from his pipe lighter to the sample and, to everyone's surprise, the accordion-shaped strip contracted and took its previous shape. While the potential applications for nitinol were realized immediately, practical efforts to commercialize the alloy did not take place until a decade later. This delay was largely because of the extraordinary difficulty of melting, processing and machining the alloy. Even these efforts encountered financial challenges that were not readily overcome until the 1980s, when these practical difficulties finally began to be resolved. The discovery of the shape-memory effect in general dates back to 1932, when Swedish chemist Arne Ölander first observed the property in gold–cadmium alloys. The same effect was observed in Cu-Zn (brass) in the early 1950s. ==Mechanism== thumb|3D view of austenite and martensite structures of the NiTi compound. Nitinol's unusual properties are derived from a reversible solid-state phase transformation known as a martensitic transformation, between two different martensite crystal phases, requiring of mechanical stress. At high temperatures, nitinol assumes an interpenetrating simple cubic structure referred to as austenite (also known as the parent phase). At low temperatures, nitinol spontaneously transforms to a more complicated monoclinic crystal structure known as martensite (daughter phase). There are four transition temperatures associated to the austenite-to-martensite and martensite-to-austenite transformations. Starting from full austenite, martensite begins to form as the alloy is cooled to the so-called martensite start temperature, or Ms, and the temperature at which the transformation is complete is called the martensite finish temperature, or Mf. When the alloy is fully martensite and is subjected to heating, austenite starts to form at the austenite start temperature, As, and finishes at the austenite finish temperature, Af. left|thumb|Thermal hysteresis of nitinol's phase transformationThe cooling/heating cycle shows thermal hysteresis. The hysteresis width depends on the precise nitinol composition and processing. Its typical value is a temperature range spanning about 20–50 K (20–50 °C; 36–90 °F) but it can be reduced or amplified by alloying and processing. Crucial to nitinol properties are two key aspects of this phase transformation. First is that the transformation is "reversible", meaning that heating above the transformation temperature will revert the crystal structure to the simpler austenite phase. The second key point is that the transformation in both directions is instantaneous. Martensite's crystal structure (known as a monoclinic, or B19' structure) has the unique ability to undergo limited deformation in some ways without breaking atomic bonds. This type of deformation is known as twinning, which consists of the rearrangement of atomic planes without causing slip, or permanent deformation. It is able to undergo about 6–8% strain in this manner. When martensite is reverted to austenite by heating, the original austenitic structure is restored, regardless of whether the martensite phase was deformed. Thus the shape of the high temperature austenite phase is "remembered," even though the alloy is severely deformed at a lower temperature.. thumb|2D view of nitinol's crystalline structure during cooling/heating cycle A great deal of pressure can be produced by preventing the reversion of deformed martensite to austenite—from to, in many cases, more than . One of the reasons that nitinol works so hard to return to its original shape is that it is not just an ordinary metal alloy, but what is known as an intermetallic compound. In an ordinary alloy, the constituents are randomly positioned in the crystal lattice; in an ordered intermetallic compound, the atoms (in this case, nickel and titanium) have very specific locations in the lattice. The fact that nitinol is an intermetallic is largely responsible for the complexity in fabricating devices made from the alloy. thumb|left|The effect of nitinol composition on the Ms temperature. To fix the original "parent shape," the alloy must be held in position and heated to about . This process is usually called shape setting. A second effect, called superelasticity or pseudoelasticity, is also observed in nitinol. This effect is the direct result of the fact that martensite can be formed by applying a stress as well as by cooling. Thus in a certain temperature range, one can apply a stress to austenite, causing martensite to form while at the same time changing shape. In this case, as soon as the stress is removed, the nitinol will spontaneously return to its original shape. In this mode of use, nitinol behaves like a super spring, possessing an elastic range 10–30 times greater than that of a normal spring material. There are, however, constraints: the effect is only observed about 273–313 K (0–40 °C; 32–104 °F) above the Af temperature. This upper limit is referred to as Md, which corresponds to the highest temperature in which it is still possible to stress-induce the formation of martensite. Below Md, martensite formation under load allows superelasticity due to twinning. Above Md, since martensite is no longer formed, the only response to stress is slip of the austenitic microstructure, and thus permanent deformation. Nitinol is typically composed of approximately 50 to 51% nickel by atomic percent (55 to 56% weight percent). Making small changes in the composition can change the transition temperature of the alloy significantly. Transformation temperatures in nitinol can be controlled to some extent, where Af temperature ranges from about −20 °C to +110 °C. Thus, it is common practice to refer to a nitinol formulation as "superelastic" or "austenitic" if Af is lower than a reference temperature, while as "shape memory" or "martensitic" if higher. The reference temperature is usually defined as the room temperature or the human body temperature (37 °C; 98 °F). One often- encountered effect regarding nitinol is the so-called R-phase. The R-phase is another martensitic phase that competes with the martensite phase mentioned above. Because it does not offer the large memory effects of the martensite phase, it is usually of non practical use. == Manufacturing == Nitinol is exceedingly difficult to make, due to the exceptionally tight compositional control required, and the tremendous reactivity of titanium. Every atom of titanium that combines with oxygen or carbon is an atom that is robbed from the NiTi lattice, thus shifting the composition and making the transformation temperature lower. There are two primary melting methods used today. Vacuum arc remelting (VAR) is done by striking an electrical arc between the raw material and a water-cooled copper strike plate. Melting is done in a high vacuum, and the mold itself is water-cooled copper. Vacuum induction melting (VIM) is done by using alternating magnetic fields to heat the raw materials in a crucible (generally carbon). This is also done in a high vacuum. While both methods have advantages, it has been demonstrated that an industrial state-of-the-art VIM melted material has smaller inclusions than an industrial state-of-the-art VAR one, leading to a higher fatigue resistance. Other research report that VAR employing extreme high-purity raw materials may lead to a reduced number of inclusions and thus to an improved fatigue behavior. Other methods are also used on a boutique scale, including plasma arc melting, induction skull melting, and e-beam melting. Physical vapour deposition is also used on a laboratory scale. Heat treating nitinol is delicate and critical. It is a knowledge intensive process to fine-tune the transformation temperatures. Aging time and temperature controls the precipitation of various Ni-rich phases, and thus controls how much nickel resides in the NiTi lattice; by depleting the matrix of nickel, aging increases the transformation temperature. The combination of heat treatment and cold working is essential in controlling the properties of nitinol products. == Challenges == Fatigue failures of nitinol devices are a constant subject of discussion. Because it is the material of choice for applications requiring enormous flexibility and motion (e.g., peripheral stents, heart valves, smart thermomechanical actuators and electromechanical microactuators), it is necessarily exposed to much greater fatigue strains compared to other metals. While the strain- controlled fatigue performance of nitinol is superior to all other known metals, fatigue failures have been observed in the most demanding applications. There is a great deal of effort underway trying to better understand and define the durability limits of nitinol. Nitinol is half nickel, and thus there has been a great deal of concern in the medical industry regarding the release of nickel, a known allergen and possible carcinogen. (Nickel is also present in substantial amounts in stainless steel and cobalt-chrome alloys.) When properly treated (via electropolishing and/or passivation), nitinol forms a very stable protective TiO2 layer that acts as a very effective and self-healing barrier against ion exchange. It has been repeatedly shown that nitinol releases nickel at a slower pace than stainless steel, for example. With that said, very early medical devices were made without electropolishing, and corrosion was observed. Today's nitinol vascular self-expandable metallic stents, for example, show no evidence of corrosion or nickel release, and the outcomes in patients with and without nickel allergies are indistinguishable. There are constant and long-running discussions regarding inclusions in nitinol, both TiC and Ti2NiOx. As in all other metals and alloys, inclusions can be found in nitinol. The size, distribution and type of inclusions can be controlled to some extent. Theoretically, smaller, rounder and few inclusions should lead to increased fatigue durability. In literature, some early works report to have failed to show measurable differences, while novel studies demonstrate a dependence of fatigue resistance on the typical inclusion size in an alloy. Nitinol is difficult to weld, both to itself and other materials. Laser welding nitinol to itself is a relatively routine process. Strong joints between NiTi wires and stainless steel wires have been made using nickel filler. Laser and tungsten inert gas (TIG) welds have been made between NiTi tubes and stainless steel tubes. More research is ongoing into other processes and other metals to which nitinol can be welded. Actuation frequency of nitinol is dependent on heat management, especially during the cooling phase. Numerous methods are used to increase the cooling performance, such as forced air, flowing liquids, thermoelectric modules (i.e. Peltier or semiconductor heat pumps), heat sinks, conductive materials and higher surface-to-volume ratio (improvements up to 3.3 Hz with very thin wires and up to 100 Hz with thinfilm nitinol). The fastest nitinol actuation recorded was carried by a high voltage capacitor discharge which heated an SMA wire in a manner of microseconds, and resulted in a complete phase transformation (and high velocities) in a few milliseconds.Vollach, Shahaf, and D. Shilo. "The mechanical response of shape memory alloys under a rapid heating pulse." Experimental Mechanics 50.6 (2010): 803-811. Recent advances have shown that processing of nitinol can expand thermomechanical capabilities, allowing for multiple shape memories to be embedded within a monolithic structure. Research on multi-memory technology is on-going and promises to deliver enhanced shape memory devices in the near future , and the application of new materials and material structures, such hybrid shape memory materials (SMMs) and shape memory composites (SMCs). ==Applications== There are four commonly used types of applications for nitinol: ; Free recovery : Nitinol is deformed at a low temperature, and heated to recover its original shape through the Shape Memory effect. ; Constrained recovery : As for free recovery, except that recovery is rigidly prevented and thus a stress is generated. ; Work production : Here the alloy is allowed to recover, but to do so it must act against a force (thus doing work). ; Superelasticity : Nitinol acts as a super spring through the Superelastic effect. : Superelastic materials undergo stress-induced transformation and are commonly recognized for their "shape-memory" property. Due to its superelasticity, NiTi wires exhibit "elastocaloric" effect, which is stress-triggered heating/cooling. NiTi wires are currently under research as the most promising material for the technology. The process begins with tensile loading on the wire, which causes fluid (within the wire) to flow to HHEX (Hot Heat Exchanger). Simultaneously, heat will be expelled, which can be used to heat the surrounding. In the reverse process, tensile unloading of the wire leads to fluid flowing to CHEX (Cold Heat Exchanger), causing the NiTi wire to absorb heat from the surrounding. Therefore, the temperature of the surrounding can be decreased (cooled). : Elastocaloric devices are often compared with magnetocaloric devices as new methods of efficient heating/cooling. Elastocaloric device made with NiTi wires has an advantage over magnetocaloric device made with Gadolinium due to its specific cooling power (at 2 Hz), which is 70X better (7 kWh/kg vs. 0.1 kWh/kg). However, elastocaloric device made with NiTi wires also have limitations, such as its short fatigue life and dependency on large tensile forces (energy consuming). : In 1989 a survey was conducted in the United States and Canada that involved seven organizations. The survey focused on predicting the future technology, market, and applications of SMAs. The companies predicted the following uses of nitinol in a decreasing order of importance: (1) Couplings, (2) Biomedical and medical, (3) Toys, demonstration, novelty items, (4) Actuators, (5) Heat Engines, (6) Sensors, (7) Cryogenically activated die and bubble memory sockets, and finally (8) lifting devices. Today, nitinol finds application in the listed industrial applications: ===Thermal and electrical actuators=== *Nitinol can be used to replace conventional actuators (solenoids, servo motors, etc.), such as in the Stiquito, a simple hexapod robot. *Nitinol springs are used in thermal valves for fluidics, where the material both acts as a temperature sensor and an actuator. *It is used as autofocus actuator in action cameras and as an optical image stabilizer in mobile phones. *It is used in pneumatic valves for comfort seating and has become an industry standard. *The 2014 Chevrolet Corvette incorporates nitinol actuators, which replaced heavier motorized actuators to open and close the hatch vent that releases air from the trunk, making it easier to close. ===Biocompatible and biomedical applications=== * Nitinol is highly biocompatible and has properties suitable for use in orthopedic implants. Due to nitinol's unique properties it has seen a large demand for use in less invasive medical devices. Nitinol tubing is commonly used in catheters, stents, and superelastic needles. * In colorectal surgery, the material is used in devices for reconnecting the intestine after removing the pathogens. * Nitinol is used for devices developed by Franz Freudenthal to treat patent ductus arteriosus, blocking a blood vessel that bypasses the lungs and has failed to close after birth in an infant. * In dentistry, the material is used in orthodontics for brackets and wires connecting the teeth. Once the SMA wire is placed in the mouth its temperature rises to ambient body temperature. This causes the nitinol to contract back to its original shape, applying a constant force to move the teeth. These SMA wires do not need to be retightened as often as other wires because they can contract as the teeth move unlike conventional stainless steel wires. Additionally, nitinol can be used in endodontics, where nitinol files are used to clean and shape the root canals during the root canal procedure. Because of the high fatigue tolerance and flexibility of nitinol, it greatly decreases the possibility of an endodontic file breaking inside the tooth during root canal treatment, thus improving safety for the patient. * Another significant application of nitinol in medicine is in stents: a collapsed stent can be inserted into an artery or vein, where body temperature warms the stent and the stent returns to its original expanded shape following removal of a constraining sheath; the stent then helps support the artery or vein to improve blood flow. It is also used as a replacement for sutures—nitinol wire can be woven through two structures then allowed to transform into its preformed shape, which should hold the structures in place. * Similarly, collapsible structures composed of braided, microscopically-thin nitinol filaments can be used in neurovascular interventions such as stroke thrombolysis, embolization, and intracranial angioplasty. * A more recent application of nitinol wire is in female contraception, specifically in intrauterine devices. === Damping systems in structural engineering === * Superelastic nitinol finds a variety of applications in civil structures such as bridges and buildings. One such application is Intelligent Reinforced Concrete (IRC), which incorporates Ni-Ti wires embedded within the concrete. These wires can sense cracks and contract to heal macro-sized cracks. * Another application is active tuning of structural natural frequency using nitinol wires to damp vibrations. === Other applications and prototypes === *Demonstration model heat engines have been built which use nitinol wire to produce mechanical energy from hot and cold heat sources. A prototype commercial engine developed in the 1970s by engineer Ridgway Banks at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, was named the Banks Engine.Vimeo posting of "The Individualist", documentary on Ridgway Banks"Single wire nitinol engine", Ridgway M. Banks, US Patent"Metals that Remember", Popular Science, January 1988"Engine Uses No Fuel", Milwaukee Journal, December 5, 1973 *Nitinol is also popular in extremely resilient glasses frames. It is also used in some mechanical watch springs. *Boeing engineers successfully flight-tested SMA-actuated morphing chevrons on the Boeing 777-300ER Quiet Technology Demonstrator 2. *The Ford Motor Company has registered a US patent for what it calls a ‘bicycle derailleur apparatus for controlling bicycle speed’. Filed on 22 April 2019, the patent depicts a front derailleur for a bicycle, devoid of cables, instead using two nitinol wires to provide the movement needed to shift gears. *It can be used as a temperature control system; as it changes shape, it can activate a switch or a variable resistor to control the temperature. *It has been used in cell-phone technology as a retractable antenna, or microphone boom, due to its highly flexible and mechanical memory nature. *It is used to make certain surgical implants, such as the SmartToe. *It is used in some novelty products, such as self-bending spoons which can be used by amateur and stage magicians to demonstrate "psychic" powers or as a practical joke, as the spoon will bend itself when used to stir tea, coffee, or any other warm liquid. *It can also be used as wires which are used to locate and mark breast tumours so that the following surgery can be more exact. *Due to the high damping capacity of Superelastic nitinol, it is also used as a golf club insert. *Nickel titanium can be used to make the underwires for underwire bras. *It is used in some actuation-bending devices, such as those developed by Finnish technology company Modti Inc. *It is used in the neckbands of several headphones due to its superelasticity and durability. *It is being increasingly used for wire stemmed fishing floats due to its superelasticity. ==References== ==Further reading== * H.R. Chen, ed., Shape Memory Alloys: Manufacture, Properties and Applications, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 2010, . * Y.Y. Chu & L.C. Zhao, eds., Shape Memory Materials and Its [sic] Applications, Trans Tech Publications Ltd., 2002, . * D.C. Lagoudas, ed., Shape Memory Alloys, Springer Science+Business Media LLC, 2008, . * K. Ōtsuka & C.M. Wayman, eds., Shape Memory Materials, Cambridge University Press, 1998, *Sai V. Raj, Low Temperature Creep of Hot-extruded Near-stoichiometric NiTi Shape Memory Alloy, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Glenn Research Center, 2013. * Gerald Julien, Nitinol Technologies, Inc Edgewood, Wa. Us patent" 6422010 Manufacturing of Nitinol Parts & Forms A process of making parts and forms of Type 60 Nitinol having a shape memory effect, comprising: selecting a Type 60 Nitinol. Inventor G, Julien, CEO of Nitinol Technologies, Inc. (Washington State) ==External links== *Society of Shape Memory and Superelastic Technologies *Nitinol Resource Library *Physical properties of nitinol *Nitinol Technical Resource Library *Literature on Nitinol Wire *Nitinol- Tubing *How NASA Reinvented The Wheel - Shape Memory Alloys Category:Dental materials Category:Biomaterials Category:United States Navy Category:Materials science Category:Solid-state chemistry Category:Smart materials Category:Intermetallics tr:Şekil Hafızalı Alaşımlar |
Yassin M. Aref is religious scholar, writer, and poet of Kurdish background who was the central figure of a controversial sting operation leading to years of incarceration in the Federal Bureau of Prisons. A resident of Albany, New York, Aref was arrested by Federal authorities in August 2004 as part of a counter-terrorism sting operation, convicted in October 2006 of conspiring to aid a terrorist group and provide support for a weapon of mass destruction, as well as money-laundering and supporting a foreign terrorist organization, Jaish-e-Mohammed, and sentenced to 15 years in prison in March 2007. In July 2008, the appellate court upheld the convictions, rejecting all of the defense's arguments. The decision caused outrage amongst the local community, as supporters maintained the position that he was being persecuted. After finishing his 15-year prison sentence in October, 2018, Aref was deported to Iraqi Kurdistan in June, 2019. Aref wrote a memoir, Son of Mountains: My Life as a Kurd and a Terror Suspect (2008). ==Background== US forces found Aref's name, address, and phone number in a notebook in a bombed-out Iraqi encampment in 2003.Suspects raise domestic spy issue: 2 Albany Muslim men accused in FBI sting seek information, Times Union, January 5, 2006 The information was classified, and the defense, despite defense counsel having received security clearances, was provided with almost no information about the notebook. Originally the government claimed that the notebook entry said "commander" next to Aref's name; however, when the judge asked the government to provide the notebook page, the government admitted that there had been a "mistranslation" and the word in question was "kak," which means "brother," not "commander," and is a common Kurdish term of respect.Error In Albany 'Terror' Case Terror Camp Document Said Defendant Was 'Brother,' Not 'Commander', CBS News, August 18, 2004 Aref is from (Iraqi Kurdistan), and his grandfather was a famous imam; Aref was already known and respected in the area. There was no way to know what group was bombed by US forces at the encampment; at times, groups such as the Kurdistan Justice Group, run by Ali Bapir, were bombed by the US, even though they did not oppose US forces.Kurd chief who taught mercy to Saddam's men, Guardian Unlimited, May 27, 2005 The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) claimed that Aref is tied to Mullah Krekar, the founder of Ansar al-Islam.Terror suspect wants own trial: Albany pizza shop owner says case against imam hurts his chance with jurors, Times Union, December 10, 2005 When Aref left Iraq as a refugee in 1994, he lived in Syria for 5 years. During that time he was approved by the UN as a refugee to be sent to a third country, which ended up being the US. While in Syria, Aref worked first as a gardener for a rich businessman, and then for the Damascus Office of the IMK (Islamic Movement in Kurdistan), an Islamic Kurdish group which had worked with the US to oppose Saddam Hussein, and which helped Kurdish refugees in Syria. IMK was never claimed to be a terrorist organization. Mullah Krekar was an IMK official who, at the end of 2001, two years after Aref had left Syria and the IMK job, split from IMK to form Ansar al Islam, which is a designated terrorist organization. While Aref had met Krekar briefly a couple of times through his IMK job, he did not really know him, and was opposed to his extremist politics. Aref came to the US as a United Nations refugee in 1999 with his wife and three young children. He initially found work as a janitor at a local hospital and as an ambulance driver.[3] After a year he was hired as the imam of the Masjid As Salam Mosque. ==Sting operation== Based perhaps on the discovery of the notebook in Iraq in 2003, the FBI launched a sting operation targeting Aref. FBI agents convinced a Pakistani informant (who was facing a long prison sentence and deportation for fraud) to approach a friend of Aref's, Mohammed Mosharref Hossain, as a means of getting to Aref.Mosque welcomed in informant, Times Union August 8, 2004 The FBI plan was that the informant, Shahed Hussein, would offer to loan $50,000 cash to Hossain, and get back $45,000 in checks from Hossain's business (a pizza shop), telling him that the money was made from buying a Chinese surface-to-air missile, which was to be provided to a group called JEM (Jaish-e-Mohammed), which was to use it to attack the Pakistani Ambassador in New York City. However, none of that was true. Needing a witness to the loan, as is obligatory for Muslims, the men then brought Aref into the arrangement, solely as a witness to the loan transactions. The government eventually arrested both men, claiming that Aref chose to support money laundering by witnessing the loan. The defense argued that Aref, who spoke very poor English at the time, did not understand that this was anything other than a legitimate loan. Defense attorneys claimed that both Aref and Hossain were unfairly convicted–that Hossain was entrapped, and that Aref did not realize any laws were being broken. Pakistan protested the sting having been based on a fictional plot to assassinate the Pakistani ambassador to the United Nations.From one blunder to the next, Asia Times, August 11, 2004 ==Shahed Hussein== The informant, Shahed Hussein, went on to target people in at least two other cases (and appeared unknowingly in two documentaries), was paid over $100,000 by the FBI, and then started a limousine business which ignored safety regulations and caused an accident which killed 20 people in 2018. Hussein targeted James Cromitie in the Newburgh 4 sting case, where he promised Cromitie $250,000 when he became uninterested in the plot. The case was the subject of a 2014 HBO documentary called The Newburgh Sting. The prosecution admitted that Hussein lied on the stand during the trial, and the judge later wrote to prosecutors (see page 7 of the link) recommending they investigate, but that never occurred. In 2012, Hussein was brought in to join an FBI sting operation in Pittsburgh, targeting Khalifah Al-Akili. As documented in the award-winning documentary, (T)error (available on Netflix) Al-Akili realized Hussain was an FBI informant and blew the whistle on the sting. Al-Akili still got an eight-year sentence on an un-related gun charge, and was interviewed by Democracy Now in prison in 2015, before his release in 2018. In October, 2018, the brakes on one of Hussein's limousines completely failed, killing 20 people in the worst US transportation disaster since 2009. Hussein had left the country shortly before, leaving his son, Nauman, to run it in his absence. As of September, 2019, Nauman Hussein is facing 20 homicide counts while his father, Shahed Hussain, has not returned to the US. ==Trial== The trial occurred in September and October 2006. Hossain was convicted of all the counts, and Aref was convicted of 10 of the 30 counts, of conspiring to aid a terrorist group and provide support for a weapon of mass destruction, as well as money-laundering and supporting a foreign terrorist organization, Jaish-e-Mohammed, a group in Pakistan that the informant told the men he supported. Both men filed appeals. The Aref defense attorneys argued on appeal that there was insufficient evidence, and that this was shown by the fact that Aref was acquitted of all the counts based on the most significant of the recorded conversations with the informant-the two conversations underlying the counts on which he was convicted provided him with no new information. On March 8, 2007, both Aref and Hossain were sentenced to 15 years in prison–half the sentence called for under the Federal Sentencing Guidelines. Aref's defense counsel filed a lengthy sentencing memorandum which described Aref's background and the support shown for him in the community.United States of America v. Yassin Aref, Sentencing Memorandum, January 29, 2007 Aref professed innocence before his sentencing, and criticized the government's treatment of Muslims.United States of America v. Yassin Aref, Court Transcript, March 8, 2007 After sentencing, Aref was taken to the Communication Management Unit (CMU) at the federal prison in Terre Haute, Indiana. He was assigned BOP# 12778–052. The Times Union ( ) and the Daily Gazette (), Albany's two main daily newspapers, both ran editorials at the time of the sentencing asking for extreme leniency, the Times Union on March 8 and 9 and the Gazette on March 9. In addition, Times Union columnist Fred LeBrun, who had followed the trial closely, wrote, prior to the sentencing, > Someday we'll look back on the present national paranoia over terrorism and > the excesses done in its name with the same national embarrassment that > Americans feel for Sen. Joe McCarthy's communist witch hunts of the 1950s > and our appalling treatment of Japanese-Americans during World War II. > Someday. But not anytime soon, and certainly not before Yassin M. Aref, the > former imam at an Albany mosque, and Mohammed M. Hossain, a pizza shop > owner, are sentenced ... Looking up from a warm seat somewhere, Senator Joe > must be viewing all this with a knowing smile.History will remember Albany > terrorism sting as a witch hunt, Times Union, January 12, 2007 Carl Strock, the columnist for the Gazette, wrote many columns attacking the process as extremely unfair.The View from Here, Daily Gazette, February 4, 2007 The FBI responded by contacting the editorial boards of the Times Union and the Gazette and running an op-ed piece in the Gazette upholding the sting operation as legitimate. ==Muslim Solidarity Committee== After the convictions, the Muslim Solidarity Committee (MSC)Muslim Solidarity Committee was formed to support Aref, Hossain, and their families. It generated over 50 letters, and nearly 1,000 signatures on a petition, to the judge in support of leniency,Summary of Letters in Support of Yassin Aref and raised over $30,000 to support the two families. Its founders won an award from the NYCLUNYCLU Annual Awards Ceremony, November 8, 2007 in November 2007. In 2008, supporters formed another group, Project Salam, which started studying other Muslim “terrorism” convictions, and advocating for others they believed had been treated unfairly. In 2010, Project Salam joined with other groups to form the National Coalition to Protect Civil Freedoms (NCPCF) (later shortened to the Coalition for Civil Freedoms [CCF]) which does essentially the same thing, on a larger scale. In 2018, members of Project Salam recorded a podcast, Terror Talk in which they discussed the Aref/Hossain case and the larger context over several episodes. ==Appeal== Aref's appeal, along with that of Hossain, was denied by the Second Circuit Court of Appeals on July 2, 2008. A petition for certiorari to the United States Supreme Court was denied on March 9, 2009. As reported on the front page of The New York Times on August 26, 2007, the Aref appeal could have been an important test case for the NSA warrantless wiretapping program, as it appeared to be the only criminal case where there was strong evidence that the program was used to target a defendantSpying Program May Be Tested By Terror Case, August 26, 2007 Both the ACLU and the NYCLU got involved in the case. However, in its opinion, the Second Circuit held that Aref had no right to know about this because it was classified. In an accompanying summary order, the court also sidestepped the issue by claiming that Aref hadn't shown a “colorable basis” for asserted he had been wiretapped under the NSA program. In July, 2009, the Inspector General for the Department of Justice published a report saying that DOJ should re-examine criminal cases to see if exculpatory evidence had been unfairly kept from the defense due to the evidence having been classified. Nothing ever came of that. On April 5, 2010, the Albany, NY Common Council passed a resolution asking DOJ to act on the Inspector General's Report and re-examine the Aref case as well as others. That never occurred. ==Background on the wiretapping issue in the case== In December 2005, The New York Times revealed that President Bush had taken the controversial step of secretly authorizing the NSA to expand its surveillance to within the US.Bush Lets U.S. Spy on Callers Without Courts, December 16, 2005 A month later another NYT article quoted government officials as saying that the NSA program led them to Aref.DOMESTIC SURVEILLANCE: THE PROGRAM; SPY AGENCY DATA AFTER SEPT. 11 LED F.B.I. TO DEAD ENDS, January 17, 2006 On January 20, 2006, Aref's lawyers filed a motion challenging the case against Aref as tainted by the illegality of the NSA program–the motion stated, > The government engaged in illegal electronic surveillance of thousands of US > persons, including Yassin Aref, then instigated a sting operation to attempt > to entrap Mr. Aref into supporting a non-existent terrorist plot, then dared > to claim that the illegal NSA operation was justified because it was the > only way to catch Mr. Aref!Motion to Dismiss: Courts previously, abundantly, > ruled against Warrantless electronic surveillance, The 10,000 Things, > January 28, 2006 On March 10, 2006, the government filed a response to the defense motion which was completely classified, something defense attorneys and the NYLCU said was virtually unheard of and a violation of the 6th Amendment right to confront evidence. Approximately two hours later Judge McAvoy denied the defense motion in a "Classified Order," something even more unheard of.Secret Prosecution; Secret Judicial Decisions; Illegal Surveillance, Daily Kos, March 11, 2006 Then on March 22, 2006, the defense filed a petition for mandamus with the Second Circuit Court of Appeals, challenging Judge McAvoy's decision and arguing that the process had violated Aref's constitutional rights–the NYCLU also filed a brief supporting the right of public access to court decisions. United States of America v. Aref et al. Case Description, NYCLU, March, 2006 In July 2008, the Second Circuit turned down the petition. The federal appeals court upheld the conviction. "The evidence sufficed for a jury to conclude that Aref [and Hossain] intended to aid in preparing a missile attack on American soil." ==PBS program== On April 20, 2007, the Aref/Hossain case was featured on the PBS Documentary "Security Versus Liberty: The Other War," which contained interviews with defense attorneys, the mosque President, and representatives from the FBI and the US Attorney's Office.Security versus Liberty: The Other War, PBS, April 20, 2007 ==Son of Mountains== While he was in Rensselaer County Jail awaiting sentencing, Aref wrote a memoir. Stephen Downs helped him put the story into standard English, and editor Jeanne Finley did further editing. The book was published in March 2008. Son of Mountains is the non-fiction story of the life of Aref, an Iraqi Kurd who grew up under the rule of Saddam Hussein and later risked his life opposing him. Aref traverses the landscape of his childhood in Iraqi Kurdistan under Saddam; details the decision to leave Kurdistan for Syria, where he and his wife and children, although poor, make a new life, and then as UN refugees come to the United States; describes his brief residence in America as an immigrant and imam at a small mosque before his arrest, prosecution, and conviction in the "terror case"; and records his experiences over 18 months at the Rensselaer County Jail. ==Return to Kurdistan== Aref returned to Iraqi Kurdistan on June 11, 2019 after finishing his 15-year sentence in October, 2018.https://wnyt.com/news/yassin-aref-albany-man-convicted-on-terrorism- charges-released-from-prison/5095215/ Archived, 14 March 2021 When Yassin was released from prison, he didn't want to fight deportation - he was taken to York County Prison (an ICE detention center) to await an eventual flight home to northern Iraq, where his wife and daughters were waiting for him. After his attorney filed a habeas petition, and a hearing was held in Scranton, PA on June 7, Aref called his son, Salah, on June 9 to say he was being taken to the airport. Aref made it safely home on June 11, 2019. A few days later his two sons flew there, and the family was reunited in freedom for the first time since 2005, before the youngest daughter was born. On August 4, 2019 Aref's Albany, NY supporters held their annual commemoration of the August 4, 2004 arrests of him and Mohammed Hossain, and Aref spoke to the gathering over video link from Kurdistan. Salah then returned to the US in mid-August, 2019 to start Harvard Law School. On August 30, a long Kurdish TV interview with Aref was aired. ==References== Category:Living people Category:People from Albany, New York Category:Iraqi Kurdish people Category:20th-century imams Category:21st-century imams Category:American imams Category:Civil liberties in the United States Category:1970 births |
This is a list of footballers who have made between 25 and 99 competitive appearances for Oldham Athletic A.F.C. since the club joined the football league in 1907. Name Nationality Position Club career League apps League goals Total apps Total goals Notes Harry Hancock FW 1907-1908 27 7 31 10 Bob Hewitson GK 1907-1908 27 0 31 0 Joe Shadbolt FW 1907-1909 27 9 33 11 Frank Hesham MF 1907-1909 34 8 40 9 Alex Whaites MF 1907-1909 42 8 46 10 Frank Newton FW 1907-1909 81 45 86 47 Arthur Griffiths FW 1908-1909 25 4 26 4 Arthur Wolstenholme FW 1908-1909, 1919-1920 52 12 54 12 Billy Cope DF 1908-1914 62 1 65 1 Alex Downie MF 1909-1911 48 0 49 0 Bill Montgomery FW 1909-1912 70 26 75 26 Stan Miller MF 1909-1913 39 0 41 0 Hugh McDonald GK 1910-1911 41 0 44 0 Alf Toward FW 1910-1913 72 30 78 33 Steve Buxton DF 1911-1912 27 0 28 0 Evan Jones FW 1911-1912 50 25 54 25 George Hunter MF 1912-1913 40 1 46 1 Bill Bradbury MF 1912-1913, 1919-1921 74 5 77 5 Gilbert Kemp FW 1912-1915 64 23 72 28 Arthur Dixon MF 1913-1915 30 0 31 0 Charlie Roberts DF 1913-1915 72 2 79 2 Ted Taylor GK 1913-1922 87 0 92 0 Bill Goodwin DF 1915-1920 42 0 43 0 Bob Stewart DF 1919-1921 34 0 36 0 George Wall MF 1919-1921 74 11 76 11 Billy Halligan FW 1920 28 9 28 9 Stan Charlton DF 1920-1921 38 0 39 0 Dicky Jones MF 1920-1922 25 0 27 0 Sandy Campbell FW 1920-1922 41 8 41 8 Jack Tatton MF 1920-1922 67 2 70 2 Alf Marshall MF 1920-1923 66 3 69 3 Reuben Butler FW 1920-1923 77 32 78 32 Jimmy Marshall FW 1920-1923 80 18 84 19 Charlie Wallace MF 1921-1923 47 3 50 3 Ike Bassindale MF 1921-1925 50 0 50 0 John Blair FW 1922-1924 26 16 28 17 Chris Staniforth FW 1922-1924 35 7 37 8 Charlie Jones MF 1923-1925 56 5 58 5 Tommy Heaton MF 1923-1926 59 3 64 3 Bob Gillespie FW 1924-1925 27 5 28 5 Arthur Ormston FW 1925-1926 43 22 47 24 Horace Barnes FW 1925-1927 41 16 46 20 George Taylor FW 1925-1929 71 22 75 22 Jack Armitage DF 1926-1929 90 3 94 3 Jack King MF 1926-1929, 1931 80 12 84 13 Neil Harris FW 1927-1929 39 17 40 17 Alf Brown MF 1928-1933 44 0 47 0 Laurie Cumming FW 1929-1930 25 11 26 12 Stewart Littlewood FW 1929-1931 78 45 81 47 Seth King DF 1929-1932 91 0 96 0 Frank Moss GK 1930-1931 29 0 30 0 Jack Pears MF 1930-1934 92 34 97 34 Arthur Finney DF 1931-1932 30 0 30 0 Tommy Pickersgill MF 1931-1933 39 0 40 0 Bill Johnstone FW 1931-1933 68 29 70 29 Harry Johnson FW 1932-1933 37 12 38 12 Horace Pearson GK 1932-1933 38 0 39 0 Billy Johnston FW 1932-1934 67 8 70 8 Harry Rowley FW 1933-1934 70 14 73 15 Bob Grice DF 1933-1935 26 0 27 0 Peter Burke DF 1933-1935 93 6 99 6 Arthur Bailey FW 1933-1936 53 12 59 14 Tommy Reid FW 1933-1936 67 35 71 36 Fred Schofield MF 1933-1936 82 3 85 4 Jack Robson MF 1934-1935 37 8 41 9 Fred Swift GK 1934-1935 54 0 55 0 Arthur Buckley MF 1934-1936 47 10 53 12 Bill Walsh FW 1934-1936 78 48 85 54 Harry Church GK 1935-1936 23 0 27 0 Fred Leedham FW 1935-1937 48 11 53 11 Tommy Davis FW 1935-1938 72 51 81 58 George Milligan MF 1935-1938 82 2 86 6 Paddy Robbins FW 1935-1938 80 15 87 17 Patrick McCormick FW 1936-1938 38 13 46 17 Jack Diamond FW 1936-1938 50 23 53 23 Percy Downes MF 1936-1938 51 4 58 4 Norman Price DF 1936-1938 73 0 81 0 Bert Eaves DF 1937-1939 28 0 30 0 Bert Blackshaw FW 1937-1939 59 14 64 16 Tommy Butler MF 1937-1939, 1946-1947 75 12 79 12 David Halford MF 1938-1939 26 11 28 11 Ernie Wright FW 1938-1939 37 5 38 6 Tom Shipman DF 1938-1945 40 0 47 0 Ron Ferrier FW 1938-1947 45 25 49 27 Jack Bowden MF 1945-1948 72 1 77 2 Les Horton MF 1945-1948 79 2 87 3 Ollie Burns FW 1946-1947 25 5 27 5 Fred Howe FW 1946-1947 30 20 31 20 Jack Ormandy MF 1946-1947 30 5 31 5 Bill Harris GK 1946-1947 32 0 34 0 Ben Bunting DF 1946-1948 32 0 34 0 Jerry Boothman DF 1946-1948 44 0 47 0 Bill Blackshaw MF 1946-1948 67 22 69 22 Jock Wilson FW 1947-1948 29 2 31 3 Brendan McManus GK 1947-1948 35 0 37 0 John Jones GK 1948-1949 22 0 26 0 Ernie Woodcock MF 1948-1950 28 4 28 4 Harry Stock FW 1948-1950 35 10 39 11 Albert Watson MF 1948-1950 42 0 47 0 Bill Pickering DF 1948-1950 78 0 87 0 Viv Aston DF 1948-1951 30 1 30 1 Albert Wadsworth FW 1949-1952 33 8 35 8 Syd Goodfellow MF 1950-1952 72 2 77 3 Ron Fawley MF 1950-1958 94 9 98 10 Jack Warner MF 1951-1952 34 2 36 2 Peter McKennan FW 1951-1953 78 28 83 33 Bob Jackson DF 1951-1955 29 1 31 1 Alf Clarke FW 1952-1954 43 12 48 14 Tommy Lowrie MF 1952-1955 79 5 84 5 Rex Adams MF 1953-1954 23 2 25 2 Joe Harris FW 1953-1954 27 4 27 4 Bill McGlen MF 1953-1955 68 3 70 3 Frank Scrine FW 1953-1956 78 21 82 22 Jimmy Kerr MF 1954-1955 34 4 36 4 Harry McShane MF 1954-1955 41 5 42 6 Mick D'Arcy GK 1954-1956 45 0 47 0 George Crook FW 1954-1957 57 13 57 13 Kenny Chaytor FW 1954-1960 77 20 80 20 Eric Betts MF 1956-1957 26 5 27 5 Jackie Campbell MF 1956-1957 26 5 27 5 Dave Pearson FW 1956-1957 25 12 27 13 Derek Williams GK 1956-1957 28 0 30 0 Gerry Duffy FW 1956-1959 58 21 62 23 Eddie Murphy DF 1956-1959 72 0 76 0 David Teece GK 1956-1959 91 0 96 0 Ken Murray FW 1957-1958 35 14 36 15 Ian Muir DF 1957-1958 35 0 37 0 Ray John MF 1958-1959 32 5 37 5 Wally Taylor DF 1958-1959 51 0 53 0 Albert Bourne FW 1958-1960 35 9 38 10 Ivan Beswick DF 1958-1960 47 0 49 0 Peter Stringfellow FW 1958-1960 54 16 55 16 Keith Robinson FW 1958-1961 40 4 41 4 Allan Hall MF 1958-1961 74 5 79 5 Jimmy Mallon DF 1959-1960 31 8 33 8 Jim Ferguson GK 1959-1960 36 0 39 0 Jimmy McGill DF 1959-1960 38 2 40 3 Charlie Ferguson DF 1959-1960 57 0 60 0 Billy O'Loughlin MF 1959-1961 27 0 29 0 John Liddell FW 1960-1961 23 10 25 11 George Greenall DF 1960-1961 25 0 30 0 Brian Birch FW 1960-1961 35 11 39 12 John McCue DF 1960-1962 56 0 64 0 Jimmy Rollo GK 1960-1963 59 0 62 0 Jimmy Scott MF 1961-1964 76 0 88 0 Billy Marshall DF 1962-1964 57 0 63 0 Colin Whitaker MF 1962-1964 72 29 76 31 George Sievwright MF 1963-1964 37 4 40 4 Barry Taylor DF 1963-1964 40 0 44 0 Albert Jackson FW 1964-1965 22 4 25 5 Barrie Martin DF 1964-1965 42 4 46 5 Jimmy Harris FW 1964-1966 29 9 30 11 Billy Dearden FW 1964-1966 35 2 40 4 Albert Quixall FW 1964-1966 36 11 41 12 Billy McGinn DF 1964-1966 38 0 43 0 Tony Bartley MF 1964-1966 50 13 56 15 Ron Swan GK 1964-1966 64 0 71 0 Jim Pennington MF 1965-1966 23 0 28 1 Stewart Holden DF 1965-1966 42 5 46 8 Frank Large FW 1966 34 18 37 19 John Collins FW 1966-1967 21 8 25 11 Dennis Stevens FW 1966-1967 33 0 38 0 Jimmy McIlroy MF 1966-1967 39 1 42 1 Ken Knighton MF 1966-1967 45 4 52 4 Bill Asprey MF 1966-1967 80 4 90 5 Billy Johnston MF 1966-1968 29 6 33 6 Alan Philpott MF 1967-1968 31 1 34 1 Ally Doyle DF 1967-1969 33 0 35 0 Eric Magee MF 1967-1969 45 9 49 10 Allan Hunter DF 1967-1969 83 1 90 1 Walter Joyce DF 1967-1970 71 2 72 2 Alan Spence FW 1968-1969 27 12 28 13 Barry Gordine GK 1968-1971 83 0 88 0 Jim Beardall FW 1969-1970 22 10 26 10 Tommy Bryceland MF 1969-1972 66 10 72 11 Arthur Thomson DF 1970 28 0 30 0 Jim Fryatt FW 1970-1971 76 40 81 42 Don Heath MF 1970-1972 45 1 50 1 Paul Clements MF 1971-1972 35 0 37 1 Andy Sweeney MF 1971-1974 42 2 44 2 Mike Lester MF 1972-1973 27 2 29 2 Andy Lochhead FW 1973-1974 45 10 54 11 George Jones FW 1973-1975 71 19 88 26 Tony Bailey DF 1974 26 1 32 1 Jim Branagan DF 1974-1977 27 0 29 0 David Irving FW 1976-1977 21 7 27 8 Carl Valentine MF 1976-1979 82 8 99 10 Steve Taylor FW 1977-1978 47 25 57 28 Steve Gardner MF 1977-1980 53 2 67 2 Mark Hilton MF 1978-1981 50 2 58 3 Steve Edwards DF 1978-1983 80 0 96 0 Nick Sinclair DF 1978-1984 75 1 81 1 Simon Stainrod FW 1979-1980 69 21 79 26 Ryszard Kowenicki MF 1979-1981 42 5 49 8 Jon Bowden MF 1982-1985 82 5 91 6 David Cross FW 1983-1984 22 6 25 7 Martin Buchan DF 1983-1984 28 0 30 0 Joe McBride MF 1983-1985 36 5 38 5 Derrick Parker FW 1983-1985 57 11 61 14 Mark Ward MF 1983-1985 84 12 92 12 Bob Colville FW 1984-1986 32 4 36 4 Micky Quinn FW 1984-1986 80 34 86 37 Paul Jones DF 1985-1987 32 1 33 3 Ron Futcher FW 1985-1987 65 30 73 32 Mick McGuire MF 1985-1987 69 3 75 4 Gary Williams DF 1985-1990 61 12 75 16 Andy Gorton GK 1986-1988 26 0 32 0 Mike Flynn DF 1987-1988 40 1 45 1 Mike Cecere FW 1987-1988 52 8 63 10 John Kelly MF 1987-1989 52 6 58 6 Frankie Bunn FW 1987-1990 78 26 88 35 Ian Ormondroyd FW 1987, 1996-1997 41 9 43 9 Peter Skipper DF 1988-1989 27 1 30 1 Andy Rhodes GK 1988-1990 69 0 79 0 Paul Warhurst MF 1988-1991 67 2 86 2 David Currie FW 1990-1991 31 3 36 5 Neil Redfearn MF 1990-1991 62 16 74 20 Paul Moulden FW 1990-1993 38 4 41 5 Paul Kane MF 1991 21 0 25 0 Neil McDonald DF 1991-1994 24 1 29 1 Ian Olney FW 1992-1995 45 13 53 14 Darren Beckford FW 1993-1996 52 11 65 17 David Beresford MF 1993-1997 64 2 74 2 Nicky Banger FW 1994-1997 64 10 74 11 Andy Hughes MF 1995-1997 33 1 42 1 Toddi Örlygsson MF 1995-1999 76 1 88 1 David McNiven FW 1996-1999 26 2 29 2 Matthew Rush MF 1997-1998 24 3 28 3 Lee Sinnott DF 1997-1998 31 0 35 0 Doug Hodgson DF 1997-1998 41 4 44 6 Phil Salt MF 1997-2001 22 0 31 2 Mark Innes MF 1997-2001 73 1 90 1 Stuart Thom DF 1998-2000 34 3 37 3 Steve Whitehall FW 1998-2000 76 13 88 15 Mark Hotte DF 1998-2001 65 0 74 0 Paul Jones DF 1999-2000 28 3 32 3 Ryan Sugden FW 1999-2001 21 1 25 1 Craig Dudley FW 1999-2002 60 10 73 13 David Miskelly GK 1999-2003 20 0 26 0 Barry Prenderville DF 2000-2001 21 0 26 0 Tony Carss MF 2000-2003 75 5 84 6 Danny Boshell MF 2000-2005 70 2 85 4 Stuart Balmer DF 2001-2002 36 6 44 6 Paul Rachubka GK 2001-2002, 2013-2015 48 0 56 0 Julien Baudet DF 2001-2003 44 3 52 3 Chris Armstrong DF 2001-2003 65 1 79 1 Dave Beharall DF 2001-2004 60 3 78 3 Clint Hill DF 2002-2003 17 1 25 1 Josh Low MF 2002-2003 21 3 27 4 Clyde Wijnhard FW 2002-2003 25 10 31 13 Wayne Andrews FW 2002-2003 37 11 46 12 Fitz Hall DF 2002-2003 44 5 54 6 Michael Clegg DF 2002-2004 46 0 52 0 Matty Appleby MF 2002-2005 46 2 50 3 Adam Griffin MF 2002-2005 62 3 74 4 Scott Vernon FW 2002-2005 75 20 88 27 Chris Killen FW 2002-2006 78 17 90 23 Calvin Zola-Makongo FW 2003-2004 25 5 28 7 Ernie Cooksey MF 2003-2004 37 4 41 6 Jermaine Johnson MF 2003-2005 39 9 43 10 Marc Tierney DF 2003-2006 37 0 47 0 Danny Hall DF 2003-2006 64 1 79 1 Chris Hall FW 2003-2007 43 1 54 5 Matty Wolfenden FW 2003-2009 39 2 48 4 Mark Bonner MF 2004-2005 33 1 37 1 Kevin Betsy FW 2004-2005 36 5 44 5 Neil Kilkenny MF 2004-2005, 2007-2008 47 5 59 8 Gareth Owen DF 2004-2006 41 1 45 1 Luke Beckett FW 2004-2006 43 24 47 24 Mark Hughes MF 2004-2006 60 1 73 1 Kelvin Lomax DF 2004-2010 82 0 94 0 Rob Scott MF 2005-2006 21 1 26 1 Chris Day GK 2005-2006 30 0 36 0 Richard Butcher MF 2005-2006 36 4 39 4 Terrell Forbes DF 2005-2006 39 0 44 0 Guy Branston DF 2005-2006 45 2 50 2 Paul Edwards MF 2005-2007 60 0 68 0 Chris Porter FW 2005-2007 2022- 69 29 78 32 As of 11 March 2023 Simon Charlton DF 2006-2007 34 1 39 1 Craig Rocastle MF 2006-2007 35 2 39 3 Gary McDonald MF 2006-2008 78 11 92 13 Neal Trotman DF 2006-2008, 2011 36 1 42 3 Jean-Paul Kalala MF 2007-2008 20 0 26 1 Craig Davies FW 2007-2008, 2017-2018 84 21 99 27 Lee Hughes FW 2007-2009 55 25 61 26 Mark Crossley GK 2007-2009 59 0 70 0 Lewis Alessandra FW 2007-2011 67 8 76 8 Daniel Jones DF 2008-2009 23 1 25 1 Kevin Maher MF 2008-2009 28 1 32 1 Chris O'Grady FW 2008-2009, 2018-2019 51 7 64 8 Danny Whitaker MF 2008-2010 80 8 87 11 Paul Black DF 2008-2012 60 1 70 1 Jason Jarrett MF 2008, 2010 23 3 25 3 Joe Colbeck MF 2009-2010 27 1 28 1 Keigan Parker FW 2009-2010 27 2 29 2 Alex Marrow MF 2009-2010 32 1 34 1 Pawel Abbott FW 2009-2010 39 13 41 13 Ryan Brooke FW 2009-2011 29 2 31 2 Dean Brill GK 2009-2011 58 0 63 0 Dale Stephens MF 2009-2011 60 11 63 12 Cedric Evina DF 2010-2011 27 2 28 2 Ritchie Jones MF 2010-2011 31 1 33 1 Oumare Tounkara FW 2010-2012 52 8 54 8 Filipe Morais MF 2010-2012, 2019-2020 75 10 88 11 Kirk Millar MF 2010-2014 38 1 44 1 Zander Diamond DF 2011-2012 23 2 31 2 Reuben Reid FW 2011-2012 39 7 44 8 Tom Adeyemi MF 2011-2012 36 2 45 3 Shefki Kuqi FW 2011-2012 40 11 49 16 Youssouf M'Changama MF 2011-2013 26 2 30 2 Alex Cisak GK 2011-2013 48 0 59 0 Matt Smith FW 2011-2013 62 9 75 14 Robbie Simpson FW 2011-2013 66 8 80 13 James Tarkowski DF 2011-2014 72 5 89 6 David Mellor MF 2011-2015 48 1 62 1 Reece Wabara DF 2012-2013 25 0 29 2 Cliff Byrne DF 2012-2013 38 1 43 1 Cristian Montano MF 2012-2013 40 3 48 4 Dean Bouzanis GK 2012-2013 45 0 51 0 Jose Baxter MF 2012-2013, 2018-2019 72 19 84 21 Connor Brown DF 2012-2016 89 1 98 1 Charlie MacDonald FW 2013-2014 30 5 30 5 Adam Rooney FW 2013-2014 24 4 33 7 Mark Oxley GK 2013-2014 36 0 43 0 Jonson Clarke- Harris FW 2013-2014 45 7 55 9 Korey Smith MF 2013-2014 52 1 62 2 Genséric Kusunga DF 2013-2015 36 2 46 3 Paul Rachubka GK 2013-2015 48 0 56 0 James Dayton MF 2013-2015 51 4 63 5 Joseph Mills DF 2013-2016 56 1 69 1 Rhys Turner FW 2014-2015 22 3 25 3 George Elokobi DF 2014-2015 24 3 27 3 Adam Lockwood DF 2014-2015 31 2 31 2 Jonathan Forte FW 2014-2016 60 18 65 18 Timothée Dieng MF 2014-2016 60 1 68 1 Dominic Poleon FW 2014-2016 60 8 68 11 Mike Jones MF 2014-2016 80 9 86 10 Liam Kelly MF 2014-2016 78 7 87 7 Rhys Murphy FW 2015-2016 24 3 25 3 Jake Cassidy FW 2015-2016 21 0 25 0 Joel Coleman GK 2015-2016 43 0 45 0 Anthony Gerrard DF 2015-2018 69 2 75 3 George Edmundson DF 2015-2019 65 3 79 3 Cameron Dummigan DF 2015-2019 74 3 85 3 Darius Osei FW 2016-2017 22 1 27 3 Josh Law DF 2016-2017 22 2 28 3 Cameron Burgess DF 2016-2017 23 1 31 2 Billy McKay FW 2016-2017 26 0 33 4 Lee Erwin FW 2016-2017 34 8 40 10 Ollie Banks MF 2016-2017 40 2 51 3 Connor Ripley GK 2016-2017 46 0 54 0 Ryan Flynn MF 2016-2018 44 1 54 3 Paul Green MF 2016-2018 47 1 56 2 Ryan McLaughlin DF 2016-2018 52 3 62 3 Aaron Holloway FW 2016-2018 61 4 67 6 Ousmane Fané MF 2016-2018 80 0 92 0 Eoin Doyle FW 2017-2018 30 15 34 17 Kean Bryan DF 2017-2018 32 2 37 2 Tope Obadeyi FW 2017-2018, 2022 45 3 50 5 Johny Placide GK 2017-2018 36 0 42 0 Jack Byrne MF 2017-2018 40 5 44 8 Danny Gardner FW 2017–2018 2022- 79 4 90 4 As of 11 March 2023 Rob Hunt DF 2017-2019 81 1 90 2 Mohamed Maouche MF 2017-2020 66 7 80 9 Gevaro Nepomuceno MF 2017-2020 83 9 95 10 Daniel Iverson GK 2018-2019 42 0 49 0 Callum Lang FW 2018-2019 42 13 50 16 Zeus De La Paz GK 2018-2020 26 0 31 0 Johan Branger MF 2018-2020 51 7 58 7 Dylan Fage MF 2019-2022 60 1 79 1 Scott Wilson FW 2019-2020 21 2 26 2 Zak Mills DF 2019-2020 25 1 29 1 Désiré Segbé Azankpo FW 2019-2020 28 4 32 6 Jonny Smith MF 2019-2020 28 9 32 11 David Wheater DF 2019-2020 34 4 35 4 Alex Iacovitti DF 2019-2020 33 1 39 2 Mo Sylla MF 2019-2020 45 1 51 1 Zak Dearnley FW 2019-2021 44 11 53 15 Kyle Jameson DF 2020-2022 36 2 42 2 Callum Whelan MF 2020-2022 74 1 89 1 Dylan Bahamboula MF 2020-2022 68 9 91 11 Raphaël Diarra DF 2020-2022 28 0 36 0 Sido Jombati DF 2020-2021 19 0 26 0 Brice Ntambwe MF 2020-2021 24 0 28 0 Bobby Grant MF 2020-2021 23 3 29 7 Danny Rowe FW 2020-2021 25 7 32 11 Harry Clarke DF 2020-2021 32 1 35 1 Ben Garrity MF 2020-2021 29 2 38 4 Ian Lawlor GK 2020-2021 30 0 39 0 Alfie McCalmont MF 2020-2021 35 8 39 10 Cameron Borthwick-Jackson DF 2020-2021 37 2 41 2 Conor McAleny FW 2020-2021 40 17 46 21 Junior Luamba FW 2020- 28 2 32 2 As of 11 March 2023 Nicky Adams MF 2021–2022 59 0 67 0 Jamie Bowden MF 2021–2022 17 1 25 1 Jayson Leutwiler GK 2021- 22 0 30 0 As of 11 March 2023 Harry Vaughan FW 2021–2023 33 1 40 2 Hallam Hope FW 2021- 51 8 59 8 As of 11 March 2023 Jordan Clarke DF 2021- 58 1 65 1 As of 11 March 2023 Sam Hart DF 2021–2022 31 1 35 1 Benny Couto DF 2021- 26 1 35 1 As of 11 March 2023 Harrison McGahey DF 2021- 31 0 36 1 As of 11 March 2023 Jack Stobbs MF 2021- 40 2 43 2 As of 11 March 2023 Mike Fondop- Talom FW 2022- 31 10 32 10 As of 11 March 2023 Liam Hogan DF 2022- 24 0 26 0 As of 11 March 2023 Nathan Sheron DF 2022- 35 3 36 3 As of 11 March 2023 John Rooney MF 2022- 24 2 25 2 As of 11 March 2023 Ben Tollitt MF 2022- 32 7 33 7 As of 11 March 2023 Magnus Norman GK 2022- 36 0 36 0 As of 11 March 2023 ==References== Players Oldham Athletic Category:Association football player non-biographical articles |
is a 2016 Japanese animated romantic fantasy film written and directed by Makoto Shinkai, produced by CoMix Wave Films and distributed by Toho. It depicts the story of high school students Taki Tachibana and Mitsuha Miyamizu, who suddenly begin to swap bodies despite having never met, unleashing chaos on each other's lives. It features the voices of Ryunosuke Kamiki and Mone Kamishiraishi, with animation direction by Masashi Ando, character design by Masayoshi Tanaka, and its orchestral score and soundtrack composed by Radwimps. A light novel of the same name, also written by Shinkai, was published a month prior to the film's premiere. It was inspired by Japan's frequency for natural disasters. Your Name premiered at the 2016 Anime Expo in Los Angeles on July 3, 2016, and was theatrically released in Japan on August 26, 2016; it was released internationally by several distributors across 2017. The film received widespread critical acclaim, with praise for its story, animation, music, visuals, and emotional weight. Grossing US$382 million worldwide, it became the third highest-grossing Japanese film of all time, breaking numerous box office records, unadjusted for inflation. It received several accolades, including the Best Animated Feature at the 2016 Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards and the Japan Academy Prize for Animation of the Year. A live-action remake is in development by Paramount Pictures. ==Plot== In 2013, Mitsuha Miyamizu is a high school girl living in the rural town of Itomori, Japan. Bored of the town, she wishes to be a Tokyo boy in her next life. One day, she inexplicably begins to switch bodies intermittently with Taki Tachibana, a high school boy in Tokyo. Thus, when they wake up as each other on some mornings, they must live through the other's respective activities and social interactions for the day. They learn they can communicate with each other by leaving messages on paper, phones, and sometimes on each other's skin. Mitsuha (in Taki's body) sets Taki up on a date with coworker Miki Okudera, while Taki (in Mitsuha's body) causes Mitsuha to become popular at school. One day, Taki (in Mitsuha's body) accompanies Mitsuha's grandmother Hitoha and younger sister Yotsuha to leave the ritual alcohol kuchikamizake, made by the sisters, as an offering at the Shinto shrine located on a mountaintop outside the town. It is believed to represent the body of the village guardian god ruling over human connections and time. Taki reads a note from Mitsuha about the comet Tiamat, expected to pass nearest to Earth on the day of the autumn festival. The next day, Taki wakes up in his body and goes on a date with Miki, who tells him she enjoyed the date but also that she can tell he is preoccupied with thoughts of someone else. Taki attempts to call Mitsuha on the phone, but cannot reach her as the body-switching ends. Taki, Miki, and their friend Tsukasa travel to Gifu by train on a trip to Hida in search of Mitsuha. However, Taki does not know the name of Itomori, relying on his sketches of the surrounding landscape from memory. A restaurant owner in Takayama is from Itomori and recognizes the town in the sketch. He takes Taki and his friends to the ruins of Itomori, which has been destroyed and where 500 residents were killed when Tiamat unexpectedly fragmented as it passed by Earth three years earlier. Taki sees Mitsuha's messages disappearing from his phone, and his memories of her begin to gradually fade, realizing the two were also separated by time, as he is in 2016. Taki finds Mitsuha's name in the record of fatalities. While Miki and Tsukasa return to Tokyo, Taki journeys to the shrine, hoping to reconnect with Mitsuha and warn her about Tiamat. There, Taki drinks Mitsuha's kuchikamizake and then lapses into a vision, where he glimpses Mitsuha's past. He also recalls that he encountered Mitsuha on a train when she came to Tokyo the day before the event to find him, though Taki did not recognize her, as the body- switching was yet to occur in his timeframe. Before leaving the train in embarrassment, Mitsuha had handed him her hair ribbon, which he has since worn on his wrist as a good-luck charm. Taki wakes up in Mitsuha's body at her house on the morning of the festival. Hitoha deduces what has happened and tells him the body-switching ability has been passed down in her family as caretakers of the shrine. Taki convinces Tessie and Sayaka, two of Mitsuha's friends, to get the townspeople to evacuate Itomori, by disabling the electrical substation and broadcasting a false emergency alert. Taki heads to the shrine, realizing that Mitsuha must be in his body there, while Mitsuha wakes up in Taki's body. At sunset, the two sense each other's presence on the mountaintop but are separated due to contrasting timeframes and cannot see each other. When twilight falls, they return to their own bodies and see each other in person. After Taki returns Mitsuha's ribbon, they attempt to write their names on each other's palms so that they will remember each other. However, before Mitsuha can write hers, twilight passes, and they revert to their respective timeframes. When the evacuation plan fails, Mitsuha has to convince her father, Toshiki, the mayor of Itomori, to evacuate everyone. Before doing so, Mitsuha notices her memories of Taki are fading away and discovers he wrote "I love you" on her hand instead of his own name. After Tiamat crashes, Taki returns to his own timeframe and remembers nothing. Five years later, Taki, having graduated from university, is searching for a job. He senses he has lost something vital that he cannot identify, and feels inexplicable interest in the events surrounding Tiamat, now eight years in the past: Itomori was destroyed, but all of its people survived as they had evacuated just in time. Mitsuha has since moved to Tokyo. Sometime later, Taki and Mitsuha glimpse each other when their respective trains pass each other and are instantly drawn to seek one another, disembarking and racing to find the other, finally meeting at the stairs of . Taki calls out to Mitsuha, saying that he feels he knows her, and she responds likewise. Having finally found what each had long searched for, they shed tears of happiness and simultaneously ask each other for their name. ==Characters== ; : : A high school boy in Tokyo. He is a 17-year-old student in his third year at Tokyo Metropolitan High School. He is a talented sketch artist and has aspirations to be an architect. He is short-tempered but well-meaning and kind. He spends time with Miki Okudera, working in a part-time job as a waiter at the Italian restaurant "Il Giardino delle Parole". A running gag in the film is that whenever Taki wakes up and realizes he has swapped bodies with Mitsuha that day, he immediately begins to fondle "his" breasts in amazement, only stopping once Mitsuha's sister, Yotsuha, sees her. Mitsuha teasingly calls him out for the habit when they meet in person for the first time during twilight. Taki later appeared in Shinkai's next film Weathering with You. : He lives with his father, who works at Kasumigaseki; Shinkai states, "I think his mother divorced his father a few years ago." ; : : A high school girl dissatisfied with her life in Itomori, a mountainous and rural town of Gifu Prefecture, who was born on December 1, 1996. She is a 17-year-old student in her second year at Itomori High School, but in reality is three years older than Taki. Mitsuha is usually seen with her hair tied up with a dark red braided ribbon that she made by hand herself. She and her sister are maidens of the family shrine. After her mother died, her father abandoned the shrine to pursue politics. She lives with her maternal grandmother, Hitoha, and her younger sister, Yotsuha, who is in elementary school. Mitsuha wishes to have a better life in Tokyo than having unavoidable encounters in the small town with her estranged father, the mayor, as well as her role as a shrine maiden (miko) in rituals for her mother's family shrine including making kuchikamizake, an ancient traditional way of making sake by chewing rice and spitting it back out to be fermented - all of which attracts mockery and disdain from her classmates. When switching bodies with Taki, Mitsuha forbids him from looking at or touching her body. Mitsuha later appeared in Shinkai's next film Weathering with You. : Her birthday contradicts with the film's setting that she is 17 years old in the summer of her second year in high school, because as Shinkai says, "In their mind, they both kind of assumed that they were both born on December 1." ; : : One of Mitsuha's classmates; as of 2013, he is 17 years old and has a crush on Mitsuha. His nickname is "Tessie" ("Tesshi" in the dub). He is the son of the president of a local construction company, Teshigawara Construction. He is a lover of the monthly occult magazine MU (ja) and a mechanical geek. He has a 50-50 love/hate relationship with his hometown, Itomori, and from his own perspective, he initiates concrete measures to improve the town's situation, which earns him the sympathy of Taki (physically, Mitsuha). : In the epilogue, he talks about his upcoming marriage to Sayaka. : Teshigawara is named after Shoko Aizawa's middle school friend, Teshigawara, who appears in the seventh episode of Shinkai's novel The Garden of Words. ; : : One of Mitsuha's classmates and her best friend; as of 2013, she is 17 years old. She has a calm but nervous personality and has a crush on Tessie. She is part of the school's radio broadcasting club, so she is tasked by Taki and Tessie with broadcasting the false emergency evacuation alert. Her sister, who works at the town hall, makes a brief appearance in the film. : Sayaka is named after a friend of Shoko Aizawa's from middle school, who appears in the seventh episode of Shinkai's novel The Garden of Words. ; : : A classmate and friend of Taki. He has a cool personality and, like Taki, is interested in architecture. He works part-time at the same restaurant as Taki and Takagi. He worries about Taki whenever Mitsuha inhabits his body. :In his last scene, he is wearing a ring on his left-hand finger; and when asked about it, Shinkai said, "It's just a backstory, but I believe Tsukasa is engaged to Okudera." ; : : A classmate and friend of Taki. He is optimistic and has a large, crisp figure with an athletic appearance. Like Taki, he is an aspiring architect. He works part-time at the same restaurant as Taki and Tsukasa. ; : : A university student, one of Taki's friends, and his co-worker at the Italian restaurant "Il Giardino delle Parole". She is a beautiful and fashionable college girl who is popular with male waiters. She develops closer feelings for Taki when Mitsuha inhabits his body. She is a smoker, which Tsukasa discovers when they spend a night together while accompanying Taki on his search for Mitsuha. She is more commonly referred to as Ms. Okudera (Okudera-senpai) by her colleagues. : When she meets Taki in 2021 after a long time, she is wearing an engagement ring and tells him that she is getting married soon. According to Shinkai: "It's just a backstory, but I believe that Tsukasa is engaged to Okudera." In the original novel, she is described as working at the Chiba branch of an apparel manufacturer as of 2021. ; : : The head of the family shrine in , and the maternal grandmother of Mitsuha and Yotsuha. She was 82 years old as of 2013. Her favorite family tradition is kumihimo (thread weaving). She educates her grandchildren about the history and traditions of the shrine. Her daughter died peacefully after an illness and her son-in-law worked as a politician. : It is revealed in the manga adaptation that Hitoha is alive as of 2021. ; : : Mitsuha's younger sister with a strong personality. She was 9 years old in the fourth grade as of 2013. She helps her grandmother and sister preserve the family tradition at the shrine. She believes Mitsuha is somewhat crazy but loves her anyway. She participates in creating both kumihimo and kuchikamizake. Yotsuha attended high school at the end of the film. ; : : The widowed father of Mitsuha and Yotsuha, and Futaba's husband. He was 54 years old as of 2013. He used to be a folklorist who came to town for research and is very strict and jaded from the event. After Futaba died, Toshiki abandoned the shrine and became the mayor. ; : : The mother of Mitsuha and Yotsuha, the wife of Toshiki, and the daughter of Hitoha. She appeared in a scene where Taki sees her in a vision of Mitsuha's life. Futaba died peacefully from an illness. ; : : A literature teacher at Itomori High School. She teaches the class about the word, "Kataware-doki" (meaning twilight). She also appeared in Shinkai's previous film The Garden of Words. :In September 2013, she was living in Tokyo, but as for why she is in Itomori in this film, the pamphlet states that it is "up to the viewer's imagination." ==Production== The idea for this story came to Shinkai after he visited Yuriage, Natori, Miyagi Prefecture in July 2011, after the Great East Japan Earthquake occurred. He said, "This could have been my town." He said that he wanted to make a movie in which the positions of the people in Yuriage would be swapped with the viewers. The sketches that Shinkai drew during this visit have been shown in exhibitions. In Makoto Shinkai's proposal sent to Toho on September 14, 2014, the film was originally titled , derived from a passage in a waka poem attributed to Ono no Komachi. Its title was later changed to and before becoming Kimi no Na Wa. On December 31, 2014, Shinkai announced that he had been spending his days writing storyboard for this film. Inspiration for the story came from works including Shūzō Oshimi's Inside Mari, Rumiko Takahashi's Ranma ½, the Heian period novel Torikaebaya Monogatari, and Greg Egan's short story The Safe-Deposit Box. Shinkai also cited Interstellar (2014) by Christopher Nolan as an influence. While the town of Itomori, one of the film's settings, is fictional, the film drew inspirations from real-life locations that provided a backdrop for the town. Such locations include the city of Hida in Gifu Prefecture and its library, Hida City Library. ==Music== Yojiro Noda, the lead vocalist of the Japanese rock band Radwimps, composed the theme music of Your Name. Director Makoto Shinkai requested him to compose its music "in a way that the music will (supplement) the dialogue or monologue of the characters". Your Name features the following songs performed by Radwimps: * * * * The soundtrack of the film was well received by both audiences and critics alike and is acknowledged as being one of the factors behind its success at the box office. The film's soundtrack was the runner-up in the "Best Soundtrack" category at the 2016 Newtype Anime Awards, and the song "Zenzenzense" was the runner-up in the "Best Theme Song Category". ==Release== thumb|300px|World map showing countries and regions where the movie was released theatrically (green) The film premiered at the 2016 Anime Expo convention in Los Angeles, California on July 3, 2016, and later was released theatrically in Japan on August 26, 2016. The film was released in 92 countries. In order to qualify for the Academy Awards, the film was released for one week (December 2–8, 2016) in Los Angeles. In Southeast Asian countries, this movie was screened as well. Purple Plan streamed an English and Chinese subtitled trailer for the film and premiered the film in Singapore on November 3 and in Malaysia on November 8, with daily screenings onwards. PVR decides to debut Your Name as the opening film of the Makoto Shinkai Film Festival on May 19, 2023, in India. M Pictures released it on November 10 in Thailand, and earned 22,996,714 baht (about US$649,056) in four days. Indonesian film distributor Encore Films announced that it would premiere the film in Indonesia on December 7. Cinema chain CGV Blitz also revealed that it would screen the film. Pioneer Films screened the film in the Philippines on December 14 and it immediately became the country's highest-grossing animated movie for the year. In Hong Kong, the film opened on November 11, and earned HK$6,149,917 (about US$792,806) in three days. The film premiered in Taiwan on October 21 and earned NT$64 million (about US$2 million) in its first week while staying in the first position in the box office earnings ranking. As of October 31, it has earned NT$52,909,581 (about US$1.666 million) in Taipei alone. It was released in Chinese theatres by Huaxia Film Distribution on December 2, 2016. The film was released in Australian cinemas on limited release on November 24, 2016, by Madman Entertainment in both its original Japanese and an English dub. Madman also released the film in New Zealand on December 1, 2016. The film was screened in France on December 28. The film was also released in the United Kingdom on November 18, 2016, distributed by Anime Limited. The film was released in North American theaters on April 7, 2017, distributed by Funimation. In Germany the film was screened in over 150 cinemas in January 2018, with the first day being completely sold out. It reached the Top 10 movies that weekend. Due to the high demand, additional screening days were arranged. ===Home media=== Your Name was released in 4K UHD Blu-ray, Blu-ray, and DVD on July 26, 2017, in Japan by Toho Pictures. The release was offered in Regular, Special, and Collector's editions. Funimation announced on July 1 at Anime Expo 2017 that the film would be released on Blu-ray and DVD by the end of 2017 but did not specify a date. At Otakon 2017, they announced they are releasing the movie in both Standard and Limited Edition Blu-Ray and DVD Combo Packs on November 7, 2017. In its first week, the Blu-ray standard edition sold 202,370 units, the collector's edition sold 125,982 units and the special edition sold 94,079 units. The DVD Standard Edition placed first, selling 215,963. Your Name is the first anime to place three Blu-ray Disc releases in the top 10 of Oricon's overall Blu-ray Disc chart for 2 straight weeks. In 2017, the film generated () in media revenue from physical home video, soundtrack and book sales in Japan. Overseas, the film grossed over from DVD and Blu-ray sales in the United States . In the United Kingdom, it was 2017's second best-selling foreign language film on home video (below Operation Chromite) and again 2018's second best-selling foreign language film (below My Neighbor Totoro). ===Television broadcast=== The Japanese television broadcast of Your Name was premiered on November 4, 2017, through satellite television broadcaster Wowow. In addition, a special program dedicated to Makoto Shinkai as well as his previous works were also broadcast on the same channel. It also received a Japanese terrestrial television premiere on January 3, 2018, via TV Asahi and the initial broadcast received a 17.4% audience rating. Your Name has made its first premiere on Philippine television through free-to-air broadcaster ABS-CBN as well as its HD television service on February 18, 2018, but in edited form due to being cut for commercials with a short runtime of 75 minutes. According to Kantar Media statistics, the first free-to-air broadcast of the film received an audience rating of 9.2% while the AGB Nielsen NUTAM statistics, it received a 3.1% audience rating. On April 9, 2020, as part of its Holy Week presentation, the film was aired again with minor cuts for content and longer runtime of 102 minutes (excluding commercials in its 2-hour timeslot) and it immediately became a trending topic through social media platforms whereas Makoto Shinkai himself thanked the viewers of the ABS-CBN broadcast of the film. ==Reception== ===Box office=== Your Name became a huge commercial success, especially in Japan, where it grossed . The film achieved the second-largest gross for a domestic film in Japan, behind Spirited Away, and the fourth-largest ever, behind Titanic and Frozen. It is the first anime not directed by Hayao Miyazaki to earn more than $100 million (~￥10 billion) at the Japanese box office. It topped the box office in Japan for a record- breaking 12 non-consecutive weekends. It held the number-one position for nine consecutive weekends before being toppled by Death Note: Light Up the New World in the last weekend of October. It returned to the top for another three weeks before finally being dethroned by Hollywood blockbuster Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them. The success of the film also extended beyond Japan. In China, it became the highest-grossing Japanese film in the world's second- largest movie market on December 17, 2016. It has grossed in China and is the highest-grossing 2D animated film in the country. Its opening screened in over 7,000 theaters. It made an estimated $10.9 million on its opening day from 66,000 screenings and attracting over 2.77 million admissions, the biggest 2D animated opening in the country. It also held the record for the highest- grossing non-Hollywood foreign film in China, up until it was surpassed by two Indian films, Dangal and Secret Superstar, in May 2017 and February 2018, respectively. The film was number-one on its opening five days in South Korea, with 1.18 million admissions and a gross of , becoming the first Japanese film since Howl's Moving Castle to reach number one in the country. The film eventually drew 3.81 million admissions in South Korea and grossed $23.6 million, making it the highest-grossing anime film in South Korea until it was surpassed by The First Slam Dunk and Suzume in 2023. In Thailand it grossed ฿44.1 million (). As of December 26, the film has grossed US$771,945 in Australia. and US$95,278 in New Zealand. On a December 20 blog post, the Australian distributor Madman stated that the film had made over AU$1,000,000 in the Australian box office alone before closing its limited release run. In the United States and Canada, the film grossed $5,017,246. In the United Kingdom, it grossed () in 2016, making it the year's fifth highest-grossing non-English and non-Hindi film in the UK. ===Critical response=== The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 98% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 116 reviews, with an average rating of 8.2/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "As beautifully animated as it is emotionally satisfying, Your Name adds another outstanding chapter to writer- director Makoto Shinkai's filmography." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 81 out of 100 based on 26 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Mark Schilling of The Japan Times gave the film a rating of 4 out of 5 and praised the film's animation for its "blend of gorgeous, realistic detail and emotionally grounded fantasy". He also described the film's "over-deliver[y]" of "the comedy of adolescent embarrassment and awkwardness" and its ending for being "To the surprise of no one who has ever seen a Japanese seishun eiga (youth drama)". Reception outside of Japan was also very positive. Mark Kermode called the film his ninth favourite film to be released in the United Kingdom in 2016. US reviews were mostly positive. The New York Times described it as "a wistfully lovely Japanese tale", while David Sims of The Atlantic said it was "a dazzling new work of anime". Furthermore, The Boston Globe had a positive opinion of the film, saying that it was "pretty but too complicated". Mike Toole from Anime News Network listed it as the third-best anime film of all time. John Musker and Ron Clements, directors of the Disney animated films The Great Mouse Detective, The Little Mermaid, Aladdin, Hercules, Treasure Planet, The Princess and the Frog, and Moana, praised the film for its beauty and uniqueness. Despite the praise he received, Makoto Shinkai insisted that the film is not as good as it could have been: "There are things we could not do, Masashi Ando [Director of Animation] wanted to keep working [on] but had to stop us for lack of money ... For me, it's incomplete, unbalanced. The plot is fine but the film is not at all perfect. Two years was not enough." ===Legacy=== Nekotufu, the creator of the manga series Onimai: I'm Now Your Sister!, cited Your Name as an influence, saying that the popularity of the film motivated the creation of the series. According to Crunchyroll, the phenomenal success of Your Name helped push non- Ghibli anime into a more mainstream place in Japan, and changed trends in not only how anime films were made but also how they were promoted. ==Accolades== List of awards and nominations Year Award Category Recipient(s) Result 2016 49th Sitges Film Festival Best Animated Feature Length Film Your Name 60th BFI London Film Festival Best Film 18th Bucheon International Animation Festival Best Animated Feature Special Distinction Prize rowspan=4 Best Animated Feature Audiences Prize 29th Tokyo International Film Festival Arigato Award Makoto Shinkai 6th Newtype Anime Awards Best Picture (Film) Your Name Best Soundtrack rowspan=2 Best Theme Song Category ZenZenZense 41st Hochi Film Award Best Picture Your Name rowspan=2 29th Nikkan Sports Film Award Best Film Best Director Makoto Shinkai rowspan=2 2016 Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards Best Animated Film Your Name Women Film Critics Circle 2016 Best Animated Female 2017 20th Japan Media Arts Festival Grand Prize of Animation Division rowspan=6 Japan Expo Awards Daruma d’Or Daruma for Best Picture Daruma for Best Direction Daruma for Best Screenplay Daruma for Best Soundtrack 37th Nihon SF Taisho Award Grand Prize rowspan=5 44th Annie Awards Best Animated Feature — Independent Outstanding Achievement, Directing in an Animated Feature Production Makoto Shinkai 21st Satellite Awards Best Animated or Mixed Media Feature Your Name 48th Seiun Awards Best Media 71st Mainichi Film Awards Best Animated Film 59th Blue Ribbon Awards Best Film rowspan=2 Best Director Makoto Shinkai Special Award Your Name rowspan=2 40th Japan Academy Prize Excellent Animation of the Year Your Name Animation of the Year rowspan=2 Director of the Year Makoto Shinkai Screenplay of the Year rowspan=6 Outstanding Achievement in Music Radwimps 36th Anima Festival Audience Award for Best Animated Feature Your Name 11th Seiyu Awards Best Actor Ryunosuke Kamiki Best Actress Mone Kamishiraishi Synergy Award Your Name 11th Asia Pacific Screen Awards Best Animated Feature Film rowspan=4 7th AACTA Awards Best Asian Film San Francisco Film Critics Circle Awards 2017 Best Animated Feature 2018 44th Saturn Awards Best Animated Film 2nd Crunchyroll Anime Awards Best Animated Film ==Adaptations== ===Books=== Your Name is a Japanese light novel written by Makoto Shinkai. It is a novelization of the animated film of the same name, which was directed by Shinkai. It was published in Japan by Kadokawa on June 18, 2016, a month prior to the film premiere. By September 2016, the light novel had sold around 1,029,000 copies. An official visual guide was also released. The novel sold over 1.3million copies, while the novel and visual guide sold over 2.5million copies combined. ===Live- action film=== On September 27, 2017, producer J. J. Abrams and screenwriter Eric Heisserer announced that they were working on a live-action remake of Your Name to be released by Paramount Pictures and Bad Robot Productions, alongside the original film's producers, Toho, who will handle the film's distribution in Japan. The film was being written by Eric Heisserer, who revealed that the Japanese right holders want it to be made from the western point of view. In February 2019, Marc Webb signed on to direct the remake. The film will be about a young Native American woman living in a rural area and a young man from Chicago who discover they are magically and intermittently swapping bodies. In September 2020, Deadline Hollywood reported that Lee Isaac Chung had taken over as both writer and director, working off a draft penned by Emily V. Gordon, with Abrams and Genki Kawamura co-producing. In July 2021, Chung departed from the project, citing scheduling issues. On October 31, 2022, Carlos López Estrada was announced to write and direct the remake, replacing Webb and Chung. ==See also== * List of highest-grossing animated films * List of highest-grossing anime films * List of highest-grossing films in Japan ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * * * * * * * Category:2016 films Category:2016 animated films Category:2016 anime films Category:2010s high school films Category:2010s teen fantasy films Category:2010s teen romance films Category:Japanese animated feature films Category:Animated films about time travel Category:Animated teen films Category:Anime and manga about time travel Category:Anime with original screenplays Category:Body swapping in films Category:Comets in film Category:CoMix Wave Films films Category:Crunchyroll Anime Awards winners Category:Films about dreams Category:Films about natural disasters Category:Films based on Japanese novels Category:Films directed by Makoto Shinkai Category:Films set in 2013 Category:Films set in 2016 Category:Films set in 2021 Category:Films set in Gifu Prefecture Category:Films set in Tokyo Category:Films with screenplays by Makoto Shinkai Category:Funimation Category:Films about impact events Category:Japanese animated fantasy films Category:Japanese high school films Category:2010s Japanese-language films Category:Japanese romantic fantasy films Category:Kadokawa Dwango franchises Category:Mythology in popular culture Category:Toho animated films |
William Mayfield (1810–1862) was an American pioneer in Illinois, Texas, and California; a soldier, farmer, miner, and a cattleman. He led Tulare County militia to aid settlers in the early part of the Owens Valley Indian War and was killed in the Battle of Mayfield Canyon. ==Early life in Tennessee & Illinois== William Mayfield, was born in Tennessee, in 1810, 1850 Census, Mariposa County, CA, p. 47 Nov. 13, 18501850 Census, San Joaquin County, CA, p. 550 Dec. 3, 1850 son of Elijah and Elizabeth Mayfield. His first marriage was on October 6, 1828 to Terissa Faller, also called "Tussa", from Hardeman County, Tennessee. HARDEMAN COUNTY, TENNESSEE, Marriage Records, Ma-McG, 1824-1950Re: [MAYFIELD] Texas Land Records Sat, 27 Mar 2004, from http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com accessed April 28, 2013 They had 2 children born in Illinois, John Mayfield in 1829 and Benjamin Mayfield in 1831. In 1832, William Mayfield served in the Black Hawk War, as a private in the Company of Captain Levi D. Boone, Brigade of Mounted Volunteers. His unit was mustered into service on April 26, 1832 at Beardstown, Illinois, after being enrolled by the Captain at Montgomery, Illinois on April 20 for 60 days. Mayfield was mustered out of service, along with his unit at the mouth of the Fox River on the Illinois River, on May 28, 1832, while it was attached to the 2nd Regiment under Col. Jacob Fry. Ellen M Whitney, Collections of the Illinois State Historical Library Volume XXXV, The Black Hawk War, 1831-1832, Volume I, Illinois Volunteers Illinois State Historical Library, Springfield, 1970, p.146. == Texas == William Mayfield moved to Texas in spring 1837 and received a provisional 1280 acre land grant in Washington County which forbade him to sell the land and required him to be a responsible citizen for 3 years before his grant became unconditional and he received his patent. Re: [MAYFIELD] Republic of Texas 1840 Date: Fri, 19 Mar 2004, from http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com accessed April 28, 2013 In 1838, Mayfield added by purchase to his grant, 300 acres of land fronting on the Navasota River.Re: [MAYFIELD] Texas Land Records Sat, 27 Mar 2004, from http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com accessed April 28, 2013; From Deed Record C page 178: Title Bond 7 Dec 1838 John Walker to William Mayfield, $500. Conditions: $600 paid Walker, conveys 300 acres to be selected in 1/3 league purchased by Walker of A Givens, said land fronting on the Navisota River. Witness: L T Mills(?), Geo W Horton. From Washington County, Texas Deed Abstracts 1834 - 1841. Abstracted by Joyce Martin Murray, 1986. William Mayfield served as a Second Corporal in the Texas Rangers, in Captain Henry Smith's Volunteer Rangers, from March 1 - September 1, 1839 during the Texian - Cherokee War. His unit was one of those that fought in the July 15–16, 1839 Battle of the Neches.Stephen L. Moore, Savage Frontier, Volume II: 1838-1839, Rangers, Riflemen and Indian Wars in Texas, U. of N. Texas Press, Denton, 2006; Pg. 271 After he received his patent in 1840 he bought other lands and sold part of them for money.Re: [MAYFIELD] Texas Land Records Sat, 27 Mar 2004, from http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com accessed April 28, 2013; page 449: Bond 17 June 1840 William Mayfield binds self to Levi Morgan, $318. Condition: for $159 sells to Morgan 159 acres to be taken off 458 acres Mayfield purchased from C Smith, & being 1/3 league survey for Smith under Certificate 119 issued from Board of Commissioners for Roberson Co. (Signed also by Tussa Mayfield, no relationship stated.) Witensses J E Faller, J Mayfield. From Washington County, Texas Deed Abstracts 1834 - 1841. Abstracted by Joyce Martin Murray, 1986. In 1843, Williams third son, Thomas Jefferson Mayfield was born.Thomas J. Mayfield, Indian summer: traditional life among the Choinumne Indians of California's San Joaquin Valley, Heyday Books, Berkley, 1993, p.25 Mayfield's son Thomas Jefferson claimed his father fought against the Mexicans with Sam Houston and became a captain. In the Mexican American War he claimed he was in the force of Alexander W. Doniphan and that Doniphan "wrote a letter to Uncle Sam and Uncle Sam made my daddy a colonel."Mayfield, Indian summer, pp.25-26 However, there is no record of such an officer with Doniphan's 1st Regiment of Missouri Mounted Volunteers, nor in any of the Texas State units in that war. William Hugh Robarts, "Mexican War veterans : a complete roster of the regular and volunteer troops in the war between the United States and Mexico, from 1846 to 1848 ; the volunteers are arranged by states, alphabetically", BRENTANO'S, (A. S. WITHERBEE & CO, Proprietors,; WASHINGTON, D. C., 1887. pp.60-61, 74–78 After William's first wife Terissa or Tussa, died sometime before 1848, he married Mary Ann Curd on March 16, 1848, in Brazos County, Texas. Brazos County Early Marriages: William Mayfield to Mary Ann Curd, 16 Mar 1848 ==California== In 1849, William and his family were headed to California with a U. S. Army wagon train but were sent back to avoid the danger to civilians from the Lipan Apache on the trail and they then took a six-month trip by ship from Galveston around Cape Horn to reach California. After they landed at San Francisco,Mayfield, Indian summer, pp.26-27 William took his family to the southern end of the San Joaquin Valley, then Mariposa County, now Tulare County to a place at the confluence of Sycamore Creek with the Kings River, (about 1.5 miles above modern Trimmer, California). There he and his sons built a cabin, put in crops and began mining.Mayfield, Indian summer, pp.26-42 Thomas Jefferson does not mention a sister but a Miran (Mary Ann) Mayfield, age 3 born in Texas, appears on the California 1850 mortality schedule which means she died between June 1849 and June 1850 and in the 1850 census in Mariposa County there are no other Mayfields there.http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/MAYFIELD/2000-07/0963982548 Date: Thu, 20 Aug 1998 16:05:31 -0700, From: Hoyle Mayfield The Nov. 13, 1850 census, shows Mayfield 40 with $10,000 in property and his son John 20 as miners. His son Ben 16 is listed separately with Mary 20 and her child S [or T] Willson Mayfield 7, presumably at the cabin. 1850 Census, Mariposa County, CA, p. 49 Nov. 13, 1850 Mayfield and his son John may have taken livestock to Stockton, California at the end of the year because they are also listed as farmers in the 1850 census in San Joaquin County on Nov. 24, 1850. 1850 Census, San Joaquin County, CA, p. 539 Nov. 24, 1850 The whole family (William, Mary, John, Benjamin, and Thomas Wm.) appears once again in the 1850 census in San Joaquin County, on Dec. 3, 1850. Mary died in 1850, apparently in December after that census record was made.Marshall, Elmer Grady, The History of Brazos County, Texas, University of Texas, Austin, 1937. On the Curd family, it says that Mary Ann married William Mayfield and died about 1850.] In 1851, William left Thomas [8] to be raised by the Choinumni, the friendly Yokuts tribe living across the river from his cabin, while he and his two older sons left to engage in mining and raising cattle for the next 10 years.Thomas Jefferson Mayfield, in his story to Latta, called his stepmother Mary Ann Curd, mother, never mentioning his birth mother, suggesting Terissa died so early in his life that he had no memory of her. It also suggests Mary cared for him from the earliest years of his life, before her marriage to William, perhaps when she was as young as 13 years old, if Terissa died in or soon after child birth. Also Miran (Mary Ann) Mayfield, age 3 born in Texas, Thomas' sister, (who he strangely never mentioned) appears on the California 1850 mortality schedule which means she died between June 1849 and June 1850. This would mean she was conceived close to between September 1845 or as early as September 1846, 2 to 3 years before the marriage between Mary Ann Curd with William when she was 15 or 16 years old. Coupled with Williams odd abandonment of Thomas to the care of the local tribe of Yokuts for years with few visits, suggests his father may have blamed Thomas for his first wife's death, and could not bear to have him near him after his second wife died and was no longer there to care for him. While his son Thomas Jefferson was living among the Choinumni, William Mayfield helped do the first survey of Tulare County, placed the first hogs around Tulare Lake. With his older sons he ran cattle and horses through most of the San Joaquin Valley, captured wild horses on the west side of that valley and fought Monache on the east side becoming well known throughout the valley.[Mayfield, Indian summer, p.22] ==Owens Valley Indian War== In 1861, cattle were being driven over the Sierras to feed the mining boon town of Aurora. Some cattlemen had begun ranching nearby in the Owens Valley. The consequences of the disastrous winter caused by the Great Flood of 1862 and the encroachment of the cattle on the food supply of the Paiute led to the threat of starvation for the Owens Valley Paiute who were forced to take cattle to feed themselves. This led to a conflict with these ranchers that broke into open warfare, known as the Owens Valley Indian War. The settlers sent word to the county seat at Visalia for help and William Mayfield led a band of Tulare County militiamen to the aid of the settlers there. After joining forces with a detachment of militia from Aurora, he marched north with his command of 60 men and engaged the Paiute in the Battle of Bishop Creek where his force was driven back and had to hold out in a ditch until nightfall when they were able to withdraw and turned back down the valley. The next day they encountered the California Volunteer force under George S. Evans and Mayfield and 40 of his men, joined him. As Evans' and Mayfield's force marched north, Evans' scouts reported that Lieutenant Noble with fifty men of Company A, 2nd Cavalry, from Fort Churchill on their way south to Putnam's Store were nearby. Colonel Evans halted until Lieutenant Noble's command could come up with them and then proceeded to the north. Scouts were sent out and one scout returned reporting a large force of Indians 12 miles (19 km) away near Bishop Creek. Evans moved up in a snow storm, but the Indians had left at the approach of the main body of cavalry. Campfires were observed in a canyon to the north. April 9, 1862, the following day Evans advanced to the canyon now known as Mayfield Canyon and engaged the Paiute who were above them in the canyon. Mayfield and four of his men advanced with the Volunteers and he was wounded in the firefight. While being carried back under fire he was killed. Mayfield Canyon was later named in his honor. Roger D. Mcgrath, Gunfighters, Highwaymen, and Vigilantes: Violence on the Frontier, University of California Press, 1987, pp.24-28 Willie Arthur Chalfant, The story of Inyo, Hammond Press, W. B. Conkey Company, Chicago, 1922, pp. 108-118 ==Legacy== Of William Mayfield's sons after his death, none were married or had children. John herded cattle until poisoned by a cook after a quarrel about 1870. Benjamin became a miner but was tried twice for murder after he killed the outlaw John Mason in 1866. Exonerated in 1869, he died an embittered man in the 1870s. Thomas Jefferson Mayfield became known after his death in 1928 for the tale of his days as a boy among the Choinumni. The site of the Mayfield cabin and the Choinumni village across the Kings River are now under Pine Flat Lake. ==References== Category:1810 births Category:1862 deaths Category:American military personnel killed in action Category:American people of the Black Hawk War Category:Immigrants to the Republic of Texas Category:People of the Republic of Texas Category:People of the California Gold Rush Category:Military history of California Category:American cattlemen Category:American pioneers Category:People of the American Old West Category:Owens Valley Indian War |
is a retired Japanese figure skater. She is the 1989 World champion and the 1992 Olympic silver medalist. She is the first woman to land a triple-triple jump combination and a triple Axel in competition. At the 1988 Calgary Olympics, she became the first woman to land seven triple jumps in an Olympic free skating competition. She is widely recognised as one of the best figure skaters of all time. ==Career== Ito started skating at age four at a rink in Nagoya and approached Machiko Yamada, who would become her coach throughout her career, on the same day. She landed her first triple jump at age 8. She went to live with her coach after her parents' divorce when she was 10. Ito made her first appearance at a major international competition at the 1981 World Junior Championships. She placed 20th in the compulsory figures but won the free skating with a triple loop, a triple salchow, and two triple toe loop combinations. She finished 8th in the overall standings. At this event, the 11-year-old Ito was only 3'11" tall and weighed 53 pounds. She was nicknamed the "Jumping Flea" due to her diminutive size and powerful jumps. At the 1982 World Junior Championships, Ito won both the short program and free skating, but again weak compulsory figures kept her off the podium, in 6th place overall. Her free skating at this event included a triple flip and a triple toe loop-triple toe loop combination, and she landed a triple Lutz in the exhibition. Ito did not compete at the 1983 World Junior event, which took place in December 1982, after having sustained a broken ankle earlier that year. In the fall of 1983, she made her senior international debut at the Ennia Challenge Cup in the Netherlands, a competition that featured the short program and free skating only, without compulsory figures. She finished second to Katarina Witt, who went on to win the Olympic title a few months later. Ito's free skating included six triple jumps—flip, Lutz, loop, Salchow, and two toe loops—and she also completed a double loop-triple loop combination in the short program. At the 1984 World Junior Championships, she won both the short program and free skating but finished third overall due to a low placement in the compulsory figures. Ito also competed at the 1984 World Championships, where she finished 7th. Ito won her first national championship in the 1985 season, but was unable to compete at that year's World Championships after again breaking her ankle. From that time on, she increased the number of triple jumps she would attempt in the free skating. From 1985 to 1987, Ito's free skating included seven triple jumps, but she would not always perform them cleanly. She would attempt a triple toe loop-triple toe loop combination, a Lutz jump, a flip jump, a loop jump, a Salchow jump in combination and another solo Salchow jump. Ito placed 5th at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. In Calgary, she performed a double loop- triple loop in the short program, and seven triples in the free skating: Lutz, flip, double Axel-half loop-triple Salchow combination, loop, triple toe loop- triple toe loop combination, and another Salchow. She received the best technical scores given, two 5.8 and seven 5.9 marks, despite skating before the final flight. Her successful seven triple jumps were two more than any of the other skaters even attempted. Figure skating writer and historian Ellyn Kestnbaum speculates that Ito's low marks in compulsory figures took her out of contention for a medal, which might have influenced the judges to award her lower scores in her short and free skating programs. Kestnbaum also states that her technically-difficult free skate would have held up well against the most difficult programs performed by female single skaters ten years later, and that as of 2003, "the quality of her jumps (apart from the less-preferred high wrapped position of her free leg while in the air) has never been equaled". Ito's presentation marks also suffered, despite her "high energy and pleasing cheerfulness", due to her tendency to keep her back and shoulders stiff, which resulted in a lack of fluidity and sublety in her musical expressiveness. Later that same year, she perfected the triple Axel, which she had been working on since her early teens, and landed it at a regional competition in the Aichi Prefecture. She became the first woman to land it in international competition at the 1988 NHK Trophy. She then repeated the feat at the World Championships in 1989. Ito thus became the first woman to execute all six possible triple jumps in World competition: Axel, Lutz, flip, loop, Salchow, and toe loop. She was 6th in the compulsory figures but made up for it. She won the gold medal with a flawless free skating when she received 6.0s for technical merit from five of the nine judges, receiving 5.9s from the rest. Her win at the 1989 World Championships was the first world title in the sport for an Asian competitor. During the start of the 1989–90 season, Ito made history again at the 1989 NHK Trophy competition, where she received a rare 6.0 technical/6.0 artistic score from the Hungarian judge, and again landed seven triples, including the triple Axel. At the 1990 World Championships, Ito was 10th after the compulsory figures but placed first in both the short program and the free skating and won the silver medal, second to Jill Trenary. She landed seven triple jumps in the free skating, including the triple Axel. Compulsory figures were eliminated from competitions following that season. Ito commented: "In training, I spend about two-thirds of my time on the figures. So I will sort of miss them as part of my life. But I will not miss them in the actual event." In June 1990, she was invited to meet Emperor Akihito. Ito had chronically sore knees due to her jumps. In February 1991, she underwent surgery to remove two glandular cysts in her throat and was in the hospital for 18 days. In March, at the 1991 World Championships, Ito collided with France's Laetitia Hubert during a practice session – her hip and the top of her foot were bruised. In the short program, she placed her jump combination too close to the corner of the rink and fell into the opening in the boards for the television camera but was back on the ice within seconds. She finished 4th at the event. At the 1991 Grand Prix International de Paris – a pre-Olympic event in Albertville – Ito beat Kristi Yamaguchi by completing a triple Axel and five other triple jumps in her free skating. During the warm-up before the free skating, she landed a triple Axel- triple toe loop jump combination. thumb|right|Ito on an Azerbaijani postage stamp The 1992 Winter Olympics did not include the compulsory figures which caused Ito to lose the World championships the year before even after winning the short program and free skating competitions. With only the short program and the free skating to perform, she became the heiress apparent to Katarina Witt. She planned to perform the triple Axel combined with a double toe loop for the jump combination requirement in the short program but changed it to a triple Lutz combination. Ito placed fourth in the short program when she fell on her triple Lutz jump. In comparison, Kristi Yamaguchi and Nancy Kerrigan completed their triple Lutz-double toe loop combinations and then placed one and two, respectively. The change may have an interesting origin. During a practice session, Surya Bonaly of France performed a back flip near her. Ito was nearly hit on the head and was obviously shaken. Subsequently, her practice with her triple Axel jumps turned out poorly, which may have led her to take it out of the original program. Ito's free skating began with a failed triple Axel but she attempted it again at the end of her program and landed it successfully, becoming the first woman to land one in the Olympics. She won the silver medal, and apologized to her country for not winning the gold. Ito turned professional afterwards, bringing the triple Axel for the first time to the professional ranks, and performed with ice shows in Japan. She briefly returned to competitive skating in the 1995–96 season, but without her former success. During the peak of her career, Ito performed much the same jump content as the top male skaters of the time. She was the first ladies' skater to perform a triple-triple jump combination and the first to perform the triple Axel. In March 1990, Jill Trenary said, "I was in awe of how high she jumps." In 1990, Scott Hamilton said "it will be 50 years before we see anything like Midori Ito again," and Toller Cranston, the same year, noted that "she is beyond 6.0." Her mastery of triple jumps, including the triple axel, was the start of "a new era in women's skating", before several triple jumps, usually of five different types, became the norm in championship free skating programs. Ito lit the Olympic Cauldrob during the opening ceremonies of the 1998 Winter Olympics. Ito returned to competitive figure skating in 2011. She competed at the ISU Adult Figure Skating Competition and placed second in her category, Ladies' Masters Elite II. Ito repeated her second- place finish the following year. In 2013, on her third year competing at the ISU Adult Figure Skating Championship, she took the title with a 12 points margin over the second place. ==Programs== ===Post–2010=== Season Free skating 2012–2013 * The theme for the TV series Atsuhime 2010–2011 * Whisper of the River ===Pre-1996=== Season Short program Free skating Exhibition 1995–96 * The Firebird * Cinderella * Nessun dorma 1991–92 * Tango Jalousie * España cañí * Piano Concerto No. 1 \---- * Piano Concerto No. 1 * Piano Concerto No. 2 * Rhythm of the Rain * Singin' in the Rain * Over the Rainbow \---- * On My Own 1990–91 * Warsaw Concerto * Piano Concerto No. 5 "Emperor" * Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini Variation XVIII * Finlandia * Rhythm of the Rain * Singin' in the Rain * Over the Rainbow \---- * On My Own 1989–90 * Anvil Chorus * Memories of You * Scheherazade * Yotei no MatsuriComposed by students studying at Yamaha Music Schools. \---- * Mission: Impossible \---- * On My Own 1988–89 * Fantastic Tango * A Classical Rock * Concerto No.1 for Piano * Somewhere Out There \---- * Conga 1987–88 * Yotei no Matsuri * Le Corsaire Pas de Deux Adagio * Marco Spada Ballet * Grand Pas Classique Coda * Paquita Adagio/Coda * Time Passage \---- * Aramis'78 Image album \---- * Sweet Dreamer 1986–87 * Nine to Five soundtrack * Magical City * Aramis'78 Image album 1985–86 * Tyrolean fairy * Magical City 1984–85 * Sweet Dreamer * Ice Paradice * Sweet Dreamer 1983–84 * * Rightning Attacker \---- * Unknown * Kotoriya-no-Mise (The Bird Shop) \---- * Aim for the Ace! opening theme 1982–83 * Rightning Attacker 1981–82 * Nine to Five soundtrack ==Results== International International International International International International International International International International International International International International International Event 80–81 81–82 82–83 83–84 84–85 85–86 86–87 87–88 88–89 89–90 90–91 91–92 95–96 Olympics 5th 2nd Worlds 7th 11th 8th 6th 1st 2nd 4th 7th Skate America 2nd 2nd Skate Canada 1st Fujifilm Trophy 1st Int. de Paris 1st NHK Trophy 1st 1st 2nd 2nd 1st 1st 1st 1st Prague Skate 1st International Challenge Cup 2nd International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior International: Junior Junior Worlds 8th 6th 3rd National National National National National National National National National National National National National National National Japan Champ. 3rd 2nd 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st Japan Junior 1st 1st ==Records and achievements== ===Amateur=== * First World Champion from an Asian country (1989). * First woman to land a triple-triple jump combination (1981). * First woman to land a double loop-triple loop combination (in the short program) (1983). * First woman to land five different triple jumps in competition (1983). * First woman to land a triple Axel in competition (1988). * First woman to land six different triple jumps in competition (1989). * First woman to land a triple Axel in the Olympics (1992). ===Awards=== * Inducted into the World Figure Skating Hall of Fame (2003). ===Triple Axel=== Ito landed 18 triple Axels in competition. 1988–89 Aichi Prefecture Championships (FS) Japanese Free Skating Championships (FS) NHK Trophy (FS) Japan Figure Skating Championships (FS) World Championships (FS) 1989–90 NHK Trophy (FS) World Championships (FS) 1990–91 East Japan Championships (FS) NHK Trophy (FS) Japan Figure Skating Championships (FS) 1991–92 East Japan Championships (FS) Trophee Lalique (FS) NHK Trophy (SP(combination with double toe loop), FS(combination with double toe loop)) Japan Figure Skating Championships (SP(combination with double toe loop), FS) Winter Olympics (FS) 1995–96 Japan Figure Skating Championships (FS) ==Media appearances== ===DVD=== * 伊藤みどりのフィギュアスケート・ライフ努力編 (2006) – * 伊藤みどりのフィギュアスケート・ライフ人生編 (2007) – * 伊藤みどりのフィギュアスケート・ライフ (2007) – ===Book=== * タイム・パッセージ―時間旅行（1993）- * 伊藤みどり物語 (1992) – * 氷上の宝石―伊藤みどり写真集 (1993) – ==In other media== * She is briefly seen in the film I, Tonya (2017) played by actress Fi Dieter in an uncredited role. ==References== ==External links== * Green – Midori Ito Official Blog * Midori Ito fan site, including extensive biography and pictures Category:Japanese female single skaters Category:Figure skaters at the 1988 Winter Olympics Category:Figure skaters at the 1992 Winter Olympics Category:Olympic figure skaters for Japan Category:Olympic silver medalists for Japan Category:Figure skaters from Nagoya Category:1969 births Category:Living people Category:Olympic cauldron lighters Category:Olympic medalists in figure skating Category:World Figure Skating Championships medalists Category:World Junior Figure Skating Championships medalists Category:Figure skating commentators Category:Medalists at the 1992 Winter Olympics |
Talksport (styled as talkSPORT), owned by Wireless Group, is a sports radio station in the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland. The station was originally launched as Talk Radio UK in 1995. Talksport's content includes live coverage of sporting events, interviews with the leading names in sport and entertainment, phone-ins and discussion. Talksport, alongside sister station Talksport 2, is an official broadcaster for several sporting contests, including the Premier League and English Football League. In the UK, Talksport is available on its primary frequency in London, 1089 kHz, as well as 1053 kHz, 1071 kHz, and 1107 kHz, DAB, Sky, Virgin Media, Freeview, on mobile, and online. Talksport has been available on Freesat since April 2016. Outside the UK and Ireland, Talksport broadcasts live commentary of every Premier League match around the world in multiple languages including English, Spanish and Mandarin. On 25 June 2016, Rupert Murdoch's News Corp announced that it was acquiring the parent Wireless Group company for $296 million. As of March 2023, the station broadcasts to a weekly audience of 3.2 million listeners, according to RAJAR. ==History== ===Talk Radio era=== The station was originally and officially launched as Talk Radio UK on 14 February 1995, with the original Talk Radio Breakfast Show. However, the first live broadcast had been Caesar the Geezer's phone-in which aired the previous night. Other presenters on Talk Radio included Jeremy Beadle, Tommy Boyd, Anna Raeburn, Lorraine Kelly, Gary Newbon, Terry Christian, and Dale Winton. Also in the line-up were Caesar the Geezer, Wild Al Kelly and Nick Miller, dubbed as shock jocks. A year later Talk Radio launched a new breakfast show presented by Paul Ross and Carol McGiffin. Former BBC Radio 1 DJ Simon Bates also joined the station, along with James Whale, Ian Collins, and Mike Dickin. Talk Radio made its first foray into the world of sports radio rights bidding by purchasing from BBC Radio 5 Live the rights to broadcast Football League matches for the 1997–98 season. In addition, the station broadcast its first FIFA World Cup from France in 1998, bringing in the Sky Sports commentary team of Alan Parry and Andy Gray to commentate on the major matches. Dave Roberts covered additional games in France. Talk Radio also acquired up the rights to broadcast Manchester United's matches in the Champions League for the 1998–99 season. ===Creation of Talksport=== On 12 November 1998, TalkCo Holdings – whose chairman and chief executive was Kelvin MacKenzie, former editor of The Sun – purchased Talk Radio. This led to a mass clearout of presenters including Nick Abbot, Anna Raeburn, Tommy Boyd and Peter Deeley, with MacKenzie placing an emphasis on a sports-oriented programming schedule, including The Sportszone with Alan Parry, Gary Newbon, Tony Lockwood, Tom Watt, and former Century Radio sports editor Dave Roberts presenting the weekend edition of The Sports Breakfast. In late 1999, TalkCo, rebranded as The Wireless Group, announced a relaunch of Talk Radio to become the UK's first national commercial sports radio station called Talksport. The relaunch occurred at midnight on 17 January 2000, and was accompanied by the station moving from Oxford Street to a new studio at Hatfields on the South Bank of the River Thames. Now mainly dedicated to sport, the programming lineup was drastically altered, beginning with The Sports Breakfast show; this was followed by a mid-morning motoring show called The Car Guys, with further sports programming in the afternoon and evening. Almost all the station's talk show presenters were axed at the time, including The Big Boys Breakfast with David Banks and Nick Ferrari, with only James Whale, Ian Collins and Mike Dickin surviving. To complement its new format, Talksport purchased the rights to broadcast Manchester United, Arsenal and Newcastle United matches in the UEFA Champions League, the FA Cup, England football internationals, UEFA Cup, England's winter cricket tours to South Africa, Zimbabwe, Pakistan, and India, British & Irish Lions tours to South Africa and New Zealand, and rights to the Super League, Rugby League World Cup, and world title boxing Fights. The new line-up involved a number of presenters and commentators, including Alan Brazil, Mark Nicholas, Chris Cowdrey, Geoffrey Boycott, Mike Parry, Peter Shilton, Brian Moore, Brough Scott, Tom Watt, Gary Newbon, Ian Darke, Tony Banks, and Alvin Martin. ===Expansion of the Talk brand=== Sound Digital's successful bid for second national commercial DAB multiplex in 2016 also saw the return of Talkradio, as well as Virgin Radio and the creation of Talksport 2. On 25 June 2016, Rupert Murdoch's News Corp announced that it was acquiring the parent Wireless Group company for $296 million. Since June 2020 it has also produced sports bulletins for Times Radio. In 2022 a televised version of TalkRadio launched on TV. ==Programming history== Talksport and Talksport 2 hold exclusive and non-exclusive rights to various sports in the UK. * May 2001: Talksport secured rights to broadcast Premier League games for the first time. The Radio Authority granted the station permission to broadcast games involving Chelsea, Fulham, and Tottenham Hotspur on their London transmitters only.MEDIA BRIEFS: Premiership games live on Talksport PR Week, 4 May 2001 Later, Talksport also secured similar deals with Everton, Blackburn Rovers, and Manchester City for their transmitters in Greater Manchester, Merseyside, and Lancashire following approval from the Radio Authority. The station also had the ability to split their transmitters in the West Midlands for games involving Aston Villa, but this was never utilised. * December 2002: Talksport announced plans for the station's first ever music show. An easy listening music show entitled Champagne & Roses with Gerald Harper, was broadcast each Saturday evening. The show was axed after less than six months.talkSPORT Station History – 2003 talkSPORT1089.co.uk * June 2004: Talksport broadcast their first international football tournament officially. Euro 2004 from Portugal was broadcast live on Talksport with commentary of various matches, including the final, from Jim Proudfoot and Alvin Martin. * June 2006: the station broadcast the 2006 World Cup, with live match commentary of all 64 matches in Germany. Commentary was provided by Jim Proudfoot, Chris Cooper, Nigel Pearson, Ian Danter, Tim White, and Geoff Peters with punditry from Alvin Martin, Rodney Marsh, Gary Stevens, Jason Cundy, and Micky Quinn. * August 2006: Former Sky Sports presenter Kelly Dalglish became the first female sports presenter on Talksport, hosting Monday's edition of Kick-Off alongside Gabriele Marcotti and Jason Cundy * October 2006: Talksport becomes the first national commercial radio broadcaster to win Premier League commentary rights. Talksport wins a package that allows it to broadcast the second choice Saturday afternoon games that kick off at 3pm, with the BBC getting first pick. * April 2009: Russell Brand and Noel Gallagher were signed by Talksport to present a one-off football talk show on 19 April 2009.Russell Brand returning to radio BBC News, 15 April 2009 It was only a few months after Brand resigned from BBC Radio 2 in the wake of the uproar over the "Sachsgate" affair. * February 2010: Talksport gained more Premier League football in the latest radio bidding wars. Whilst relinquishing their 3pm package to football newcomers Absolute Radio, they won two packages from BBC Radio 5 Live. They took over the national radio rights to broadcast the late kick-off every Saturday evening from the Premier League (usually kicking off at 5:30pm), and the early Sunday games (before 3pm). This agreement covered the 2010–11 to 2012–13 Premier League seasonsBBC radio loses third of live Premier League matches guardian.co.uk, 18 February 2010 * June 2010: Talksport broadcast the 2010 World Cup, with live match commentary of all 64 matches in South Africa. Commentary was provided by Jim Proudfoot, Ian Danter, Nigel Pearson, John Rawling, and Graham Beecroft with punditry from Alvin Martin, Stan Collymore, Ray Parlour, Bobby Gould, Tony Cascarino, Lawrie Sanchez, and Micky Quinn * September 2011: Talksport broadcast the 2011 Rugby World Cup, with exclusive commentary of all 48 matches in New Zealand. Commentary was provided by John Taylor, Rupert Bell, John Anderson, Russell Hargreaves and Andrew McKenna with punditry from Brian Moore, Jeff Probyn, David Campese, Chris Sheasby, Michael Owen, Scott Quinnell, Gavin Hastings, and Paul Wallace, with presentation from Mark Saggers and Mike Bovill. Additional reporting from Roger Hughes, David Brady, and Stuart CamerontalkSPORT unveil Rugby World Cup plan Radio Today, 8 August 2011 * June 2012: Talksport broadcast Euro 2012, with live commentary of all 31 matches in Poland and Ukraine. Commentary was provided by Sam Matterface, John Roder, Nigel Pearson and Ian Danter, with punditry from Stan Collymore, Alvin Martin, Ray Parlour, Matt Holland and Andy Gray with presentation from Adrian Durham, Mark Saggers and Richard Keys. * July 2012: Talksport secured a joint six-year deal with BBC Radio 5 Live to broadcast live commentaries from the FA Cup, Community Shield and England friendly internationals. * August 2012: Talksport secure a deal to become an official broadcaster of the Aviva Premiership. The deal enables Talksport to broadcast live commentary of selected matches throughout the season either on- air or online. * November 2012: Talksport secured exclusive broadcast rights in the UK to the 2013 British & Irish Lions tour to Australia. * June 2014: Talksport broadcast the 2014 FIFA World Cup, with live commentary of all 64 matches in Brazil. Commentary was provided by Jim Proudfoot, Alan Parry, Gary Taphouse, Nigel Pearson, John Anderson, Andrew McKenna and Richard Connelly with punditry from Stan Collymore, Stuart Pearce, Alvin Martin, Ray Parlour, Matt Holland, Micky Quinn and Alan Curbishley. * March 2016: Talksport 2 launches, a station dedicated to live sports commentaries and specialist programming. * May 2016: Talksport and Talksport 2 are awarded the right to broadcast three Premier League UK live audio packages for the next three football seasons, starting with the 2016/17 season. * June 2016: Talksport and Talksport 2 broadcast Euro 2016, with commentary of all 51 matches. Commentary was provided by Jim Proudfoot, Alan Parry, Gary Taphouse, Ian Danter, Nigel Pearson, John Anderson, Ian Abrahams and Alex Crook, and punditry from Stan Collymore, Stuart Pearce, Joey Barton, Matt Holland, Ray Wilkins, Keith Gillespie, Danny Gabbidon, Michael Gray, Alvin Martin, Danny Higginbotham and Micky Quinn. * May 2017: Talksport secures exclusive national radio rights to the English Football League. It gives them the ability to broadcast up to up 110 EFL fixtures a season for three years until the end of the 2019/2020 season. * June 2017: Talksport and Talksport 2 broadcast exclusive commentary of the 2017 British & Irish Lions tour to New Zealand. * April 2018: Talksport and Talksport 2 secure exclusive broadcast rights to England's winter tours of Sri Lanka and the West Indies. * April 2019: Talksport and Talksport 2 win three of the four Saturday UK radio rights packages for the Premier League . * April 2020: Laura Woods becomes the new lead presenter of Sports Breakfast, taking over from Alan Brazil, who moves to two days a week. * May 2022: Mark Goldbridge becomes presenter of a late night show. ==Broadcast== Broadcast from London to the UK, Talksport is the only UK radio station broadcasting sporting discussions and commentaries 24 hours a day, having dropped 39 hours of weekly non-sports content on 2 April 2012. According to the RAJAR audience figures as of December 2022, Talksport's audience is around 2.9m listeners per week. Talksport 2 has an audience of around 344,000 listeners per week. In a number of areas, particularly in areas where the signal from the main 1089 and 1053 kHz transmitters overlap with each other, Talksport operates a number of filler transmitters on different frequencies: * 1071 kHz: Nottingham, Newcastle * 1107 kHz: Merseyside, West Sussex, South Kent, The Wash, Hampshire The 1089 and 1053 kHz frequencies were previously used by BBC Radio 1 between November 1978 and June 1994. It is also transmitted across the UK digitally via DAB digital radio, Freeview, Sky, Virgin Media and Freesat. Talksport is also streamed online; however, due to rights restrictions on live coverage, some live sport commentaries are not available online. Since August 2011, several shows on Talksport have been available on Sirius XM satellite radio in the US and Canada. During the 2006 FIFA World Cup Talksport was available on Digital Radio DAB in some German cities. ==Sister stations== ===Talksport 2=== The new station launched on 15 March 2016 as part of a Sound Digital's successful bid for second national commercial DAB multiplex. The launch date coincided with the opening day of the 2016 Cheltenham Festival. Former Talksport chief executive Kelvin MacKenzie had proposed a rival sports station as part of Listen2Digital's opposing bid for the second national commercial DAB multiplex. Talksport 2 is a 24-hour sports station which focuses on a broad range of live sporting action from the UK and around the world and includes rugby, cricket, tennis, golf, football and horse racing, plus US sport. On its first day, Talksport 2 broadcast commentary of India v New Zealand in the ICC World Twenty20, Atlético Madrid v PSV Eindhoven in the Champions League and Indian Wells Masters tennis. On 9 June 2020 talkSPORT 2 switched from DAB Mono to DAB+ Stereo to make Room for Times Radio. In its first two years on air, Talksport 2 acquired broadcast rights to the Aviva Premiership, Super League, ATP World Tour Masters 1000, French Open, ICC World Twenty20, NatWest t20 Blast, Royal London One-Day Cup, Indian Premier League, WGC Match Play, La Liga, MotoGP, ICC Champions Trophy, Premier League, English Football League, Champions League and Europa League. It has broadcast specialist programming dedicated to the Football League, La Liga, European football, horse racing rugby league, rugby union, boxing, cricket, tennis, NBA, US sport, and golf. From January 2019, Talksport 2 was re-positioned as a rolling sports news and live sport station. As of March 2023, the station broadcasts to a weekly audience of 472,000 listeners, according to RAJAR. ===Talksport International=== Talksport is the global audio partner of the Premier League, which enables them to broadcast commentary of every Premier League match outside the United Kingdom and Ireland in several languages including English, Spanish and Mandarin. Talksport International also broadcasts selected fixtures in the FA Cup, League Cup and provides commentaries for Amazon Music's Bundesliga coverage. ==Other media== * Soccer Bet was a short-lived 68-page weekly magazine which Talksport had hoped would appeal to football fans that enjoyed betting on games. It was designed in a smaller A5 format to make it easy for fans to carry and the launch was backed by a £500,000 promotional campaign. Soccer Bet lasted just two months before it was axed in October 2003 due to poor sales.Own goal for Soccer Bet Press Gazette, 17 October 2003 * Talksport TV launched in October 2004 platform broadcasting for six hours a day on the Sky Digital television platform aiming to catch listeners who had arrived home from work. The service amounted to little more than the simulcasting of TalkSport's broadcasters and pundits presenting the station's Drive Time and Kick Off programmes. The channel closed in 2005 following the takeover of Talksport by UTV Radio.talkSPORT Hand Back Television Licence to OFCOM talksport1089.com, 11 August 2006 * Talk Radio was set to return to the airwaves as a station on DAB digital radio in 2008 after Ofcom awarded a second DAB digital radio national commercial multiplex to the 4 Digital Group consortium led by Channel 4. However, the station never launched after Channel 4 announced that it was abandoning its plans for digital radio stations * Talksport Magazine launched in May 2008 as a weekly online-only digital publication to extend the station's brand beyond the radio.Radio Today The magazine was integrated into the newly relaunched Talksport website in 2010talkSPORT.co.uk – For men who like to talk sport talkSPORT, 26 July 2010 * Sport was targeted at the affluent male and hand distributed in locations across the country including London mainline and tube stations. It was also available at many hotels, gyms and airportsSport Magazine ===Books, DVDs, and games=== * Talksport Road Trip is a DVD including exclusive footage of the English team and a host of celebrity interviews at the 2006 World Cup released in 2006talkSPORT Road Trip (DVD) Amazon.co.uk * Talksport Legends & Anthems is a three-CD package, released in 2009, featuring 40 tracks by artists such as The Who, The Cure, The Killers, Stevie Wonder, Rod Stewart, and Elton John on two of the discs as well as a bonus CD with out-takes and highlights of TalksporttalkSPORT – Legends & Anthems (CD) Amazon.co.uk * Ten Years of Talksport is a book describing the station's history. Originally released in 2009, an updated version of the book including two new chapters was released in 2011 * The Talksport Book of World Cup Banter – Released in 2010, this is a book of football facts about the FIFA World CupThe Talksport Book of World Cup Banter: All the Ammo You Need to Settle Any Argument Amazon.co.uk * The TalkSport Book of Cricket's Best Ever Sledges features contributions from Talksport presenters Darren Gough and Ronnie Irani among others, recounting 'sledging' (mind-games within cricket). Released in 2010Why Are You So Fat?: The TalkSPORT Book of Cricket's Best Ever Sledges Amazon.co.uk * TalkSPORT Clash Of The Titans is a game created by Mat Dickie (MDickie), It's not available on his download page anymore but can still be downloaded on web.archive.org ==Controversies== * June 2000: Talksport caused a stir with the BBC, after it was revealed Talksport had been broadcasting its live commentaries of matches at Euro 2000 from television monitors rather than from each of the stadia, due to the lack of available broadcast rights. Talksport's commentary team included Alan Parry, Jim Proudfoot, Mark Tompkins, Alvin Martin and Frank Stapleton. * April 2002: Tommy Boyd and his production team were sacked from Talksport after a call from someone who wanted to shoot the Royal Family went through on air. Boyd went on record that he "did not share the views" of the caller. * June 2002: Talksport broadcast unofficial coverage of the 2002 World Cup taking place in Japan and South Korea. The station flagged up its inability to broadcast live from the stadia, taking out full page advertisements in national newspapers containing the tag line "It's unauthorised. It's unofficial. And it's brilliant." Jim Proudfoot and Alvin Martin were Talksport's main commentary team from its studios in London.talkSPORT Station History – 2002 talksport1089.com * February 2003: Talksport received over 200 complaints for giving a platform to the controversial Muslim extremist cleric Abu Hamza. Hamza and his aides were invited into the station to contribute to a religious debate on The James Whale Show, alongside other Christian, Jewish, and Muslim delegates. On the night of the live broadcast, 24 February, a mass of protesters gather outside the station's London studios. Despite this, both Whale and head of programming Bill Ridley defended the station for having invited Hamza onto the programme. * March 2004: Alan Brazil was fired by Talksport when, after spending three days at the Cheltenham Festival, he subsequently failed to show up to present The Sports Breakfast on Friday 19 March. He was reinstated less than three weeks later. * May 2006: Alan Brazil was reportedly given three months' notice by Talksport after a bust-up with the station's management. Brazil and Talksport management held talks less than two months later, and Brazil signed a new long-term contract with the station. * June 2006: Alan Brazil got in trouble with Ofcom for referring to Japanese people as "the nips" during the World Cup in Germany * August 2007: Mike Mendoza and Garry Bushell made derogatory comments about gay people, and the station was subsequently censured by regulator Ofcom. Bushell left soon afterward, when his six-month contract expired. * May 2008: James Whale was dismissed by Talksport after twice urging listeners to vote for Boris Johnson in the 2008 London mayoral election. The station was subsequently fined £20,000 by Ofcom in December 2008. * November 2008: Controversial presenter Jon Gaunt was fired for repeatedly calling a local councillor a "Nazi". Gaunt has since sought legal action for unfair dismissal, but any potential case has yet to go to court.Jon Gaunt still pursuing legal action against TalkSport guardian.co.uk, 20 January 2009 His campaign was backed by Liberty activist Shami Chakrabarti, who had previously been one of Gaunt's pet hates. * November 2008: Rod Lucas was dropped by Talksport, and the company stated they had "no plans to use him in the immediate future" after the membership list of the BNP which was leaked on a Google blog named him as one of its members. The station clarified that this was not a sacking, for Lucas was only a temporary member of staff. The presenter himself claimed that his membership of the party was part of a covert research project.DJ named on BNP member list joined to research story guardian.co.uk, 19 November 2008 * February 2011: Talksport hired former Sky Sports commentators Andy Gray and Richard Keys (Gray had also been a pundit for the station) a fortnight after the pair were fired from Sky Sports for being at the centre of a sexism controversy. * April 2017: Ofcom upheld complaints against Mike Parry and Mike Graham for comments made on their daytime show the previous December, in which they laughed while telling anecdotes about sexual harassment by former colleagues at the Daily Express. Talksport said in its statement that the two presenters were "laughing at the lack of action" against sexual harassment. * August 2021: A caller to The Sports Bar said that Tottenham Hotspur owner Daniel Levy would not let Harry Kane leave for free because Levy is Jewish. The remark was not heard on the radio due to a tape delay to avoid offensive callers but was heard on a YouTube simulcast. Talksport apologised and suspended their simulcast until a delay could be enabled. ==References== ==External links== * Category:News and talk radio stations in the United Kingdom Category:Wireless Group Category:Radio stations established in 1995 Category:Sports radio stations in the United Kingdom Category:Radio stations in London Category:1995 establishments in the United Kingdom |
The Yalova Peninsula massacres were a series of massacres during 1920–1921, the majority of which occurred during March – May 1921. They were committed by local Greek and Armenian bands with the invading Hellenic Army, against the Turkish Muslim population of the Yalova Peninsula. There were 27 villages burned and in Armutlu. According to journalist Arnold J. Toynbee c. 300 Muslims were killed during April–July 1921. In an Ottoman inquiry of 177 survivors in Constantinople, the number of victims reported was very low (35), which is in line with Toynbee's descriptions that villagers fled after one to two murders. Moreover, approximately 1,500 out of 7,000 Muslims remained in the region after the events or 6,000 had left Yalova where 16 villages had been burned. On the other hand, Ottoman and Turkish documents on massacres claim that at least 9,100 Muslim Turks were killed. The high death toll in the events convinced Toynbee that the Greeks were unfit to rule over Turks. An Inter-Allied commission, consisting of British, French, American and Italian officers,General Hare, the British Delegate; General Bunoust, the French Delegate; General Dall'Olio, the Italian Delegate; Admiral Bristol, the American Delegate. and headed by Maurice Gehri, the representative of the Geneva International Red Cross, and Arnold Toynbee went to the region to investigate the atrocities. Michael Smith claims that Circassian irregulars also took part in the massacres. One of the results was that refugees were transported to Allied-controlled Constantinople on ships. ==Background== ===Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)=== After World War I, the Ottoman Empire officially surrendered to the Entente Powers and it had to disband its army. At the peace conference the British and French tried to secure territory for the Kingdom of Greece in Smyrna and its surrounding regions.History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Stanford Jay Shaw, p.342, 1977 As a result, the Greek army, with the support of the Entente Powers, invaded Anatolia and occupied Smyrna. The Ottoman government and Turkish nationalists, which included people from all layers of Turkish society ranging from soldiers to civilians, under the command of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, resisted against this decision. The latter formed a new Turkish National Movement based in central Anatolia, whose aim was to repel the foreign forces that remained in Anatolia. On the other hand, the Greek army was given the task by the allies to end the Turkish Nationalist government. Following the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) the Greek army was defeated and forced to retreat. During its retreat (August–September 1922) the Greek army carried out a scorched-earth policy and laid waste to many Turkish cities and villages and committed massacres against its inhabitants. ===Population=== The peninsula's population before World War I included an ethnically diverse population including Muslims, Greeks and Armenians. Many Muslim refugees had settled in this area during the 19th- century founding their own villages. The Kaza of Orhangazi had a majority of Armenians, with a minority of Muslims (34%). The kaza of Yalova had also a minority of Muslims in 1914 (36%), with Christians being also in majority (Greeks and Armenians). The Kaza of Gemlik was 57% Muslim but the town of Gemlik was almost entirely (90%) Greek by the time of the war. Gemlik was surrounded by Greek, Armenian and Muslim Turkish villages. Most of the Armenians in the region were deported during the Armenian genocide their villages burned, only a small part, several thousand survivors returned, some 2.000 were present at Gemlik in 1921. In 1921 there were 3,500 Greek refugees in Gemlik, mostly from areas around Iznik where they had been subject to Turkish atrocities. Population table of 1914. Distribution of population in the region before World War I in 1914 Religion Gemlik Yalova Orhangazi Muslims 16,373 7,954 11,884 Greeks 8,568 10,274 N/A Armenians 3,348 3,304 22,726 Others N/A N/A 157 Total 28,289 21,532 33,767 An additional factor that lead to violence was the return of Greek refugees to their homes, who have been dislocated as a result of the Ottoman ethnic cleansing policies during World War I.Smith, 1999: p. 210 On the other hand, thousands of Turkish refugees from the Balkan wars, who had occupied their homes in the meantime, were expulsed. This turn of event created a rural proletariat apt for brigandage and violence by irregular groups. According to a report of the Allied commission the events during World War I and the problems of the refugees were not the primary reason of the thorough destruction of numerous Turkish villages and towns in the Gemlik-Yalova Peninsula. They stated that the massacres and destruction was carried out according to a plan by the Greek army who also encouraged the local Greek and Armenians to participate. ==Massacres in 1920–21 in Gemlik-Yalova Peninsula== ===Events between August 1920 and March 1921=== thumb|240px|Map of the affected areas and burnt villages thumb|180px|Murdered old man in Narli village. After the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I the peninsula was occupied by Great Britain. At the end of 1920 control of the region was ceded to Greek troops. The advance of the Greek forces in June–July 1920 eastwards, outside of the 'Smyrna zone', brought an inter ethnic conflict in the Izmit districtSmith, 1999: p. 209 between Turkish and Greek regulars and some Circassian mercenaries, the latter acting in a subordinate role according to Toynbee. Turkish irregulars responded by attacking Christian villages in the Iznik region, east of Yalova and outside the area controlled by the Greek forces. In the nearby city of Iznik, some 539 Greeks, 20 Armenians and 18 Jews were killed on 15 August 1920. Greek and Armenian survivors from deportations of World War I who had returned to their villages were also subject of atrocities, massacres and village burnings by Turkish gangs. Most of these atrocities happened in villages east of lake Iznik. The documents in the Ottoman archives accuse the Christian emigres of committing the same atrocities and this is agreed by the western allied report. During the battles in spring 1920 between Turkish and Greek forces, the Greek advance failed. Ever since summer 1920 the Greek forces held an extensive and largely Muslim area, in which groups of nationalist Turks engaged in espionage along with the Turkish Kuvay-i Milliye bands operating against the Greek lines of communication. In the aftermath of the Greek failure, Greek troops took vengeance on Turkish villages which they suspected of harboring anti-Greek activity and in search of hidden weapons. The Ottoman documents indicate that the local Turkish villages were disarmed and so became easy prey to the local Greek/Armenian gangs to plundered them. Following the Greek occupation complaints were made by the local Turkish population to the Ottoman and Allied authorities against Greek atrocities but apparently without much effect. In a report from the Ottoman gendarmerie of Balikesir region to the gendarmerie headquarters it was stated that since the Greek occupation (August 1920) the Turkish population was subjected to cases of killings, torture, rape and theft. The weapons of the Muslim population were collected and handed over to the local Greeks and Armenians. According to Ottoman archive documents, the villages of Dutluca (7 September 1920), Bayırköy and Paşayayla in the region of Orhangazi were burned and the population massacred. In the Yalova area, the village of Çınarcık was looted and locals mistreated, some killed. The Greek army captured Orhangazi on 16 October 1921 after resistance by Turkish militias. The next day there was a massacre in the nearby Turkish village of Çakırlı, men were locked in the local mosque where they were burned alive and shot. Two days later on 18 October 1921 the nearby Turkish village of Üreğil (consisted of 90 families) was burned down. On 16 April, the some 1,000 Turkish inhabitants of Orhangazi were sent to Gemlik by the Greek army while the town was partially burned down the same day by the Greeks. The refugees reached Gemlik under very difficult circumstances, most were robbed and some killed on the way. They were later evacuated by the Allied commission to Istanbul by boat. The next day on 17 April, there was a massacre in the village of Gedelek which was burned The Ottoman gendarmerie reported the attack on the village of Ali Al Sabah. On 10 May 1921 the village was looted by Christian paramilitaries and the women were raped. ===Investigation of the Allied commission (13–23 May 1921)=== thumb|left|The British warship Bryony which transported the commission. thumb|The commission thumb|Members of the interallied humanitarian mission Finally in May 1921, an Inter-Allied commission, consisting of British, French, American and Italian officers, and the representative of the Geneva International Red Cross, Maurice Gehri, was set up to investigate the situation. They sailed with the ship "Bryony" and reached Gemlik on 12 May. On 13 May 1921 the commission started on his investigation by visiting the burned villages of Çertekici, Çengiler (Armenian village burned by Turks) and Gedelek. In Çertekici they found 4 Greek soldiers committing arson to remaining buildings. Then they returned to Gemlik. Here they listened to the Turkish refugees who had gathered there, most of them were from Orhangazi which was burnt by the Greek army one month before, on 16 April. The refugees complained that they had been robbed on the way to Gemlik by Greeks and Armenians. The commission listened to various cases; including the rape and torture of a sixty years old women by six Greek soldiers. thumb|140px|Wounded woman in Kapakli by bayonet The commission listened to the Turkish refugees from Orhangazi. On 14 May the commission listened to the cases of the Greek and Armenian refugees. On Sunday 15 May the commission found out that the Turkish villages of Kapaklı, Narlı and Karacaali were burning, the same evening they went by the boat Bryony to the shore of Karacaali and found on the beach the corpses of 11 Turks who had been killed several hours before with bayonets. The next day they went to Kapaklı, where they found 8 bodies, 4 of them women. They listened to the people in Karacaali who declared that 40 women had been taken away by the Greeks. On 16 May the commission went to the village of Küçük Kumla, the local Turkish population was hiding in their houses out of fear, but when they realized it was the Allied commission a group of 1,000 villagers gathered around them. They told that the situation was terrible since one month and that last Thursday a group of 60–65 Greek soldiers accompanied by 40 Greek civilians came to the village and killed three men and wounded one woman. The day before another Greek group had killed 8–9 people. Later that day the commission went to the village of Kapaklı which had been burning for three days. They found 8 bodies under the rubble, 4 of them women. The survivors told the commission that Greek soldiers were responsible. Then the commission investigated the village of Narlı, which had been burned down and was still burning. The commission found similar cases in the area around Yalova where 16 Muslim villages had been burned down. They landed there on 21 May and after investigation, found the twin villages of Kocadere destroyed, then they returned to Constantinople on 22 May. ===Transport of the refugees=== thumb|Muslim refugees from Yalova in Constantinople. thumbnail|Evacuation of the Muslims to Constantinople. It became clear to the commission that between March – May 1921 the population had been massacred or fled on a very large scale. Almost all villages and towns had been burned, while the survivors were crammed up in a few locations. First the villages were plundered and almost all of the villagers' livestock were taken away from them, then there was raping and killing and finally their houses were burned. Muslims were hiding in the mountains around Gemlik fearing to be killed. To protect the Muslims of further atrocities, the allied commission decided to transport refugees with boats to Istanbul. Muslims around Gemlik were evacuated in several parties to Constantinople. But Greek officers insisted on retaining the able bodied men guaranteeing proper treatment, the commission accepted. In the north, one small vessel carried 320 mostly women and children from Yalova to Constantinople. The Greek commander tried to prevent their departure. Later two more transports took place. ===Conclusion of the Allied commission=== thumb|A boy wounded and hand cut off The Inter-Allied commission, consisting of British, French, American and Italian officers, and the representative of the Geneva International Red Cross, Maurice Gehri, prepared two separate collaborative reports on their investigations in the Yalova-Gemlik Peninsula. These reports found that Greek forces committed systematic atrocities against the Turkish inhabitants. And the commissioners mentioned the "burning and looting of Turkish villages", the "explosion of violence of Greeks and Armenians against the Turks", and "a systematic plan of destruction and extinction of the Moslem population". In their report of 23 May 1921, the Inter-Allied commission stated as follows: According to Maurice Gehri the massacres in the Gemlik-Yalova Peninsula were a result of the defeat of the Greek army at the Battle of İnönü. The later famous historian Arnold J. Toynbee was active in the area as a war reporter, Toynbee stated that he and his wife were witnesses to the atrocities perpetrated by Greeks in the Yalova, Gemlik, and Izmit areas and they not only obtained abundant material evidence in the shape of "burnt and plundered houses, recent corpses, and terror stricken survivors" but also witnessed robbery by Greek civilians and arsons by Greek soldiers in uniform in the act of perpetration. ===Legacy=== The village of Kocadere and Akköy commemorate each year their victims at their respective local monument. Turkish writer Mehmet Ballı is the author of the historical novel Engere focusing on the events. ==Tables== ===Burned villages according to Ottoman archives=== List of atrocities at the villages, according to Ottoman documents page 234-235 Villages Number of inhabitants Notes Teşvîkiye 430 Muslim Georgians village. Population was massacred, buildings were burned. Kocadere-i Bâlâ 350 Population was massacred, buildings were burned. Kocadere-i Zîr 550 Population was massacred, buildings were burned. Çınarcık 550 Massacred and plundered, only 20 people survived. Çalıca 120 Population was massacred, buildings were burned. Kurtköy 400 Population was massacred, buildings were burned. Ortaburun 150 Village founded and populated by Muslim Georgians and Lazes from Batumi (1893). Population was massacred, buildings were burned. Günlük[Güllük] 200 Burned, population fled, two people were killed. Gökçedere 100 Majority of buildings were plundered and burned. Üvezpınar 150 A Laz village. Burned, population partly massacred, partly fled. Paşaköy 350 Population was massacred, buildings were burned. Solucak [Soğucak] 200 Circassian village. Population was massacred, buildings were burned. Kirazlı 250 Population was massacred, buildings were burned. Yortan 250 Population was massacred, buildings were burned. Dereköy 250 Population was massacred, buildings were burned. Akköy 550 Majority of the population was massacred. Samanlı 150 Population was massacred, buildings were burned. Reşadiye 1250 Avar village. Totally burned, population was massacred. Esadiye 250 Avar village. Totally burned, population was massacred. Çakırlı 550 Totally burned, population was massacred. Üreğil 700 Totally burned, population was massacred. Cihanköy 250 Population fled, village was plundered. Dutluca 850 Large scale massacres, buildings were burned. Fıstıklı 550 Population fled, village was plundered. Karacaali 650 Population partly massacred, village plundered and burned. Mecidiye 200 Village founded and populated by Muslim Georgians and Lazes. Population partly massacred, village plundered and burned. Selimiye 700 Totally burned, population was massacred. Lütfiye 100 Population partly massacred, village plundered and burned. Hayriye 250 Population partly massacred, village plundered and burned. Haydariye 250 A Georgian village. Population partly massacred, village plundered and burned. Ihsâniye 100 Population partly massacred, village plundered and burned. Küçükkumla 150 Population partly massacred, village plundered and burned. Sultaniye 100 Avar village. Population partly massacred, village plundered and burned. Büyükkumla 620 Population partly massacred, village plundered and burned. Total Population: 12,430 Total Massacred: >9,143 ===Burned villages around Yalova according to Toynbee=== List of villages destroyed in the Yalova district during April and May 1921, according to Arnold Toynbee Name of villages Original number of houses Number of houses burned Çalıca 40–50 all Kurtköy 100 all Ortaburun 40 all Güllük 50–60 all Gökçedere 30–40 all Üvezpınar 50–60 all Paşaköy 80–90 all Sığırcık 80 all Kirazlı 60 all Yortan 40–60 all Dereköy 40–60 all Resadiye 400 all Sultaniye 10–40 all Gacık 100 half Total 1,160–1,300 14½ villages burned A farm named Şükrü Efendi Çiftliği was also burned. NOTE.—The district covered by the above villages, together with Akköy and Samanlı, is less than a quarter of the total area of the Yalova–Gemlik peninsula, the boundaries of which, on the land side, roughly coincide with the road from Gemlik to Yalova via Pazarköy. == See also == *İzmit massacres *Persecution of Muslims during Ottoman contraction ==References== ;Notes ;Sources * A shortened English translation of the French allied report. Reports on atrocities in the districts of Yalova and Guemlek and in the Ismid Peninsula (1921) * * *Andros Odyssey: Liberation: (1900–1940), Stavros Boinodiris Phd * * * *Ottoman archive documents written in Turkish Category:1920 in the Ottoman Empire Category:1921 in the Ottoman Empire Category:Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) Category:Massacres in the Ottoman Empire Category:Ethnic cleansing in Asia Category:History of Yalova Province Category:Mass murder in 1920 Category:Mass murder in 1921 Category:Massacres in 1920 Category:Persecution of Turkish people Category:History of the Hellenic Army Category:Massacres in 1921 Category:Massacres in Turkey Category:Persecution of Muslims by Christians |
George Alexander Baird (30 September 1861 – 18 March 1893) was a wealthy British race horse owner, breeder and the most successful amateur jockey (gentleman rider) of his day, who rode under the assumed name of Mr Abington. He was a controversial figure, at times in conflict with the establishment, "warned off" for his aggressive riding behaviour, implicated in a prize fight fixing scandal. and named as co-respondent in two divorce cases. He had a relationship with Lillie Langtry, noted actress and former mistress of the Prince of Wales (King Edward VII). Baird died at age thirty-three of pneumonia in a hotel room in New Orleans, Louisiana, after traveling there for prize fights with men he sponsored. == Family fortune == The Baird family wealth came from the industry of grandfather Alexander Baird (1765–1833) and seven of his sons who worked numerous coal and mineral leases in Scotland from 1816. They built ironworks that within 15 years developed as the largest in the country, and in 1830, formed William Baird and Company. The industrial revolution and the expansion of the railways brought the family the wealth that they used to buy land and property in Scotland. Baird's inheritance included that of his father plus two of his wealthy uncles who had died childless. == Education == Baird was nine years old when his father died in 1870. His inheritance was held in trust until he became of age. The funds released by the trustees during his minority were insufficient for his education, so his mother (successfully) petitioned the courts for the release of additional money. He attended the private school St Michael's, Aldin House, Slough before going to Eton, where he lasted but one year (1875). He later attended Magdalene College, Cambridge from 1879 to 1881, and never graduated. == Early influence == His mother was unable or unwilling to discipline Baird after his father's death, and was said to have indulged him. She was Cecilia, eldest daughter of Vice Admiral Villiers Francis Hatton who had married Baird's father in 1858 when she was 35 and he was 48. Their only child George Alexander Baird was born to them three years later. He grew up with older parents and no siblings for company. His fondness for horses and riding out, plus "amusement in the groom's room," provided escape and distraction for the young boy. In his book Turf Memories of Sixty Years, Alexander Scott writes that he met the teenage Baird and subsequently followed the career of "this great horseman". He wrote, "Love of horses was his bond of friendship, and he would extend that to everyone irrespective of social standing. He would have discussed horses with a dustman". Baird's interest in the "Turf" may also have been encouraged by the example of his cousins Douglas Baird, who was a successful owner, and Edward (Ned) Baird, who would become a gentleman rider and owner. == Riding career of "Mr Abington" == Because his trustees disapproved of his association with horse racing, young Baird used an alias when riding, and chose "Mr Abington". He continued to use this name for the rest of his life for both riding and entering horses in races. Baird's desire to win was obsessive. During his early days on the track, he became known for aggressive riding; he was warned by stewards and eventually, following an incident with another gentleman rider (Lord Harrington) at Four Oaks, Birmingham in 1882, he was banned for two years. This was referred to as being "Warned Off." He could not ride, or run horses during the period of the ban under National Hunt or Jockey Club rules. He transferred his horses to an acquaintance − Ross (Stiffy) Smith − and allowed them to race under Smith's colours whilst continuing to ride in races in France. After the ban was lifted, Baird returned to racing in Britain. He had changed his colours to bottle-green jacket and red cap, and started to put together a string of quality horses with the advice of jockey and trainer Tom Cannon. He engaged champion jockey Fred Archer to help improve his race-riding technique. In his first season following the ban, Baird rode 13 winners under Jockey Club rules, 22 in 1885, 28 in 1886, 46 in 1887, 36 in 1888 and, in his best year of 1889, 61. To put his achievements into context, in 1889, the next best amateur rider in the list rode only three winners whilst the professional Champion Jockey (Tommy Loates) rode 167. Baird would never again achieve such success; the following year he had 42 winners and in 1891 26. Baird was tall for a jockey and constantly struggled with his weight, living on a starvation diet when riding, exercising, and sweating off weight before races. In his great year of 1889, he could make 9 stone and 11 pounds. For all his dieting and attempts at weight loss, he could never get down to the levels of professional jockeys. For example, Tommy Loates could make 7 stone 1 pound and Fred Archer, who was the same height as Baird, was almost a stone less than him. In many "handicap" races Baird would be competitive where the weights carried by the horses were adjusted to provide an even contest. If there were a chance of riding a winner, he would travel any distance, once even hiring a train to get to a meeting. If he did not have a suitable horse of his own available, he would ride for other owners. == "Mr Abington" the owner == By the time Baird returned after the ban, he had inherited his family fortune and started to buy race horses; Tom Cannon – great-grandfather of Lester Piggott – acted as his adviser. They attended a dispersal sale for Lord Falmouth's stables, buying some quality horses, including a three-year-old filly called Busybody. Tom Cannon rode her to victories in the 1,000 Guineas Stakes at Newmarket and the Oaks at Epsom in that same year. Busybody produced a foal called Meddler that was sold to America after Baird's death; he became a very successful and influential stallion at stud. thumb|Bedford Lodge (now a hotel) Baird continued to buy horses (often selling platers), leased Bedford Lodge stables in Newmarket, Suffolk, from Captain James Machell, and employed Martin Gurry as his trainer. He also used Tom and William Stevens in Berkshire, Bob Armstrong of Penrith, James Prince at Lewes and others, once remarking that he was not sure how many horses he owned. His stud was at Kentford near Newmarket (now called Meddler Stud), and he later transferred it to Moulton Paddocks in 1892. Baird also leased Whittington Old Hall for a period, and resided there when attending meets in the area. Martin Gurry found Baird difficult to work for. During one of their disputes, Baird withdrew all of his horses and sent them to William Stevens, including a horse called Merry Hampton. Baird and Gurry made up their differences, and the horses were returned to Bedford Lodge in time for Merry Hampton to run in The Derby, which he duly won (1887). All expected Baird to lead Merry Hampton into the winners' enclosure after the race, as was normal for the winning owner of the Derby. However, he refused, and this was seen as a snub to the "establishment," with which he was often at odds. This mutual antipathy was in stark contrast to the relationship that Baird's cousin Douglas had with the establishment. He was elected as a member of the Jockey Club in 1887. Baird replaced Gurry at Bedford Lodge with Charles Morton in 1888. Baird did not settle his dispute with Gurry over his contract until 1890. Morton lasted four years, to be replaced by Joe Cannon, younger brother of Tom. Charles Mowbey was Baird's general manager and Jack Watts his retained jockey. Martin Gurry used the money he received from Baird to build a stable in Newmarket, from where he trained for 27 years. He named the establishment Abington Place. As well as winning the Derby in 1887, Baird topped the owners' list with 46 wins for his horses. It was said that Baird was most interested in riding winners himself, but this was not always possible due to restrictions on some meetings, where amateur riders could not compete, or his weight precluded him. == Private life == In 1890, Baird was named as co-respondent in the divorce case brought by Francis Darbishire against his wife actress Agnes Hewitt. Baird's defence was that he did not know she was married, but he was ordered to pay damages to the plaintiff. Baird also was involved with former actress Dolly Tester, the wife of his friend Lord Ailesbury, and was named in their divorce proceedings as a co- respondent. The farcical events that led up to this include a "kidnap" and a public fight between the lord, the "kidnapper," and Dolly. In 1884 Baird was charged with assaulting a policeman at Whittington. The charge was reduced to one of obstruction after the evidence was heard (Baird had threatened to kick the policeman) and Baird fined £5. Baird and actress Lillie Langtry became involved. They met at a race meeting at Newmarket in April 1891 when Baird offered her some advice on betting. He was so confident of the result, he is said to have even given her the stake money. A relationship developed, and Baird made many gifts to Langtry, including money, race horses, and a 200-ft luxury yacht (White Ladye). He was also very jealous and at times became violent toward her. Lillie and her affairs gave the gossip columnists of the day much to write about. Baird was said to be thoughtful and generous, once sending his doctor to Paris to help an acquaintance who was very ill. However, many saw the worst in him when he could be boorish or bad-tempered, even throwing tantrums. When out drinking, Baird often made a nuisance of himself, but few would dare challenge him because his drinking companions included prize fighters. He financially compensated those he had affronted. A fellow gentleman rider – Arthur Yates – was quoted as saying of Baird, "I liked him very much, but unfortunately he did not choose his friends wisely, and the results were disastrous. None of his companions, however, came with him to Bishop Sutton, for he knew I would not tolerate any of them, and thus I always saw the best side of his nature, which was, at bottom, very gentle and pleasant." Baird acquired his London house at 36 Curzon Street during an evening of dining and drinking with its then owner Sir George Chetwynd, another man of the turf. Baird expressed his admiration for the property, at which point Chetwynd sold it to him with all fixtures and fitting. Baird woke next morning in the master bedroom with a hangover and was told that he was the new owner. == Prize fighting == Baird became interested in prize fighting after seeing bouts at a hostelry in Newmarket. Prize fighting was illegal at the time, so the contests were conducted clandestinely. He set up his own boxing room at Bedford Lodge and invited prize fighters of the day, such as Charlie Mitchell and Jem Smith. Attempts were being made at this time to regulate prize fighting, and a group of gentlemen came together to form the Pelican Club, where fights were held in strict adherence to the "Queensbury Rules." Baird became a member of the club, but was expelled after becoming involved in a fight scandal. Frank Slavin and Jem Smith fought a match in Bruges. When the fight appeared to be going against Baird's man (Smith), bystanders invaded the ring, and the fight had to be stopped and declared a draw. This coincided with some heavy betting that had been laid on this result, and the committee of the Pelican Club put the blame squarely on Baird's shoulders. He took them to court in an effort to be reinstated, but failed; on 7 March 1890, Mr Justice Stirling, Chancery Court found against him. Baird was spending less time on horse racing and more on prize fighting. In 1893, he visited America with Charlie Mitchell and Jem Hall plus their trainers to challenge "Gentleman" Jim Corbett to a bout. Whilst waiting for Corbett to respond, a fight was set up between Jem Hall and Bob Fitzsimmons in New Orleans. Hall was beaten and Baird, who had been in his corner, took to the town to drown his sorrows. He caught a chill and woke next morning with a fever. Mitchell left the sick Baird in the St Charles Hotel, returning to New York to follow up his challenge with Corbett. Baird died of pneumonia on 18 March 1893, having been treated by three doctors, who had kept friends informed in England by telegram. The British Consul intervened to arrange for his body to be returned to England for burial. Baird was buried in the churchyard at Stichill next to his father. In his will, he left his estate in trust to his mother, who died age 73 in 1895; she, too, was buried in Stichill. The pall bearers at Baird's funeral included seven cousins, one of whom was John George Alexander Baird, the member of parliament for Central Glasgow. Charlie Mitchell attended the funeral but did not join the procession. ==Popular culture== *Much of Baird's relationship with Lillie Langtry was showcased in the 1978 television series Lillie starring Francesca Annis. == References == Category:British racehorse owners and breeders Category:Scottish racehorse owners and breeders Category:British jockeys Category:Scottish jockeys Category:1861 births Category:1893 deaths George Alexander Category:Owners of Epsom Derby winners |
The Daivadnyas, (also known as Daivadnya Brahmins or Konkanastha Rathakara), are a Konkani Gold-smith community, who claim to have descended from Vishwakarma, Hindu architect god and part of larger Vishwakarma community. They are native to the Konkan and are mainly found in the states of Goa and Damaon, Canara (coastal Karnataka), coastal Maharashtra, and Kerala. Daivadnyas are a subgroup of Sonars (Gold Smiths) and hence they are called as Daivadnya Sonars or Suvarṇakara or simply Sonar. Their occupation attracted groups of various very varied social status, and for a long period recent recruits were not accorded the same status in the caste as older families. Those with the highest status in the caste were the Devangas, and, under the Peshwas, they had claimed to be Daivadnya Brahmins, because of their intimate association with temple worship. Though this claim is recognized by the Poona Government in the eighteenth century, the Bombay Sonars persisted with it, and were encouraged by the prestige of their leader, Jagannath Shankarshet.|isbn=9780198218418}}However, Oliver Godsmark, a researcher on late colonial and early postcolonial South Asia, considers them a subcaste of the Brahmins that were originally from the coastal regions of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Goa. They are popularly known in Goa as Shets. This word is derived from the word Shrestha or Shresthin"Gomantak Prakruti ani Sanskruti", Part-1, p. 224, B. D. Satoskar, Shubhada Publication They come under Open Category (OC) or Forward caste. ==Names== Their name has many alternative spellings, including Daivajna, Daivajnya, Daiwadnya, and Daivadnea. It is pronounced in Karnataka and in Goa and Maharashtra. Daivadnyas are commonly known as Shet. This appellation comes from their guild organisations, during the medieval ages. European documents mentions them as "Chatim" or "Xette", which is corruption of Konkani Shett, or Shetty. The guild or members of the guilds of traders, merchants, and their employees who were mainly artisans, craftsmen, and husband-men in ancient Goa like elsewhere in ancient India, were called Shreni, and the head of the guilds were called Shrestha or Shresthi, which meant His Excellency. Of all the trade guilds, the Daivadnya guild, was highly esteemed in Goa.These guilds enjoyed such a reputation for trustworthiness that people deposited money with these guilds, which served as local banks and also made huge donations to the temples. Gomantak Prakruti ani Sanskruti, a comprehensive work on Goan culture also suggests that they called themselves Sreshtha to distinguish themselves from other groups who were assigned status of Sankra jati or mixed origin in the Shastras."Gomantak Prakruti ani Sanskruti", Part-1, p. 221 by B. D. Satoskar, published by Shubhada Publication.The Hindu Castes Their Religion and Customs Author: Arthur Steele Publisher Mittal Publications,1986 (page 91-93)460 pages Old Portuguese documents also mention them as Arie Brahmavranda Daivadnea or Aria Daivadnea Orgon Somudai, transliterated as Arya Daivadnya Varga Samudaya, as well as Daivadneagotri."Goa: Hindu Temples and Deities", pp. 121–122. By Rui Pereira Gomes Most of documents from Mumbai from early 19th century mention them as Konkanastha Daivajna Rathakara and Konkanastha Daivadnya. Though the term Rathakara is not accepted by them and is used by others to degrade them. Itihāsācārya Vi. Kā. Rājavāḍe samagra sāhitya, Volumes 7-8 Itihāsācārya Vi. Kā. Rājavāḍe samagra sāhitya, V. K. Rajwade Authors: V. K. Rajwade, Muralīdhara Ba Śāhā, Girīśa Māṇḍake ==Traditional history== Though their history is obscure, Daivadnyas claim to have descended from Davidnya or Vishvadnya the younger son of Vishwakarma, the Hindu architect god. Shets or Daivadnyas also claim Brahmin varna status, however, this is not accepted by local Brahmins and other communities of the region.Maharashtriya Jnanakosha, Part-1, pp. 198–226 There is also a claim that Daivdnyas are descent from the Vedic Rathakara as mentioned in Taittiriya Brahmana of Yajurveda, and Smritis , however Daivadnya community deny this. Hindu doctrines Hiraṇyakeśisutra, Bṛhajjātiviveka, Jātiviveka, Saṅkha smṛti, and Añjabila mention different types of Rathakaras. Most of them can be called Saṅkara Jāti or mixed caste, and their social status varies from those with high social status, who are ritually pure and have the right to perform "strata-smarta" rituals and to those considered fallen or degraded. Daivadnyas (during the conflicts that arose in the 19th century) refuted this claim, which called them Rathakaras of impure descent, on the basis of Shastra, and they were supported by Shringeri Shankaracharya, and Brahmin councils of Kashi and Paithan. ===Medieval and modern history=== ====Migrations==== Author Vithal Raghavendra Mitragotri says, The Bhojas are well-known sculptures and have migrated to various regions of India. Therefore, the Sthapatis who themselves claim to be Brahmins may have been descendants of Bhojas. The gold-smiths claim themselves to be Daivadnya Brahmins. According to Viṭhṭhala Mitragotrī, the migration to Goa dates back to the early 4th to 6th century CE, with the Bhoja dynasty. Bā. Da. Sātoskār in his encyclopedic work on Goan culture, suggests that they are a part of the tribe and reached Goa around 700 BC. From 1352 to 1366 AD Goa was ruled by Khiljī.In 1472, the Bahāmanī Muslims attacked, demolished many temples, and forced the Hindus to convert to Islam. To avoid this religious persecution, several Śeṭ families fled to the neighbourhood kingdom of Sondā."Karnataka State Gazetteer" By Karnataka (India), K. Abhishankar, Sūryanātha Kāmat, Published by Printed by the Director of Print, Stationery and Publications at the Govt. Press, 1990, p. 251 Several families from western India had settled down in Kashi since the late 13th century. In 1510 the Portuguese invaded Goa. King John III of Portugal issued a decree threatening expulsion or execution of non-believers in Christianity in 1559 AD; the Daivadnyas refused conversion and had to decamp. Thousands of Daivadnya families fled to the interior of Maharashtra and coastal Karnataka."Karnataka State Gazetteer" By Karnataka (India), K. Abhishankar, Sūryanātha Kāmat, Published by Printed by the Director of Print, Stationery and Publications at the Govt. Press, 1990, p. 254 About 12,000 families from the Sāsaṣṭī region of Goa (from Raia, Cuncolim, Loutolim, Verṇa and other places), mostly of the Śeṇavīs and the Shetṭs, including Vaishya Vani, Kudumbi, and others, departed by ship to the southern ports of Honnāvara to Kozhikode."Journal of Kerala studies" By University of Kerala Published by University of Kerala., 1977, p. 76 A considerable number of the Sheṭts from Goa settled in Ratnagiri and the Thane district of Maharashtra, especially the Tansa River valley, after the Portuguese conquest of Goa. ====Portuguese period==== ===== Daivajnas and Christianity ===== The Portuguese imposed heavy restrictions on all Goan Hindus, but the Shetṭs were granted exemption from certain obligations or liabilities. It is rare to find a Christian Goan Shetṭ, while all the other castes find some representation in the convert society; this is because the economic power the Śeṭs wielded in the sixteenth century enabled them to live and work in Goa on their own terms or emigrate with their religion intact. Their commercial knowledge and skills were held in high esteem by the Portuguese; because of the protection the Portuguese gave them, they had a little religious freedom. For example, they were permitted to wear the horizontal Vibhutī caste-mark on the forehead, and were even exempted from punishment when they committed crimes.Hidden Hands: Master Builders of Goa By Heta Pandit, Farah Vakil, Homi Bhabha Fellowships Council Published by Heritage Network, 2003, p. 19 The very few who converted were assigned the caste of Bamonn among the Goan Catholics. According to the gazetteer of Goa state they are called Catholic Śeṭs, but no such distinction is found amongst Goan Catholics. A detailed study of Comunidades shows that baptised Śeṭs were categorised as Bamonns. Whether Hindu or Catholic, the community always enjoyed their social status, and were permitted to remain in Christianised parts of Goa, provided they kept a low profile, observed certain disciplines, and paid a tax of three xeraphims of (gold mohor) annually to the Portuguese. A few Daivadnya families who converted to Catholicism migrated to Mangalore due to attacks by the Marathas in Goa during the late 17th and early 18th century. =====Relationships with other communities===== The trade in Goa was mainly in the hands of three communities classes, being the Gaud Saraswat Brahmins, the Vanis and the Sets. Conflict between Daivadnyas and Vaishyas, in 1348 in Khaṇḍepar or Khaṭegrama, is mentioned in Khaṇḍepar copperplate.This issue was solved in Gaṇanātha temple in Khāṇḍepār, its antecedents are not known."Gomantak Prakruti ani Sanskruti" by B. D. Satoskar, published by Shubhada Publication Another conflict in the 17th century, between Shenvi Brahmins and Shets of Goa, these over social status was evidenced in arguments about use of traditional emblems like Suryapan, parasol etc. during religious rituals, functions and festivals. The hatred was so severe until the 19th century that only fear of the police kept the peace. Later, the Portuguese banned the use of Hindu symbols and wedding festival processions."Gomantakatil sūryapan Chatri vād" written by Dr. P. P. Shirodkar, in "Gomant Kalika"(monthly), published by Kalika Prakashan Vishwast Mandal"Gomantak Prakruti ani Sanskruti", Part-1, p. 225 by B. D. Satoskar ====Diaspora==== Documents mention a Gramanya that lasted from 1822 to 1825, between the Daivadnyas and the Brahmins of Pune or the Puna Joshis.This dispute started because the Puna Joshis were against Daivadnyas employing their own priests and not employing the Vyavahare Joshis for their religious functions. These Daivadnya families had migrated from Ratnagiri, to Pune during the reign of Baji Rao I, who always upheld their claims against the Vyavahare Brahmans or the Puna Joshis. The opponent Brahmins were against the Daivadnyas administering Vedokta Karmas or Vedic rituals, studying and teaching Vedas, wearing dhoti, folding hands in Namaskar. They urged the Peshwas, and later, the British to impose legal sanctions, such as heavy fines to implement non- observance of Vedokta Karmas, though the later had been always observing the Vedic rites. The Joshis denied their Brahmin claim, allegedly argued that they are not even entitled to Upabrāhmaṇa status which are mentioned in the Śaivāgama. Thus they claimed that latter were not entitled to Vedokta Karmas and should follow only Puraṇokta rites and they were also against the Brahmins who performed Vedic rituals for the Daivadnyas, they incriminated that Daivadnyas have an impurity of descent and have a mixed-caste status or Saṅkara Jāti. The British also issued orders to the Daivadnyas by which the Vedas not be applied for an improper purpose, the purity of the Brahmin caste be preserved and did not impose any restrictions on the Daivadnyas. This dispute almost took a pro-Daivadnya stance in Bombay in 1834, and were ordered to appoint the priests of only their own Jāti and not priests of any other caste as per the tradition. It is during these disputes Daivadnya Pundits came up with extensive literature like versions of Sahyadrikhanda of Skandapurana, to clear their maligned image by the Pune Brahmins. In 1849, the king of Kolhapur, Shahu Maharaj, provided land grants to the Daivadnyas who had migrated to princely states of Kolhapur and Satara and helped them build their hostels for the students pursuing education. Many families like the Murkuṭes, the Paṭaṇkars, the Seṭs of Karvara and Bhaṭkala kept their tradition alive and excelled in trade, playing a major role in socio-cultural development of the major metropolis of India such as Bombay. The Daivadnya priests who officiated at the Gokarṇa Mahabaleswara temple were prosecuted in 1927 by the Havyakas of Gokarṇa, who thought they would take over the puja authority at the temple. The case reached the Bombay High Court, which ruled in favour of the Seṭs."Mahan Daivadnya Sant ani Vibhuti", p. 74, by P. P. Shirodkar, published by Kalika Prakashan Vishwast Mandal ====Modern period==== Some Goan Daivadnya families migrated to Pune and overseas. The Akhīla Bharatiya Daivajña Samajonnati Pariṣat has existed since 1908 for their betterment. Similarly, about 3500 Sheṭts migrated to Bangalore city after 1905 from South Canara. Many families have migrated to Mumbai and have founded organisations such as the Kanara Daivajna Association, and Daivajna Shikṣṇa Maṇḍala. The Shimoga, Chikkamagaluru, Koḍagu, Davangere, and Hubli-Dharwad districts of Karnataka now have a considerable Daivadnya population. Shetṭs have also migrated abroad. They are found in the Arab countries and have been migrating overseas in pursuit of higher education and employment for number of years, notably to the US and UK. A small number have Portuguese or Kenyan citizenship, and a few live in Karachi, Lahore Pakistan, but most of them have settled as refugees in Ulhasnagar after partition. ==Religion== Their earliest religious beliefs could have been based on a mixture of Brahmanism, Bhagavata religion, sun worship and Shaivism, though it cannot be ascertained to a particular period of time or geographical region. Different schools of Shaivism have existed in Goa and Konkan since ancient times. Similarly, Shaivism was very popular amongst Goans of all walks of life, and was very widely practiced. Their religious and cultural beliefs were constantly influenced by other religions such as Jainism, Buddhism and later the Nath sect when the ruling dynasties patronised them. Up to 1476 there was no proper Vaishnavism in Goa, but later under influence of Madhvacharya many of them embraced Madhwa philosophy. ===Deities=== Daivadnyas are followers of Madhvacharya and Adi Shankara. The followers of Adi Shankara worship deities as prescribed by him as Panchayatana puja – a concept of worshipping God in any of the five forms, namely Shiva, Devi, Ganesha, Vishnu and Surya, that was propagated by Adi Shankara (8th century) is observed by Daivadnyas today. Daivadnyas worship the Pancayatana deities with Devi or Shiva as the principle deity. A possible Pancayatana set may be: Shantadurga, Shiva, Lakshminarayan (Vishnu with his consort Lakshmi), Ganesha and Surya. Pancayatana may also include guardian deities like Vetala, Ravalnath, Bhutanath, Kala-Bhairava, Kshetrapala and deities like Gramapurusha."Gomantak Prakruti ani Sanskruti", Part-1, p. 223, B. D. Satoskar, Shubhada Publication Daivadnyas who follow the Vaishnavism of Madhvacharya worship Vishnu and Lakshmi as their prime deities and have established many temples of Vishnu in the form of Lakshminarayan, Krishna, Venkatesha, Narasimha and Vithoba. They were converted into Madhva fold by Vadiraja Tirtha and they are followers of Sodhe Matha, one of Ashta Mathas of Udupi.shree Vadiraja Charitre authored by Gururajacharya ====Kuladevatas==== Their tutelary deities are primarily in the form of the Mother Goddess, though they revere all Vedic, Puranic and folk deities equally. ====Ishtadevata==== Ishta-devata is a term denoting a worshipper's favourite deity.V. S. Apte, A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, p. 250. Ganesha is ishta-devata of all the Śeṭs. Ganesh Chaturthi or Siddhivināyaka Vrata is a major festival of the Daivadnyas. Kalika, Kansarpal, Goa – is worshipped as Ishta-devata by Gomantaka Daivajñas. This temple is more than 800 years old and is located at a distance of around 14 kilometres from Mapusa. It was built by Kadambas and was renovated by a Daivadnya minister who was serving Sawant Bhonsale – kings of Sawantwadi, Maharashtra. It is one of the most important temples in the northern part of Goa. The main festivals celebrated in this temple are Śiśirotsava, Navrātrī, Rathasaptamī, Āvalībhojana and Vasantapujā.Official website of Shree Mahamaya Kalika temple "Shree Devi Kalika", Pages-21,60–68, By Shreepadrao P. Madkaikar Other Ishta-devata of Daivadnyas include Rama, Dattatreya Hanuman, Vithoba of Pandharpur, Hayagriva of Udupi, Mahalakshmi, Krishna, Gayatri, Durgā Parameśvarī, Lakshmi-narayan, Mañjunātha of Dharmasthala and Gokarṇa Mahābaleśvara. Daivadnyas maintain several temples in Goa, and about 38 temples in North Canara district of Kanarataka, and many temples in other parts of Karantaka, Maharashtra and few in the state of Kerala. Daivajñas also honour various saints like Sathya Sai Baba, Dada Maharaj of Patgaon, Raghavendra Swami, Narasimha Saraswati, Swami Samarth Maharaj, Sai Baba of Shirdi, Shreedhar Swami, Mata Amritanandamayi and Maṅkipura Svāmī. ===Maṭha tradition and Saṃpradāyas=== ====Shankara or Smarta sect==== *Shets of Goa,"People of India: Goa" By Kumar Suresh Singh, Prakashchandra P. Shirodkar, Pra. Pā Śiroḍakara, Anthropological Survey of India, H. K. Mandal, p. 64"Goa" By Kumar Suresh Singh, Pra. Pā Śiroḍakara, H. K. Mandal, Anthropological Survey of India, p. 64 Maharashtra and some parts of Karnataka follow the religious rules of the Smritis and are thus called Smarta, i.e. the followers of the Smṛitis. They were followers of Sringeri Sharada Peetha"Mahan Daivadnya Sant ani Vibhuti" by P. P. Shirodkar, p. 73, published by Kalika Prakashan VishwastMandal"A socio-cultural history of Goa from the Bhojas to the Vijayanagara" By Vithal Raghavendra Mitragotri Published by Institute Menezes Braganza, 1999, Original from the University of Michigan, Pages:108. *Due to some unavoidable conflicts between the two sects in the community a new maṭha was established in Sri Kshetra Karki, Honnāvara, in North Canara district. The maṭha is called Jnaneshwari Peeth. ====Vaishnava or Madhva sect==== *The Daivadnya diaspora in North Canara, Udupi, South Canara and Kerala, who had migrated from Goa due to Arab and Portuguese invasions, were influenced by Vadiraja and adopted Vaishnavism."Mahan Daivadnya Sant ani Vibhuti", p. 73 by P. P. Shirodkar, published by Kalika Prakashan Vishwast Mandal History says that a Daivajña named Gopalashetṭi was sculpting a Gaṇesha idol, but it took form of a horse or Hayagriva. He offered it to Vadiraja, the pontiff of Sode maṭha, who later expanded his sphere of influence by taking all the Daivadnyas of north Canara into the fold of his Vaishnavism by extending to them dikṣa and mudra."Saint Vādirāja Tīrtha's Śrī Rukmiṇīśa Vijaya" By Vādirāja, D. R. Vasudeva Rau This idol of Hayagriva is still worshipped by the pontiffs of Sode maṭha and by their Shetṭ followers. ==Classification== ===Subdivisions=== Śeṭs were divided according to the place from where they hailed, the maṭha they followed and other criteria. ====The Subdivisions of Gomantaka Daivajñas==== Until the early 19th century, Goan Śeṭs were divided into three sub-divisions based on their geographical location, but these divisions no longer exist: *Vāḍkār (from Peḍṇe, Sattarī, Divcal) *Goyṃkār (from Sāsaṣṭi, Mūrgānv, Tisvāḍī, Bārdes) *Sauṃdekār (from Phoṇḍā, Kāṇkoṇ, Sāṅge, Kepe)"Bharatiya Samajvighatak Jati Varna Vyavastha" p. 141 by P. P. Shirodkar, published by Kalika Prakashan Vishwast Mandal These sub-divisions never intermarried nor did they accept food from their counterparts. ====Diaspora in Maharashtra==== There are no prominent distinctions found in Maharashtra, but there are mentions of groups of Śeṭs of Goa, especially from Sāsaṣṭī, Bārdes, Tīsvāḍī, landing in places like Ṭhāṇe, Sāvantvāḍī, Ratnagiri, Khārepāṭaṇ, Mālvaṇ, Kudāl etc. They are sometimes collectively called as Koṅkaṇastha Daivajñas. Daivajñas from Koṅkaṇa later migrated elsewhere in Maharashtra,Irāvati Karve, Maharashtra, land and its people and hence they were also known as Koṅkaṇe or Konkane Devajnas as mentioned in old documents. Previously, Daivajñas from Goa refrained from having matrimonial alliances outside Goa. Today they arrange them with the Daivajñas of Karnataka and Maharashtra. ====Shetṭs of Kerala==== The emigration of Goan Shetṭs to Kerala dates from the early 13th century, when most of them settled in the port of Cochin. Some Shets migrated from Goa during the later half of the 16th century due to the religious persecution of the Portuguese. These people settled in places such as Quilon, Trichur, Kozhikode, and Kasaragod, along the coast of Kerala. The Keralite Shets have a temple dedicated to Gopalakrishna, which is perhaps the oldest temple in Fort Cochin. ==Society and culture== ===Language=== Daivadnyas speak Koṅkaṇi and its dialects. Gomantaka Daivadnyas speak a dialect of Koṅkaṇi known as Goan Koṅkaṇi which the Ethnologue recognises as the Gomāntakī dialect, further divided into sub-dialects such as the Bārdescī Bhās or north Goan, Pramāṇa or standard Koṅkaṇī and Sāśṭicī Bhās or south Goan. Their Konkani sociolect is different from others and is more closer to the Saraswat dialect. Daivadnyas in Maharashtra, i.e. Mumbai, Ṭhane, Pune, Kolhapura, Satara, contemporarily speak Maraṭhi. In the Koṅkaṇa region of Maharashtra they speak dialects of Koṅkaṇi such as Malvani, Kudali and others. Daivadnyas in Kanara speak different dialects of Koṅkaṇi, such as Karvari in the Uttara Kannada district and Maṅgluri in the South Canara district. Almost all of them are bilingual, Goan seṭs can speak Maraṭhi fluently, Canara Seṭs speak Kannaḍa and Tulu outside home, likewise a very small fraction of Keralites can speak Malayalaṃ with an accent, most of them can speak English fluently. Many of them have accepted Maraṭhi/Kannaḍa as their cultural language but noticeably, this has not led to an assimilation of these languages with Koṅkaṇi. Similarly Daivadnyas settled in various parts of Gujarat use the local Gujarati language. Portuguese language is known by many members of older generation of Goans who had done their formal education during the Portuguese rule. Historians say that the period of migration of Daivajñas and the Kudāldeskārs, from the northern part of India is same, and they settled in Goa in the same period, for this reason members of both the communities speak the same dialect of Koṅkaṇī in Goa.Article written by Devakinanadan Daivadnya, daily "Rashtramat" published from Goa, 17 August 1974, p. 2 Historically, many scripts have been used writing either Koṅkaṇī or Marāṭhī. An extinct script called as Goykanadi was used by the traders in the early 16th century. The earliest document written in this script is a petition addressed by Ravala Śeṭī to the king of Portugal. Other scripts used include Devanāgarī, Moḍī, Halekannaḍa and Roman script. ====Kali Bhasha secret lexicon==== Daivajña traders had developed a unique slang called Kalī Bhās, which was used to keep the secrecy of the trade by the traders. Remnants of this jargon are still found in the language used by the Daivajña traders."Gomantak Prakruti ani Sanskruti", Part-1, p. 226, by B. D. Satoskar, Shubhada Publication"Gomant Kalika"(monthly), April 2004, published by Kalika Prakashan Vishwast Mandal"Mahan Daivadnya Sant ani Vibhuti", p. 50, By P. P Shirodkar, Kalika Prakashan ===Diet=== The Daivadnyas are generally non-vegetarians and eat fish, mutton and chicken, but abstain from eating beef, pork and buffalo meat. Rice with fish curry is their main food. ===Ceremonies and rituals=== thumb|250px| A couple performing religious rituals Konkani people in general though speak Indo-Aryan languages follow Dravidian kinship practices (see Karve, 1965: 25 endnote 3). One's father's brother's children as well as mother's sister's children are considered as brothers and sisters, whereas mother's brother's children and father's sisters children are considered as cousins and potential mates. Cross-cousin marriages are allowed and practised. Like dravidian people, they refer to their father's sister as mother-in-law or atte, and their mother's brother as father-in-law – mama, and one's husband's mother is generally referred to as mother-maay. Daivadnya people are not so orthodox but they strictly adhere to all the Ṣoḍaśa Saṃskāra or the 16 sacraments, and other Brahminical rituals according to the Rig Veda. The Saṃskāras begin to be observed right from the day of conception, but the prenatal sacraments like Garbhadhāna, Puṃsavana, are usually performed as a part of the wedding ceremony nowadays, unlike some 30 years ago these sacraments were held separately after the wedding ceremony at the right time. Usually the birth of the first child is supposed to take place in woman's mother's home. After the child is born, ten days of birth pollution or Suyer is observed, by keeping an oil lamp lit for ten days. On the sixth day following childbirth, the goddess Śaṣṭī is worshipped. On the 11th day, a purification Homa is performed. The Nāmakaraṇa or the Bārso, a naming ceremony, is performed on the 12th day. It is sometimes held one month following the child birth if the stars are not favourable. The Karṇavedha or Kān topap ceremony is held on the 12th day in case of a male child, or for a female child, it is held a month after the birth. For Uśṭāvaṇ, Annaprasana or the first feeding ceremony child's maternal uncle feeds the baby with cooked soft rice mixed with milk and sugar. Another similar ritual, Dāntolyo is also performed by the maternal uncle when the baby gets new teeth, on the first birthday of the child. Ceremonies like the first outing or Niṣkrāmaṇa, Jāval or cūdākarṃa i.e. cutting child's hair for first time, Vidyāraṃbha or commencement of studies, are performed as per caste rules. When the boys grow up, and before they attain the age of 12, Munj or Upanayana is performed with great fanfare. All other sacraments related to it, like Keśānta or the first shave, Vedarambha or, Samāvartana or Soḍ Munj are performed as a part of thread ceremony nowadays. In case of girls(who were always married before attaining puberty some 75–100 years ago), a ceremony associated with a girl's first menstruation was observed in olden days. The most important sacrament for them is Vivāha, Lagna or the wedding. Various ceremonies held before the actual wedding ceremony are Sākarpuḍo or the betrothal, Devkāre or Devkārya that includes Puṇyāhvācana, Nāndi, Halad, Tel, Uḍid muhurtaSome of their customs are different from any others castes. etc. The actual wedding ceremony is performed as per Ṛgveda. form the actual parts of the wedding ceremony. Ceremonies like Gṛhapraveśa, changing the maiden name of the bride, and the puja are followed by some games to be played by the newly wed couple, and the visit to the family deity temple.Pancpartavaṇ or a feast is organised five days after marriage. They strictly observe Gotra exogamy. The custom of dowry in its strict form does not exist any more, but Sālaṅkṛta Kanyādāna with Varadakṣiṇā is followed as a custom. Intercaste marriages are not common in Daivajñas"Gomant Kalika", articles published in the April 2008 issue by several writers A widower is and was allowed to remarry but traditionally this was not the case for widows. In more recent times, post-independence of India, social reforms have allowed widows to remarry but the practice is still frowned upon by the society. The age for girls for marriage is from 18 to 25 and that for boys is from 25 to 30. Child marriage is absent though girls were married off before attaining puberty, this custom was prevalent till the 19th century."People of India: Goa" By Kumar Suresh Singh, Prakashchandra P. Shirodkar, Pra. Pā Śiroḍakara, Anthropological Survey of India, H. K. Mandal, p. 65 Their dead are cremated according to the vedic rights, and various Śhrāddhas श्राद्ध and other Kriyās, Tarpaṇas are performed by the son or any other paternal relative, or in some cases by the son-in-law of the deceased. As per the Vedas, dead infants without teeth must not be cremated, and are supposed to be buried. The body is generally carried to the cremation ground by the son of the deceased and his/her close relatives. Death pollution or Sutaka usually lasts for twelve days. They usually own their own cremation grounds. Women are not allowed in the crematorium. If the deceased was male, his widow was tonsured and strict restrictions were imposed on widows. There was no custom of widow remarriage in the past neither is it very common nowadays"Gomantak Prakruti ani Sanskruti", Part-1, p. 223 by B. D. Satoskar nor was there any custom of divorce. Their priests are usually from their own caste otherwise, particularly Karhade priests officiate their ceremonies whom they show much reverence. ===Festivals=== Daivajñas observe all the Hindu festivals but Ganesh Chaturthi, Nag Panchami and Diwali are the most important annual festivals. Other festivals and Vratas observed by them are Saṃvatsarāraṃbha, Saṃvatsar Pāḍvo or Yugādi, Vaṭa Paurṇimā, Vadāpunav, Ṛk Śrāvaṇi, Sūtāpunav, Gokulashtami, Āditya pujan, Āytārā puja, Haritālikā Tṛtiyā, Tay or Tayī, Navratri, Lalita Panchami, Dasaro, Āvatāñcī pujā, Bhaubeej, Tulaśī Lagna, Ekadashis like Āṣādhī, Kārtikī, Mālinī Paurṇimā or Mānnī Punav, Makar Sankranti, Shigmo, Holi, Mahashivratri, Veṅkaṭapatī Samarādhanā' ===Dressing style=== thumb|A Daivajna couple from Goa,late 18th century Daivajña men traditionally wear Dhotīs called Puḍve or Aṅgavastra, which cover them from waist to foot. These are made of cotton and sometimes silk on special occasions and wore Judi or Sadro to cover upper part of their bodies, and a piece of cloth called Uparṇe over the shoulders. They wore turbans and Pagdis, Muṇḍāso, a red velvet cap or Topī was used by the traders and merchants so that they would not be troubled by the Portuguese."Gomantak Pranruti and Sanskruti", Part-1, p. 381 by B. D. Satoskar Men had their ears pierced and wore Bhikbālī, sported Śendī and wore Vibhutī or Sandalwood or Gopīcandana paste on their foreheads. Men were fond of gold jewellery, too. Traditional Daivajña woman wear a nine-yard saree, also known as Kāppad or Cīre in such a way that the back was fully covered. The fashion of wearing a blouse became popular in the 18th century. Ghāgro and a five yards saree was worn by unmarried girls. Women wore gold ornaments on different parts of their bodies (e.g. Ghonṭ, Pāṭlī, Todo, Bājunband, Galesarī, Valesar, Kudī), and wore silver ornaments to decorate their feet (e.g.;Paijaṇ, Salle, Māsolī, Vāle). ===Arts and music=== They do not have their own repertoire of folk songs, but many of them are skilled in singing bhajans, in folk and classical traditions. Until recently every family had a tradition of evening bhajan and prayers with the family members in front of the family gods; a few families have still kept this tradition alive. Children recited Shlokas, Shubhankaroti, Parvacha, as the womenfolk lit the lamp in front of the deity, tulasi and ancestors. Womenfolk were not allowed to sing or dance which was considered demeaning, they do not have any folk songs other than ovis which they hummed while doing household work, some pujas, and other ceremonies such as the naming ceremony, the wedding and the thread ceremony. Even though they do not have a tradition of folk songs, they have played a significant role in field of Hindustani classical music, drama, arts and literature. ===Socio-economic background=== The traditional occupation of Daivajña people is the jewellery trade. Why this became their occupation is not known. There are no mentions of the Śeṭs practising this occupation in the early history, although they used to make gold and silver images for the temples, which old texts suggest they have inherited this art from the Bhojaks"A socio-cultural history of Goa from the Bhojas to the Vijayanagara" By Vithal Raghavendra Mitragotri Published by Institute Menezes Braganza, 1999, Original from the University of Michigan, Pages: 54, 55 who made idols of the Sun god, hence were also called as Murtikāras. They were well versed in Śilpaśāstra and in Sanskrit hence received royal patronage."A socio-cultural history of Goa from the Bhojas to the Vijayanagar", by Vithal Raghavendra Mitragotri, Published by Institute Menezes Braganza, 1999, Chapter I, Page 55 Dhume mentions that the Śeṭs also studied medicine, astrology, astronomy in ancient university of Brahmapuri in Goa. They were renowned for their skills even in the western world and were the first to introduce exquisite jewellery designs to Europe, and were extensively involved in gold, silver, perfumes, black pepper export and even silk, cotton textiles, tobacco and import of horses during Portuguese and pre- Portuguese era. Texts maintain names of many wealthy traders e.g. Virūpa Śeṭī of Coḍaṇe,Āditya Śeṭī of Śivāpura or Śirodā Viṭhṭhala Śeṭī, Dama Śeṭī, who was appointed as an administrator of the Bhatkaṭa port by the Portuguese, and others. Ravala Śeṭī from Caraim who was summoned to Lisbon by the king of Portugal,"The Portuguese empire, 1415–1808" By A. J. R. Russell-Wood, Page 105 was a collaborator with Afonso de Albuquerque and retained a high office in Goa. Since days of yore their business has been flourishing on the banks of river Mandovi, historical records mention them as prosperous and wealthy traders and business class. These traders, merchants with their fellow artisans, craftsmen had organised themselves into Śreṇīs or guilds, Śreṣṭhīs or the head of the guilds were very wealthy, and made huge donations to the temples, and their guilds also served as local banks and treasuries. Few of them also worked as interpreters in king's court and were called Dubash, Gaṇa Śeṭī from Loutolim village was in Kadamba rajas court."Gomantak Prakruti ani Sanskruti", Part-2, p. 562, by B. D. Satoskar, published by Shubhada Publication From the old documents it can be also seen that few of them were involved in politics, and were employed by the kings for their service. Some of them were even associated with salvage operation of the vessels, and sometimes even provided the Portuguese with troops, ships and crew. They assisted the kings in minting and designing the coins; during Maratha rule some Daivadnya families were given a title of Potdar, which literally means treasurer in Persian, who were in charge of testing the genuineness of the minted coins and their prescribed weight, and played an important role in the revenue system of the Marāṭhas. The tradition of studying Vedas amongst the Goan Śeṭs does not exist any more, but Daivadnyas from Gokarṇa, Honnavara and many other places in coastal Karnataka and Koṅkaṇa division of Maharashtra have kept this tradition alive. Many of them are priests who offer religious services to the community,very few of them are astrologers and temple priests. Along with educationally advanced communities in the 1850s – the CKPS, Pathare Prabhus, Saraswats, Parsis;Daivadnyas were one of the communities in the Bombay Presidency that allowed female education. Daivadnyas in the state of Maharashtra and Karnataka are classified by National Commission for Backward Classes as an Other Backward Class. ==Notable people== * Jagannath Shankarseth - philanthropist and educationalist. ==Notes== * ... Śrī Mulapuruṣāne Gauḍadeśāhūna devilā āṇūna ticī sthāpanā chudāmaṇī betāvarīl, Kārai hyā jāgī, Gomatī nadīcyā tīrāvar kelī ... (Translation:Mulapuruṣa brought the images of the goddess from the Gauḍadeśa, and installed them in a place called as Kārai on the Chudamani island on the banks of river Gomatī.) Source:Smaranika:published by Śrī Gajantalakṣmī Ravalnatha Devasthana Mārsel Goa, May 2004 *A study of Comunidade de Caraim was done by Śrī Gajantalakṣmī Ravalnatha Devasthana. This temple used to exist in Caraim until 1510, and was later shifted to Mahem and then to Mārsel, as mentioned in the documents preserved by the temple and the Comunidade de Caraim documents, all the Gauncars of this comunidade were of Daivadnea bramane Casta, and were divided in three vangors. Most of the Gauncars fled in other places to avoid conversions, no Hindu Gauncars are found in Caraim any more, but only two families of Gauncars of the Comunidade de Caraim are found in Caraim now and they belong to the Roman Catholic Brahmin or Bamonn category. Same is the case with Comunidade de Sangolda, and Comunidade de Aldona. Sources:Smaranika:published by Śrī Gajantalakṣmī Ravalnatha Devasthana Mārsel Goa, May 2004 Ad. Paṇduraṅga Puruṣottama Śiroḍkara (Bharatiya samajavighaṭaka jātivarṇa vyavasthā) Goa: Hindu temples and deities, By Rui Gomes Pereira, Antonio Victor Couto Published by Pereira, 1978, p. 41 * ... The earliest instance of this script we have in a petition addressed by a certain Ravala Śeṭī, most probably a Gaunkar of Caraim in the islands of Goa, to the king of Portugal ... This signature of Ravala Śeṭī in Koṅkaṇī written in Goykānaḍī: Ravala Śeṭī baraha, which means writing of Ravala Śeṭī This petition also includes signature of Ravala Śeṭī in Roman script. Source:History of Goa through Gõykanadi * Grāmaṇya is a crystallisation of conflicts between two castes of individuals belonging to the same caste, and the same group, about observance of certain religious practices vis-a-vis other members of the society or of the particular caste group. There are two types of Grāmaṇyas inter-caste, and intra-caste. (Source:The Satara raj, 1818–1848: a study in history, administration, and culture By Sumitra Kulkarni, Pages: 187,188.) * Sanskrit Suvarṇakāra, is corrupted to Prākṛta Soṇṇāro from which Koṅkaṇī and Marāṭhī word Sonār is derived. (Source: The Koṅkaṇî language and literature By Joseph Gerson Cunha, p. 18.) ==References== ==Further reading== * * * * * * * * * * * * * *"Genetics of Castes and Tribes of India:Indian Population Milieu" by M. K. Bhasin, Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi, Delhi 110 007, India * ==External links== *Daivajña Shikshan Mandal *Daivajña Samaj in Gujarat Category:Konkani Category:Indian castes Category:Mangalorean society |
John Michael Frankenheimer (February 19, 1930 – July 6, 2002) was an American film and television director known for social dramas and action/suspense films. Among his credits were Birdman of Alcatraz (1962), The Manchurian Candidate (1962), Seven Days in May (1964), The Train (1964), Seconds (1966), Grand Prix (1966), French Connection II (1975), Black Sunday (1977), The Island of Dr. Moreau (1996), and Ronin (1998). He won four Emmy Awards—three consecutive—in the 1990s for directing the television movies Against the Wall, The Burning Season, Andersonville, and George Wallace, the last of which also received a Golden Globe Award for Best Miniseries or Television Film. Frankenheimer's 30 feature films and over 50 plays for television were notable for their influence on contemporary thought. He became a pioneer of the "modern-day political thriller", having begun his career at the height of the Cold War.Yoram Allon, Yoram; Cullen, Hannah Patterson. Contemporary North American Film Directors, Wallflower Press (2000), pp. 181-83 He was technically highly accomplished from his days in live television; many of his films were noted for creating "psychological dilemmas" for his male protagonists along with having a strong "sense of environment," similar in style to films by director Sidney Lumet, for whom he had earlier worked as assistant director. He developed a "tremendous propensity for exploring political situations" which would ensnare his characters. Movie critic Leonard Maltin writes that "in his time [1960s]... Frankenheimer worked with the top writers, producers and actors in a series of films that dealt with issues that were just on top of the moment--things that were facing us all." ==Childhood and schooling== Frankenheimer was born in Queens, New York City, the son of Helen Mary (née Sheedy) and Walter Martin Frankenheimer, a stockbroker. His father was of German Jewish descent, his mother was Irish Catholic, and Frankenheimer was raised in his mother's religion. As a youth Frankenheimer, the eldest of three siblings, struggled to assert himself with his domineering father.Bowie, 2006: "Frankenheimer felt overshadowed by a strong father..." Pratley, 1968 p. 17: Frankenheimer: "...I have a brother four years younger and a sister six years younger..." Growing up in New York City he became fascinated with cinema at an early age, and recalls avidly attending movies every weekend. Frankenheimer reports that in 1938, at the age of age of seven or eight, he attended a 25-episode, 7 hour marathon of The Lone Ranger accompanied by his aunt.Pratley, 1968 p. 16 In 1947, he graduated from La Salle Military Academy in Oakdale, Long Island, New York, and in 1951 he earned a baccalaureate in English from Williams College in Williamstown, Massachusetts. As captain of the tennis team at Williams, Frankenheimer briefly considered a professional career in tennis, but reconsidered:Baxter, 2002: "...he had a fitness and determination that allowed him to contemplate a tennis career...he abandoned both tennis and his religion [i.e. Catholicism]." ===Air Force Film Squadron: 1951-1953=== After graduating Williams College, Frankenheimer was drafted into the Air Force and assigned to the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC), serving in the Pentagon mailroom at Washington, D. C. He quickly applied for and was transferred, without any formal qualifications Pratley, 1968 p. 18: Frankenheimer's coursework at American University included speech and TV producing, which the USAF accepted as "qualifications." to an Air Force film squadron in Burbank, California. It was there that Lieutenant Frankenheimer "really started to think seriously about directing."Pratley, 1968 p. 18: Frankenheimer's remarks in quotations. And p. 21: Years in the Air Force, 1951-1953. Barson, 2021: "After making training films for the U.S. Air Force during the Korean War, Frankenheimer decided to become a director." Frankenheimer recollects his early apprenticeship with the Air Force photography unit as one of almost unlimited freedom. As a junior officer, Frankenheimer superiors "couldn't have cared less" what he did in terms of utilizing the filmmaking equipment. Frankenheimer reports that he was free to set up the lighting, operate the camera and perform the editing on projects he personally conceived. His first film was a documentary about an asphalt manufacturing plant in Sherman Oaks, California.Pratley, 1968 p. 18: Frankenheimer states repeatedly that "nobody cared [or could care less]" what he did. He took the equipment home on the weekends to "shoot all manner of stuff." Lieutenant Frankenheimer recalls moonlighting, at $40-a-week, as writer, producer and cameraman making television infomercials for a local cattle breeder in Northridge, California, in which livestock were presented on the interior stage sets. The FCC terminated the programming after 15 weeks. In addition to mastering the basic elements of filmmaking, Frankenheimer began reading widely on film technique, including the writings of Soviet director Sergei Eisenstein.Pratley, 1968 p. 19-20: FCC objection was the excessive commercial content, not sanitary issues related to cows. Baxter, 2002: "joined the US air force in the early 1950s. Put in charge of a film unit, he immersed himself in amateur movies, training documentaries and local television work [and read] classic texts on cinema theory and practice. Frankenheimer was discharged from the military in 1953.Pratley, 1968 p. 21 ==Television's "Golden Age": 1953-1960== During his years in military service, Frankenheimer strenuously sought a film career in Southern California. Failing this, at age 23, he returned to New York upon his military discharge to seek work in the emerging television industry. His earnestness impressed Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) television executives, landing him a job in the summer of 1953 to serve as a director of photography on The Garry Moore Show.Pratley, 1968 p. 21-24: See here of Frankenheimer's efforts to secure directortorial position. Walsh, 2002: "In 1953 he obtained a position with CBS television in New York as an assistant director and within 18 months of his discharge from the military he was co-directing a weekly dramatic series." Frankenheimer recalls his apprenticeship at CBS: Frankenheimer was picked up as assistant to director Sidney Lumet's for CBS's historical dramatization series You Are There, and further on Charles Russell's Danger and Edward R. Murrow's Person to Person. In late 1954 Frankenheimer replaced Lumet as director on You Are There and Danger under a 5-year contract (with a studio standard option to terminate a director with a two-week notice). Frankenheimer's directorial début was The Plot Against King Solomon (1954), a critical success.Pratley, 1968 p. 25-26, p. 28. Throughout the 1950s he directed over 140 episodes of shows like Playhouse 90 and Climax! under the auspices of CBS executive Hubbell Robinson and producer Martin ManulisPratley, 1968 p. 29-30 These included outstanding adaptations of works by Shakespeare, Eugene O'Neill, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway and Arthur Miller. Leading actors and actresses from stage and film starred in these live productions, among them Ingrid Bergman, John Gielgud, Mickey Rooney, Geraldine Page and Jack Lemmon. Frankenheimer is widely considered a preeminent figure in the so-called "Golden Age of Television".Baxter, 2002: "It initiated a brilliant period of more than 100 productions, notably Playhouse 90 dramas..." Walsh, 2002: "Between 1954 and 1960 Frankenheimer directed 152 live television dramas, including 42 episodes of the Playhouse 90 series. He is considered one of the leading figures of American television's so-called "Golden Age." Barson, 2021: "one of the most important and creatively gifted directors of the 1950s and '60s." Film historian Stephen Bowie offers this appraisal of Frankenheimer's legacy from the "Golden Age" of television: ==Film career== Frankenheimer's earliest films addressed contemporary issues such as "juvenile delinquency, criminality and the social environment" and are represented by The Young Stranger (1957), The Young Savages (1961) and All Fall Down (1962).Walsh, 2002 WSWS ===The Young Stranger (1957)=== Frankenheimer's first foray into filmmaking occurred while he was still under contract to CBS television. The head of CBS in California, William Dozier, became the CEO of RKO movie studios. Frankenheimer was assigned to direct a film version of his television Climax! production entitled "Deal a Blow", written by William Dozier's son, Robert. The 1956 movie version, The Young Stranger stars James MacArthur as the rebellious teenage son of a powerful Hollywood movie producer (James Daly). Frankenheimer recalled that he found his first film experience unsatisfactory:Baxter, 2002: "The experience was unhappy - Frankenheimer had grown used to controlling his technicians..." Frankenheimer adds that in the late 1950s, television was transitioning from live productions to taped shows: "...a live television director was like being a village blacksmith after the advent of the automobile...I knew I had to get out..." In 1961 Frankenheimer abandoned television and returned to filmmaking after a four-year hiatus, continuing his examination of the social themes that informed his 1957 The Young Stranger.Pratley, 1969 p. 43: Re: "village blacksmith", Pratley quoting Frankenheimer. And p. 47-48: Prately notes his return to "ideas, events, places and themes" he addressed in The Young Stranger. Film historian Gordon Gow distinguishes Frankenheimer's handling of themes addressing individualism and "misfits" during the Fifties' obsession with disaffected teenagers: ===The Young Savages (1961)=== Frankenheimer's second cinematic effort is based on novelist Evan Hunter's A Matter of Conviction (1959). United Artists publicity executives changed the box-office title to the vaguely lurid The Young Savages, to which Frankenheimer objected.Pratley, 1969 p. 44, p. 47: the director "disliked" the new title, Gow refers to its "cheaply made second feature" impression. The story involves the attempted political exploitation of a brazen murder involving Puerto Rican and Italian youth gangs set in New York City's Spanish Harlem.Stafford, 2005 TCM District Attorney, Dan Cole (Edward Andrews), who is seeking the state governorship, sends assistant D. A. Hank Bell (Burt Lancaster) to gather evidence to secure a conviction. Bell, who grew up in the tenement district, has escaped from his impoverished origins to achieve social and economic success. He initially adopts a cynical hostility towards the youths he investigates, which serves his own career aims. The narrative explores the human and legal complexities of the case and Bell's struggle to confront his personal and social prejudices and commitments.Stafford, 2005 TCM: "Bell uncovers the true murderer while making an important decision involving his own career." Barson, 2021: "The Young Savages...an overheated but often potent courtroom drama that starred Burt Lancaster—in the first of five movies he made with the director..." The film's arresting opening sequence depicting a killing, which is key to the plot, reveals Frankenheimer's origins in television. The action, "brilliantly filmed and edited", occurs preliminary to the credits, and is accompanied by an impelling soundtrack by composer David Amram, serving to quickly rivet audience interest.Pratley, 1969 p. 45 The Young Savages, though focusing on juvenile delinquency, is cinematically a significant advance over Frankenheimer's similarly themed first film effort The Young Stranger (1957).Pratley, 1969 p. 48-49 Film historian Gerald Pratley attributes this to Frankenheimer's insistence on hand-picking his leading technical support for the project, including set designer Bert Smidt, cinematographer Lionel Lindon and scenarists J. P. Miller.Stafford, 2005 TCM Pratley, 1969 p. 48 Pratley observed: Though "contrived and familiar in its social concerns" Frankenheimer and leading man Burt Lancaster, both Liberals in their political outlook, dramatize the "poverty, violence and despair of city life" with a restraint such that "the events and characters seem consistently believable."Pratley, 1969 p. 47-48 Stafford, 2005 TCM: The film script "appealed to the liberal Democrat in Frankenheimer and Lancaster..." Baxter, 2002: "It launched a movie career that allowed the director, a liberal, who wrote and directed all of Robert F Kennedy's television appearances, to buck the system, and make several landmark social and political works." Frankenheimer recalled "I shot The Young Savages mainly to show people that I could make a movie, and while it was not completely successful, my point was proved...The film was made on a relatively cheap budget and shooting on location in New York for a Hollywood company is very expensive. Those were the days before Mayor Lindsay when you had to pay off every other cop on the beat…"Pratley, 1969 p. 55 ===All Fall Down (1962)=== The coming of age film All Fall Down was both filmed and released while Frankenheimer's Birdman of Alcatraz (1962) was in post-production and his The Manchurian Candidate (1962) was in pre-production.Pratley, 1969 p. 80: Frankenheimer explains the chronology here. Stafford, 2003 TCM: "John Houseman and Frankenheimer eagerly agreed to do it in-between post-production on Birdman of Alcatraz and preparation for The Manchurian Candidate."Baxter, 2002: "Birdman of Alcatraz was delayed when the first section had to be shortened and reshot, and, in the interim, Frankenheimer made the hothouse All Fall Down." The picture was scripted by William Inge, who also wrote Splendor in the Grass (1961) and concerns character Berry-Berry (Warren Beatty), an emotionally irresponsible hustler, and his adoring younger brother Clinton (Brandon deWilde), to whom Berry-Berry appears as a romantic Byronesque figure. The older brother's cruel treatment of Echo O'Brien (Eva Marie Saint), his lover who becomes pregnant, disabuses the naive Clinton of Berry-Berry's perfection. His anguished insight permits Clinton to achieve emotional maturity and independence.Higham, 1973 p. 294-295: "...a beautifully made film about adolescence…the boy reaches manhood by way of anguish…concerned with the theme of the outsider." Barson, 2021: All Fall Down "starred Warren Beatty as a callous womanizer whose adoring younger brother (Brandon deWilde) gradually comes to despise him."Baxter, 2002: "Frankenheimer made the hothouse All Fall Down, with Warren Beatty as an archetypal, Frankenheimer anti-hero drifter."Walsh, 2002 WSWS: " "All Fall Down is a fairly silly work...Warren Beatty plays the impossibly named Berry-Berry Willart, a ne'er-do-well son of a quarrelsome middle class Cleveland couple...His abuse of a family friend, Echo O'Brien (Eva Marie Saint), leads to her death and the disillusionment of Berry-Berry's younger brother." Film critic David Walsh comments: ===Birdman of Alcatraz (1962)=== Based on a biography by Thomas E. Gaddis, Birdman of Alcatraz (1962) is a documentary-like dramatization of the life of Robert Stroud, sentenced to life imprisonment in solitary confinement for killing a prison guard.Baxter, 2002: Frankenheimer's “documentary style, produced an intense story of injustice and endurance.” Pratley, 1969 p. 58: “This film is almost pure documentary.” While serving his sentence, Stroud (Burt Lancaster) becomes a respected expert in avian diseases though the study of canaries. Frankenheimer traces Stroud's emergence from his anti-social misanthropy towards a humane maturity, despite the brutal conditions of his incarceration.Walsh, 2002 WSWS: “...Stroud's transformation from a sullen misanthrope into a humane and thoughtful individual.” Stafford, 2003 TCM: Stroud's Stroud's“life-altering experience...establishing himself as one of the world's leading authorities on canaries.” Pratley, 1969 p. 59-60: Frankenheimer offers a narrative in which Stroud's “character changes completely...becomes a slow, quiet, thoughtful man.” In 1962, the production and filming of Birdman of Alcatraz was already underway when United Artists enlisted Frankenheimer to replace British director Charles Crichton.Stafford, 2003 TCM: Remarks on Crichton dismissal. As such, key production decisions had already been made, and Frankenheimer regarded himself as a “hired director” with little direct control over the production.Pratley, 1969 p. 64-65, p. 66: “hired director” Producer Harold Hecht and screenwriter Guy Trosper insisted on an exhaustive adaption of the Gaddis biography. The filmed rough cut that emerged was over four hours in length. When simply editing the work was ruled out as impracticable, the script was rewritten and the film largely re-shot, producing a final cut of 2 ½ hours.Strafford, 2003 TCM: The rough cut “ran four and a half hours [requiring a] re-write of the script. ‘That's what we did. Then we went back and re-shot the whole first part of the movie.’” Stafford is quoting from a Charles Champlin interview with the director. Pratley, 1969 p. 66 According to Frankenheimer, he had an option in the 1950s to make a television adaption of the Stroud story, but CBS was warned off by the Federal Bureau of Prisons, and the project was dropped.Prately, 1969 p. 64: Frankenheimer recalls that the Bureau threatened to withhold any future cooperation with CBS if they sponsored the story. He also cites anticipated difficulties handling small birds in a live TV drama.Stafford, 2003 TCM: Stafford or Frankenheimer may be confusing USBP interference regarding film vs. TV ===The Manchurian Candidate (1962)=== Frankenheimer's 1962 political thriller The Manchurian Candidate is widely regarded as his most remarkable cinematic work.Nixon, 2006 TCM: “...Frankenheimer became a major cinematic force with The Manchurian Candidate…its power and influence have not been diminished.” Barson, 2021 Britannica: “The Manchurian Candidate is arguably Frankenheimer's most-respected film.” Walsh, 2002 WSWS: “The Manchurian Candidate is a peculiar film, perhaps Frankenheimer's most important, but certainly not entirely coherent or convincing.” Biographer Gerald Prately observes that “the impact of this film was enormous. With it, John Frankenheimer became a force to be reckoned with in contemporary cinema; it established him as the most artistic, realistic and vital filmmaker at work in America or elsewhere.”Pratley, 1969 p. 82 And p. 224: Frankenheimer: “...the film that people say is my best, The Manchurian Candidate...” Bowie, 2006: “The Manchurian Candidate (1962)...is an achievement so elephantine that it tends to dwarf the others in critical assessments of its director's work.” Frankenheimer and producer George Axelrod bought Richard Condon's 1959 novel after it had already been turned down by many Hollywood studios. After Frank Sinatra committed to the film, they secured backing from United Artists.Pratley, 1969 p. 97: See Frankenheimer autobiographical remarks in Pratley. The plot centers on Korean War veteran Raymond Shaw, part of a prominent political family. Shaw is brainwashed by Chinese and Russian captors after his Army platoon are imprisoned. He returns to civilian life in the United States, where he becomes an unwitting “sleeper” assassin in an international communist conspiracy to subvert and overthrow the U.S. government.Barson, 2021 Britannica: “A chilling adaption of the Richard Condon novel, it starred Frank Sinatra and Laurence Harvey as American soldiers who are brainwashed during the Korean War in a scheme to have a communist elected U.S. president.” Walsh, 2002 WSWS: brief film summary Pratley, 1969 p. 81-82: See Synopsis The film co-starred Laurence Harvey (as Sergeant Raymond Shaw), Janet Leigh, James Gregory and John McGiver. Angela Lansbury, as the mother and controller to her “sleeper” assassin son, garnered an Academy Award nomination for a “riveting” performance” in “the greatest screen role of her career.”Baxter, 2002: “greatest screen role…” Nixon, 2006 TCM: “Angela Lansbury's Oscar-nominated performance is usually what is remembered most about the film.” Barson, 2021. Britannica: “Angela Lansbury, who was nominated for best supporting actress.” Walsh, 2004 WSWS: “Angela Lansbury is riveting as the sleeper assassin's mother...” Pratley, 1969 p. 85: “Angela Lansbury is carried over from All Fall Down (1962), again a splendidly possessive mother…” Frank Sinatra, as Major Bennett Marco, who reverses Shaw's mind control mechanisms and exposes the conspiracy, delivers perhaps his most satisfactory film performance.Nixon, 2006 TCM: “...a creative atmosphere that allowed Frank Sinatra to give what many feel is his best performance.” Pratley, 1969 p. 87: “...both Frank Sinatra and Laurence Harvey give superlative, restrained performances…” Frankenheimer declared that both technically and conceptually, he had “complete control” over the production.Prately, 1969 p. 97: Frankenheimer: “The Manchurian Candidate is the first film I really instigated and had complete control...” And p. 98: “...I had complete control…” over the production. The technical “fluency” exhibited in The Manchurian Candidate reveals Frankenheimer's struggle to convey this Cold War narrative. Film historian Andrew Sarris remarked that the director was “obviously sweating over his technique...instead of building sequences, Frankenheimer explodes them prematurely, preventing his films from coming together coherently.”Walsh, 2002 WSWS: Sarris quoted by Walsh. The Manchurian Candidate, nonetheless, conveys the “paranoia and delirium of the Cold War years”Bowie, 2006: “...documentary-styled mise en scène...” Walsh, 2002 WSWS: “...paranoia and delirium...” Baxter, 2002: The Manchurian Candidate “is dominated by Frankenheimer's technical fluency…” through its documentary-style mise-en-scène. A demonstration of Frankenheimer's bravura direction and “visual inventiveness” appears in the notable brainwashing sequence, presenting the sinister proceedings from the perspective of both the perpetrator and victim.Pratley, 1969 p. 85-87: Frankenheimer's “continual visual inventiveness”Pratley, 1969 p. 85-87: “...the script contains no directions for the filming of the masterly ‘brainwashing’, an extremely complicated piece of filming which he devised.”And p. 87: More on shot sequence. The complexity of the sequence and its antecedents in television are described by film critic Stephen Bowie: In 1968, Frankenheimer acknowledged that the methods he used on television were “the same kind of style I used on The Manchurian Candidate. It was the first time I had the assurance and self-confidence to go back to what I had been really good at in television.”Pratley, 1969 p. 98: Compositionally, Frankenheimer concentrates his actors into “long lens” menage, in which dramatic interactions occur at close-up, mid-shot and long-shot, a configuration that he repeated “obsessively.” Film critic Stepen Bowie observes that “this style meant that Frankenheimer's early output became a cinema of exactitude rather than spontaneity.”Bowie, 2002 The Manchurian Candidate was released in the post-Red Scare period of the early 1960s, when anti-Communist political ideology still prevailed.Nixon, 2006 TCM: “The nation's shameful anti-Communist era was essentially over, but its effects lingered, and the idea of presenting a McCarthy-type movement as a sinister Communist plot was outrageous.” Just one month after the film's release, the John F. Kennedy administration was in the midst of Cuban Missile Crisis and nuclear brinkmanship with the Soviet Union.Walsh, 2004 WSWS: “Frankenheimer's The Manchurian Candidate appeared in cinemas in the US at an extraordinary moment, October 24, 1962, in the middle of the ‘Fourteen Days’ of the Cuban Missile Crisis (October 15–28), when the Cold War came as close as it ever did to becoming a nuclear catastrophe.” Nixon, 2006 TCM: “...both Frankenheimer and Sinatra were close friends of the Kennedy family...” Pratley, 1969 p. 81: Pratley reports that the film was released on 27 September 1962. That Frankenheimer and screenwriter Axelrod persisted in the production is a measure of their political liberalism, in a historical period when, according to biographer Gerald Pratley “ it was clearly dangerous to speak of politics in the out-spoken, satiric vein that characterized this picture.”Pratley, 1969 p. 82 Walsh, 2002 WSWS: “one assumes Frankenheimer and Axelrod are making the ultimate liberal statement about ‘extremism.’” Film critic David Walsh adds that “the level of conviction and urgency” that informs The Manchurian Candidate, reflects “the relative confidence and optimism American liberals felt in the early 1960s.”Walsh, 2004 WSWS Frankenheimer's “terrifying parable” of the American political milieu was sufficiently well-received to avoid its summary rejection by distributors.Pratley, 1969 p. 84: “The Manchurian Candidate provoked its share of rage and anguish...but the film was too great an achievement, both in artistic and commercial terms, to go down before it.” Nixon, 2006 TCM: “...a volatile and terrifying parable of American political life.” Baxter, 2002: “Box office receipts...were modest...the film went from ‘failure to cult classic without even being a success’” The Manchurian Candidate, due its subject matter and its proximity to the Kennedy assassination is inextricably linked to that event.Bowie, 2006: “It occupies a place in the popular memory as an eerie prediction of the Kennedy assassination a year later...” Frankenheimer acknowledged as much when, in 1968, he described The Manchurian Candidate as “a horribly prophetic film. It's frightening what's happened in our country since that film was made.”Pratley, 1969 p. 98 After completing The Manchurian Candidate, Frankenheimer recalls that he was determined to continue filmmaking: “I wanted to initiate the project, I wanted to have full control, I never wanted to go back to be hired as a director again.”Pratley, p. 108: Frankenheimer, quoted in Pratley He was offered a contract to direct a biopic about French singer Edith Piaf, with Natalie Wood in the starring role. He emphatically rejected the offer when he learned that Piaf's songs would be sung in English, rather than in the original French.Pratley, 1969 p. 109: Frankenheimer comments on this topic. In 1963, Frankenheimer and screenwriter George Axelrod were introduced to the producer Edward Lewis, considering a TV production concerning the American Civil Liberties Union. When the project was deemed too expensive for television, Frankenheimer was approached by an associate of Lewis, actor and producer Kirk Douglas, to purchase and adapt to film the novel Seven Days in May by Fletcher Knebel and Charles W. Bailey II.Pratley, 1969 p. 103, p. 110-111 Safford, 2007 TCM: The literary property was “purchased for the screen through the joint efforts of Frankenheimer and Kirk Douglas, who agreed to produce and star in the film...” ===Seven Days in May (1964)=== Seven Days in May (1964), based closely on Fletcher Knebel and Charles W. Bailey II's best-selling novel and a screenplay by Rod Serling, dramatizes an attempted military coup d’état in the United States, set in 1974.Safford, 2007 TCM: “political conspiracy thriller...based on the popular novel by Fletcher Knebel and Charles W. Bailey II.” The perpetrators are led by General James M. Scott (Burt Lancaster), chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) a virulently anti-Communist authoritarian. When US President Jordan Lyman (Fredric March) negotiates a nuclear disarmament treaty with the Soviet Union—an act that Scott considers treasonable—Scott mobilizes his military cabal. Operating at a remote base in West Texas, they prepare to commandeer the nation's communication networks and seize control of Congress. When Scott's JCS aide Colonel Martin “Jiggs” Casey (Kirk Douglas) discovers the planned coup he is appalled, and convinces President Lyman as to the gravity of the threat. Lyman mobilizes his own governmental loyalists, and a clash over Constitutional principles between Lyman and Scott plays out in the Oval Office, with the President denouncing the General as a traitor to the US Constitution. When Scott is exposed publicly, his military supporters abandon him, and the conspiracy collapses.Pratley, 1969 p. 104 Laurier and Walsh, 2020 WSWS: “To a certain and important extent, the encounter between Lyman and Scott does concretize and concentrate artistically a pivotal social collision, an obligation of enduring drama.” Frankenheimer points to the topical continuity of his political thrillers:Higham, 1973 p. 295: In The Manchurian Candidate “the inspiration for the revolt lay in Russia; in Seven Days in May, the seeds of destruction are seen to lie in the American military system itself.” The character of General Scott has been identified by film historians as a composite of two leading military and political figures: Curtis LeMay and Edwin Walker.Laurier and Walsh, 2020 WSWS: “Scott is generally taken to be a fictional version or composite of...Curtis LeMay, appointed by Kennedy to be Air Force Chief of Staff, and Edwin Walker…” Pratley, 1969 p. 108: “The war-like pronouncements of many American military men place this film right on the line between fantasy and fact; it would take only the slightest push to move it over into truth.” Higham, 1973 p. 295: “...expertly tackles a political theme...Once again Frankenhiemer deals with an attempt to obtain supreme power by a fascist clique.” Safford, 2007 TCM: “...a chilling scenario of the dangers of misplaced power in the military-industrial complex... it remains a hot topic today.” The film places great emphasis on the sanctity of US Constitutional norms as a bulwark against encroachments by anti-democratic elements in the United States.Pratley, 1969 p. 108: “...it plausibly and intelligently projects a warning that this could happen in the near future, and we should be on our guard.” Biographer Gerald Pratley writes: Film critic Joanne Laurier adds that “screenwriter Rod Serling and Frankenheimer's major theme is the need for the military to be subordinated to elected civilian rule.” As visual emphasis “the opening credits of Seven Days in May roll over an image of the original 1787 draft of the Constitution of the United States.Laurier and Walsh, 2020 WSWS Seven Days in May has been widely praised for the high caliber of the performances by the cast.Pratley, 1969 p. 107: “There are splendid performances from the entire cast...” Biographer Charles Higham writes that “the film is played with extraordinary skill, proving that Frankenheimer's intensity communicated itself successfully to his actors.”Higham, 1973 p. 295: Laurier and Walsh, 2020 WSWS: “Douglas, Lancaster and March clearly threw themselves into the production. They are thoroughly believable as these human beings.” Frankenheimer, a former Air Force officer who worked briefly in the Pentagon,Pratley, 1969 p. 18, p. 114: Frankenheimer: “...it gave me a sense of satisfaction to make a picture about a place I worked as a mail boy.” anticipated hostility from the military establishment to the premise of Seven Days in May.Pratley, 1969 p. 114: Frankenheimer: “...I'm sure the Pentagon weren't happy when they heard we were going to make it…” Laurier and Walsh, 2020 WSWS: “...Seven Days in May angered the Pentagon, the FBI and the extreme right.” Safford, 2007 TCM: “the filmmakers knew it was futile to ask any Pentagon officials if they could shoot any sequences at their headquarters.” Indeed, internal memos circulated in the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) registering alarm that Seven Days in May could potentially damage the bureau's reputation.Laurier and Walsh, 2020 WSWS: “A March 20, 1964 memo details communications between retired Admiral Arleigh Burke and Assistant Director William Sullivan of the FBI in regard to the film and its potential damage. Film critics Joanne Laurier and David Walsh report that “The military and FBI took a very definite note of Seven Days in May, revealing their intense sensitivity to such criticism. A memo uncovered in Ronald Reagan's FBI file reveals that the bureau was concerned the film would be used as Communist propaganda and was therefore ‘harmful to our Armed Forces and Nation.’”Laurier and Walsh, 2020 WSWS: President Kennedy personally expressed approval for the film adaption, and his Press Secretary Pierre Salinger permitted Frankenhiemer to view the Oval Office so as to sketch its interior.Pratley, 1969 p. 114: “President Kennedy indirectly...said he very much wanted the film made.” Seven Days in May, filmed in the summer of 1963, was scheduled for release in December that year, but was delayed due to the assassination of President John F. Kennedy in November. The release of director Stanley Kubrick's satire Dr. Strangelove (1964) was similarly postponed.Laurier and Walsh, 2020 WSWS: “...theatrical release scheduled for December. That release was held up by the murder of Kennedy in Dallas on November 22. (The appearance of Stanley Kubrick's Dr. Strangelove in theaters was delayed for the same reason.)” Frankenheimer recognized the “prophetic” aspects of his The Manchurian Candidate (1962), a film that examines conspiratorial political assassinations. The historical context in which Seven Days in May appeared inevitably links it to the 1963 Kennedy assassination.Laurier and Walsh, 2020 WSWS: The painful irony is that the real-life models for the fanatical right- wing elements in the military and intelligence apparatus fictionalized...in Frankenheimer's film were no doubt linked to the cabal that carried out the [Kennedy] assassination.” Film critic David Walsh makes the connection explicit: “By the time Seven Days in May reached movie theaters, Kennedy had been assassinated, in an operation widely believed to have been organized by those with CIA or military connections.”Walsh, 2002 WSWS: Seven Days in May was well received by critics and movie-goers.Safford, 2007 TCM: “When Seven Days in May opened theatrically, it fared well with critics and audiences alike…” Laurier and Walsh, 2020 WSWS: “Received warmly by both critics and audiences...On the whole, Seven Days in May stands up, 56 years later.” Higham, 1973 p. 295: “Frankenheimer's great virtues - his sense of realism, attack, pacing, and electrifying creative energy” were evident in Seven Days in May. ===The Train (1964)=== In early 1964, Frankenheimer was reluctant to embark upon another film project due to fatigue: “The Train is a film I had no intention of ever doing [and was] not a subject that I cared that much about...I'd just finished Seven Days in May (1964). I was quite tired.” Pratley, 1969 p. 123-125, p. 139: Composite quote. Adapted from the novel Le Front de l’Art: Le front de l’art: Défense des collections françaises, 1939-1945 by Rose Valland, the documentary-styled picture examines the desperate struggle by the French Resistance to intercept a train loaded with priceless art treasures and sabotage it before Wehrmacht officers could escape with it to Nazi Germany. The film dramatizes a contest of wills between French railway inspector Labiche (Burt Lancaster) and German art connoisseur Colonel von Waldheim (Paul Scofield), tasked with seizing the art work.Baxter, 2002: The film is “dominated by Lancaster's athleticism and Paul Scofield's steely performance as his German adversary.” Pratley, 1969 p. 115-116 Wood, 2004: “World War II action film tinged with a Cold War sensibility.” Shooting for The Train had commenced in France when filmmaker Arthur Penn, originally enlisted to direct the adaption, was dismissed by actor-producer Lancaster, allegedly over personal incompatibility and irreconcilable interpretive differences.p. 47 Penn, Arthur Arthur Penn: Interviews, University Press of Mississippi, 2008 Pratley, 1969 p. 123: Frankenheimer: “...a conflict of personalities, a conflict over the type of film being made…” Barson, 2021: “Lancaster and Frankenheimer combined forces for the fourth time on The Train (1965)—although not by original design; Arthur Penn had begun the picture but was fired soon after filming began.” Wood, 2004 TCM: “Lancaster was concerned that Penn was neglecting the story's potential for action and suspense, and remedied the situation by calling in Frankenheimer.” Frankenheimer, who had successfully directed Lancaster on three previous films, consented to replace Penn, but with grave reservations, considering the screenplay “almost appalling” and noting that “the damn train didn't leave the station until p. 140.”Prately, 1969 p. 123-125: See here for Frankenheimer's remarks. Smith, 2010. TCM: “At the behest of star Burt Lancaster, Frankenheimer replaced Arthur Penn as the director of The Train (1965)” Higham, 1973 p. 295: “The Train (1965), taken over from Arthur Penn, was a botch for which he cannot be held responsible.” Palen, 2010: See here for same Frankenheimer passages quoted in Pratley, 1969. Frankenhiemer postponed production of Seconds (1966) to accommodate Lancaster's production.Pratley, 1969 p. 140 Filming for The Train was temporarily shut down and the existing footage discarded. Frankenhiemer, in collaboration with screenwriters Nedrick Young (uncredited), Franklin Coen, Frank Davis and Walter Bernstein framed an entirely new script that combined suspense, intrigue and action, reflecting Lancaster's prerequisites.Palen, 2010 Wood, 2004 TCM: “Frankenheimer in turn discarded Penn's footage, brought in his own writers to overhaul the script, and ultimately delivered the WWII thriller Lancaster had hoped for.” Frankenheimer inserts an ethical question into the narrative: Is it justified to sacrifice a human life to save a work of art? His controversial answer was emphatically, no.Pratley, 1969 p. 122: “The director has been criticized, of course, for his ironic comments about the values of art and of human life.” And p 125: Frankenheimer: “The point I wanted to make was that no work of art is worth a human life.” Film critic Stephen Bowie observes ““Frankenheimer's thesis—that human life has more value than art—may seem simplistic, but it adds an essential moral component to what would otherwise be just an expensive live-action version of an electric train set.”Bowie, 2006: Abele, 2018: Abele quoting Guillermo del Toro “...the movie clearly states two points of view...Lancaster is pro-human. Scofield cares about art but has no hint of the humanity of that art...an artistic piece about how much art is worth in human lives.” The Train is lauded for its documentary-like realism and Frankenheimer's masterful integration of the human narrative with its tour-de-force action scenes.Palen, 2010: “John Frankenheimer's 1964 masterly moving painting The Train.. grounded in the grimy documentary-like detail of the neo-realist style the director admired.” Wood, 2004 TCM: “...a masterful achievement of heightened and prolonged suspense...one of the best action films of the 1960s.” Abele, 2018: Abele's article highlights Guillermo del Toro's fulsome praise for The Train as a superlative action film. Wood, 2004 TCM: “No miniatures were used in The Train...apparent when one views such sequences of carefully-orchestrated destruction that punctuate the film's tightly-wound narrative.” Bowie, 2006: “The terrifically entertaining The Train (1965) best represents this synthesis.” Biographer Gerald Pratley offers this appraisal of Frankenheimer's handling of the complex series of train sequences, discerning the influence of Soviet director Sergei Eisenstein: Film critic Tim Palen elaborates on Frankenheimer's technical expertise in The Train: “The director makes excellent use of wide angle lenses, long tracking shots, and extreme close-ups whilst maintaining depth of field...deliberately ensures that elaborate camera movement and cutting was planned so that ‘logistically you knew where each train was,’ in relation to the action.”Palen, 2010: The Train exemplifies the centrality of technical applications that began to characterize Frankenheimer's approach to film in the late 1960s “brandishing style for its own sake.”Georgaris, 2021 TSPDT: Georgaris quoting from The Film Encyclopedia, 2012 The Train’s original screenplay received an Academy Award nomination.Balio 1987, p. 279. It had cost $6.7 million.Buford 2000, p. 240. and was one of the 13 most popular films in the UK in 1965."Most Popular Film Star." The Times, December 31, 1965, p. 13 via The Times Digital Archive, September 16, 2013. ===Seconds (1966)=== Seconds presents a surreal and disturbing tale of a disillusioned corporate executive, Arthur Hamilton (John Randolph). In an effort to escape his empty existence, he submits to a traumatic surgical procedure that transforms his body into that of a younger man, Tony Wilson (Rock Hudson). Randolph's effort to erase his former self in a new persona proves futile and leads to his horrific demise.Wilshire, 2001 Pratley, 1969 p. 135: “...a horrifying, shattering, screaming climax [as] he is taken away to become a cadaver for another second…” And p. 139: “...the horrific ending…”Barson, 2021 Biographer Gerald Pratley describes Seconds as “a cold, grey, frightening picture of a dehumanized world...based on the age- old search for eternal youth...an amalgam of mystery, horror and science fiction…”Pratley, 1969 p. 134 Based on a novel by David Ely and a screenplay by Lewis John Carlino, Frankenheimer explained his thematic objectives: Frankenheimer acknowledged his difficulty in casting for the elderly and demoralized Arthur Hamilton, which required the director to convincingly show his metamorphosis, both surgically and physiologically, into the youthful and artistic Tony Wilson. A dual role played by a single actor was considered, with Frankenheimer advocating for British actor Laurence Olivier. Paramount rejected this in favor of two players, in which one actor (Randolph) undergoes a radical transformation to emerge with the appearance and identity of the other (Hudson). Rock Hudson's portrayal of Wilson introduced a troubling plausibility issue that Frankenheimer fully recognized: “We knew we were going to have a terrible time getting audiences to believe that the man who went into the operating room (Randolph) could emerge as Rock Hudson, citing the physical disparity between the actors as problematic.Smith, 2010 TCM: “Frankenheimer preferred Laurence Olivier, whom he considered a natural for the dual role of Arthur Hamilton/Tony Wilson, but Paramount wanted a bigger name” for the youthful Wilson.Wilshire, 2001 Film historian Gerald Pratley concurs: “the weakness [in Seconds] is trying to convince audiences that the actor playing Hamilton could emerge, after plastic surgery, as Wilson in the form of Rock Hudson. This is where the star system has worked against Frankeheimer.”Pratley, 1969 p. 135: Frankenheimer identified the source of the film's weakness less on the physical disparities in his actors, and more on the his difficulties conveying the themes required to explain Wilson's inability to adjust socially to his new life: “We thought we had shown why [Wilson] failed, but after the film was finished I realized we had not.” Pratley, 1969 p. 143-144: Frankenheimer: “I don't think the [disparity in stature] was too noticeable.” And: “...the film was obscure and nobody ever understood why [Wilson] didn't make it.” And: “We did not successfully dramatize the second act” i.e. the Tony Wilson phase. See also Frankenheimer's remarks on deleted sequence about Wilson's encounter with a small girl.Wilshire, 2001 Frankenheimer's technical prowess is on display in Seconds, where the director and his cameraman James Wong Howe experimented with various lenses, including the 9.5 mm fisheye lens to achieve the “distortion and exaggeration” that would dramatize Hamilton's struggle to “break free of his emotional straightjacket.”Wilshire, 2001: Wilshire quoting Vincent LoBrotto “the screenplay...had a surreal quality, which suggested an extreme visual approach to Frankenheimer.” Howe and Frankenheimer's use of visual distortions are central to revealing his character's hallucinatory mental states, and according to Frankenheimer “almost psychedelic”. In one scene, a total of four Arriflexes are brought to bear to emphasis Hamilton's sexual impotency with his estranged wife.Pratley, 1969 p. 144: “9.5mm lens...” And p. 146: Arriflex methods. And p. 145 “...psychedelic...” Wilshire, 2001: “Most importantly, the theme of distortion is central to Seconds...The camera is used not only as a recording device, but also as an expressive tool.” And:“Howe was the ideal choice to visually realize Frankenhiemer's ambitious and surreal vision in Seconds...” Film historian Peter Wilshire considers Frankenheimer's choice of James Wong Howe as cameraman for the project was his “most important directional decision.” Howe was nominated at the Academy Awards in Best Cinematography for his efforts.Pratley, 1969 p. 145: Frankenheimer: “I had splendid co-operation from Jame Wong Howe, who's a marvelous cameraman.” And p. 139: Pratley states “James Wong Howe's photography has never been better than in this picture...” At Frankenheimer's urging, Paramount executives agreed to enter Seconds at the 1966 Cannes Film Festival, hoping the film might confer prestige on the studio and enhance box office returns. On the contrary, Seconds was savaged by European critics at the film competition, regarding it as misanthropic and “cruel”. Frankenheimer recalled “it was a disaster” and declined to attend the festival's post-preview press conference. In the aftermath of this fiasco, Paramount withdraw promotional resources and Seconds failed at the box office.Pratley, 1969 p. 133-134: “The French and European critics at Cannes gave Seconds such a hostile reception and denounced it so bitterly as being ‘cruel and inhuman’ that Frankenheimer refused to leave Monte Carlo...to attend the press conference...” And p. 146: “It was a disaster. Most critics hated it.” And: Frankenheimer: “Paramount lost all faith in the film...put no effort into selling it.” Baxter, 2002: “...Seconds was so badly received at the Cannes film festival that he boycotted the press conference.” As consolation for its critical and commercial failures, Seconds was ultimately rewarded with a cult following among cineastes.Barson, 2021: “Although a critical and commercial disappointment, Seconds later developed a cult following. “ Smith, 2010 TCM: “Although it would eventually find its cult, Seconds was relegated to the Paramount vault and forgotten...” Pratley, 1969 p. 145: Frankenheimer: “We all know [cast and crew] that the film was a failure, but I think its an excellent case against [entering movies] in film festivals.”Wilshire, 2001: “Seconds failed miserably at the box-office in 1966.” Critical appraisal of the film has varied widely. Gerald Pratley, in 1968, declares that Seconds, despite its poor reception in 1966, will one day be recognized as “a masterpiece.”Pratley, 1969 p. 134: Pratley declares that Seconds will one day be “described as a masterpiece.” Film critic Peter Wilshire offers qualified praise: “In spite of its obvious weaknesses, Seconds is an extremely complex, innovative, and ambitious film.”Wilshire, 2001 Brian Baxter disparages Seconds as “embarrassing...unconvincing, even as science fiction.”Baxter, 2001 and critic David Walsh considers Seconds “particularly wrongheaded, strained and foolish.” Biographer Charles Higham writes: ===Grand Prix (1966)=== By the mid-sixties, Frankenheimer had emerged as one of Hollywood's leading directors.Thurber and King, 2002: “...in 1964, Frankenheimer seemed firmly entrenched as a top director in Hollywood. A year later he made his first color film, the car-racing saga Grand Prix.” As such, M-G-M provided lavish financing for Grand Prix (1966), Frankenheimer's first color film and shot in 70mm Cinerama.Axmaker, 2010 TCM: “Grand Prix (1966), a sprawling drama of race car drivers shot on locations across Europe with a glamorous international cast.” A former amateur race car driver himself, he approached the project with genuine enthusiasm.Pratley, 1969 p. 151; “...it communicates the director's enthusiasm for the subject…” And: Frankenheimer: “[I’ve] driven a race car and driven one fairly well…” Goodman, 2003 TCM: “Grand Prix is Frankenheimer's first color film...Shot in 70mm Cinerama.” And: Frankenheimer: "...one of the most satisfactory films I've made.” And: “Having been an amateur racer himself, Frankenheimer is intensely passionate about the subject...” The screenplay by Robert Alan Aurthur and an uncredited Frankenheimer, concerns the professional and personal fortunes of Formula One racer Pete Aron (James Garner) during an entire season of competitive racing. The action climaxes at Monza, where Aron, Scott Stoddard (Brian Bedford), Jean Pierre Sarti (Yves Montand) and Nino Barlini (Antonio Sabàto Sr.) compete for the championship, with tragic results.Pratley, 1969 p. 150 and pp.151-153: “...his first original screenplay since The Young Stranger…” And: “...his most expensive production…”Goodman, 2003 TCM: “As could be expected, a tight race ensues with plenty of thrills, chills, and spills, before a final victor emerges from the big event.” Wishing to craft a highly realistic rendering of racing and its milieu, he assembled a panoply of innovative film techniques with ingenious apparatus and special effects.Pratley, 1969 p. 151-152 And p. 154-155: Frankenheimer: “I want to show what racing was really like and every incident in the film is based on truth.” And: “I used to do racing as an amateur…” Goodman, 2003 TCM: “Frankenheimer and cinematographer Lionel Lindon used specially constructed cameras mounted on the racing cars…creative use of split-screen…” And: “Having been an amateur racer himself, Frankenheimer is intensely passionate about the subject...” Working closely with cinematographer Lionel Lindon, Frankenheimer mounted cameras directly onto the race cars, eliminating process shots and providing audiences with a driver's-eye view of the action.Goodman, 2003 TCM: “To achieve the level of realism that Frankenheimer wanted, there were no "process shots" used in the film. All scenes used real cars with mounted cameras...cinematographer Lionel Lindon used specially constructed cameras mounted on the racing cars, which put us on the track with the drivers.”Pratley, 1969 p. 159: Frankenheimer: “There was not a single process shot in the entire film.” Frankenheimer incorporated split-screens to juxtapose documentary-like interviews of the racers with high-speed action shots on the track.Pratley, 1969 p. 156-158: See Frankenheimer narrative re: Francis Thompson's To Be Alive! (1964), and World Series televised baseball. Goodman, 2003 TCM: “...Frankenheimer used the wide space to his advantage with a creative use of split-screen…By combining the ‘on-track’ footage with helicopter shots of the cars in a split-screen action sequence, he combats the monotony of racing cars merely driving around in circles.” Frankenheimer explains his use of the “hydrogen cannon”:Goodman, 2003 TCM: “For the spectacular crashes, special effects man Milton Rice created a hydrogen cannon, which functioned as a giant pea-shooter. A car could be attached to a shaft on the cannon, and then ‘shot’ out like a projectile at speeds in excess of 125 miles an hour.” Characterized largely by Frankenheimer's bravura application of his striking cinematic style, Grand Prix has been termed “largely a technical exercise” by film critic David Walsh and “brandishing style for its own sake” according to The Film Encyclopedia.Walsh, 2002. WSWS: “Grand Prix, a story of race-car drivers, is largely a technical exercise, whose dramatic narrative seems accidental...” Barson, 2021: “...The racing sequences were entertaining, but the rest of the film was largely dull.”Georgaris, 2021 TSPDT: “...Frankenheimer seemed to be losing his edge by brandishing style for its own sake.” - The Film Encyclopedia, 2012 Film historian Andrew Sarris observed that Frankenheimer's style had “degenerated into an all-embracing academicism, a veritable glossary of film techniques.”Walsh, 2002. WSWS: “Sarris suggested that the director's style had ‘degenerated into an all-embracing academicism, a veritable glossary of film techniques.’” A commercial success, Grand Prix garnered three Oscars at the Academy Awards for Best Sound Effects (by Gordon Daniel), Best Editing (Henry Berman, Stu Linder and Frank Santillo), and for Best Sound Recording (Franklin Milton and Roy Charman)Goodman, 2003 TCM: “..earning three Oscars for Best Sound Effects (by Gordon Daniel), Best Editing, and Best Sound.” Baxter, 2002 “...returning to France [he made] his commercially successful, biggest budget, and first colour movie, Grand Prix (1966). Pratley, 1969 p. 149: See here for credits ===The Extraordinary Seaman (1969)=== Frankenheimer's first foray into “light comedy” represents a major departure from his often dystopian and dramatic work addressing social issues and his big budget action films.Axmaker, 2010 TCM: “...Though he'd shown darkly satire edges in The Manchurian Candidate (1962) and Seconds (1966), he was known as a director of serious dramas with social concerns.” And: “...more farce than satire...a light comedy.” Pratley, 1969 p. 165-166: Pratley distinguished The Extraordinary Seaman from Frankenheimer's “big pictures” (e.g. Grand Prix and The Train) The Extraordinary Seaman presents a menagerie of misfit characters set in the final days of World War II in the Pacific theatre. British Lt. Commander Finchhaven, R. N. (David Niven), a ghost, is condemned to a Flying Dutchman- like existence, roaming the seas in his ship Curmudgeon in search of redemption for his shameful ineptitude during a World War I combat mission. During World War II, the Curmudgeon is chartered, then beached on a remote Pacific Island by party goers. Four castaway American sailors stumble upon the unseaworthy vessel: Lt. Morton Krim (Alan Alda), Cook 3/C W.W. J. Oglethorpe (Mickey Rooney), Gunner's Mate Orville Toole (Jack Carter) and Seaman 1/C Lightfoot Star (Manu Tupou). Jennifer Winslow (Faye Dunaway), the proprietor of a jungle garage, provides supplies to repair the derelict Curmudgeon for passage off the island. Commander Finchaven enlists the largely incompetent crew to seek out and sink a Japanese battleship and thus vindicate his family honor. The 79-minute picture depicts the crew's subsequent “hazards and misadventures.”Axmaker, 2010 TCM: “It's a wartime comedy of a misfit unit and a Captain of questionable pedigree, a military farce, a slapstick romance and a crazy ghost story all in one strange package...incompetence of the characters on screen.”Pratley, 1969 p. 163-164: See Synopsis for detailed sketch. Axmaker, 2010 TCM: “..the fourth feature for rising star Faye Dunaway, who was fresh off [director Arthur Penn's] Bonnie and Clyde (1967).” The Extraordinary Seaman, based on a screenplay and story by Phillip Rock, is a spoof of war- time conventions and clichés which integrates newsreel clips from the period for comic effect.Pratley, 1969 p. 165-166: “...spoofing war…While [the characters] are not exactly endearing, they are treated and shown with sympathy and dignity.” And p. 172: Frankenheimer on the use of newreel clips and combat footage used for satire. Frankenheimer engages in a mock-heroic burlesque, titling the film's episodes “Grand Alliance”, “The Gathering Storm”, “Their Finest Hour”, The Hinge of Fate” and “Triumph and Tragedy”, borrowed from Winston Churchill's post-war memoirs.AFI: “The story is broken into segments, each titled to match five of U.K. Prime Minister Winston Churchill's six installments of his World War II memoirs.” Filmed during the Vietnam War, film historian Gerald Pratley discerns “a strong thematic relationship” between Frankenheimer's opposition to US invasion of Indo-China and The Extraordinary Seaman. Frankenheimer recalls that he and screenwriter Phillip Rock “decided we could really use this premise [of a ghostly naval officer] to make an anti-war statement. I think we did, and it terrified MGM."Pratley, 1969 p. 169 “thematic relationship” And p. 171-173: Frankenheimer: Co-screenwriter Hal Dresner “is very much against the war in Vietnam (which I am too)...”Axmaker, 2010 TCM Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer delayed the release of the film for two years, reportedly due its poor response among critics and “dismal screenings”, though Frankenheimer attributes the delay to legalities obtaining release of historic newsreel footage.Barson, 2021: “The Extraordinary Seaman was released in 1969, after having sat on the shelf for two years. It was Frankenheimer's first comedy and one of his most poorly received films...” Axmaker, 2010 TCM: “More likely, MGM was scared off after a string of dismal screenings for exhibitors and critics, where the response was tepid at best. MGM held up the film for two years, and then gave it a nominal release before it disappeared except for infrequent television showings.” Pratley, 1969 p. 172AFI: “...the picture contains at least ten minutes of newsreel footage...the release date had been delayed while filmmakers underwent the process of matching the material to the rest of the color Panavision footage.” The studio made only perfunctory efforts to promote and exhibit the film after The Extraordinary Seaman’s poor critical reviews and weak box-office response.AFI: “Despite the high profile of director John Frankenheimer and the popularity of Faye Dunaway following her star turn in Bonnie and Clyde (1967), The Extraordinary Seaman was poorly received by critics and not distributed for a large scale release.” And: “Var box-office reports indicated scattered local openings” across the US. ===The Fixer (1968)=== Frankenheimer approached his film adaption of Bernard Malamud's The Fixer with alacrity, obtaining the galleys for the 1966 novel in advance of its publication.Pratley, 1969 p. 186: See Frankenheimer's comments here. Malamud forwarded the manuscript to Frankenheimer for his consideration. The Fixer is based on the 1913 persecution and trial of the Jewish peasant Menahem Mendel Beilis, accused of Blood Libel during the reign of Czar Nicholas IIPratley, 1969 pp. 177-179: See Synopsis. The Fixer was widely praised by movie critics for Frankenhiemer's success in eliciting outstanding performances from Alan Bates as the brutalized Yakov Shepsovitch Bok, Dirk Bogarde as Boris Bibikov, his humane court appointed defense attorney, and David Warner as Count Odoevsky. Minister of Justice.Ebert, 1968: “...played with great sensitivity by Alan Bates…” Adler, 1968 NYT: “The acting, from Alan Bates...through Dirk Bogarde as the cerebral, sympathetically homosexual prosecutor, and David Warner as an effete, pragmatic Count, is very fine.” Bates received his only Academy Award nomination for Best Actor in this role.Toole, 2003 TCM: Bates plays “a Russian Jew falsely accused of murder [and] remarkably, his only Oscar nomination.” Renata Adler of the New York Times observed “the direction, by John Frankenheimer, is powerful and discreet. It averts its eyes at the easy, ugly consummations of violence...and gives you credit for imagining the result.”Adler, 1968 NYT This, despite Frankenheimer's admission that “there is a very violent scene in The Fixer”: Whereas Frankenheimer was deeply gratified with his cinematic handling of Malamud's Pulitzer Prize winning work, declaring “I feel better about The Fixer than anything I’ve ever done in my life”,Pratley, 1969 p. 183: “...feel better about…” And p. 233: Frankenheimer: “I happen to love The Fixer. I don't know how other people will react to it, but to me it is my best work.” And p. 228: “In The Fixer there is hardly a single scene that does not please me…” And p. 225: Frankenheimer: “...the only film I never made compromises on…” Adler, 1968 NYT: “Bernard Malamud, who won the National Book Award and the Pulitzer Prize for "The Fixer" in 1967…” Baxter, 2002: “...despite intense performances from Bates and Dirk Bogarde, the film was patchily received. Frankenheimer, who thought it his best work a number of movie critics registered severe critiques. Film critic Roger Ebert wrote: Ebert adds “What were needed were fewer self-conscious humanistic speeches... Frankenheimer should have shown us his hero's suffering, and the Kafkaesque legal tortures of the state, without commenting on them.”Ebert, 1968 Film critic Renata Adler singles out screenwriter and blacklist victim Dalton Trumbo for disparagement: Adler concludes “it is not enough to put [Bok-Bates] in a few cliché predicaments...[the dialogue] becomes demeaning and vulgar when drawn out with hack-plot fiction approximations of eloquence.”Adler, 1968 Biographer Charles Higham dismisses the film, writing that “since the commercial failure of Seconds (1966), Frankenheimer's films have been mediocre, ranging from The Fixer (1968) to The Horsemen (1971).”Higham, 1973 p. 297 Frankenheimer became a close friend of Senator Robert F. Kennedy during the making of The Manchurian Candidate in 1962. In 1968, Kennedy asked Frankenheimer to make some commercials for use in the presidential campaign, at which he hoped to become the Democratic candidate. On the night he was assassinated in June 1968, it was Frankenheimer who had driven Kennedy from Los Angeles Airport to the Ambassador Hotel for his acceptance speech. The Gypsy Moths was a romantic drama about a troupe of barnstorming skydivers and their impact on a small midwestern town. The celebration of Americana starred Frankenheimer regular Lancaster, reuniting him with From Here to Eternity co-star Deborah Kerr, and it also featured Gene Hackman. The film failed to find an audience, but Frankenheimer claimed it was one of his favorites. ===1970s=== Frankenheimer followed this with I Walk the Line in 1970. The film, starring Gregory Peck and Tuesday Weld, about a Tennessee sheriff who falls in love with a moonshiner's daughter, was set to songs by Johnny Cash. Frankenheimer's next project took him to Afghanistan. The Horseman focused on the relationship between a father and son, played by Jack Palance and Omar Sharif. Sharif's character, an expert horseman, played the Afghan national sport of buzkashi. Impossible Object, also known as Story of a Love Story, suffered distribution difficulties and was not widely released. Next came a four-hour film of O'Neill's The Iceman Cometh, in 1973, starring Lee Marvin, and the decidedly offbeat 99 and 44/100% Dead, a crime black comedy starring Richard Harris. With his fluent French and knowledge of French culture, Frankenheimer was asked to direct French Connection II, set entirely in Marseille. With Hackman reprising his role as New York cop Popeye Doyle, the film was a success and got Frankenheimer his next job. Black Sunday, based on author Thomas Harris's only non-Hannibal Lecter novel, involves an Israeli Mossad agent (Robert Shaw) chasing a pro-Palestinian terrorist (Marthe Keller) and a PTSD-afflicted Vietnam vet (Bruce Dern), who plan a spectacular mass-murder involving the Goodyear Blimp which flies over the Super Bowl. It was shot on location at the actual Super Bowl X in January 1976 in Miami, with the use of a real Goodyear Blimp. The film tested very highly, and Paramount and Frankenheimer had high expectations for it, but it was not a hit (with Paramount blaming the failure on the special effects work in the climax, and Universal Studios releasing the similarly themed thriller Two-Minute Warning only six months prior). In 1977, Carter DeHaven hired Frankenheimer to direct William Sackheim and Michael Kozoll's screenplay for First Blood. After considering Michael Douglas, Powers Boothe, and Nick Nolte for the role of John Rambo Frankenheimer cast Brad Davis. He also cast George C. Scott as Colonel Trautman. However, the production was abandoned after Orion Pictures acquired its distributor Filmways, and Sackheim and Kozoll's script would be rewritten by Sylvester Stallone as the basis for Ted Kotcheff's 1982 film.Broeske, Pat H. (November 25, 1985). "The Curious Evolution of John Rambo: How He Hacked His Way Through the Jungles of Hollywood". Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles. p. AB32. Frankenheimer is quoted in Champlin's biography as saying that his alcohol problem caused him to do work that was below his own standards on Prophecy (1979), an ecological monster movie about a mutant grizzly bear terrorizing a forest in Maine. ===1980s=== In 1981, Frankenheimer travelled to Japan to shoot the cult martial-arts action film The Challenge, with Scott Glenn and Japanese actor Toshiro Mifune. He told Champlin that his drinking became so severe while shooting in Japan that he actually drank on set, which he had never done before, and as a result he entered rehab on returning to America. The film was released in 1982, along with his HBO television adaptation of the acclaimed play The Rainmaker. In 1985, Frankenheimer directed an adaptation of the Robert Ludlum bestseller The Holcroft Covenant, starring Michael Caine. That was followed the next year with another adaptation, 52 Pick-Up, from the novel by Elmore Leonard. Dead Bang (1989) followed Don Johnson as he infiltrated a group of white supremacists. In 1990, he returned to the Cold War political thriller genre with The Fourth War with Roy Scheider (with whom Frankenheimer had worked previously on 52 Pick-Up) as a loose cannon Army colonel drawn into a dangerous personal war with a Soviet officer. It was not a commercial success. ===1990s=== Most of his 1980s films were less than successful, both critically and financially, but Frankenheimer was able to make a comeback in the 1990s by returning to his roots in television. He directed two films for HBO in 1994: Against the Wall and The Burning Season that won him several awards and renewed acclaim. The director also helmed two films for Turner Network Television, Andersonville (1996) and George Wallace (1997), that were highly praised. Frankenheimer's 1996 film The Island of Doctor Moreau, which he took over after the firing of original director Richard Stanley, was the cause of countless stories of production woes and personality clashes and received scathing reviews. Frankenheimer was said to be unable to stand Val Kilmer, the young co-star of the film and whose disruption had reportedly led to the removal of Stanley half a week into production. When Kilmer's last scene was completed, Frankenheimer reportedly said, "Now get that bastard off my set." He also stated, “There are two things I will never ever do in my whole life: I will never climb Mt. Everest and I will never work with Val Kilmer ever again.” The veteran director also professed that "Will Rogers never met Val Kilmer". In an interview, Frankenheimer refused to discuss the film, saying only that he had a miserable time making it. However, his next film, 1998's Ronin, starring Robert De Niro, was a return to form, featuring Frankenheimer's now trademark elaborate car chases woven into a labyrinthine espionage plot. Co-starring an international cast including Jean Reno and Jonathan Pryce, it was a critical and box-office success. As the 1990s drew to a close, he even had a rare acting role, appearing in a cameo as a U.S. general in The General's Daughter (1999). He earlier had an uncredited cameo as a TV director in his 1977 film Black Sunday. ===Last years and death=== Frankenheimer's last theatrical film, 2000's Reindeer Games, starring Ben Affleck, underperformed. In 2001, he worked on the BMW action short-film Ambush for the promotional series The Hire, starring Clive Owen. Frankenheimer's final film, Path to War (2002) for HBO was nominated for numerous awards. A look back at the Vietnam War, it starred Michael Gambon as President Lyndon Johnson along with Alec Baldwin and Donald Sutherland. Frankenheimer was scheduled to direct Exorcist: The Beginning, but it was announced before filming started that he was withdrawing, citing health concerns. Paul Schrader replaced him. About a month later he died suddenly in Los Angeles, California, from a stroke due to complications following spinal surgery at the age of 72. ==Politics== Frankenheimer was born into a politically conservative family and attended a Catholic military academy. He served as a junior officer in the US Air Force during the Korean War. In his youth, he briefly considered entering the priesthood.Simon, 2008: Frankenheimer: “My dad was Jewish and my mother was Irish-Catholic, which was never an issue because my father was never a practicing Jew. He's the one who drove us to (Catholic) Sunday school. I went to a Catholic military academy for high school. I had wanted to be a priest.” Thurber and King, 2002: “Frankenheimer was born the son of a Jewish stockbroker, and was raised Catholic by his Irish American mother...At one time he wanted to be a priest...” He came of age during the height of the Red Scare and the Anti-Communist House Un-American Activities Committee investigations during the early 1950s, a period that saw the blacklisting of left-wing filmmakers and screenwriters by the Hollywood studios. Frankenheimer's early liberal political sensibilities first manifested themselves in disputes with his conservative father, a stockbroker: Frankenheimer's “liberal sensibility” emerged professionally when he began his apprenticeship in the early TV industry:Walsh, 2002 WSWS: “Possessed of a liberal sensibility and shaped by the Cold War era, Frankenheimer was an artistic eclectic...” Film critic David Walsh notes that “any medium which emerged as the profit-driven property of large American corporations and under the close scrutiny of the US authorities in the midst of the Cold War, with its anticommunism, conformism and generally stagnant intellectual climate, would inevitably be deformed by those processes...Frankenheimer worked and apparently thrived within this overall artistic and ideological framework.”Walsh, 2002 WSWS ===Political relationships with the Kennedys=== In a 1998 interview with film critic Alex Simon, Frankenheimer recalled that his first contact with Kennedy family politics occurred during the 1960 presidential campaigns: In light of Kennedy's assassination in November 1963, Frankenheimer lamented, "Then he was killed, and I'd always felt guilty about not having done that work for him early on."Simon, 2008 During his filming of The Manchurian Candidate (1962), Frankenheimer reports that he and producer/screenwriter George Axelrod were anxious that the Kennedy administration might object to the plot, which graphically depicts an assassination attempt on a liberal presidential candidate by a right-wing conspiracy. When cast member Frank Sinatra, a personal friend of Kennedy, was sent to sound out his reaction to the film, Kennedy (who had read the Richard Condon novel) responded enthusiastically: "I love The Manchurian Candidate. Who's going to play the mother?"Simon, 2008: Frankenheimer quoting JFK, presumably based on Sinatra's report. See here for Sinatra's role as go- between. And: Frankenheimer: JFK “loved the movie…”IMDb: See here for info on wife Carolyn Miller, with whom Frankenhimer had two children. Pratley, 1969 p. 114: Frankenheimer's comments to Pratley appear to conflate President Kennedy's reaction to Manchurian Candidate (1962) with his assistance in the production of Seven Days in May (released in 1964). Contradicts Frankenheimer's remarks in Simon interview, 2008. When Frankenheimer began pre-production on his political thriller Seven Days in May (1964) in the summer of 1963, he approached Kennedy's press secretary, Pierre Salinger, to arrange to film a segment on location in vicinity of the White House. The story concerns a political coup organized by a fascistic Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (played by Burt Lancaster) to depose the liberal president (played by Fredric March) and install a military dictatorship. Kennedy approved the picture and accommodated Frankenheimer by withdrawing to his home in Hyannisport for the weekend during the White House shoot.Simon, 2008 Pratley, 1969 p. 114Walsh, 2002 WSWS: “President John Kennedy helped persuade a Hollywood studio to finance the film, according to one account, and offered White House locations for shooting. Frankenheimer's next project centered on a plot by the head of the US military's Joint Chiefs of Staff to organize a coup and overthrow the elected president.” As to whether Frankenheimer ever met Kennedy, the director offered contradictory versions. To biographer Gerald Pratley in 1968, Frankenheimer said, "I never had the pleasure of meeting [JFK] personally" but noted that Kennedy had fully supported the production of Seven Days in May. In 1998, during an interview with film critic Alex Simon, Frankenheimer recalled that Kennedy purportedly said to Salinger, "if it's John Frankenheimer [directing Seven Days in May] I want to meet him." Frankenheimer adds, “So I met him, went to a press conference with him. He was wonderful to me.”Pratley, 1969 p. 114Simon, 2008 Pratley, 1969 p. 139-140: Frankenheimer: “When I returned from Europe, I had change a great deal...I saw my own country from a different perspective, from a very tragic perspective we were in Europe during the assassination of the President and we were able to judge foreign reaction to us and our behavior...I saw myself from a different perspective too.” Frankenheimer regarded Kennedy's assassination as a profound calamity for America: “I think we lost our innocence as a country with John F. Kennedy's death.”Simon, 2008 Pratley, 1969 p. 221: Frankenheimer: “The deaths of the Kennedys [John and Robert] were probably the most horrible events to happen to American since [President Abraham] Lincoln's assassination.” And p. 139-140: Frankenheimer: “...I saw my own country from a different perspective, from a very tragic perspective [when] we were in Europe during the assassination of the President and we were able to judge foreign reaction to us and our behavior...I saw myself from a different perspective too.” Film critics Joanne Laurier and David Walsh observe that “The Kennedy assassination marked a historical turning point. One of its aims, in which it ultimately succeeded, was to shift US government policies to the right and intimidate political opposition.”Laurier and Walsh, 2020 WSWS: Frankenheimer's most significant bond with the Kennedys was his political and personal relationship with Senator Robert F. Kennedy, to whom he quickly committed his services during the 1968 presidential campaign: “When [Robert Kennedy] declared his candidacy in '68, I immediately called [campaign manager] Pierre Salinger and said ‘Pierre, I want to be part of this.’"Pratley, 1969 p. 217: “I was very active politically with Senator Kennedy…” And p. 221: “I think he represented everything that was good in this country…”Simon, 2008: See here for Frankenheimer quote Frankenheimer reports that he filmed Robert Kennedy's campaign appearances and coached the senator on improving his political persona, providing this support for Kennedy over three months in the spring of 1968.Simon, 2008: “ I was there with [RFK] for 102 days” before his assassination in June 1968. Frankenheimer reportedly used his cinematic talent to counter the Kennedy's reputation as “arrogant and cold.” Thurber and King, 2002: “Always politically liberal, Frankenheimer spent part of 1968 working on Kennedy's presidential campaign, acting as director of campaign spots.” Frankenheimer was devastated by RFK's assassination in June 1968, due in part to his proximity to the event. He had first been scheduled to accompany Kennedy through the Ambassador Hotel after the candidate's victory speech in the California primaries. Early news reports listed Frankenheimer as one of the wounded in Kennedy's entourage. Frankenheimer and spouse Evans Evans were waiting at a side entrance of the Ambassador Hotel to pick up Kennedy when he emerged from the press conference and drive him to their home. According to Frankenheimer, they witnessed police removing Sirhan Sirhan, later convicted of the shooting, from the premises, then discovered Kennedy had been mortally wounded.Simon, 2008 Walsh, 2002 WSWS: “He identified strongly with the liberal wing of the Democratic Party and suffered with its collapse. This is literally so: on the final day of Senator Robert Kennedy's life in 1968, he was staying at Frankenheimer's house and the director drove him to the Ambassador Hotel in downtown Los Angeles, the site of his assassination.” Pratley, 1969 p. 221: Frankenheimber: ... there was no doubt that Robert Kennedy was going to be President...Now [1968] we are on the brink of chaos in this country. We were on our way out of it with President [John] Kennedy...I see no way out now...With Richard Nixon [as US president] God knows what will happen. We could all be dead before this book comes out…” Traumatized by the event, Frankenheimer withdrew from politics, and after completing The Gypsy Moths (1969) moved to France to study the culinary arts. He recalled in 1998: “Yeah. I managed to finish one film, The Gypsy Moths, but I just felt like 'What's the point? What does any of this really matter?' I mean, when you're a part of something like that and then all of the sudden it's taken away with just one bullet [snaps fingers]. It really makes you take stock in what's important...That's when I went to France, and that's when I went to Le Cordon Bleu, because I just had to do something else with my life, and I really couldn't go near politics for a long time after that.”Simon, 2008: Frankenheimer: “there was this tremendous involvement with Robert Kennedy. We were very, very close friends and I did all the film and television for his campaign. He stayed with me and I drove him to the Ambassador Hotel the night he was shot. All his clothes were in my house...and I really had a nervous breakdown after that.” Thurber and King, 2002 NYT: “He spent several years in France, where he studied cooking at the Le Cordon Bleu, emerging as a gourmet chef.” Walsh comments: ==Archive== The moving image collection of John Frankenheimer is held at the Academy Film Archive. ==Filmography== === Film === Year Title Notes 1957 The Young Stranger 1961 The Young Savages 1962 All Fall Down Nominated- Palme d'Or Birdman of Alcatraz Nominated- DGA Award for Outstanding Directing – Feature Film The Manchurian Candidate Also producer Nominated- Golden Globe Award for Best Director Nominated- DGA Award for Outstanding Directing – Feature Film 1964 Seven Days in May Nominated- Golden Globe Award for Best Director The Train Replaced Arthur Penn 1966 Seconds Nominated- Palme d'Or Grand Prix Nominated- DGA Award for Outstanding Directing – Feature Film 1968 The Fixer 1969 The Extraordinary Seaman The Gypsy Moths 1970 I Walk the Line 1971 The Horsemen 1973 The Iceman Cometh Impossible Object 1974 99 and 44/100% Dead 1975 French Connection II 1977 Black Sunday 1979 Prophecy 1982 The Challenge 1985 The Holcroft Covenant 1986 52 Pick-Up 1989 Dead Bang 1990 The Fourth War 1991 Year of the Gun Nominated- Deauville Critics Award for Best Feature Film 1996 The Island of Dr. Moreau Replaced Richard Stanley 1998 Ronin 2000 Reindeer Games 2001 Ambush Short film === Television === TV series Year Title Notes 1954 You Are There Episode: "The Plot Against King Solomon" 1954-55 Danger 6 episodes 1955-56 Climax! 26 episodes 1956-60 Playhouse 90 27 episodes 1958 Studio One in Hollywood Episode: "The Last Summer" 1959 DuPont Show of the Month Episode: "The Browning Vision" Startime Episode: "The Turn of the Screw" 1959-60 NBC Sunday Showcase 2 episodes 1960 Buick-Electra Playhouse 3 episodes 1992 Tales from the Crypt Episode: "Maniac at Large" TV movies Year Title Notes 1956 The Ninth Day 1960 The Snows of Kilimanjaro 1960 The Fifth Column 1982 The Rainmaker Nominated- CableACE Award for Best Direction in a Movie or Miniseries 1994 Against the Wall Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Limited Series or Movie Nominated- CableACE Award for Best Direction in a Movie or Miniseries Nominated- DGA Award for Outstanding Directing – Miniseries or TV Film The Burning Season Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Limited Series or Movie CableACE Award for Best Direction in a Movie or Miniseries Nominated- Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Television Movie Nominated- CableACE Award for Best Movie or Miniseries 1996 Andersonville Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Limited Series or Movie Nominated- Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Television Movie Nominated- DGA Award for Outstanding Directing – Miniseries or TV Film 1997 George Wallace Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Limited Series or Movie CableACE Award for Best Miniseries CableACE Award for Best Direction in a Movie or Miniseries Nominated- Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Television Movie Nominated- DGA Award for Outstanding Directing – Miniseries or TV Film 2002 Path to War Nominated- Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Limited Series or Movie Nominated- Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Television Movie Nominated- DGA Award for Outstanding Directing – Miniseries or TV Film ==Awards and nominations== British Academy Film Awards * 1964 Train nominated for Best Film - Any Source * 1962 Manchurian Candidate nominated for Best Film - Both Any Source and British Cannes Film Festival * 1966 Seconds nominated for Competing Film * 1962 All Fall Down nominated for Competing Film New York Film Critics Circle Award * 1968 Fixer nominated for Best Direction * 1968 Fixer nominated for Best Film Venice Film Festival * 1962 Birdman of Alcatraz nominated for Competing Film * 1962 Birdman of Alcatraz won for San Giorgio Prize Frankenheimer is also a member of the Television Hall of Fame, and was inducted in 2002. == Footnotes == == Sources == *Abele, Robert. 2018. The Cost of War: Guillermo del Toro revels in the proficiency and poignancy of John Frankenheimer's intimate WWII epic The Train. Directors Guild of America. Winter, 2018. https://www.dga.org/Craft/DGAQ/All- Articles/1801-Winter-2018/Screening-Room-The-Train.asp Retrieved 26 July 2021. *Adler, Renata. 1968. Screen: 'The Fixer' Put Through Hollywood Mill: Frankenheimer Directs From Malamud Novel, Alan Bates Plays Lead -- Bogarde in Cast. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/1968/12/09/archives/screen- the-fixer-put-through-hollywood-millfrankenheimer-directs.html Retrieved 15 August, 2021 *American Film Institute. 2021. The Extraordinary Seaman. AFI Catalog of Feature Films. American Film Institute (AFI). https://catalog.afi.com/Catalog/MovieDetails/19644 Retrieved 31 July 2021. *Axmaker. Sean. 2010. The Extraordinary Seaman. Turner Movie Classics. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/74365/the-extraordinary-seaman/#articles- reviews?articleId=353373 Retrieved 15 July 2021. *Balio, Tino. United Artists: The Company That Changed the Film Industry. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987. . *Barson, Michael. 2021. John Frankenheimer: American Director. https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Frankenheimer Retrieved 4 July 2021. *Baxter, John. 1970. Science Fiction in the Cinema. Edited by Peter Cowie. Paperback Library. New York. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 69-14896. *Bowie, Stephen. 2006. John Frankenheimer. Senses of Cinema Great Director Issue 41. https://www.sensesofcinema.com/2006/great- directors/frankenheimer/ Retrieved 1 July 2021. *Buford, Kate. Burt Lancaster: An American Life. New York: Da Capo, 2000. . *Ebert, Roger. 1968. The Fixer. Reviews, December 25, 1968. https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/the-fixer-1968 Retrieved 15 August, 2021. *Evans, Alun. Brassey's Guide to War Films. Dulles, Virginia: Potomac Books Inc., 2000. .*Baxter, Brian. 2002. John Frankenheimer: a director of classic 1960s films, he survived depression to enjoy a late creative renaissance. The Guardian, 8 July 2002. https://www.theguardian.com/news/2002/jul/08/guardianobituaries.booksobituaries Retrieved 5 July 2021. *Georgaris, Bill. 2021. John Frankenheimer. They Shoot Pictures Don't They (TSPDT). TSPDT quoting from The Film Encyclopedia (1912). https://www.theyshootpictures.com/frankenheimerjohn.htm Retrieved 10 July 2021. *Gow, Gordon. 1971. Hollywood in the Fifties. The International Film Guide Series. A. S. Barnes & Co. New York *Pratley, Gerald. 1968. The Cinema of John Frankenheimer. The International Film Guide Series. A. S. Barnes & Company, New York. *Laurier, Joanne and Walsh, David. 2020. Seven Days in May (1964): When American filmmaking envisioned a military coup. The World Socialist Web Site. https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2020/06/19/7day-j19.html Retrieved 3 July 2021. *Palen, Tim. 2010. The Train: John Frankenheimer's Monumental Tribute to Wartime Railway Resistance. https://cinephiliabeyond.org/train-john-frankenheimers-monumental-tribute- wartime-railway-resistance/ Retrieved 20 July 2021. *Simon, Alex. 1998. JOHN FRANKENHEIMER: RENAISSANCE AUTEUR. The Hollywood Interview. http://thehollywoodinterview.blogspot.com/2008/02/john-frankenheimer- hollywood-interview.html Retrieved 15 August, 2021. *Stafford, Jeff. 2005. The Young Savages. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/17857/the-young-savages/#articles- reviews?articleId=99308 Retrieved 1 July 2021. *Stafford, Jeff. 2003. All Fall Down. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/1974/all-fall- down#article Retrieved 1 July 2021 *Stafford, Jeff. 2003. Birdman of Alcatraz. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/68798/birdman-of- alcatraz#articles-reviews?articleId=21846 Retrieved 2 July 2021. *Safford, Jeff. 2007. Seven Days in May. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/16136/seven-days-in-may#articles- reviews?articleId=160820 Retrieved 3 July 2021. *Silver, Charles. 2013. John Frankenheimer's The Young Stranger. Museum of Modern Art, Department Film. https://www.moma.org/explore/inside_out/2013/04/02/john-frankenheimers-the- young-stranger/ Retrieved 1 July 2021. *Smith, Richard Harland. 2010. Seconds. Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/4210/seconds#articles- reviews?articleId=276958 Retrieved 31 July 2021. *Toole, Michael T. 2003. Sir Alan Bates (1934-2003). Turner Classic Movies. https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/1881/the-fixer/#articles- reviews?articleId=64876 Retrieved 15 August, 2021. *Walsh, David. 2002. Issues raised by the career of US filmmaker John Frankenheimer. World Socialist Web Site. https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2002/07/fran-j19html Retrieved 5 July 2021. *Walsh, David. 2004. An honorable effort, but it lacks fire: The Manchurian Candidate, directed by Jonathan Demme World Socialist Web Site. https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2004/08/manc-a05.html Retrieved 3 July 2021. ==Further reading== *Mitchell, Lisa, Thiede, Karl, and Champlin, Charles (1995). John Frankenheimer: A Conversation with Charles Champlin (Riverwood Press); . *Armstrong, Stephen B. (2008). Pictures About Extremes: The Films of John Frankenheimer (McFarland); . ==External links== * * John Frankenheimer OpsRoom.org * John Frankenheimer, Senses of Cinema, Issue 41 "Great Directors Series" * * Literature on John Frankenheimer * John Frankenheimer: The Hollywood Interview Category:1930 births Category:2002 deaths Category:American people of German-Jewish descent Category:American people of Irish descent Category:American television directors Category:Television producers from New York City Category:Film directors from New York City Category:People from Queens, New York Category:Williams College alumni Category:Primetime Emmy Award winners Category:Action film directors Category:United States Air Force officers |
Doha Debates produces and distributes solutions-focused debate and interview programs, video reports and interactive content. The franchise's products include flagship debates, interview series, podcasts, the #SolvingIt series, digital video reports, Deep Dive education curriculum, and the interactive Doha Portal. Doha Debates is funded by Qatar Foundation. Comedian and actor "Mo" Mohammed Amer will host the 2023 season of the debate series, which was hosted by journalist Ghida Fakhry in recent years. Nelufar Hedayat is Doha Debates' correspondent and host of "Course Correction" and #DearWorldLive. Conflict resolution expert Govinda Clayton served as the bridge-building "connector" for the debates. Jennifer Williams, deputy editor at Foreign Policy, hosts the podcast "The Negotiators." Doha Debates' managing director is Amjad Atallah, who previously served as a news executive, human rights activist and humanitarian. Doha Debates' content, production and distribution partners have included the United Nations, TED, Foreign Policy, the Paris Peace Forum, the Sundance Institute, NowThis News, Vox Media, Shared Studios, Fortify Rights, Doha Forum, Rappler and eNCA. Re-launched in 2018, Doha Debates' initial iteration ran from 2005 to 2012, when the debate program was televised by BBC World News. ==History== Founded in 2005, the original Doha Debates programs were moderated by former BBC correspondent and interviewer Tim Sebastian, with Qatar Foundation as the sponsor. Televised eight times a year by BBC World News until 2012, the debates were based on the Oxford Union format. They focused on a single, controversial motion, with two speakers for and against. Once they outlined their arguments, each speaker was questioned by the chairman and the discussion was then opened up to the audience for argument and a final electronic vote. Topics included torture, terrorism and suicide bombings, political turmoil and human rights. Past motions questioned whether it was time to talk to Al Qaeda, whether Hezbollah had the right to fight a war on Lebanon's behalf, and whether the pro-Israel lobby was successfully stifling criticism of the country's actions. Special events featuring Q&A; sessions with a single guest included figures such as Bill Clinton, Mohamed El Baradei, Shimon Peres, Amre Moussa, Ayad Allawi, and Mahmoud Zahar. ==Debates== thumb|Doha Debates host and moderator Ghida Fakhry at the 2017 World Bank Group-IMF spring meetings. Doha Debates' marquee debate series resumed in 2019 with a new host and format. Ghida Fakhry hosts and moderates the programs with contributions from correspondent Nelufar Hedayat and bridge-building "connector" Govinda Clayton. Each program features 3-4 debaters, with each debate including a constructive consensus-targeted "majlis" session. Programs include two audience votes on speaker positions, as well as feedback from viewers around the world. Most 2019 and 2020 debate programs have been hosted in Doha's Education City, with 2019 debates also held at the Paris Peace Forum, the TEDSummit in Edinburgh, Scotland and in Cape Town, South Africa. The debate programs since the 2019 re-launch of the debate series: * 26 February 2019, Doha: Global refugee crisis. Debaters: Muzoon Almellehan, Marc Lamont Hill, Douglas Murray. * April 3, 2019, Doha: Artificial intelligence. Debaters: Nick Bostrom, Joy Buolamwini, Dex Torricke- Barton. * 24 July 2019, TEDSummit, Edinburgh: Globalization. Debaters: Medea Benjamin, Sisonke Msimang, Parag Khanna. * 10 September 2019, Cape Town: Water scarcity. Debaters: Yana Abu Taleb, Georgie Badiel, Obakeng Leseyane. * 23 October 2019, Doha: Capitalism. Debaters: Ameenah Gurib-Fakim, Anand Giridharadas, Jason Hickel. * 12 November 2019, Paris Peace Forum: Loss of trust. Debaters: Brett Hennig, Toni Lane Casserly, Zeid Ra'ad al-Hussein. * 9 March 2020, Doha: Gender equality. Debaters: Randa Abdel-Fattah, Christina Hoff Sommers, Ayishat Akanbi. * 11 March 2020, Doha: Future of genetics. Debaters: Jamie Metzl, Katie Hasson, Julian Savulescu. * 20 July 2020, virtual: Socialism. Debaters: Fatima Bhutto, Tabata Amaral, Lord William Hague. * 20 September 2020, virtual: Global Cooperation. Debaters: Leymah Gbowee, Ece Temelkuran, Yanis Varoufakis. ==Town Hall== In March 2022, Doha Debates launched its Town Hall series with a conversation with Malala Yousafzai, the youngest-ever Nobel Peace Prize laureate. The topic was the importance of girls' education in Afghanistan, where the Taliban have partially banned girls' education. Discussion participants included members of the Afghan Girls Robotics Team. The Town Hall programs are hosted at the Qatar National Library. In December 2022, Doha Debates' second Town Hall program addressed the future of Palestinian identity. The discussion "explored what Palestinian identity means in the face of the global diaspora and 75 years of statelessness." Town Hall participants included Professor Dr. Tariq Dana, Palestinian activist Ahed Tamimi and Palestinian American comedian and disability advocate Maysoon Zayid. ==#DearWorldLive== thumb|Nelufar Hedayat, Doha Debates correspondent and host of #DearWorldLive and Course Correction. March 2019. In April 2020, in response to the global COVID-19 crisis, Doha Debates launched a weekly coronavirus-focused interview series called #DearWorldLive. Nelufar Hedayat hosts the virtual show, which each week examines a different aspect of the coronavirus and its impact on people and the world. Programs to date: * 14 April 2020: Inside India's massive lockdown. Guests: Jayati Ghosh, Ravi Mishra. * 21 April 2020: COVID-19's threats to refugees. Guests: Filippo Grandi, Jamilah Sherally, Immad Ahmed, Shafiqur Rahma/n * 28 April 2020: Disability rights for COVID-19. Guests: Maysoon Zeyed, Nawaal Akram, Tanni Grey-Thompson. * 5 May 2020: The climate crisis and coronavirus. Guests: Dr. Vandana Shiva, Dr. Zeke Hausfather, Obakeng Leseyane. * 12 May 2020: Mental health in the time of COVID. Guests: Suleika Jaouad, Dr. Jan Emannuel De Nive, Dr. Kamran Ahmed, Dana Aal Ali. * 19 May 2020: How to stay connected while physical distancing. Guests: Priya B. Parker, Dr. Govinda Clayton. * 26 May 2020: Education and the coronavirus. Guests: Sherrie Westin, David Moinina Sengeh, Larry Rosenstock. * 2 June 2020: The coronavirus pandemic and gender inequality. Guests: Alaa Murabit, Ziauddin Yousafzai. * 9 September 2020: UN Youth Plenary special edition – The world's fight against the COVID-19 pandemic. Guests: Paloma Costa Oliveira, Felix Feider, Obakeng Leseyane. ==Course Correction== In January 2020, Doha Debates unveiled its Course Correction podcast series in which host Nelufar Hedayat "immerses herself in humanity's greatest challenges." The 2020 Sundance Film Festival played host to Course Correction's live audience debut, with Hedayat interviewing Rappler founder and CEO Maria Ressa and Ramona Diaz, whose "A Thousand Cuts" documentary on Ressa and Rappler premiered at Sundance. Other 2020 Course Correction interview subjects included Khan Academy founder Sal Khan, global strategy adviser Parag Khanna, economic anthropologist Jason Hickel, journalist Marc Lamont Hill, Jordanian diplomat Zeid Ra'ad al-Hussein, water rights advocate Georgie Badiel, author Anand Giridharadas, Algorithmic Justice League founder Joy Buolamwini and Hedayat's mother, Patuni. ==The Negotiators== In October 2021, Foreign Policy and Doha Debates launched a jointly-produced podcast series called "The Negotiators." Hosted by Foreign Policy Deputy Editor Jennifer Williams, the podcast features interviews with key players in big international dealmaking. Topics include the Paris climate agreement, the Iran nuclear deal, and the Nigerian #BringBackOurGirls campaign. ==The Long Game== In November 2021, Foreign Policy and Doha Debates debuted "The Long Game," their second jointly-produced podcast series. American Olympic medalist Ibtihaj Muhammad hosts the podcast, which, according to Foreign Policy, "highlights stories of courage and conviction on and off the field. From athletes who are breaking barriers for women and girls to a Syrian refugee swimmer who overcame the odds to compete at the Paralympics, the show examines the power of sport to change the world for the better." ==Lana== In March 2023, Doha Debates launched its first Arabic-language podcast, Lana, in partnership with Jordanian podcast company Sowt ("lana" is the Arabic word for "ours"). The podcast is hosted by Rawaa Augé, an Al Jazeera on-air host and producer who previously served as a news presenter at Al Jazeera and France 24. Lana tackles major global issues, with Doha Debates' Japhet Weeks saying, “It’s about challenging your own viewpoints by listening to other intelligent, young voices.” ==#SolvingIt== Doha Debates' Instagram series "celebrates the next generation of leaders whose vision and work inspire hope and real change." Since its debut in August 2019, the #SolvingIt series has saluted trailblazers, including climate change activist Greta Thunberg, education advocate Malala Yousafzai, Black Lives Matter protesters, human rights champion Nadia Murad, water rights advocate Georgie Badiel, Algorithmic Justice League founder Joy Buolamwini, U.S. Climate Strike Executive Director Isra Hirsi, "Cybercode Twins" America and Penelope Lopez, Stockton Mayor Michael Tubbs, Congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, human rights activist Mahmoud Abugrin, environmental advocates Melati and Isabel Wijsen, Rappler founder and CEO Maria Ressa, Digital Citizens Fund founder Roya Mahboob, disability rights advocate Nawaal Akram, World Central Kitchen founder José Andrés, Syrian refugee advocate Bana al-Abed, the Parkland High School students, and UN Youth Envoy Jayathma Wickramanayake. In September 2021, ahead of the November 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference, Doha Debates announced the #SolvingIt26, showcasing 26 extraordinary young climate activists around the world. Honorees were from 22 nations on six continents. The honorees were showcased in a #SolvingIt26 social media campaign in the weeks leading up to the 2021 Climate Change Conference. ==Video reports== Doha Debates' short films include: * (Un)divided, 2019: A violent clash at a "Love Trumps Hate" rally results in a surprisingly constructive conversation between an Iraqi-American Muslim student, Amina, and a Trump supporter afraid of Muslims until meeting Amina. Filmmaker: Paul Raila. * The Waitlist, 2019: Exposé on the challenges asylum seekers face at the U.S.-Mexican border. Filmmakers: Natasha Pizzey and James Fredrick. * The Invisibles, 2020: In Italy, migrant labor union leader Aboubakar Soumahoro rallies farmhands as they fight for their rights amid the coronavirus epidemic. Filmmakers: Carola Mamberto and Diana Ferrero. ==Deep Dive== In 2020, Doha Debates introduced a debates-related "Deep Dive" education curriculum for high school and university teachers and students. Curriculum topics are derived from the marquee debate programs, with each topic having its own lesson plan, including active learning, collaborative learning discussions, student motivation and participation, and writing assignments. The lessons include video excerpts from related debate programs. ==Doha Portal== In Doha, Doha Debates hosts a mobile Shared Studios Portal, allowing members of the public to interact in real-time with users at more than 40 locations worldwide as if they are in the same room, creating a virtual majlis to discuss debate topics. Doha Portal interactive sessions have taken place from the Qatar National Library and other sites in Doha's Education City, as well as the Doha Forum. In January 2019, the Doha Portal was featured in a Doha Debates TED Salon called "Up for Debate," a session of TED-curated talks about the importance of civic discourse and debate. In November and December 2022, the Portal was a featured attraction at the 2022 FIFA World Cup Fan Zone FIFA Unity Pavilion, bringing fans together virtually for conversations with football fans and others in Portals around the world. The Doha Portal's visitors included Microsoft co-founder and philanthropist Bill Gates, who spoke with young people in Kigali, Rwanda. ==Ambassador Program== In August 2021, Doha Debates launched the inaugural edition of its Ambassador Program with 36 young participants chosen from among hundreds of applicants around the world. The solutions-focused initiative is meant "to empower a new generation of changemakers with the knowledge, tools, and relationships to bring positive change to their communities." ==Honors== Doha Debates' honors include: * (Un)Divided, Platinum Award, 2019 Spotlight Film Awards. Category: Best Documentary Short. * The Waitlist, Spotlight Silver Award, 2019 Spotlight Documentary Film Awards, December 2019 award winners. * Water Scarcity Debate in Cape Town, finalist, 4th Annual Shorty Social Good Awards. Category: Environment & Sustainability, live streaming. * Fortify Rights/Doha Debates Rohingya Instagram Fellows, finalist, 12th Annual Shorty Awards. Category: Instagram. * #Solving It, 2nd place, 2020 North American Digital Media Awards. Category: Social media engagement. * Water Scarcity Debate, nominee, 2020 Digiday Media Awards. Category: Best Live Event. * #Solving It, nominee, 12th Annual Shorty Awards, honoring the best in social media. Category: Social good campaign. ==Controversy== Pro-Israel US activist Charles Jacobs termed the Doha Debates as "the latest cunning public relations move by an illiberal regime that has been able to ingratiate itself to Western liberal elites with remarkable ease." He also condemned media and educational organizations such as NowThis, Vox, and TED Talks for partnering with Qatar to produce the Doha Debates and said, "For the right price, NowThis will ignore an egregious human rights record and overlook modern-day slavery; Vox Media will embrace a government whose treatment of laborers, gays, and minorities should relegate it to the darkest corners of the family of nations." ==References== ==External links== * Category:Mass media in Qatar Category:Political debates Category:2005 establishments in Qatar Category:2018 establishments in Qatar |
Royal Air Force Watton or more simply RAF Watton is a former Royal Air Force station located southwest of East Dereham, Norfolk, England. Opened in 1937 it was used by both the Royal Air Force (RAF) and United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) during the Second World War. During the war it was used primarily as a bomber airfield, being the home of RAF Bomber Command squadrons until being used by the United States Army Air Forces Eighth Air Force as a major overhaul depot for Consolidated B-24 Liberator bombers and as a weather reconnaissance base. After the war, it was returned to RAF use until being turned over to the British Army in the early 1990s. It was closed then put up for sale. ==History== ===RAF Bomber Command use=== RAF Watton was a permanent RAF station built by John Laing & Son in 1937,Ritchie, p. 91 and first used as a light bomber airfield housing for varying periods by RAF Bomber Command. The following squadrons and units were based at Watton at some point during this time: * No. 18 Squadron RAF between 21 May 1940 and 26 May 1940. The squadron operated the Bristol Blenheim IV before moving to RAF Gatwick. * No. 21 Squadron RAF from 2 March 1939 with the Blenheim I before upgrading to the Blenheim IV in September 1939. The squadron had detachments at RAF Bassingbourn, RAF Horsham St Faith and RAF Bodney before all of the squadron moved to RAF Lossiemouth on 24 June 1940 however this was not for long as on 30 October 1940 the squadron moved back to Watton and had detachments at RAF Bodney, RAF Manston, RAF Lossiemouth and RAF Luqa. The squadron moved to Luqa on 25 December 1941. * No. 34 Squadron RAF was based at Watton between 2 March 1939 and 12 August 1939 with the Blenheim I before leaving for the Far east. * No. 82 Squadron RAF between 22 August 1939 and 21 March 1942. The squadron operated the Blenheim I alongside the Mk IV until September 1939 when the Mk I was discontinued and the Mk IV started as the main type, 82 Squadron had detachments at RAF Odiham, RAF Lossiemouth, RAF Tangmere and RAF Luqa. The squadron then moved to the Far east. * No. 90 Squadron RAF reformed here on 3 May 1941 with the Boeing Fortress I with an detachment at RAF Great Massingham before moving to RAF West Raynham on 15 May 1941. * No. 105 Squadron RAF between 10 July 1940 and 31 October 1940 operating the Blenheim IV before moving to RAF Swanton Morley. * No. 17 (Pilots) Advanced Flying Unit RAF until July 1943. ===USAAF use=== thumb|25 January 1944 aerial photograph of the RAF Watton airfield and the USAAF 3d Strategic Air Depot. The bomb dump to the right of the perimeter track; the 3d SAD is at the bottom (south) of the image. In 1943 Watton was turned over to the United States Army Air Forces Eighth Air Force for use as an air depot. The airfield was originally grass surfaced but, during the American tenure, the airfield had a long concrete runway constructed. A concrete perimeter track was built and a total of fifty- three hardstandings, of which forty-one were spectacle and twelve of the frying-pan type. The four original C-type hangars, arranged in the usual crescent on the northern side of the airfield, were backed by the permanent buildings of the pre-war RAF camp. Additional hangars were added and three blister hangars at dispersals. The construction of the airfield necessitated the closure of two public roads. Watton was given USAAF designation Station 376. ====3rd Strategic Air Depot==== Under the American tenancy, Watton was expanded to become the 3rd Strategic Air Depot, which was the major overhaul and repair of the Consolidated B-24 Liberators of the 2nd Air Division. The air depot complex was adjacent to Watton airfield and built in the village of Griston to the south, bordering the B1077 road. However, the depot was known officially as Neaton, given USAAF designation Station 505, a village located to the north of Watton town. The 3rd Strategic Air Depot remained operational until the American departure in July 1945. ====25th Bombardment Group (Reconnaissance)==== thumb|right|Consolidated B-24J-401-CF Liberator of 25th BG. thumb|right|Martin B-26G-1-MA Marauder painted black for night reconnaissance missions of the 654th Bomb Squadron. thumb|right|A de Havilland Mosquito XVI of the 654th Bomb Squadron. Watton was also the home of the 25th Bombardment Group (Reconnaissance) which was formed at Watton as the 802nd Reconnaissance Group in February 1944. The unit was renamed the 25th on 9 August 1944. Its operational units were: * 652d Bombardment Squadron (Heavy) B-17F/G, B-24J.GP-25-SU-OP-S. Reel B0093 thru B0098, USAF HRA, cited in Norman Malayney, 25th Bomb Group (Rcn) in World War II, 2011, Schiffer Books, p-279 to 283. * 653d Bombardment Squadron (Light) de Havilland Mosquito Mk XVI.(WX) * 654th Bombardment Squadron (Special) de Havilland Mosquito Mk XVI (BA), North American B-25 Mitchell, Martin B-26G Marauder, Douglas A-26 Invader.GP-25-SU-OP-S. Reel B0093 thru B0098, and SQ-Bomb-654-SU-RE,USAF HRA, cited in Norman Malayney, 25th Bomb Group (Rcn) in World War II, 2011, Schiffer Books, p-279-283. The 652d Bomb Squadron originated as a provisional weather reconnaissance unit that was formed at RAF St Eval in Cornwall with Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses on 8 September 1943 for conducting meteorological fights over the Atlantic Ocean. In November 1943 the unit moved to RAF Bovingdon after flying 231 weather sorties. At Bovington, the squadron was reorganized as the 8th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron on 28 March 1944, then transferred to Watton on 12 April 1944.GP-RCN-802-SU-OP-3, Reel B0797-B0798, USAF HRA, cited in Norman Malayney, 25th Bomb Group (Rcn) in World War II, 2011, Schiffer Books, p.36-41. The 653d and 654th Bomb Squadrons were established at Watton on 12 April for special weather reconnaissance missions over enemy-occupied territory in advance of bomber formations and visual coverage of target strikes. Pilots for the Mosquitos came from former Lockheed P-38 Lightning pilots of the 50th Fighter Squadron transferred from the 342d Composite Group based in Iceland.SQ-FI-48-HI-50, Reel A0742, USAF HRA, cited in Norman Malayney, 25th Bomb Group (Rcn) in World War II, 2011, Schiffer Books, p.22-30. From Watton the 25th continued weather flights over the waters adjacent to the British Isles and occasionally to the Azores to obtain meteorological data along with night photographic missions to detect enemy activity; and daylight photographic and mapping missions over the Continent. Also, the group occasionally engaged in electronic-countermeasure missions in which chaff was spread to confuse enemy defences during Allied attacks. The 25th Bomb Group moved to Drew AAF, Florida during July–August 1945 and was inactivated on 8 September 1945. The group flew a total of 3,370 sorties for the loss of 15 aircraft. ===Postwar RAF use=== After the war, Watton reverted to RAF control on 27 September 1945. It was used by various flying units of RAF Signals Command, No. 199 Squadron RAF, for example being based at Watton in the early 1950s with Mosquito NF36s operating with the Central Signals Establishment, and in 1953 116 Squadron operated with Avro Lincolns, a Hasting and a number of MkII Avro Ansons. The last three Lincolns serving with No. 151 Squadron on signals duties were withdrawn in March 1963. The following squadrons and units were based at Watton at some point during this time: * No. 51 Squadron RAF reformed at Watton on 21 August 1958 with the English Electric Canberra Mks B.2 and B.6 and the de Havilland Comet C.2(R). The squadron also started the Handley Page Hastings C.1 from February 1963 however shortly after this on 31 March 1963 the squadron moved to RAF Wyton. * No. 97 Squadron RAF reformed here on 25 May 1963 with the Vickers Varsity T.1, Canberra Mk B.2 and the Hastings C.2. On 2 January 1967 the squadron was disbanded here. * No. 98 Squadron RAF between 1 October 1963 and 17 April 1969 with the Canberra B.2 before moving to RAF Cottesmore. * No. 115 Squadron RAF between 1 October 1963 and 9 April 1969 when the squadron moved to RAF Cottesmore. The squadron operated the Varsity T.1, Vickers Valetta C.1, Hastings C.2 and Armstrong Whitworth Argosy E.1. * No. 116 Squadron RAF between 1 August 1952 and 21 August 1958. The squadron reformed here when 'N' Calibration Squadron was redesignated with the Avro Anson C.19, Avro Lincoln B.2, Hastings C.1 and the Varsity T.1. 116 Squadron was renumbered to 115 Squadron on 21 August 1958. * No. 151 Squadron RAF reformed here on 1 January 1962 being designated from the Signals Development Squadron. 151 Squadron operated the Lincoln B.2, Hastings C.1 & C.2, Varsity T.1 and the Canberra B.2 before being disbanded on 25 May 1963 still at Watton. * No. 192 Squadron RAF reformed at Watton on 15 July 1951. The squadron operated the Mosquito PR 34, Lincoln B.2, Boeing Washington B.1, Canberra B.2 & B.6, Varsity T.1 and the Comet C.2(R). 192 Squadron were disbanded on 21 August 1958 still at Watton. * No. 199 Squadron RAF reformed here on 15 July 1951 operating the Lincoln B.2 and the Mosquito NF 36 before moving to RAF Hemswell on 17 April 1952. * No. 245 Squadron RAF reformed at Watton on 21 August 1958 with the Canberra B.2 before moving to RAF Tangmere on 25 August 1958. * No. 263 Squadron RAF operated Bristol Bloodhound I anti-aircraft missiles from 1 June 1959 to 30 June 1963. * No. 360 Squadron RAF formed here on 23 September 1966 with the Canberra B.2, B.6 and T.17 before moving to RAF Cottesmore on 21 April 1969. * No. 527 Squadron RAF reformed here on 1 August 1952 as a redesignation of 'R' Calibration Squadron. The squadron operated the Mosquito B.35, Anson C.19, Lincoln B.2, Gloster Meteor NF 11 & NF 14, Varsity T.1, Canberra B.2 & PR 7 and the Meteor NF 11 before being disbanded here on 21 August 1958. * No. 24 (Air Defence Missile) Wing RAF * No. 2724 Squadron RAF Regiment * No. 4038 Anti-Aircraft Flight RAF Regiment * No. 4179 Anti-Aircraft Flight RAF Regiment * No. 4183 Anti-Aircraft Flight RAF Regiment * No. 4219 Anti-Aircraft Flight RAF Regiment * No. 4220 Anti-Aircraft Flight RAF Regiment * Air Defence Missile Operations Training School (January 1960 - January 1961) became the Surface-to-Air Missile Operational Training School (June 1961 - January 1964) * Electronic Warfare Engineering and Training Unit (January 1971) * Electronic Warfare Support Wing (July 1965 - April 1969) became Electronic Warfare Support Unit (April 1969 - January 1971) * Ground Controlled Approach Operators School (September 1946 - March 1952) * Radio Warfare Establishment (April 1945 - September 1946) became CSE * RAF Watton Flying Club. * Signals Command Air Radio Laboratories (July 1965 - January 1969) became Signals Air Radio Laboratories (January 1969 - January 1971) By the 1970s, the aircraft at Watton had been replaced by technology and, at the beginning of 1973, the Matelo system of HF communication was supplied to Strike Command by Marconi Communications Systems. In 1969, 1970, 1989 and 1990 RAF Watton was the location of the annual Royal Observer Corps summer training camps when up to 400 observers per week attended specialist training. For the latter two years Watton had already closed for active RAF use and was on a care and maintenance basis, temporary support catering and security staff being drafted in from nearby stations to support the ROC presence. With the installation of secondary surveillance radar (SSR) at Watton, the station became one of the five units in the joint military/civil National Air Traffic Services Organisation with Eastern Radar until the 1980s. Then in the 1990s, the airfield came into use by the Army in connection with the nearby Stanford Training Area (STANTA).Legion magazine, March/April 2011 issue, pp 12-14 In December 1990 Hockley Estate Agents on behalf of Defence Estates put up for sale the entire 157 post war NCO Married Quarter site located on the south side of the Norwich Road. The successful tenderer was Roger Byron-Collins' Welbeck Estate Group who, since 1980, has acquired 36 former MOD sites from HM Government including near to Watton the MOD sites at RAF West Raynham and RAF Sculthorpe. This entire married quarter estate were subsequently developed by Wallsend Properties.twsg.co.uk The site was home to 611 VGS (Volunteer Gliding Squadron) flying Viking Gliders for the Air Cadet Organisation. 611 VGS ceased operations in April 2012, following the sale of most of the airfield to private landowners. ==Current use== A large part of the site has been developed into the Blenheim Grange housing estate, which is actually officially part of Carbrooke. thumb|A memorial to airmen at the entrance to the former Watton RAF base, Washington Drive, Watton, Norfolk, UK thumb|A memorial to airmen at the entrance to the former Watton RAF base, Washington Drive, Watton, Norfolk, UK thumb|A memorial to airmen at the entrance to the former Watton RAF base, Washington Drive, Watton, Norfolk, UK ==See also== * List of former Royal Air Force stations ==References== ===Citations=== ===Bibliography=== * * Freeman, Roger A. (1991) The Mighty Eighth The Colour Record. Cassell & Co. * * Malayney, Norman, (2011) The 25th Bomb Group (Rcn) in World War II, Schiffer Publication, . * * * * ==External links== * RAF Watton information website * Bomber Command history of RAF Watton * RAF Watton photos taken in 2006 and 2007 Category:Airfields of the VIII Air Service Command in the United Kingdom Category:Royal Air Force stations in Norfolk Category:Royal Air Force stations of World War II in the United Kingdom 611 VGS |
Paragraph 175 (known formally as §175 StGB; also known as Section 175 in English) was a provision of the German Criminal Code from 15 May 1871 to 10 March 1994. It made sexual relations between males a crime, and in early revisions the provision also criminalized bestiality as well as forms of prostitution and underage sexual abuse. All in all, around 140,000 men were convicted under the law. The law had always been controversial and inspired the first homosexual movement, which called for its repeal. The statute drew legal influence from previous measures, including those undertaken by the Holy Roman Empire and Prussian states. It was amended several times. The Nazis broadened the law in 1935 as part of the most severe persecution of homosexual men in history. It was one of the only Nazi-era laws retained in its original form in West Germany, although East Germany reverted to the pre-Nazi version. In West Germany, the law was revised in 1969, 1973, and finally repealed in 1994. ==Historical overview== Paragraph 175 was adopted in 1871, shortly after Germany was unified. Beginning in the 1890s, sexual reformers fought against the "disgraceful paragraph",For this expression ("disgraceful paragraph") see, among others, Kurt Tucholsky, "Röhm", in The Weimar Republic Sourcebook University of California Press, 1994, , p. 714: "We oppose the disgraceful paragraph 175 wherever we can; therefore, we may not join voices with the chorus that would condemn a man because he is a homosexual." The essay was originally published (in German) in Die Weltbühne, No. 17 (April 26, 1932) 641. and soon won the support of August Bebel, head of the Social Democratic Party (SPD). However, a petition in the Reichstag to abolish Paragraph 175 floundered in 1898. In 1907, a Reichstag Committee decided to broaden the paragraph to make lesbian sexual acts punishable as well, but debates about how to define female sexuality meant the proposal languished and was abandoned. In 1929, another Reichstag Committee decided to repeal Paragraph 175 with the votes of the Social Democrats, the Communist Party (KPD) and the German Democratic Party (DDP); however, the rise of the Nazi Party prevented the implementation of the repeal. Although modified at various times, the paragraph remained part of German law until 1994. In 1935, the Nazis broadened the law so that the courts could pursue any "lewd act" whatsoever, even one involving no physical contact, such as masturbating next to each other. Convictions multiplied by a factor of ten to over 8,000 per year by 1937."Statistisches Reichsamt", Jürgen Baumann: Paragraph 175, Luchterhand, Darmstadt 1968, collected in: Hans-Georg Stümke, Rudi Finkler: Rosa Winkel, rosa Listen, Rowohlt TB-V., Juli 1985, , S. 262. Furthermore, the Gestapo could transport suspected offenders to concentration camps without any legal justification at all (even if they had been acquitted or already served their sentence in jail). Thus, over 10,000 homosexual men were forced into concentration camps, where they were identified by the pink triangle. The majority of them died there. While the Nazi persecution of homosexuals is reasonably well known today, far less attention has been given to the continuation of this persecution in post-war Germany. In 1945, after the concentration camps were liberated, some homosexual prisoners were recalled to custody to serve out their two-year sentence under Paragraph 175. In 1950, East Germany abolished Nazi amendments to Paragraph 175, whereas West Germany kept them and even had them confirmed by its Constitutional Court. About 100,000 men were implicated in legal proceedings from 1945 to 1969, and about 50,000 were convicted. Some individuals accused under Paragraph 175 committed suicide. In 1969, the government eased Paragraph 175 by providing for an age of consent of 21. The age of consent was lowered to 18 in 1973, and finally, in 1994, the paragraph was repealed and the age of consent lowered to 16, the same that is in force for heterosexual acts. East Germany had already reformed its more lenient version of the paragraph in 1968, and repealed it in 1988. ==Background== Most sodomy-related laws in Western civilization originated from the growth of Christianity during Late Antiquity. Germany is notable for having anti-sodomy regulation before Christianity; Roman historian Tacitus records execution of homosexuals in his book Germania.Gade, Kari Ellen. “HOMOSEXUALITY AND RAPE OF MALES IN OLD NORSE LAW AND LITERATURE.” Scandinavian Studies, vol. 58, no. 2, 1986, pp. 124–141. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40918734 . Christian condemnation of homosexuality reinforced these sentiments as Germany became baptised. In 1532, the Constitutio Criminalis Carolina produced a foundation for this principle of law, which remained valid in the Holy Roman Empire until the end of the 18th century. In the words of Paragraph 116 of that code: > The punishment for fornication that goes against nature. When a human > commits fornication with a beast, a man with a man, a woman with a woman, > they have also forfeited life. And they should be, according to the common > custom, banished by fire from life into death."Straff der vnkeusch, so wider > die Natur beschicht. cxvj. ITem so eyn mensch mit eynem vihe, mann mit mann, > weib mit weib, vnkeusch treiben, die haben auch das leben verwürckt, vnd man > soll sie der gemeynen gewonheyt nach mit dem fewer vom leben zum todt > richten." - Die Peinliche Gerichtsordnung Kaiser Karls V (Carolina), ed. and > comm. by Friedrich-Christian Schroeder (Suttgart: Reclam, 2000). In 1794, Prussia introduced the Allgemeines Landrecht, a major reform of laws that replaced the death penalty for this offense with a term of imprisonment. Paragraph 143 of that code says: > Unnatural fornication, whether between persons of the male sex or of humans > with beasts, is punished with imprisonment of six months to four years, with > the further punishment of a prompt loss of civil rights.1794, Allgemeines > Landrecht of Prussia In France, the Revolutionary Penal Code of 1791 punished acts of this nature only when someone's rights were injured (i.e., in the case of a non-consensual act), which had the effect of the complete legalization of homosexuality. In the course of his conquests, Napoleon exported the French Penal Code beyond France into a sequence of other states such as the Netherlands. The Rhineland and later Bavaria adopted the French model and removed from their lawbooks all prohibitions of consensual sexual acts. The 1851 Prussian criminal code justified the criminalization of homosexuality with reference to Christian morality, even though the prohibited act did not endanger any legal interest. Two years before the 1871 founding of the German Empire, the Prussian kingdom, worried over the future of the paragraph, sought a scientific basis for this piece of legislation. The Ministry of Justice assigned a Deputation für das Medizinalwesen ("Deputation for medical knowledge"), including, among others, the famous physicians Rudolf Virchow and Heinrich Adolf von Bardeleben, who, however, stated in their appraisal of March 24, 1869, that they were unable to give a scientific grounding for a law that outlawed zoophilia and male homosexual intercourse, distinguishing them from the many other sexual acts that were not even considered as matters of penal law. Nevertheless, the draft penal law submitted by Bismarck in 1870 to the North German Confederation retained the relevant Prussian penal provisions, justifying this out of concern for "public opinion". ==German Empire== Table 1: Prosecutions under § 175 (1902–1918) Year Charge Convictions 1902 364 / 393 613 1903 332 / 289 600 1904 348 / 376 570 1905 379 / 381 605 1906 351 / 382 623 1907 404 / 367 612 1908 282 / 399 658 1909 510 / 331 677 1910 560 / 331 732 1911 526 / 342 708 1912 603 / 322 761 1913 512 / 341 698 1914 490 / 263 631 1915 233 / 120 294 1916 278 / 120 318 1917 131 / 70 166 1918 157 / 3 118 Middle column: Homosexuality / Bestiality On January 1, 1872, exactly one year after it had first taken effect, the penal code of the North German Confederation became the penal code of the entire German Empire. By this change, sexual intercourse between men became again a punishable offence in Bavaria as well. Almost verbatim from its Prussian model from 1794, the new Paragraph 175 of the imperial penal code specified: > Unnatural fornication, whether between persons of the male sex or of humans > with beasts, is punished with imprisonment, with the further punishment of a > prompt loss of civil rights.1872, Imperial Penal Code of Prussia Even in the 1860s, individuals such as Karl Heinrich Ulrichs and Karl Maria Kertbeny had unsuccessfully raised their voices against the Prussian paragraph 143. In the Empire, more organized opposition began with the 1897 founding of the sexual-reformist Wissenschaftlich-humanitäres Komitee (WhK, Scientific- Humanitarian Committee), an organization of notables rather than a mass movement, which tried to proceed against Paragraph 175 based on the thesis of the innate nature of homosexuality.. Revised edition published 1995, . This case was argued, for example, in an 1897 petition drafted by physician and WhK chairman Magnus Hirschfeld, urging the deletion of Paragraph 175; it gathered 6,000 signatories. One year later, SPD chairman August Bebel brought the petition into the Reichstag, but failed to achieve the desired effect. On the contrary, ten years later the government laid plans to extend Paragraph 175 to women as well. Part of their "Scheme for a German Penal Code" (E 1909) reads: > The danger to family life and to youth is the same. The fact that there are > more such cases in recent times is reliably testified. It lies therefore in > the interest of morality as in that of the general welfare that penal > provisions be expanded also to women. Allowing time for the refinement of the draft, it was set to appear before the Reichstag no earlier than 1917. World War I and the defeat of the German Empire consigned it to the dustbin. ==Weimar Republic== Table 2: Prosecutions under § 175 (1919–1933) Year Charge Convictions 1919 110 / 10 89 1920 237 / 39 197 1921 485 / 86 425 1922 588 / 7 499 1923 503 / 31 445 1924 850 / 12 696 1925 1225 / 111 1107 1926 1126 / 135 1040 1927 911 / 118 848 1928 731 / 202 804 1929 786 / 223 837 1930 723 / 221 804 1931 618 / 139 665 1932 721 / 204 801 Middle column: Homosexuality / Bestiality There was a vigorous grassroots campaign against Paragraph 175 between 1919 and 1929, led by an alliance of the Gemeinschaft der Eigenen and the Wissenschaftlich-humanitäres Komitee. But, much as during the time of the Empire, during the Weimar Republic the parties of the left failed to achieve the abolition of Paragraph 175, because they lacked a majority in the Reichstag.Stümke 1989, p. 65 The plans of a center-right regime in 1925 to increase the penalties of Paragraph 175 came closer to fruition; but they, too, failed. In addition to paragraph 296 (which corresponded to the old paragraph 175), their proposed reform draft provided for a paragraph 297 to be included. The plan was that so-called "qualified cases" such as homosexual prostitution, sex with young men under the age of 21, and sexual coercion of a man in a service or work situation would be classified as "severe cases", reclassified as felonies (Verbrechen) rather than misdemeanors (Vergehen). This act would have pertained not only to homosexual intercourse but also to other homosexual acts such as, for example, mutual masturbation. Both new paragraphs grounded themselves in protection of public health: > It is to be assumed that it is the German view that sexual relationships > between men are an aberration liable to wreck the character and to destroy > moral feeling. Clinging to this aberration leads to the degeneration of the > people and to the decay of its strength. When this draft was discussed in 1929 by the judiciary committee of the Reichstag, the Social Democratic Party, the Communist Party, and the left-wing liberal German Democratic Party at first managed to mobilize a majority of 15 to 13 votes against Paragraph 296. This would have constituted legalization of consensual homosexuality between adult men. At the same time, a vast majoritywith only three KPD votes dissentingsupported the introduction of the new Paragraph 297 (dealing with the so-called "qualified cases"). However, this partial successwhich the WhK characterized as "one step forward and two steps back"came to nought. In March 1930, the Inter-Parliamentary Committee for the Coordination of Criminal Law Between Germany and Austria, by a vote of 23 to 21, placed back Paragraph 296 in the reform package. But the latter was never passed, because during the last years of the Weimar Republic, the years of the Präsidialkabinette, the parliamentary legislative process generally ground to a halt. ==The Nazi era== Table 3: Convictions under §§ 175, 175a and b (1933–1943) Year Adults Youths under 18 1933 853 104 1934 948 121 1935 2106 257 1936 5320 481 1937 8271 973 1938 8562 974 1939 8274 689 1940 3773 427 1941 3739 687 1942 3963 n/a 1943* 2218 n/a * 1943: 1st half-year doubled Sources: "Statistisches Reichsamt" and Baumann 1968, p. 61. In 1935, the Nazis strengthened Paragraph 175 by redefining the crime as a felony and thus increasing the maximum penalty from six months' to five years' imprisonment. Further, they removed the longtime tradition that the law applied only to 'intercourse-like' acts (meaning the police could not prosecute unless substantial proof of intercourse was given).Holocaust Encyclopedia: https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/paragraph-175-and-the-nazi- campaign-against-homosexuality A criminal offense would now exist if "objectively the general sense of shame was offended" and subjectively "the debauched intention was present to excite sexual desire in one of the two men, or a third".[The quotations are from German case law, RGSt 73, 78, 80 f.] Mutual physical contact was no longer necessary. This formulation was fundamentally different from traditional sodomy laws, but similar to the law against gross indecency in the United Kingdom since 1885. Beyond thatmuch as had already been planned in 1925a new Paragraph 175a was created, punishing "qualified cases" as schwere Unzucht ("severe lewdness") with no less than one year and no more than ten years in the penitentiary. These included: * homosexual acts forced through violence or threats (male rape), * sexual relations with a subordinate or employee in a work situation, * homosexual acts with men under the age of 21, * male prostitution. "Unnatural fornication with a beast" was moved to Paragraph 175b (this section applied to both men and women). According to the official rationale, Paragraph 175 was amended in the interest of the moral health of the Volkthe German peoplebecause "according to experience" homosexuality "inclines toward plague-like propagation" and exerts "a ruinous influence" on the "circles concerned". This aggravation of the severity of Paragraph 175 in 1935 increased the number of convictions tenfold, to 8,000 annually. Only about half of the prosecutions resulted from police work; about 40 percent resulted from private accusations (Strafanzeige) by non-participating observers, and about 10 percent were denouncements by employers and institutions. So, for example, in 1938 the Gestapo received the following anonymous letter: > Wea large part of the artists' block [of flats or studios] at Barnaywegask > you urgently to observe B., living with Mrs. F as a subtenant, who has > remarkable daily visits from young men. This must not continue. [...] We ask > you cordially to give the matter further observation.Andreas Pretzel: "Als > Homosexueller in Erscheinung getreten." ("Going into combat as a > homosexual") In Kulturring in Berlin e. V. (Hrsg.): "Wegen der zu > erwartenden hohen Strafe" : Homosexuellenverfolgung in Berlin 19331945. > (Because of the Severe Punishment that Can Be Expected: The pursuit of > homosexuals in Berlin 19331945) Berlin 2000. , p. 23 In contradistinction to normal police, the Gestapo were authorized to take gay men into preventive detention (Schutzhaft) of arbitrary duration without an accusation (or even after an acquittal). This was often the fate of so-called "repeat offenders": at the end of their sentences, they were not freed but sent for additional "re-education" (Umerziehung) in a concentration camp. Only about 40 percent of these pink triangle prisonerswhose numbers amounted to an estimated 10,000survived the camps. Some of them, after their release by the Allied Forces, were placed back in prison, because they had not yet finished court-mandated terms of imprisonment for homosexual acts.Angelika von Wahl: How Sexuality Changes Agency: Gay Men, Jews, and Transitional Justice. In: Susanne Buckley-Zistel, Ruth Stanley (Editors): Gender in Transitional Justice (Governance and Limited Statehood). Palgrave Macmillan, 2011, p. 205. ==After World War II== ===Development in the Soviet occupation zone and in East Germany=== In the Soviet occupation zone that later became East Germany (see History of Germany since 1945), the development of law was not uniform. The Provincial High Court in Halle (Oberlandesgericht Halle, or OLG Halle) decided for Saxony-Anhalt in 1948 that Paragraphs 175 and 175a were to be seen as injustice perpetrated by the Nazis, because a progressive juridical development had been broken off and even been reversed. Homosexual acts were to be tried only according to the laws of the Weimar Republic. In 1950, one year after being reconstituted as the German Democratic Republic, the Berlin Appeal Court (Kammergericht Berlin) decided for all of East Germany to reinstate the validity of the old, pre-1935 form of Paragraph 175. However, in contrast to the earlier action of the OLG Halle, the new Paragraph 175a remained unchanged, because it was said to protect society against "socially harmful homosexual acts of qualified character". In 1954, the same court decided that Paragraph 175a, in contrast to Paragraph 175, did not presuppose acts tantamount to sexual intercourse. Lewdness (Unzucht) was defined as any act that is performed to arouse sexual excitement and "violates the moral sentiment of our workers". A revision of the criminal code in 1957 made it possible to put aside prosecution of an illegal action that represented no danger to socialist society because of lack of consequence. This removed Paragraph 175 from the effective body of the law, because at the same time the East Berlin Court of Appeal (Kammergericht) decided that all punishments deriving from the old form of Paragraph 175 should be suspended due to the insignificance of the acts to which it had been applied. On this basis, homosexual acts between consenting adults ceased to be punished, beginning in the late 1950s. On July 1, 1968, the GDR adopted its own code of criminal law. In it § 151 StGB-DDR provided for a sentence up to three years' imprisonment or probation for an adult (18 and over) who engaged in sexual acts with a youth (under 18) of the same sex. This law applied not only to men who have sex with boys but equally to women who have sex with girls.1968, Basic Law of the GDR, § 151 StGB-DDR On August 11, 1987, the Supreme Court of the GDR struck down a conviction under Paragraph 151 on the basis that "homosexuality, just like heterosexuality, represents a variant of sexual behavior. Homosexual people do therefore not stand outside socialist society, and the civil rights are warranted to them exactly as to all other citizens." One year later, the Volkskammer (the parliament of the GDR), in its fifth revision of the criminal code, brought the written law in line with what the court had ruled, striking Paragraph 151 without replacement. The act passed into law May 30, 1989. This removed all specific reference to homosexuality from East German criminal law.Christian Schäfer: "Widernatürliche Unzucht" (2006), S. 253 () ===Development in West Germany=== Table 4: Convictions under §§ 175, 175a (1946–1994) Year Number Year Number 1946: (~1152) 1969: 894 1947: (~1344) 1970: 340 1948: (~1536) 1971: 372 1949: (~1728) 1972: 362 1950: 2158 1973: 373 1951: 2359 1974: 235 1952: 2656 1975: 160 1953: 2592 1976: 200 1954: 2801 1977: 191 1955: 2904 1978: 177 1956: 2993 1979: 148 1957: 3403 1980: 164 1958: ~3486 1981: 147 1959: ~3530 1982: 163 1960: ~3406 1983: 178 1961: 3196 1984: 153 1962: 3098 1985: 123 1963: 2803 1986: 118 1964: 2907 1987: 117 1965: 2538 1988: 95 1966: 2261 1989: 95 1967: 1783 1990: 96 1968: 1727 1991: 86 1992: 77 1993: 76 1994: 44 Source: Rainer Hoffschildt 2002Rainer Hoffschildt: "140.000 Verurteilungen nach '§ 175'," in Invertito 4 (2002), , pp. 140–149. * 1946–1949 complete estimate, based on the course around World War I * West Berlin and Saarland included before 1962 and 1961 respectively (in prior sources never considered!). * 1958–1960 Saarland estimated (~59) After World War II, the victorious Allies demanded the abolition of all laws with specifically National Socialist content; however, they left it to West Germany to decide whether or not the expansion of laws regulating male homosexual relationships falling under Paragraph 175 should be left in place. On May 10, 1957 the Federal Constitutional Court upheld the decision to retain the 1935 version, claiming that the paragraph was "not influenced by National Socialist [i.e., Nazi] politics to such a degree that it would have to be abolished in a free democratic state"."damit sollte nicht ausgeschlossen sein, daß diese ihrerseits zu der Auffassung kamen, gewisse Vorschriften seien so stark von nationalsozialistischem Geist geprägt, daß sie mit dem Rechtssystem eines demokratischen Staates unvereinbar und daher nicht mehr anzuwenden seien." BVerfGE 6, 389 - Homosexuelle , on SchwulenCity.de. Accessed 3 September 2006. Between 1945 and 1969, about 100,000 men were indicted and about 50,000 men sentenced to prison. The rate of convictions for violation of Paragraph 175 rose by 44 percent, and in the 1960s, the number remained as much as four times higher than it had been in the last years of the Weimar Republic. Many arrests, lawsuits, and proceedings in Frankfurt in 1950–1951 had serious consequences.Elmar Kraushaar: Unzucht vor Gericht: "Die 'Frankfurter Prozesse' und die Kontinuität des § 175 in den fünfziger Jahren." ("The 'Frankfurt Trials' and the continuity of § 175 in the Fifties") In Elmar Kraushaar (ed.): Hundert Jahre schwul: Eine Revue. (One Hundred years of Homosexuality: a revue) Berlin 1997. S. 60–69. , p. 62 These Frankfurt Homosexual Trials of 1950/51 marked an early climax in the persecution of homosexual men in the Federal Republic of Germany, which showed clear continuities from the Nazi era, but took place under the auspices of the new Adenauer era. They were largely initiated by the Frankfurt public prosecutor's office, using the sex worker Otto Blankenstein as a key witness.Daniel Speier. "Die Frankfurter Homosexuellenprozesse zu Beginn der Ära Adenauer – eine chronologische Darstellung." Mitteilungen der Magnus-Hirschfeld-Gesellschaft 61/62 (2018): 47–72 The strong continuities between the Nazi era and postwar West Germany are partly due to the continuity in staffing of the police and judiciary, which was disrupted in East Germany. The retention of the Nazis' legal basis for the charges, however, was due to a conservative Christian political realignment; criminalization was strongly defended by some CDU/CSU politicians such as Franz-Josef Wuermeling and Adolf Süsterhenn. These "Catholic maximalists" faced increasing opposition from Protestants and the more liberal elements within their own party. Similar to the thinking during the Nazi Regime, the government argued that there was a difference between a homosexual man and a homosexual woman, and that because all men were assumed to be more aggressive and predatory than women, lesbianism would not be criminalized. Therefore, it was argued, while lesbianism violated nature, it did not present the same threat to society as did male homosexuality. First convening in 1954, the legal experts in the criminal code commission (Strafrechtskommission) continued to debate the future of Paragraph 175; while the constitutional court ruled it was not unconstitutional, this did not mean it should forever remain in force. It was therefore the commission's job to advise the Ministry of Justice and Chancellor Konrad Adenauer about the new form this law should take. While they all agreed homosexual activity was immoral, they were divided when it came to whether or not it should be allowed to be practiced between consenting adults in private. Due to their belief that homosexuals were not born that way, but rather, they fell victim to seduction, the Justice Ministry officials remained concerned that if freed from criminal penalty, adult homosexuals would intensify their "propaganda and activity in public" and put male youth at risk. During the administration of Chancellor Konrad Adenauer's government, a draft penal code for West Germany (known as Strafgesetzbuch E 1962; it was never adopted) justified retaining paragraph 175 as follows: > Concerning male homosexuality, the legal system must, more than in other > areas, erect a bulwark against the spreading of this vice, which otherwise > would represent a serious danger for a healthy and natural life of the > people.Stümke 1989: p. 183 With new national Bundestag (West Germany's parliament) elections coming up, the Social Democratic Party was coming into power, first in 1966 as part of a broad coalition, and by 1969, with a parliamentary majority. With the Social Democrats holding the power, they were finally in a position to make key appointments in the Ministry of Justice and start implementing reform. In addition, demographic anxieties such as fear of declining birth rate no longer controlled the 1960s and homosexual men were no longer seen as a threat for not being able to reproduce. The role of the state was seen as protecting society from harm, and should only intervene in cases that involved force or the abuse of minors. On June 25, 1969, shortly before the end of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU)SPD Grand Coalition headed by CDU Chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger, Paragraph 175 was reformed, in that only the "qualified cases" that were previously handled in §175asex with a man less than 21 years old, homosexual prostitution, and the exploitation of a relationship of dependency (such as employing or supervising a person in a work situation)were retained. Paragraph 175b (concerning bestiality) also was removed. With the 1969 reform in place, the acceptance of homosexual acts or homosexual identities for West Germans was far from in place. Most reformers agreed that decriminalizing sexual relations between adult men was not the same as advocating an acceptance of homosexual men. While the old view of "militarized" masculinity may have phased out, "family-centered" masculinity was now grounded in the traditional male, and being a proper man meant being a proper father, which was believed at the time to be a role a homosexual male could not fulfill. On November 23, 1973, the social-liberal coalition of the SPD and the Free Democratic Party passed a complete reform of the laws concerning sex and sexuality. The paragraph was renamed from "Crimes and misdemeanors against morality" into "Offenses against sexual self-determination", and the word Unzucht ("lewdness") was replaced by the equivalent of the term "sexual acts". Paragraph 175 only retained sex with minors as a qualifying attribute; the age of consent was lowered to 18 (compared to 14 for heterosexual sex). In 1986 the Green Party and the first openly gay member of the German parliament tried to remove Paragraph 175 together with Paragraph 182. This would have meant a general age of consent of 14 years. This was opposed by the CDU, SPD, and FDP, and Paragraph 175 remained a part of German law for eight more years. ==Developments after 1990== ===Deletion of Paragraph 175=== In the course of reconciling the legal codes of the two German states after 1990, the Bundestag had to decide whether Paragraph 175 should be abolished entirely (as in the former East Germany) or whether the remaining West German form of the law should be extended to what had now become the eastern portion of the Federal Republic. In 1994, at the end of the period of reconciliation of laws, it was decidedespecially in view of the social changes that had occurred in the meantimeto strike Paragraph 175 entirely from the legal code. According to § 176 StGBSee Ages of consent in Europe#Germany the absolute minimum age of consent is now 14 years for all sexual acts irrespective of the sex of the participants; in special cases, covered in § 182 StGB, an age of 16 years applies.See German-language article § 182 StGB § 182 (2) StGB allows for prosecution as an Antragsdelikt, a concept in German law according to which certain acts are treated as crimes only if the victim chooses to become a complainant. Further, § 182 (3) StGB allows the public prosecutor's office to pursue a case on the basis of the belief that there is a special public interest. Finally, § 182 (4) StGB allows the court to refrain from punishment if the wrongness of the accused's behavior appears small. § 182 StGB contains numerous terms without precise legal definitions; critics have raised concerns that families can misuse this law to criminalize socially disapproved sexual relationships (e.g. a family disapproving of a young person's homosexual relationship might be able prosecute their partner). In Austria, an analogous situation exists: Like the German § 175 StGB, the Austrian § 209 StGB was stricken from the legal code; like the German § 182 StGB, the Austrian § 207b StGB is perceived by critics as having potential to be abused as a surrogate for the stricken law. ===Pardon of the victims=== On May 17, 2002a date chosen symbolically as "17.5"the Bundestag passed a supplement to the NS- Aufhebungsgesetz (). Entwurf des Änderungsgesetzes zum NS-Aufhebungsgesetz - Bundestagdrucksache 14/8276 (archived) By this supplement to the act, Nazi-era convictions of homosexuals and deserters from the Wehrmacht were annulled. Stenographic report of the Bundestag, 14th legislative period, 237th sitting (2002-05-17) , page 23741 (C) Louder criticism came from the lesbian and gay movement, because the Bundestag left post-1945 judgments untouched, although the legal basis from the end of the war to 1969 was the same as in the Nazi era. The issue of pardoning men convicted in the postwar era remained controversial. On May 12, 2016, Federal Minister of Justice, Heiko Maas, announced that Germany was investigating the possibility of pardoning and compensating all gay men convicted under Paragraph 175. In cases where victims had died still bearing a conviction, the government will instead make payments to gay rights groups. This was confirmed on October 8, 2016, when Maas laid out the compensation scheme and announced that the government was setting aside €30 million to cover claims. The law comprises both individual pardons and a collective pardon and the documenting of suffering caused by the law, with the full process expected to take up to five years. Those affected by the pardon can apply for a "vindication certificate", and relatives can apply for a posthumous pardon. Each person convicted will receive €3,000 compensation, plus €1,500 for each year spent in custody as a result of a conviction under Paragraph 175 – on average, a conviction carried a two-year sentence. Bundestag member Volker Beck, who was a key figure in establishing a compensation fund for victims of Nazism, suggested that other losses suffered as a result of conviction under Paragraph 175, such as the loss of a job and resulting reduction in pension, should also be taken into account when deciding how much compensation to offer. In June 2017, the law was passed in the Bundestag by an overwhelming majority in all parties.Guardian: Germany to quash convictions of 50,000 gay men under Nazi-era law , June 22, 2017. ==See also== * LGBT history * LGBT rights in Germany * LGBT history in Germany * Heteronormativity * Institut für Sexualwissenschaft * Anders als die Andern ==Notes== ==References== * * Burkhard Jellonnek: Homosexuelle unter dem Hakenkreuz : Die Verfolgung von Homosexuellen im Dritten Reich. (Homosexuals under the Swastika: the pursuit of homosexuals in the Third Reich) Paderborn 1990. * Christian Schulz: § 175\. (abgewickelt). : ... und die versäumte Wiedergutmachung. (§ 175\. (abolished). : ... and the lack of compensation) Hamburg 1998. * Andreas Sternweiler: Und alles wegen der Jungs : Pfadfinderführer und KZ-Häftling: Heinz Dörmer. Berlin 1994. ==External links== * Gay Museum in Berlin, in German Category:1871 in law Category:19th century in LGBT history Category:Law of East Germany Category:Gay history Category:German criminal law Category:German Empire Category:Law of Prussia Category:Legal history of Germany Category:LGBT history in Germany Category:Criminalization of homosexuality Category:Law of the Weimar Republic Category:Law of Nazi Germany Category:Persecution of LGBT people in Germany Category:Repealed German legislation Category:West Germany Category:Sex crimes in Germany Category:1969 in law Category:1994 in law Category:LGBT-related legislation |
Allied Joint Force Command Naples (JFC Naples) is a NATO military command based in Lago Patria, in the Metropolitan City of Naples, Italy. It was activated on 15 March 2004, after effectively redesigning its predecessor command, Allied Forces Southern Europe (AFSOUTH), originally formed in 1951. In NATO Military Command Structure terms, AFSOUTH was a "Major Subordinate Command". The commander of JFC Naples reports to the Supreme Allied Commander Europe at the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe, Casteau, Belgium. As of 2008, Commander, Allied Joint Force Command Naples, was responsible for conducting the full range of military operations throughout the NATO Area of Responsibility (AOR) and beyond to deter aggression and to contribute to the effective defence of NATO territory and forces, safeguard freedom of the seas and economic lifelines and to preserve or restore the security of NATO nations. ==History== thumb|left|Arms of Headquarters, Allied Forces Southern Europe Originally, Allied Forces Southern Europe was one of two major NATO commands in the Mediterranean area, the other being Allied Forces Mediterranean based on the island of Malta, responsible for naval activities in the region. While Admiral Robert B. Carney of the U.S. Navy was appointed as Commander-in-Chief Allied Forces Southern Europe (CinCAFSOUTH) on 19 June 1951, AFMED was not activated until 1953. The delay was due to negotiations and compromises between the Americans and the British, who wished to retain one of their commanders over Britain's traditional sea lines of communication stretching through the Mediterranean to the Suez Canal and beyond. From 1951 to 2003, the Commander-in-Chief of Allied Forces Southern Europe was always a United States Navy admiral, based at Naples, who also held the US Navy position of Commander-in-Chief United States Naval Forces Europe and functioned as the Navy service component commander for United States European Command within the US-only chain of command. AFSOUTH headquarters was established at Bagnoli, Naples. The initial command arrangements for AFSOUTH consisted of the classic three land, sea, and air headquarters preferred by Eisenhower. Allied Land Forces Southern Europe (LANDSOUTH), Allied Naval Forces Southern Europe (NAVSOUTH), and Allied Air Forces Southern Europe (AIRSOUTH) were all established in Italy. Greece and Turkey joined the alliance in early 1952. On 8 September 1952, a new allied land command, Allied Land Forces South-Eastern Europe (LANDSOUTHEAST), was created with its headquarters in Izmir, Turkey, under the command of a U.S. officer, Lieutenant General Willard G. Wyman. Under this command, with its headquarters in Izmir assisted by the subordinate Thessaloniki Advanced Command Post, were to be most of the Greek and Turkish armies in case of war. The first AIRSOUTH commander became U.S. Major General David M. Schlatter, USAF. On 14 October 1953, the Sixth Allied Tactical Air Force was also established in Izmir, commanded by Major General R.E.L. Easton, USAF, and responsible to Allied Air Forces Southern Europe for the air defence of Greece and Turkey. Three national air Commands were assigned to it: the Turkish 1st and 3rd Tactical Air Forces, and the Greek Air Force's Royal Hellenic 28th Tactical Air Force. In terms of actual forces, this meant two Greek wings, four Turkish fighter- bomber groups of F-84 aircraft, and some B-26A Mosquitoes. Later in 1953, the various national naval forces within Allied Forces Mediterranean were organised into six Sub-Principal Subordinate Commands (Sub-PSCs), each commanded by an Admiral (including one French (MEDOC), one Greek, one Turkish, one Italian and two British). In time of war, CINCAFMED would be responsible for securing the Sea lines of communications throughout the Mediterranean Sea. Some of AFSOUTH's first exercises took place in 1952. Operation Ancient Wall was a series of military maneuvers involving ground small unit tactical training, land-based tactical air support, and carrier-based air support under the overall command of Admiral Carney. Exercise Grand Slam was a combined naval exercise held in the Mediterranean Sea between 25 February to 16 March 1952. The exercise included allied warships escorting three convoys of supply ships which were subjected to repeated simulated air and submarine attacks, as well as anti-submarine warfare (ASW) operations and naval gunfire shore bombardment. Operation Longstep was a ten-day naval exercise held in the Mediterranean Sea held during November 1952. It involved over 170 warships and 700 aircraft, and it featured a large-scale amphibious assault along the western coast of Turkey. 1953 AFSOUTH exercises included: * "Italic Weld" — a combined air-naval-ground exercise in northern Italy involving the United States, Italy, Turkey, and Greece * "Weldfast" — a combined amphibious landing exercise in the Mediterranean Sea involving British, Greek, Italian, Turkish, and U.S. naval forces In 1957, Operation Deep Water simulated the defence of the Dardanelles from a Soviet attack. The exercise included an 8,000-strong amphibious landing. The drawdown of the British Mediterranean Fleet, the military difficulties of the politically-decided command structure, and the withdrawal of the French from the military command structure forced a rearrangement of the command arrangements in the southern region. Allied Forces Mediterranean was disbanded on 5 June 1967, and all forces in the south and the Mediterranean were assigned to AFSOUTH. AFSOUTH continued to conduct exercises in the 1960s and 1970s, among which was exercise 'Dawn Patrol,' a five-nation naval and air exercise conducted throughout the Mediterranean in 1974. The U.S. contribution to the exercise was based on the USS America carrier battle group. During the 1960s Exercise Deep Furrow appears to have been held annually. Deep Furrow was to be conducted from 20–29 September 1973 in the southern region of Allied Command Europe. Forces from Greece, Turkey and other countries in AF South Command were to participate, which is scheduled annually by CINCSOUTH. Land forces will hold maneuvers in Greek and Turkish Thrace, and naval Force will exercise in the Eastern Mediterranean, including the Aegean Sea; naval activities will include amphibious and carrier operations. As part of the exercise, ground units will be airlifted from their home stations in the United Kingdom and the United States to northwestern Turkey, where Turkish National Forces will execute plans for receiving them. Turkish National Forces will also conduct operations with Hellenic Armed Forces and NATO air units, providing fighter-bomber and reconnaissance support throughout the area of operations. Highlights of the exercise in Turkish Thrace will be a multi-national amphibious landing on 25 September 1973 and a multinational airborne operation on 26 September 1973. From 1967 the overall shape of AFSOUTH did not significantly change until the command was renamed in 2004. There were five principal subordinate commands (PSCs). and The number rose to six when Greece was taking part in the military structure; Greece withdrew from the NATO military structure after the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974, and after some behind the scenes negotiating by NATO officials, returned in October 1980. Two land commands, Allied Land Forces Southern Europe and Allied Land Forces Southeastern Europe, were tasked to defend Italy and Turkey, respectively. Each was directly responsible to Commander-in-Chief, AFSOUTH, and supported by a tactical air force, Fifth Allied Tactical Air Force in Italy and Sixth Allied Tactical Air Force in Turkey. The two allied tactical air forces were under an overall air command, Allied Air Forces Southern Europe, headquartered at Naples in Italy under a United States Air Force officer, ComAirSouth, responsible himself to CinCAFSOUTH.Operation Deny Flight was directed by Allied Forces Southern Europe (AFSOUTH) in Naples, under the command of the Commander-in-Chief of Allied Forces Southern Europe. Smith and Boorda, however, delegated day-to-day authority to Allied Air Forces Southern Europe (AIRSOUTH) commanded by Lieutenant General Joseph W. Ashy (until 1994) and then Lt. Gen Michael Ryan. While AIRSOUTH maintained day-to- day command, "mission tasking and operational control" were delegated to the commander of the NATO Fifth Allied Tactical Air Force (5ATAF). ComAirSouth held the U.S. national appointment of Commander Sixteenth Air Force for a long period. Due to political considerations, command of the naval forces in the region was split. Allied Naval Forces Southern Europe, at Naples, operated most of the NATO allies' naval forces in the Mediterranean under an Italian admiral. But due to the U.S. desire to retain control of their nuclear-armed naval forces, the United States Sixth Fleet reported directly to CinCAFSOUTH, supported by a separate headquarters named Naval Striking and Support Forces Southern Europe (STRIKFORSOUTH). The sixth command was an Allied command responsible for the land defence of Greece, named Allied Land Forces South- Central Europe or LANDSOUTHCENT. However, it is not certain whether it was ever actually operational, with the 1998/99 NATO Handbook listing it as 'yet to be activated.' Below these PSCs were smaller headquarters such as Maritime Air Forces, Mediterranean, at Sigonella, Sicily, responsible for the coordination of the aerial anti-submarine effort, Submarine Forces, South, and the Naval On-Call Force Mediterranean, a multinational escort squadron activated at intervals. === Structure in 1989 === thumb|right|400px|Command Structure of AFSOUTH in 1989 (click to enlarge) At the end of the Cold War AFSOUTH consisted of the following commands: * Allied Forces Southern Europe (AFSOUTH), in Naples, Italy ** Allied Land Forces Southern Europe (LANDSOUTH), in Verona, Italy *** 3rd Italian Corps, in Milan *** 4th Italian Alpine Corps, in Bolzano *** 5th Italian Corps, in Vittorio Veneto *** Earmarked Portuguese Mixed Brigade ** Allied Land Forces South-Eastern Europe (LANDSOUTHEAST), in İzmir, Turkey *** 1st Turkish Army, in Istanbul *** 3rd Turkish Army, in Erzincan ** Allied Land Forces South-Central Europe (LANDSOUTHCENT) in Larissa, Greece ** Allied Air Forces Southern Europe (AIRSOUTH), in Naples, Italy *** Fifth Allied Tactical Air Force (5 ATAF), in Vicenza, Italy *** Sixth Allied Tactical Air Force (6 ATAF), in İzmir, Turkey *** Seventh Allied Tactical Air Force (7 ATAF) in Larissa, Greece, a planned command for the Greek Air Force, but never actually established ** Allied Naval Forces Southern Europe (NAVSOUTH), in Naples, Italy, with the following national commands: *** Commander Gibraltar Mediterranean (COMGIBMED), in Gibraltar, under a Royal Navy Rear Admiral, who doubled as Commander British Forces Gibraltar. British plans, to Captain Peter Melson (RN)'s knowledge in 1990 "committed no forces to defence of the Strait, while Spain was willing to commit substantial elements of their ORBAT [order of battle, their armed forces]." *** Commander Western Mediterranean (COMMEDWEST), under a French Navy admiral, until 1962 in Algiers, then Toulon, after France left NATO's integrated command structure in 1966 the command was absorbed by NAVSOUTH *** Commander Central Mediterranean (COMEDCENT), in Naples, under an Italian Navy admiral *** Commander Eastern Mediterranean (COMEDEAST), in Athens, under a Hellenic Navy admiral *** Commander South-Eastern Mediterranean (COMMEDSOUTHEAST), under a British admiral in Malta, after the disbanding of the Mediterranean Fleet, the command was absorbed by NAVSOUTH *** Commander North-eastern Mediterranean (COMEDNOREAST), in Ankara, under a Turkish Naval Forces admiral (includes the Black Sea) *** Commander Maritime Air Forces Mediterranean (COMMARAIRMED), at Naval Air Station Sigonella, Italy, under Commander US Navy Fleet Air Wing Mediterranean *** Commander Submarines Mediterranean (COMSUBMED), in Naples, under Commander US Navy Submarine Group 8 **Naval Striking and Support Forces Southern Europe (STRIKFORSOUTH), in Naples, Italy, centered around the US Navy Sixth Fleet === Post Cold War === From 1992 AFSOUTH was heavily involved in NATO operations in the Balkans, initially with NATO seaborne enforcement of a UN arms embargo, Operation 'Maritime Monitor,' which began in July 1992. This operation was fused with a similar Western European Union effort and thus became Operation Sharp Guard from July 1993. AFSOUTH also directed activities such as Operation Deny Flight from AIRSOUTH headquarters in Italy. Commander-in-Chief AFSOUTH directed the NATO peacekeeping missions in Bosnia & Hercegovina, IFOR and SFOR, from December 1995. While technically in charge of KFOR from mid-1999, General Sir Mike Jackson's autobiography, Soldier, indicates General Wesley Clark at SHAPE in Belgium directly supervised many of KFOR's activities, without going through AFSOUTH, at least during the Allied Rapid Reaction Corps' tour as HQ KFOR in 1999. Beginning 10 July 1951, Headquarters Allied Land Forces Southern Europe was responsible for defending the North-Eastern Italian sector in cooperation with other NATO nations. During the intervening 40 years, the HQ produced plans and studies to counter a potential invasion by the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact. After 53 years in the city of Verona, what had become Joint Command South (JCS) closed its doors on 15 June 2004. Also closing was Joint Headquarters Southwest in Madrid and Joint Headquarters Southeast/Joint Command Southeast in Izmir. ===Establishment as JFC Naples=== thumb|A change of command ceremony is held at the Allied Joint Force Command Naples during 2016 The reorganisation of AFSOUTH as JFC Naples in 2004 was a part of NATO’s transformation, initiated by the Prague summit of 2002, aimed at adapting the allied military structure to the operational challenges of coalition warfare, to face the emerging threats in the new millennium. The new NATO Command Structure is leaner and focused on conducting a much wider range of missions. NHQ Sarajevo remains operational, as also NATO Headquarters Tirana, an outgrowth of the former Kosovo Force (KFOR) Communications Zone West, originally established in 1999. Communication Zone West was retitled NHQ Tirana on 17 June 2002, and it now performs a Defence Reform and Security Sector Reform advisory role, aiming to support the Albanian Armed Forces, now a member of NATO. In 2013 a further command structure reorganisation began to take effect. Allied Maritime Command Naples, Allied Air Command İzmir and Allied Force Command Madrid were all deactivated. From 2013 Allied Command Operations started directing the Allied Joint Force Command Brunssum and Allied Joint Force Command Naples, and three component commands, Allied Air Command at Ramstein, Germany, Allied Land Command at Izmir, Turkey, and Allied Maritime Command at Northwood, UK. NATO and Romanian Ministry of Defense representatives activated the Headquarters Multinational Division Southeast (HQ MND-SE) headquarters in Bucharest, Romania, on December 1, 2015. The new HQ was activated as part of the Readiness Action Plan agreed at the 2014 Wales Summit. JFC Naples will serve as the operational control of MND-SE. The division HQ will be prepared to execute command and control over the NATO Force Integration Units in Romania and Bulgaria for a range of missions, which includes Article V operations based on NATO planning, when authorized by the North Atlantic Council and directed by the Supreme Allied Commander Europe. ==References== ==Further reading== * * * == External links == * Joint Na Category:Military units and formations established in 2004 Category:Organisations based in Naples |
Robert Norman Bland (1859–1948), or "R. N. Bland," as he was more commonly known then in The Straits, was Resident Councillor of Penang and a career civil servant in the Colonial Administration of the Straits Settlements. Bland joined the Colonial Civil Service of the Straits Settlements as a Cadet in 1883, learning Chinese and Malay languages, and later Law, and spent 27 years working his way up the Civil Service ladder through various different roles and positions, often holding multiple positions at the same time, retiring in 1910 as Resident Councillor of Penang. Brief biographies are given of him in Twentieth Century Impressions of British Malaya One Hundred Years of Singapore, Who's Who in the Far East, Burke's Irish Family Records and other works. The ones from the first two, read:Who's Who in the Far East, 1906-7, June. Hongkong: China Mail, 1906: 22. Print.Wright, Arnold. Twentieth century impressions of British Malaya: its history, people, commerce, industries, and resources. London: Lloyd's Greater Britain Publishing Company, Limited: 126. Print.Nunn, Bernard. "Some Account of Our Governors and Civil Service." One Hundred Years of Singapore, Being Some Account of the Capital of the Straits Settlements from Its Foundation by Sir Stamford Raffles on 6 February 1819 to 6 February 1919. Ed. Walter Makepeace, Gilbert E. Brroke, and Ronald St. John Braddell. Vol. I (1). London: John Murray, 1911. [140] 69-148. Print."Person Page - 27761." The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Peerage of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe. Ed. Daryl Lundy. Lundy Consulting Ltd., 29 Mar. 2008. Web. 23 May 2015. Citing Montgomery-Massingberd, Hugh. Burke's Irish Family Records. London, U.K.: Burkes Peerage Ltd, 1976. "The Resident Councillor of Pinang: is the Hon. Mr. Robert Norman Bland, B.A. A son of Major-General Bland, R.E., he was born at Malta in 1859. He was educated at Cheltenham College and at Trinity College, Dublin, where he obtained the degree of B.A. in 1882. Mr. Bland has had a long and varied career in the Straits Settlements Civil Service. Arriving in the colony early in 1883, he was attached to the Colonial Secretary's Office as a cadet learning Chinese, and in the following year he also qualified in Malay. He has served as private secretary to the Acting Governor, Collector and Magistrate at Kuala Pilah in the Negri Sambilan, Assistant Resident Councillor at Pinang, Collector of Land Revenue at Pinang and Singapore, officer in charge of Sungei Ujong, Inspector of Prisons for the Straits Settlements, Colonial Treasurer and Collector of Stamp Duties, and Resident Councillor at Malacca. In 1887 he was engaged in reporting upon a system of Mukim boundaries in Pinang and Province Wellesley. He is ex-officio Chairman of the Pinang Committee of the Tanjong Pagar Board, of the District Hospital, of the Library, and of the Gardens Committee, Pinang; a trustee of St. George's Church and of St. George's Girls' School ; and president of the Free School's Committee. Mr. Bland raised and commanded a company of volunteers in Malacca.(1902-6). He is a member of the Colonial Institute and of the Sports Club, London, and is enrolled either as a patron or member of all the local clubs. His recreations are golf and riding. He married, in 1895, Laura Emily, eldest daughter of the late Mr. Thomas Shelford, C.M.G., head of the firm of Paterson, Simons Co., and for some twenty years member of the Legislative Council of the Straits Settlements. Mrs. Bland is a member of the Straits branch of the Royal Asiatic Society and of the Royal Anthropological Institute. She takes a keen interest in women's work amongst the Malays." "Mr. R. N. Bland, C.M.G. Mr. Robert Norman Bland was appointed a Cadet in the Straits service in 1882. He held various offices in the three Settlements, and was also in charge of Sungei Ujong and Jelebu from 1893 to 1895. He became Colonial Treasurer in 1904, and was successively Resident Councillor, Malacca, from 1904 to 1907, and of Penang from 1907 to 1910, when he retired. He became a C.M.G. in the latter year. He is the author of the illustrated work Historical Tombstones of Malacca, which has done much to preserve the records of monuments of the past, otherwise only too likely to perish, and he was a frequent contributor to the Royal Asiatic Society's Journal." The sometimes contradictory accounts of the dates or periods he held these positions for, is due to two practices at that time. Firstly, holding multiple positions at the same time (a substantive role, together with other less substantive, temporary or acting roles). And second, being appointed to a role (substantive) but not functioning in that role, while someone else acts in that role or performs that function temporarily. These practices can be seen from the details provided below in the accounts of his appointments in the Straits Settlements and F.M.S. civil service. == The Colonial Civil Service Examinations == When Granville Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville was Secretary of State for the Colonies (9 December 1868 to 6 July 1870) competitive examinations were instituted for candidates between 20 and 23 years of age. Sir Frank Athelstane Swettenham was among the first Cadets to arrive at the Straits under this system which continued as it was until 1882. Swettenham's contemporaries, also arriving under this system included James Kortright Birch, Charles Walter Sneyd-Kynnersley, Arthur Philip Talbot, Henry Arthur O'Brien, Edward Charles Hepworth Hill, Frederick Gordon Penney, Edward Marsh Merewether, and Walter Egerton. Ernest Woodford Birch also came out at this time but was excused the Cadet Examinnations, having been previously employed at the Colonial Office for some time. John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley served as Secretary of State for the Colonies twice, the first from 6 July 1870 to 17 February 1874 and then again 21 April 1880 to 16 December 1882. During the latter period open competition for entry to the service of the Straits Settlements, Hong Kong and Ceylon, was started. Those who were successful were allowed to choose among the available vacancies in these three places. They had to pass through the qualifying and then the advanced examination. It was under this system that Robert Norman Bland, William Evans, Reginald George Watson, Arthur Warren Swete O'Sullivan, James Oliver Anthonisz, George Thompson Hare, Edward Lewis Brockman, and John Robert Innes entered the service of the Straits Settlements' Colonial Administration.[Nunn 1911: 120-121] Bland had prepared for his Eastern Cadetship Examination with the help of the Wren and Gurney College. He came out 2nd in the Examination. He was not alone. Making use of this same institution were Evans (3rd), Innes (2nd), Watson (2nd), Sullivan (4th) A. H. Capper (5th), and Francis Powell (1st) == Cadetship == On 21 January 1883, the Messageries Maritimes steamer Iraouaddy [Irrawaddy], Captain Pasqualini, departed Marseilles with 23-year- old Robert Norman Bland and 22-year-old William Evans. They passed Naples, Port Said, Suez, Aden and Colombo, arriving at Singapore alongside the Borneo Company's wharf on the morning of 19 February 1883.The Straits Times [Singapore] 19 Feb. 1883: 2. Print; Straits Times Weekly Issue [Singapore] 26 Feb. 1883: 1. Print. They reported their arrival immediately upon landing. On 2 March 1883, vide the Government Gazette of even date, the Secretary of State appointed Bland and Evans to be Cadets in the Service of the Colony of the Straits Settlements. By that same Gazette, the Governor, at Singapore, appointed John Hope Callcott to be Superintendent of Works and Surveys, Singapore, and Acting Deputy Colonial Engineer and Surveyor-General, Penang, vice William Daniel Bayliss, retired; and Frederick Charles Sheppard to be Superintendent of Works and Surveys, Malacca, and Acting Superintendent of Works, Singapore, vice John Hope Callcott, promoted."Government Gazette, 2nd March." The Straits Times [Straits Times] 3 Mar. 1883: 2. Print. Bland began his internship as a Cadet attached to the Colonial Secretary's Office, learning the Chinese language. The next year, on 11 June 1884, Cadet Bland passed his Final Examination in the Malay language. Under the same Government Gazette of 13 June that recorded this, the Secretary of State approved the appointments of Swettenham and John Pickersgill Rodger as Acting Residents of Perak and Selangor, respectively, and the Acting Governor made several appointments: Robert Douglas Hewett to be a Justice of the Peace for the Straits Settlements; Acting Inspector-General of Police Robert Walter Maxwell to Chairman of the Board of Licensing Justices, Singapore; Hancock Thomas Haughton to Member of the Board of Licensing Justices, Singapore, vice Richard Spear O'Connor; E. W. Birch to Magistrate for the Settlement of Singapore, Temporary Protector of Chinese and Registering Officer under the Contagious Diseases Ordinance of Singapore. The Acting Governor also granted, subject to the approval of the Secretary of State: Leave of absence with half salary for three and a half months from 1 June to Resident at Sungei Ujong William Francis Bourne Paul; Vacation leave for three months from 13 June after which leave of absence with half salary for 12 months to Acting Protector of Chinese Singapore Francis Powell; Vacation leave for two and a half months after which leave of absence for four and a half months at half salary to Senior Magistrate and Commissioner of the Court of Requests at Singapore R. S. O'Connor; and subject to the approval of Her Majesty's Government, the Governor recognised Senor Don Carlos de Garcimartin as Consul for Spain from 6 June."The Government Gazette, 13th June." The Straits Times [Singapore] 14 Jun. 1884: 2. Print; "The Government Gazette, 13th June." Straits Times Weekly Issue [Singapore] 18 Jun. 1884: 1. Print. On 13 March 1885, Bland received the temporary appointment as the Acting Governor Cecil Clementi Smith's Private Secretary."Government Gazette, 13th March." The Straits Times [Singapore] 16 Mar. 1885: 3. Print. It was reported that on 1 February 1886, at a meeting of the Committee at the Chamber of Commerce in Penang, Bland, together with H. R. Maynard and Koh Seang Tat were appointed to the General Committee of the Penang Chamber of Commerce. At that time the Committee was discussing the plans for the celebration of the coming Centenary of Penang, and related fund- raising activities."Centenary of Penang. (Penang Gazette 12 February.)" Straits Times Weekly Issue [Singapore] 20 Feb. 1886: 1. Print. However, he was conspicuously absent in news reports of the actual event, towards the end of August that year.Straits Times Weekly Issue [Singapore] 25 Aug. 1886: 9. Print. Bland was also listed as a member of the Local Committee in Penang of the Straits Settlements Commission at Singapore appointed by the Colonial Governments for the Colonial and Indian Exhibition of 1886, which opened in May that year.Colonial and Indian Exhibition, 1886 Official Catalogue. London: W. Clowes, 1886: xxxiii–xxx. Print. == The Straits Settlements and F.M.S. Civil Service Appointments == By the time he retired, Bland had served the people of the different parts of the Straits Settlements, and the Federated Malay States in a wide variety of roles spanning the Executive, Legislative and Judicial branches of Government. === Local government and public administration === In 1888 Bland was appointed District Officer, Southern District (Nibong Tebal), Province Wellesley. At the end of 1893 Bland, of the Land Office at Singapore, proceeded to Sungei Ujong to temporarily assume charge there, vice Walter Egerton who went to Singapore as First Magistrate, Cadet Elcum succeeding Bland at the Land Office.Straits Times Weekly Issue [Singapore] 5 Dec. 1893: 1. Print. Bland arrived at Sungei Ujong, by train on 5 December 1893, met at the station by the Heads of Department there. On the 6th he visited all the Public Offices with Egerton, then took charge of the Residency."Sungei Ujong News. Sungei Ujong, 7th December." Straits Times Weekly Issue [Singapore] 12 Dec. 1893: 7. Print. He served as Officer in Charge, Negri Sembilan from January to April 1895. Upon retirement of E. E. Isemonger and H. Trotter there was a reshuffle and Bland was appointed, in April 1897, Acting Senior District Officer for Province Wellesley.The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 24 Apr. 1897: 2. Print; The Straits Times [Singapore] 6 Nov. 1897: 2. Print. In the first quarter of 1900 Inspector-General of Prisons for the Straits Settlements, Bland, was appointed Acting Resident Councillor of Malacca, with J. O. Anthonisz appointed Acting Inspector General of Prisons in addition to his existing duties."Gazette Notifications." The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 21 Apr. 1900: 3. Print; "Government Gazette." The Straits Times [Singapore] 21 Apr. 1900: 2. Print. On 1 May 1900, Bland, who till then had taken his seat among the Officials of the Legislative Council as the Acting Colonial Treasurer, now took his seat as Acting Resident Councillor of Malacca."Legislative Council. Tuesday, 1st May, 1900." The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 2 May 1900: 3. Print. In the first week of December 1901 Bland was nominated Municipal Commissioner for the town and fort of Malacca and appointed President of the Municipal Council vice Gilbert Amos Hall.The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 7 Dec. 1901: 2. Print. Returning from home leave in October 1906, Bland and his wife departed EnglandEastern Daily Mail and Straits Morning Advertiser [Singapore] 22 Sep. 1906: 2. Print; Eastern Daily Mail and Straits Morning Advertiser [Singapore] 1 Oct. 1906: 4. Print. and arrived in Singapore in November that year, proceeding to Penang which he arrived at on the 21st, to take up his appointment as Acting Resident Councillor there,The Straits Times [Singapore] 26 Nov. 1906: 6. Print. vice J. K. BIrch, on three months vacation leave.The Straits Times [Singapore] 24 Nov. 1906: 6. Print. In May 1907 Acting Resident Councillor, Officer in Class I of the Straits Settlements Civil Service was appointed Resident Councillor of Penang in the same class. William Evans, whom Bland had arrived together with back in 1883, was similarly appointed Resident Councillor of Malacca.The Straits Times [Singapore] 4 May 1907: 7. Print. === Straits Settlements Legislative Council === Bland was a lawmaker serving on the parliament of the Straits Settlements at that time, its Legislative Council, which was made up of senior members of the Straits Settlements Administration, called The Officials, and members of the general public, called The Unofficials, both appointed by the Government. He served among The Officials from November 1899 until the time he retired in 1910. Bland had served there as Acting Colonial Treasurer,The Straits Times [Singapore] 1 Nov. 1899: 2. Print; The Straits Times [Singapore] 2 Nov. 1899: 3. Print; The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 2 Nov. 1899: 3. Print; The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 4 Nov. 1899: 2. Print. Acting Resident Councillor of Malacca, Acting Resident Councillor of Penang, and Resident Councillor of Penang. The last Legislative Council meeting that Bland attended was on 11 April 1910. Among the articles for discussion was the decision that had been made to reduce the Status of Malacca and its head official. Unofficial Member the Hon. T. S. Baker introduced a motion requesting Government to reconsider its decision, which was seconded by Tan Jiak Kim and all other Unofficials. The only support from the Official Members came from Bland. The motion lost with 7 votes for and 8 against."LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL." The Straits Times [Singapore] 12 Apr. 1910: 11. Print."LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL." The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 12 Apr. 1910: 5. Print === The Malayan Courts === Apart from his appointment as Collector of Land Revenue at Sri Menanti in December 1886, Bland, at the same time, served Malacca as Magistrate."MALACCA." The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 18 Dec. 1886: 8. Print.Kuala Pilah, in Negeri Sembilan. Martin Lister replaced Bland as Collector and Magistrate at the end of 1886.The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 18 Dec. 1886: 8. Print. From the Government Gazette of 27 May 1887 we learn that Cadet Bland passed the final examination in Law on 1 April."Government Gazette, May 27." Straits Times Weekly Issue [Singapore] 1 Jun. 1887: 1. Print. And from the Government Gazette of 13 May 1887, that he had been appointed Acting Second Magistrate at Penang, in addition to his existing duties as Acting Assistant Postmaster-General, the latter of which he was relieved of, upon Noel Trotter's return to Penang."Government Gazette, 13th May." Straits Times Weekly Issue [Singapore] 18 May 1887: 1. Print. In 1889 the papers reported, "We are informed that a Marine Court of enquiry, consisting of Captain Bradbery, Harbour-Master, Mr. R. N. Bland, Acting Senior Magistrate, and Captain Menzel, will be held at the Police Court on Thursday next to enquire into the loss of the steamer Prye, at the entrance of Trang river, on the night of 8th ultimo.""Penang News". The Straits Times [Singapore] 11 Jun. 1889: 3. Print; " Penang News. (Penang Gazette, 7 June.)" Straits Times Weekly Issue [Singapore] 12 Jun. 1889: 4. Print. Under Government Notification No. 210 of 9 April 1890, Bland was appointed to the Commission of the Peace for the Settlement of Singapore and reported in the Government Gazette of 29 August he was appointed a Magistrate for the Settlement of Singapore."Government Gazette, 29th August." Daily Advertiser [Singapore] 1 Sep. 1890: 2. Print. On 13 September 1890 Bland began serving as Acting Commissioner of the Court of Requests at Singapore vice Anthonisz, absent in Ceylon. However, serving in so many roles resulted in Bland postponing many cases a day."Court of Requests." Straits Times Weekly Issue [Singapore] 22 Oct. 1890: 8. Print. A backlog grew but was set right by middle of November 1890 on the return of Anthomisz.Straits Times Weekly Issue [Singapore] 12 Nov. 1890: 6. Print. In 1891 he was appointed to the Board of Visiting Justices, and by December that year was a Visiting Justice for the Singapore Prison.The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) [Singapore] 18 Dec. 1891: 2. Print. A newspaper in May 1892 reported, "To-day, Mr. Kynnersley presided at the Third Court. Since the departure of Mr. Woodward, no official has been appointed to fill his place. The present arrangement is that Mr. Bland sits in the morning and Mr. Hare in the afternoon."Daily Advertiser [Singapore] 14 May 1892: 3. Print. In early 1893 Bland was appointed a Visitor to the Lunatic Asylum under Indian Act 36 of 1858.The Straits Times [Singapore] 8 Apr. 1893: 2. Print. In late April 1893 Collector of Land Revenue Bland was appointed Acting Sheriff of Singapore, vice Kyshe in addition to his existing duties. Sheriff Kyshe had been appointed to act as Registrar of the Supreme Court vice Thornton who departed for Europe on Holiday.Daily Advertiser [Singapore] 21 Apr. 1893: 3. Print; "Government Gazette, April 21." Daily Advertiser [Singapore] 24 Apr. 1893: 2. Print. In mid-1896, T. H. Kershaw having accepted the position of Legal adviser to the Government of the Protected Malay States, Bland took over Kershaw's vacant position at the Official Assignee's Office, 2nd Assistant Colonial Secretary E. L. Brockman acting for Bland at the Land Office.The Straits Times [Singapore] 5 Jun. 1896: 2. Print; "Government Gazette, 5th June." The Straits Times [Singapore] 6 Jun. 1896: 2. Print; The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 6 Jun. 1896: 3. Print; The Straits Times [Singapore] 22 Aug.1896: 2. Print. A few months later, during the absence of Egerton, the duties of Registrar of Deeds at Singapore was added to this. At this time, his substantive position was that of Collector of Land Revenue at Singapore."Government Gazette. 25th. Sept." The Straits Times [Singapore] 26 Sept. 1896: 2. Print. Towards the end of November 1896 Bland was appointed Acting Sheriff and Deputy Registrar at Singapore vice L. M. Woodward, appointed to act as Senior District Officer of Province Wellesley.The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 28 Nov. 1896: 2. Print. In May 1899 Bland was appointed to the Board of Licensing Justices.The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 6 May 1899: 3. Print. === Prisons === In February 1897 Bland was appointed Acting Inspector of Prisons for the Straits Settlements and Superintendent of Prisons at Singapore, Ralph Scott taking over his post as Collector of Land Revenue at Singapore.The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 20 Feb. 1897: 2. Print; The Straits Times [Singapore] 24 Feb. 1897: 2. Print. In November that year he was confirmed in those appointments but was to proceed to Province Wellesley where he was to act as Senior District Officer there.The Straits Times [Singapore] 6 Nov. 1897: 2. Print On 15 April 1898 Bland advertised the availability of rattan work. Baskets, chairs, and various kinds of coir matting made at the Prison were, it was announced, available for sale at reasonable prices, as were a limited number of tennis nets. Limited orders of finer work from the Women's Prison, could be accepted.The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 13 Aug. 1898: 2. Print. In April 1900 he was transferred to Malacca to act as Resident Councillor there,The Straits Times [Penang] 21 Apr. 1900: 2. Print. duly reporting to Malacca upon his return from home leave at the end of October 1901.The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 30 November 1901: 2. Print; The Straits Times [Singapore] 30 Nov. 1901: 2. Print. In October 1903, Inspector of Prisons Bland was once more posted to Malacca as Resident Councillor.The Straits Times [Singapore] 14 Oct. 1903: 4. Print. === Colonial Treasurer === On 1 November 1899 Bland was sworn in as Acting Colonial Treasurer and took his seat on the Legislative Council. His appointment was on top of his existing duties. In June 1904 Inspector General of Prisons in Class II (a) Bland was promoted to the Office of the Treasurer of the Straits Settlements in Class I, vice F. G. Penney. However, Penney was to continue in the Office of Treasurer and Bland as Acting Resident Councillor at Malacca."Gazetted Promotions." The Straits Times [Singapore] 25 Jun. 1904: 2. Print. === Land Office === Towards the end of May, 1886, Bland proceeded to "Qualla Pilah to take up the appointment of Collector of Land Revenue" at Sri Menanti, arriving there aboard the S.S. Pakan on 28 May."Malacca News. Malacca, 29th May." Straits Times Weekly Issue [Singapore] 3 Jun. 1886: 13. Print. While serving as Magistrate at Penang, in 1887, Bland was deputed, during the re-survey of Penang and Province Wellesley, to divide the areas of Province Wellesley to be surveyed, into Mukims. It was at this time that the term Mukim came into use in the Straits Settlements.The Straits Times [Singapore] 19 May 1951: 6. Print. He was appointed Collector of Land Revenue at Penang in 1889. In January 1890 Collector of Land Revenue at Penang, Bland, was appointed Collector of Land Revenue at Singapore, William Evans, then 2nd Assistant Protector of Chinese at Penang being appointed to Bland's vacant position."Government Gazette, 24th January 1890." Straits Times Weekly Issue [Singapore] 28 Jan. 1890: 10. Print. At the same time Bland was also appointed Acting Registrar of Bills of Sale at Singapore.The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 7 Jan. 1899: 3. Print. 1891 seemed, for Bland, to be taken up with the auctioning off of land including the former Hye San Kongsee's property (2,278 square feet) at Upper Cross Street on 15 January, and various other plots sold under Section 8 of Ordinance IV, 188 on 16 April, 17 September.The Straits Times [Singapore] 6 Jan. 1891: 2. Print; The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 2 Sep. 1891: 2. Print. Auctions were also held under his hand on 25 March 1892.Daily Advertiser [Singapore] 4 Mar. 1892: 2. Print. In October 1892, together with Tunku Mahmud bin Sultan Ali, Bland was appointed a Demarcation Officer for that part of Singapore to be demarcated: (a) Rochor Road; (b) Beach Road and Little Cross Street; (c) Jalan Sultan and Sultan Road; (d) Arab Street."Government Gazette, dated 7th. October 1892." Straits Times Weekly Issue [Singapore] 11 Oct. 1892: 6. Print. In December 1898 Bland was appointed Acting Collector of Land Revenue at Singapore in addition to his existing duties as Inspector of Prisons Straits Settlements and Superintendent of Prisons in Singapore.The Straits Times [Singapore] 5 Dec. 1898: 2. Print. === Straits Settlements Postal Service === In April 1886, Dudley Francis Amelius Hervey, Resident Councillor of Malacca, left for Europe on home leave. This created the need to fill his seat on the Legislative Council among the Official Members and gave rise to a reshuffle in the S.S. Civil Service. Edwin Empson Isemonger, who sat on the Council as Acting Colonial Treasurer, moved to Malacca as Acting Resident Councillor; Richard Spear O'Connor, then Senior Magistrate, took Isemonger's place as Acting Colonial Treasurer; Henry Arthur O'Brien, Magistrate at Malacca and Acting British Resident at Sungei Ujong, to act as Senior Magistrate; Edward Marsh Merewether, Collector of Land Revenue and newly appointed Magistrate at Singapore, to act as Magistrate in Malacca; and Hancock Thomas Haughton, newly appointed Acting Superintendent of Police, Licensing Officer (Excise and Gunpowder Ordinances and Act), Deputy Registrar (Contagious Diseases Ordinance) and Coroner at Malacca, to act for Merewether.Straits Times Weekly Issue [Singapore] 27 Mar1886: 2. Print. A similar sort of shuffling had led to Bland's appointment as Acting Assistant Postmaster-General. The position of Assistant Postmaster-General had been held by Noel Trotter who was formerly Postmaster-General at Penang, a post that was subsequently downgraded to Assistant Postmaster-General, who also, at that time, having moved to Singapore for the purpose, was Acting Postmaster- General. Trotter had acted in that role several times in the past for Isemonger who also held the position of Postmaster-General. In July 1887, Hervey returned, Isemonger resumed his position of Postmaster-General and Trotter moved pack to Penang from Singapore, to once again continue as Assistant Postmaster-general there.Straits Times Overland Journal [Singapore] 20 Apr. 1880: 12; The Straits Times [Singapore] 20 Mar. 1883: 2. Print; The Straits Times [Singapore] 12 Apr. 1884: 2. Print. The Straits Times [Singapore] 23 Mar. 1885: 2; Straits Times Weekly Issue [Singapore] 20 Dec. 1886: 8. Print; Straits Times Weekly Issue [Singapore] 11 Apr. 1887: 2; Straits Times Weekly Issue [Singapore] 18 May 1887: 1; The Straits Times [Singapore] 14 July 1887: 2. === Vernacular Schools Commission === Together with Hill and Venerable Archdeacon Perham, Bland was appointed a Commissioner to enquire into the workings of the Vernacular Schools at Penang, under the Chair of the Resident Councillor at Penang, and left for there on 27 July 1893.Straits Times Weekly Issue [Singapore] 8 Aug. 1893: 5. Print. By the middle of September the Commission were in Malacca enquiring and reporting on the workings of the Malay schools in that Settlement.The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 14 Sep. 1893: 2. === Royalist and patriot === Bland had established the League of the Empire, devoted to bringing all the units of Overseas Great Britain into touch, mainly by the observance of Empire day in schools, at Malacca. Upon its inauguration there a Chinese Malaccan Ong Kim Wee founded a fund to provide an annual prize on Empire Day, to be competed for by the English-speaking boys of Malacca. The $600 he gave to this, would produce about $40 a year to be used for the purchase of prizes that the elder boys could compete for. A newspaper reporting on that in September 19006, also noted that Bland, unlike the heads of government at the other two Settlements was not someone to be admired from a distance but had personal relationships with many of the local community who view him as their head.The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 27 Sep. 1906: 4. Print. In May 1907 Bland offered Penang Free School students a $25 prize for the best pupils passing the examination in the history of the British Empire.Eastern Daily Mail and Straits Morning Advertiser [Singapore] 11 May 1907: 2. Print. As he had done in Malacca, Bland inaugurated public celebration of Empire Day at Penang. In 1907 the local populace were treated to a parade by the Cadet Corps of the Penang Free School at the Esplanade."Empire Day at Penang and Kuala Lumpur." The Straits Times [Singapore] 27 May 1907: 7. Print. In May 1908, two thousand students assembled at the Esplanade. The Penang Cadet Corps, and pupils of the Anglo- Chinese Free School and St. Xavier's School were reviewed at the Esplanade, densely thronged by interested members of the local community."Celebrations at Penang." The Straits Times [Singapore] 26 May 1908: 7. Print. By August 1908 Bland was busy taking steps to organise a branch of the National Service League at Penang.The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 12 Aug. 1908: 4. Print. == Health, disease and quarantine == === Rinderpest in Malacca === In 1900, as Acting Resident Counciilor of Malacca, Bland had ordered the slaughter of twenty-eight buffaloes and five cows in order to help check an outbreak of rinderpest that had occurred during the year. He had done this without carefully observing the law that provided for no slaughter unless first examined by a qualified veterinary surgeon and pronounced to be infected with rinderpest. In November that year, the Legislative Council, without any dissenting voices, voted $1,005 to compensate owners of the animals slaughtered by Bland."LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL. Rinderpest Compensation." The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 14 Nov. 1900: 3. Print. === Pulau Jerejak Quarantine Camp === On 5 January 1910 Bland, together with Colonial Engineer F. J. Pigott, Deputy Colonial Engineer C. G. May and Captain Stockley, accompanied Governor Sir John Anderson G.C.M.G. on an inspection of "Prai and the northern district of Province Wellesley, motoring up to Permatang and Bindabari, on the Kedah frontier, where the party crossed the Muda River to Kota, the principal township of Kuala Muda, in the district of Kedah." Having inspected the courthouse, general hospital and police station, they returned to Penang on 6 January, along the same route. On the 7th they proceeded to inspect the works at Pulau Jerejak."SIR JOHN ANDERSON. Inspects Public Works at Province Wellesley." The Straits Times [Singapore] 6 Jan. 1910: 7. Print."Governor's Motor Tour." The Straits Times [Singapore] 8 Jan 1910: 7. Print."Governor on Inspection Duty." The Straits Times [Singapore] 7 Jan. 1910: 7. Print. In mid- May 1907 Bland accompanied Governor Sir John Anderson on an inspection of the site for a proposed F.M.S. Quarantine Camp at the northern end of Pulau Jerejak.The Straits Times [Singapore] 14 May 1907: 7. Print. On 3 June, Bland was back at Pulau Jerejak, accompanied by Acting Deputy Colonial Engineer C. G. May, Colonial Surgeon Thomas Crichton Mugliston, and Superintendent of Works Norman Wilkinson (Wilkie) to inspect the site of the proposed quarantine camp for the Colony and the Federated Malay States, and a new temporary shed, after which they went over to the Leper Asylum to choose a site for a new leper ward.Eastern Daily Mail and Straits Morning Advertiser [Singapore] 6 Jul. 1907: 2. Print. In September 1907 there was an outbreak of cholera and smallpox aboard the British India steamer Teesta, bringing in 3,700 Indian Coolies bound for, among other situations, the many plantations on the Peninsula. About 2,500 of them were landed at Pulau Jerejak, the remaining 1,200 or so, meant for disembarkation at Port Swettenham were taken to St. John's Island. This new influx, bringing the total there to over 3,000 inmates, strained the resources of Pulau Jerejak to near breaking point. The Agricultural Coolies, imported by the Malay Peninsula Agricultural Society, housed in wooden sheds, fed and slept on wooden benches, a situation considered to give rise to the harbouring of germs and the spread of infection."Quarantine Accommodation." The Straits Times [Singapore] 13 Sep. 1907: 7. Print. Bland had had to draw 50 of George Town's Sikh Police to stand guard duty at Pulau Jerejak.The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 20 Sep. 1907: 5. Print. By 17 September things had improved, a total of 900 under detention being released over the 16th and 17th, and it was being proposed to take in 500 passengers from the British India steamer Thongwa, the remainder of the Thongwa's 3,000 passengers to be sent to S. John's Island, Singapore.The Straits Times [Singapore] 19 Sep. 1907: 7. Print. In late February, after nineteen deaths had occurred during its voyage, the Blue Funnel steamer Idomeneus bringing 859 pilgrims from Jeddah, arrived at Penang. 24 pilgrims, including 7 with smallpox, were landed at Pulau Jerejak, the remaining pilgrims proceeding to quarantine at St. John's Island, Singapore.The Straits Times [Singapore] 28 Feb. 1908: 6. In late March 1908 the British India steamer Thongwa, from the Coromandel Coast was ordered to remain outside the Penang Harbour limits. Cholera had broken out and two had died during the voyage. The remaining 862 ordinary passengers and 744 immigrants were quarantined at Pulau Jerejak.The Straits Times [Singapore] 23 Mar. 1908: 6. Print. In May 1908 Superintendent of Immigrants, Lewis Hare Clayton, paid a report on Indian Immigration for 1907 before the Legislative Council. The figures argued for an increase in the capacity that could be managed at Pulau Jerejak. 60,547 immigrants had arrived in Penang from Southern India in 1907, the highest number ever recorded. Clayton's reported noted that the accommodation at Pulau Jerejak had been considerably extended in 1907 to handle up to 3,500 inmates, and that a new and improved quarantine camp, in course of construction on the western side of the island, was expected to be completed before the end of 1908."Indian Immigration". The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 2 May 1908: 7. Print. Apparently this was insufficient. On 24 June Bland called for tenders, to be received at the Resident Councillor's Office by noon 12 September 1908 for supply and erection of steelwork for thirty-two corrugated iron buildings at Pulau Jerejak.The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 31 Jul. 1908: 2. Print. The work took much longer than first estimated. In the first week of January 1910, just a few months before he retired and left the Colony, Bland escorted Governor John Anderson on an inspection of the work in progress there."GOVERNOR ON INSPECTION DUTY." The Straits Times [Singapore] 7 Jan. 1910: 7. Print. On 24 August, Bland received a deputation from the Penang Chinese Chamber of Commerce, comprising Leong Lok Hing, J.P. (Chairman), Lim Hua Cheam, J.P. Lim Eu Toh, Goh Taik Chee, and Yeoh Guan Seok, who wished to address the Resident Councillor on the regulations for the quarantine of passengers. Also in attendance at that meeting were, Dr. Sidney Herbert Reginald Lucy, Acting Senior Medical Officer, Penang, Dr. George Williamson Park, Municipal Health Officer, and Mr. David Beatty, Acting Assistant Protector of Chinese, were in attendance. The Chamber desired the Government to allow any member from an imported port to land provided he produces a certificate of membership, with his photograph affixed; and that its members may be allowed to stand security for the daily appearance of any passenger before the Municipal Health Officer. In both cases, the member guaranteeing his own or any one else's appearance will pay a penalty of $100 in default. The deputation had been appointed to explain to the Resident Councillor the Chamber's request that its certificate of membership should be recognised as a sufficient guarantee to permit of the landing of a passenger from an infected port. Bland requested the deputation to supply further particulars concerning the constitution of the Chamber before giving his reply. They were not heard from again.The Straits Times [Singapore] 26 Aug 1908: 7. Print: The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 28 Aug. 1908: 2. Print. The work seemed to get bigger and bigger. On 18 September 1908, the Colonial Secretary called for tenders for the erection of a reinforced concrete jetty for the new quarantine camp at Kampong Panchor, Pulau Jerejak.The Straits Times [Singapore] 21 Sep. 1908: 12. Print. In his 1910 Budget speech, on 1 October 1909, Governor Sir John Anderson noted that progress had been made with the new quarantine camp at Pulau Jerejak and that it was expected to be finished at the end of 1910.The Straits Times [Singapore] 1 Oct. 1909: 7. Print. It was not. In April 1911, a year after Bland had left, the new quarantine camp at Pulau Jerejak was opened, quietly, without ceremony. It was finally completed at a cost of $500,000."CAMP AT PULAU JEREJAK." The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 10 Apr. 1911: 4. Print. === Surra in Penang === On 22 May 1907 Bland received a telegram from the Police at Balik Pulau reporting that Glanders had broken out there. Bland immediately sent Alfred Martin White, Government Veterinary Inspector, across the hills to investigate. White, whose diagnosis was later confirmed by a pathological examination by Government Veterinary Surgeon, William Henry MacArthur, who identified the bacteria as being the Trypanswomes."SURRA IN BALIK PULAU. Penang Gazette" The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 4 Jun. 1907: 5. Print. On 3 June Bland visited Balik Pulau himself, together with MacArthur. He determined that stringent measures and every precaution must be taken to check the spread of the disease. It was fortunate that the whole district of Balik Pulau, being isolated from George Town by the intervening hill ranges, was suitable for the purposes of quarantine. A few days later Bland had issued an order prohibiting the export of equines, other than bona fide race-horses, from Penang,The Straits Times, 8 Jun. 1907: 6. Print. except under a certificate from the Government Veterinary Surgeon, McArthur.The Straits Times [Singapore], 13 Jul. 1907: 6. Print. == Moments in Malayan history == === Penang fishermen's dispute === In March 1907 Acting Resident Councillor Bland visited the Siamese Western Malay States. Upon his return to Penang he proceeded immediately to Gertak Sanggul at the southern part of Penang Island to settle a dispute among the Chinese villagers there. Some fishermen had cut down several coconut trees on Crown Land leased to one Chinese there in order to clear more space for their nets. After receiving a warning from the relevant District Officer they made an appeal to Bland who determined that more space was needed and therefore allowed for the fishermen.The Straits Times [Singapore], 15 Mar. 1907: 7. Print. === Penang's sampan-men dispute === In 1908, the sampan-men of Penang harbour went on strike. Looking in on the situation, Bland determined the need for a broader and deeper investigation into the complaints of the sampan-men, and the public who complained about their unusual charges. In December 1908, the Government acted on Bland's suggestion and a Committee comprising Judge L. E. P. Wolferstan (Chairman), Harbour Master Commander D. C. MacIntyre R.N.R., and Assistant Protector of Chinese David Beatty was appointed to enquire into the complaints of the sampan men of Penang.The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 11 Dec. 1908: 4. Print. The cause of the strike was, according to the complainants, due to the prohibition of careening and repairing on Weld Quay, and inadequate fares. Launches from the Government Wharves, the Prye Dock and elsewhere, carried on passenger traffic and assisted in loading and discharging cargo."Penang Sampans. A Serious Strike. Launches to the Rescue." The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 11 Dec. 1908: 4. Print. This strike was carried on by sampan-men of all ethnicities. The sampan-men had earlier on been fined heavily for insisting that passengers pay more than the two cents per passenger each way to and from steamers within the inner harbour and four cents to vessels in the outer harbour set down in the Harbour Rules for Sampans. While some viewed this as extortion there were cases mentioned where passengers gave more than the rules called for, of their own accord. The case where a passenger gave 30 cents and the sampan-man was fined $20 is said to have led to the leaders of the sampan-men initiating the strike. The sampan- men found the prohibition on repairing their boats along Weld Quay a hardship and the fares dictated by the Harbour Rules inadequate. The prohibition, apparently came about because of complaints from tongkang-men who were unable to get near to Weld Quay, being obstructed by sampans laid up for repair. The strike was said to have involved 150 sampans."Penang Sampan Strike." The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 16 Nov. 1908: 5. Print. According to reports, on 2 November from thirty to forty sampan-men entered the house of the contractor who supplies the Harbour Department with fuel for launches, and threatened to maim him if he refused to join their cause by stopping supplies. The contractor told them he would not have anything to do with them, and, fearing an attack, collected in all of his coolies, although the sampan-men did not reappear. On 13 November Lim Eow Thong and Goh Taik Chee introduced a deputation of sampan-men to Assistant Protector of Chinese Beatty, whereupon the sampan-men related the hardship brought about by the prohibition on repairs along Weld Quay, and of the inadequacy of the present fare structure. Beaty said he would lay these complaints before Bland. Following that a meeting took place at Bland's office. In addition to the Chinese sampan-men who talked to Beatty, leaders of the Malay and Indian sampan-men approached Major H. Barry de Hamel, the Chief Police Officer, and L. H. Clayton, the Superintendent of Indian Immigration. The Government refused to do anything unless the sampan-men called off their strike.The Straits Times [Singapore] 17 Nov. 1908: 8. Print. The strike ended and the men went back to work on the 14th."Penang Sampan Strike." The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 17 Nov. 1908: 8. Print. Towards the end of March 1909 an elaborate table of fares for use in Penang Harbour was published in the Government Gazette.The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 20 Mar. 1909: 6. Print. === Penang Chong Hwa Confucian School opening === On 8 February 1909 at 12 noon, Penang's Resident Councillor, Bland, officiated at the opening ceremony of the Chung Hwa Confucian High School. Assembled there at the opening of the new $80,000 Mandarin-medium school were the principal members of the ethnic-Chinese community of Penang."Notes from Penang. Philantrophy of Former Singapore Consul." The Straits Times [Singapore] 11 Feb. 1909: 7. Print; "Penang Mandarin School." The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 13 Feb. 1909: 3. Print. Beginning his address, Bland said, "Mr. Thio Tiau Siat was responsible for the building of the new school, at a cost of about $65,000. The site cost $15,000, exclusive of the portion given by the Hok Tek Cheng Sin Kongsi, and the building just opened cost $50,000." Thio Tiau Siat, or Cheong Fatt Tze as he is known by some today, was a Guandong- born Hakka, a Sumatran planter and businessman, Commissioner of Railways for Swatow and Director of the Canton-Hankow Railway, Sole-Proprietor of the Ban Joo Hin line of steamships at Penang, and Chinese Consul-General for Singapore and Vice-Consul for Penang. In 1905, Thio, together with Foo Choo Choon and three others, each subscribed $5,000 towards the inauguration of a Mandarin- medium school in Penang, the classes at that time being conducted at a room inside the Penang Chinese Town Hall, the cost of classes at $500 a month being defrayed by Thio. Eventually, a suitable site was identified and secured and a building erected. The new school, situated at Maxwell Road next to the Anglo- Chinese School there, by that time already had a population of 100 pupils and 4 teachers. Bland noted that it was fitting to have a Mandarin-medium school given that three-fourths of the population of China spoke Mandarin, three- fourths of the population of the Straits Settlements were ethnically Chinese, and that whether Straits-born or China-born, all of them should have the opportunity of learning Mandarin. He commended a knowledge of Chinese Classics to those students in the Colony and trusted that, should they return to China, they would take with them the idea of freedom as imparted to them in that British Colony of the Straits Settlements. Yeoh Guan Seok, on behalf of the principal ethnic-Chinese members present, thanked Resident Councillor Bland and took the opportunity to dispel a misleading rumour. The establishment of the new institution, he said, had no political intent. There were many ethnic- Chinese in Penang who were naturally interested in the place of their ancestral origins, including its politics, but enjoyed the peace and prosperity they experienced under British governance, also taking a keen interest in the activities and achievements of the British government, so ably represented by Bland. The objects of the new school, Yeoh said, were simply to provide pupils a knowledge of Chinese literature and people, with a view to intellectual development and to help prepare them for careers in business. === Malacca's Victoria Memorial Fountain === On 24 May 1905, Acting Resident Councillor Bland officiated at the unveiling of Malacca's Victoria Memorial Fountain. In his address to the assembled, Bland noted that Malacca owed their memorial largely to the action and efforts of the late Lee Keng Liat and other Chinese gentlemen associated with him. "In 1902 the Committee of the Memorial Fund Singapore had invited Malacca to join them in the erection of a Town Hall in Singapore. A meeting was held in Malacca to discuss this, and on behalf of the Chinese Lee Keng Liat expressed a desire to erect instead some local memorial, and stated that some $1,500 had already been subscribed for that purpose. The meeting upon this decided that a fountain should be erected in front of the Stadt House and designs were called for. The designs submitted locally were not generally approved, and subsequently, Messrs Doulton of London were asked to submit one. They did so and their design with some few alterations was accepted, and had resulted in this graceful memorial, which had been erected at a cost of about $5,000.." Bland said that thanks were due to the late Lee Keng Liat and also to C. Garrard (Secretary of the Committee), Doulton of London, and Superintendent of Works Lupton who had supervised the project."Empire Day at Malacca." The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 27 May 1905: 5. Print. === Malacca's Jubilee Tablet === Acting Resident Councillor Bland officiated at the unveiling of a tablet commemorating the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria at Malacca on 2 July 1900. $2,000 had been contributed by the local population to which Government had added $1,500 making a total of $3,000. From its proceeds a scholarship had been established to be won by the best boy in the seventh standard, which was won in its first year by Sit Peng Lock who held it for a year and was at this date pursuing this studies at the Madras Medical College, and in the second year by A. J. Minjoot who was, at that time, doing well in his studies at Malacca."Malacca." The Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser (1884-1942) 3 Jul. 1900: 2. Print. === Malacca Railway === On 1 December 1905, signalled by the arrival whistle of a locomotive's engine, the Malacca branch of the F.M.S. Railway was declared open, Acting Resident Councillor Bland having arrived at 6.30 a.m. at Kubu Station where he met R. C. Fryer, Firmstone, Lupton and Darbishire (the constructing engineer), after which they proceeded to Tampin, arriving there at 7.40. With the extension of rail services to Malacca, it was now possible to leave there at 1 p.m. and arrive at Penang at 6.21 a.m. the following day, instead of taking two or three days by steamer. The project had pushed ahead with speed. The first sod was cut on 9 June 1901 and plate laying commenced October 1904. Malacca's first engine was put together at the Malacca Yard, and steam was got up on 9 November 1904. The rails were joined to the trunk line on 15 May and the laying of 2.5 miles of railway track completed by 1 December."OPENING OF THE MALACCA RAILWAY." The Straits Times [Singapore] 4 Dec. 1905: 8. Print. == References == Category:Colonial Administrative Service officers Category:Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George Category:1859 births Category:1948 deaths Category:Straits Settlements people Category:Straits Settlements judges Category:Governors of Penang Category:History of Penang Category:British Malaya Category:Administrators in British Penang Category:History of Malacca |
This is a list of people who were born, lived, died or are buried in Bournemouth, a large coastal resort town on the south coast of England. ==Before 1900== * Christopher Crabb Creeke (1820–1886) architect and surveyor, shaped the early development of Bournemouth. * Sir Merton Russell-Cotes (1835–1921) was Mayor of Bournemouth 1894–95 * Asia Booth Clarke (1835–1880) sister of John Wilkes Booth, assassin of Abraham Lincoln * Sir Chaloner Alabaster (1838–1898) administrator in China. * Dr Alfred Charles Coles {1866–1944) physician, microbiologist and academic author * Lucy Kemp-Welch (1869–1958) painter and teacher who specialized in painting working horses, including Black Beauty * Frank Searle (1874–1948) transport entrepreneur and locomotive engineer * Reverend Alfred Charles Eustace Jarvis (1876–1957) eminent Anglican priest * Henry Roy Dean (1879–1961) professor of Pathology at the University of Cambridge * Persis Kirmse (1884–1955) artist and illustrator known for her works of cats and dogs * Marguerite Kirmse (1885–1954) artist, she specialised in drawings and latterly etchings of dogs * Harold E. Lambert OBE (1893–1967) linguist and anthropologist in Kenya. * Elisabeth Scott (1898–1972) architect who designed the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre == 1900 to 1925 == * Edna Manley, (1900–1987) sculptor and contributor to Jamaican culture and wife of Norman Manley * Frank Leslie Cross (1900–1968) Anglican patristics scholar * Sir Donald Coleman Bailey, (1901–1985) civil engineer who invented the Bailey bridge * Grace E. Pickford (1902–1986) biologist and endocrinologist * Anthony Blunt (1907–1983) leading art historian and Soviet spy. * Raymond Paley (1907–1933) mathematician, contributed to the Paley construction * Barbara West (1911–2007) the penultimate remaining survivor of the sinking of the RMS Titanic on 14 April 1912 * Terence Wilmot Hutchison (1912–2007) was an economist with an interest in Ludwig Wittgenstein * Melita Norwood (1912–2005) British civil servant and KGB intelligence source * Raymond Blackburn (1915–1991) Labour Party politician, MP for Birmingham King's Norton and Birmingham Northfield * Berkeley Smith (1918–2003) broadcaster and a senior figure in the television world for nearly 40 years * Morley Bury (1919-1999) painter and artist * Otto Hutter (born 1924) physiologist came to UK as part of the Kindertransport, lives in Bournemouth * Ivor Robinson (1924–2014) master craftsman and fine bookbinder * Oliver Frederick Ford (1925–1992) interior designer, served as decorator to the Queen Mother * Sir Paul Leonard Fox, (born 1925) television executive and Controller of BBC 1 between 1967/73 == 1925 to 1950 == * Ken Sprague (1927–2004) socialist political cartoonist, journalist and activist * John Insall (1930–2000) pioneering orthopaedic surgeon, contributed to total knee replacement surgery * Simon Preston (born 1938), organist, conductor and composer * Sir Brian Keith Follett (born 1939) chaired the Training and Development Agency for Schools from 2003-9 * Sir John Butterfill (born 1941) former politician. Conservative MP for Bournemouth West from 1983 to 2010 * Sir Rocco Giovanni Forte (born 1945) hotelier and the chairman of Rocco Forte Hotels * Shelagh Cluett (1947–2007) artist and fine art lecturer * Tom Wise (born 1948) Independent and UKIP MEP for the East of England, former Police Officer, jailed for fraud * Christine Hamilton (born 1949) media personality and author, married to Neil Hamilton * Joe Armstrong (born 1950) computer scientist, author of the Erlang (programming language) * Penny Vincenzi (1939–2017) novelist ==Since 1950== * Digby Rumsey (born 1952) film director, producer, writer, cinematographer, editor, sound recordist and film diarist. * Mark Austin (born 1958) journalist and television presenter, currently U.S. correspondent for Sky News * Marc Koska (born 1961) invented the non-reusable K1 auto-disable syringe * Kimathi Donkor (born 1965) artist of large-scale figurative paintings * Tobias Ellwood (born 1966) Conservative Party politician and author, MP for Bournemouth East * Steve Bolton (born 1967) entrepreneur, property investor, author and philanthropist * Karen Hardy (born 1970) professional ballroom dancer, coach, teacher and adjudicator * Suw Charman-Anderson (born 1971) former Executive Director of the Open Rights Group *Conor Burns (born 1972), Conservative Party politician, MP for Bournemouth West * Danny Tull (born 1977) director and film editor * Stuart Semple (born 1980) artist and curator, uses large scale canvases incorporating text and found imagery * Leilani Dowding (born 1980) former Page 3 girl, glamour model, television celebrity and UK entry Miss Universe 1998 * Chelsea White (born 1990) Page 3 girl and glamour model, photographer, and make-up artist * Romy Simpkins (born 1993) actress, model, Mental health ambassador and beauty pageant titleholder ==Actors== * Henry Howard Paul (1830–1905) American writer, playwright, comic actor and theatrical manager * Gabrielle Brune (1912–2005) actress * Tony Hancock (1924–1968) comedian and actor, Hancock's Half Hour * Charles Gray (1928–2000) actor, Ernst Stavro Blofeld in the James Bond film Diamonds Are Forever * Jan Waters (born 1937) theatre, television and film actress. She appeared in Jule Styne's Do Re Mi * Michael Napier Brown (1937–2016) actor, theatre director, and playwright * Juliette Kaplan (born 1939) actress, played Pearl Sibshaw in the BBC comedy Last of the Summer Wine * Ray Lonnen (1940–2014) stage and television actor, was Willie Caine in The Sandbaggers (1978–80) * James Walker (1940–2017) actor active in films and on television * Julia Lockwood (born 1941) retired actress, daughter of Margaret Lockwood appeared in Please Turn Over * Michael E. Briant (born 1942) British television director, producer and actor * Hetty Baynes (born 1956) film, television and theatre actress, formerly a ballet dancer * Jayne Atkinson (born 1959) English-American actress who has worked in film, theatre, and television * Julian Bleach (born 1963) actor, who is best known as co- creator and "MC" of Shockheaded Peter * Janine Wood (born 1963) actress, played Clare France in the Thames TV sitcom After Henry (TV series) * Alison Newman (born 1968) actress, Hazel Bailey in Footballers' Wives and DI Samantha Keeble in EastEnders. * Christian Bale (born 1974) actor, attended Bournemouth School * Neil Linpow (born 1982) actor * Jack Donnelly (born 1985) actor, played the role of Jason in BBC series Atlantis * Janet Montgomery (born 1985) film and TV actress * Sarah Linda (born 1987) actress and model, known for her work in television, film and commercials * Sophie Rundle (born 1988) actress, portrayed Ada Shelby in the BBC One series Peaky Blinders * Ben Hardy (born 1991) actor, played Peter Beale in the BBC soap opera EastEnders and Roger Taylor in the 2018 biographical film Bohemian Rhapsody * Ben Watton (born 1995) child actor *Millie Bobby Brown (born 2004) actress, portrayed Eleven (Stranger Things) in Netflix series, Stranger Things ==Authors== * Mary Shelley (1797–1851) novelist, short story writer, dramatist, essayist, biographer and travel writer. * John M. Davenport (1842–1913) Church of England clergyman and writer * Harry Greenbank (1865–1899) author and dramatist * Radclyffe Hall (1880–1943) poet and author, wrote The Well of Loneliness a groundbreaking work in lesbian literature * Vera Chapman (1898–1996) author and founder of the Tolkien Society in the United Kingdom * Dilys Powell (1901–1995) journalist, film critic of The Sunday Times for over fifty years * Michael Roberts (1902–1948) poet, writer, critic and broadcaster and teacher * Ron Smith (1924-2019) retired comic artist and writer * Sarah Mary Malet Bradford, Viscountess Bangor (born 1938) author, best known for her royal biographies * Patrick Ensor (1946–2007) newspaper journalist, editor of Guardian Weekly from 1993 to 2007 * Lesley Howarth (born 1952) author of children's and young adult fiction * Mario Reading (1953–2017) author, his novels include The Music-Makers * John Kay (born 1958) poet and teacher, lives in Bournemouth * Susan Nelson (born 1961) science writer and broadcaster and a former BBC science correspondent ==Military== * Major General Charles William Melvill (1878–1925) soldier in the British Army and New Zealand Military Forces * Frederick Charles Riggs (1888–1918) recipient of the Victoria Cross * Cecil Noble (1891–1915) recipient of the Victoria Cross * Wing Commander Hubert Dinwoodie (1896–1968) RAF officer and recipient of the George Cross * Captain Keith Muspratt (1897–1918) First World War flying ace * Captain Robert A. Birkbeck (1898–1938) World War I flying ace * Flight Lieutenant Charles John Sims (1899–1929) World War I flying ace * Brigadier Dame Cecilie Monica Golding, (1902–1997) Army nurse, who rose to Colonel Commandant Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps * Lieutenant Colonel Derek Anthony Seagrim (1903–1943) recipient of the Victoria Cross * Daphne Pearson (1911–2000) one of only thirteen women recipients of the George Cross * Alfie Fripp (1914–2013) Royal Air Force squadron leader, served six years as prisoner of war * Les Long (1915–1944) Wellington bomber pilot, taken prisoner, escaped, re-captured and murdered by the Gestapo * Richard Frewen Martin (1918–2006) RAF pilot and test pilot * Joanna Mary Salter (born 1968) first female fast jet pilot flying the Panavia Tornado ground attack aircraft ==Musicians before 1950== * Sir Charles Hubert Hastings Parry, 1st Baronet (1848–1918) composer, teacher and historian of music. * B. Mansell Ramsey (1849–1923) teacher, organist, amateur composer and amateur orchestra conductor * Jay Wilbur (1898–1968) bandleader, influential in the era of Big Band and British dance band music * Ernest Lush (1908–1988) classical pianist who was best known as an accompanist * Max Harris (1918–2004) film and television composer and arranger. He played the piano and piano accordion * Max Bygraves (1922–2012) comedian, singer, actor and variety performer * Anna Shuttleworth (born 1927) cellist * Colin Eric Allen (born 1938) blues drummer and songwriter * Andy Summers (born 1942) guitarist The Police * Simon Preston (born 1938) organist, conductor and composer * John Hawken (born 1940) keyboard player, contributed to various versions of The Nashville Teens * Don Partridge (1941–2010) singer and songwriter, known as the "king of the buskers" * Zoot Money (born 1942) vocalist, keyboardist and bandleader, plays the Hammond organ * Michael Giles (born 1942) drummer, best known as a co- founder of King Crimson in 1969 * Bob Brunning (1943–2011) the original bass guitar player with the blues rock band Fleetwood Mac * Peter Bellamy (1944–1991) folk singer, founding member of The Young Tradition * Andrew McCulloch (born 1945) drummer who worked with Manfred Mann, Anthony Phillips and King Crimson * Gordon Haskell (1946-2020) musician and songwriter, pop, rock and blues vocalist, guitarist and bassist * Lee Kerslake (1947-2020) longtime drummer and backing vocalist for Uriah Heep, worked with Ozzy Osbourne * Richard Palmer-James (born 1947) musician, one of the founding members of Supertramp * Darrell Sweet (1947–1999) drummer for the Scottish hard rock band Nazareth, formed in 1968 * John Wetton (1949–2017) singer, bassist, and songwriter with bands King Crimson, Roxy Music and Bryan Ferry ==Musicians since 1950== * Pete Thompson (born 1952) rock drummer who has played with Silverhead, Robin Trower, & Robert Plant * Robert Hart (born 1958) rock vocalist and songwriter. He is currently the lead singer of Manfred Mann's Earth Band * Steven Mead (born 1962) virtuoso euphonium soloist and teacher * Caroline Crawley (1963–2016) singer who sang for various bands including Shelleyan Orphan * Simon Hilton (born 1967) music video, concert and documentary director and editor * Russ Spencer (born 1969) television presenter and singer, member of manufactured pop group Scooch * Gareth Malone OBE (born 1975) choirmaster and broadcaster, "animateur, presenter and populariser of choral singing". * Nathan Johnson (musician) (born 1976) film composer, songwriter and music producer * Ben Jones (born 1977) radio DJ and former children's television presenter * Lou Brown (born 1978) singer- songwriter * Amy Studt (born 1986) singer, songwriter and musician * FuntCase / James Hazell (born 1986) dubstep and drum and bass producer * East India Youth / William Doyle (born 1991) electronic musician * Matt Johnson (born 1969) keyboardist with the band Jamiroquai ==Sport== * Arthur Wiggins (1891–1961) rower who competed in the 1912 Summer Olympics * Freddie Mills (1919–1965) boxer, world light heavyweight champion from 1948 to 1950 * Dave Bewley (1920–2013) professional footballer, made 141 pro appearances * Barrie Meyer (1932–2015) footballer and cricketer, later a cricket umpire * Virginia Wade (born 1945) former professional tennis player, born in Bournemouth * John Henry Dixon (born 1954) former first-class cricketer active from 1973 to 1988 * Forbes Phillipson-Masters (born 1955) former footballer who made approx. 230 pro. appearances * Gary Emerson (born 1963) professional golfer * Keith Stroud (born 1969) professional English football referee who officiates in the Football League and Premier League * Masai Ujiri (born 1970) president of basketball operations of the Toronto Raptors in the NBA * Simon Clist (born 1981) footballer who plays as a midfielder, made 379 pro. appearances * Lewis Price (born 1984) Welsh international footballer, who plays as a goalkeeper, approx. 150 pro. appearances * Liam Norwell (born 1991) cricketer who currently plays for Gloucestershire * Yasmin Kaashoek (born 1999) volleyball player * Corey Jordan (born 1999) pro. footballer, plays as a defender for Premier League side Bournemouth == Died in Bournemouth == *Asia Booth Clarke (1835-1888) US born author and wife of actor John Sleeper Clarke, daughter of famous actor Junius Brutus Booth and sister of John Wilkes Booth actor and assassin of President Abraham Lincoln. * John Keble (1792–1866) Anglican priest and poet. lead the Oxford Movement at Keble College. * Solomon Caesar Malan (1812–1894), a British divine, polyglot and well known orientalist. * Lady Georgiana Fullerton (1812–1885), an English novelist, philanthropist and biographer. * John Howson (1816–1885), a British divine from Giggleswick-on- Craven. * Sir John Fowler, 1st Baronet (1817–1898), civil engineer, built railways and railway infrastructure. * Hugh Cairns, 1st Earl Cairns (1819–1885), statesman, Lord Chancellor under Benjamin Disraeli. * Andrew Kennedy Hutchison Boyd (1825–1899), Scottish author and divine. * J. B. Lightfoot (1828–1889), an English theologian and Bishop of Durham. == References == Category:Bournemouth |
right|thumb|upright=1.5|The north side of Whitechapel High Street in 2015 Whitechapel High Street is a street in the Borough of Tower Hamlets in the East End of London. It is about 0.2 miles (350 m) long, making it "one of the shortest high streets in London". It links Aldgate High Street to the south- west with Whitechapel Road to the north-east, and includes junctions with Commercial Street to the north and Commercial Road to the east. For motorists, it is the start of the A11 from London to Norwich. For cyclists, it is the start of Cycleway 2 from Aldgate to Stratford. For pedestrians, it is a route from Aldgate tube station to Brick Lane. "Whitechapel High Street provides a transition between the commercial development pressures from the City and the historic east end communities." The street has many narrow plots with 3–5 storey buildings, rebuilt and enlarged at different times in different styles. It was designated a conservation area in 2007. In 2015 it was named by the Royal Society for Public Health as London's most unhealthy high street, having the highest concentration of fast-food outlets, payday lenders, bookmakers and tanning salons. ==History== Whitechapel High Street follows part of a Roman road, presumed to have continued to Colchester. A major Roman cemetery was located along the street. In the medieval period the street was known as Algatestreet. It was a major thoroughfare to and from the City of London. Settlement in the area probably began in the 13th century. The name "Whitechapel" refers to a chapel of ease in the parish of Stepney that was built in the mid-13th century in the area that is now Altab Ali Park on Whitechapel Road. The church was named St Mary Matfelon, but commonly known as the "White Chapel", referring to the colour of its white chalk rubble walls. Early maps such as the Agas map show that by the mid-16th century the street had a continuous frontage of mostly 2-storey timber-framed houses with fields behind. Remains of the Boar's Head Inn, which included the site of the Boar's Head Theatre from 1598 to 1616, were found beneath the Unite Students building (No 141–143). John Stow's Survey of London in 1603 complained that the street was "pestered" with cottages and alleys, concluding that the "unsavoury" passage to Aldgate was "no small blemish to so famous a city". Morgan's map of 1682 shows "White Chapel Street" extending from Aldgate to St Mary's Church, with numerous narrow alleys leading to courtyards or fields behind the street. Some still remain, such as Angel Alley (No 84) and Gunthorpe Street (No 88). While no buildings survive from this period, later buildings such as No 85 and Nos 91–93 reused their extremely narrow plots, preserving their cramped character. By 1746, Roque's map shows the land behind the street was entirely built up. In contrast to the buildings, the street itself was wide. Maitland's Survey of London of 1756 describes it as "a spacious Street for Entrance into the City Eastward … accommodated with good Inns for the Reception of Travellers, Horses, Coaches, Waggons, &c; [and] a great many Butchers, who carry on a great Trade, both Wholesale and Retail". The oldest remaining inn is the White Hart (No 89) from 1721. right|thumb|Whitechapel High Street in 1869, painted by Edwin Edwards Carey's map of 1795 introduced the modern name "White Chapel High Street" for the part of the street outside the City of London boundary; Whitechapel Road for the western part beginning at St Mary's Church; and Aldgate High Street for the eastern part between the city boundary and the old Roman wall. By 1810 there were 148 numbered buildings. "Whitechapel High Street was lined with coaching inns; the road was full of traffic, carts with garden produce, market women with baskets of fruit, flocks of sheet, herds of cattle, brewers' drays and hay wains for the hay market." From at least 1665 until 1928, in the Whitechapel hay market, farmers sold animal fodder from large carts in the street. In the late 18th and early 19th century the street was lined with 4-storey brick shop-houses, still visible at Nos 65–68, 74–76 and 128–129. It became a traffic intersection. Commercial Road was created in 1802–4 to link the docks with the City. The southern section of Commercial Street was created in 1843–5 as part of a slum clearance programme, and to connect Whitechapel High Street with Spitalfields Market. The Whitechapel to Bow tramway opened in 1870. In 1884 the District Railway extended its underground service through Aldgate East to Whitechapel station. right|thumb|Whitechapel High Street in 1905, looking east towards St Mary's Church As London's population increased during the 19th century,and Whitechapel as a whole suffered poverty and overcrowding, the high street remained relatively prosperous. It shows as a narrow strip of "middle class – well-to-do" housing on Booth's poverty map of 1889. Victorian era philanthropic improvements included the ornate Passmore Edwards Library and the Whitechapel Gallery. Grand Edwardian era buildings remain at Nos 90, 102–5 and 126–7. Many Jewish refugees from Eastern Europe to Whitechapel during 1880–1914 found work in the clothing industry, and the high street became their shop window. Clothing and footwear accounted for one-third of the 144 businesses listed on the street in 1921. The last remaining ones are at No 65a, 88 and 102–5. The largest was Gardiner's department store (Nos 31–35), which opened in the 1870s and was destroyed by fire in 1972. The traffic intersection became known as Gardiner's Corner. In 1936 a fascist march into the East End was blocked there in the Battle of Cable Street. One of the few remaining signs of the Jewish presence is a Star of David on the former Jewish Daily Post building (No 88). Like much of the East End, Whitechapel High Street was extensively damaged by the blitz during World War II. Some buildings were repaired in their original style; others were rebuilt during the 1950s in plain utilitarian style, such as No 83, 87 and 94. Some sites, such as No 97, remained empty for decades. Rising property prices have encouraged repair and rebuilding, and few signs of the blitz remain. One notable absence is St Mary's Church, which was gutted by a fire bomb in 1940 and demolished in 1952. right|thumb|Whitechapel High Street in 1991, looking east on the Aldgate Gyratory In the 1960s the street became one-way as part of the Aldgate Gyratory, isolating the buildings on the south side as far as Gardiner's department store in the centre of a large roundabout with return flow along Braham Street. Large concrete and glass office buildings occupied this area, creating a "sense of desolation and insecurity for pedestrians". The gyratory system was removed in 2008, and Whitechapel High Street became two-way again. Tall office and apartment buildings were combined with attempts to improve the street level environment. ==Buildings== ===South Side=== Starts at: Mansell Street The White Chapel Building, 10 Whitechapel High Street – an 8-storey office building, designed by Fitzroy Robinson & Partners, built in 1982–1984. It has a prominent grid of chamfered mullions and floorbands, with polished granite cladding. The tall storey heights allowed raised flooring to conceal computer wiring. The building was originally known as Sedgewick Centre, and was occupied by Royal Bank of Scotland during 2005–15. Aldgate Tower, 2 Leman Street – an 18-storey office building, designed by WilkinsonEyre, built in 2013–14. It has a curved glass façade over a steel frame and grey columns at ground level. Side street: Leman Street Construction site – planned 6-storey and 25-storey office buildings, part of the Aldgate Place development. The site was once Gardiners' department store. Side street: Commercial Road right|thumb|Central House in 2012 Central House – a 6-storey flatted factory, designed by Lush & Lester, built in 1964–65. It is built in a modernist style with visible reinforced concrete frame and glass bands, and known as the "Aldgate Bauhaus". It was occupied by textile factories and the Cass School of Art and Architecture of the London Metropolitan University. An extension built in 2020–22 will add a further 6 storeys of office space. Designed by Allford Hall Monaghan Morris and inspired by Rachel Whiteread's Fourth Plinth, the extension adds an equal volume that mimics the horizontal banding of the original. 65a Whitechapel High Street – a 4-storey commercial building, built c1897 in Victorian style in red brick with Portland stone dressings. 65–68 Whitechapel High Street – a terrace of four 4-storey 2-bay shop-houses, built in 1853 in Georgian style in stock brick with Portland stone dressings and a gambrel roof concealed by a parapet. It was refurbished in 2010–12. 69–70 Whitechapel High Street – two 4-storey shop-houses, built in 1908–11, refurbished in 2005–10. City of London College, 71 Whitechapel High Street – a 3-storey warehouse-showroom, built in 1983 in red brick, converted to a college 1998. A top floor was added c2020. Ends at: White Church Lane ===North Side=== Starts at: Osborn Street 74 Whitechapel High Street – a 4-storey corner shop-house, built 1828–29 in brick (now painted white). In 2001 the ground floor was converted to a restaurant and the upper floors to flats. 75 Whitechapel High Street – a 4-storey 3-bay shop-house, possibly built in the early 19th century, in stock brick with red brick lintels. It has been an electrical wholesaler since c2002. 76 Whitechapel High Street – a 4-storey 2-bay shop-house, built in 1845 in stock brick with stucco window frames, lintels and cornice. It has been an electrical wholesaler since c1975. right|thumb|Whitechapel Gallery in 2009 Former Passmore Edwards Library – a 4-storey public library designed by Potts, Son & Hennings in Jacobethan style in red brick with terracotta dressings. One of the earliest public libraries in London, it was funded by philanthropist John Passmore Edwards and opened in 1892. It became part of the Whitechapel Gallery in 2009. Whitechapel Gallery – designed by Charles Harrison Townsend in an Art Nouveau style, built in 1898–99 in buff terracotta. 83 Whitechapel High Street – a 5-storey single-bay commercial building, built in 1957 in red brick. The upper floors were converted to flats in 2007. The ground floor is a café. 84 Whitechapel High Street – a 4-storey single-bay commercial building, built in 1957 in red brick. It retains its original triplet windows within thin concrete frames and thick flat mullions. The ground floor is a fast food restaurant. The building steps over Angel Alley. 84b Whitechapel High Street (in Angel Alley) has been the anarchist bookshop and publishing house Freedom Press since 1942. 85 Whitechapel High Street – a narrow 4-storey shop-house, designed as a public house by Bird & Walters, built in 1900 in red brick with stone dressings (now painted white). The ground floor is a nail salon. 86 Whitechapel High Street – a 4-storey 2-bay shop-house, probably mid-19th century, but refronted in 1991 in brown bricks with metal windows and a projecting tiled mansard attic. The ground floor is a café. 87 Whitechapel High Street – a 3-storey 3-bay shop- house, built c1955 with red brick facing and triplet metal windows with thin concrete frames. The ground floor is an amusement arcade. right|thumb|upright|88 Whitechapel High Street in 2020 88 Whitechapel High Street – a 4-storey 3-bay shop and office, built in 1838, in stuccoed stock brick. The building steps over the entrance to Gunthorpe Street. It has been occupied by the menswear shop Alberts since 1942. The Grade II listed metal relief above the door by Arthur Szyk depicts a Star of David supported by two Lions of Judah wielding sabres, and was commissioned by the Jewish Daily Post, which occupied the building in 1934–35. Side street: Gunthorpe Street The White Hart – a 4-storey single-bay public house, founded in 1721, rebuilt in the 1930s, with traces of Corinthian pilasters from the 1830s. 90 Whitechapel High Street – a 5-storey 3-bay shop and office, built in 1910 in red brick. The stuccoed centre bay includes an oriel window with broken scroll pediment above. The building was occupied by Blooms restaurant from 1952 to 1996, and since by the fast food restaurant Burger King. The upper floor offices were converted to flats in 1998. 91 Whitechapel High Street – a 4-storey single-bay shop built in 1862 in stock brick. It is just 3.3m wide. The upper floor offices were converted to flats and a fifth floor added in 2018. The ground floor is a café. 92–93 Whitechapel High Street – two 5-storey shop-houses, one single-bay and one 2-bay, built in 1861 in stock brick. The ground floor shops were integrated by 1990. In 2002 the upper floors were integrated as flats, and an extra storey was added. 94 Whitechapel High Street – a 5-storey shop and office building, designed by Fitzroy Robinson and Hubert H. Bull, built in 1960. It is built in breezeblock in a concrete frame, faced in brown brick with metal framed windows. The building steps over an entrance to a car park, formerly an inn yard. 95–96 Whitechapel High Street – a 5-storey 3-bay shop and office building. It was built in 1902 as a clothing workshop. After wartime damage it was rebuilt in a utilitarian style in 1954 with grey brick facing and metal framed windows in concrete surrounds, retaining the Edwardian canted oriel windows on the upper floors. In 2013 the top floors were converted into flats and the lower floors were occupied by the restaurant Big Moe's Diner. 97–98 Whitechapel High Street – an empty site since clearance after World War II. A planning application proposes a 4-storey infill, also replacing No 101 and restoring No 102–5, with a 15-storey office tower behind. 101 Whitechapel High Street – a 5-storey shop and office building, designed by S.A. Burden, built in 1961 in a modernist style, with reinforced-concrete side beams and floor plates set forward of shallow bow windows. Formerly a bank, it is now a betting shop with student accommodation above. 102–105 Whitechapel High Street – a 4-storey commercial building, built in 1909, including a first floor in cream faience with display windows within semi-circular arches, and two floors above in red-orange brick with plain windows and raised keystones. It was occupied by Woolworths from 1928 to 1960. Side street: Commercial Street right|thumb|upright|The Relay Building in 2020 Relay Building, 1 Commercial Street – a 23-storey mixed use building designed by Sigma Seifert, built during 2008–14. It includes 16 floors of apartments, 6 floors of offices and retail units on the ground floor. It has grey-tinted glass and light grey panels, with a ranked projection on the Commercial Street façade. The building steps over the entrance to Aldgate East tube station. Side street: Tyne Street 122 Whitechapel High Street – a 4-storey shop-house built in 1882 in red brick (now painted white) in a Queen Anne style. The ground floor is an estate agent. Side street: Old Castle Street 126–7 Whitechapel High Street – a 4-storey corner shop and office building, designed by Martin Luther Saunders, built in 1905–6 in stock brick. The ground floor has been a café since 2010, when the upper floors were converted to flats and a 5th floor added. 128 Whitechapel High Street – a 4-storey 2-bay shop-house built in the late 18th century in plain Georgian style with flat window heads. A first floor display window was added in 1928, and a 4th floor flat added in 2007–8. Nevertheless, it "remains the only middling shop-house on Whitechapel High Street to retain a semblance of its late 18th century appearance". 129 Whitechapel High Street – a 4-storey 2-bay shop-house built in the early 19th century. A mansard attic was added in 1876 and rusticated quoins and embellished windows were added in 1910. 130 Whitechapel High Street – a 3-storey former bank, designed by F. G. Frizell and built in 1956–7 in a neo-Georgian style. The ground floor is clad in black granite, and the upper floors are faced in orange-red brick with concrete-framed windows. The building was designed for National Westminster Bank, which closed in 2013. Oceanair House, 133–137 Whitechapel High Street – a 7-storey shop and office building, designed by Philip Nicolle and built in 1937–38 in a streamlined deco moderne style with metal framed windows wrapping around the corner. The upper floors are faced in brown brick (now painted grey). It was the first building on the street to exceed 5 storeys. The upper floors were destroyed by bomb blast in 1940, and restored in 1955. Side street: Goulston Street Construction site – a 24-storey student accommodation building, part of a mixed use development including office and exhibition space, designed by Architecture PLB for Unite Students. Ends at: Middlesex Street == References == Category:Streets in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets Category:Shopping streets in London Category:Whitechapel |
The Mau was a non-violent movement for Samoan independence from colonial rule during the first half of the 20th century. Mau means ‘resolute’ or ‘resolved’ in the sense of ‘opinion’, ‘unwavering’, ‘to be decided’, or ‘testimony’; also denoting ‘firm strength’ in Samoan. The motto for the Mau were the words Samoa mo Samoa (Samoa for the Samoans). Similarly in Hawaiian Mau means to strive or persevere, and is often linked with Hawaiian poetry relating to independence and sovereignty struggles. The movement had its beginnings on the island of Savai'i with the Mau a Pule resistance in the early 1900s with widespread support throughout the country by the late 1920s. As the movement grew, leadership came under the country's chiefly elite, the customary matai leaders entrenched in Samoan tradition and fa'a Samoa. The Mau included women who supported the national organisation through leadership and organisation as well as taking part in marches. Supporters wore a Mau uniform of a navy blue lavalava with a white stripe which was later banned by the colonial administration. The Mau movement culminated on 28 December 1929 in the streets of the capital Apia, when the New Zealand military police fired on a procession who were attempting to prevent the arrest of one of their members. The day became known as Black Saturday. Up to 11 Samoans were killed, including Mau leader and one of the paramount chiefs of Samoa Tupua Tamasese Lealofi III with many others wounded. One New Zealand constable was clubbed to death by protesters following the outbreak of hostilities. The Mau movement's efforts would ultimately result in the political independence of Samoa in 1962 but the height of the movement's activity in the Western Islands occurred in the late 1920s and early 1930s. ==History== Broadly, the history of the Mau movement can be seen as beginning in the 19th century with European contact and the advent of Western powers, Britain, United States and Germany, vying for control of the Pacific nation. The country became German Samoa (1900–1914). ===Formation of Mau a Pule=== A key event occurred in 1908, in a dispute between the German colonial administration and the Malo o Samoa, or Samoan Council of Chiefs, over the establishment of a copra business owned and controlled by native Samoans. The dispute led to the eventual formation of a resistance movement called Mau a Pule on Savai'i by Lauaki Namulau'ulu Mamoe, one of the Samoan leaders from Safotulafai who was deposed by the German Governor of Samoa, Wilhelm Solf. As well as deposing members of the Malo o Samoa, Solf called in two German warships as a show of strength. Lauaki returned with his warriors from Savai'i for battle. The German governor convinced Mata'afa to set up a "peace talk meeting" with Lauaki but that Lauaki had to disperse his army before the meeting. Unknown to Mata'afa was the intent of the German governor to rid of Lauaki. Lauaki, a man of honor, returned with his warriors to Savai'i as they were reluctant to leave Upolu without him. After ensuring his warriors' arrival to their villages, Lauaki returned to Upolu. As it took Lauaki several days to disperse his army, the German governor set up his trap. Upon their return to Upolu, Lauaki and some of the Chiefs were betrayed at this "peace talk", held aboard the German ship. In 1909, Lauaki and the other senior leaders of the Mau a Pule were exiled to the German colonies in the Marianas (North West Pacific) where they were to stay until 1914, when New Zealand took over Samoa as part of its Empire duties at the outbreak of World War I. Many of those exiled died before returning to Samoa. Lauaki died en route back to Samoa in 1915. In 1914, at the beginning of World War I, New Zealand forces, unopposed by the Germans, annexed Western Samoa. ===Influenza epidemic=== thumb|right|200px|SS Talune in Port Chalmers graving dock in New Zealand c. 1890s Military rule by New Zealand continued after the war ended, and in 1919, some 7,500 Samoans, around 22 per cent of the population, died during an influenza epidemic. It was already known that Samoans were most susceptible to minor European diseases, as they had never encountered them before. When the ship SS Talune arrived in Apia with its crew and passengers obviously sick with influenza, they were allowed to dock by the New Zealanders. Two days later the first deaths were reported. No attempt was made by the New Zealand administrators to quell or contain the spread, and after one week it had spread through the whole of Samoa. Whole families were killed, with such alarming speed that corpses lay around for weeks without being buried. They were either thrown in mass graves or left in houses which were torched. However, in American Samoa, where quarantine precaution measures had been adequately taken, there were no deaths. Upon learning of the situation in Western Samoa, the American Governor offered help to Colonel Robert Logan who was in charge; Logan was a Scotsman who hated Americans. He destroyed the telegram and cut off any other contact to American Samoa. The Americans had a large medical team who could have saved many lives. This catastrophic event was to lay a new foundation for discontent with an administration already perceived as incompetent and dishonest by many Samoans. The clumsy handling of Samoa's governance, the slow and deliberate erosion of traditional Samoan social structures by successive administrators, and a general failure to understand and respect Samoan culture also sowed the seeds for a revitalised resistance to colonial rule. Logan was replaced by Colonel Robert Tate. ===Mau leadership=== The groundswell of support among Samoans for the Mau came from the leadership of Samoan matai, the heads of families in Samoa's traditional socio-political structure. Family and chiefly title connections, a central part of Samoan culture, were used to harness support. The success of the Mau in gathering national support showed that fa'a Samoa was still strong despite colonialism. An example of this is found in the many stories of the Mau, in its early days as the fledgling movement began seeking support from matai. One of the urgent matters the early leadership faced was on the question of Savaii, as Pule (the senior orators and polity heads of Savaii) were yet to pledge their unanimous support. The position of its traditional rulers needed attention if the movement was to gain national appeal. The sensitive cultural maneuvering required for such an undertaking required more than the methods employed by those in Apia and so it was decided that Tumua (the senior orators and polity heads of Upolu) would travel to Savaii and ask for their support for the fledgling movement. The fleet of fautasi (canoes) embarked with Upolu's orators on board, led by the matua of Falefa, Luafalemana Moeono Taele, who after resigning his post in the administration's police force, joined the Mau. Choosing to arrive at Satupa'itea instead of the traditional Sale'aula, Moeono met with Asiata and in asking for his support, recalled Falefa's earlier support for the Mau a Pule (a precursor to the Mau Movement led Savaii's orators during the German administration). By recalling this, Asiata was compelled to assist and joined Tumua as they went on to Sale'aula. There, Moe'ono, Asiata and Tumua met with the assembled Pule and called on them to reciprocate their earlier solidarity by joining forces with Tumua in order to further strengthen the cause for independence.Journal Entry, March 17, 1925. Samoans of mixed parentage, facing discrimination from both cultures but with the advantage of cross-cultural knowledge, also played a key role in the new movement. Olaf Frederick Nelson, one of the leaders of the new Mau movement, was a successful merchant of mixed Swedish and Samoan heritage. Nelson was the richest man in Samoa at the time and well-travelled. He was frustrated by the colonial administration's exclusion of native and part-Samoans from governance. Notably, he was one of many who had lost a child to the influenza epidemic of 1919 in addition to his mother, sister, only brother, and sister in-law. Although classified as a European, he considered himself Samoan "by birth, blood, and sentiment." In 1926, Nelson visited Wellington to lobby the New Zealand government on the issue of increased self-rule. During his visit, the Minister for External Affairs, William Nosworthy, promised to visit Samoa to investigate. When Nosworthy postponed his trip, Nelson organised two public meetings in Apia, which were attended by hundreds, and The Samoan League, or O le Mau, was formed. The Mau published the Samoa Guardian newspaper as a mouthpiece for the movement. To demonstrate the extent of popular support for the Mau, Nelson organised a sports meeting for movement members on the King's Birthday, in parallel with the official event, and held a well-attended ball at his home on the same night. Movement members had begun to engage in acts of noncooperation: Neglecting the compulsory weekly search for the rhinoceros beetle, enemy of the coconut palm, thereby threatening the lucrative copra industry. When New Zealand administrators imposed a per-capita beetle quota, many Samoan villages resisted by breeding the insects in tightly woven baskets rather than comply with the orders to scour the forests and collect them. In 1927, alarmed at the growing strength of the Mau, George Richardson, the administrator of Samoa, changed the law to allow the deportation of Europeans or part-Europeans charged with fomenting unrest. This action was presumably taken on the assumption that the growing movement was merely a product of self-interested Europeans agitating the native Samoans. In reality, however, the Mau was built upon the traditional forms of Samoan political organisation. In each village that joined the movement, a committee was formed, consisting of the chiefs and "talking men". These committees formed the basic element of an alternative system of governance, and the tendency of Samoans to unite under traditional leadership meant that by the mid- to late 1920s, around 85% of the Samoan population was involved in open resistance. Following another visit to New Zealand to petition the Government, Nelson was exiled from Samoa along with two other part-European Mau leaders, Alfred Smyth and Edwin Gurr. The petition, which led to the formation of a joint select committee to investigate the situation in Samoa, quoted an ancient Samoan proverb: "We are moved by love, but never driven by intimidation." ===Civil disobedience=== The Mau remained true to this sentiment, and despite the exile of Nelson, continued to use civil disobedience to oppose the New Zealand administration. They boycotted imported products, refused to pay taxes and formed their own "police force", picketing stores in Apia to prevent the payment of customs to the authorities. Village committees established by the administration ceased to meet and government officials were ignored when they went on tour. Births and deaths went unregistered. Coconuts went unharvested, and the banana plantations were neglected. As the select committee was forced to admit, "a very substantial proportion of Samoans had joined the Mau, a number quite sufficient, if they determined to resist and thwart the activities of the Administration, to paralyse the functions of government." Richardson sent a warship and a 70 strong force of marines to quell the largely non-violent resistance. 400 Mau members were arrested, but others responded by giving themselves up in such numbers that there were insufficient jail cells to detain them all, and the prisoners came and went as they pleased. One group of prisoners found themselves in a three-sided "cell" which faced the ocean, and were able to swim away to tend to their gardens and visit their families. With his attempt at repression turning to ridicule, Richardson offered pardons to all those arrested; however, those arrested demanded to be dealt with by the court, and then refused to enter pleas to demonstrate their rejection of the court's jurisdiction. thumb|right|200px|New Zealand police in Samoa during the Mau movement ==Black Saturday, 29 December 1929== thumb|right|200px|Mau demonstration in Apia, 1929 The new administrator, Stephen Allen, replaced the marines with a special force of New Zealand police, and began to target the leaders of the movement. Tupua Tamasese Lealofi III, who had led the movement following the exile of Nelson, was arrested for non-payment of taxes and imprisoned for six months. On 29 December 1929 — which would be known thereafter as "Black Saturday" — New Zealand military police fired upon a peaceful demonstration which had assembled to welcome home Alfred Smyth, a European movement leader returning to Samoa after a two-year exile. Reports of the massacre are sketchy because the official cover-up for the incident was so effective. Tupua Tamasese Lealofi III had rushed to the front of the crowd and turned to face his people; he called for peace from them because some were throwing stones at the police. With his back to the police calling for peace he was shot in the back; another Samoan who rushed to help him was shot in both legs while cradling his head. Another who had attempted to shield his body from the bullets was shot. Two more rushing to help were killed before they could reach him. thumb|311x311px|Mau leader Tupua Tamasese Lealofi III, assassinated by NZ Colonial Police. Shooting stopped at around 6.30 p.m. Eight had died, three would later die, and about 50 were wounded. One policeman had also been clubbed to death. Among the wounded were terrified women and children who had fled to a market place for cover from New Zealand police firing from the verandah of the station, one of them wielding a Lewis machine- gun. In the Mau's darkest period came its finest hour. As he lay dying, Tupua Tamasese Lealofi III knew that a bloody conflict would ensue between the Mau and New Zealand forces as a result of his death. Recognising the need for peaceful resistance if the Mau was to achieve its goal, Tamasese made this statement to his followers: "My blood has been spilt for Samoa, I am proud to give it. Do not dream of avenging it, as it was spilt in peace. If I die, peace must be maintained at any price.” After his burial, the Colonel Allen visited Vaimoso with a troop of special police in a show of force and chastised the Mau leadership. Assembled at Vaimoso were Mau members, senior matai and legions of followers, still mourning the slaying of their leader. One writer recalled how close the Governor was that night to "losing his head", had it not been for Lealofi III's parting words to his followers. Following the massacre, the NZ police continued to use excessive force against the Mau men, going so far as to raid their homes and villages in order to capture and arrest them. This drove the Mau men into hiding in fear of arrest or exile, and so in order to continue the movement, the Women’s Mau emerged days after the men had been forced to hide from the administration. The women’s swift response to the tragic events of Black Saturday was made evident across the Pacific through Mau leader Taisi Olaf Nelson’s telegram to New Zealand’s Labor Party: “...SAMOAN WOMEN ACTIVE ORGANIZING NEW MOVEMENT UNPARALLED IN SAMOAN HISTORY..” The four leading women of this movement were Ala Tamasese (widow of High Chief Tamasese Lealofi II), Rosabel Nelson (wife of G.P. Nelson and daughter of H.J. Moors a prominent European businessman), Paisami Tuimalealiifano (wife of Chief Tuimalealiifano), and Faamusami Faumuina (wife of High Chief Faumuina Fiame and daughter of the late King Malietoa Laupepa). These women, along with the many other women of the Mau, had taken charge, not only of hiding and protecting the Samoan men, but also of continuing the movement’s political affairs such as holding meetings, writing letters of complaint and petitions to the NZ administration, organizing protests, etc. Many scholars of the Mau Movement attribute the Women’s Mau for being key to the success of the movement and the subsequent gaining of Samoa’s independence in 1962. The day after his funeral, his village was raided by New Zealand military police; they ransacked houses, including those of the Tamasese's mourning widow and children. Colonel Allen requested reinforcements from New Zealand after he claimed 2,000 Mau had caused a riot. On 12 January 1930 the Royal New Zealand Navy flagship Dunedin brought marines to hunt down members of the Mau. The Mau, who were fully committed to passive resistance, easily slipped through the bush; the marines were slow because they were carrying too much weaponry and didn't know the bush like the Mau. The Mau no longer trusted New Zealand police, and this fear only got worse after a 16-year-old unarmed Samoan was shot and killed while running away from a marine, whose excuse he thought the boy was going to throw a stone was accepted as an adequate defence and no charges were laid. A truce was declared on 12 March 1930, after another child was killed by New Zealand marines who were now suffering heat exhaustion and tropical infections. The male Mau members returned to their homes, on the condition that they retain their right to engage in non-cooperation. Meanwhile, Nelson and other exiled leaders continued to lobby the New Zealand Government and communicate their progress to the Mau. In 1931, news of the growing Indian independence movement reached Samoa, partially inspiring the Mau movement. thumb|414x414px|Independence Day, 1962. Their Highnesses Tupua Tamasese Meaole & Malietoa Tanumafili II, the joint-Heads of the newly-Independent State of Samoa. ==Moving towards independence== thumb|231x231px|Tupua Tamasese Meaole and Malietoa Tanumafili II and their wives shown being entertained by the mayor, Ernest Herbert Andrews (1873-1961). In the group from left to right are: the Town Clerk (H.S. Feast), Mrs Feast, Mrs Melville Edwin Lyons, the Mayor, the Hon. Tamasese, Mrs Tamasese, Mrs Malietoa, the Hon. Malietoa, and the Deputy-Mayor (Melville Edwin Lyons). After 5 years in exile in New Zealand, Nelson returned to Samoa in May 1933, and continued his advocacy. General Hart, the New Zealand administrator, demanded that Nelson be excluded from any meeting (fono) with the leadership of the Mau. The Mau insistence that Nelson should be one of its delegates. General Hart ordered police raids on the Mau’s headquarters at Vaimoso and Nelson’s residence at Tuaefu, which occurred on 15 November 1933. Eight Samoan chiefs, leaders of the Mau, who were members of a conference of 100 assembled at Tuatuanu’u were arrested on charges of collecting monies for unlawful purposes and engaging in Mau activities. A week later a further 7 chiefs were arrested at Savaii. Six months after his return to Samoa, Nelson was convicted of 3 charges of being connected to the Mau for which he was sentenced to ten additional years in exile as well as eight months imprisonment in New Zealand. The Mau movement had not gone unnoticed by the population of New Zealand, and the treatment of Samoans at the hands of the administration had become a contentious issue in some New Zealand electorates during the New Zealand general election in 1935, which was won by the Labour. Nelson's exile was cut short in 1936. He returned to Samoa, and helped in the signing of the co-operation agreement between Samoan leaders and the New Zealand administration. He was subsequently elected to the Legislative Council in 1938 and re-elected in 1941. 1936 marked a turning point for Samoa, with the election of a Labour Government in New Zealand and the subsequent relaxation of repression by the New Zealand administration in Samoa. In the following years, there was slow movement towards greater involvement of Samoans in the administration of their own country, with a Samoan Parliament (Fono) being opened on 30 September 1936 at Mulinu'u with elected representatives, to supersede the parliament composed of Samoans appointed by the New Zealand Administration. There were further acts of civil disobedience, including a sit-in protest in parliament over the payment of the representatives. In 1946, after the end of the Pacific War, a Fono of representative of the districts of Samoa voted to reject a Trusteeship Agreement put forward by New Zealand, with the Fono stating a desire for self- government. ==1962 independence== When Western Samoa gained its independence in 1962, Tupua Tamasese Meaole, younger brother of the Mau leader Tupua Tamasese Lealofi III and his successor, became its first co-head of state with Malietoa Tanumafili II. Fiame Mata'afa Faumuina Mulinu'u II (1921–1975), the son of another high chief and Mau leader Mata'afa Faumuina Fiame Mulinu'u I, became the first Prime Minister of Samoa. In July 1997, the Samoa Constitution was amended to change the country's name to Samoa, and officially the Independent State of Samoa. ==New Zealand apology to Samoa== In 2002, Helen Clark, Prime Minister of New Zealand made an unprecedented move and apologised to Samoa for New Zealand's treatment of Samoans during the colonial era. Clark made the apology in the capital Apia during the 40th anniversary of Samoa's independence. The apology covered the influenza epidemic of 1918, the shooting of unarmed Mau protesters by New Zealand police in 1929 and the banishing of matai (chiefs) from their homes. ==An American Samoa Mau== The Mau movement was an indigenous opposition to the U.S. annexation of the eastern Samoan islands in 1899, and had manifestations in both the Western and Eastern Samoan island groups. It featured the signing of petitions in efforts to enact political transformation vis-a-vis American colonial government, and included effort to resist taxation of copra. There was an American Samoa Mau that took place in Tutuila in American Samoa in the 1920s. It emerged as a result of fluctuating prices of copra and represented an open affront to the American Navy and its patterns of treatment of the indigenous Samoan people and failure to respect Samoan customs, conceptions of self-government and the Samoan way of life. This movement received a lot of press in the United States, both favourable and unfavourable. The leader of the movement, Samuel Ripley of Leone, Tutuila, was in effect exiled from American Samoa, when he was barred by the US Navy authorities from disembarking from a ship returning to Pagopago from California, and he was never allowed to return to his homeland. He eventually became the mayor of Richmond, California. The United States sent a committee to American Samoa in 1930, including US citizens from Hawaii who had a prominent role in the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii and Queen Lili'uokalani. Their report, favourable to the US position, had a considerable influence on US policy, and the American Samoa Mau was totally suppressed by the US. Its influence however continued to be felt. ==Contemporary influences== A Samoan hip hop group that was founded in 1990 by Kosmo, M.C. Kha Tha Feelstyle Orator and D.J. Rockit V. The Mau was named for the Mau movement. The motto of the group became the same as the motto of the Mau movement: Samoa Mo Samoa (“Samoa for Samoans”). The Mau has now reformed as the group Rough Opinion. The group still carries the message of the Mau movement as their theme. ==See also== *History of Samoa *Colonialism *German Samoa ==References== ==Further reading== * * ==External links== * * * * * * Category:History of Samoa Category:Separatism in Oceania Category:Western Samoa Trust Territory Category:Community organizing Category:Nonviolence Category:Protest tactics Category:Samoan words and phrases Category:1920s in Western Samoa Trust Territory Category:1930s in Western Samoa Trust Territory Category:1940s in Western Samoa Trust Territory Category:1950s in Western Samoa Trust Territory Category:1929 in Oceania |
A fighter-bomber is a fighter aircraft that has been modified, or used primarily, as a light bomber or attack aircraft. It differs from bomber and attack aircraft primarily in its origins, as a fighter that has been adapted into other roles, whereas bombers and attack aircraft are developed specifically for bombing and attack roles. Although still used, the term fighter-bomber has less significance since the introduction of rockets and guided missiles into aerial warfare. Modern aircraft with similar duties are now typically called multirole combat aircraft or strike fighters. ==Development== Prior to World War II, general limitations in available engine and aeronautical technology required that each proposed military aircraft have its design tailored to a specific prescribed role. Engine power grew dramatically during the early period of the war, roughly doubling between 1939 and 1943. The Bristol Blenheim, a typical light bomber of the opening stages of the war, was originally designed in 1934 as a fast civil transport to meet a challenge by Lord Rothermere, owner of the Daily Mail. It had two Bristol Mercury XV radial engines of each, a crew of three, and its payload was just of bombs.Warner, G. The Bristol Blenheim: A Complete History. London: Crécy Publishing, 2nd edition 2005. The Blenheim suffered disastrous losses over France in 1939 when it encountered Messerschmitt Bf 109s, and light bombers were quickly withdrawn.Warner, G. The Bristol Blenheim: A Complete History. London: Crécy Publishing, 2nd edition 2005. . In contrast, the Vought F4U Corsair fighter—which entered service in December 1942—had in common with its eventual U.S. Navy stablemate, the Grumman F6F Hellcat and the massive, seven- ton USAAF Republic P-47 Thunderbolt—a single Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp radial engine of in a much smaller, simpler and less expensive single- seat aircraft, and was the first aircraft design to ever fly with the Double Wasp engine in May 1940. With less airframe and crew to lift, the Corsair's ordnance load was either four High Velocity Aircraft Rockets or of bombs; a later version could carry eight rockets or of bombs. The massive, powerful 18-cylinder Double Wasp engine weighed almost a ton—half as much again as the V12 Rolls-Royce Merlin and twice as much as the 9-cylinder Bristol Mercury that powered some heavy fighters. Increased engine power meant that many existing fighter designs could carry useful bomb loads, and adapt to the fighter-bomber role. Notable examples include the Focke-Wulf Fw 190, Hawker Typhoon and Republic P-47 Thunderbolt. Various bombing tactics and techniques could also be used: some designs were intended for high-level bombing, others for the low-level semi-horizontal bombing, or even for low-level steep dive bombing as exemplified by the Blackburn Skua and North American A-36 Apache.David, Donald ed, The complete encyclopaedia of world aircraft. Noble and Barnes, New York 1977 . Larger twin-engined aircraft were also used in the fighter-bomber role, especially where longer ranges were needed for naval strikes. Examples include the Lockheed P-38 Lightning, the Bristol Beaufighter (developed from a torpedo bomber), and de Havilland Mosquito (developed from an unarmed fast bomber). The Beaufighter MkV had a Boulton-Paul turret with four 0.303 in (7.7 mm) machine guns mounted aft of the cockpit but only two were built.Buttler, Tony. British Secret Projects - Fighters and Bombers 1935-1950. Hinckley, UK: Midland Publishing, 2004. . Bristol's Blenheim was even pushed into service as a fighter during the Battle of Britain but it was not fast enough.Bowyer, Michael J. F. The Battle of Britain: The Fight for Survival in 1940. Manchester, UK: Crécy 2010. . Equipped with an early Airborne Interception (AI) radar set, however, it proved to be an effective night fighter. ==First World War== The first single-seat fighters to drop bombs were on the Western Front, when fighter patrols were issued with bombs and ordered to drop them at random if they met no German fighters. The Sopwith Camel, the most successful Allied aircraft of the First World War with 1,294 enemy aircraft downed, was losing its edge by 1918, especially over . During the final German offensive in March 1918, it dropped Cooper bombs on advancing columns: whilst puny by later standards, the four fragmentation bombs carried by a Camel could cause serious injuries to exposed troops. Pilot casualties were also high.Davis, Mick. Sopwith Aircraft; Crowood Press, Marlborough England, 1999 The Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5. was used in the same role. The Royal Flying Corps received the first purpose-built fighter-bomber just as the war was ending. It was not called a fighter bomber at the time, but a Trench Fighter as that was what it was designed to attack. The Sopwith Salamander was based on the Sopwith Snipe fighter but had armour plating in the nose to protect the pilot and fuel system from ground fire. Originally it was intended to have two machine guns jutting through the cockpit floor so as to spray trenches with bullets as it passed low overhead. But this did not work and it was fitted with four Cooper bombs, instead. It was ordered in very large numbers, but most were canceled after the Armistice. In February and April 1918 the Royal Flying Corps conducted bombing tests at Orfordness, Suffolk dropping dummy bombs at various dive angles at a flag stuck into a shingle beach. Both WW1 fighter bombers were used with novice and experienced pilots. The best results were achieved with a vertical dive into the wind using the Aldis Sight to align the aircraft. But they were not considered good enough to justify the expected casualty rate. ==Second World War== When war broke out in Europe, Western Allied Air Forces employed light twin-engined bombers in the tactical role for low-level attacks. These were found to be extremely vulnerable both to ground fire and to single-engine fighters. The German and Japanese Air Forces had chosen dive bombers which were similarly vulnerable. The Ilyushin Il-2 is a heavily armoured two-seat single-engine ground-attack aircraft. It first flew a month later although few had reached the Soviet Air Force in time for Operation Barbarossa. Naval forces chose both torpedo and dive bombers. None of these could be considered as fighter bombers as they could not combat fighters. === Germany === During the Battle of Britain, the Luftwaffe conducted fighter-bomber attacks on the United Kingdom from September to December 1940. A larger fighter-bomber campaign was conducted against the UK from March 1942 until June 1943. These operations were successful in tying down Allied resources at a relatively low cost to the Luftwaffe, but the British Government regarded the campaign as a nuisance given the small scale of the individual raids. In August 1941, RAF pilots reported encountering a very fast radial engine fighter over France. First thought to be captured French Curtiss 75 Mohawks, they turned out to be Focke- Wulf Fw 190s, slightly faster and more heavily armed than the current Spitfire V. Kurt Tank had designed the aircraft when the Spitfire and Bf 109 were the fastest fighters flying; he called them racehorses, fast but fragile. As a former World War I cavalryman, Tank chose to design a warhorse. With a BMW 801 radial engine, wide-set undercarriage, and two 20mm cannons as well as machine guns it became a better fighter-bomber than either of the pure fighters. By mid-1942, the first of these "Jagdbombers" (literally "fighter" or "hunter" bomber, known for short as "Jabos") was operating over Kent. On October 31, 60 Fw 190s bombed Canterbury with only one aircraft lost, killing 32 civilians and injuring 116, in the largest raid since the Blitz. Flying at sea level, under the radar, these raids were hard to intercept. The Jabos reached the Eastern Front in time to bomb Russian positions in Stalingrad.Bergstrom, Christer (2007). Stalingrad – The Air Battle: November 1942 – February 1943. London: Chevron/Ian Allan. By July 1943 Fw 190s were replacing the vulnerable Stukas over the Battle of Kursk: although winning the air war, they were unable to prevent subsequent Red Army advances.Bergström, Christer (2007). Kursk – The Air Battle: July 1943. London: Chevron/Ian Allan. On New Year's Day 1945 in Operation Bodenplatte, over 1,000 aircraft (including more than 600 Fw 190s) launched a last-ditch attempt to destroy Allied planes on the ground in support of the Battle of the Bulge. Allied fighter aircraft and fighter-bomber losses were downplayed, at the time. Seventeen airfields were targeted, of which seven lost many aircraft. The surprise was complete as the few Ultra intercepts had not been understood. At the worst hit, the Canadian base at Eindhoven, 26 Typhoons and 6 Spitfires were destroyed and another 30 Typhoons damaged. In total, 305 aircraft, mostly fighters, and fighter-bombers were destroyed and another 190 damaged. The Luftwaffe lost 143 pilots killed, 71 captured and 20 wounded, making the worst one-day loss in its history; it never recovered.Manrho, John & Pütz, Ron. Bodenplatte: The Luftwaffe's Last Hope-The Attack on Allied Airfields, New Year's Day 1945. Ottringham, Yorkshire, United Kingdom. Hikoki Publications. === United Kingdom === The Bristol Blenheim and Douglas A-20 Havoc (which the RAF called Boston) were used as night fighters during the Blitz, as they could carry the heavy early airborne radars.Ray, John. The Night Blitz: 1940–1941. Cassell Military, London. 1996. The Hawker Henley, a two-seat version of the Battle of Britain- winning Hawker Hurricane, was designed as a dive bomber. It might have proved to be a capable fighter-bomber but overheating of its Rolls-Royce Merlin engine in this installation led to its relegation to a target tug role, where it could match the speed of the German bombers whilst towing a drone.Mason, Francis K. Hawker Aircraft since 1920. Putnam. London 1991. In 1934, the British Air Ministry called for a carrier aircraft that could combine the roles of the dive bomber and fighter, to save limited space on small carriers. The Blackburn Skua was not expected to encounter land-based fighters but was to intercept long-range bombers attacking the fleet and also to sink ships. As a two-seater, it could not fight the Messerschmitt Bf 109 on equal terms. But the second seat carried a radio operator with a homing device that could find the carrier even when it had moved, in foul North Sea weather. It achieved one of the first kills of the war, when three from HMS Ark Royal downed a German Dornier Do 18 flying boat over the North Sea.Beadle, Jeremy, and Harrison, Ian: Firsts, Lasts, and Onlys: Anova Books, 2008 On April 10, 1940, 16 Skuas operating from RNAS Hatston in Orkney under Commander William Lucy sank the German cruiser Königsberg which was tied to a mole in Bergen harbour. The Germans recorded five hits or near misses and as the ship started to sink, electric power failed, dooming the ship. The German cruiser Köln had departed during the night.Haar , Gerr H, The German attack on Norway April 1940. Seaforth, Barnsley. England 2009. With the failing of the Hawker Henley and the gradual fading of the Hawker Hurricane's performance compared to the latest German fighters, it was modified to carry four 20mm cannon and two bombs; once bombs were jettisoned the aircraft could put up a reasonable fight. Inevitably the type became known in the RAF as the “Hurribomber”, reaching squadrons in June 1941.Dibbs, John and Tony Holmes. Hurricane: A Fighter Legend. Oxford, UK: Osprey, 1995. It was soon found that it was hardly possible to hit fast-moving Panzers in the Western Desert, with bombs and cannon fire-making little impact on their armour. Daylight bombing raids were made on the French and Belgian coasts, targeting mostly oil and gas works. Losses were heavy, often more than the numbers of enemy fighters destroyed. By May 1942 Hurricane IICs with drop tanks were intruding at night over France. On the night of May 4–5, Czech pilot Karel Kuttelwascher flying from RAF Tangmere with No 1 Squadron shot down three Dornier Do 17s as they slowed to land at Saint-André-de-Bohon after raiding England.Darlington. Roger, Night Hawk, William Kimber, London 1985 On September 25, 1942, the Gestapo HQ in Oslo was attacked by four de Havilland Mosquitoes, which had flown over the North Sea below by dead reckoning navigation from RAF Leuchars, Scotland, carrying four bombs each. The next day the RAF unveiled its new fast bomber. On December 31, 1944, the same aircraft was used against the same target, this time from RAF Peterhead in Scotland, flying high and diving onto the building. In February 1941 the Mosquito with two Rolls-Royce Merlin engines and a streamlined wooden fuselage achieved , faster than the current Spitfire.Bowman, Martin. de Havilland Mosquito (Crowood Aviation Series). Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, UK: The Crowood Press, 2005. . It was used on all kinds of missions, including silencing Hermann Göring's Berlin Nazi anniversary broadcast on January 20, 1943, leading him to tell Erhard Milch, Air Inspector General that “when I see the Mosquito I am yellow and green with envy. (The British) have the geniuses and we have the nincompoops.”Hermann Gōring im Gesprach mit Erhard Milch März 1943 Archiv der Luftfahrtministerium Initially used for high-level photo-reconnaissance, the Mosquito was adapted to precision bombing, night fighter, and fighter bomber roles. It was built in Canada and Australia as well as the UK. Fitted with a British Army Ordnance QF 6 pounder (57 mm) gun it could sink U-boats found on the surface. On April 9, 1945, three were sunk en route to Norway, and in the following month, Mosquitos sank two more.Bowman, Martin. de Havilland Mosquito (Crowood Aviation Series). Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, UK: The Crowood Press, 2005. The Hawker Typhoon was being designed as a replacement for the Hurricane in March 1937 before production had even started. The reason was to take advantage of the new engines then being planned, either the Napier Sabre or Rolls-Royce Vulture which required a larger airframe than the nimble Hurricane. At the prototype stage, there were problems with the new engines and stability of the aircraft itself, which led the Minister of Aircraft Production, Lord Beaverbrook to decree that production must focus on Spitfires and Hurricanes.Deighton, Len. Battle of Britain. London: Johnathon Cape, 1980. The Typhoon disappointed as a fighter, especially at altitude but found its true niche as a fighter bomber from September 1942. It was fitted with racks to carry two and then two bombs. By September 1943 it was fitted with eight RP-3 rockets each with a warhead, equivalent to the power of a naval destroyer's broadside.Mason, Francis K. The Hawker Typhoon and Tempest. London: Aston Publications, 1988. Claims of German tanks destroyed by rocket- armed Typhoons in Normandy after D-Day were exaggerated. In Operation Goodwood, the attempt by British and Canadian forces to surround Caen of 75 tanks recorded as lost by the Germans, only 10 were found to be due to rocket- firing Typhoons.Reynolds, Michael: Steel Inferno 1SS Panzer Corps in Normandy Da Capo Press New York, 1997 At Mortain, where the German counter-offensive Operation Lüttich came within of cutting through US forces to Avranches, Typhoons destroyed 9 of 46 tanks lost but were more effective against unarmoured vehicles and troops and cause the armoured vehicles to seek cover. General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander, said "The chief credit in smashing the enemy's spearhead, however, must go to the rocket- firing Typhoon aircraft of the Second Tactical Air Force. The result of the strafing was that the enemy attack was effectively brought to a halt, and a threat was turned into a great victory".Grey, Peter, and Sebastian Cox. Air Power: Turning Points from Kittyhawk to Kosovo. London: Frank Class, 2002. The disparity between claims and actual destruction at about 25-1 owed much to the difficulty of hitting a fast-moving tank with an unguided rocket, even from a stable aircraft like the Typhoon. But soft targets were simpler. When the 51st Highland Division moved to block German panzers reaching Antwerp in the Battle of the Bulge Tommy Macpherson saw a half-track full of SS soldiers. All were uninjured, powerful men over tall. All were dead, killed by the air blast from a Typhoon rocket.Macpherson Sir Tommy and Richard Bath: Behind Enemy Lines. Mainstream UK 2010: The Bristol Beaufighter was a long-range twin-engine heavy fighter derived from the Bristol Beaufort torpedo bomber but with the Bristol Hercules radial engine to give it a top speed faster. By late 1942 the Beaufighter was also capable of carrying torpedoes or rockets. The main user was RAF Coastal Command although it was also used in the Royal Australian Air Force with some aircraft assembled in Australia and by the USAAF.Goulter, Christina J. M.A Forgotten Offensive: Royal Air Force Coastal Command’s Anti-shipping Campaign, 1940–1945:1995;Frank Cass, London: Over 30 Beaufighters flying from RAF Dallachy in Scotland from Australian, British, Canadian, and New Zealand squadrons attacked the German destroyer Z33 sheltering in Førde Fjord Norway. They were escorted by only 10 to 12 North American P-51 Mustangs. German destroyers escorted convoys of Swedish iron ore, which in winter were forced to creep along the Atlantic Coast by night, hiding deep inside fjords by day. Z33 was moored close to the vertical cliffside of the fjords so Beaufighters had to attack singly with rockets without the normal tactic of having simultaneous attacks by other Beaufighters firing cannon at the numerous flak gunners. Twelve Focke-Wulf Fw 190s surprised the Mustangs and Norway's biggest ever air battle was soon raging. Nine Beaufighters and one Mustang were lost as were five Fw 190s. The destroyer was damaged and February 9, 1945, became known as Black Friday. Typhoons were involved in one of the worst tragedies at the end of the war when four squadrons attacked the luxury liners SS Deutschland and the SS Cap Arcona and two smaller ships SS Athen and SS Thielbek moored off Neustadt in Lübeck Bay The Cap Arcona had 4,500 concentration camp inmates and the Thielbek another 2,800 as well as SS Guards. The Deutschland had a Red Cross flag painted on at least one funnel. The previous day the Captain of the Cap Arcona refused to take any more inmates on board. On return to shore in longboats they were gunned down by Hitler Jugend, SS Guards and German Marines. Of an estimated 14,500 victims in the area two days earlier only 1,450 survived.Jacobs, Benjamin. The Dentist of Auschwitz. University Press of Kentucky. 1994. Lexington Ky. The Hawker Tempest was a development of the Typhoon using the thin wing with an aerofoil developed by NACA and a more powerful version of the Napier Sabre engine, giving a top speed of . At a low level, it was faster than any other Allied or German aircraft, but slower than the Spitfire above .RAF Witter February 9, 1944, Tactical Trials Fitted with four 20mm cannon it was a formidable fighter, respected even by Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter pilots as their most dangerous opponent.retrieved from http://www.hawkertempest.se At its debut over the Normandy Beaches on D-Day +2, Tempests shot down three German fighters, without loss. Tempests supported the ambitious attempt to capture the bridge at Arnhem in Operation Market Garden in mid-September 1944. David C. Fairbanks, an American who joined the Royal Canadian Air Force was the top Tempest ace with 12 victories including an Arado Ar 234 jet bomber. === United States === General Henry H. Arnold, Chief of the United States Army Air Forces, urged the adoption of the Mosquito by the U.S. but was overruled by those who felt that the as yet untried Lockheed P-38 Lightning also twin-engined, could fulfill the same role. Although Lightning got its name from the RAF, the British eventually rejected it. Too slow and cumbersome to match Bf 109s as an escort fighter over Germany, it did fly over Normandy as a fighter bomber, where one tried skip- bombing a bomb through the door of Field Marshal Günther von Kluge's OB West HQ. A Lightning squadron also killed Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto over Bougainville in the Pacific acting on an Ultra intercept.Caidin, Martin. Fork- tailed Devil. New York: Ballantine Books, 1983. . The Republic P-47 Thunderbolt was a larger, evolutionary development of the P-43/P-44 fighter undertaken after the United States Army Air Forces observed Messerschmitt Bf 109s performing in the Battle of Britain. It was a massive aircraft built around the powerful Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp engine and weighed up to eight tons with ordnance. The P-47 was twice as heavy and had four times the fuselage size of a Spitfire. Armed with eight .50 in (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns it could outshoot any enemy fighter,Spick, Mike. Fighter Pilot Tactics. The Techniques of Daylight Air Combat. Cambridge, UK: Patrick Stephens, 1983. and as a fighter-bomber, it could carry half the bomb load of a Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress or 10 five-inch (127 mm) High-Velocity Aircraft Rockets. The first pilots to fly the Thunderbolt from England were Americans who had been flying Spitfires in the RAF before the U.S. joined the war. They were not impressed initially; the Thunderbolt lost out to the more nimble Spitfire so consistently in mock dogfights that these encounters were eventually banned. But by November 25, 1943 Thunderbolts had found their true niche, attacking a Luftwaffe airfield at Saint-Omer near Calais, France. On October 13, 1944, a Thunderbolt from 9th Air Force damaged the German Torpedoboot Ausland 38 (formerly the Italian 750 ton torpedo boat Spada) so badly near Trieste with gunfire alone that the ship was scuttled.Whitley, M.J. Destroyers of World War 2, 1988 Cassel, London: The Vought F4U Corsair was built around the same Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp engine as the Thunderbolt, but for the U.S. Navy. Difficulties with carrier landings meant that the first aircraft were used by the United States Marine Corps from Henderson Field, Guadalcanal from February 12, 1943. In its first combat action, the following day over Kahili airfield two Corsairs and eight other aircraft were lost when attacked by 50 Mitsubishi A6M Zeros. This became known as the St Valentine's Day massacre. Despite this initiation the Corsair soon proved to be an effective fighter bomber, mostly flown by the Marine Corps, but also by the United States Navy, Fleet Air Arm and Royal New Zealand Air Force in the Pacific theater. When the British Purchasing Commission invited James H. Kindelberger, President of North American Aviation, to assemble the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk in an underutilized plant, he promised a better fighter on the same timing. The resulting North American P-51 Mustang powered by a Packard-built Rolls-Royce Merlin engine became the outstanding long-range fighter of the war. When Lend-lease funding for the RAF Mustangs was exhausted, Kindleberger tried to interest the USAAC but no funds were available for a fighter; instead, the Mustang was fitted with dive brakes and emerged as the North American A-36 Apache, a dive bomber almost as fast as the Mustang itself. By April 1943 USAAF Apaches were in Morocco supporting Operation Torch, and they continued bombing trains and gun emplacements northwards through Italy.Gunston, Bill and Robert F. Dorr. North American P-51 Mustang: The Fighter that Won the War. Wings of Fame Vol. 1. London: Aerospace Publishing, 1995. ==Korean War== When Soviet-backed North Korea attacked South Korea on June 25, 1950, their forces quickly routed the South Korean army which lacked tanks, anti-tank and heavy artillery. Its Air Force had 22 planes, none of which were fighters, or jets. During a Soviet boycott of the United Nations, a vote was carried without Soviet veto, to intervene in support of the South.Malkasian, Carter, The Korean War 1950-53. Essential Histories. Fitzroy Dearborn London, Chicago 2001. Most readily available were U.S. and British Commonwealth forces occupying Japan and the Pacific fleets. The first arrivals were fighter-bombers, which helped to repulse the Northern attack on the vital port of Pusan, the last small territory held by the South. Some strategists felt that air and battleship strikes alone could halt the invasion.Rees, David: Korea: The Limited War. Macmillan, London. 1964. OLC 602104508 USAF North American F-82 Twin Mustangs had the range to reach the front line from Japanese bases. The last piston-engined aircraft, produced in the U.S., it looked like two Mustangs, with two pilots in separate fuselages, bolted together. Initially intended to escort bombers over Japan from remote Pacific island bases, hence its long-range, it missed WWII and first saw action in Korea.Thompson, Warren E. Double Trouble, The F-82 Twin Mustang in Korea Air Enthusiast, Key Publishing March 2001 Plain North American P-51 Mustangs of the Royal Australian Air Force soon also flew across from Japan. Vought F4U Corsairs and Hawker Sea Furys from U.S., British and Australian carriers in the Yellow Sea and later from Korean airfields, also attacked the Pusan perimeter. The Sea Fury, a development of the Hawker Tempest had a Bristol Centaurus engine of giving a top speed, one of the fastest piston- engined aircraft ever built. Initially, United Nations air forces using piston-engined fighter-bombers and straight wing jet fighters easily drove the North Koreans out of the sky and so disrupted logistics and hence the attack on Pusan. All changed when the Soviet Air Force intervened with swept-wing Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15s flown by Russian pilots on November 1. The planes had Korean markings and the pilots had been taught a few Korean words, in a thin sham that the USSR was not fighting. The MiG-15 used captured German swept wing technology and tools and British jet engines, 25 of which had been a gift from Stafford Cripps the president of the Board of Trade and were quickly copied. Josef Stalin remarked “What fool will sell us his secrets?” The MiG's Rolls-Royce Nene had thrust, twice as much as the jets of its main British and US opponents, which used the older Rolls-Royce Derwent design. Only the Navy Grumman F9F Panther used a version of the Nene and could match the MiG-15, accounting for seven during November.Kay, Anthony L. Turbojet History and Development 1930-1960 The Crowood Press, Ramsbury, Wilts 2007 Daylight heavy bomber raids over North Korea ceased and the Lockheed F-80 Shooting Star and its all-weather variant the Lockheed F-94 Starfire were focused on bombing missions whilst the North American F-86 Sabre was rushed to Korea to combat the MiG-15s. There is much debate as to which was the better fighter. Recent research suggests a 13-10 advantage to the Sabre against Russian pilots, but the US pilots were mostly WWII veterans whilst the Russians were often “volunteers” with only a few hours aloft.Dorr, Robert F. Jon Lake and Robert E. Thomson Korean War Aces. Osprey, London 2005. The Australians converted from Mustangs to Gloster Meteor fighter-bombers, the first Allied jet fighter of WWII but no match for a MiG-15. It was pressed into combat but after four were lost when the squadron was bounced by 40 Mig-15s, reverted to ground attack, carrying 16 rockets. Although Meteors shot down 6 MiG-15s, 30 were lost, but mainly to ground fire.Butler, Phil and Tony Buttler. Gloster Meteor: Britain's Celebrated First-Generation Jet. Hersham, Surrey, UK: Midland Publishing, 2007. Both Corsairs and Sea Furies also shot down MiG-15s, but were vulnerable to the faster jet. ==Post-war== Fighter-bombers became increasingly important in the 1950s and 1960s, as new jet engines dramatically improved the power of even the smallest fighter designs. Many aircraft initially designed as fighters or interceptors found themselves in the fighter-bomber role at some point in their career. Notable among these is the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter, first designed as a high-performance day fighter and then adapted to the nuclear strike role for European use. Other U.S. examples include the North American F-100 Super Sabre and the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II, each of which was widely used during the Vietnam War. ==See also== * Dive bomber * Light bomber * Tactical bombing * Attack aircraft * Multirole combat aircraft * Strike fighter ==References== Category:Fighter aircraft Category:Attack aircraft Category:Bomber aircraft |
Jayant Sinha (born 21 April 1963) is an Indian politician who is the Member of Indian Parliament and formerly the Minister of State for Finance and the Minister of State for Civil Aviation in the Government of India. Sinha is currently the Chairperson for Standing Committee on Finance and a member of the Public Accounts Committee for 2019–20. He has also been an investment fund manager and management consultant. In May 2014, he was elected to the Lok Sabha, representing the Bharatiya Janata Party from Hazaribagh, Jharkhand. In the 2019 general elections, Sinha was re-elected as Member of Parliament from the same constituency with a record majority. Sinha's prior business experience includes twelve years with McKinsey & Company as a partner in the Boston and Delhi offices. At McKinsey, Sinha co-led the global Software and IT Services practice. He was most recently a partner at Omidyar Network. Sinha led ON's overall investment strategy and operations in India. He also spent several years as a Managing Director at Courage Capital, a global special situations hedge fund. ==Personal life== He was born in a religious Chitraguptvanshi Kayastha family in Giridih, Jharkhand, where his father, Yashwant Sinha, was stationed as an IAS officer. In his youth, Jayant lived in Bihar, Delhi and Germany. He was educated at St. Michael's High School, Patna and St. Columba's School, Delhi. In 1980, Jayant passed the JEE while in the 11th grade on his first attempt, and was admitted to Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. He was awarded the IIT Delhi's Distinguished Alumni Award in October 2015. While at IIT, Sinha met his future wife Punita, and they were married in 1986. They have two sons. After graduating from IIT Delhi in 1985, Sinha enrolled at the University of Pennsylvania, and completed a Master of Science in Energy Management & Policy in 1986. Later, Sinha also attended Harvard Business School, and obtained an MBA with Distinction in 1992. ==Political career== Jayant Sinha has participated in Indian politics and policy-making since the 1990s. When his father became Finance Minister under Atal Bihari Vajpayee (1998-2002), Sinha provided policy inputs on several new initiatives such as the mortgage interest tax deduction and the Saral form to file income tax returns with ease and improve tax compliance. Sinha has been active in Hazaribagh, assisting his father's election campaigns since 1998. He has also worked on a variety of projects in Hazaribagh and Ramgarh districts such as fostering self-help groups, distributing solar lanterns, improving drinking water quality, and getting village roads built. During the 2014 election campaign, Sinha worked with Prime Minister Narendra Modi to help frame national economic policy, including organizing and hosting an international business leaders' forum with Mr. Modi in February 2014. Sinha has been an active contributor to the BJP's efforts to develop new campaign management technologies and systems. In 2014, Sinha contested Lok Sabha elections from the Hazaribagh seat in his home state of Jharkhand. He won the elections with a huge margin of 1,59,128 votes, getting a total of 4,06,931 in his favour. After joining parliament, Sinha was a member of four parliamentary committees - Public Accounts Committee, Standing Committee on Finance and Subordinate Committee on Legislation and of the Consultative Committee for the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology. In 2019, Sinha contested for the second time from Hazaribagh constituency and registered 728,798 votes out of the 1,070,929 votes cast. ==Ministerial career== ===Ministry of Finance=== Sinha was sworn-in as Minister of State in the Union Council of Ministers on 9 November 2014. Subsequently, he assumed charge at the Ministry of Finance in the Indian Government, working with Finance Minister Arun Jaitley. There, he helped in driving landmark initiatives such as PM Mudra Yojana, Social Security Platform, devising the Indradhanush package for public sector banks, launching the India Aspiration Fund to promote entrepreneurship, and strengthening India's capital markets.https://alumni.iitd.ac.in/home/index.php/2015/11/19/mr-jayant-sinha/ He piloted key legislations, namely the Insurance Bill, Bankruptcy Bill, Negotiable Instruments Act and Regional Rural Banks Bill in the Parliament. He also helped in preparing the Union Budgets of 2015-16 and 2016–17, which were widely hailed as two of the most significant and visionary budgets in recent years. Sinha is often credited with devising and driving innovative financing institutions, such as the National Infrastructure and Investment Fund, Long Term Irrigation Fund, India Aspiration Fund and Higher Education Financing Agency. ===Ministry of Civil Aviation=== thumb|Sinha, as Minister of State for Civil Aviation, addressing the inaugural session of the 187th Annual General Meeting of Calcutta Chamber of Commerce, October 01, 2018. After the Ministry of Finance, Sinha moved to the Ministry of Civil Aviation on 6 July 2016. His appointment came just after the government unveiled the first-ever National Civil Aviation Policy (NCAP). His work in the Ministry of Civil Aviation has been widely appreciated and has led to the complete transformation of India's aviation ecosystem. India is now the world's third largest domestic aviation market and has seen 50 months of unprecedented double digit passenger growth. It is the fastest-growing large aviation market in the world. The Regional Connectivity Scheme was formulated under Sinha's guidance and is the flagship scheme of the NCAP. On 27 April 2017, PM Narendra Modi launched the Regional Connectivity Scheme UDAN (Ude Desh ka Aam Nagrik) scheme from the Jubbarhatti airport in Shimla. At the launch of the scheme, Mr Sinha said the citizens would reap the benefit of development of remote areas, enhance trade and commerce and more tourism expansion. UDAN has already added more than 35 airports to the existing 70 operational airports thus dramatically expanding the Indian aviation network and bringing air travel to Tier 2 and 3 cities such as Bikaner, Adhampur, and Kanpur. UDAN operates at three levels to ensure route profitability: reducing operating costs as much as possible, providing a market discovered subsidy for half the seats and guaranteeing a three-year exclusivity on routes. The second bidding round (UDAN 2) prioritized helicopters leading to bids for more than 50 heliports in hilly areas and islands. The focus in UDAN 3 is on tourism destinations such as Kajuraho and on international routes for cities such as Guwahati. The air traveller experience has been transformed during Sinha's tenure. He worked with security and customs agencies to reduce the use of unnecessary forms, eliminate baggage stamping, and enable e-boarding. Sinha developed the innovative AirSewa grievance redressal and flight information mobile app. With this app, air passengers can register their complaints about any member of the aviation ecosystem including airlines, airports, security, immigration, or customs. Passengers get an acknowledgement of their complaint and the government monitors satisfactory closure of their complaint. He has been a strong propagator of using technology to connect to the people directly and AirSewa concept originated from his handling of passenger grievances on various social media channels. Under his leadership, a Passenger Charter has been released to strengthen and formalize passenger rights. A first of its kind safety-oriented National No-Fly list has been formulated to prevent unruly behaviour during flights bringing down such incidents sharply. Sinha led the preparation of the NABH (Next Gen Airports for BHarat) Nirmaan program which was announced in Budget FY 18-19 and aims to strengthen airport infrastructure for a billion passenger trips. This would represent a five-fold capacity increase from the approximately 200 million trips in FY 17-18. He has been instrumental in introducing a revised public-private-partnership model for airport privatization and six airports have been offered for PPP. As part of the NABH Nirmaan program, over $15 billion of airport investments are currently underway in India. To ensure that Indian airports reflect local art and culture, Sinha worked with the Airports Authority of India to constitute a Design Council comprising India's top architects and artists. The Design Council provides a Design Brief incorporating a strong ‘sense of place’ for the design of airport terminals. This has resulted in much-praised terminal designs in Lucknow, Agartala, Leh, Chennai, Patna, and so on. Sinha also played a crucial role in conceptualising the framework for the strategic privatization of Air India including the creation of an innovative SPV structure to manage Air India's non-core assets. Sinha has also worked with the Air India Board to formulate the MaharajahDirect strategy for Air India to become a competitive global airline. Sinha led the formulation of the DigiYatra technology standards which brings together the aviation sector to implement a digital ecosystem for seamless, all-digital travel across all Indian airports and airlines. DigiYatra is being implement in Bengaluru airport in January 2019 and several AAI airports in March 2019. This is the first national digital traveller system in the world and is being studied for implementation in other countries as well. Sinha chairs the Drone Task Force and led the efforts to introduce India's world-leading drone regulations, which are based on his DigitalSky framework. The next set of drone regulations are intended to expand drone usage to cross the Beyond Visual Line of Sight (BVLOS), payload, and automation thresholds. The DigitalSky framework went live on 1 December 2018. The goal of the Drone Task Force is to ensure that India becomes a world leader in the design, manufacture, and safe usage of drones. In October 2016 Jayant Sinha signed an MoU between the Ministry of Civil Aviation and the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship for training of people in the various trades associated with the civil aviation sector to meet the potential of 60 lakh jobs in the next ten years. Later on 28 February 2017, MoS for Civil Aviation Jayant Sinha inaugurated India's first ever integrated heliport in Rohini, New Delhi along with the then Union Minister for Civil Aviation Ashok Gajapathi Raju. On September 2018 Jayant Sinha announced the digital sky policy that will enable the government of India to digitise the entire sky and control the drone ecosystem. This policy under the tenure of Jayant Sinha was in two phases. In the first phase, the platform will register pilots, devices and services providers. The second phase will include automation, bi-modal control and setting up of dedicated air corridors. Jayant Sinha Minister of State for Civil Aviation added that once we digitise the sky, we will be able to give people rights to use certain slices of it for some period of time. Industry experts believed that the policy has broken new ground with digital sky platform and NPNT (no permission, no take-off). ==Development of Hazaribagh== On 23 February 2017 MP from Hazaribagh Jayant Sinha laid the foundation stone for three medical colleges in Dumka, Palamau and Hazaribagh along with the Chief Minister of Jharkhand Mr. Raghubar Das. ==Professional career== After his graduation from Harvard Business School, Sinha joined McKinsey & Company in Boston, and was elected Partner in 1999. At McKinsey, Sinha co‐led the Global Software & IT Services Practice. Sinha returned to India in 2002 with McKinsey, before leaving to join Courage Capital, a global special- situations hedge fund, to lead their India tech and investing efforts. After Courage Capital, Sinha joined Omidyar Network, founded by Pam and Pierre Omidyar. Till December 2013, he was a partner at ON and the Managing Director of Omidyar Network India Advisors. He also served on Omidyar Network's five - member global executive committee. During his time there, Omidyar's India portfolio grew to over 35 companies and organizations totaling investments worth over $100 million. He also helped in funding the Indian Impact Investing Council. Sinha has served on the boards of several companies and organizations, including Daily Hunt, d.light, iMerit and Janaagraha. He was invited to serve on the International Advisory Board of the International Finance Corporation, Washington DC. ==In the media== Sinha has been quoted widely in the global media for his views on business and economic policy, including in The Economist, the Wall Street Journal, Business Week, the New York Times, CNN, Bloomberg, and CNBC. His essays and op-eds have been published in several major publications, including the Harvard Business Review and the Financial Times. Articles written by Jayant Sinha, such as the Paradox of Fast Growth Tigers in the McKinsey Quarterly 'Strategies That Fit Emerging Markets' in the Harvard Business Review and 'It is time for India to rein in its robber barons' in the Financial Times have widely been quoted in scholarly works and are used as reference material in business schools. In November 2017 an investigation conducted by the International Consortium of Investigative Journalism cited his name in the list of politicians named in "Paradise Papers" allegations. == Social media == In 2018, Jayant Sinha triggered controversy by allegedly garlanding 8 lynching convicts who murdered a Muslim. His father, Yashwant Sinha, criticised his actions publicly in multiple platforms. Sinha got involved in this matter in April 2018 after the Fast-Track Court sentenced all 11 adult accused to life imprisonment for murder on 21 March 2018. He and local BJP leaders had provided the accused the legal assistance and eight of them were released on bail on 4 July 2018 after spending a year in jail. The Hon'ble Ranchi High Court, which is the first court of appeal, has suspended the sentence of the eight accused and released them on bail while admitting their case. High Court order, inter alia, reads: "...it is only apparent that the appellants were the members of the mob, and in view of lack of evidence of specific assault against them, we are inclined to release the appellants on bail".https://indiankanoon.org/doc/185512325/ Sinha restated his position immediately through a series of tweets, explaining that (a) he condemned all violence and vigilantism; (b) the rule of law is supreme; (c) the guilty should be punished, but the innocent should get justice as well; and (d) he did not, in any way, condone vigilantism, and sincerely regretted if that's the impression that he gave. Through his media interviews, Sinha has repeatedly stated that his intervention is the matter was not to condone vigilantism but to ensure justice for all. ==References== == External links == * Jayant Sinha - Profile Category:India MPs 2014–2019 Category:Indian management consultants Category:IIT Delhi alumni Category:Harvard Business School alumni Category:University of Pennsylvania alumni Category:1963 births Category:Living people Category:People from Bihar Category:People from Hazaribagh district Category:Lok Sabha members from Jharkhand Category:McKinsey & Company people Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Jharkhand Category:Narendra Modi ministry Category:India MPs 2019–present Category:People named in the Paradise Papers |
Pseudouridine (abbreviated by the Greek letter psi- Ψ) is an isomer of the nucleoside uridine in which the uracil is attached via a carbon-carbon instead of a nitrogen-carbon glycosidic bond. (In this configuration, uracil is sometimes referred to as 'pseudouracil'.) Pseudouridine is the most abundant RNA modification in cellular RNA. After transcription and following synthesis, RNA can be modified with over 100 chemically distinct modifications. These can potentially regulate RNA expression post-transcriptionally, in addition to the four standard nucleotides and play a variety of roles in the cell including translation, localization and stabilization of RNA. Pseudouridine, being one of them, is the C5-glycoside isomer of uridine that contains a C-C bond between C1 of the ribose sugar and C5 of uracil, rather than usual C1-N1 bond found in uridine. The C-C bond gives it more rotational freedom and conformational flexibility. In addition, pseudouridine has an extra hydrogen bond donor at the N1 position. Also known as 5-ribosyluracil, pseudouridine is a ubiquitous yet enigmatic constituent of structural RNAs (transfer, ribosomal, small nuclear (snRNA) and small nucleolar). Recently it has also been discovered in coding RNA. Being the most abundant, it is found in all 3 phylogenetic domains of life and was the first to be discovered. Pseudouridine accounts for 4% of the nucleotides in the yeast tRNA . This base modification is able to stabilize RNA and improve base-stacking by forming additional hydrogen bonds with water through its extra imino group. There are 11 pseudouridines in the Escherichia coli rRNA, 30 in yeast cytoplasmic rRNA and a single modification in mitochondrial 21S rRNA and about 100 pseudouridines in human rRNA indicating that the extent of pseudouridylation increases with the complexity of an organism . Pseudouridine was also detected in Leishmania donovani genome. 18 pseudouridine modification sites were detected in the peptidyl transferase entry site and in the mRNA entry tunnel in protein translation. These modifications in the parasite lead to increased protein synthesis and growth rate. Pseudouridine in rRNA and tRNA has been shown to fine-tune and stabilize the regional structure and help maintain their functions in mRNA decoding, ribosome assembly, processing and translation. Pseudouridine in snRNA has been shown to enhance spliceosomal RNA-pre-mRNA interaction to facilitate splicing regulation. center|thumb|318x318px|Pseudouridine is biosynthesized from uridine via the action of Ψ synthases. == Effects and modification on different RNA == === tRNA === thumb|upright=1.0|A tRNAAla from S. cerevisiae. Pseudouridine = Ψ|alt=Ψ is ubiquitous in this class of RNAs and facilitates common tRNA structural motifs. One such structural motif is the TΨC stem loop which incorporates Ψ55. Ψ is commonly found in the D stem and anticodon stem and loop of tRNAs from each domain. In each structural motif the unique physicochemical properties of Ψ stabilize structures that would not be possible with the standard U. During translation Ψ modulates interactions of tRNA molecules with rRNAs and mRNAs. Ψ and other modified nucleotides affect the local structure of the tRNA domains they are found in without impacting the overall fold of the RNA. In the anticodon stem-loop (ASL) Ψ seems critical for proper binding of tRNAs to the ribosome. Ψ stabilizes the dynamic structure of the ASL and promotes stronger binding to the 30S ribosome. The stabilized conformation of the ASL helps maintain correct anticodon-codon pairings during translation. This stability may increase translational accuracy by decreasing the rate of peptide bond formation and allowing for more time for incorrect codon-anticodon pairs to be rejected. Despite Ψ’s role in local structure stabilization, pseudouridylation of tRNA is not essential for cell viability and is not usually required for aminoacylation. === mRNA === Ψ is also found in mRNAs which are the template for protein synthesis. Ψ residues in mRNA can affect the coding specificity of stop codons UAA, UGA, and UAG. In these stop codons both a U→Ψ modification and a U→C mutation both promote nonsense suppression. In the SARS-CoV2 vaccine from BioNTech/Pfizer, also known as BNT162b2, tozinameran or Comirnaty, all U's have been substituted with N1-methylpseudouridine, a nucleoside related to Ψ that contains a methyl group added to N1 atom. === rRNA === Ψ is found in the large and small ribosomal subunits of all domains of life and their organelles. In the ribosome Ψ residues cluster in domains II, IV, and V and stabilize RNA-RNA and/or RNA-protein interactions. The stability afforded by Ψ may assist rRNA folding and ribosome assembly. Ψ may also influence the stability of local structures which impact the speed and accuracy of decoding and proofreading during translation. === snRNA === Ψ is found in the major spliceosomal snRNAs of eukaryotes. Ψ residues in snRNA are often phylogenetically conserved, but have some variations across taxa and organisms. The Ψ residues in snRNAs are normally located in regions that participate in RNA-RNA and/or RNA-protein interactions involved in the assembly and function of the spliceosome. Ψ residues in snRNAS contribute to the proper folding and assembly of the spliceosome which is essential for pre-mRNA processing. == Pseudouridine synthase proteins == Pseudouridine are RNA modifications that are done post- transcription, so after the RNA is formed . The proteins that do this modification are called Pseudouridine Synthases or PUS. PUS proteins are found in all kingdoms of life. Most research has been done on how PUS proteins modify tRNA, so mechanisms involving snRNA, and mRNA are not clearly defined. PUS proteins can vary on RNA specificity, structure, and isomerization mechanisms. The different structures of PUS are divided into 5 families. The families share the active sequence and important structural motifs. === TruA === TruA domain modifies a variety of different places in tRNA, snRNA, and mRNA. The mechanism of isomerization of uridine is still being talked about in this family. thumb|Pseudouridine synthase bound with tRNA. PUS 1 is located in the nucleus and modifies tRNA at different locations, U44 of U2 snRNA, and U28 of U6 snRNA. Studies found that PUS 1 expression increased during environmental stress and is important for regulating the splicing of RNA. Also, that PUS 1 is necessary for taking the tRNA made in the nucleus and sending them to the cytoplasm. PUS 2 is very similar to PUS 1, but located in the mitochondria and only modifies U27 and U28 of mito-tRNA. This protein modifies the mitochondrial tRNA, which has a lesser amount of pseudouridine modifications compared to other tRNAs. Unlike most mitochondria located protein, PUS 2 has not been found to have a mitochondrial targeting signal or MTS. PUS 3 is a homolog to PUS 1, but modifies different places of the tRNA (U38/39) in the cytoplasm and mitochondrial. This protein is the most conserved of the TruA family. A decrease in modifications made by PUS 3 was found when the tRNA structure of improperly folded. Along with tRNA the protein targets ncRNA and mRNA, further research is still needed as to the importance of this modification. PUS 3 along with PUS 1 modify the steroid activator receptor in humans. === TruB === The TruB family only contains PUS 4 located in the mitochondrial and nucleus. PUS 4 modification is heavily conserved located in the U55 in the elbow of the tRNA. The human form of PUS 4 is actually missing a binding domain called PUA or pseudouridine synthase and archaeosine trans-glycosylase. PUS 4 has a sequence specificity for T-loop part of the tRNA. Preliminary data of PUS4 modifying mRNA, but more research is needed to confirm. Also binds to a specific Brome Mosaic Virus, which is a plant-infecting RNA virus. === TruD === TruD is able to modify a variety of RNA, and it is unclear how these different RNA substrates are recognized. PUS 7 modifies U2 snRNA at the position 35 and this modification will increase when the cells are in heat shock. Another modification is cytoplasmic tRNA in position 13, and position 35 in pre-tRNATyr. PUS 7 modifies almost specificity does not depend on the type of RNA as mRNA show pseudouridylated by PUS 7. Recognize this the sequence of the RNA, UGUAR with the second U being the nucleotide that will be modified. The pseudouridylation of mRNA by PUS 7 increases during heat shock, because the protein moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. The modification is thought to increase the stability of mRNA during heat shock before the RNA goes to the nucleus or mitochondria, but more studies are needed. === RluA === The RluA domain of these proteins can identify the substrate through a different protein binding to the substrate and then particular bonds to the RluA domain. PUS 5 is not well studied and located pseudouridine synthase and similar to Pus 2 does not have a mitochondrial signal targeting sequence. The protein modifies U2819 of mitochondrial 21S rRNA. Also suspected that Pus 5 modifies some Uridines in the mRNA, but again more data is needed to confirm. PUS 6 has one that only modifies U31 of cytoplasmic and mitochondrial tRNA. Pus 6 is also known to modify mRNA. PUS 8 also known as Rib2 modifies cytoplasmic tRNA at position U32. On the C-terminus there is a DRAP-deaminase domain related to the biosynthesis of riboflavin. The RluA and DRAP or deaminase domain related to riboflavin synthase have completely separate functions in the protein and it is not known whether they interact with each other. PUS 8 is necessary in yeast, but that is suspected to be related to the riboflavin synthesis and not the pseudouridine modification. PUS 9 and PUS 8 catalyze the same position in mitochondrial tRNA instead of cytoplasmic. It is the only PUS protein that contains a mitochondrial targeting signal domain on the N-terminus. Studies suspect that PUS 9 can modify mRNAs, which would mean less substrate specificity. === RsuA === == Techniques in genome sequencing for pseudouridine == Pseudouridine can be identified through a multitude of different techniques. A common technique to identify modifications in RNA and DNA is Liquid Chromatography with Mass Spectrometry or LC-MS. Mass spectrometry separates molecules by the mass and charge. While uridine and pseudouridine have the same mass, but have different charges. Liquid chromatography works by retention time, which has to do with leaving the column. A chemical way to identify pseudouridine uses a compound called CMC or N-cyclohexyl-N′-β-(4-methylmorpholinium) ethylcarbodiimide to specifically label and distinguish Uridine from Pseudouridine. CMC will bond both with Pseudouridine and Uridine, but holds tighter to the former, because of the third nitrogen able to form hydrogen bond. CMC bound to pseudouridine can then be imaged by tagging a signaling molecule. This method is still being worked on to become high-throughput. == Medical relevance of pseudouridine == Pseudouridine exerts a subtle but significant influence on the nearby sugar- phosphate backbone and also enhances base stacking. These effects may underlie the biological role of most, but perhaps not all of the pseudouridine residues in RNA. Certain genetic mutants lacking specific pseudouridine residues in tRNA or rRNA exhibit difficulties in translation, display slow growth rates, and fail to compete effectively with wild-type strains in mixed culture. Pseudouridine modifications are also implicated in human diseases such as mitochondrial myopathy and sideroblastic anemia (MLASA) and Dyskeratosis congenita. Dyskeratosis congenita and Hoyeraal-Hreidarsson syndrome are two rare inherited syndromes caused by mutations in DKC1, the gene encoding for the pseudouridine synthase dyskerin. Pseudouridines have been recognized as regulators of viral latency processes in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections. Pseudouridylation has also been associated with the pathogenesis of maternally inherited diabetes and deafness (MIDD). In particular, a point mutation in a mitochondrial tRNA seems to prevent the pseudouridylation of one nucleotide, thus altering the tRNA tertiary structure. This may lead to higher tRNA instability, causing deficiencies in mitochondrial translation and respiration. === Vaccines === When pseudouridine is used in place of uridine in synthetic mRNA, the modified mRNA molecule arouses less response from Toll- like receptors, a part of the human immune system that would otherwise identify the mRNA as unwelcome. This makes pseudouridine useful in mRNA vaccines, including the mRNA COVID-19 vaccines. This property of pseudouridine was discovered by Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman in 2005. N1-Methylpseudouridine provides even less innate immune response than Ψ, as well as improving translation capacity. Both Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna mRNA vaccines therefore use N1-Methylpseudouridine rather than Ψ. ==See also== *Pseudouridine kinase *TRNA-pseudouridine synthase *PUS1 ==References== Category:Nucleosides Category:Pyrimidinediones |
thumb|Official homelessness statistics by state, 2019 Homelessness in the United States has occurred to varying degrees across the country. The total number of homeless people in the United States fluctuates and constantly changes hence a comprehensive figure encompassing the entire nation is not issued since counts from independent shelter providers and statistics managed by the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development vary greatly. Federal HUD counts hover annually at around 500,000 people. Point-in-time counts are also vague measures of homeless populations and are not a precise and definitive indicator for the total number of cases, which may differ in both directions up or down . The most recent figure for the year 2019 that was given was at 567,715 individuals across the country that have experienced homelessness at a point in time during this period.FAQs – National Alliance to End Homelessness Homeless people may use shelters, or may sleep in cars, tents, on couches, or in other public places. Separate counts of sheltered people and unsheltered people are critical in understanding the homeless population. Each state has different laws, social services and medical policies, and other conditions which influence the number of homeless persons, and what services are available to homeless people in each state. A 2022 study found that differences in per capita homelessness rates across the country are not due to mental illness, drug addiction, or poverty, but to differences in the cost of housing, with West Coast cities including Seattle, Portland, San Francisco, and Los Angeles having homelessness rates five times that of areas with much lower housing costs like Arkansas, West Virginia, and Detroit, even though the latter locations have high burdens of opioid addiction and poverty. The state by state counts of people listed below are derived from under- reported federal HUD statistics. ==Alaska== Mental illness in Alaska is a current epidemic that the state struggles to maintain. The United States Inter agency Council on Homelessness (2018) stated that as of January 2018, Alaska had an estimated 2,016 citizens experiencing homelessness on any given day while around 3,784 public school students experienced homelessness over the course of the year as well. Within that niche group, an average of 25–28% of these homeless are either moderately or severely affected by mental illness, according to Torrey (2018) with the Mental Illness Policy Organization on studies done in 2015. Currently, At the state's flagship Alaska Psychiatric Institute, almost half the rooms are empty, a problem that has persisted for several years (Anchorage Daily News. 2018). Not only to assess the situation of each individual physically and mentally, but to also consider the social disparity that they may also have issues with. Financially, having money problems is a stressful situation to any ‘normal’ individual, but to have financial troubles as someone with mental illnesses could be nearly life- threatening. Trying to find capable staff to handle the needs of the homeless mentally ill, when they are sent in for processing in the Alaska Jail system to keep them off of the streets, is hard to come by due to budgetary issues and finding the workforce for this field. ==Alabama== Although throughout the United States panhandling is discouraged, passive panhandling falls under First Amendment rights to free speech. In Alabama the prohibition of aggressive panhandling and regulation of passive panhandling is controlled by individual cities, with many panhandlers being charged with loitering offenses. Loitering for the purposes of begging and prostitution in Alabama is a criminal offense. An issue for Alabamians is the proportion of panhandlers defined as vagrants, who contrary to their implications, are not homeless but accept the generosity of the community under this false pretense. As the cities decide ordinances for the control of panhandling, there is a variety of methods used across the state depending on the issues in each city. Many cities such as Mobile, Alabama have introduced a set of ordinances to prohibit panhandling in the "Downtown Visitors Domain" area, as well regulations for panhandlers in the rest of the city including disallowing; panhandling at night, physical contact while panhandling, panhandling in groups, and approaching those in queues or traffic. These ordinances are an improvement on the previously vague prohibition of "begging". For those soliciting donations for charitable organizations, a permit must be obtained for the fundraising operation to be exempt from panhandling ordinances. Panhandling in the Downtown Visitors Domain may result in fines and jail sentences for those involved. Another effort to limit panhandling in Mobile is an initiative using donation meters through which people can donate money to approved charities in attempts to resolve the necessity of panhandling by providing disadvantaged citizens with resources. This method attempts to lessen the recurring arrest and release of the publicly intoxicated, who are often homeless or vagrant and participate in panhandling. An important concern for those in Alabama's capital city, Montgomery, is those who travel from other cities to panhandle, with a police report from November 2016 showing that most panhandlers in the area had travelled to the city for the purposes of begging. In the city of Daphne, panhandling is prohibited within 25 feet of public roadways and violators are subject to fines, while the cities of Gardendale and Vestavia Hills prevent all forms of panhandling on private and public property. The city of Tuscaloosa prohibits all aggressive panhandling, as well as passive panhandling near banks and ATMs, towards people in parked or stopped vehicles and at public transport facilities. Alabama's most populous city, Birmingham has considered limitations on panhandling that disallow solicitation near banks and ATMs, with fines for infractions such as aggressive or intimidating behaviour. Another concern for Birmingham is litter left behind in popular panhandling sites, especially for business owners in the downtown area. In Birmingham, specifically asking for money is considered illegal panhandling. The City Action Partnership (CAP) of Birmingham encourages civilians to report and discourage panhandlers throughout the city, especially under unlawful circumstances including panhandling using children, aggression, false information and panhandling while loitering as prohibited by City Ordinances. Within the city of Opelika it is considered a misdemeanour to present false or misleading information while panhandling, and there are requirements for panhandlers to possess a panhandling permit. Threatening behaviours towards those solicited to are also considered misdemeanours and include; being too close, blocking the path of those approached, or panhandling in groups of two or more persons. Those previously charged with these offences in Opelika are not eligible for a panhandling permit within set time limits. The city of Flagstaff took the policy a step further by implementing a practice of arresting, jailing and prosecuting individuals who are beg for money or food. In February 2013, Marlene Baldwin, a woman in her late 70s was arrested and jailed for asking a plain clothed officer for $1.25. Between June 2012 and May 2013 135 individuals were arrested under the law. However, after criticism and a lawsuit from The American Civil Liberties Union of Arizona the policy was deemed unconstitutional as it breached free speech rights granted by both federal and state constitutions. In his judgement, Judge Neil V. Wake declared the A.R.S 13-2905(a)(3) was void and prohibited any practices the city of Flagstaff has implemented that " interferes with, targets, cites, arrests, or prosecutes any person on the basis of their act(s) of peaceful begging in public areas." Despite this, the state of Arizona continued to pursue other ways to criminalize panhandling. Their response to Judge Wake's judgment was to criminalize "aggressive panhandling. The bill that passed into law in 2015 prohibits individuals from asking for money within 15-feet of an ATM or bank without prior permission from the property owner. Furthermore, it prohibits "following the person being solicited in a manner that is intended or likely to cause a reasonable person to fear imminent bodily harm," or "obstructing the safe or free passage of the person being solicited." Moreover, the city of Chandler has proposed a new bill that prevents panhandling along city streets justifying the law by citing safety concerns. The proposed laws would make it a civil traffic offence for an individual to be at a median strip for any purposes other than crossing the road. Under the proposed law, the first violation would be treated as a civil traffic offence; however, a second violation within 24 months would be treated as a Class 1 misdemeanor citation in which an individual could be fined a maximum of $2500 and face up to six months in jail. The State of Arizona continues to seek measures that would both limit panhandling but also satisfy the judgement made by Judge Neil V. Wake and the First Amendment. ==Arkansas== In 2015, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development released a report detailing the decline of homelessness in Arkansas, but that the level of homeless veterans had increased. They found that 2,560 people were homeless in Arkansas in January 2015, and that 207 were veterans, an 83% increase in veteran homelessness since January 2009. Arkansas is one of only five states to have seen homelessness among veterans to increase by more than 100 people in that time. Of those five states, Arkansas had the largest number of homeless veterans. This is compared to nationwide, where homelessness among veterans has decreased by 35% since 2009.Arkansas News Little Rock, November 22, 2015. Retrieved on December 20, 2016. As of 2015, it was estimated that 1,334 of the homeless in Arkansas are youths. In Arkansas, the most common causes of homelessness are income issues and personal relationships. The median time spent homeless is 12 months, however 30% have been homeless for over two years.Fitzpatrick, Kevin M., Collier, Stephanie & O'Connor, Gail University of Arkansas, 2015. Retrieved December 21, 2016. Jon Woodward from the 7Hills shelter in Fayetteville, AR said "primarily the two largest groups of who's homeless in our region are families with children and veterans. And those are two groups that our community really does care about and can get behind supporting."Arkansas Matters Fayetteville, July 5, 2015. Retrieved December 20, 2016. Despite this, shelters in Little Rock have struggled with insufficient funding and police harassment, resulting in reducing hours or closure.National Coalition for the Homeless . Retrieved December 20, 2016. Under loitering laws, lingering or remaining in a public place with the intention to beg is prohibited in Arkansas.Justia . Retrieved December 20, 2016. However, in November 2016 in Little Rock, a judge ruled that this law banning begging was unconstitutional, and violated the First Amendment. The American Civil Liberties Union filed the case on behalf of Michael Rodgers, a disabled veteran, and Glynn Dilbeck, a homeless man who was arrested for holding up a sign asking for money to cover his daughter's medical expenses. ACLU were successful in their challenge, meaning that law enforcement officers will be prohibited from arresting or issuing citations to people for begging or panhandling.Meyers, Shawna Little Rock, November 22, 2016. Retrieved December 21, 2016. The loitering law has had a history of being abused by police officers in the state of Arkansas. For example, two homeless men reported separate incidents of having been kicked out of Little Rock Bus Station by police officers. Despite showing valid tickets that showed that their bus would arrive within 30 minutes, they were told they could not wait on the premises because they were loitering. In another incident, police officers told homeless people to leave a free public event or be subject to arrest for loitering in a park, although vendors at the event had encouraged the homeless to attend and take free samples of their merchandise. In 2005, police assembled an undercover taskforce to crack down on panhandling in the downtown Little Rock area, arresting 41 people. 72% of the homeless report ever being arrested. ==California== About 0.4% of Californians and people who live in the state (161,000) are homeless. California in 2017 had an oversized share of the nation's homeless: 22%, for a state whose residents make up only 12% of the country's total population. The California State Auditor found in their April 2018 report Homelessness in California, that the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development noted that "California had about 134,000 homeless individuals, which represented about 24 percent of the total homeless population in the nation” The California State Auditor is an independent government agency responsible for analyzing California economic activities and then issuing reports. The Sacramento Bee notes that large cities like Los Angeles and San Francisco both attribute their increases in homeless to the housing shortage. In 2017, homeless persons in California numbered 135,000 (a 15% increase from 2015). In June 2019, Los Angeles County officials reported over 58,000 homeless in the county. Many of LA's homeless live in Downtown, Skid Row, Westlake, and Venice Beach. A 2023 study published by the University of California, San Francisco found that around 90% of the homeless population of California lost their housing while living in the state. The research also revealed that around half of the homeless population is over 50 years old, with black residents disproportionally represented, that the majority of the homeless population want to find housing, and the high cost of housing was the greatest obstacle to exiting homelessness. San Francisco and the general Bay Area has tens of thousands of homeless. SF has 7–10,000 homeless people. ==Colorado== Homelessness is a growing problem in the State of Colorado, as the state's population grows. 0.2–0.3% of Coloradans or people who live there are homeless on a given night. Denver and Colorado Springs have the largest homeless communities. In April 2012, Denver enacted the Urban Camping Ban due to the occupy Denver protest and the number of homeless on the 16th Street Mall. Mayor Michael Hancock and City Council passed the urban camping ban which prohibited individuals from sleeping in public places with a blanket over them or something between them and the ground. Colorado was ranked 7th in 2017 for largest homeless veteran count as well as 8th in the country out of 48 major metropolitan cities for homeless individuals.State of Colorado. (2018). Homelessness and Health. Retrieved from Colorado Official State Web Portal: https://www.colorado.gov/pacific/sites/default/files/PSD_SDOH_Homelessness_long.pdf The Right to Rest Act was introduced to Colorado (as well as Oregon and California) that would change the way the city treated unsheltered citizens. This piece of legislature called the Right to Rest Act was introduced in 2015 and attempted to offer homeless rights to sleep on public property like parks and sidewalks.Institute of Real Estate Management. (November 1, 2015). IREM committee adopts new legislative statement of policy on homelessness. Journal of Property Management, 27 The homeless population over the last four years within the state of Colorado has remained fairly constant. According to HUD's PIT Count (2018)HUD 2018 Continuum of Care Homeless Assistance Programs Homeless Populations and Subpopulations. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.hudexchange.info/resource/reportmanagement/published/CoC_PopSub_State_CO_2018.pdf. there are 10,857 people who are currently homeless within the state of Colorado. ==Florida== Because of its warm weather, Florida is a favorable destination for the homeless. As of January 2017, there are an estimated 32,190 homeless individuals in Florida. Of this high number, 2,846 are family households, 2,019 are unaccompanied young adults (aged 18–24), 2,817 are veterans, and an estimated 5,615 are individuals experiencing chronic homelessness. Due to the eviction moratorium ending during the early fall of 2021, the number of homeless individuals and families may increase. According to a January 2020 count, this figure was 27,487 on any given day, a decrease from previous years. However, this figure could likely increase due to the COVID-19 eviction moratoriums in the United States that started in September and October 2021. Pinellas County has one of the highest concentrations of any Florida county, at nearly 0.3% with nearly 3,000 homeless people and a population in general of almost one million. It is second next to Miami-Dade County's homeless population at 4,235, but this is due to a higher general population (6 million; 0.08%) and still a lower prevalence closer to Florida and the U.S.'s average of being in between 0.1-0.2%. Various cities in Florida have laws against aggressive panhandling and general panhandling that could result in fines or demands to leave, as well as sleeping on benches or parks. == Georgia == The rise of neoliberal governance has dramatically changed the way that people who are homeless in heavily populated cities are dealt with and treated around the United States. Neoliberal governance is the promotion of human advancement through economic growth. The most accepted idea of achieving this is by pushing towards a free market economy which thrives off of not having much government or state participation. In the 1970s and 1980s, Atlanta, Georgia was one of these cities where businesses were very active in their efforts to decrease homelessness in the spirit of this idea. The Central Atlanta Progress (CAP) was one of the most notable voices in Atlanta promoting these sort of initiatives. For example, their first major initiative was to criminalize homelessness. They saw the homeless population as a threat to public safety. However, their efforts were met with conflicted responses from police and Georgian citizens due to the large size and demographic makeup of the homeless population in Atlanta. Majority of this group's makeup were black males. On top of that, Atlanta's first black mayor, Maynard Jackson, had been recently elected into office. Having elected a black male into office, the topic of race and politics was prominent in the minds of many Georgian citizens. The idea to criminalize homelessness looked bad in the eyes of these citizens and created a lot of skepticism about the CAP's true purpose. Participation was not met in the way the CAP had hoped for. Since the 1970s and 1980s attempts to combat homelessness have continued not just from businesses but from the government level as well. In 1996 to prepare for hosting the Olympic games, Fulton County provided the homeless people in the area with the opportunity to leave the town as long as they could provide proof of either a family or a job waiting for them at their choice of destination. Fulton County would then give them a one way bus ticket provided that the recipient signed a document agreeing not to return to Atlanta. While it is unclear how many people took this offer to leave the city for free, it is estimated that thousands of the homeless population in Atlanta did take this one-way ticket. For the ones that did not leave, around 9,000 homeless persons were arrested for activities such as trespassing, disorderly conduct, panhandling, and urban camping. Urban camping is the use of public or city owned space to sleep or to protect one's personal belongings. For example, the use of a tent underneath a bridge in order to serve as a living space is prohibited. Action towards panhandling has also been seen from the government. Many downtown cities around the United States have tried to combat panhandlers by prohibiting panhandling at certain locations as well as restricting the time periods that it is allowed. In Georgia, Atlanta was proactive with this idea by banning panhandling in what is known as the "tourist triangle" in August 2005. Another ban prohibited panhandling within 15 feet of common public places such as ATM's and train stations. Violations are punished with either a fine or imprisonment. In 2012 the city of Atlanta created an anti- panhandling law which criminalizes aggressive panhandling. Aggressive panhandling is defined as any form of gestures or intense intervention for the sake of retrieving monetary substance. This includes blocking the path of a bystander, following a bystander, using harsh language directed at a bystander, or any other indications that could be perceived as a threat by the person it is directed at. Violations are punished based on the number of offenses with the third offense being the highest. The third offense and all future offenses beyond that will result in a minimum of 90 days in jail. A second offense will result in 30 days of jail time while the first offense results in up to 30 days of community service. The policies that Atlanta has put in place were very similar to the ones that Athens, Georgia currently has. Failing to adhere to the law could result in jail time or community service. Athens-Clarke County also added the possibility for a fine to be paid instead of serving prison time or participating in community service. ==Hawaii== In Honolulu, aggressive measures have been taken to remove the homeless from popular tourist spots such as Waikiki and Chinatown. Measures include criminalizing sitting or lying on sidewalks and transportation of homeless to the mainland. Section 14-75 of the Hawaii County Code gives that soliciting for money in an aggressive manner is illegal, with "aggressive" behaviors defined as those that cause fear, following, touching, blocking or using threatening gestures in the process of panhandling. The citation penalty is a $25 fine and may include a term of imprisonment. Maria Foscarinis, executive director of the National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty, says that panhandling restrictions are a result of gentrification coupled with Hawaii's dependence on tourism. In 2013 alone, tourism in Hawaii generated $14.5 billion, which averaged $39 million per day. Hawaiian locals and business operators such as Dave Moskowitz agree with these restraints, arguing that panhandling is bad for tourism. Police in Hawaii state that panhandling is not a prominent issue, nor is it prioritized. Legally, ethically and practically, it is difficult for police to enforce strict panhandling laws at all times, thus police discretion plays a vital role in determining who is cited and how many citations are given. For the panhandling population who are cited, there is a general feeling of indifference or disregard, including refusal to pay fines. A number of studies indicate that the average panhandler is an unmarried, unemployed male in his 30s to 40s, often with drug/alcohol problems, a lack of social support and laborer's skills. These factors are likely to affect the poor perception of these laws in the panhandling population. Social justice advocates and non-governmental organizations will argue that this approach is therefore counter-intuitive. They argue that panhandling laws violate free speech, criminalize homelessness and remove an essential part of destitute people's lives. Doran Porter, executive director of the Affordable Housing and Homeless Alliance, argues that these laws merely deal with the symptoms of homelessness rather than fixing the problem. Courts clarify whether the laws that restrict panhandling are constitutionally valid. In 2015, the American Civil Liberties Union of Hawaii foundation (ACLUH) paired with Davis Levin Livingston Law Firm to represent Justin Guy in suit against the Hawaii County. Guy's lawyers argued that prohibiting their client from holding up a sign that read 'Homeless Please Help' offended his First Amendment right to freedom of speech. Matthew Winter, a lawyer on the case, made reference to political candidates (who are lawfully able to hold signs), to contrast against the inability of the poor to hold up signs asking for help. The court ruled in Guy's favour, which led to an award of $80,000 compensation and repeal of subsections 14–74, 14–75, 15–9, 15–20, 15–21, 15–35 and 15–37 of the Hawaii County Code. In a statement, Guy emphasized the need for the State of Hawaii to treat the homeless with the same dignity as the general population. The future of panhandling laws in Hawaii is reliant on legislators and their perception of panhandling's impact on tourism. By utilizing aggressive political language, such as 'the war on homelessness' and 'emergency state,' Hawaiian politics will continue to criminalize the behaviors of destitute populations. On the other hand, with pressure from state/federal departments and non-governmental organizations, restrictions on panhandling laws may be possible. The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, for example, has stated that it would not provide homeless assistance funds to states that criminalize homelessness. Given that Hawaii has one of the US's largest growing homeless populations (between 2007 and 2016, Hawaii saw a 30.5% increase in homelessness), it is in a poor position to reject federal funding and assistance from non-governmental organizations. ==Illinois== Over the years, the city of Chicago, Illinois has gained a reputation as the city with the most homeless people, rivaling Los Angeles and New York City, although no statistical data have backed this up. The reputation stems primarily from the subjective number of beggars found on the streets rather than any sort of objective statistical census data. Indeed, from statistical data, Chicago has far less homeless per capita than peers New York, and Los Angeles, or other major cities such as Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Boston, among others, with only 5,922 homeless recorded in a one night count taken in 2007."Homeless in Chicago: 2007 Numbers and Demographics: Point-In-Time Analysis", The Chicago Alliance, 2007. A 2019 study by the Chicago Coalition for the Homeless found that among Chicago's homeless population for 2017, 18,000 had college degrees and 13,000 were employed. ==Indiana== In Indianapolis, Indiana, as many as 2,200 people are homeless on any given night, and as many as 15,000 individuals over the course of a year. Indianapolis is notable among cities of similar size for having only faith-based shelters, such as the century-old Wheeler Mission. In 2001, Mayor Bart Peterson endorsed a 10-year plan, called the Blueprint to End Homelessness, and made it one of his administration's top priorities. The plan's main goals are for more affordable housing units, employment opportunities, and support services. The Blueprint notwithstanding, Indianapolis has criminalized aspects of homelessness, such as making panhandling a misdemeanor; and the City-County Council has twice (in April 2002, and August 2005) denied the zoning necessary to open a new shelter for homeless women. ==Iowa== Homelessness in Iowa is a significant issue. In 2015, 12,918 Iowans were homeless and 'served by emergency shelters, transitional housing, rapid rehousing or street outreach projects'. Another 8,174 Iowans were at risk of being homeless and lived in supportive housing or were involved in street outreach projects. The actual number of homeless Iowans is likely to be substantially greater, as these figures only account for those who sought help. Homelessness is particularly problematic in Iowa City, as there is only one shelter in the city to cater for its large homeless population. Further, those who have been abusing substances are prohibited from using this shelter, thus excluding a large proportion of homeless people. Panhandling has become an increasingly significant problem in Iowa. There is much controversy surrounding how best to deal with this widespread issue. Debate has focused on the best way to balance compassion, free speech and public safety. Iowan cities have struggled with finding the balance between avoiding criminalising poverty, while at the same time not encouraging begging, particularly that which is aggressive. There has also been widespread concern about the legitimacy of panhandlers and the significant amount of money that some are making. Cedar Rapids panhandler, Dawn, admitted that she has come across many illegitimate panhandlers. These include people who already have access to housing and financial assistance, and even some who pretend to be disabled or to be a veteran. A famous incident in Muscatine, Iowa, photos of which went viral, provides a prime example of the tensions that exist around the legitimacy of panhandlers. In December 2015, two young boys were panhandling, holding signs which read 'broke and hungry please'. Pothoff, who worked nearby, offered the boys a job. The boys stated that they were 'not from around here', smirked and walked away. Pothoff then decided to join the boys on the side of the road, holding up his own sign, which read 'Offered these guys a job, they said no, don't give them money'. Following the Supreme Court case, United States v Kokinda, 497 U.S. 720, 725 (1990), the right to beg for money is protected speech under the First Amendment. Therefore, panhandling cannot be entirely prohibited. However, as per Ward v Rock Against Racism, 491 U.S. 781, 791 (1989), US cities may enact 'reasonable time, place, and manner restrictions' which are narrowly drafted to 'serve a significant governmental interest' and also allow for this speech to occur in an alternative setting. This has led to a trend amongst many Iowan cities of enacting ordinances which control and restrict panhandling. In Bettendorf, aggressive panhandling, panhandling on a travelled portion of a roadway and soliciting on a bus, bus stop, within 15 feet of an automated teller machine or on Interstate 74 exit ramps between certain hours of the day are all prohibited. Additionally, a panhandling licence is required and this can be revoked for 6 months if any of these regulations are breached, in addition to a fine or incarceration. Bettendorf grants panhandling licences for free, however licences must be renewed every 6 months and candidates must undergo a police check. Similarly, in Davenport, aggressive panhandling, soliciting within 20 feet of an automated teller machine or bank entrance, or on a roadway or median of a roadway are prohibited. Police Chief Paul Sirorski admitted that the ordinance can be difficult to enforce and that the number of complaints concerning panhandlers in Davenport is increasing. In light of community concerns, Davenport is set to review the ordinance. Iowa City has similar ordinances and has also installed special purple parking meters which are used to fund homeless organizations. The aim is to encourage people to give money to homeless programs through parking fees, rather than directly to beggars. However, some argue that it is better to donate money to panhandlers than to organizations as you can be sure that the money is going directly to the person without any loss through administrative costs. As Cedar Rapids currently has no ordinance controlling panhandling, there has been an increase in the number of panhandlers. Cedar Rapids has also seen an increase in the number of complaints concerning panhandlers. This has led to consideration of the introduction of an ordinance that would prohibit panhandling in certain areas. The ordinance also includes plans for police to be able to give resource cards to panhandlers. These cards provide a list of resources which provide housing, food and financial assistance. Councils claim that these ordinances are necessary to ensure public safety and prevent traffic accidents. Other rationales behind these laws include 'to improve the image of the city to tourists, businesses and other potential investors' and to reflect the growing "compassion fatigue" of the city's middle and upper class after increasingly being exposed to widespread homelessness. However, Saelinger (2006) argues that these laws '"criminalize" the very condition of being homeless'. Saelinger (2006) also claims that through the implementation of these laws, governments have focused on making homelessness invisible, rather than working to eradicate it. The aesthetics of cities has also influenced the enactment of these ordinances, with businesses complaining that panhandlers bother their customers and make them feel uncomfortable, in addition to ruining the image of the city. ==Kansas== In comparison with the US, Kansas continued to have an increasing level of homelessness until 2015. Between 2007 and 2015, homelessness across the US fell by 13 percent, while in Kansas it rose by more than 23 percent. Single individuals predominantly fell victim to homelessness rather than families, generating this increase in homelessness. This is in discord with Sedgwick County's reputation as one of the most successful counties in the US for providing shelter to homeless family members and individuals. Chronic homelessness was seen to be more prevalent and increasing as was the proportion of veterans subjected to sleeping on the streets. However, Kansas currently holds approximately 0.5% of the total homelessness in the US, listing itself in the bottom third of all of the US states.Wayback Machine ===Begging and associated crimes=== There is much concern within Kansas regarding the legitimacy of begging and panhandling. For example, within Wichita alone, there are many reports of persons posing as homeless to make a quick income and fuel their addiction habits such as alcohol, drugs, and sex. This has been seen to increase recently with the development of boutiques and shops that are drawing growing numbers of customers and tourists to the area. Residents have further complained that many whom are homeless are frequently choosing to bypass available services in order to maintain their lifestyle. This increase in 'untruthful' begging has resulted in further chronic homelessness, as those who are most genuinely in need are being sidelined by 'quick-fix intruders'. The consequences of begging and panhandling across Kansas is not uniform, it differs from county to county, with some counties choosing to acknowledge it as a crime and others rejecting its presence. Under Kansas' Wyandotte County code of ordinances, panhandling is deemed an unlawful act when it occurs in an aggressive manner. The consequences of panhandling present as an unclassified misdemeanour, which under Wyandotte County law signifies that unless the penalty is otherwise stated, it will receive the same penalty as a Class C misdemeanour i.e., punishable by up to one month in jail and a fine of up to $500. This is less severe in comparison to Wichita County whereby the act of begging is deemed as a crime of loitering and is penalized with a fine of up to $1,000, one year imprisonment, or both. Counties such as Shawnee County and Sedgwick however differ, with Sedgwick County making no mention of such acts constituting crimes within its ordinance, Topeka follows suit. Such a scenario in Topeka occurred due to a 9–0 vote to defer action of panhandling, where a penalty of 179 days in jail and/or a fine up to $499 might have been applied if caught violating this ordinance. This ordinance was only suspended indefinitely, however if it is reviewed and passed, it may result in the banning of solicitation on private property unless prior permission has been granted from the property owner (begging would not be affected and would remain legal). Topeka currently does hold laws against soliciting on public property, which have not been found to target the homeless, rather targeting many backpackers instead. According to Topeka law, it is illegal to solicit funds, rides, or contributions along roadways, meaning that persons whom present cardboard signs asking for lifts throughout the city can be liable to penalties. Such a law has stemmed from the high prevalence of scams in the area (men saying they have mechanical issues with their cars and women citing domestic abuse and the need for funds to stay at a hotel) which has forced a public awareness and therefore campaigns in the area. Kansas has a variety of services available to those who encounter panhandlers with organizations such as Downtown Wichita in association with the Wichita police, creating information on methods to stop panhandling. This has been developed in the mode of a myriad of pamphlets regarding available services for the homeless which can be printed off and distributed by businesses when they encounter persons panhandling or begging. Such services often report back to the Homeless Outreach Team in an attempt to reduce the prevalence of homelessness in the long-term. Persons encountering panhandlers and beggars in Kansas, if unable to politely refuse, are encouraged to contact 911. ==Kentucky== Many city and counties within the United States have enacted ordinances to limit or ban panhandling. However, the legality of such laws has recently come under scrutiny, being challenged as a violation of individuals first amendment rights. The first amendment states that "Congress shall make no law ... prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech." It is therefore argued that stopping someone from asking for help from their fellow citizens is impeding on their right to free speech. Panhandling laws differ throughout the state of Kentucky. In the city of Louisville, for example, it is an offence to panhandle in certain locations including: within 20 meters of a bus stop or ATM, in a crosswalk/ street, or anywhere that may be impeding others. The ordinance places a strong emphasis on aggressive panhandling which had become a prominent issue within Louisville. These municipal laws are one of the many that have recently come under scrutiny, being challenged as unconstitutional under first amendment rights. In October 2016, a judge of the Jefferson Court District ruled against the laws, deeming them to be unconstitutional. This decision is currently being reviewed by the Kentucky Supreme Court. In contrast, the city of Ashland, Kentucky has not come under scrutiny as their ordinance is less comprehensive and therefore less likely to impede individuals rights. However, recently the ordinance was amended to further crack down on the act of panhandling, adding an amendment to stop panhandlers from walking out into traffic, in an attempt to keep both beggars and the public safe. Panhandling laws are often controversial as they are generally welcomed by the public, who can feel harassed. However, it is also argued that they are disadvantaging the homeless and those in need. As an attorney of the UCLA states, panhandling laws are "misdirected" and their purpose is to try and hide the problem of homelessness. There are 4,538 reported homeless in the state of Kentucky (0.10% of the population), which is consistent with rates of homelessness in many of Kentucky's neighbouring states including Tennessee and Ohio. This number of homeless in Kentucky has declined since 2014. The Kentucky Interagency Council on Homelessness is working towards an end to homelessness, their mission; to end homelessness across the state of Kentucky, with clear outlined goals and strategies on how this is going to be achieved. One of their main goals is to assist local municipalities to end homelessness within the state. The director for Homeless Prevention and Intervention in Kentucky, Charlie Lanter, says that in regards to panhandling, "if they're successful, then they have no incentive to go to a shelter or to go somewhere for food, or whatever their particular needs are ..." which limits the organizations ability to assist the individual off the streets. In particular, the city of Owensber has had support from its homeless shelters in protecting panhandler's rights on the streets, for example, Harry Pedigo, the director of St. Benedicts Homeless Shelter in Kentucky wants local panhandlers to know that the homeless organizations are there to help and not judge their situation. ==Louisiana== Begging, panhandling and homelessness have been prevalent issues for the state of Louisiana for some time, and correlate closely with its poverty rates. Particularly since the disastrous Hurricane Katrina, which hit many Southern American states in 2005, poverty has maintained at a high level The hurricane led to 1577 deaths in Louisiana alone, with $13 billion invested in flood insurance aid Hurricane Katrina did not just have devastating physical and environmental impacts on Louisiana, but also socio- economical ones. Much of Louisiana, and New Orleans in particular, is made up of African-African, elderly and veteran populations, many of whom were plunged into further poverty once their houses were damaged by floods As a result, begging and panhandling in Louisiana is not just a matter of economics, but also of gender, race and age. Louisiana remains the third most impoverished state in the United States, with nearly 1 in 5 people living in poverty. Begging and panhandling is now illegal in the state of Louisiana. Bill HB115 was passed first through the Louisiana Legislative House in 2014, and then approved by the Senate later in 2015. Through the criminalization of begging, offenders can now be given fines of approximately $200, or alternatively sentenced to up to 6 months in jail. Although the bill specifically targets homeless populations in Louisiana, it also applies to prostitution, hitchhikers and the general solicitation of money. Supporters of the Bill hope that the criminalization of begging will lead to fewer homeless and poor people on the streets Louisiana State Representative Austin Badone, the creator of the begging and panhandling bill, suggests that many of these people are not actually in need, and described the process of begging as a "racket." Those opposed to the criminalization of begging and panhandling maintain that the law is unconstitutional, as they view begging under the category of Freedom of Speech. As a result, HB 115 has sparked social and political debate since its administration, as many argue that begging is protected under the First Amendment of the United States Constitution. Initially, this was said to only apply to non-aggressive forms of panhandling or begging, which do not include any use of force or threats. However, the criminalization of all begging in Louisiana has called into question whether or not the bill breaches the First Amendment right. Because of these claims, Louisiana has taken steps to showcase that the First Amendment is being protected. The city of Slidell, Louisiana voted in July 2016 to implement permits for beggars and homeless people. This would legally allow begging and panhandling in certain outlined areas. If their application is approved, this permit would be valid for one year, and would be required to be displayed during panhandling and begging The permit can also be denied if the applicant has previously been charged with misdemeanours such as harassment or other begging-related offences. Enforcement is set to begin by local Slidell authorities in November 2016. ==Maryland== It is estimated that each year over 50,000 people experience homelessness in Maryland. Although Maryland is one of the nation's wealthiest states, over 50% of impoverished Marylanders live in "deep poverty", meaning that their annual income is less than half of the federally defined poverty level. Homelessness in Maryland increased by 7 percent between 2014 and 2015 according to statistics released by the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development. ===Begging and associated crimes in Maryland=== Panhandling in Maryland is widely protected under the First Amendment, provided that the act does not include conduct which 'harasses, menaces, intimidates, impedes traffic or otherwise causes harm'. The president of the nonpartisan First Amendment Center has stated that any legislation prohibiting the act of begging violates the constitution by "limiting a citizen's right to ask for help". In 1994, Baltimore City enacted a zero-tolerance arrest policy to counter rising violent crime rates, prompting a push to reclaim public spaces by targeting beggars and homeless persons. This resulted in the case of Patton v. Baltimore City (1994), where zero-tolerance arrest policies to reclaim public spaces were ruled to be unconstitutional, due to violation of the homeless' First Amendment right to freedom of association. Traffic hazards due to roadside solicitation have been identified as a cause of concern throughout Maryland, generating various attempts by legal officials to regulate panhandling in high traffic areas. As a result, solicitation or panhandling is banned on or beside state roads under state law. A statewide ban on panhandling and vending at all highway intersections was proposed in 2001, but was later revised to apply only to Charles County. In 2006, the Anne Arundel County Council enacted a ban on panhandling by children under 18 years old. In April 2007, the Maryland General Assembly passed a bill banning panhandling beside and on Anne Arundel County roadways, as well as prohibiting the display of political signs or advertising messages on any public roadways. The American Civil Liberties Union have consistently opposed solicitation bans, due to concerns that legislation may hinder the fundraising efforts of legitimate organizations. A bill has since passed the House of Delegates in 2016, allowing the act of panhandling by firefighters and non-profit groups, pending their successful completion of traffic safety courses. In late 2011, legislation was proposed in Montgomery County which would require panhandlers to seek permits in order to engage in roadside solicitation, but this proposition was heavily scrutinized due to concerns that panhandling permits could constitute a breach of the First Amendment. In September 2013, Montgomery County leaders announced a plan to instead purge panhandling from busy streets by encouraging citizens to donate money to not-for-profit shelters and food banks, rather than directly donating to panhandling persons. In 2012, Allegany County imposed narrow restrictions on panhandling, allowing only one day permit per person per year for roadside solicitations. Other areas of Maryland with similar permit provisions include Cecil, Frederick and Baltimore counties. In 2012, certain panhandling ordinances within Frederick County revived First Amendment debates after undercover police officers donated money to begging persons and subsequently arrested them on panhandling charges. Frederick County police allegedly responded by indicating that their initiative in panhandling arrests was in response to reported 'quality of life' issues. In early 2013, legislation to ban the act of panhandling in commercial districts within Baltimore was put forward, but was met with backlash by a mass of protesters chanting "homes not handcuffs". A revised bill was proposed in November, stipulating that panhandling would be prohibited only within 10 feet of outdoor dining areas. In response, the president of Health Care for the Homeless in Baltimore County stated that the city already had stringent anti- begging laws and that the proposed legislation would merely make it easier to arrest impoverished citizens, which would in turn create further obstacles to their future self-sufficiency. In addition to aggressive panhandling, Takoma Park Municipal Code within Montgomery County currently prohibits panhandling in "darkness" (defined as the hours between sunset and sunrise) as well as the solicitation of persons in motor vehicles and in specific locations including bus stops, outdoor cafes and taxi stands. ==Massachusetts== In 1969, the Pine Street Inn was founded by Paul Sullivan on Pine Street in Boston's Chinatown district and began caring for homeless destitute alcoholics."Pine Street Inn History", Pine Street Inn website In 1974, Kip Tiernan founded Rosie's Place in Boston, the first drop-in and emergency shelter for women in the United States, in response to the increasing numbers of needy women throughout the country. In 1980, the Pine Street Inn had to move to larger facilities on Harrison Avenue in Boston and in 1984, Saint Francis House had to move its operation from the St. Anthony Shrine on Arch Street to an entire ten-floor building on Boylston Street.Saint Francis House: History – website In 1985, the Boston Health Care for the Homeless Program was founded to assist the growing numbers of homeless living on the streets and in shelters in Boston and who were suffering from lack of effective medical services."History: Boston Health Care for the Homeless Program" , bhchp.orgO'Connell, James, M.D., Stories from the Shadows, August 2015, In August 2007, in Boston, Massachusetts, the city took action to keep loiterers, including the homeless, off the Boston Common overnight after a series of violent crimes and drug arrests.St. Martin, Greg, "Night watch: Police removing overnight loiterers on Common", Boston Metro newspaper, Wednesday, August 29, 2007. In December 2007, Mayor Thomas M. Menino of Boston announced that the one-night homeless count had revealed that the actual number of homeless living on the streets was down.Loh, Christopher, "City experts predict drop in homeless numbers", Boston Now newspaper, December 20, 2007. In October 2008, Connie Paige of The Boston Globe reported that the number of homeless in Massachusetts had reached an all-time high, primarily due to mortgage foreclosures and the national economic crisis.Paige, Connie, Homelessness hits record high: Advocates expect numbers to grow amid economic downturn and ask for state aid, The Boston Globe, October 6, 2008 In October 2009, as part of the city's Leading the Way initiative, Mayor Thomas Menino of Boston dedicated and opened the Weintraub Day Center, the first city-operated day center for chronically homeless persons. It is a multi-service center providing shelter, counseling, health care, housing assistance, and other support services. It is a facility located in the Woods Mullen Shelter. It is also meant to reduce the strain on the city's hospital emergency rooms by providing services and identifying health problems before they escalate into emergencies. It was funded by $3 million in grants from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, Massachusetts Department of Housing and Community Development (DHCD), the Massachusetts Medical Society, and Alliance Charitable Foundation, and the United States Department of Health and Human Services Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA).Mayor's Office, City of Boston, "Mayor Menino Dedicates New Day Center for the Homeless", Press Release, October 14, 2009. In 2010, there was a continued crackdown on panhandling in downtown Boston, especially the aggressive type. Summonses were being handed out with scheduled court appearances. The results were mixed, and in one upscale neighborhood, Beacon Hill, the resolve of the Beacon Hill Civic Association, which has received only one complaint about panhandlers, was to try to solve the bigger problem, not by criminal actions.Sennott, Adam, "Panhandling on Beacon Hill: The Lowdown on a Reported Crackdown" , Spare Change News, Boston, June 4, 2010 Due to economic constraints in 2010, Governor Deval Patrick had to cut the Commonwealth of Massachusetts 2011 budget so dental care for the majority of adults, including most homeless people, covered by MassHealth (Medicaid) would no longer be provided except for cleaning and extractions, with no fillings, dentures, or restorative care.Cunningham, Liam, "Cuts Extract Mass Health Dental Benefits From Budget" , Spare Change News, July 16, 2010 issue.Commonwealth of Massachusetts, "Healthcare: Governor's FY2011 Budget". "The MassHealth adult dental benefit is restructured to cover preventative and emergency services only, excluding restorative dental services." This does not affect dental care for children. The measure took effect in July 2010 and affects an estimated 700,000 adults, including 130,000 seniors.Banda, Deborah, "AARP Alert: Seniors' Prescriptions; MassHealth Dental Benefits at Risk" , AARP, May 26, 2010. In September 2010, it was reported that the Housing First Initiative had significantly reduced the chronic homeless single-person population in Boston, Massachusetts, although homeless families were still increasing. Some shelters were reducing the number of beds due to lowered numbers of homeless, and some emergency shelter facilities were closing, especially the emergency Boston Night Center.Brady-Myerov, Monica, "Homelessness On The Decline In Boston", WBUR Radio, Boston, September 29, 2010 There is sometimes corruption and theft by the employees of a shelter, as evidenced by a 2011 investigative report by FOX 25 TV in Boston wherein several Boston public shelter employees were found stealing large amounts of food over some time from the shelter's kitchen for their private use and catering.Beaudet, Mike, "FOX Undercover: Employees implicated in thefts from local homeless" , FOX 25 TV, Boston, Tuesday, February 22, 2011Smith, Stephen, "Shelter kitchen theft prevalent, report says", The Boston Globe, February 23, 2011 In October 2017, Boston Mayor Marty Walsh announced the hire of a full- time outreach manager for the Boston Public Library (BPL), whose focus would be to work with staff to provide assessment, crisis intervention, and intensive case management services to homeless individuals who frequent the library. The position is currently based at BPL's Central Library in Copley Square and is funded through the City of Boston's Department of Neighborhood Development and the Boston Public Library, and managed in partnership with Pine Street Inn.City of Boston, "CITY HIRES NEW OUTREACH MANAGER AT BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY", Boston Public Library, Boston, October 6, 2017 The 2020 COVID-19 pandemic caused economic hardship for many residents, resulting in housing precarity and even homelessness for some. ==Michigan== Michigan has a high number of homeless individuals on its streets, reaching 97,642 in 2014. In the VI-SPADT (Vulnerability Index and Service Prioritization Decision Assistance tool) initiated by the Michigan Department of Health and Human Services (MDHHS) alongside the Michigan State Housing Development Authority (MSHDA) it was found that 2,462 individuals had 4,564 interactions with the police between June 2014 and April 2015. The VI-SPADT also found that minority populations are overrepresented with 52% of the homeless population being a part of a minority group as well as people with disabilities of long duration such as chronic health conditions, mental health/cognitive conditions and substance abuse (65%). The criminalization of panhandling in Michigan has been the subject to much debate in public opinion and in the courts: In 2011 and 2013, Grand Rapids was the center for this debate. In 2011, the American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan (ACLU) filed a federal lawsuit challenging a law that makes begging a crime as a violation of free speech. Prior to this, the ACLU discovered that police officers had been arresting, prosecuting and jailing individual people for requesting financial assistance on the streets. Between 2008 and 2011, there were approximately 400 arrests made by Grand Rapids under an old law that criminalizes the act of begging – 211 of these cases resulted in jail time. The ACLU focused on the cases of two men. James Speet was arrested for holding a sign reading "Need a Job. God Bless" and Ernest Sims, a veteran, was arrested for asking for spare change for a bus fare. The debate was seated in the fact that other individuals and organizations were allowed to raise funds on the streets without being charged for a crime, yet these man were jailed for the same principle. The results of these cases were positive for the ACLU side – Judge Robert Jonker ruled in 2012 that the law is unconstitutional and in 2013 the U.S. Court of Appeals ruled that begging is protected speech under the First Amendment. On the opposition side of this case and wider debate was the State Attorney General Bill Schuette who appealed the ruling that the state law violated the First Amendment. Schuette contended that the city and the state safety is at risk and there were concerns around pedestrian and vehicle traffic, protection of businesses and tourism, as well as fraud. The state and argued that it had an interest in preventing Fraud – Schuette contended that not all who beg are legitimately homeless or use the funds they raise to meet basic needs, the money goes to alcohol and other substances. The court agreed with Schuette that preventing fraud and duress are in the interest of the state, but directly prohibiting begging does not align with the prevention of fraud as they are not necessarily intertwined. This debate resurfaced again in 2016 with the two sides again being prevention of unwanted behaviours and preservation of constitutional rights. In Battle Creek, officials passed a pair of proposals that are aimed at limiting panhandling and loitering throughout the city. City commissioners were split in the vote along with the general public. Under the new ordinances the following situations could lead to legal apprehension by the police – remaining idly within 25 feet of an intersection without a license; soliciting money from anyone near building entrances, restrooms, ATMS or in line; panhandling between sunset and sunrise on public property without an official license or permit; approaching another person in a way that would cause a reasonable person to feel terrorized, intimidated or harassed; forcing oneself upon another i.e. continuing to ask for money after being turned down. Any violations can be considered civil infractions and can result in fines. The bill, aimed at targeting 'aggressive' panhandling was passed in September 2016. There are a range of implications that come along with the criminalization of begging behaviours. Jessica Vail is the program manager of the Grand Rapids Area Collation to End Homelessness and contends that it is more cost efficient for people to not be homeless and it also keeps our criminal justice system from getting overloaded. Don Mitchell conducted research in 1998 on the criminalization of behaviours associated with homelessness and begging and highlighted the negative effect this has on the cycle of homelessness and crime. Criminalizing behaviours that are necessary for the survival of homeless people such as begging, sleeping and sitting in public, loitering in parks and on streets and urinating and defecating in public leads them to be subjects of the criminal justice system. ACLU legislative liaison Shelli Weisberg consolidates this notion of a cyclical disadvantage in 2016 – fining people who cannot afford to pay a fine for something they cannot avoid doing and then putting them in a system where they cannot afford to defend themselves or challenge these offences questions how just the criminalization of such acts is. ==Minnesota== In Minnesota, the prevalence of panhandling, solicitation and begging in relation to homelessness have been deemed to be distinctive to each city. For example, in Stevens County, administrators of social service programs unanimously agreed that rural poverty is distinguishable by location and panhandlers have a low presence in Stevens County, while a high frequency in the city of Minneapolis situated in Hennepin County. In 2013, a statewide study conducted by the Wilder Foundation on Homelessness indicated the presence of 10,214 homeless in Minnesota. The one-day count was conducted by 1,200 volunteers around 400 locations known to attract homeless such as transitional housing, shelters, drop in sites, hot meal programs and church basements. An increase of six percent in homeless were observed since the last study in 2009, while 55% of the homeless population were females and over 46% were under the age of 21. In a study conducted by St Stephen's Street Outreach staff, 55 panhandlers were surveyed in downtown Minneapolis to determine why people beg and how local police treat panhandlers. Individual responses neither collectively favoured negative or positive responses for the interaction between police and panhandlers. Examples of responses include that the police 'give you trouble', tell them to 'get the hell out of here' and 'give you a ticket', while other individuals believed that police were 'usually understanding', 'gentle' and 'very friendly and helpful'. The city council has passed an ordinance that allows those who aggressively solicit or engage in solicitation in prohibited locations to be criminally charged. Minnesota state law does not prohibit passive panhandling, such as holding a sign without verbal interaction and focuses on aggressive panhandling as a breach of the law. Other cities in Minnesota such as Rochester, Brooklyn Center and St Paul have similar versions of the ordinance and have all avoided judicial scrutiny on the grounds of protecting individual privacy against assault based behaviour. Efforts by the population of Minnesota to redirect the money given to panhandlers to organizations that aim to end homelessness have been implemented in the city of Minneapolis. An example of this is 'Give Real Change', a campaign that began in 2009 with the aim to end homelessness for 300 to 500 people in areas within Minneapolis by the end of 2025. Billboards implemented by the campaign that display 'Say NO To Panhandling and YES To Giving,' urge community members to stop giving money to beggars and alternatively donate it to an organization that allocates money to shelters to end homelessness. The executive director of St Stephens Human Services, Gail Dorfman is a supporter of the initiative and believes that it can act as a long-term solution for homelessness. In 2020, the City of Minneapolis featured officially and unofficially designated camp sites in city parks for people experiencing homelessness that operated from June 13, 2020, to January 7, 2021. The emergence of encampments on public property in Minneapolis was the result of pervasive homelessness, mitigations measures related to the COVID-19 pandemic in Minnesota, local unrest after the murder of George Floyd, and an experimental policy of the Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board that permitted encampments. At its peak in the summer of 2020, there were thousands of people camping at dozens of park sites across the city. Many of the encampment residents came from outside of Minneapolis to live in the parks.Minneapolis Park & Recreation Board (April 2021). "Superintendent's Annual Report 2020 Rising to Challenges During a Pandemic". www.minneapolisparks.org. Retrieved 2021-04-03. By the end of the permit experiment, four people had died in the city's park encampments, including the city's first homicide victim of 2021, who was stabbed to death inside a tent at Minnehaha Park on January 3, 2021. ==Mississippi== It is estimated that there are at least 1,738 homeless people in the US state of Mississippi, according to the 2016 Annual Homeless Assessment Report (AHAR) to Congress prepared by the US Department of Housing and Urban Development. This number is likely to be much greater as this survey only provides a snapshot of homelessness rates at the time of data collection in January 2016. Although homeless people in Mississippi comprise less than 1% of the total US homeless population and there has been a 37% reduction in the number of homeless people in Mississippi from 2010 figures, the state has a comparably high rate of unsheltered homeless people (50%) which is only surpassed by US states such as California, Oregon, Hawaii and Nevada. Moreover, the state also has the second highest rate of unsheltered homeless veterans in the country (60%) and the fourth highest rate of unsheltered homelessness for people with a disability (84%). ===Anti-panhandling laws=== High rates of homeless people living without suitable accommodation and in public areas creates greater awareness of their presence both by the local community and policing agencies and has resulted in the introduction of laws directed against acts associated with homelessness, otherwise known as vagrancy including begging or panhandling. While in most US states such legislation is primarily enacted and included in city ordinances rather than state law, in Mississippi, the 2015 Mississippi Code provides for a specific definition of vagrancy that allows for "able- bodied persons who go begging for a livelihood" to be punished as vagrants as they are seen to be committing crimes against public peace and security. In addition, Title 99, Chapter 29 of the Code mandates law enforcement officers to arrest known vagrants with those deemed 'vagrant' subjected to fines for a first offence and up to six months imprisonment and the payment of court costs for subsequent offences. These definitions and penalties for homelessness have remained largely unchanged historically in the state of Mississippi which has tended to define vagrants to include those living in idleness or without employment and having no means of support, prostitutes, gamblers as well as beggars. Those who fall under these population groups continue to be defined as vagrants under the 2015 Mississippi Code. Controversially, such wide and discriminatory definitions have been tied to Mississippi's poor race relations with African Americans with vagrancy legislation in the latter half of the 19th century linked to "keeping black people in their rightful place" on the slave plantations. As a consequence, Mississippi's 'Black Code' on vagrancy applied in a racially discriminatory manner to African Americans such as ex- slaves and 'idle blacks' as well as white Americans who associated themselves with African Americans. While Mississippi was the first US state to enact such discriminatory and punitive legislation against African Americans, it was certainly not the last, with states including South Carolina, Alabama and Louisiana following Mississippi's lead with similar 'Black Code' legislation in 1865 that targeted homeless ex-slaves. In Jackson, Mississippi's largest city, begging or panhandling is specifically prohibited under the definition of "commercial solicitation". Begging is banned within 15 feet of public toilets, automatic teller machines (ATMs), parking lots, outdoor eating areas, pay telephones, bus stops, subway stations and entirely within the central business district. In addition, begging is also banned after sunset and before sunrise and it is unlawful to "aggressive solicit" by blocking the path of another person, following another person, using abusive language or making a statement or gesture that would cause fear by a reasonable person. Penalties for a first offence include a warning, citation or seven days community service, subject to law enforcement and prosecutor discretion. For subsequent offences, penalties may include up to 30 days community service, a $1,000 fine or up to 30 days imprisonment. However, passive solicitation is not unlawful. This means that simply holding a sign asking for money is not illegal and in fact, is protected by the Jackson city ordinance that prohibits panhandling. Similar legislation that prohibits begging is also in place in Mississippi's second largest city, Gulfport. In July 2012, Jackson City Councilman Quentin Whitwell proposed tripling existing fines and implementing longer jail sentences for panhandling in response to heightened community concern about aggressive panhandlers and an escalating panhandling "epidemic". However, this proposal was later rejected by the Jackson City Council amidst concerns from the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) of Mississippi that prohibiting panhandling under city ordinances may violate First Amendment rights under the US Constitution that protect freedom of speech. On the streets of Jackson, for people experiencing homelessness such as Raymond Quarles, city ordinances such as those originally proposed to prohibit begging increase their susceptibility to counter-productive law enforcement attention and policing activity. For instance, Raymond was arrested at least 10 times in as little as one month in Jackson shortly after experiencing homelessness from the combined effects of relationship breakdown, financial stress and a deterioration in physical health. What Raymond and the ACLU call for are additional support services to assist homeless community members find employment, housing and other support services rather than a "revolving door of crime" and entry into the criminal justice system that is perpetuated through simplistic bans on panhandling and other associated acts of vagrancy. While the US Supreme Court has not decisively decided on this issue and there is considerable debate as to whether begging constitutes conduct or speech, Fraser (2010) suggests that begging is likely to constitute speech and therefore blanket bans on begging in public areas enacted by local governments as in the case of Mississippi cities such as Jackson and Gulfport are likely to be unconstitutional and in breach of the First Amendment. ==Nebraska== Over 10,000 people are considered to be living without permanent accommodation in Nebraska, with a little over half of those situated in Omaha and a quarter in the state's capitol of Lincoln. According to The University of Nebraska-Lincoln's Centre on Children, Families and Law a little over half of Nebraska's homeless population is situated in Omaha and a quarter in Lincoln with the balance in spread over the rest of the state. Approximately 10 percent of those homeless in Nebraska are considered 'chronically homeless' and have either been homeless for an entire year or homeless four times in a three-year period. Such statistics have prompted the Nebraskan Government to implement a newly revised 10-year plan for dealing with homelessness which a vision of '[supporting] a statewide Continuum of Care that coordinates services provided to all people and that promotes safe, decent, affordable, and appropriate housing resulting in healthy and viable Nebraskan communities'. Charles Coley, executive director of the Metro Area Coalition of Care of the Homeless and member of the Nebraska Commission on Housing and Homelessness said that '[the commission] chose to strategically to align [their] goals with the goals of the federal strategic plan to prevent homelessness'. Coley further stated that the 'four goals are end chronic homelessness, secondarily end veteran homelessness, thirdly end child/family and youth homeless and then finally set a path to reducing overall homelessness'. Of those currently living without permanent accommodation in Nebraska, a portion of those are Veterans and those fleeing domestic violence. The First Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits 'the making of any law respecting an establishment of religion, ensuring that there is no prohibition on the free exercise of religion and abridging the freedom of speech'. In the United States, Panhandling is typically protected by the First Amendment as one has the right to free speech with many states and cities respecting citizen's right to free speech and allowing panhandling. In the Nebraskan city of Omaha, panhandling is currently illegal. Previously, the Omaha Panhandling Ordinance stipulated that 'anyone who wants to solicit money – other than a religious organization or a charity – must obtain written permission from the police chief' with religious organizations and charities protected under the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. As of December 2015, Omaha's current panhandling ordinance states that aggressive panhandling, such as approaching someone several times to ask for money or touching them without consent, is punishable by imprisonment or fine. The new Omaha ordinance also outlaws other particular forms of panhandling including asking for money within 15 feet of an ATM or other location where money is dispensed, following someone to ask them for money, panhandling on private property such as going to someone's front door and asking for money, and panhandling in street traffic. The American Civil Liberties Union has raised numerous concerns over Omaha's previous and current panhandling ordinance as it was a violation of the First Amendment and entered negotiations with the City Attorney's Office about their unconstitutional ordinances. The City Council however did not back down from their stance on panhandling, stating that they originally wanted to implement a blanket ban on the practice as it is a safety hazard and must place the safety of their citizens first. As a response to Omaha's panhandling ordinance, the Open Door Mission has begun to pass out 'compassion cards' for people to give panhandlers instead of money. The cards resemble a business card which guides the individuals to the Open Door Mission and the services they provide including shelter, food, transportation, clothes and toiletries, and are able to pick people up from the corner of 14th and Douglas Streets. ==New Jersey== Begging laws in the state of New Jersey are determined by the ordinances set by each local government. Depending on where an individual is begging the rules and punishments can vary greatly. For example, in Middle Township, it is prohibited to aggressively beg within 100 feet of an ATM, with a first offence punishable by up to a $250 fine, 30 days jail and 5 days community service. Whereas, in New Brunswick, all begging within 25 feet of any bank or ATM is considered aggressive begging, which allows police to issue a cease and desist notice. Failure to comply with the notice may incur a $50 fine for each day of being in violation. In 2013, the local governments of Middle Township and Atlantic City reached national headlines for passing ordinances that require individuals to register for a free yearly permit before being allowed to beg for money in public. Local officials and lawmakers of Middle Township adopted the ordinance in response to complaints from the public in relation to the forceful and persistent tactics used by some panhandlers. However, these begging permits did not last with Middle Township passing amendments that remove the need for permits, and Atlantic City also repealing the permit requirement in April 2016. The constitutionality of anti-begging laws are contested. Bill Dressel of the New Jersey Coalition to End Homelessness explains that "it's a complicated area of the law – it's in flux". Recent judicial decisions in the US Supreme Court have challenged local ordinances that prohibit or regulate panhandling in a way that is too vague. Since the decision of Reed v Town of Gilbert the courts have largely struck down panhandling bans on the grounds that they inappropriately limit the content of the speech of individuals that are panhandling. Supporters of anti-begging laws argue that these ordinances do not curtail free speech as they only seek to regulate the manner of begging rather than what is being said. In 2015, John Fleming, a wheelchair-confined homeless man was arrested in New Brunswick and charged with 'disorderly conduct' for sitting on the sidewalk with a sign that read "BROKE – PLEASE HELP – GOD BLESS YOU – THANK YOU". The New Jersey chapter of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU–NJ) successfully challenged the local ordinance on the grounds it violated a person's First Amendment right to free expression. Deputy legal director of ACLU–NJ, Jeanne LoCicero, explained that panhandling, from a constitutional standpoint, is no different from a Girl Scout troop soliciting cookie sales or collecting signatures on a petition. Thus, merely targeting panhandling is problematic as it seeks to prohibit the content of the speech and not the manner of speech. The City of New Brunswick agreed to settle the case by repealing the two ordinances – one that required a permit for begging and another banning unauthorised begging – as there were "legitimate concerns regarding the constitutionality of the Ordinances". In Paterson, alleged panhandlers arrested by police are given the chance, after being fingerprinted, to engage with social service programs that address their particular needs. Paterson's Police Director, Jerry Speziale, says that the initiative is a "new way to address those in need and enhance the quality of life for all". However, community views on panhandling is vexed, with some Paterson council members calling upon the police to crack down on those whom have dropped out of rehabilitation programs and resumed begging. Paterson Councilman, Alex Mendez, raised that it is an issue of weak enforcement and repeated targeting of panhandlers would eliminate the problem. An ongoing police crackdown on panhandling was launched in Newark, in July 2016, seeking to deter panhandling in busy areas of the city. Newark Police Director, Anthony Ambrose, said the days of leniency were over, "a panhandler definitely isn't a welcoming sight ... [t]hese operations will continue until the panhandlers get the message". Civil rights activists question the legality of the crackdown, citing the successful case of John Fleming and ACLU-NJ in challenging unconstitutional prohibitions on begging. ==New Mexico == Homelessness is a serious issue throughout the state of New Mexico. Through a demographic examination it becomes evident that New Mexico has a high proportion of ethnographies that are currently and historically socioeconomically disadvantaged.Norris, Tina; Vines, Paula L.; Hoeffel, Elizabeth M. (February 2012). "The American Indian and Alaska Native Population: 2010" (PDF). Census 2010 Brief. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved May 1, 2012. Native Americans as a proportion of the US population represent the second highest amongst all States with only Alaska having a higher ratio, while it also has a large Hispanic population. Homelessness is a direct cause from an individual not being able to provide themselves with the most basic of necessities to maintain a healthy life hence having a higher proportion of individuals in poverty places a greater risk of an individual becoming homeless. A study into cost of homelessness on the state government of New Mexico concluded that, on a per nightly basis, emergency shelter costs $30; supportive housing $33, state penitentiary $77, Santa Fe County Detention Centre $82, St Vincent Hospital $550 and UNM Hospital $71. Homelessness by and large is caused by or as a result of health care complications. One need only consider ailments such as addiction, psychological disorders, HIV/AIDS and an array of other ailments that require consistent long-term care that cannot be well managed in an unsafe, unpredictable environment that confronts most homeless. Inability to adequately manage these medical problems places a further economic burden on the state as the frequency and duration of hospital visits may increase. This phenomenon is evidenced by the fact that on average homeless spent four days longer than comparable non-homeless, costing the State approximately $2,414 per hospitalization. Homelessness causes both serious mental and physical anguish as evidenced by the fact that a homeless person's psychiatric hospitalization rate is 100 times more than their non-homeless compatriot. Due to New Mexico's strong laws against loitering, sleeping in cars and begging (traits a lot of homeless people are forced to do) they are disproportionately over-represented in the prison system. Police officials can accuse any person they believe may have attempted to disrupt the peace, regardless of whether or not the offense presents danger to the community. Panhandling is an umbrella term that represents begging, sponging and spanging. In the state of New Mexico there are strict regulations on panhandling. Moreover, homeless people are prohibited to beg after dark and if they do they are often sent to jail. In an attempt to remove homeless people from the streets, it is common for the police to dispose of their property. The above conditions cause the mere act of being homeless to become a self-perpetuating cycle of crime. ==New York== In 1979, a New York City lawyer, Robert Hayes, brought a class action suit before the courts, Callahan v. Carey, against the City and State, arguing for a person's state constitutional "right to shelter". It was settled as a consent decree in August 1981. The City and State agreed to provide board and shelter to all homeless men who met the need standard for welfare or who were homeless by certain other standards. By 1983 this right was extended to homeless women. On March 18, 2013, the New York City Department of Homeless Services reported that the sheltered homeless population consisted of: * 27,844 adults * 20,627 children * 48,471 total individuals According to the Coalition for the Homeless, the homeless population of New York rose to an all-time high in 2011. A reported 113,552 people slept in the city's emergency shelters last year, including over 40,000 children; marking an 8 percent increase from the previous year and a 37 percent increase from 2002. There was also a rise in the number of families relying on shelters, approximately 29,000. That is an increase of 80% from 2002. About half of the people who slept in shelter in 2010 returned for housing in 2011. == Ohio == == Oklahoma == ==Oregon== ==Pennsylvania== ==Rhode Island== In June 2012, Governor Lincoln Chafee of Rhode Island signed a bill into law that gives homeless people in that state some clearer rights than before.Sennott, Adam, "Rhode Island Homeless Bill of Rights: Is Massachusetts Next?" , Spare Change News, June 29, 2012 issue ==Tennessee== The act of 'aggressive panhandling' has only recently become criminalized in Tennessee; becoming official in 2015. In recent years, there has been an apparent push for the need to implement anti-panhandling laws across America. It is believed that this is a result of adverse effects of the Great Recession, particularly foreclosure. Under the Tennessee Code (§ 39-17-313), the act of 'aggressive panhandling' is classified as a criminal offence punishable by a fine and/or jail. Per the Code, 'aggressive panhandling' is committed if an individual, while requesting money or donations: * intentionally touches a person without their consent * obstructs a person or their vehicle * follows a person after they refuse to give a donation * acts in manner that would cause a 'reasonable person' to feel threatened should they refuse to provide a donation. The severity of the punishment greatly depends on whether an individual has previously violated the Code. A first offence (classified as a Class C misdemeanour) could result in a maximum fine of $50 and/or up to 30 days in jail. A second offence (classified as a Class B misdemeanour) could increase this penalty to a maximum fine of $500 and/or up to 6 months in jail. While the Tennessee Code is written in very broad and general terms, several city ordinances, most of which were enacted before the Tennessee Code, provide specific restraints on the actions of panhandlers. ===Memphis=== In October 2016, the Memphis City Council voted to extend the ban on panhandling to between 5pm and 10am and to also extend the areas that panhandling is prohibited. Councillor Philip Spinosa Jr. declared that this extension entirely relates to public safety. He stated that the new ordinance was designed to encompass morning and evening rush hours and to make popular begging areas, such as intersections, construction zones, ramps and bridges safer for all involved. In addition to the fines, the police are empowered with the option to charge the panhandler with a misdemeanor crime of obstructing the highway. The president of Homeless Organizing for Power and Equality expressed disappointment of this decision. Memphis Police Director Mike Rallings agreed that while panhandling is a public safety issue, he still believes that the imposition of fines is highly ineffective as most panhandlers, most of whom are homeless, are unable to pay the fine. In response to the strict anti-panhandling laws in place in Memphis, a local not-for-profit organization, Hospitality Hub in partnership with the Memphis City Council has launched a 'Work Local' program. This program aims to reduce poverty in Memphis by offering temporary clean-up work. ==Texas== Half of the homeless population of the U.S. reside in one of five states (in 2020), with Texas having the fourth largest population at 27,000 and California having the largest at 151,000. Begging has been criminalized in a number of regions in the state of Texas. According to the U.S. United States Department of Housing and Urban Development, Texas has seen a decrease of 2.4% in total homelessness since 2015 However, there is still over 25,000 (in 2020) individuals who lack housing and are considered homeless. Of this large population, 7,163 are people in families with children, 1,309 are unaccompanied youths and 1,768 are veterans. Even worse, over 3,000 of the homeless population are chronically homeless individuals. In February 2016, the Dallas Police Department implemented an attack on Panhandling in the central area of the city, as announced by Deputy Chief Gary Tittle Because there is controversy around the issue of criminalizing panhandling, the target of the police operation was defined as "that aggressive panhandler, the one approaching an individual demanding money, asking for money, impeding their walkway on the sidewalks, getting out into the street, on the curbs, moving out into the highway from the shoulder of the highway" The crackdown on panhandling and homeless in Texas partially stems from the costs associated, as the cost of healthcare is estimated to be at least $23, 223 per homeless person per year, according to the University of Texas. Furthermore, taxpayers are further paying for the costs of the homeless through the expenses involved with the criminal justice system. These costs are heightened as individuals who are homeless are more often than not convicted for misdemeanours and non- violent offences such as sleeping in public places, loitering, panhandling and trespassing. The rate of homelessness across the U.S. decreased overall by .6 per 10,000 from 2014 to 2015. The majority of states in the U.S. experienced decreases of homelessness in every major subpopulation mentioned, including families, veterans, unaccompanied youths and individuals who experience chronic homelessness. Though a number of States in the U.S., including Texas, have implemented panhandling bans, these have not occurred without their legitimacy being challenged regarding the Constitution. However, San Francisco had effective legislation for prosecution of people found panhandling but this legislation was later found unconstitutional by a federal court in the case of Blair v. Shanahan (1991). It was found that it was a violation of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. The federal Constitution protects the right to panhandle under free speech clauses, as seen in San Francisco but not Texas due to the laws implemented early 2016 The Houston, Texas area has a civility ordinance affecting the Downtown Central Business District, Midtown Houston, and the Montrose/Neartown area where panhandling and loitering is illegal – this also includes public feeding of the homeless. Elevated highways around the Downtown Houston CBD area (U.S. 59/Interstate 69 adjacent to the George R. Brown Convention Center, Pierce Elevated, and a section of U.S. 59 east of Spur 527 have perimeter fencing where the homeless once congregated. ==Utah== In the state of Utah begging or panhandling is not a crime. The first amendment right protects people to ask for money, help or employment on the streets – this includes panhandling or begging. Following a lawsuit in 2010 three homeless persons were fined for begging and they took the matter to court and won. The court found that fining people for asking for money violated their right to free speech, thus infringing upon the first amendment. In 2010 Salt Lake City agreed not to enforce the state panhandling restriction and therefore law enforcement were not allowed to ticket homeless people panhandling alongside motorways or begging on the street. However, the first amendment right only protects the panhandler if they are on sidewalks or on the side of the roadways – if you get caught panhandling in the road ways, it's a misdemeanour charge that can cost up to $100 or more depending on how many times you get caught. This is because it's a safety issue and people are often hit at traffic lights when they turn green. Homelessness and panhandling in Utah was a major issue in 2005, and the city implemented a 10-year plan hoping to eradicate homelessness by 2015. Though they have not completely stopped homelessness, the state has been extremely successful at reducing homelessness by 91%. In 2005 there were over 1,932 chronically homeless persons in Utah and in 2015 this figure has dropped to a staggering 178 people. However, unlike many other states across the U.S., the state government did not implement hardline laws to breakdown its homelessness problem through fining, prosecuting or 'moving on'; but implemented a simple solution to the complex problem which was the 'housing first' program. The primary focus was to put homeless people into housing first, and then help them deal with the underlying issues that made them became homeless from addictions, mental health and health care. The last step is then to help them find employment. Studies have shown investing in homes for the homeless actually saves money in the long run. It cost approximately $19,208 a year for the state to take care of its homeless people. This is through hospital visits, time in custody, shelter time and ambulance callouts. In comparison, it only cost approximately $7,800 a year for the state to provide a house and holistic case management. Critics say this solution may intensify laziness, however residents need to pay rent which is 30% of their income or $50 a month, whatever amount is greater. A reason behind the Utah success in eliminating homelessness can be attributed to an array of factors. Comparatively to other states such as California, Utah is quite small with a total population of 2,995,919 residents. It is also one of the least densely populated states in the U.S. Furthermore, Utah has the 14th highest median average income and remarkably has the least income inequality of any U.S. state. Comparatively, homelessness in San Francisco is a major current issue. This is because it's the second most densely populated city in USA with large income inequality due to high rent and cost of living therefore making it a lot more difficult to implement the 'housing first' model of Utah. Overall, Utah has been quite progressive in its response to panhandling and begging, firstly by not considering it a crime and secondly by implementing the successful housing first program. To keep up to date with the status of homelessness in the city of Salt Lake, be sure to focus on Point In Time Count. This organization does a yearly count of homeless individuals in our cities (cities/counties). Their goal is to make a difference in those who experience homelessness in the State. They work towards this goal by physically going out with volunteers, and gather intel from experienced homeless individuals to connect them with available resources. Also, they partake in helping administrators and policy makers to set possible plans to end homelessness. They create awareness for the public towards these issues, and acknowledge the improvements and missing factors in the communities current system for homelessness assistance. They collect all this data, providing a reliable estimate of homelessness within the state of Utah. ==Virginia== Regulation of panhandling in Virginia typically restricts panhandling that occurs on a roadway or obstructs traffic. The city of Manassas, Virginia goes into more detail about its definitions around panhandling regulations. Specifically, it prohibits an aggressive manner which is explained as the persistent requesting of money after the person being solicited has made a negative response that induces some sort of fear or intimidation. It further prohibits intentionally blocking or interfering with the passage of another person, and abusive language or gestures. The city of Manassas also lists a number of intersections that prohibits panhandling within 150 feet. Other cities in Virginia vary in their regulations, for example, the City of Colonial Heights takes a preventative approach, although it does not state specifically how it would work to provide the prevention of street begging, whether through law enforcement or social assistance policies. The Lee County, Virginia, in Jonesville, has a much stronger approach in their legislation aiming to 'restrain and punish' begging. Tazewell County, Virginia and the City of Buena Vista, Virginia both merely state that begging is prohibited without expanding much further. In some counties in Virginia, there was discussion proposals to introduce permits for panhandlers. Permits proposed would be required for people verbally asking for donations, as well as actions and behaviours requesting donations within a public space. The idea has been quite contentious. Some media reports reflect calls for increased enforcement of laws against panhandlers, and others report that the ban on panhandling in public spaces is against the civil liberties of individuals, and unconstitutional as it infringes on the First Amendment. In regards to the permit proposal, community opinion was split, with some calling strongly for the implementation of a $25 permit that would need to be carried by panhandlers. The proposal is yet to be approved, with many opposing the idea, questioning where people would be able to get the money and documents required to purchase the permit, who would be allowed to attain a permit and who would be excluded, and how these permits would restrict the accessibility, and monitor the livelihoods of, panhandlers. A lot of the calls for increasing panhandling restrictions are reporting that it is for the safety of people engaging in panhandling, and for motorists in regards to begging on motorways. However, the Arlington Police Department in Virginia reportedly discouraged citizens from giving to panhandlers in the area, in that "there's no telling what the cash will be used for". While many are discouraging giving to panhandlers on motorways due to the context of 'risk', they also appear to portray an underlining negative bias and view of illegitimacy toward people who engage in panhandling. As police in some counties cannot directly arrest someone for begging, the Arlington Police Department note that they do arrest panhandlers for other offences for jaywalking and other traffic related offences. This was mirrored in a media article in Chesterfield, VA, where it was reported in 2011 that 14 panhandlers were arrested for steeping on to the street under traffic offenses. The laws and regulations in Virginia are incredibly varied, making it difficult for panhandlers to know their rights and legitimacy in the area, particularly if one does not have access to the resources in order to find this information. Even within the legislation, the definitions and language tends to be of a broad and very subjective nature. There is also conflicting motivations for further restricting panhandling in the area, with discourses around both the safety as well as the legitimacy of panhandling taking place, particularly in the local media. ==Washington, D.C.== The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development estimated in 2013 the number of homeless in Washington, D.C. as 6,865, which was a 29 percent increase after 2007.Wiener, Aaron. D.C. Homeless Population Rises, Despite National Decline. Washington City Paper, November 22, 2013. D.C. ranks eighth regarding total homeless population among other major American cities. The city passed a law that requires to provide shelter to everybody in need when the temperature drops below freezing.DC's homeless do it tough as winter rolls through. ABC News, November 25, 2013. Since D.C. does not have enough shelter units available, every winter it books hotel rooms in the suburbs with an average cost around $100 for a night. According to the D.C. Department of Human Services, during the winter of 2012 the city spent $2,544,454 on putting homeless families in hotels,Wiener, Aaron. D.C.'s Homeless Shelter Crisis, by the Numbers. Washington City Paper, November 26, 2013. and budgeted $3.2 million on hotel beds in 2013.Wiener, Aaron. Winter's Coming. Is the City Ready to Shelter Its Homeless? Washington City Paper, October 29, 2013. Homeless advocates Mitch Snyder and Eric Sheptock come from D.C. ==Washington state== The many cities within Washington each have differing laws when it comes to begging and other associated crimes. While begging is protected under the First Amendment, certain cities have attempted to find ambiguities in this right to freedom of speech, while others use more discretion when it comes to panhandling. The city of Tacoma has passed laws which have quashed any form of panhandling in public forums. Panhandling is banned anywhere which is within 15 feet of ATMs, bus stops, pay phones, parked cars, gas stations, outdoor stations, cafes and carwashes within the city. More specifically, it is illegal on buses, freeway ramps and on intersections. Moreover, in the hours between sunset and sunrise, it is prohibited entirely. Those who are found to be in breach of this ordinance could be penalized with 90 days in jail or be fined $1000. While the city of Arlington's laws are not as strict, with panhandling being banned anywhere within 300 feet of these certain areas, violators too can be met with the same harsh forms of punishment. A more controversial law was passed in October 2015, when the city of Everett amended previous code which categorised 'aggressive panhandling' as just a misdemeanour. This new law prevents begging 'in a manner that hinders or obstructs the free passage of any person in a public place' or begging that 'intentionally causes or attempts to cause another person to reasonably fear imminent bodily harm or the commission of a criminal act upon their person, or upon property in their immediate possession.' The passing of the law has been met with mass condemnation, with many critics saying it criminalizes homelessness, while the ACLU called it 'unconstitutional, ineffective and unnecessarily costly and punitive.' Further opposition to criminalising begging was demonstrated recently when the city of Lakewood's anti-panhandling ordinance was deemed unconstitutional in the case The City of Lakewood v Robert W. Willis. Laws were considered 'overbroad' by the courts as they restrict panhandling in several locations without seeing if there is actually obstruction of traffic. This case has also led to a discussion surrounding whether to charge an individual with obstructing traffic or with begging. ===City of Seattle=== The city of Seattle's stance on panhandling is not as hardline as many other cities in Washington. For example, in 2010 an amendment was sponsored which would enable stronger panhandling laws that included a regulation against 'intimidating words and gestures' and obstructing someone's walking path. Moreover, a $50 fine was proposed to be the punishment for anyone found to be 'aggressively panhandling.' While the bill was initially passed, Mayor Mike McGinn vetoed the bill. Yet despite this opposition to a call for certain regulations on panhandling, Mayor Ed Murray believed that it is imperative that existing laws are enforced. These current laws were enacted in 1987 and they are effectively an ordinance against aggressive panhandling. While this does represent similarities with Everett's laws, the laws in Seattle have been seen as largely discretionary and 'feel good legislation' which have been viewed ambiguously. ==See also== * Homelessness in Puerto Rico ==References== ==Further reading== * |
The Landesliga Bayern-Nord () was the sixth tier of the German football league system in northern Bavaria. Until the introduction of the 3. Liga in 2008 it was the fifth tier of the league system, until the introduction of the Regionalligas in 1994 the fourth tier. The winner of the Landesliga Nord was automatically qualified for the Bayernliga, the runners-up needed to compete with the runners-up of Landesliga Bayern-Süd and Landesliga Bayern-Mitte and the 15th placed team of the Bayernliga for another promotion spot. The league was disbanded in 2012, when the Regionalliga Bayern was introduced as the new fourth tier of the German league system in Bavaria. Below this league, the Bayernliga was expanded to two divisions while the number of Landesligas grew from three to five divisions. However, none of the new leagues carried the name Landesliga Bayern-Nord, with the Landesliga Bayern-Nordwest coming closest in territorial coverage.Auf- und Abstiegsregelung der Bayernliga und der Landesligen für das Qualifikationsspieljahr 2011/2012 Bavarian FA website – Regulations for promotion and relegation in 2012, accessed: 16 July 2011 ==Overview== thumb|left|150px|The Landesligas from 1963 to 2012. The Landesligen in Bayern were formed in 1963, in place of the 2nd Amateurligas, which operated below the Bayernliga until then. In the region of the Landesliga Nord, the 2nd Amateurligen were split into three groups, Oberfranken, Unterfranken-Ost and Unterfranken-West. The league was formed from eighteen clubs, seven of them from the Amateurligas (III) and thirteen from the 2nd Amateurligas (IV).Die Bayernliga 1945–1997 publisher: DSFS, published: 1998, page: 55 & 56, accessed: 29 June 2009 In the first eighteen seasons, up until 1980, only the league champions were promoted to the Bayernliga. This was altered in 1981, when the three Landesliga runners-up were given the opportunity to earn promotion, too, via a promotion round.Die Bayernliga 1945–1997 publisher: DSFS, published: 1998, page: 116, accessed: 29 June 2009 It took 14 attempts by a Landesliga Nord club however, to actually achieve promotion through this way, which VfL Frohnlach finally did in 1994. The Bavarian football association actually stipulates in its rules and regulations that every league champion has to be promoted, unless it declines to do so, and every runners-up has to have the opportunity to earn promotion, too. Below the league, the Bezirksligas were set as the fifth tier of league football, until 1988, when the Bezirksoberligas were formed. In the first years, four teams were promoted from the Bezirksligas, two from each region. In the 1980s, this number was increased to five clubs for a time. The Landesliga Nord was now fed by the two Bezirksoberligen of Unterfranken and Oberfranken. The winner of those were automatically promoted, the runners-up played-off for another promotion spot, the loser of this game then played a decider with the 15th placed team of Landesliga to determine the winner of the last available spot in the Landesliga. For the most part of its history, the league has operated on a strength of eighteen clubs, only occasionally diverting from this when the number of teams relegated from the Bayernliga to it was more than one. With the changes in the league system there were, on occasion, two automatical promotion places available to each of the Landesligs, like in the seasons 1993–94 and 2007–08. Clubs based in the border region to Hesse traditionally play in the Hessen football league system rather than the Bavarian Football League System. Notable examples of this are Viktoria Aschaffenburg and FC Bayern Alzenau who both currently play in the Oberliga Hessen. The later only left Landesliga Nord to do so in 1992. ===Disbanding=== The Bavarian football federation carried out drastic changes to the league system at the end of the 2011–12 season. With the already decided introduction of the Regionalliga Bayern from 2012–13, it also placed two Bayernligas below the new league as the new fifth tier of the German league system. Below those, five Landesligas instead of the existing three were set, which would be geographically divided to limit travel and increase the number of local derbies.Attraktive Gegner, regionale Einteilung, weniger Fahrtkosten BFV website, published: 12 February 2011, accessed: 29 April 2011 The clubs from the Landesliga Bayern-Nord joined the following leagues: * Champions and runners-up: Promotion round to the Regionalliga, winners to the Regionalliga, losers to the Bayernliga. * Teams placed 3rd to 8th: Directly qualified to the Bayernliga. * Teams placed 9th to 15th: Promotion round to the Bayernliga, winners to the Bayernliga, losers to the Landesliga. * Teams placed 16th or worse: Directly qualified to the Landesliga. ==Founding members== When the league was formed in 1963 as the new fourth tier of the Bavarian league system in Upper Franconia and Lower Franconia, in place of the 2nd Amateurligas, it consisted of the following eighteen clubs from the following leagues: * From the Amateurliga Nordbayern ** FV Würzburg 04 ** 1. FC Bayreuth ** 1. FC Michelau ** ATS Kulmbach ** TSV Gochsheim ** VfB Rehau ** Wacker Marktredwitz * From the 2nd Amateurliga Unterfranken-West ** SV Großwallstadt ** TSV Lohr am Main ** Frankonia Mechenhard * From the 2nd Amateurliga Unterfranken-Ost ** Bayern Kitzingen ** Post SV Würzburg ** 1. FC Schweinfurt 05 II * From the 2nd Amateurliga Oberfranken-West ** SC Sylvia Ebersdorf ** ASV Gaustadt * From the 2nd Amateurliga Oberfranken-Ost ** VfB Bayreuth ** VfB Arzberg ** SpVgg Hof The clubs in the two Amateurligas placed seventh or better were admitted to the new Amateurliga Bayern, all others went to the new Landesligas. The top-three teams in the four regional 2nd Amateurligas were each admitted to the Landesliga Bayern-Nord. In the case of the 2nd Amateurliga Oberfranken-West, the league champion, the reserve team of VfL Neustadt, was disbanded and the fourth place club in the league, TSV Küps, was not permitted to take its place. ==Top-three of the Landesliga== The following teams have finished in the top-three in the league:Tables and results of the Landesliga Bayern–Nord Manfreds Fussball Archiv, accessed: 4 February 2011 Season Champions Runners–up Third 1963–64 FV Würzburg 04 SC Sylvia Ebersdorf 1. FC Bayreuth 1964–65 1. FC Bayreuth TSV Donndorf-Eckersdorf SC Sylvia Ebersdorf 1965–66 SpVgg Hof VfL Neustadt FC Münchberg 1966–67 VfB Coburg 1. FC Bayreuth FV Würzburg 04 1967–68 FC Münchberg 1. FC Bayreuth FC Kronach 1968–69 1. FC Bayreuth FV Würzburg 04 1. FC Bamberg 1969–70 FV Würzburg 04 Wacker Marktredwitz TSV Mainaschaff 1970–71 FC Kronach 1. FC Bayreuth FC Münchberg 1971–72 1. FC Bayreuth BSC Saas Bayreuth VfB Coburg 1972–73 VfB Coburg ATS Kulmbach VfB Helmbrechts 1973–74 ATS Kulmbach VfB Helmbrechts 1. FC Lichtenfels 1974–75 1. FC Bamberg TSV Trebgast SpVgg Hof 1975–76 1. FC Haßfurt BSV 98 Bayreuth TSV Trebgast 1976–77 TSV Trebgast BSV 98 Bayreuth VfB Helmbrechts 1977–78 TSV Hirschaid VfL Neustadt BSV 98 Bayreuth 1978–79 VfB Helmbrechts SV Erlenbach SV Hallstadt 1979–80 VfL Frohnlach SV Erlenbach TSV Hirschaid 1980–81 1. FC Bamberg VfB Coburg FC Bayern Hof 1981–82 VfB Coburg FT Schweinfurt TSV Trebgast 1982–83 FC Bayern Hof SV Heidingsfeld 1. FC Haßfurt 1983–84 FC Schweinfurt 05 SV Heidingsfeld VfB Helmbrechts 1984–85 SV Heidingsfeld VfB Helmbrechts FC Bayern Hof 1985–86 FC Schweinfurt 05 VfB Helmbrechts TSV Trebgast 1986–87 FC Kronach VfB Helmbrechts FC Bayern Hof 1987–88 FC Bayern Hof VfB Helmbrechts SC Weismain 1988–89 VfB Helmbrechts SV Memmelsdorf Wacker Marktredwitz 1989–90 Kickers Würzburg DJK Schweinfurt SV Heidingsfeld 1990–91 SC 08 Bamberg VfL Frohnlach FC Bayern Hof 1991–92 VfL Frohnlach SV Heidingsfeld FC Bayern Hof 1992–93 VfB Helmbrechts FC Bayern Hof SV Heidingsfeld 1993–94 FC Bayern Hof SV Heidingsfeld VfL Frohnlach 1994–95 SC Weismain Alemannia Haibach SpVgg Stegaurach 1995–96 SpVgg Stegaurach Alemannia Haibach FV Würzburg 04 1996–97 Kickers Würzburg FV Würzburg 04 Teutonia Obernau 1997–98 SpVgg Bayreuth FV Würzburg 04 1. FC Sand 1998–99 FV Würzburg 04 DJK Waldberg TSV Großbardorf 1999–2000 1. FC Sand SpVgg Bayreuth VfL Frohnlach 2000–01 SpVgg Bayreuth TSV Großbardorf VfL Frohnlach 2001–02 TSV Gerbrunn VfL Frohnlach TSV Großbardorf 2002–03 FV Würzburg 04 TSV Großbardorf VfL Frohnlach 2003–04 VfL Frohnlach 1. FC Bamberg 1. FC Sand 2004–05 FV Würzburg 04 SpVgg Bayern Hof 1. FC Sand 2005–06 SpVgg Bayern Hof 1. FC Bamberg 1. FC Sand 2006–07 FC Schweinfurt 05 Alemannia Haibach 1. FC Sand 2007–08 VfL Frohnlach Kickers Würzburg SV Friesen 2008–09 SV Memmelsdorf 1. FC Sand Alemannia Haibach 2009–10 Würzburger FV FC Schweinfurt 05 TG Höchberg 2010–11 VfL Frohnlach SpVgg Selbitz 1. FC Sand 2011–12 Kickers Würzburg TSV Aubstadt SpVgg Selbitz * Promoted teams in bold. * The Bavarian football association requires deciders to be played when two teams are on equal pointsSpielordnung: § 14 (2) Feststellung des Meisters BFV website – Rules of the game: § 14 (2) How to determine the league champion, accessed: 7 February 2011 at the end of the season to determine promotion/relegation. While such games are common–place in the other two Landesligas, the Landesliga Nord never yet, as of 2009, had two teams finish on equal points on a promotion or promotion play–off spot. ===Multiple winners=== The following clubs have won the league more than once: Club Wins Years Würzburger FV 6 1964, 1970, 1999, 2003, 2005, 2010 VfL Frohnlach 5 1980, 1992, 2004, 2008, 2011 SpVgg Bayern Hof 4 1983, 1988, 1994, 2006 Kickers Würzburg 3 1990, 1997, 2012 FC Schweinfurt 05 3 1984, 1986, 2007 VfB Helmbrechts 3 1979, 1989, 1993 VfB Coburg 3 1967, 1973, 1982 1\. FC Bayreuth 3 1965, 1969, 1972 SpVgg Bayreuth 2 1998, 2001 FC Kronach 2 1971, 1982 1\. FC Bamberg 2 1975, 1981 ==All-time table 1963–2012== The 1. FC Sand holds top spot in the all-time table of the Landesliga Nord, with 1,456 points from 928 games. Number two is the FT Schweinfurt, 46 points behind but with the record number of games, 1,060. Third place goes to 1. FC Bamberg. The last place, number 131, is the FC Wacker Trailsdorf on nine points. For the 2011–12 season, only one team joined the league that hasn't played at this level before, the TSV Kleinrinderfeld.All-time table of the Landesliga Nord 1963–2010 , publisher: Manfred Herzing, accessed: 7 February 2011 Pos. Club Seasons M W D L GF GA P 1 1. FC Sand 28 962 422 245 295 1764 1352 1511 2 FT Schweinfurt 31 1060 408 241 411 2018 2047 1465 3 1. FC Bamberg 24 818 369 191 258 1620 1245 1298 4–128 125 clubs 125 clubs 125 clubs 125 clubs 125 clubs 125 clubs 125 clubs 125 clubs 125 clubs 129 SV Frankenwinheim 1 34 5 5 24 41 92 20 130 TSV Scheuerfeld 1 36 5 1 30 40 121 16 131 FC Wacker Trailsdorf 1 34 2 3 29 30 105 9 ==League placings since 1988–89== The complete list of clubs and placings in the league since the 1988–89 season:Das deutsche Fussball Archiv: Landesliga Bayern-Nord Historic German league tables, accessed: 7 February 2011 Club S 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 FC Bayern Alzenau 3 9 5 8 8 12 H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H R H R SpVgg Bayern Hof 9 13 B B 3 3 2 1 B B B B B B B B B B 2 1 B B B B B B TSV Großbardorf 7 16 5 3 8 2 3 2 B B B B B R B B B Würzburger FV 04 1 16 11 6 10 6 3 2 2 1 B B B 1 B 1 B B B B 1 B B FC Schweinfurt 05 5 B B 2B B B B B B B B R R R 2B R R B 7 1 B B 2 B B VfL Frohnlach 11 B B 2 1 B 3 B B B B B 3 3 2 3 1 B B B 1 B B 1 B Kickers Würzburg 23 4 1 B 4 11 15 9 7 1 B 9 5 8 17 6 6 2 B 5 5 1 TSV Aubstadt 11 13 14 17 10 14 14 16 9 15 13 2 SpVgg Selbitz 7 13 4 6 13 12 2 3 SpVgg Bayreuth 4 B B B B B B B B B 1 B 2 1 B B B B R B B B B B 4 SV Memmelsdorf 16 2 9 4 9 15 10 14 7 12 9 15 8 1 B 10 5 1\. FC Sand 28 10 14 15 6 4 4 7 6 4 3 5 1 B B 9 3 3 3 3 10 2 6 3 6 TSV Kleinrinderfeld 1 7 1\. FC Trogen 2 16 8 Alemannia Haibach 16 2 2 B 17 13 4 10 6 5 6 10 2 4 3 4 6 9 TG Höchberg 24 7 14 14 5 8 13 5 11 6 13 14 12 8 7 6 9 14 8 7 8 3 9 10 TSV Neudrossenfeld 3 7 8 11 DJK Don Bosco Bamberg 2 7 12 FT Schweinfurt 31 12 13 13 18 8 8 13 14 7 13 16 7 8 9 5 12 10 8 4 13 ASV Hollfeld 4 15 13 11 14 1\. FC Burgkunstadt 4 14 15 FC Gerolzhofen 8 18 16 TuS Frammersbach 5 12 17 SV Pettstadt 2 19 18 FVgg Bayern Kitzingen 9 18 18 15 ASV Rimpar 6 7 14 16 FC Viktoria Kahl 12 12 9 9 10 4 10 5 12 11 14 10 17 DVV Coburg 7 8 8 12 7 16 13 11 9 18 Eintracht Bamberg II 8 2 12 11 FC Blau-Weiß Leinach 1 17 SV Friesen 8 16 8 12 12 10 3 5 18 SV Mitterteich 14 6 9 15 17 11 5 5 10 5 11 7 9 4 19 TSV Mönchröden 5 4 14 5 6 20 FC Strullendorf 10 7 11 10 6 7 10 17 15 15 16 1\. FC Haßfurt 21 13 11 16 16 9 9 16 4 11 11 17 16 17 TSV Sulzfeld 7 15 12 13 13 16 14 18 TSV Thiersheim 9 12 11 11 15 11 15 17 9 17 SpVgg Stegaurach 6 3 1 B B B B B 13 16 13 18 SV Aschaffenburg-Damm 6 1 11 TSV Lengenfeld 2 15 16 TSV Karlburg 4 17 SpVgg Bayreuth II 2 5 11 8 18 1\. FC Bamberg 8 24 8 17 15 8 4 6 6 4 2 4 2 TSV Aidhausen 3 14 14 17 SV Erlenbach 11 17 17 13 18 SpVgg Bayern Hof II 1 15 SC Weismain 12 8 11 5 5 7 5 1 B R R R B 5 15 18 TSV Gerbrunn 5 4 6 6 7 1 B TSV Scheuerfeld 1 19 Wacker Trailsdorf 1 18 Teutonia Obernau 8 13 4 4 3 8 15 9 17 DJK Waldberg 7 9 10 11 5 4 2 11 18 ATS Kulmbach 19 15 17 7 16 DJK Schweinfurt 14 7 2 7 10 10 14 15 13 7 10 12 18 SC Weismain II 3 12 4 19 FC Kronach 21 B 5 6 13 9 18 12 10 16 1\. FC Lichtenfels 16 19 8 9 14 18 FC Adler Weidhausen 4 12 15 15 19 VfB Helmbrechts 4 16 1 B B 8 1 B B B B FC Rodach 4 11 5 14 16 SV Frankenwinheim 1 17 ASV Gaustadt 9 18 SV Heidingsfeld 14 6 3 10 2 3 2 B 16 SC 08 Bamberg 4 1 B B 12 14 18 VfB Coburg 7 15 16 12 16 17 Wacker Marktredwitz 21 3 4 12 7 13 6 18 TV Helmstadt 4 16 14 SV Hallstadt 13 14 10 17 TSV Trebgast 13 11 12 18 SG Randersacker 2 9 15 FC Frankonia Thulba 1 16 TSV Hirschaid 7 17 FC Ochsenfurt 2 17 ===Key=== Symbol Key B Bundesliga RL 2B Regionalliga Süd (1963–74) 2\. Bundesliga (1974–present) 3L 3. Liga R Regionalliga Süd (1994–present) B Bayernliga 1 League champions Place League Blank Played at a league level below this league H Played in the league system of Hesse * S = No of seasons in league (as of 2011–12) ===Notes=== * 1 In 1981, FV Würzburg 04 folded and reformed as Würzburger FV. * 2 In 1982, the SpVgg Bayreuth II withdrew from the league because the club's first team was relegated to the Bayernliga. * 3 In 1992, the FC Bayern Alzenau withdrew from the league and joined the Landesliga Hessen-Süd instead. In 2009, the club earned promotion to the Regionalliga. * 4 In 1997, the VfB Helmbrechts withdrew from the Bayernliga to the lower amateur leagues. * 5 In 2003, the TSV Gerbrunn withdrew from the Bayernliga to the lower amateur leagues. * 6 In 2007, the SV Aschaffenburg-Damm withdrew from the league. * 7 In 2000, VfB Coburg merged with local side DJK/Viktoria Coburg to form DVV Coburg. In 2011, the new club became insolvent. * 8 In 2006, the 1. FC Bamberg merged with TSV Eintracht Bamberg to form 1. FC Eintracht Bamberg. Prior to merger, results for the 1. FC are shown. The club became insolvent in 2010, folded, reformed as FC Eintracht Bamberg 2010 and continued playing in the Bayernliga. The reserve team however withdrew from the Landesliga. * 9 In 2005, the FC Bayern Hof merged with SpVgg Hof to form SpVgg Bayern Hof. League placings for SpVgg Hof are shown separately while placings for FC and SpVgg Bayern Hof are combined. * 10 In 2003, 1. FC Bayreuth and BSV 98 Bayreuth merged to form FSV Bayreuth. BSV 98 Bayreuth itself had been formed in a merger of VfB Bayreuth and TuSpo Bayreuth in 1968. * 11 In 1974, the SC Kreuzwertheim disbanded its football department. * 12 In 1972, the TSV Mainaschaff withdrew from the league. * 13 In 1965, the SV Großwallstadt withdrew from the league. ==League records 1963–2012== The league records in regards to points, wins, losses and goals for the clubs in the league are: Record Team Season Number Most wins VfB Helmbrechts 1988–89 29 Most wins Würzburger FV 2002–03 29 Most wins Würzburger FV 2004–05 29 Most wins Würzburger FV 2009–10 29 Most wins FC Schweinfurt 05 2009–10 29 Fewest wins SC Weismain II 1999–2000 1 Most defeats SC Weismain II 1999–2000 32 Fewest defeats VfL Frohnlach 1979–80 1 Fewest defeats VfL Frohnlach 2010–11 1 Most goals for 1. FC Sand 1999–2000 122 Fewest goals for TSV Trebgast 1990–91 24 Most goals against SC Weismain II 1999–2000 197 Fewest goals against SC 08 Bamberg 1990–91 14 Highest points (2 for a win) FC Schweinfurt 05 1983–84 61 Highest points (2 for a win) SV Heidingsfeld 1984–85 61 Lowest points (2 for a win) TSV Staffelstein 1969–70 7 Highest points (3 for a win) Würzburger FV 2002–03 90 Highest points (3 for a win) Würzburger FV 2004–05 90 Highest points (3 for a win) Würzburger FV 2009–10 90 Lowest points (3 for a win) SC Weismain II 1999–2000 6 == References == ===Sources=== * Die Bayernliga 1945 – 1997, published by the DSFS, 1998 * Deutschlands Fußball in Zahlen, An annual publication with tables and results from the Bundesliga to Verbandsliga/Landesliga, publisher: DSFS * kicker Almanach, The yearbook on German football from Bundesliga to Oberliga, since 1937, published by the kicker Sports Magazine * Süddeutschlands Fussballgeschichte in Tabellenform 1897–1988 History of Southern German football in tables, publisher & author: Ludolf Hyll * 50 Jahre Bayrischer Fussball-Verband 50-year-anniversary book of the Bavarian FA, publisher: Vindelica Verlag, published: 1996 == External links == * Bayrischer Fussball Verband (Bavarian FA) * Das deutsche Fussball Archiv Historic German league tables * Bavarian League tables and results * Website with tables and results from the Bavarian Oberliga to Bezirksliga Nord Category:1963 establishments in West Germany Category:2012 disestablishments in Germany Category:Sports leagues established in 1963 |
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