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Following the success of Operation Grapple in which the United Kingdom became the third nation to acquire thermonuclear weapons after the United States and the Soviet Union, Britain launched negotiations with the US on a treaty under in which both could share information and material to design, test and maintain their nuclear weapons. This effort culminated in the 1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement. One of the results of that treaty was that Britain was allowed to use United States' Nevada Test Site for testing their designs and ideas, and received full support from the personnel there, in exchange for the data "take" from the experiment, a mutual condition. In effect the Nevada Test Site became Britain's test ground, subject only to advance planning and integrating their testing into that of the United States. This resulted in 24 underground tests at the Nevada Test Site from 1958 through the end of nuclear testing in the US in September 1992. The United Kingdom signed the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1996 and ratified it in 1998, confirming the British commitment towards ending nuclear test explosions in the world. == Background == During the early part of the Second World War, Britain had a nuclear weapons project, codenamed Tube Alloys. At the Quebec Conference in August 1943, the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill and the President of the United States, Franklin Roosevelt, signed the Quebec Agreement, which merged Tube Alloys with the American Manhattan Project to create a combined British, American and Canadian project. The British government had trusted that the United States would continue to share nuclear technology, which it regarded as a joint discovery, but the United States Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (McMahon Act) ended technical cooperation. The British government feared that there might be a resurgence of United States isolationism, as had occurred after the First World War, in which case Britain might have to fight an aggressor alone, and that Britain might lose its great power status and its influence in world affairs. It therefore restarted its own development effort, now codenamed High Explosive Research. thumb|left|Federal lands in southern Nevada Implicit in the decision to develop atomic bombs was the need to test them. Lacking open, thinly-populated areas, British officials considered locations overseas. The preferred site was the American Pacific Proving Grounds. A request to use it was sent to the American Joint Chiefs of Staff, but no reply was received until October 1950, when the Americans turned down the request. The uninhabited Monte Bello Islands in Australia were selected as an alternative. Meanwhile, negotiations continued with the Americans. Oliver Franks, the British Ambassador to the United States, lodged a formal request on 2 August 1951 for use of the Nevada Test Site. This was looked upon favourably by the United States Secretary of State, Dean Acheson, and the chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), Gordon Dean, but opposed by the Robert A. Lovett, the Deputy Secretary of Defense and Robert LeBaron, the Deputy Secretary of Defence for Atomic Energy Affairs. In view of security concerns, Lovett and LeBaron wanted the tests to be conducted by Americans, with British participation limited to selected British scientists. President Harry S. Truman endorsed this counterproposal on 24 September 1951. The Nevada Test Site would be cheaper than Monte Bello, although the cost would be paid in scarce dollars. Information gathered would have to be shared with the Americans, who would not share their own data. It would not be possible to test from a ship, and the political advantages in demonstrating that Britain could develop and test nuclear weapons without American assistance would be foregone, and the Americans were under no obligation to make the test site available for subsequent tests. Also, as Lord Cherwell noted, an American test meant that "in the lamentable event of the bomb failing to detonate, we should look very foolish indeed." In the end, Monte Bello was chosen, and the first British atomic bomb was tested there in Operation Hurricane on 3 October 1952. The next British test series, Operation Totem, was conducted at Emu Field in South Australia, but at their conclusion, the British government formally requested a permanent testing site from the Australian government, which led to the agreement on the use of the Maralinga test site in August 1954. The first of the British nuclear tests at Maralinga was held in September 1956. thumb|right|upright|Map of the Nevada Test Site While British atomic bomb development represented an extraordinary scientific and technological achievement, hopes that the United States would be sufficiently impressed to restore the nuclear Special Relationship were dashed. In November 1952, the United States conducted Ivy Mike, the first successful test of a true thermonuclear device or hydrogen bomb. Britain was therefore still several years behind in nuclear weapons technology. The Defence Policy Committee, chaired by Churchill and consisting of the senior Cabinet members, considered the political and strategic implications, and concluded that "we must maintain and strengthen our position as a world power so that Her Majesty's Government can exercise a powerful influence in the counsels of the world." In July 1954, Cabinet agreed to proceed with the development of thermonuclear weapons. The Australian government would not permit thermonuclear tests in Australia, so Christmas Island in the Pacific was chosen for Operation Grapple, the testing of Britain's thermonuclear designs. The Grapple tests were facilitated by the United States, which also claimed the island. Although the initial tests were unsuccessful, the Grapple X test on 8 November 1957 achieved the desired result, and Britain became only the third nation to develop thermonuclear weapon technology. The British weapon makers had demonstrated all of the technologies that were needed to produce a megaton hydrogen bomb that weighed no more than and was immune to premature detonation caused by nearby nuclear explosions. A one-year international moratorium commenced on 31 October 1958, and Britain never resumed atmospheric testing. The Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik 1 on 4 October 1957, came as a tremendous shock to the American public, and amid the widespread calls for action in response to the Sputnik crisis, officials in the United States and Britain seized an opportunity to mend the Anglo-American relationship that had been damaged by the Suez Crisis the year before. The Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, wrote to President Dwight D. Eisenhower on 10 October, urging that the two countries pool their resources, as Macmillan put it, to meet the Soviet challenge on every front, "military, economic and political." The McMahon Act was amended to allow limited exchanges of nuclear weapons data and non-nuclear components of nuclear weapons to nations that had made substantial progress in the field. Only Britain qualified as a nation that had made substantial progress. The bill was signed into law by Eisenhower on 2 July 1958, and the 1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement (MDA) was signed by Dulles and Samuel Hood, the British Minister in Washington, the following day, and approved by the United States Congress on 30 July, thus restoring the Special Relationship. Macmillan called it "the Great Prize". == Testing == The MDA did not specifically address British nuclear testing at the Nevada Test Site (NTS), but it did provide a high-level framework for it to occur. The prospect was raised by the British Ambassador to the United States, Sir Roger Makins, at a meeting with the Chairman of the AEC, Glenn T. Seaborg, and Sir William Penney, the head of nuclear weapons development at the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA). On 3 November 1961, Macmillan wrote to President John F. Kennedy requesting the use of the Nevada Test Site for the testing of Super Octopus, a British kiloton warhead intended for use with the American Skybolt missile that was of great interest to weapon designers on both sides of the Atlantic. The response was positive, and on 8 February 1962, Seaborg announced, specifically referencing the MDA, that there would be a UK nuclear test at the NTS. This developed into a procedure for approval of a British nuclear test. The director of the British Atomic Weapons Research Establishment (AWRE) would lodge a request with the chairman of the AEC, who would then make a recommendation to the president through the Secretary of State and the Secretary of Defence. Every test had to be approved by the president and the National Security Council. thumb|left|Preparing for an underground test at the Nevada Test Site. Final test preparations include running miles of cable downhole which will transmit vital test information to the diagnostic trailers to the left. A rack containing instrumentation to go downhole is assembled in the tower to the right. Subsidence craters from earlier underground tests dot the landscape. A Joint Working Group (JOWOG) was set up to coordinate the British tests. Test safety and containment requirements remained a US Federal responsibility. The JOWOG therefore decided that the UK would provide the test device and diagnostics package, while the US would provide everything else, including the test canister and the data cables leading from it to the trailers with US recording equipment. This threw up issues regarding the interface between the British diagnostics package and the American recording equipment. There were also issues related to procedures, particularly with regard to the testing of electronic and mechanical devices. A further complicating factor was that the US had two rival nuclear weapons laboratories, the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), with different procedures. For the first test, E. R. Drake Seager from the AWRE was designated the trial superintendent and Robert Campbell from LANL was designated the test director, these being the styles of the heads of the British and American teams. The test, codenamed Pampas, was conducted on 1 March 1962. It was Britain's first underground test. The new Super Octopus implosion system worked but the overall result was disappointing. The RO.106 (Tony) warhead was based on the American Tsetse warhead, but used a different, safer but less powerful conventional explosive, EDC11. The result was that the yield was less than Tsetse, and too small to be used as the primary in the Skybolt warhead. A follow-up test of what became the basis for the WE.177 design codenamed Tendrac therefore took place on 7 December 1962, and was judged a success. Subcritical tests were tests with nuclear weapons that did not involve a nuclear explosion. Safety tests involved testing the impact of fire, shock and other accidents against live nuclear weapons. These did not intentionally involve nuclear explosions, although there was always a danger. Tim subcritical tests and Vixen safety tests related to WE.177 were conducted at Maralinga in March and April 1963, but four more British safety tests were conducted in 1963 at the NTS Tonopah Test Range as part of Operation Roller Coaster: Double Tracks on 15 May, Clean Slate 1 on 25 May, Clean Slate 2 on 31 May and Clean Slate 3 on 9 June. The Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, which went into effect on 10 October 1963, banned atmospheric nuclear testing, and the Maralinga range was closed for good in 1967. The Polaris Sales Agreement, which was signed in Washington, DC, on 6 April 1963, meant that a new warhead was required. The Skybolt warhead tested in Tendrac had to be redesigned with a Re-Entry System (RES) that could be fitted to a Polaris missile, at an estimated cost of between £30 million and £40 million. The alternative was to make a British copy of the W58. While the AWRE was familiar with the W47 warhead used in the A2 Polaris missile, it knew nothing of the W58 used in the A3 which the British government had decided to buy. A presidential determination was required to release information on the W58 under the MDA, but with this in hand, a mission led by John Challens, the Chief of Warhead Development at the AWRE, visited the LLNL from 22 to 24 January 1963, and was shown details of the W58. However a carbon copy of the American design was not possible, as the British used a different conventional explosive, and British fissile material was of a different composition of isotopes of plutonium. A new warhead had to be designed. It was given a fission primary codenamed Katie and fusion secondary codenamed Reggie. The whole warhead was given the designation ET.317. thumb|right|upright|The Krakatau subcritical experiment is prepared to be lowered into the tunnel of the U1a Complex at the Nevada Test Site A new test series was required, which was conducted with the LANL. The first was Whetstone Commorant on 17 July 1964. It was followed by Whetstone Courser on 25 September. The latter used an ET.317 Katie, but with 0.45 kg less plutonium. The test was a failure due to a fault in the American-made neutron initiators, and had to be repeated in the Flintlock Charcoal test on 10 September 1965. This test had to be authorised by the Prime Minister, Harold Wilson, and his cabinet. Charcoal produced the highest yield of any UK nuclear test at NTS up to that date. The design saved 166 kg of plutonium across the Polaris warhead stockpile, and reduced the cost of its production by £2.5 million. This was the last UK nuclear test for nine years; in 1965, Wilson suspended all nuclear testing on the grounds that it was unnecessary. In November 1972, the British government secured permission to conduct three more tests at the NTS as part of the Super Antelope, a component of the Chevaline programme, which aimed to harden the UK Polaris missiles against Soviet countermeasures. The first test was Arbor Fallon on 17 July 1974, which was conducted in collaboration with LLNL, as it was the designer of the original Polaris warhead. It was Anvil Banon on 26 August 1976 and Cresset Fondutta 11 April 1978. These aimed to produce a lighter weight which would therefore have the same or greater range than the original ET.317, as shorter range drastically reduced the sea room in which the submarines could operate. A complication arose in 1976 in the form of the Threshold Test Ban Treaty, which limited tests to . Three more tests of Chevaline were subsequently added. Quicksilver Quargel on 20 November 1978 was a test of a warhead which could survive a high-speed re-entry. It worked as designed, producing a yield of . Quicksilver Nessel on 29 August 1979 tested a new lightweight primary, which was of great interest to the Americans. Finally, there was Tinderbox Colwick on 26 April 1980. Starting with Guardian Dutchess on 24 October 1980, British tests were aimed at developing a warhead for a UK Trident missile system. The decision to acquire Trident meant that from 1978, British designers had access to American data on the effects of nuclear weapons on military systems, which had significant effect on designs. The shift to Trident meant that after six tests in collaboration with LLNL, the British testing now switched back to collaboration with LANL. Starting with Cresset Fondutta testing moved out to the Pahute Mesa, where tests could be conducted with less seismic impact on populated areas such as Las Vegas. Tests in Areas 19 and 20 involved travelling up to from the base camp in Mercury, Nevada. After the Praetorian Rousanne test with LANL on 12 November 1981, LLNL again became the American partner, starting with Praetorian Gibne on 12 April 1982. The final test at NTS was Julin Bristol on 26 November 1991. In all, 24 British nuclear tests were conducted at the NTS. == Subcritical testing == Preparations were under way for another test in 1992 when President George H. W. Bush announced a moratorium on testing, much to the surprise of both American and British personnel at the NTS. This moratorium was extended by his successor, President Bill Clinton. In 1996, the United States signed the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), but the US Senate failed to ratify it in 1999. The United Kingdom signed the CTBT in 1996, and ratified it in 1998 becoming, with France, the first two of the five declared nuclear- weapon states to ratify it. This ratification confirmed the UK commitment towards ending nuclear test explosions in the world. Subcritical tests are any type of tests involving nuclear materials and possibly chemical high explosives that purposely result in no yield. The name refers to the lack of creation of a critical mass of fissile material. They are the only type of tests allowed under the interpretation of the CTBT tacitly agreed to by the major atomic powers. Subcritical British nuclear tests in the United States continued, notably Etna (Vito) on 14 February 2002 and Krakatau on 23 February 2006. == Summary == United Kingdom's NTS series tests and detonations |- !style="background:#ffdead;" | Name !style="background:#efefef;" | Date time (UTC) !style="background:#ffdead;" | Local time zone !style="background:#efefef;" | Location !style="background:#ffdead;" | Elevation + height !style="background:#efefef;" | Delivery, Purpose !style="background:#efefef;" | Device !style="background:#ffdead;" | Yield !style="background:#efefef;" class="unsortable" | Fallout !style="background:#ffdead;" class="unsortable" | References |- ! Nougat/Pampas | 19:10:00.09 | style="text-align:center;" | PST (-8 hrs) Name Date time (UTC) Local time zone Location Elevation + height Delivery, Purpose Device Yield Fallout References Nougat/Pampas 19:10:00.09 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U3al - underground shaft WE.177 Venting detected off site, Storax/Tendrac 19:00:00.1 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U3ba - underground shaft Whetstone/Cormorant 17:18:30.03 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U3df - underground shaft Venting detected on site, Whetstone/Courser 17:02:00.03 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U3do - underground shaft Flintlock/Charcoal 17:12:00.03 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U7g - underground shaft, weapons development Polaris warhead? Arbor/Fallon 13:38:30.164 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U2dv - underground shaft, weapons development Chevaline warhead? Venting detected, Anvil/Banon 14:30:00.168 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U2dz - underground shaft, weapons development Chevaline warhead? Venting detected, Cresset/Fondutta 15:30:00.161 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U19zs - underground shaft, weapons development Chevaline warhead? Quicksilver/Quargel 19:00:00.166 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U2fb - underground shaft Chevaline warhead? Venting detected, Quicksilver/Nessel 15:08:00.171 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U2ep - underground shaft Chevaline warhead? Venting detected Tinderbox/Colwick 17:00:00.083 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U20ac - underground shaft Chevaline warhead? Venting detected Guardian/Dutchess 19:15:00.116 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U7bm - underground shaft Guardian/Serpa 15:10:00.086 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U19ai - underground shaft Chevaline warhead? Praetorian/Rousanne 15:00:00.1 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U4p - underground shaft Chevaline warhead? Praetorian/Gibne 18:05:00.008 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U20ah - underground shaft Chevaline warhead? Venting detected, Phalanx/Armada 13:53:00.085 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U9cs - underground shaft Trident warhead? I-131 venting detected, 0 Fusileer/Mundo 19:05:00.093 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U7bo - underground shaft, weapons development Trident warhead? Grenadier/Egmont 19:40:00.089 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U20al - underground shaft, weapons development Trident warhead? Charioteer/Kinibito 15:00:00.067 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U3me - underground shaft, weapons development Trident warhead? Charioteer/Darwin 20:27:45.092 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U20aq - underground shaft, weapons development Trident warhead? Musketeer/Midland 19:00:00.077 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U7by - underground shaft Trident warhead? Aqueduct/Barnwell 15:00:00.087 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U20az - underground shaft, weapons development Trident warhead? Venting detected, Sculpin/Houston 19:17:00.071 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U19az - underground shaft, weapons development Trident warhead? Venting detected Julin/Bristol 18:35:00.073 PST (-8 hrs) NTS Area U4av - underground shaft, weapons development Trident Low Yield warhead? == Notes == == References == * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Category:20th-century military history of the United Kingdom Category:United Kingdom–United States military relations |
( ; ) is a Japanese casual wear designer, manufacturer and retailer. The company is a wholly owned subsidiary of Fast Retailing Co., Ltd. ==History== thumb|upright|Uniqlo flagship store in Shinsaibashisuji, Osaka ===Origins in Japan=== A Yamaguchi-based company, Ogori Shōji (which, until then, had been operating men's clothing shops called "Men's Shop OS") was founded in March 1949 in Ube, Yamaguchi. On 2 June 1984, it opened a unisex casual wear store in Fukuro-machi, Naka-ku, Hiroshima, under the name "Unique Clothing Warehouse". Initially, the brand was going to be registered as a shortened contraction of "unique clothing". However, in 1988, during administration work in Hong Kong for registering the brand, the "C" in the contracted name was misread as "Q". Tadashi Yanai, the head of the family retail conglomerate, liked the sound of the error and shortened the name to "Uniqlo" across Japan. In September 1991, the name of the company was changed from "Ogori Shōji" to "Fast Retailing", and by April 1994, there were over 100 Uniqlo stores operating throughout Japan. ===Private-label strategy=== In 1997, Fast Retailing adopted a set of strategies from American retailer The Gap, known as "SPA" (for specialty-store/retailer of private-label apparel), meaning that they would produce their own clothing and sell it exclusively. They engaged the retail brand consultancy, CIA, Inc./The Brand Architect Group, to guide the company through the realization of this strategy, including consulting on merchandise, visual merchandising and display, store design and a new logo designed by Richard Seireeni and Sy Chen of The Brand Architect Group's Los Angeles office. Uniqlo had begun outsourcing their clothing manufacturing to factories in China where labour was cheap, a well-established corporate practice. Japan was in the depths of a recession at the time, and the low-cost goods proved popular. Their advertising campaigns, clothing quality and new retail layouts also proved fruitful. In November 1998, it opened their first urban Uniqlo store in Tokyo's trendy Harajuku district, and outlets soon spread to major cities throughout Japan. In 2001, sales turnover and gross profit reached a new peak, with over 500 retail stores in Japan. When Uniqlo decided to expand overseas, it separated Uniqlo from the parent company, and established Fast Retailing (Jiangsu) Apparel Co., Ltd. in China. In 2002, their first Chinese Uniqlo outlet was opened in Shanghai along with four overseas outlets in London, England. On 1 November 2005, Fast Retailing transferred the business related to clothing manufacturing and retailing to Sun Road Co., Ltd., a wholly owned subsidiary that operated golf courses through a company split (absorption-type split), and became a holding company. On the same day, Sun Road changed its name to Uniqlo Co., Ltd. 2005 saw more overseas expansion, with stores opening in the United States (New York City), Hong Kong (Tsim Sha Tsui) and South Korea (Seoul), their South Korean expansion being part of a joint venture with Lotte. As of year-end 2005, in addition to its overseas holdings, Uniqlo had around 700 stores within Japan. By 2006, sales were $4 billion. By April 2007, the company had set a global sales goal of $10 billion and a ranking among the top five global retailers, joining what at the time was Gap, H&M;, Inditex and Limited Brands. Fast Retailing signed a design consulting contract for Uniqlo products with fashion designer Jil Sander in March 2009.2009 | FAST RETAILING CO., LTD . Fastretailing.com (2010-12-20). Retrieved on 2011-02-16. Sander was appointed creative director of the brand's menswear and womenswear – as well as launching a new label, +J collection, which won the 2011 Brit Insurance Design Fashion Award. Shiatzy Chen was approached by Uniqlo to produce a capsule collection of ready-to-wear pieces to launch in November 2010, while Asia's largest Uniqlo store outside Japan opened its doors in Kuala Lumpur in the same month. thumb|Uniqlo jeans at their Tokyo store On 2 September 2009, Fast Retailing announced that the company would target annual group sales of 5 trillion yen (approx. US$61.2 billion) and pretax profit from operations of 1 trillion yen (approx. US$12.2 billion) by 2020. This means that the company is aiming to become the world's biggest specialty retailer of private label apparel with a continuous growth rate of 20% per year. The figure breaks down as one trillion yen from Uniqlo's Japan business, three trillion yen from its international business, and one trillion yen from The company's international business target breaks down as one trillion yen in China, one trillion in other Asian countries and one trillion in Europe and the United States.Kensuke Kojima (2011). Uniqlo Syndrome. Toyo Keizai Shinpo Sha. Tenkai Japan. ASIN: B004PYDPOK. Launched in January 2017, "Art for All" was a partnership with New York art dealer and curator Jeffrey Deitch. The project involved selling, for under $100 per item, 65 limited-edition products made by commissioned artists such as Marie Roberts, Starlee Kine and Ken Kagami. In October 2018, Uniqlo collaborated with designer Alexander Wang to create a line of Heattech layerable basics including tank tops, leggings, underwear and bodysuits. On 3 June 2019, artist and recent Dior Homme collaborator KAWS participed on KAWS x UNIQLO UT. "Perhaps because all the other collections were the subdued Uniqlo trademark, KAWS’s subversive art was able to stand out all the more." In November 2022, Uniqlo opens a new remake and repair service in Tokyo. Re. Uniqlo Repair Studio, offers same day repairs and custom remakes of clothing purchased at Uniqlo. It is open for a trial run until 31 March 2023. This was previously introduced at stores in Germany, the UK and US. === Logo === File:Uniqlo 1999.svg|Former Uniqlo logo used from October 1998, continued to be used alongside the current logo in Japan until 2009. File:UNIQLO logo.svg|Current Uniqlo logo used since November 2006. ==International operations== alt=|thumb|300x300px|Map of countries with Uniqlo stores By August 2023, the company forecasts it will operate 3,747 stores worldwide. ===Australia=== Uniqlo opened its first Australian store in Melbourne in April 2014. It expanded into Queensland the following year, with the introduction of two shops in Brisbane. Uniqlo opened a shop in Chadstone Shopping Centre in Melbourne, Victoria, the largest shopping centre in the southern hemisphere, in October 2016 when it was redeveloped. There are currently 25 stores in Australia, including in Perth, Brisbane, Melbourne and Sydney. ===Belgium=== The first Belgian Uniqlo store opened in October 2015 at Meir, Antwerp. A second store followed at the Wijnegem Shopping Center on 25 March in the same year. 19 October 2017 saw the opening of a third store in Brussels.Tine Stoop Uniqlo opent derde Belgische vestiging in Brussel Marie Claire, 19 October 2017 Uniqlo store in Wijnegem Shopping Center has closed in 2022. There were 3 stores in Belgium as of May 2023. ===Canada=== Uniqlo opened their first Canadian store at the Toronto Eaton Centre on 30 September 2016, followed by a second store at the Yorkdale Shopping Centre on 20 October 2016. Measuring at 28,000 and 24,000 square feet, both stores are five times the size of the Muji store that opened in Toronto in 2014. Three new stores in Ontario opened in 2018 at Vaughan Mills, CF Markville and Square One Shopping Centre. Uniqlo opened the new Oshawa location at the Oshawa Centre in March 2019 and opened the new Newmarket location at the Upper Canada Mall in April 2019, bringing the total number of stores in Ontario to seven. A third Canadian store, the first outside of Ontario and the first in Western Canada, opened at Burnaby's Metropolis at Metrotown in October 2017 to be followed by Surrey's Guildford Town Centre and Richmond Centre in Richmond, BC. A new store opened at Coquitlam Centre in Coquitlam, BC on 14 September 2018. A new West Edmonton Mall store opened on 27 September 2019. A location opened on 23 October 2020 at the Montreal Eaton Centre in part of the former Eaton's store (and later Les Ailes de la Mode), the first Uniqlo location in Quebec. There are 14 stores in Canada as of 31 August 2021. Uniqlo plans to open a store in Ottawa in June 2023. ===China=== Uniqlo entered the Chinese mainland market in 2002. As of August 2021, there were 832 stores in China, including in Beijing, Guangzhou, Chongqing, Chengdu, Nanjing, Ningbo, Shanghai, Shenzhen, Shijia, Tianjin and Xi'an. "Given the population of 1.3 billion, I think we can go for about 3,000 stores," Fast Retailing chief Tadashi Yanai told The Nikkei in 2020, indicating plans to continue opening locations in the world's most populous country. In May 2011, the magazine Shukan Bunshun published a story alleging that Uniqlo had forced employees at its stores and factories in China to work long hours for little pay. In response, Uniqlo unsuccessfully sued the weekly's publisher, Bungeishunjū, for ¥220 million for libel.Staff (5 June 2011) "Uniqlo Takes Bungeishunju to Court for Libel" . The Japan Times. Retrieved 11 July 2013. A 2015 online video of a couple having sex in a Beijing Uniqlo store changing room became notorious among Chinese internet users. Chinese police arrested at least five people in connection with the incident, allegedly including the couple and three other disseminators of the video, for having 'severely violated socialist core values'. The New York Times noted that the store's exterior had become a popular venue for people to gather and take pictures in sexual poses reminiscent of the video. ===Denmark=== In April 2019, Uniqlo opened its first Danish store in Copenhagen at Strøget. ===France=== As of May 2023, there were 26 stores in France, 9 of those were in Paris. On 17 November 2014, Uniqlo opened its first store in eastern France (and the second store in France outside Greater Paris) in the city of Strasbourg. ===Germany=== Uniqlo's German flagship store opened on 11 April 2014 at Tauentzienstraße, Berlin.First German Uniqlo Store TrendJam Magazine. Retrieved on 2014-04-06 Uniqlo then opened a store in Stuttgart (2016), Cologne, Düsseldorf (2018) and Hamburg (2020). By 2021 the company operated ten stores in Germany, six of which were in Berlin. It was reported in 2023 that Uniqlo would open another flagship store in Munich in the historic Old Academy building. ===India=== Uniqlo opened its first Indian store New Delhi in October 2019, following the company's announcement about the same on 9 May 2018. The company will set up a wholly owned subsidiary in India. As of April 2023, there are 10 stores in India. ===Indonesia=== On 22 June 2013, Uniqlo opened its first Indonesian store at Lotte Mall Ciputra World 1 (formerly Lotte Shopping Avenue), Jakarta. It has 63 stores as of May 2023, spreading east to Balikpapan, Bandung, Banjarmasin, Denpasar, Makassar, Manado, Mataram, Pontianak, Samarinda, Semarang, Surakarta, Surabaya and Yogyakarta, and west to Batam, Jambi, Lampung, Medan, Palembang and Pekanbaru. On 9 April 2021, its Indonesian flagship and most iconic store opened at Pondok Indah Mall 3, Jakarta. On 28 October 2022, Uniqlo opened its first roadside store in Indonesia at Heritage Lifestyle Hub in Bandung, West Java, thus became the sixth country outside Japan to get a Uniqlo roadside store. The second Uniqlo roadside store as well as its first neighborhood store in Indonesia opened at One District at Puri in Metland Cyber Puri in Tangerang, Banten on 26 May 2023. ===Italy=== In September 2019, Uniqlo opened its first Italian store in Milan at Piazza Cordusio square. Uniqlo plans to open another stores in the future. ===Malaysia=== On 4 November 2010, Uniqlo opened its first store in Malaysia, in Fahrenheit 88 located in Bukit Bintang, Kuala Lumpur. As of October 2021, Uniqlo now has 48 outlets located across Malaysia, including an online store. Malaysia became the fifth country outside Japan to get a Uniqlo roadside store. The 15,100-square feet store, located in Bandar Sri Damansara was opened in December 2020. ===Netherlands=== The first Dutch Uniqlo store was opened at the Kalverstraat in Amsterdam on 28 September 2018. The official opening was marred by protests against Uniqlo's unethical business practices in its factory in Jakarta, Indonesia. As of August 2021, a second store was opened at the Grote Marktstraat in The Hague. ===Philippines=== Uniqlo's first store in the Philippines opened at the SM Mall of Asia on 15 June 2012. On its sixth anniversary, the company opened its flagship store in the country at Glorietta 5 in Makati, it opened on 5 October 2018. The store is the biggest in Southeast Asia. Uniqlo had 60 stores across the Philippines as of October 2019. It has partnered with the SM Group's SM Retail Inc. to bring the brand to the Philippines. As of August 2021, there were 63 stores in Philippines. ===Poland=== In October 2022, Uniqlo opened its first Polish store in Warsaw's Junior shopping centre. The store covers 1,500 square meters on two floors. ===South Korea=== In November 2011, Uniqlo () generated more than 2 billion won ($1.7 million) in one day's sales on 11 November when it opened Asia's largest flagship store in central Seoul. The sales figure was the highest ever set by a fashion outlet in Korea. Uniqlo sales over US$1.2 billion with 150 shops in South Korea. Lotte owns 49% of Uniqlo's Korean subdiary. It currently operates 134. stores in South Korea. On 6 December 2020, the flagship store in Myeong-dong was closed due to low sales from COVID-19 and anti-Japanese protests. ===Singapore=== As of 2022, Uniqlo had 27 stores in Singapore. Uniqlo opened its first store in Singapore on 9 April 2009 in Tampines 1, which has been closed down on 17 January 2021 and instead, a new store at Tampines Mall was opened on 5 February 2021 and has the similar format as Bugis+, ION Orchard, JEM, Orchard Central and Plaza Singapura which has two floors, one for men and one for women. The first Global Flagship Store opened on 2 September 2016 at Orchard Central replacing 313 @ Somerset. Numerous expansion plans were unveiled in 2020 and Uniqlo ION Orchard and Plaza Singapura, were also heavily expanded and is called "Uniqlotown" for Orchard Road. ===Spain=== Uniqlo began operations in Spain in 2016 with its online store, and in September 2017 opened its flagship store in Barcelona (Passeig de Gràcia). It also owns three more stores in Barcelona and two stores in Madrid. As of May 2023, there were 6 stores in Spain. ===Sweden=== In August 2018, Uniqlo opened its first Swedish store in Stockholm at Kungsträdgården square. As of May 2023, there were 3 stores in Sweden, also in Gothenburg and Solna. ===Taiwan=== Uniqlo opened its first store in Taiwan on 5 October 2010 at Hankyu Department Store in Taipei. Then, on 23 September 2011, Uniqlo opened its sixth flagship store worldwide in Ming Yao Department Store in Taipei, which covers an area of across four floors with 39 fitting rooms and 45 cashier counters. As of June 2022, there are 70 stores in Taiwan. ===Thailand=== Uniqlo open first store in Thailand on 9 September 2011 at Central World. As of January 2023, there were 62 stores in Thailand. ===United Kingdom=== As of May 2023, There were 17 stores in the UK, 11 of those were in London. Ambitious expansion plans in the early 2000s were reversed, with 16 shops being closed in 2003, including those in Manchester, Coventry, and Leicester. Uniqlo opened a brand new shop in Manchester on Market Street in April 2019. ===United States=== In September 2005, Uniqlo opened its first United States store in the Menlo Park Mall located in Edison, New Jersey. In November 2006, Uniqlo opened its first global flagship store in the SoHo fashion district of Manhattan, New York City. New fashion designers joined the store's team to boost and rebirth fashion concepts catering to the US market. As part of Fast Retailing's 2020 plan, the company has stated that it plans to generate $10 billion in annual sales in the United States from 200 stores, which will lead to a location in every major U.S. city. This goal was stated when the company's only U.S. presence was its handful of stores in the New York City area, soon after the company began an expansion in the United States. In October 2015, Uniqlo opened its first store in the Midwest with a Chicago store on Michigan Avenue. In October 2019, Uniqlo signed a lease for its first North American distribution center in Phillipsburg, NJ, leasing a space of over 950,000 sq ft. As of August 2021, there were 43 stores in USA. === Vietnam === On 17 October 2019, Uniqlo officially arranged the first store in Vietnam, which is expected to open at the end of 2019 in District 1, the center of Ho Chi Minh City. Located on a corner of Le Thanh Ton and Dong Khoi streets, UNIQLO Dong Khoi is located right in front of Parkson Saigon Tourist Plaza, one of the most popular and widely known shopping destinations. Uniqlo opened a second store on 6 March 2020 in Hanoi in the popular shopping center "Vincom Center Phạm Ngọc Thạch". The store covers 760 square meters on two floors. As of June 2023, there were 17 stores in Vietnam. ==Controversies== In January 2015, a number of labor rights violations were reported at Uniqlo suppliers in China. Uniqlo pledged to remedy the violations. In June 2015, Chinese Uniqlo factory workers were permitted by the Chinese Communist Party regime to demonstrate after a factory closure. In November 2015, investigations into the measures Uniqlo introduced in the wake of the January 2015 revelations found that the remedies had been only partially successful, with significant violations continuing to occur. In October 2016, the report This Way to Dystopia: Exposing UNIQLO's Abuse of Chinese Garment Workers by SACOM and War on Want claimed that it was still the case that "excessive overtime, low pay, dangerous working conditions and oppressive management" were common in Uniqlo factories in China and Cambodia. In 2019, a number of Australian workers reported that bullying and harassment is rife, there were "shouting rooms", and a toxic work culture. They claimed they had to work 18-hour days, had to fold seven shirts per minute, and that everyone leaves with "some form of PTSD". Also in 2019, an international Uniqlo advert was uniquely subtitled for the South Korean market in a manner widely perceived there to have trivialized the trauma of comfort women. In January 2021, Uniqlo shirts were blocked at the US border over concerns of violations related to a ban on cotton products produced in the Xinjiang region of China due to reports of forced labour. A protest was filed by Uniqlo's parent company Fast Retailing, but was denied. At the onset of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Fast Retailing initially decided to remain in the Russian market, saying that clothing is a "necessity of life". Following backlash, on 10 March 2022 the company announced to stop operating in Russia, citing "a number of difficulties, including operational challenges and the worsening of the conflict situation." ==References== == External links == * Category:Fast Retailing Category:Clothing brands of Japan Category:Clothing companies of Japan Category:Clothing retailers of Japan Category:Companies based in Yamaguchi Prefecture Category:Japanese brands Category:Japanese companies established in 1949 Category:Clothing companies established in 1949 Category:Retail companies established in 1949 Category:Retail companies based in Tokyo Category:Manufacturing companies based in Tokyo Category:Sportswear brands Category:2020s fashion |
Bosnian (; / , ), sometimes referred as Bosniak language, is the standardized variety of the Serbo-Croatian pluricentric language mainly used by ethnic Bosniaks. Bosnian is one of three such varieties considered official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina,See Art. 6 of the Constitution of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, available at the official website of Office of the High Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina along with Croatian and Serbian. It is also an officially recognized minority language in Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Kosovo. Bosnian uses both the Latin and Cyrillic alphabets, with Latin in everyday use. It is notable among the varieties of Serbo-Croatian for a number of Arabic, Persian and Ottoman Turkish loanwords, largely due to the language's interaction with those cultures through Islamic ties. Bosnian is based on the most widespread dialect of Serbo-Croatian, Shtokavian, more specifically on Eastern Herzegovinian, which is also the basis of standard Croatian, Serbian and Montenegrin varieties. Therefore, the Declaration on the Common Language of Croats, Serbs, Bosniaks and Montenegrins was issued in 2017 in Sarajevo. (NSK). (FFZG) Until the 1990s, the common language was called Serbo-CroatianRadio Free Europe – Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Or Montenegrin? Or Just 'Our Language'? Živko Bjelanović: Similar, But Different, Feb 21, 2009, accessed Oct 8, 2010 and that term is still used in English, along with "Bosnian-Croatian-Montenegrin- Serbian" (BCMS), especially in diplomatic circles. ==Alphabet== Table over the modern Bosnian alphabet in both Latin and Cyrillic, as well as with the IPA value: {| class="wikitable" Cyrillic Latin IPA value А а A a B b В в V v Г г G g Д д D d Ђ ђ Đ đ Е е E e Ж ж Ž ž З з Z z И и I i Ј ј J j К к K k Л л L l Љ љ Lj lj М м M m |} ==History== ===Standardization=== thumb|School book of Latin and Bosnian, 1827 thumb|Bosnian Grammar, 1890 Although Bosnians are, at the level of vernacular idiom, linguistically more homogeneous than either Serbians or Croatians, unlike those nations they failed to codify a standard language in the 19th century, with at least two factors being decisive: *The Bosnian elite, as closely intertwined with Ottoman life, wrote predominantly in foreign (Arabic, Persian, Ottoman Turkish) languages. Vernacular literature written in Bosnian with the Arebica script was relatively thin and sparse. *The Bosnians' national emancipation lagged behind that of the Serbs and Croats and because denominational rather than cultural or linguistic issues played the pivotal role, a Bosnian language project did not arouse much interest or support amongst the intelligentsia of the time. The modern Bosnian standard took shape in the 1990s and 2000s. Lexically, Islamic-Oriental loanwords are more frequent; phonetically: the phoneme /x/ (letter h) is reinstated in many words as a distinct feature of vernacular Bosniak speech and language tradition; also, there are some changes in grammar, morphology and orthography that reflect the Bosniak pre-World War I literary tradition, mainly that of the Bosniak renaissance at the beginning of the 20th century. ===Gallery=== File:Nauk krstjanski za narod slovinski - Divković (1611).jpg|Nauk krstjanski za narod slovinski, by Matija Divković, the first Bosnian printed book. Published in Venice, 1611 File:Bosnian dictionary by Muhamed Hevaji Uskufi Bosnevi in 1631.jpg|Bosnian dictionary by Muhamed Hevaji Uskufi Bosnevi, 1631 File:Free Will and Acts of Faith WDL2986.pdf|The Free Will and Acts of Faith, manuscript from the early 19th century File:Bosnian Book of the Science of Conduct WDL7479.pdf|The Bosnian Book of the Science of Conduct by 'Abdulvehab Žepčevi, 1831 File:Bosnian Grammar for High Schools. Parts 1 and 2, Study of Voice and Form WDL7482.pdf|Bosnian Grammar, 1890 ===Controversy and recognition=== The name "Bosnian language" is a controversial issue for some Croats and Serbs, who also refer to it as the "Bosniak" language (, ). Bosniak linguists however insist that the only legitimate name is "Bosnian" language () and that that is the name that both Croats and Serbs should use. The controversy arises because the name "Bosnian" may seem to imply that it is the language of all Bosnians, while Bosnian Croats and Serbs reject that designation for their idioms. The language is called Bosnian language in the 1995 Dayton Accords and is concluded by observers to have received legitimacy and international recognition at the time. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO), United States Board on Geographic Names (BGN) and the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names (PCGN) recognize the Bosnian language. Furthermore, the status of the Bosnian language is also recognized by bodies such as the United Nations, UNESCO and translation and interpreting accreditation agencies, including internet translation services. Most English-speaking language encyclopedias (Routledge, Glottolog, Ethnologue, etc.)Bernard Comrie (ed.): The World's Major Languages. Second Edition. Routledge, New York/London, 2009 register the language solely as "Bosnian" language. The Library of Congress registered the language as "Bosnian" and gave it an ISO-number. The Slavic language institutes in English-speaking countries offer courses in "Bosnian" or "Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian" language, not in "Bosniak" language (e.g. Columbia, Cornell, Chicago, Washington, Kansas). The same is the case in German-speaking countries, where the language is taught under the name , not (e.g. Vienna, Graz, Trier) with very few exceptions. Some Croatian linguists (Zvonko Kovač, Ivo Pranjković, Josip Silić) support the name "Bosnian" language, whereas others (Radoslav Katičić, Dalibor Brozović, Tomislav Ladan) hold that the term Bosnian language is the only one appropriate and that accordingly the terms Bosnian language and Bosniak language refer to two different things. The Croatian state institutions, such as the Central Bureau of Statistics, use both terms: "Bosniak" language was used in the 2001 census,Central Bureau of Statistics of the Republic of Croatia Census of 2001, Population by native language while the census in 2011 used the term "Bosnian" language. The majority of Serbian linguists hold that the term Bosniak language is the only one appropriate, which was agreed as early as 1990.Svein Mønnesland, »Language Policy in Bosnia-Herzegovina« (pp 135–155). In: Language : Competence–Change–Contact = Sprache : Kompetenz – Kontakt – Wandel, edited by: Annikki Koskensalo, John Smeds, Rudolf de Cillia, Ángel Huguet; Berlin; Münster : Lit Verlag, 2012, , p. 143. "Already in 1990 the Committee for the Serbian language decided that only the term 'Bosniac language' should be used officially in Serbia, and this was confirmed in 1998." The original form of The Constitution of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina called the language "Bosniac language", until 2002 when it was changed in Amendment XXIX of the Constitution of the Federation by Wolfgang Petritsch. The original text of the Constitution of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina was agreed in Vienna and was signed by Krešimir Zubak and Haris Silajdžić on March 18, 1994. The constitution of , the Serb-dominated entity within Bosnia and Herzegovina, did not recognize any language or ethnic group other than Serbian. Bosniaks were mostly expelled from the territory controlled by the Serbs from 1992, but immediately after the war they demanded the restoration of their civil rights in those territories. The Bosnian Serbs refused to make reference to the Bosnian language in their constitution and as a result had constitutional amendments imposed by High Representative Wolfgang Petritsch. However, the constitution of refers to it as the Language spoken by Bosniaks, because the Serbs were required to recognise the language officially, but wished to avoid recognition of its name. Serbia includes the Bosnian language as an elective subject in primary schools. Montenegro officially recognizes the Bosnian language: its 2007 Constitution specifically states that although Montenegrin is the official language, Serbian, Bosnian, Albanian and Croatian are also in official use. See Art. 13 of the Constitution of the Republic of Montenegro, adopted on 19 October 2007, available at the website of the Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Montenegro ===Historical usage of the term=== *In the work Skazanie izjavljenno o pismeneh that was written between 1423 and 1426, the Bulgarian chronicler Constantine the Philosopher, in parallel with the Bulgarian, Serbian, Slovenian, Czech and Croatian, he also mentions the Bosnian language. *The notary book of the town of Kotor from July 3, 1436, recounts a duke buying a girl that is described as a: "Bosnian woman, heretic and in the Bosnian language called Djevena".Aleksandar Solovjev, Trgovanje bosanskim robljem do god. 1661. - Glasnik Zemaljskog muzeja, N. S., 1946, 1, 151. *The work Thesaurus Polyglottus, published in Frankfurt am Main in 1603 by the German historian and linguist Hieronymus Megiser, mentions the Bosnian dialect alongside the Dalmatian, Croatian and Serbian one.V. Putanec, Leksikografija, Enciklopedija Jugoslavije, V, 1962, 504. *The Bosnian Franciscan Matija Divković, regarded as the founder of the modern literature of Bosnia and Herzegovina, asserts in his work Nauk krstjanski za narod slovinski ("The Christian doctrine for the Slavic peoples") from 1611 his "translation from Latin to the real and true Bosnian language" (A privideh iz dijačkog u pravi i istinit jezik bosanski) *Bosniak poet and Aljamiado writer Muhamed Hevaji Uskufi Bosnevi who refers to the language of his 1632 dictionary Magbuli-arif as Bosnian. *One of the first grammarians, the Jesuit clergyman Bartolomeo Cassio calls the language used in his work from 1640 Ritual rimski ('Roman Rite') as naški ('our language') or bosanski ('Bosnian'). He used the term "Bosnian" even though he was born in a Chakavian region: instead he decided to adopt a "common language" () based on a version of Shtokavian Ikavian.Vatroslav Jagić, Iz prošlost hrvatskog jezika. Izabrani kraći spisi. Zagreb, 1948, 49. *The Italian linguist Giacomo Micaglia (1601–1654) who states in his dictionary Blagu jezika slovinskoga (Thesaurus lingue Illyricae) from 1649 that he wants to include "the most beautiful words" adding that "of all Illyrian languages the Bosnian is the most beautiful", and that all Illyrian writers should try to write in that language. *18th century Bosniak chronicler Mula Mustafa Bašeskija who argues in his yearbook of collected Bosnian poems that the "Bosnian language" is much richer than the Arabic, because there are 45 words for the verb "to go" in Bosnian. *The Venetian writer, naturalist and cartographer Alberto Fortis (1741–1803) calls in his work Viaggio in Dalmazia ("Journey to Dalmatia") the language of Morlachs as Illyrian, Morlach and Bosnian. *The Croatian writer and lexicographer Matija Petar Katančić published six volumes of biblical translations in 1831 described as being "transferred from Slavo-Illyrian to the pronunciation of the Bosnian language". *Croatian writer Matija Mažuranić refers in the work Pogled u Bosnu (1842) to the language of Bosnians as Illyrian (a 19th-century synonym to South Slavic languages) mixed with Turkish words, with a further statement that they are the speakers of the Bosniak language. *The Bosnian Franciscan Ivan Franjo Jukić states in his work Zemljopis i Poviestnica Bosne (1851) that Bosnia was the only Turkish land (i.e. under the control of the Ottoman Empire) that remained entirely pure without Turkish speakers, both in the villages and so on the highlands. Further he states "[...] a language other than the Bosnian is not spoken [in Bosnia], the greatest Turkish [i.e. Muslim] gentlemen only speak Turkish when they are at the Vizier". *Ivan Kukuljević Sakcinski, a 19th-century Croatian writer and historian, stated in his work Putovanje po Bosni (Travels into Bosnia) from 1858, how the 'Turkish' (i.e. Muslim) Bosniaks, despite converting to the Muslim faith, preserved their traditions and the Slavic mood, and that they speak the purest variant of the Bosnian language, by refusing to add Turkish words to their vocabulary. ==Differences between Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian== The differences between the Bosnian, Serbian, and Croatian literary standards are minimal. Although Bosnian employs more Turkish, Persian, and Arabic loanwords—commonly called orientalisms— mainly in its spoken variety due to the reason that most of Bosnian speakers are Muslims, but it is still very similar to both Serbian and Croatian in its written and spoken form. "Lexical differences between the ethnic variants are extremely limited, even when compared with those between closely related Slavic languages (such as standard Czech and Slovak, Bulgarian and Macedonian), and grammatical differences are even less pronounced. More importantly, complete understanding between the ethnic variants of the standard language makes translation and second language teaching impossible." The Bosnian language, as a new normative register of the Shtokavian dialect, was officially introduced in 1996 with the publication of in Sarajevo. According to that work, Bosnian differed from Serbian and Croatian on some main linguistic characteristics, such as: sound formats in some words, especially "h" ( versus Serbian ); substantial and deliberate usage of Oriental ("Turkish") words; spelling of future tense () as in Croatian but not Serbian () (both forms have the same pronunciation). 2018, in the new issue of , words without "h" are accepted due to their prevalence in language practice.Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: (6-13 minute) ==Sample text== Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Bosnian, written in the Cyrillic script: :Сва људска бића рађају се слободна и једнака у достојанству и правима. Она су обдарена разумом и свијешћу и треба да једно према другоме поступају у духу братства. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Bosnian, written in the Latin alphabet: :Sva ljudska bića rađaju se slobodna i jednaka u dostojanstvu i pravima. Ona su obdarena razumom i sviješću i treba da jedno prema drugome postupaju u duhu bratstva. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English: :All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. ==See also== *Abstand and ausbau languages *Bosniaks *Dialects of Serbo-Croatian *Humac tablet *Hval's Codex *Language secessionism in Serbo-Croatian *Muhamed Hevaji Uskufi Bosnevi *Mutual intelligibility *Oriental Institute in Sarajevo *Pluricentric Serbo-Croatian language *Declaration on the Common Language 2017 ==Notes== ==References== ==Sources and further reading== * * * * (COBISS-BH). * (ÖNB). * * ==External links== * Basic Bosnian Phrases * Learn Bosnian – List of Online Bosnian Courses * English–Bosnian dictionary on Glosbe * * Category:Bosniak culture Category:Languages of Albania Category:Languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina Category:Languages of Croatia Category:Languages of Serbia Category:Languages of Montenegro Category:Languages of Kosovo Category:Languages of Turkey Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Slavic languages written in Latin script |
Prototype 2 (stylized as [PROTOTYPE2]) is a 2012 action-adventure video game developed by Radical Entertainment and published by Activision, and the sequel to 2009's Prototype. First announced at the 2010 Spike VGA Awards, it was released in April 2012 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360, and in July 2012 for Microsoft Windows. In July 2015, the game was re-released alongside its predecessor as the Prototype Biohazard Bundle for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. Separate versions of the two games became available in August 2015. Prototype 2 shifts the focus towards a new protagonist, former U.S. Marine Sergeant James Heller, who seeks revenge on Alex Mercer, the protagonist of the original Prototype, after the death of his family during a new outbreak of the Blacklight virus in Manhattan, which was started by Mercer. Heller is infected with a strain of the virus that allows him to keep his humanity while granting him powers similar to Mercer's, including shapeshifting and consuming people, which he uses in his mission to stop Mercer and the Blacklight outbreak. Upon release, Prototype 2 received generally positive reviews for the PlayStation 3 and Windows versions, and mixed reviews for the Xbox 360 version. Most critics praised it for its entertaining gameplay and improvements over its predecessor in certain areas, although the game's repetitive nature and the main storyline attracted criticism. While the game was a top seller at the time of release, its dwindling sales eventually resulted in the downsizing of Radical Entertainment. A tie-in comic book miniseries, which bridges the gap between the two Prototype games, was published by Dark Horse Comics. == Gameplay == Similarly to its predecessor, Prototype 2 is an action-adventure game played from a third-person perspective and set in an open world based on modern-day Manhattan. Like Alex Mercer in the first game, the player character, James Heller, can shapeshift and assume other people's identities and memories by consuming them, although in the sequel this has become more tactical. Due to Blackwatch's actions in the Yellow Zone, if the player assumes the role of a soldier, people will react to him in a way that shows that they want nothing to do with him. To make sure that enemies do not overwhelm the player, a dodging system and new, more realistic AI were introduced. Heller is able to use weapons in the game, such as ripping the Gatling cannon off a tank and using it against enemies. He can also sneak up on unsuspecting human enemies and inject them with the Blacklight virus, turning them into a "BioBomb". Heller also possesses superhuman strength and agility, near-invulnerability to harm, near-flight leaping and gliding, infinite stamina, increased speed, and a sonar sense. The sonar includes a new pulse ability that highlights the key features of an environment to make it easier for the player to find someone, instead of looking in a large crowd for a person with an icon above their head. Before release, the developers stated that the powers in Prototype 2 would be more meaningful than in the first game, appearing as mutations and upgrades that let players decide how they want to play as Heller. To give players more power in the game, the developers have added tendrils which sprout from Heller's arms and can be used for a variety of purposes, like smashing objects into other objects, such as a car into a tank, utilising the 'Black Hole' attack. Players are also able to dismember enemies, a force that becomes more useful as the game progresses. There are many more ways to kill enemies, ranging from throwing a car at a group of soldiers, hacking off a mutant's head or using powers. Consuming people has not changed since the original Prototype, with the exception of some enemies, which are consumed upon grabbing them (e.g. Supersoldiers, Brawlers). Heller can additionally control a pack of Brawlers (similar to Prototypes Hunters) to attack anything he desires (note: this power is limited to main variant of Brawler). In the game, players can no longer find 'Events' throughout NYZ (New York Zero, the name given to New York after the Blacklight outbreak), instead starting side-missions by hacking into Blacknet, Blackwatch's system that details military operations in the three areas of NYZ. Heller can choose from a small list of missions at each terminal, allowing him to find operations that he can disrupt or take control of for his own purposes and find important people that will allow him to learn more about what he has become because of the Blacklight virus. It will also help him find out more about Alex Mercer and how he is connected to his family's death. The missions that are selectable can be sidequests or extensions to one of the main quests. == Plot == The story of Prototype 2 begins in 2009, one year after the events of the first game, when U.S. Marine Sergeant James Heller, returning from a tour in Iraq, discovers his wife and daughter to be declared dead, causing him to rejoin the military in the fight for NYZ against the Blacklight virus. Heller finds out that Alex Mercer, who stopped the original Blacklight infection in 2008, is behind the new outbreak, having lost his faith in humanity and wishing to wipe it out to usher in a new golden age. Heller pursues vengeance against Mercer for the death of his family, but during a confrontation between the two, Heller is infected with Mercer's strain of Blacklight that imbues him with superhuman abilities, and blacks out. He later awakens in a Yellow Zone lab where Gentek scientist Dr. Anton Koenig and Blackwatch Col. Douglas Rooks are experimenting on him. Heller escapes and is confronted by Mercer, who claims that the former should take his revenge on Gentek and Blackwatch, since they are responsible for recreating and cultivating the Blacklight virus. Revealing his plans to take down Gentek and Blackwatch, Mercer offers a truce to Heller. Unsure of Mercer's intentions, Heller goes to his local pastor, Father Luis Guerra, for advice and help. Using information supplied by Guerra, Heller hacks into Blacknet Terminals to find out about and sabotage their operations. Gradually consuming his way through Blackwatch, Heller eventually finds and confronts Koenig, who claims to be on his side and reveals Blackwatch's super-soldier program, codenamed "Project :Orion". Heller prevents the project's progress by killing a super-soldier who was injected with his DNA. After consuming one of the head scientists, Heller discovers that Koenig was observing him in order to find his weaknesses. Enraged at Koenig's betrayal, Heller tracks him down, and discovers that he has powers similar to his and Mercer's, and is one of several "Evolved" agents planted in Gentek and Blackwatch by Mercer. After defeating and consuming Koenig, Mercer reveals to Heller that he intends to recruit him in an attempt to control NYZ. His doubts growing, Guerra then shows Heller a video tape of Mercer releasing the virus for the second time in Penn Station. Enraged at Mercer's deception, Heller sets off to the Green Zone to hunt down Mercer's henchmen, including an Evolved agent in Gentek named Sabrina Galloway; upon confronting Galloway, however, Heller reluctantly teams up with her when she reveals she can help him take down Mercer. With Galloway's help, Heller finds that Mercer plans to infect the entire world through "Whitelight", a contaminated vaccine released by Gentek that accelerates the infection. Frustrated with Heller sabotaging his plans, Mercer confronts him. The two fight, and Mercer easily overpowers Heller. However, Mercer is unable to consume Heller due to his 'annoyingly resistant DNA', solidifying Heller's status as a virus-human hybrid. Mercer flees, and Heller receives a call from Guerra, who informs him that a horde of infected have amassed outside his apartment. Heller rushes to save Guerra, only to find him already dead. Heller uses Guerra's phone to reach Athena, Guerra's contact, who is revealed to be Mercer's sister Dana. Dana explains that Heller's daughter, Maya, is still alive, prompting Heller to head for the Red Zone to save her. After Heller prevents Blackwatch's second attempt to level Manhattan, Rooks takes Maya hostage in the Gentek Headquarters. Heller storms the base and confronts Rooks, who reveals that he also has a daughter and grants Heller free passage to leave NYZ. Before Heller can take Maya, Galloway arrives and kidnaps her, having joined forces with Mercer once more. Upon confronting Mercer, he reveals that he plans to solve international conflicts and world problems by infecting the entire human race, effectively creating a superorganism, with Maya's unique DNA acting as the catalyst. After Mercer absorbs Galloway and the remaining Evolved, the two fight once more. Heller defeats Mercer, and consumes him. Subsequently, Heller wipes out the infected in NYZ along with most of the Blacklight virus; using Mercer's absorbed memories, Heller then locates and frees Maya and Dana from a vault. The game ends with the three overlooking New York, before Dana questions what to do next. == Development == Development of the game started soon after the success of the first game and was in development for three years. The game was first shown at the Spike 2010 VGA Awards in December. The game was revealed to be the main focus of the April 2011 EGM Issue. It was displayed in EGM and EGMI in 2011 revealing many new details about the game's plot, characters and gameplay. The game's graphics have been completely updated with buildings being much more detailed and deformation of vehicles, mutants and humans being much more visual. The game was also partially written by Dan Jolley. Prototype 2 was built using the Titanium 2.0 game engine. === Radnet === Prior to the game's launch, Radical Entertainment announced Radnet for Prototype 2 users who would either pre-order the game or buy a new copy. Radnet offers the player weekly in game abilities, events, challenges and avatar items. Upon the launch of the game, first-run copies and pre-ordered copies of the game would include 55 pieces of additional add-on downloadable content (DLC) at no extra cost. Included in the pre-order/launch content was in-game events, additional and optional challenges, avatar items for the Xbox 360 and themes for the PlayStation 3 and behind the scenes videos. In order to make Radnet coherent to players, Activision announced that the events playable in Radnet would be outside of the game's main storyline. The 55 pieces of DLC would be launched by Radical weekly from April 24 until June 7, with content available forever once unlocked. To earn the rewards given for an event or a challenge for a given week of DLC, players had to achieve at least a bronze medal in events and a minimal score threshold in challenges. To make Radnet more accessible, content will be available to all profiles on the console where Radnet was unlocked. == Promotion == To promote the game, Radical Entertainment launched a Facebook app for the game. The app is called Blacknet, named after the game's mission system, and it allows fans to work together to "hack" the interface. Hacking it will allow the fans to uncover a series of videos, interviews and other behind the scenes content, all in the run up to the game's launch. Also via Facebook, Radical unveiled that they would announce something huge for Prototype 2 at ComicCon. This was the ability to let people play the game, they also released the first of three trailers detailing the story of Prototype 2. At ComicCon, Activision held a raffle in which the winner won either the jacket worn by James Heller, or Alex Mercer's jacket; and a custom skinned Xbox 360. At ComicCon, Activision employees were handing out Prototype 2 themed merchandise, including T-shirts, posters, giant foam Heller Blade Arms and more materials based on the game. Activision released for iOS an official game titled ProtoSlice, available free to download. Activision has released a couple of trailers, Radical Entertainment's team also went to Paris to promote the game in February 2012, and had a video interview with JeuxVideo Live. A popular commercial for the release of the game used the song "Hurt", as sung by Johnny Cash, in the background. === Comic book === Ahead of the game's release, Radical Entertainment revealed that, just like the first game, Prototype 2 would receive a comic book prequel miniseries that bridges the gap between the two games. Published by Dark Horse Comics, the miniseries comprises three volumes, each consisting of two issues. The first volume, titled The Anchor, follows Alex Mercer as he travels across the globe to eradicate any remaining traces of the Blacklight virus while questioning his own morality and whether the virus has turned him into humanity's killer or its savior. Alex slowly begins to decide that he is the planet's savior and will usher it into a new age of prosperity once he wipes out humanity. While he temporarily changes his mind after falling for a woman, that woman ends up betraying him, causing Alex to vow to wipe out humanity. He then returns to New York City and turns it into New York Zero (NYZ) once again by unleashing the Blacklight virus upon its population. The second volume, titled The Survivors, focuses on a former police officer, Conrad, who joins up with Ami Levin, a religiously tolerant person, and Marcie, an art student. The three run afoul of Lieutenant Riley; he would, however, agree to let Conrad see his wife, so long he agrees to work for Gentek. Unbeknownst to Conrad, his wife is dead, and he ended up in a project called Orion. The third and final volume, titled The Labyrinth, introduces the characters of James Heller and Mike Marcos. == Reception == === Pre-release === Out of all Activision's titles displayed at Comic Con, Prototype 2 was the most well received. Greg Miller of IGN awarded Prototype 2 as Activision's best game at Comic Con and did not mention anything negative in his preview for the game. === Release === Prototype 2 received "generally favorable reviews" on all platforms except the Xbox 360 version, which received "average" reviews, according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. PlanetXbox360 called the game a "wonderful sequel that surpasses the original". At the time of his departure from the show, Community creator Dan Harmon considered Prototype 2 a great game. GameZone gave the PlayStation 3 version a score of nine out of ten and said it was "everything you could expect from a sequel, really. While there are certain elements that once again hunker back to the old days of Ultimate Destruction, Radical Entertainment has stepped up with a piece of sheer rollicking, do-whatever-you-want entertainment." Edge gave the same console version eight out of ten and said, "There's a dazzling seamlessness to every aspect of Prototype 2. You feel it as you traverse the world, sprinting powerfully up buildings, bounding high into the air just as you reach the lip of the roof and then transitioning with a tap of the right trigger into a glide that will take you to the next rooftop." 411Mania gave the game a score of eight out of ten and called it "a decent game. It's less frustrating than the first, with more options for customization, better abilities and more stuff to do. It's hampered though by a garbage storyline and a serious lack of Barry Pepper. It's worth a look if you liked the first game, or if you like super hero games at all." The Guardian gave the Xbox 360 version a similar score of four stars out of five and stated, "The very purity of purpose which makes the game such a fine arcade killbox also renders it unengaging on any level that isn't soggy and littered with stray organs. So while as a destruction simulator Prototype 2 scores very highly, there's a chance that, just like those toddlers in the dirt, you'll get bored after a short while and wander away." The Digital Fix gave the same console version a score of seven out of ten and said, "It's really not the AAA title it wants to be but that said it's also far from bargain bin fodder, landing somewhere just above the middle." The Escapist gave it a similar score of three-and-a-half stars out of five and called it "a decent action-adventure with fun combat, but gets a little too samey here and there." Digital Spy gave it three stars out of five and said that it "excels as an open-world killing field, in which you can wrench anyone asunder in gory cascades of blood and guts. Underneath, it's a pretty standard action game featuring mundane missions that offer no real challenge, wrapped in a story that lacks substance and originality. But those players who can turn off their brain and just enjoy the ride will find Prototype 2s flavor of blood-soaked action a rather guilty pleasure." Metro UK similarly gave it a score of six out of ten and said, "In small doses Prototype 2 is a perfectly enjoyable game but in the end, because Heller and Mercer don't care about anyone else you never end up caring about them." === Sales === Although Prototype 2 was the top seller for April 2012, beating Kinect Star Wars and Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3, its sales were considerably down from the sales of games released in April 2011. Prototype 2 would continue its strong sales into the month of May, garnering more sales than the highly anticipated Dragon's Dogma, but failing to beat Max Payne 3 and fellow Activision Blizzard game Diablo III. On June 28, 2012, Activision announced that despite the "substantial investment", the game "did not find a broad commercial audience", and as a result, developer Radical would encounter layoffs and the studio would be reduced to a supporting role towards other Activision projects. == References == == External links == * * * Category:2012 video games Category:Action-adventure games Category:Activision games Category:Biopunk Category:Bioterrorism in fiction Category:Games for Windows Category:Open-world video games Category:Parkour video games Category:PlayStation 3 games Category:PlayStation 4 games Category:Post- apocalyptic video games Category:Radical Entertainment games Category:Science fiction video games Category:Stealth video games Category:Superhero video games Category:Video game sequels Category:Video games about revenge Category:Video games about shapeshifting Category:Video games about viral outbreaks Category:Video games adapted into comics Category:Video games developed in Canada Category:Video games featuring black protagonists Category:Video games set in 2009 Category:Video games set in New York City Category:Windows games Category:Xbox 360 games Category:Xbox One games |
The Illawarra Steelers are an Australian rugby league football club based in the city of Wollongong, New South Wales. The club competed in Australia's top- level rugby league competition from 1982 until 1998. On 13 December 1980, they were the first non-Sydney based team to be admitted into the New South Wales Rugby League premiership, with the Canberra Raiders being admitted later ensuring an even number of teams in the competition for the start of their first season, 1982. Over their seventeen years in the top grade, the club received three wooden spoons, made the play-offs twice and had a total of three of its players (two New South Wales Blues and one Queensland Maroon) selected to play for the Australia national rugby league team. Following the Super League War and the NRL's intention the reduce the number of teams, the Steelers approached the St. George Dragons part way through the 1998 season to discuss forming a joint-venture and ensure the partial survival of both clubs. On 23 September 1998, Rugby League's first joint-venture, the St. George Illawarra Dragons, were officially announced. The Steelers share in the club was privatised to Wollongong based WIN Corporation in 2018. Illawarra still field stand alone teams in the Tarsha Gale Cup (women's under 18's), SG Ball (under 18's) and Harold Matthews (under 16's) competitions as the Steelers. The 23,750 capacity WIN Stadium is the Steelers home stadium. == History == ===Formation=== The Illawarra Rugby League made several attempts to enter the NSWRL competition, the first major attempt was in the 1950s. It made a much more serious attempt for entry into the 1967 season but were blocked by the Country Rugby League (CRL) who used their constitution to prevent Illawarra's plans of playing in the Sydney competition. This was a crucial moment in the emergence of the Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks, as it was after Illawarra were blocked and the NSWRL wanted a second new club to enter with Penrith, preferably in the South of Sydney due to continued success at that time of the St George Dragons, to avoid the need for a bye that "the shire's" submission was successful. In this unsuccessful bid, Illawarra were to be backed by the then wealthy Illawarra Leagues Club in Church Street, Wollongong. The club is the second oldest leagues club in the world. It was originally established to financially support top class rugby league and soccer in the region. On 13 December 1980, the NSWRL voted almost unanimously for Illawarra to enter in the 1982 season. Only three dissenting votes were counted, which were the three CRL representatives present. Illawarra's organiser Bob Millward told those at the meeting that rugby league in the region depended on this bid getting the go ahead. Interest in the region had turned away from local football to the Sydney competition. The Illawarra Mercury daily newspaper was increasing its coverage of the Sydney premiership and Illawarra's inclusion was viewed as the best way of reviving the local league. ===1980s=== Illawarra entered the competition in 1982, with financial backing from many of the local leagues clubs. Their first captain was star fullback John Dorahy, and first coach Allan Fitzgibbon. Unfortunately, the recession hit hard and the leagues club money dried up and the Steelers were a new club in desperate financial trouble. In 1984, BHP Steel saved the club, signing on as the major sponsor. BHP stayed with the Steelers until they left the NRL at the end of the 1998 season. Their first 8 seasons produced 3 wooden spoons, but things started to improve for the club. In the 1989 Panasonic Cup the club reached the final which was played against the Brisbane Broncos at Parramatta Stadium. The Broncos raced to a 16–0 lead and it seemed the Steelers much more fancied opponents would run away with the game. But Illawarra, inspired by eventual man-of-the-match, Great Britain international Andy Gregory, hit back. Young Illawarra Juniors such as Brett Rodwell and Rod Wishart made their mark in this game, players that would form the foundation of the club's improved performances in the early 1990s. Illawarra lost the match 22–20, however Brisbane scored a try off what appeared to be forward pass. The large Illawarra contingent at Parramatta Stadium booed the Broncos after their win, with Brisbane captain Wally Lewis gaining their ire by gesturing back. Illawarra's performance inspired Australian folk singer John Williamson to write a song about the match. The 1989 season also saw Gregory's Wigan and Great Britain teammate, Steve Hampson, playing for the Steelers. ===1990s=== 1990 saw big improvements with the club finishing not too far away from the top five. The Steelers licensed club opened its doors thanks to the efforts of the local community and businesses. Whereas Sydney teams had huge financial support from their respective leagues clubs, Illawarra for the first time had its own small leagues club but with an enviable major sponsor (BHP Steel) and sleeve sponsor combination – The Steelers making Rugby League history as the first club to have a sleeve sponsor, with MMI Insurance getting on board. A new coach by the name of Graham Murray turned Illawarra into an almost unbeatable force at the Wollongong Showground in 1991, losing only to the Penrith Panthers who went on to win the premiership. A crushing 44–4 win over Canterbury-Bankstown, an upset win over Manly in a Sunday match of the round as well as a big win over Brisbane, 19–2, were signs of things to come. A crucial refereeing decision by Bill Harrigan towards the end of the season in a game at Penrith Stadium put an end to their finals aspirations. Harrigan, much to his credit, apologised in the media after the game. Thus Illawarra missed out on a place in the finals by just two points, despite having a season points differential second only to eventual premiers, Penrith. The Steelers were able to avenge their 1989 Panasonic Cup Final loss to Brisbane by beating them in the 1992 pre-season Tooheys Challenge Cup, in a try-less final at Dubbo, 4–2. This sparked their successful 1992 Winfield Cup campaign, going to within one game from the Grand Final. Illawarra's first semi-final was against future merger partner St George, beating "big-brother" 18–16. Next a loss to the Broncos 22–12 and their last chance against St George, losing 4–0. However, Illawarra were denied tries on several controversial occasions leaving the Steelers with a bitter end to their successful season. During the 1992 season, the Steelers hosted the touring Great Britain Lions. In front of 9,500 fans at Steelers Stadium with the tourists winning a tight game 11–10, Illawarra resting several star players. 1993 was a season met by Steelers fans with high expectations, but crucial tight losses and games they were expected to win saw the side finish just outside the top 5. 1994 was better with the club putting together some great performances but three draws would end up costly, the Steelers finishing in 6th place, 2 points behind Brisbane. The club had established itself as a credible force in the Winfield Cup with many expecting a brighter future but things would soon be turned upside down. Super League hit in 1995 and the Steelers were in for a rough ride. The good work in becoming a credible force in the competition went out the window with the sacking of Graham Murray, which is the only incident where anyone in the competition lost their job as a direct result of the Super League war. Murray was organising meetings between Illawarra players and Super League officials, as Super League had intentions of either getting the Steelers or possibly a new Illawarra club. Local club Wests Illawarra were reported in the Illawarra Mercury as being a potential Illawarra Super League club. Local league fans reacted angrily and nothing came of it. Illawarra and its supporters remained loyal to the ARL, though Steelers board member and then speaker of the House of Representatives, Dr Stephen Martin, resigned from the club citing the need to join Super League for them to survive. Martin would be proved right within three years. 1996 was another year of disappointment, with players not seeing eye-to-eye with new coach Allan McMahon. A horror 54-4 thrashing at the hands of arch-rival Brisbane Broncos was the low point. McMahon, despite signing a three year contract, was sacked at the end of the season and was replaced the next season by former player and then reserve grade coach Andrew Farrar. In 1997's stand-alone Australian Rugby League competition, the Steelers finished sixth, qualifying for the Finals series, only to bow out in the first week at a rain sodden and sparsely populated Parramatta Stadium. Having beaten the Gold Coast Chargers comprehensively in Wollongong in the final round, they put in shocking performance to lose to the same side they had just beaten the previous week. 1998 saw the Steelers come agonisingly close to the finals, missing out with other results going against them and a heartbreaking 1 point loss to eventual grand finalists Canterbury-Bankstown in their final match. During season 1998, the newly established NRL administration announced the entry criteria for teams to compete from the year 2000, with clubs offered incentives to form joint ventures. A controversial aspect of the criteria for the Illawarra region was the classification of the Steelers as a Sydney club. Additionally, Newcastle, Canberra and Auckland would be given automatic entry, with Illawarra believing they too were an important regional centre that should stand alone. Alas, with the possibility of not making the cut, Illawarra approached St George and initiated joint venture talks midway through 1998. Western Suburbs (whom Illawarra were rumoured to be merging with in the 1980s) and Cronulla both expressed interest but Steelers CEO Bob Millward claimed that the club's preferred partner was always St George. The joint venture was officially announced at the end of the season, and would be named St George Illawarra Dragons, playing 50% of their home games in Sydney and 50% in Wollongong in 1999. The Illawarra Steelers produced some brilliant playing talent, most notably International representatives Rod Wishart and Paul McGregor. Former Steelers players Trent Barrett, Shaun Timmins and Craig Fitzgibbon have gone on to represent their country since the Steelers' final stand-alone season in 1998. ===Season summaries=== P=Premiers, R=Runners-up, M=Minor Premierships, F=Finals Appearance, W=Wooden Spoons (Brackets Represent Finals Games) Competition Games Played Games Won Games Drawn Games Lost Ladder Position P R M F W Coach Captain Details 26 6 0 20 13 / 14 Allan Fitzgibbon John Dorahy 26 8 0 18 12 / 14 24 12 0 12 9 / 13 24 5 0 19 13 / 13 24 7 0 17 13 / 13 24 8 0 16 11 / 13 Perry Haddock 22 6 1 15 13 / 16 Terry Fearnley 22 2 1 19 16 / 16 Ron Hilditch 22 11 1 10 9 / 16 22 12 1 9 8 / 16 22 (3) 13 (1) 1 (0) 8 (2) 3 / 16 22 12 0 10 7 / 16 rowspan='1' 22 11 3 8 6 / 16 22 10 1 11 12 / 20 rowspan='1' 22 8 0 14 14 / 20 22 (1) 10 (0) 3 (0) 9 (1) 6 / 12 24 11 1 12 12 / 20 === Joint venture === The Illawarra Steelers decided to form a joint venture with the St. George Dragons for the 1999 NRL season to form the St. George Illawarra Dragons. The Illawarra and St George contingents are equal stakeholders in the new club, and until 2014, half of the new team's home games were played at WIN Stadium. The Illawarra Steelers have at times provided the bulk of St George Illawarra's squad, including internationals Matt Cooper, Luke Bailey, Jason Ryles, Shaun Timmins, Trent Barrett, Brett Morris, Josh Morris and Ben Creagh. The joint venture is often seen as a takeover. Many supporters feel that the Illawarra is not appropriately acknowledged in St George Illawarra, as the logo and main jersey were taken directly from those of St George (albeit with the addition of "Illawarra" to the bottom of the emblem). Furthermore, Illawarra fans continue to be alienated by St George supporters who still chant "St George" at games and wave banners like "Great St George Team". The media and other rugby league fans also often leave out Illawarra and continue to call the joint venture entity "St George", much to the chagrin and dismay of those from the Illawarra side. St George Illawarra has sometimes taken token steps to acknowledge Illawarra. One example of this is that, on 18 April 2004 against Penrith at WIN Stadium, St George Illawarra introduced an alternate jersey which was predominantly red (with white stripes), this being recognisably similar to the former Steelers' jersey. This replaced the "blood and bandages" jersey of red- and-white horizontal stripes, which was also a former St George jersey. St George Illawarra have since reverted to the old St George "blood and bandages" design as their alternate jersey. While Illawarra is still somewhat represented in the National Rugby League by the St George Illawarra Dragons, the Illawarra Steelers participated as a single entity in the NSW Cup until the end of 2017 (as the Illawarra Cutters from 2012 and then Illawarra RLFC in 2017, due to a sponsorship deal with Illawarra Coal) and in the junior competitions, most notably S.G. Ball Cup and Harold Matthews Cup. The Steelers made the Harold Matthews Cup grand final in 2011, losing 13–12 to the Canterbury Bulldogs. In early 2006, WIN Television Network (originating from and headquartered in Wollongong) bought a 25% share in the St. George Illawarra club for $6.5 million (half of Illawarra's share), erasing most of the debt Illawarra owed to St. George. This formalised the strong support the network has shown for the Steelers in years gone by and ensured that Wollongong will continue to host top level rugby league. WIN Corp can only sell their stake back to the Steelers, should they wish to withdraw their involvement, thus ensuring Illawarra are always properly represented in the joint venture. In 2008, Illawarra's debt to St George was paid off, with the 20% sale of the Steelers Club building to a Bermuda-based company owned by Illawarra billionaire (and WIN Television boss) Bruce Gordon. In 2016, Illawarra won their first and only premiership title with the 2016 against Mount Pritchard Mounties at Parramatta Stadium. This was the final game ever played at this venue. One week later, Illawarra claimed the NRL State Championship on NRL Grand Final day with an emphatic 54–12 win over Queensland Cup winners the Burleigh Bears at Stadium Australia. On 27 October 2017, it was announced that Illawarra would be replaced by The St George Illawarra Dragons for The 2018 Intrust Super Premiership NSW season as part of a restructure in the competition. It was the first time since 2007 that a full St George Illawarra Dragons side featured in the reserve grade competition. The approach brought the club in line with the NRL's ‘whole of game’ strategy that also saw top-grade squads increased from 25 players to 30. Club director of rugby league pathways Ian Millward said of the change “There's obviously a lot of changes in rugby league at the moment, one of the changes we’ve made is that the reserve grade team is St George Illawarra,” Millward said. “What it gives us is a clear pathway where younger players aspire to be Dragons right through to our first grade squad. There's a clear acknowledgment for coaches, training staff and players that when they're in our environment they are a part of the St George Illawarra Dragons". In August 2018 WIN Corporation purchased the Illawarra Steelers remaining 25% stake in the join venture St George Illawarra Dragons club for a "commercially in confidence" sum. The St. George Dragons and the Illawarra-based WIN Corporation now have a 50% stake each. WIN Corporation has paid off the $6 million debt the St. George Illawarra Dragons owed the NRL. ==Name, Emblem and Mascot== The name "Steelers" was chosen in reference to the local Port Kembla Steelworks, which was the Illawarra region's largest economy employer. (BHP, who owned the steelworks, eventually sponsored the team for most of their existence.) Other names considered were "Lions" and "Steelies". The actual 'Steelers' name came after a competition was run to choose a name. The name was chosen by Dapto High School student Roger White, who was also a fan of the Pittsburgh Steelers NFL team in the United States. Roger responded to a competition published in the Illawarra Mercury Newspaper. Their mascot from 1982 to 1998 was the legendary "Stanley, the Steel Avenger", also commonly referred to as "Stanley the Steeler". Stanley holds the dubious honour of being the only team mascot in Rugby League history to be sent from the field. In Round 20 of the 1995 season, Illawarra hosted Balmain at Steelers Stadium. A fight between players spilled over the sideline, with Stanley reaching in to separate players. The referee instantly sent Stanley off, whilst the fight ensued. ==Colours== The original Steelers jersey was all scarlet with two white hooped stripes on each sleeve. The alternate design was the same colours in reverse. The club kept this design until 1995, adding a third stripe on each sleeve and three hoops around the middle of the jersey to the white alternate jersey, then adopting the same design for the scarlet jersey in 1997. The Steelers simplistic design compared well with the many "space-aged" designs of several other clubs that came and went each season throughout the Super League period and into the 2000s. For the Steelers heritage days in 2005 and 2010, the Dragons wore an Illawarra heritage jersey, which was the same as the original Steelers jumper. This move proved very popular amongst former Illawarra fans. From 2011 to 2013, the Dragons wore an alternate jersey based on the original Steelers' design. The colours scarlet and white were automatically chosen as they were long worn by Illawarra representative teams in several sports. Local miners uniforms in the early 20th century were scarlet and some associate this with the reason for it becoming the region's sporting colours. It is also the colour of the Illawarra Flame Tree, another symbol of the region. The Illawarra Cutters wore a kit similar to that of the club's 1980s and early 1990s design. Many of the current NRL clubs are reverting to more simplistic jerseys, such as Illawarra's fellow 1982 entrants Canberra. The junior Illawarra sides such as the Harold Matthews and SG Ball sides currently wear the 1980s design. ==Illawarra Steelers Leagues Club== The Illawarra Steelers Leagues Club is situated in the middle of the City Beach precinct, the Steelers Club is located adjacent to WIN Entertainment Centre and WIN Stadium. It is directly across the road from the grounds Western Grandstand. Established in 1990, the club has struggled in comparison to the much larger and more popular leagues clubs in the region, such as Collegians, Dapto Leagues Club, Wests Illawarra Leagues Club, and Shellharbour Workers Club. However, after a major restructure of its operations, the Steelers Club has been trading profitably through the 2010s. Twenty percent of the club premises were sold to Bermuda-based Billionaire and owner of WIN Corp, Bruce Gordon. The sale fetched 2.6 million dollars. ==Stadium== The Illawarra Steelers played all their home games at the Wollongong Showground (currently named WIN Stadium). The ground for many years was also named Steelers Stadium, which many still affectionately call the ground. The Steelers record attendance in Wollongong was against St. George on 21 May 1993 at 17,527. The lowest crowd record was against Cronulla on 6 July 1985 at 3,433. The Illawarra sides in lower grades still the play the bulk of home games at WIN Stadium. On rare occasions, the Illawarra Cutters move home games to WIN Jubilee Oval to coincide with NRL fixtures and to also other venues on the South Coast. ==Junior Steelers== The Illawarra Steelers still field teams in the under-age NSWRL competitions of Harold Matthews Cup (U-16s) and S. G. Ball Cup (U-18s). In 2019, Illawarra won the S. G. Ball Cup defeating Manly 34–23 in the final at the new Western Sydney Stadium. ==Supporters== Counted amongst the club's supporters is Olympic athlete Louise McPaul. ==The Future== The Illawarra Steelers club members voted unanimously to allow the sale of 20% of the club premises to a company owned by Bermuda-based Wollongong billionaire Bruce Gordon. The sale fetched the club $2.6 million, allowing Illawarra to clear all debts to St George. Whilst the Steelers Club is improving its financial position, and now trading profitably, the club still finds itself struggling against the larger and more popular of other Leagues Clubs in Wollongong such as Collegians, The Builders Club, Wests Illawarra and Illawarra Leagues, and also Shellharbour Workers Club in Shellharbour. The Steelers were competitive with Sydney Clubs by the 1990s but Super League raised the financial bar too quickly and blew them out of the water at a crucial time in their development. Being classified as a Sydney metropolitan team during the NRL's criteria for entry into the 14 team competition for the year 2000 and measuring the club's performances through the devastating Super League period left Illawarra at a huge disadvantage compared with other non-Sydney based clubs such as Canberra, Newcastle, Melbourne and North Queensland. The only hope for Illawarra's return to the big league would be to gain the backing of a wealthy 'white knight' or consortium who can see the potential of a stand-alone Illawarra Steelers - convince the NRL and invest significant money so they can keep their local talent and achieve the potential that they started to reveal in the early 1990s. ==Statistics and Records== ===Club=== *Biggest win: 45 – 0 against Canberra Raiders at Wollongong Showground on 25 April 1982 *Worst defeat: 0 – 51 against Newtown Jets at Henson Park on 2 May 1982 *Longest winning streak: 4 matches **4–25 July 1993 **25 June – 17 July 1997 *Longest losing streak: 11 matches, 1988 *Largest home crowd: 17,527, against St. George Dragons at WIN Stadium, Wollongong on 21 May 1993 ===Individual=== *Most tries in a match: 5 by Alan McIndoe against Gold Coast Seagulls at Steelers Stadium on 4 May 1991 *Most goals in a match: 10 by Rod Wishart against Parramatta Eels at Steelers Stadium on 16 July 1995 *Most points in a match: 22 (1 try, 9 goals) by Rod Wishart against Western Suburbs Magpies at Steelers Stadium on 27 August 1995 *Most tries in a season: 19 by Alan McIndoe in 1991 NSWRL season *Most goals in a season: 76 by John Dorahy in 1983 NSWRFL season *Most points in a season: 176 (11 tries, 66 goals) by Rod Wishart in 1995 ARL season *Most tries in club history: 68 by Rod Wishart, between 1989 and 1998 *Most goals in club history: 386 by Rod Wishart, between 1989 and 1998 *Most points in club history: 1,044 (68 tries, 386 goals) by Rod Wishart between 1989 and 1998 *Most appearances: Michael Bolt 167, Brett Rodwell 156, Rod Wishart 154, Neil Piccinelli 145, Brian Hetherington 144, John Cross 137, Alan McIndoe 125, Paul McGregor 124, John Simon 120, David Walsh 114 ==Players== === Team of Steel === In 2006 the Illawarra Steelers celebrated their 25th anniversary and named a "Team of Steel", including the best players of the club's history. (vc) ==Representative players== Including players from the Illawarra Steelers that have represented while at the club and the years they achieved their honours, if known. ===International=== ====Australia==== * Alan McIndoe (1988) * Rod Wishart (1991–92, 1994–96) * Bob Lindner (1993) * Paul McGregor (1994–95, 1997) ====New Zealand==== * Craig Smith (1998) ====Great Britain==== * Andy Gregory (1989) * Steve Hampson (1989) ====Rest of the World==== * Craig Smith (1997) ===State of Origin=== ====New South Wales==== * Brian Hetherington (1984, 1986) * Rod Wishart (1990–98) * Paul McGregor (1992–95, 1997–98) * John Simon (1992) * Brett Rodwell (1995) * Trent Barrett (1997) ====Queensland==== * Alan McIndoe (1988) * Bob Lindner (1993) * Darren Fritz (1994) * Craig Smith (1997) ===City Vs Country Origin=== ====NSW Country==== * Paul Upfield (1988) * Ian Russell (1991) * Rod Wishart (1991–94, 1996) * Paul McGregor (1992–95, 1997) * John Cross (1995) * Brett Rodwell (1991, 1993, 1995) * John Simon (1992–95) ==Coaches== No Name Seasons Games Wins Draws Losses Win % 1 1982–1983, 1995 70 22 1 47 31.4 2 1984–1987 96 32 0 64 33.3 3 1988 22 6 1 15 27.3 4 1989–1990 44 13 2 29 29.5 5 1991–1995 95 51 5 39 53.7 6 1996 22 8 0 14 36.4 7 1997–1998 47 21 4 22 44.7 ==Average attendance== The Illawarra Steelers average attendances from their entry into the competition in 1982 were: Season Average Attendance 1998 9,248 1997 8,695 1996 7,434 1995 9,651 1994 11,911 1993 12,321 1992 13,750 1991 12,244 1990 9,968 1989 7,253 1988 8,386 1987 7,498 1986 7,535 1985 5,634 1984 7,086 1983 5,892 1982 8,222 ==References== ==External links== * *Dragons Lair - St. George Illawarra Dragons Fan Discussion Forum Category:Defunct NSWRL/ARL/SL/NRL clubs Category:Rugby clubs established in 1980 Category:1980 establishments in Australia \- Category:Rugby league teams in Wollongong |
A dead man's switch (see alternative names) is a switch that is designed to be activated or deactivated if the human operator becomes incapacitated, such as through death, loss of consciousness, or being bodily removed from control. Originally applied to switches on a vehicle or machine, it has since come to be used to describe other intangible uses, as in computer software. These switches are usually used as a form of fail-safe where they stop a machine with no operator from a potentially dangerous action or incapacitate a device as a result of accident, malfunction, or misuse. They are common in such applications in locomotives, aircraft refuelling, freight elevators, lawn mowers, tractors, personal watercraft, outboard motors, chainsaws, snowblowers, treadmills, snowmobiles, amusement rides, and many medical imaging devices. On some machines, these switches merely bring the machines back to a safe state, such as reducing the throttle to idle or applying brakes while leaving the machines still running and ready to resume normal operation once control is reestablished. Dead man's switches are not always used to stop machines and prevent harm; such switches can also be used as a fail-deadly, since a spring-operated switch can be used to complete a circuit, not only to break it. This allows a dead man's switch to be used to activate a harmful device, such as a bomb or improvised explosive device. The switch that arms the device is only kept in its "off" position by continued pressure from the user's hand. The device will activate when the switch is released, so that if the user is knocked out or killed while holding the switch, the bomb will detonate. The Special Weapons Emergency Separation System is an application of this concept in the field of nuclear weapons. A more extreme version is Russia's Dead Hand program, which allows for automatic launch of nuclear missiles should a number of conditions be met, even if all Russian leadership were to be killed. A similar concept is the handwritten letters of last resort from the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom to the commanding officers of the four British ballistic missile submarines. They contain orders on what action to take if the British government is destroyed in a nuclear attack. After a prime minister leaves office the letters are destroyed unopened. This concept has been employed with computer data, where sensitive information has been previously encrypted and released to the public, and the "switch" is the release of the decryption key, as with Vault 7. ==Background== Interest in dead man's controls increased with the introduction of electric trams (streetcars in North America) and especially electrified rapid transit trains. The first widespread use came with the introduction of the mass-produced Birney One-Man Safety (tram) Car, though dead-man equipment was fairly rare on US streetcars until the successful PCC streetcar, which had a left-foot- operated dead man's pedal in conjunction with the right-foot-operated brake and power pedals. This layout has continued to be used on some modern trams around the world. In conventional steam railroad trains, there was always a second person with the engineer, the fireman, who could almost always bring the train to a stop if necessary. For many decades two people were assigned to electric and diesel locomotives as well, even though a single person could theoretically operate them. With modern urban and suburban railway systems, the driver is typically alone in an enclosed cab. Automatic devices were already beginning to be deployed on newer installations of the New York City Subway system in the early 20th century. The Malbone Street Wreck on the Brooklyn Rapid Transit system in 1918, though not caused by driver incapacitation, did spur the need for universal deployment of such devices to halt trains in the event of the operator's disability. According to a Manhattan borough historian, there have been at least three instances where the dead man's switch was used successfully – in 1927, 1940, and 2010. The status and operation of both vigilance and dead man's switch may be recorded on the train's event recorder (commonly known as a black box). ==Types== ===Handle=== Many dead man's switches are mounted in the control handle of a vehicle or machine and engage if the operator ever loses their grip. ====Vehicles==== Handle switches are still used on modern trams and trains. Pneumatically or electrically linked dead man's controls involve relatively simple modifications of the controller handle, the device that regulates traction power. If pressure is not maintained on the controller, the train's emergency brakes are applied. Typically, the controller handle is a horizontal bar, rotated to apply the required power for the train. Attached to the bottom of the handle is a rod that when pushed down contacts a solenoid or switch inside the control housing. The handle springs up if pressure is removed, releasing the rod's contact with the internal switch, instantly cutting power and applying the brakes. Though there are ways that this type of dead man's control could conceivably fail, in practice they have proven highly reliable. On some earlier equipment, pressure was not maintained on the entire controller, but on a large button protruding from the controller handle. This button also had to be pressed continuously, typically with the palm of the hand so that the button was flush with the top of the handle. Another method used, particularly with some lever-type controllers, which are rotated rather than pushed or pulled, requires that the handle on the lever be turned through 90 degrees and held in that position while the train is in operation. Some dead man's controls only work in the mid position and not with full pressure (see pilot valve). In modern New York City Subway trains, for example, the dead man's switch is incorporated into the train's speed control. On the R142A car, the train operator must continually hold the lever in place in order for the train to move. An example of a passenger vehicle using a dead man's switch is on Tesla electric vehicles. When the driver has engaged the semi-autonomous driving system "Autopilot", they must keep their hands on the steering wheel. If the driver takes their hands off the steering wheel for more than 30 seconds, a loud alarm will sound inside the car to wake sleeping drivers, if the driver leaves their hands off for more than a minute, then the car will engage its hazard warning lights, and bring the car to a stop. This is done because the Autopilot system is not capable of full-self driving, and requires that the driver be able to take over operation of the vehicle without warning, should the car encounter a problem it does not know how to solve. This system uses a torque sensor on the steering wheel of the vehicle: when a driver is simply holding the wheel, they are still applying a small amount of torque to the wheel, confirming for the car that the driver is being attentive; if the driver turns the wheel with more force, all vehicle controls are handed back to the driver immediately. ====Machinery==== Handle-mounted dead man's switches are also used on many hand-held tools and lawn equipment, typically those that rotate or have blades such as saws, drills and lawn mowers. On saws for example, they incorporate a squeeze throttle trigger into the handle. If the user loses grip of the saw, the springs in the throttle trigger will push it back out to the off or idle setting, stopping the blade from spinning. Some tools go further and have a trigger guard built into the handle, similar to firearm safeties. Only when the user presses in the trigger guard first will it then release its lock on the trigger and allow the trigger to be pressed in. Typically, trigger guards can only be pressed in while the user has a firm grip of the handle. Every walk-behind mower sold in the US since 1982 has a dead man's switch called an "operator-presence control", which by law must stop the blades within three seconds after the user releases the controls. Attached across the handle is a mechanical lever connected by a flexible cable to the kill switch on the engine. While mowing, the operator must always squeeze the lever against the handle. If the operator ever loses grip of the handle, the blade will disengage or the engine will stop, stopping the blades from spinning and (if equipped) any drive wheels from turning. On mowers where the engine stops, this switch configuration also acts as the engine's main kill switch; when the operator wants to stop the engine, he can release the dead man's switch intentionally. ===Touch sensor=== On some vehicles, including the diesel-electric railway locomotives in Canada, and on Nottingham Express Transit vehicles, the tram's speed controller is fitted with a capacitive touch sensor to detect the driver's hand. If the hand is removed for more than a short period of time, the track brakes are activated. Gloves, if worn, have to be finger-less for the touch sensor to operate. A backup dead-man's switch button is provided on the side of the controller for use in the case of a failed touch sensor or if it is too cold to remove gloves. ===Pedal=== A pedal can be used instead of a handle. While some pedal switches must simply be held down in order for the machine to function (this system is often found on amusement rides, where the operator is likely to remain in a standing position for a lengthy period of time while the ride is in motion), this method has some shortcomings. In the Waterfall train disaster, south of Sydney, Australia, in 2003, the driver slumped on his seat, keeping the pedal depressed when he died suddenly of a heart attack. There are some solutions to this issue that are now used in modern pedal systems. The pedal can have a vigilance function built in, where drivers must release and re-press the pedal in response to an audible signal. This prevents it from being defeated by the above circumstances and is a standard feature on most British DSD systems. Some types of locomotive are fitted with a three-position pedal, which must normally be kept in the mid position. This lessens the likelihood of accidentally defeating it, although it may still be possible to deliberately do so. Adding a vigilance function to this type of pedal results in a very safe system. However, isolation devices are still provided in case of equipment failure, so a deliberate override is still possible. These isolation devices usually have tamper-evident seals fitted for that reason. ===Seat switches=== The dead man's switch can also be located beneath the seat of a vehicle or machine and engages if the operator is not in the seat holding the switch down. On modern tractors, the switch will cut the engine while the transmission is engaged or the power take-off is spinning. On riding lawn mowers, the switch is often more extreme where the switch will cut the engine even if the mower is parked and the blades are not spinning. Seat switches can also be used to keep small children from even starting the vehicle since they would not weigh enough to completely hold down a switch adjusted to an adolescent's or adult's weight. ===Key switches=== On recreational vehicles such as boats, personal watercraft and snowmobiles, and on the control panel of many amusement rides, the user or operator has a cord or lanyard attached to their wrist or life jacket, that is in turn attached to a key mounted on the dead man's switch. Should the rider fall off the vehicle or the operator at least move away from the controls, the cord will be pulled out of the dead man's switch, turning off the engine or setting the throttle position to "idle". On powered boats in particular this cord is often called a "kill cord" (for powered boats use around the wrist is not recommended, as it may slip off without cutting the engine). If the helmsman goes overboard or is forced away from the controls, the engine cuts out. This prevents the boat from continuing under power but out of control, risking injury to anyone in or out of the water including passengers who may have fallen out or may still be in the boat, and collision damage to any property in the path of this out of control boat; this in turn prevents or limits damage to the boat itself from striking other objects. It is a common and dangerous practice to defeat the kill cord by fixing it to part of the boat instead of the operator; for convenience. This has been the cause of accidents, some of which were fatal or caused limb loss. Some luggage carts at airports and exercise treadmills have this feature. In the case of treadmills, the dead man's switch usually consists of an external magnet attached to a cord that clips to the user. If the user falls or walks away without turning off the treadmill, the switch cuts power to the treadmill belt. In information security, kill cords are also used in computers to turn off the machine if the user is separated from it. ===Altimeter switches=== Strategic Air Command developed a dead man's switch for its nuclear bombers, known as Special Weapons Emergency Separation System (SWESS), that ensured the nuclear payload detonated in the event of the crew becoming incapacitated through enemy action. The purpose of this device, unlike other examples mentioned above, was fail-deadly rather than fail-safe. Once armed, the system would detonate the onboard nuclear weapons if the aircraft dropped below a predetermined level, typically due to being shot down. ==Vigilance control== The main safety failing with the basic dead man's system is the possibility of the operating device being held permanently in position, either deliberately or accidentally. Vigilance control was developed to detect this condition by requiring that the dead man's device be released momentarily and re-applied at timed intervals. There has also been a proposal to introduce a similar system to automotive cruise controls. ===Software=== Software versions of dead man's switches are generally only used by people with technical expertise, and can serve several purposes, such as sending a stored message, a notification to friends, or deleting and encrypting data. The "non-event" triggering these can be almost anything, such as failing to log in for 7 consecutive days, not responding to an automated e-mail, ping, a GPS-enabled telephone not moving for a period of time, or merely failing to type a code within a few minutes of a computer's boot. An example of a software-based dead man's switch is one that starts when the computer boots up and can encrypt or delete user-specified data if an unauthorized user should ever gain access to the protected computer. Google's Inactive Account Manager allows the account holder to nominate someone else to access their services if not used for an extended period (the default is three months). Similarly, Backup Diary allows users to store a message to be sent to designated recipients in case the user doesn't log in for a specified period. Sarcophagus utilizes blockchain technology to offer users a decentralized dead man's switch that can store any kind of data in an encrypted container for pass-down or recovery purposes. Some solutions available to the public utilize the growing market of mobile devices. Instead of sending an automated e-mail, they will send a push notification directly to the mobile device and can alert family and friends in a much more convenient way. ===Spacecraft=== Many spacecraft use a form of dead man's switch to guard against command system failures. A timer is established that is normally reset by the receipt of any valid command (including one whose sole function is to reset the timer). If the timer expires, the spacecraft enters a "command loss" algorithm that cycles through a predefined sequence of hardware or software modes (such as the selection of a backup command receiver) until a valid command is received. The spacecraft may also enter a safe mode to protect itself while waiting for further commands. While having some similarities to a dead man's switch, this type of device (a command loss timer) is not actually a dead man's switch, because it aims to recover from a hardware failure rather than the absence of human operators. It is generally called a watchdog timer, and is also used extensively in nuclear power control systems. System components on a spacecraft that put it into a safe mode or cause it to execute default behaviors when no command is received within a predefined time window can be considered a dead man's switch, but hardware or software that attempts to receive a command from human operators through an alternate channel is an auto-recovering or adaptive communications system, not a dead man's switch. Voyager 2 recovered from a command receiver failure with a command loss timer. ===Train=== In most trains, a basic level of protection is provided by a "dead man's handle" or pedal. If the driver is taken ill and releases this, the power will be shut off and an emergency brake application will be initiated to stop the train. More recent safety standards do not consider this to be adequate, as the driver may slump over the dead man's handle and continue to hold it down even though they are not capable of controlling the train. Modern trains overcome this risk with the addition of a vigilance system to the dead man's system. A buzzer or bell sounds every minute or so in order to alert the motorman or engineer. If they do not respond by moving a controller, or releasing and then re-applying the dead man's handle, the system will automatically initiate an emergency brake application. Most major rail systems in the world use this equipment, both in their freight and passenger operations. It is also used on the R143 and other New York City Subway cars while under CBTC operation. In the US, older locomotives produced before 1995 do not carry this feature, but given the modular nature of the system it is not uncommon to find them retrofitted. ===Aircraft=== Some aeroplanes use vigilance control to minimize hypoxia, descending to lower altitude if the pilot is unresponsive. In 2019, the Garmin G3000 became the first general aviation avionics suite capable of automatically diverting an aircraft to the nearest airport and landing it in the event a pilot fails to interact with the aircraft's controls or respond to system prompts. This automation capability has been made possible by advancements in computing, control, and navigation technologies and is of particular importance in a general aviation setting since private aircraft are often flown by only a single pilot. ==Blackmail== The term "dead man's switch" is sometimes used to describe a form of defensive blackmail or insurance file in which the release of damaging material is threatened if anything happens to a person. ==See also== *BusKill *Security switch *Train protection system ==References== ==External links== *Deadmans on French trams and guided (trolley) buses (PDF) *Kill Cords: Lessons from the Milly RIB Report Category:Occupational safety and health Category:Railway safety Category:Safety switches Category:Locomotive parts |
Hvidovre nominating district is one of the 92 nominating districts that exists for Danish elections following the 2007 municipal reform. It consists of Hvidovre Municipality. It was created in 1953, though its boundaries have been changed since then. In general elections, the district is a strong area for parties commonly associated with the red bloc. ==General elections results== ===General elections in the 2020s=== 2022 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 9,335 32.30 +2.90 Green Left 3,281 11.35 +0.02 Moderates 2,806 9.71 New Venstre 2,330 8.06 -6.89 Liberal Alliance 1,762 6.10 +4.34 Red–Green Alliance 1,590 5.50 -2.40 Danish People's Party 1,358 4.70 -6.21 Denmark Democrats 1,331 4.60 New Conservatives 1,328 4.59 -0.48 Social Liberals 1,231 4.26 -4.56 New Right 906 3.13 +0.75 The Alternative 806 2.79 -0.14 Independent Greens 701 2.43 New Christian Democrats 97 0.34 -0.74 Jovan Tasevski 34 0.12 New Henrik Vendelbo Petersen 8 0.03 New Total 28,904 Source ===General elections in the 2010s=== 2019 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 8,886 29.40 -2.43 Venstre 4,518 14.95 +2.68 Green Left 3,424 11.33 +6.26 Danish People's Party 3,298 10.91 -14.47 Social Liberals 2,666 8.82 +5.18 Red–Green Alliance 2,389 7.90 -1.34 Conservatives 1,532 5.07 +2.68 The Alternative 886 2.93 -0.77 New Right 720 2.38 New Stram Kurs 681 2.25 New Liberal Alliance 533 1.76 -3.92 Christian Democrats 326 1.08 +0.64 Klaus Riskær Pedersen Party 258 0.85 New Mads Palsvig 100 0.33 New Christian B. Olesen 7 0.02 New Total 30,224 Source 2015 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 9,738 31.83 +3.17 Danish People's Party 7,764 25.38 +8.86 Venstre 3,752 12.27 -6.67 Red–Green Alliance 2,827 9.24 +0.69 Liberal Alliance 1,738 5.68 +1.80 Green Left 1,550 5.07 -5.29 The Alternative 1,132 3.70 New Social Liberals 1,112 3.64 -4.81 Conservatives 730 2.39 -1.80 Christian Democrats 136 0.44 +0.10 Asif Ahmad 104 0.34 New Christian Olesen 7 0.02 New Total 30,590 Source 2011 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 8,886 28.66 -2.16 Venstre 5,872 18.94 +1.65 Danish People's Party 5,121 16.52 -2.40 Green Left 3,213 10.36 -4.34 Red–Green Alliance 2,652 8.55 +5.79 Social Liberals 2,620 8.45 +4.23 Conservatives 1,298 4.19 -4.01 Liberal Alliance 1,204 3.88 +1.30 Christian Democrats 106 0.34 -0.16 Christian H. Hansen 31 0.10 New Total 31,003 Source ===General elections in the 2000s=== 2007 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 9,371 30.82 -1.00 Danish People's Party 5,751 18.92 -0.36 Venstre 5,255 17.29 -3.09 Green Left 4,468 14.70 +8.04 Conservatives 2,492 8.20 +0.77 Social Liberals 1,282 4.22 -3.66 Red–Green Alliance 840 2.76 -1.54 New Alliance 784 2.58 New Christian Democrats 153 0.50 -0.29 Janus Kramer Møller 5 0.02 New Feride Istogu Gillesberg 1 0.00 New Total 30,402 Source 2005 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 15,821 31.82 -4.09 Venstre 10,134 20.38 -2.62 Danish People's Party 9,586 19.28 +1.78 Social Liberals 3,916 7.88 +4.01 Conservatives 3,692 7.43 +1.55 Green Left 3,313 6.66 -0.70 Red–Green Alliance 2,139 4.30 +1.23 Centre Democrats 566 1.14 -0.71 Christian Democrats 392 0.79 -0.43 Minority Party 123 0.25 New Nahid Yazdanyar 37 0.07 New Total 49,719 Source 2001 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 18,480 35.91 -7.97 Venstre 11,836 23.00 +8.55 Danish People's Party 9,004 17.50 +5.77 Green Left 3,785 7.36 -1.70 Conservatives 3,028 5.88 -0.92 Social Liberals 1,993 3.87 +1.12 Red–Green Alliance 1,581 3.07 -0.53 Centre Democrats 950 1.85 -2.66 Christian People's Party 627 1.22 +0.12 Progress Party 173 0.34 -1.16 Total 51,457 Source ===General elections in the 1990s=== 1998 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 22,178 43.88 +3.06 Venstre 7,302 14.45 +1.27 Danish People's Party 5,927 11.73 New Green Left 4,579 9.06 -0.76 Conservatives 3,435 6.80 -7.15 Centre Democrats 2,281 4.51 +0.64 Red–Green Alliance 1,821 3.60 -1.18 Social Liberals 1,390 2.75 -1.05 Progress Party 758 1.50 -5.73 Christian People's Party 558 1.10 +0.11 Democratic Renewal 166 0.33 New Mogens Glistrup 139 0.28 -0.24 Poul Bregninge 4 0.01 New Anders Kofoed 4 0.01 New Total 50,542 Source 1994 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 20,545 40.82 -6.16 Conservatives 7,023 13.95 -0.32 Venstre 6,635 13.18 +7.31 Green Left 4,940 9.82 -0.96 Progress Party 3,640 7.23 +3.05 Red–Green Alliance 2,408 4.78 +2.63 Centre Democrats 1,948 3.87 -3.05 Social Liberals 1,911 3.80 +0.94 Christian People's Party 500 0.99 +0.06 Mogens Glistrup 262 0.52 New Preben Møller Hansen 251 0.50 New Niels I. Meyer 248 0.49 New Torben Faber 8 0.02 New John Ziegler 8 0.02 New Total 50,327 Source 1990 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 23,832 46.98 +11.06 Conservatives 7,237 14.27 -1.81 Green Left 5,468 10.78 -9.15 Centre Democrats 3,511 6.92 +1.77 Venstre 2,978 5.87 +2.90 Progress Party 2,119 4.18 -3.32 Common Course 1,792 3.53 +0.55 Social Liberals 1,450 2.86 -2.59 Red–Green Alliance 1,093 2.15 New Christian People's Party 474 0.93 +0.13 The Greens 399 0.79 -0.46 Justice Party of Denmark 363 0.72 New Humanist Party 8 0.02 New Total 50,724 Source ===General elections in the 1980s=== 1988 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 19,088 35.92 +4.51 Green Left 10,590 19.93 -3.73 Conservatives 8,546 16.08 -1.10 Progress Party 3,986 7.50 +3.33 Social Liberals 2,896 5.45 -0.37 Centre Democrats 2,736 5.15 -0.75 Common Course 1,585 2.98 -0.79 Venstre 1,576 2.97 +1.00 Communist Party of Denmark 666 1.25 -0.13 The Greens 664 1.25 -0.05 Christian People's Party 423 0.80 -0.17 Left Socialists 376 0.71 -0.83 Leif Hilt 6 0.01 New Total 53,138 Source 1987 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 16,468 31.41 -9.15 Green Left 12,406 23.66 +5.84 Conservatives 9,009 17.18 -2.15 Centre Democrats 3,094 5.90 +1.87 Social Liberals 3,051 5.82 +0.72 Progress Party 2,188 4.17 +1.14 Common Course 1,978 3.77 New Venstre 1,032 1.97 -0.87 Left Socialists 806 1.54 -1.42 Communist Party of Denmark 724 1.38 +0.29 The Greens 681 1.30 New Christian People's Party 508 0.97 -0.04 Justice Party of Denmark 318 0.61 -1.50 Humanist Party 109 0.21 New Socialist Workers Party 42 0.08 0.00 Marxist–Leninists Party 14 0.03 +0.01 Carsten Grøn-Nielsen 2 0.00 -0.01 Per Hillersborg 2 0.00 New Total 52,432 Source 1984 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 22,896 40.56 -0.09 Conservatives 10,911 19.33 +6.98 Green Left 10,061 17.82 +0.61 Social Liberals 2,877 5.10 +0.32 Centre Democrats 2,273 4.03 -2.91 Progress Party 1,709 3.03 -4.38 Left Socialists 1,672 2.96 -0.67 Venstre 1,604 2.84 +0.74 Justice Party of Denmark 1,193 2.11 +0.12 Communist Party of Denmark 616 1.09 -0.83 Christian People's Party 569 1.01 +0.25 Socialist Workers Party 45 0.08 0.00 Marxist–Leninists Party 11 0.02 New Carsten Grøn-Nielsen 5 0.01 New Mogens Nebelong 3 0.01 0.00 Poul Rasmussen 0 0.00 New Total 56,445 Source 1981 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 21,550 40.65 -5.75 Green Left 9,127 17.21 +8.23 Conservatives 6,546 12.35 +2.11 Progress Party 3,926 7.41 -1.04 Centre Democrats 3,681 6.94 +4.08 Social Liberals 2,535 4.78 -0.78 Left Socialists 1,924 3.63 -1.92 Venstre 1,116 2.10 -1.19 Justice Party of Denmark 1,055 1.99 -1.91 Communist Party of Denmark 1,018 1.92 -1.44 Christian People's Party 402 0.76 -0.02 Communist Workers Party 88 0.17 -0.46 Socialist Workers Party 44 0.08 New Mogens Nebelong 6 0.01 New Total 53,018 Source ===General elections in the 1970s=== 1979 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 24,858 46.40 +1.04 Conservatives 5,487 10.24 +3.64 Green Left 4,811 8.98 +2.68 Progress Party 4,528 8.45 -3.61 Social Liberals 2,978 5.56 +3.13 Left Socialists 2,974 5.55 +1.57 Justice Party of Denmark 2,091 3.90 -1.09 Communist Party of Denmark 1,799 3.36 -3.17 Venstre 1,761 3.29 +0.24 Centre Democrats 1,534 2.86 -3.87 Christian People's Party 417 0.78 -0.26 Communist Workers Party 337 0.63 New Total 53,575 Source 1977 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 23,421 45.36 +10.17 Progress Party 6,229 12.06 -1.96 Centre Democrats 3,474 6.73 +4.21 Conservatives 3,408 6.60 +1.86 Communist Party of Denmark 3,369 6.53 -0.98 Green Left 3,251 6.30 -3.41 Justice Party of Denmark 2,575 4.99 +2.65 Left Socialists 2,055 3.98 +1.31 Venstre 1,574 3.05 -9.05 Social Liberals 1,254 2.43 -3.86 Christian People's Party 539 1.04 -1.86 Pensioners' Party 476 0.92 New Otto Jensen 5 0.01 New Poul Rasmussen 1 0.00 New Total 51,631 Source 1975 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 17,693 35.19 +6.38 Progress Party 7,049 14.02 -0.78 Venstre 6,085 12.10 +8.40 Green Left 4,884 9.71 -1.89 Communist Party of Denmark 3,777 7.51 +0.92 Social Liberals 3,161 6.29 -1.90 Conservatives 2,383 4.74 -2.85 Christian People's Party 1,459 2.90 +1.15 Left Socialists 1,343 2.67 +0.48 Centre Democrats 1,266 2.52 -8.73 Justice Party of Denmark 1,174 2.34 -1.17 Henning Glahn 2 0.00 New J. G. Amdrejcak 1 0.00 New Kai Clemmensen 1 0.00 New Poul Friborg 0 0.00 New Total 50,278 Source 1973 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 13,074 28.81 -13.99 Progress Party 6,716 14.80 New Green Left 5,262 11.60 -4.63 Centre Democrats 5,103 11.25 New Social Liberals 3,718 8.19 -4.15 Conservatives 3,445 7.59 -9.33 Communist Party of Denmark 2,992 6.59 +4.16 Venstre 1,680 3.70 -0.70 Justice Party of Denmark 1,593 3.51 +1.80 Left Socialists 993 2.19 -0.01 Christian People's Party 793 1.75 +1.02 Erik Dissing 11 0.02 New Total 45,380 Source 1971 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 18,347 42.80 +6.73 Conservatives 7,252 16.92 -5.76 Green Left 6,959 16.23 +5.37 Social Liberals 5,291 12.34 -5.05 Venstre 1,887 4.40 +0.11 Communist Party of Denmark 1,042 2.43 +0.51 Left Socialists 943 2.20 -1.87 Justice Party of Denmark 731 1.71 +1.26 Christian People's Party 314 0.73 New Henning Berthelsen 103 0.24 New Total 42,869 Source ===General elections in the 1960s=== 1968 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 15,488 36.07 +1.56 Conservatives 9,736 22.68 -7.96 Social Liberals 7,468 17.39 +11.16 Green Left 4,664 10.86 -6.55 Venstre 1,842 4.29 -0.73 Left Socialists 1,747 4.07 New Liberal Centre 878 2.04 -2.00 Communist Party of Denmark 823 1.92 +0.68 Justice Party of Denmark 194 0.45 +0.12 Independent Party 95 0.22 -0.36 H. Søndersted Andersen 4 0.01 New Kirsten Lonning 4 0.01 New Thode Karlsen 1 0.00 -0.01 Total 42,935 Source 1966 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 16,298 34.51 -11.11 Conservatives 14,471 30.64 +5.62 Green Left 8,224 17.41 +7.04 Social Liberals 2,941 6.23 +2.00 Venstre 2,370 5.02 -4.15 Liberal Centre 1,908 4.04 New Communist Party of Denmark 585 1.24 -0.95 Independent Party 275 0.58 -1.11 Justice Party of Denmark 157 0.33 -0.60 Thode Karlsen 3 0.01 New Total 47,232 Source 1964 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 28,115 45.62 -1.83 Conservatives 15,418 25.02 +2.53 Green Left 6,389 10.37 -1.26 Venstre 5,650 9.17 +1.19 Social Liberals 2,608 4.23 -0.36 Communist Party of Denmark 1,347 2.19 +0.26 Independent Party 1,043 1.69 -0.49 Justice Party of Denmark 574 0.93 -0.81 Peace Politics People's Party 269 0.44 New Danish Unity 190 0.31 New Elin Høgsbro Appel 29 0.05 New Total 61,632 Source 1960 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 24,521 47.45 +1.39 Conservatives 11,625 22.49 +1.20 Green Left 6,012 11.63 New Venstre 4,124 7.98 -2.92 Social Liberals 2,373 4.59 -3.49 Independent Party 1,129 2.18 +0.66 Communist Party of Denmark 999 1.93 -4.29 Justice Party of Denmark 900 1.74 -4.19 Total 51,683 Source ===General elections in the 1950s=== 1957 Danish general election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 18,029 46.06 -2.94 Conservatives 8,332 21.29 +0.75 Venstre 4,268 10.90 +3.71 Social Liberals 3,164 8.08 -0.11 Communist Party of Denmark 2,436 6.22 -3.16 Justice Party of Denmark 2,320 5.93 +1.88 Independent Party 595 1.52 -0.12 Total 39,144 Source September 1953 Danish Folketing election Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 13,976 49.00 Conservatives 5,860 20.54 Communist Party of Denmark 2,676 9.38 Social Liberals 2,335 8.19 Venstre 2,051 7.19 Justice Party of Denmark 1,156 4.05 Independent Party 469 1.64 Total 28,523 Source ==European Parliament elections results== 2019 European Parliament election in Denmark Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 5,572 24.43 +2.10 Green Left 3,716 16.29 +5.05 Venstre 3,123 13.69 +4.72 Danish People's Party 2,971 13.02 -21.14 Social Liberals 2,470 10.83 +5.71 Red–Green Alliance 1,631 7.15 New Conservatives 1,161 5.09 -1.25 People's Movement against the EU 1,145 5.02 -4.72 The Alternative 719 3.15 New Liberal Alliance 303 1.33 -0.77 Total 22,811 Source 2014 European Parliament election in Denmark Parties Vote Votes % + / - Danish People's Party 6,587 34.16 +12.47 Social Democrats 4,305 22.33 -1.73 Green Left 2,167 11.24 -5.73 People's Movement against the EU 1,879 9.74 -1.64 Venstre 1,729 8.97 -3.06 Conservatives 1,223 6.34 -1.08 Social Liberals 987 5.12 +1.74 Liberal Alliance 405 2.10 +1.55 Total 19,282 Source 2009 European Parliament election in Denmark Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 4,719 24.06 -14.91 Danish People's Party 4,253 21.69 +11.55 Green Left 3,327 16.97 +8.36 Venstre 2,359 12.03 +2.26 People's Movement against the EU 2,232 11.38 +2.68 Conservatives 1,456 7.42 -1.45 Social Liberals 663 3.38 -0.93 June Movement 494 2.52 -7.43 Liberal Alliance 107 0.55 New Total 19,610 Source 2004 European Parliament election in Denmark Parties Vote Votes % + / - Social Democrats 10,319 38.97 +20.13 Danish People's Party 2,685 10.14 +0.59 June Movement 2,634 9.95 -10.22 Venstre 2,588 9.77 -3.27 Conservatives 2,348 8.87 +2.40 People's Movement against the EU 2,303 8.70 -1.96 Green Left 2,280 8.61 -0.32 Social Liberals 1,140 4.31 -3.56 Christian Democrats 182 0.69 -0.55 Total 26,479 Source 1999 European Parliament election in Denmark Parties Vote Votes % + / - June Movement 5,698 20.17 -0.25 Social Democrats 5,321 18.84 -0.92 Venstre 3,684 13.04 +3.91 People's Movement against the EU 3,010 10.66 -4.52 Danish People's Party 2,696 9.55 New Green Left 2,523 8.93 -0.80 Social Liberals 2,224 7.87 -0.03 Conservatives 1,827 6.47 -7.21 Centre Democrats 911 3.23 +2.25 Christian Democrats 350 1.24 +0.80 Progress Party 131 0.46 -2.32 Total 28,244 Source 1994 European Parliament election in Denmark Parties Vote Votes % + / - June Movement 6,377 20.42 New Social Democrats 6,169 19.76 -8.71 People's Movement against the EU 4,739 15.18 -14.68 Conservatives 4,271 13.68 +4.19 Green Left 3,037 9.73 -2.97 Venstre 2,851 9.13 +2.89 Social Liberals 2,465 7.90 +6.05 Progress Party 868 2.78 -1.18 Centre Democrats 307 0.98 -5.33 Christian Democrats 138 0.44 -0.68 Total 31,222 Source 1989 European Parliament election in Denmark Parties Vote Votes % + / - People's Movement against the EU 8,551 29.86 -1.22 Social Democrats 8,155 28.47 +5.55 Green Left 3,638 12.70 -3.03 Conservatives 2,717 9.49 -5.52 Centre Democrats 1,808 6.31 +1.08 Venstre 1,787 6.24 +3.95 Progress Party 1,134 3.96 +0.73 Social Liberals 529 1.85 -0.22 Christian Democrats 321 1.12 +0.01 Total 28,640 Source 1984 European Parliament election in Denmark Parties Vote Votes % People's Movement against the EU 10,172 31.08 Social Democrats 7,501 22.92 Green Left 5,148 15.73 Conservatives 4,911 15.01 Centre Democrats 1,710 5.23 Progress Party 1,058 3.23 Venstre 749 2.29 Social Liberals 677 2.07 Left Socialists 438 1.34 Christian Democrats 363 1.11 Total 32,727 Source ==Referendums== 2022 - Do you vote yes or no on Denmark being able to participate in the European defence and security co-operation by abolishing the EU defence opt-out? Option Votes % ✓ YES 14,915 64.4% X NO 8,260 35.6% 2015 - Proposed Law to change the justice opt-out to a case-by-case opt-in. Option Votes % X NO 15,391 60.9% ✓ YES 9,897 39.1% 2014 - Danish Unified Patent Court membership referendum Option Votes % ✓ YES 10,211 54.2% X NO 8,625 45.8% 2009 - Danish Act of Succession referendum Option Votes % ✓ YES 14,720 82.5% X NO 3,118 17.5% ==References== Category:Nomination districts of Denmark |
The Las Vegas Valley is a major metropolitan area in the southern part of the U.S. state of Nevada, and the second largest in the Southwestern United States. The state's largest urban agglomeration, the Las Vegas Metropolitan Statistical Area is coextensive since 2003 with Clark County, Nevada. The Valley is largely defined by the Las Vegas Valley landform, a basin area surrounded by mountains to the north, south, east and west of the metropolitan area. The Valley is home to the three largest incorporated cities in Nevada: Las Vegas, Henderson and North Las Vegas. Eleven unincorporated towns governed by the Clark County government are part of the Las Vegas Township and constitute the largest community in the state of Nevada. The names Las Vegas and Vegas are interchangeably used to indicate the Valley, the Strip, and the city, and as a brand by the Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority to denominate the region. The Valley is affectionately known as the "ninth island" by Hawaii natives and Las Vegans alike, in part due to the large number of people originally from Hawaii who live in and regularly travel to Las Vegas. Since the 1990s, the Las Vegas Valley has seen rapid growth, tripling its population from 741,459 in 1990 to 2,227,053 estimated in 2018. The Las Vegas Valley remains one of the fastest growing metropolitan areas in the United States. In its relatively short history, it has established a diverse presence in international business, commerce, urban development, and entertainment, as well as one of the most visited tourist attractions destinations in the world. In 2014, a record-breaking 41 million visited the Las Vegas area, producing a gross metropolitan product of more than $100 billion. ==History== The first reported non-Native American visitor to the Las Vegas Valley was the Mexican scout Rafael Rivera in 1829.Barbara Land, Myrick Land, "A short history of Las Vegas", University of Nevada Press, 2004, p. 4. Las Vegas was named by Mexicans in the Antonio Armijo party, including Rivera, who used the water in the area while heading north and west along the Old Spanish Trail from Texas. In the 19th century, areas of the valley contained artesian wells that supported extensive green areas, or meadows, hence the name Las Vegas (vegas being Spanish for "meadows"). The area was previously settled by Mormon farmers in 1854 and later became the site of a United States Army fort in 1864, beginning a long relationship between southern Nevada and the U.S. military. Since the 1930s, Las Vegas has generally been identified as a gaming center as well as a resort destination, primarily targeting adults. Nellis Air Force Base is located in the northeast corner of the valley. The ranges that the Nellis pilots use and various other land areas used by various federal agencies, limit growth of the valley in terms of geographic area. Businessman Howard Hughes arrived in the late 1960s and purchased many casino hotels, as well as television and radio stations in the area. Legitimate corporations began to purchase casino hotels as well, and the mob was run out by the federal government over the next several years. The constant stream of tourist dollars from the hotels and casinos was augmented by a new source of federal money from the establishment of what is now Nellis Air Force Base. The influx of military personnel and casino job-hunters helped start a land building boom which is now leveling off. The Las Vegas area remains one of the world's top entertainment destinations. ==Boundaries== thumb|Cities and communities of the Las Vegas valley The valley is contained in the Las Vegas Valley landform. This includes the cities of Las Vegas, North Las Vegas, and Henderson, and the unincorporated towns of Summerlin South, Paradise, Spring Valley, Sunrise Manor, Enterprise, Winchester, and Whitney. The valley is located within the larger metropolitan area, as the metropolitan area covers all of Clark County including parts that do not fall within the valley. The government of Clark County has an "Urban Planning Area" of Las Vegas. This definition is a roughly rectangular area, about from east to west and from north to south. Notable exclusions from the "Urban Planning Area" include Red Rock, Blue Diamond, and Mount Charleston. The Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department is the largest police department in the valley and the state and exercises jurisdiction in the entire county. There are approximately 3,000 police officers who cover the city of Las Vegas; unincorporated areas; the town of Laughlin, about from Downtown Las Vegas; and desert, park, and mountain areas within Clark County. The department does not exercise primary jurisdiction in areas with separate police forces such as North Las Vegas, Henderson, Boulder City, Nellis Air Force Base and the Paiute reservation. The metropolitan area was created for the 1970 census when it only included Clark County. In 2000, the metropolitan area was changed to include Nye County, Nevada, and Mohave County, Arizona, but it later returned to only being Clark County. The Office of Management and Budget has designated Clark County as the Las Vegas-Henderson-Paradise, NV Metropolitan Statistical Area. The United States Census Bureau ranked the Las Vegas-Henderson-Paradise, NV Metropolitan Statistical Area as the 31st most populous metropolitan statistical area of the United States as of July 1, 2012. The Office of Management and Budget has further designated the Las Vegas-Henderson-Paradise, NV Metropolitan Statistical Area as a component of the more extensive Las Vegas–Henderson, NV–AZ CSA, the 27th most populous combined statistical area and the 30th most populous primary statistical area of the United States as of July 1, 2012. ==Geography and environment== thumb|Las Vegas at night in 2010 The Las Vegas Valley lies in the Mojave Desert. The valley in the northwest section is a northwest-by-southeastNevada Atlas & Gazetteer, DeLorme, c. 2010, p. 70, p. 66-67. trending area, and trending parallel to Las Vegas Wash, lies at the northeast of the Spring Mountains massif. U.S. Route 95 leaves Las Vegas's northwest and goes northwesterly through the northwest valley section, with Las Vegas Wash about Nevada Atlas & Gazetteer, p. 70. northeast. U.S. 95 lies on the southwest perimeter of the valley bottomlands, and small alluvial fan areas from the northeast Spring Mountains border southwest. A "distorted surface",Nevada Atlas & Gazetteer, p. 70, p. 66-67. a playa-like region, occurs at the farthest northwest area, for about , starting from Nevada Route 157. At Nevada Route 156, northwest, the distorted surface, bottom land turns north, a area in length and about wide. It lies at the south drainage section of the Three Lakes Valley, where a water divide separates Dog Bone Lake in the valley's center from the southwest washes that drain into the Las Vegas Valley (upland Las Vegas Wash). The Corn Creek Dunes lie about southwest of Route 156's intersection with U.S. 95, and they are slightly northeast of Las Vegas Wash. The Las Vegas Valley is around . All perimeters, except the northwest, are foothills or mountain ranges, with all highway routes entering the foothills; this includes the Interstate 15 to the southwest, as it climbs to Jean Pass (north), before traversing Ivanpah Valley. Only the U.S. Route 95 northwest follows an actual valley. The northwest section, thus describes the entire landform as a central, and large valley with an attached feeder valley northwest, and in this case the northwest source, and actual course of the Las Vegas Wash. The valley is a fault-bounded structural and hydrologic basin made of alluvial-fan deposits. There are several aquifers contained within the valley including the Las Vegas Aquifer. These heavily depleted water sources exist at about in depth. As of 1986, estimate show that the valley floor in Downtown Las Vegas has subsided by about and about along The Strip as a result of pumping from these aquifers. ===Climate=== The Las Vegas Valley lies in a relatively high-altitude portion of the Mojave Desert, with a subtropical hot- desert climate. The Valley generally averages less than of rain annually. Daily daytime summer temperatures in July and August typically range from to , while nights generally range from to . Very low humidity, however, tempers the effect of these temperatures, though dehydration, heat exhaustion, and sun stroke can occur after even a limited time outdoors in the summer. The interiors of automobiles often prove deadly to small children and pets during the summer and surfaces exposed to the sun can cause first- and second-degree burns to unprotected skin. July and August can also be marked by monsoon season, when moist winds from the Gulf of California soak much of the Southwestern United States. While not only raising humidity levels, these winds develop into dramatic desert thunderstorms that can sometimes cause flash flooding. Winter days in metropolitan Las Vegas range from mild to quite chilly, and sunny most days; while winter itself is of short duration. Winter highs in December and January usually range from to , while nighttime lows range from to . The mountains surrounding the valley are snow-covered during the winter season, but snow accumulation in the metropolitan area itself is uncommon. Every few years apart, however, Las Vegas does get a small measurable snowfall. Spring and fall are generally dry and with hot, sunny days and cool nights. ===Fault zones=== The valley is an active earthquake zone crossed by multiple fault and thrust lines. These include the long Frenchman Mountain Fault capable of a magnitude 7 event, Whitney Mesa Fault, Cashman Fault, Valley View Fault, Decatur Fault, Eglington Fault and the West Charleston Fault. ===Air quality=== Having part of the region in a desert basin creates problems with air quality. From the dust the wind picks up, to the smog produced by vehicles, to the pollen in the air, the valley has several bad air days. Pollen can be a major problem several weeks a year, with counts occasionally in the 70,000-plus range. Local governments are trying to control this by banning plants that produce the most pollen. The dust problems usually happen on very windy days, so they tend to be short and seasonal. Full-fledged dust storms are rare. Smog, on the other hand, gets worse when there is no wind to move the air out of the valley. Also, in winter it is possible for an inversion to form in the valley. Since manufacturing is not a dominant industry of Las Vegas, and with Clark County working to control air quality problems, success has been shown over the years. ===Water=== The native flora does little to help the soil retain water. During the intense rains of monsoon season or (relatively) wet months of January and February, a network of dry natural channels, called washes or arroyos, carved into the valley floor allows water to flow down from the mountains and converge in the Las Vegas Wash which runs through the Clark County Wetlands Park. The wash system used to form a large natural wetlands which then flowed into the Colorado River, until the construction of Hoover Dam on the Colorado River led to the creation of Lake Mead. Further development in the 1980s and 1990s made Lake Las Vegas, which required directing the Las Vegas Wash into tunnels which run under Lake Las Vegas and into Lake Mead. Nevada receives an allocation of waterDwyer, Colleen. The Colorado River and Hoover Dam Facts and Figures Bureau of Reclamation, January 2012. Retrieved February 26, 2012. each year from Lake Mead, with credits for water it returns to the lake. The allocations were made with the Colorado River Compact when Nevada had a much smaller population and very little agriculture. The allocations were also made during a wet string of years, which overstated the available water in the entire watershed. As a result, precipitation that is below normal for a few years can significantly affect the Colorado River reservoirs. The Las Vegas area uses most of this allocation with Laughlin, Nevada using most of the remaining allocation. In June 2007, the price of a cubic meter was 57 cents in Las Vegas.John Lippert and Jim Efstathiou Jr. Las Vegas Running Out of Water Means Dimming Los Angeles Lights Bloomberg, February 26, 2009. Retrieved February 26, 2012. Quote: "in June 2007 was $3.01 in Atlanta and 57 cents in Las Vegas" Las Vegas gets around 90 percent of its water from Lake Mead.Felicity Barringer. Las Vegas's Worried Water Czar The New York Times, September 28, 2010. Retrieved February 26, 2012. Early Vegas depended on the aquifer which fed the flowing springs supporting the meadows that gave the area its name, but the pumping of water from these caused a large drop in the water levels and ground subsidence over wide areas of the valley. Today, the aquifers are basically used to store water that is pumped from the lake during periods of low demand and pumped out during periods of high demand. ===Urbanization=== The population doubling time in the greater metropolitan area was under ten years, since the early 1970s and the Las Vegas metropolitan area now has a population approaching two million people. This rapid population growth led to a significant urbanization of desert lands into industrial and commercial areas (see suburbia). ==Economy== The driving force in Las Vegas is the tourism industry and the area has about 150,000 hotel rooms, more than any other city in the world. In the past, casinos and celebrity shows were the two major attractions for the area. Now shopping, conventions, fine dining, and outdoor beauty are also major forces in attracting tourist dollars. Las Vegas serves as world headquarters for the world's largest Fortune 500 gaming company, MGM Resorts International. Harrah's Entertainment is now owned by Reno-based Caesar's Entertainment. Several companies involved in the manufacture of electronic gaming machines, such as slot machines, are located in the Las Vegas area. In the first decade of the 21st century, shopping and dining have become attractions of their own. Tourism marketing and promotion are handled by the Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority, a county-wide agency. Its annual Visitors Survey provides detailed information on visitor numbers, spending patterns, and resulting revenues. While Las Vegas has historically attracted high-stake gamblers from around the world, it is now facing tougher competition from the UK, Hong Kong and Macau (China), Eastern Europe and developing areas in the Middle East. US Casino Hotels Industry Report" IBISWorld, November 2008 Las Vegas has recently enjoyed a boom in population and tourism. The urban area has grown outward so quickly that it borders Bureau of Land Management holdings along its edges. This has led to an increase in land values such that medium- and high-density development is occurring closer to the core. The Chinatown of Las Vegas was constructed in the early 1990s on Spring Mountain Road. Chinatown initially consisted of only one large shopping center complex, but the area was expanded with shopping centers that contain various Asian businesses. Over the past few years, retirees have been moving to the metro area, driving businesses that support them from housing to health care. While the cost of housing spiked up over 40% in 2004, the lack of business and income taxes still makes Nevada an attractive place for many companies to relocate to or expand existing operations. Being a true twenty-four-hour city, call centers have always seemed to find Las Vegas a good place to hire workers who are accustomed to working at all hours. The construction industry accounts for a share of the economy in Las Vegas. Hotel casinos planned for the Strip can take years to build and employ thousands of workers. Developers discovered that there was demand for high-end condominiums. By 2005, more than 100 condominium buildings were in various stages of development, however, in 2008, the construction industry went into a downturn due to the credit crunch, though the industry has since seen a rebound. In 2000, more than 21,000 new homes and 26,000 resale homes were purchased. In early 2005, there were 20 residential development projects of more than each underway. During that same period, Las Vegas was regarded as the fastest-growing community in the United States. Other promising residential and office developments have begun construction around Downtown Las Vegas. New condominium and high-rise hotel projects have changed the Las Vegas skyline dramatically in recent years. Many large high- rise projects are planned for Downtown Las Vegas, as well as the Las Vegas Strip. ===Construction=== thumb|Construction on The Strip (2009) Construction in Las Vegas is a major industry and quickly growing with the population. In March 2011, construction employed 40,700 people and is expected to grow with the recovering economy. Since the mega resorts that define Las Vegas today began going up in the early 1970s, construction has played a vital role in both commercial and non commercial developments. Cranes are a constant part of the Las Vegas Skyline. At any given time there are 300 new homes being constructed in Las Vegas. Downtown and The Strip always have at least one hospitality project under construction. In addition, in recent years Las Vegas has seen a spike in high-rise housing units. Luxurious condos and penthouse suites are always being built. New suburban master planned communities are also becoming common in Las Vegas ever since The Howard Hughes Corporation began work on Summerlin, an upper-class community on the west side of the valley. The massive CityCenter project, by MGM Mirage, broke ground on the Strip in 2006. It put a massive strain on the construction ability and workforce of the area due to number of laborers and amount of materials required. Because of this, prices of almost any construction project in Las Vegas doubled. The project was completed in 2009 and includes multiple hotels and condominiums, as well as shopping and a casino. At a cost of $8.5 billion, it is the most expensive privately funded construction project in U.S. history. ===Housing=== Traditionally, housing consisted primarily of single- family detached homes. Slab-on-grade foundations are the common base for residential buildings in the valley. Apartments generally were two-story buildings. Until the 1990s, there were exceptions, but they were few and far between. In the 1990s, Turnberry Associates constructed the first high rise condominium towers. Prior to this, there were only a handful of mid-rise multi-family buildings. By the mid-2000s, there was a major move into high rise condominiums towers, which affected the region's skyline around the Strip. The Las Vegas Valley is home to various suburban master planned communities that include extensive recreational amenities such as lakes, golf courses, parks, bike paths and jogging trails. Planned communities in the valley include Aliante, Anthem, Cadence, Centennial Hills, Green Valley, Inspirada, Lake Las Vegas, The Lakes, Mountain's Edge, Peccole Ranch, Providence, Rhodes Ranch, Seven Hills, Skye Canyon, Southern Highlands, and Summerlin. ===Technology companies=== Some technology companies have either relocated to Las Vegas or were created there. For various reasons, Las Vegas has had a high concentration of technology companies in electronic gaming and telecommunications industries. Some current technology companies in southern Nevada include: Bigelow Aerospace, Petroglyph, Switch Communications, US Support LLC, Fanatics, and Zappos. In 2015, Electric vehicle startup Faraday Future has chosen North Las Vegas's Apex Industrial Park for its $1 billion car factory. Companies that originally were formed in the Las Vegas region, but have since sold or relocated include Westwood Studios (sold to Electronic Arts), Systems Research & Development (Sold to IBM), Yellowpages.com (Sold to BellSouth and SBC), and MPower Communications. ===Tourism=== The major attractions in the Las Vegas Valley are the hotel/casinos. These hotels generally consist of large gambling areas, theaters for live performances, shopping, bars/clubs, and several restaurants and cafes. There are clusters of large hotel/casinos located in both downtown Las Vegas and on the Las Vegas Strip. The largest hotels are mainly located on the Strip, which is a four- mile section of Las Vegas Boulevard. These hotels provide thousands of rooms of various sizes. Fifteen of the world's 25 largest hotels by room count are on the Strip, with a total of over 62,000 rooms. There are many hotel/casinos in the city's downtown area as well, which was the original focal point of the Valley's gaming industry. Several hotel/casinos ranging from large to small are also located around the city and metro area. Many of the largest hotel, casino, and resort properties in the world are located on the Las Vegas Strip. The valley's casinos can be grouped into several locations. The largest is the Las Vegas Strip, followed by Downtown Las Vegas, and then the smaller Boulder Strip. There are also several one-off single standing hotel/casinos dotted around the valley and the metro area. In 2011, the majority of tourists arrived from the western states (55%) with 31% from California alone. Approximately 16% of tourists arrived from outside North America. ===Shopping=== Las Vegas has expanded its attractiveness to visitors by offering both affordable and high-end merchandise in many shops and shopping malls. Many hotels on the Las Vegas Strip also have adjacent shopping malls, giving the Las Vegas area the highest concentration of shopping malls in any four mile stretch of road. In addition to the malls on the Strip, there are several outlying malls in the City of Las Vegas, Henderson, and the surrounding area. The monorail, lying somewhat east of the Strip, facilitates north–south travel, including stations at several casinos and the Las Vegas Convention Center. ===Conventions=== Las Vegas holds many of the world's largest conventions each year, including CES, SEMA, and Conexpo. The Las Vegas Convention Center is one of the largest in the world with 1,940,631 sq ft (180,290.5 m2) of exhibit space. These events bring in an estimated $7.4 billion of revenue to the city each year, and host over 5 million attendees. ===Major shopping attractions=== * Bonanza Gift Shop * The Boulevard Mall * The Shops at Crystals * Downtown Summerlin * Galleria at Sunset * Grand Canal Shoppes * Fantastic Indoor Swap Meet * Fashion Outlets of Las Vegas * Fashion Show Mall * The Forum Shops at Caesars * Las Vegas Premium Outlets * Meadows Mall * Miracle Mile Shops * Stratosphere Tower Shops * Studio Walk at MGM Grand * The Shoppes at the Palazzo * Tivoli Village * Town Square File:Las Vegas, Planet Hollywood.jpg|Las Vegas Boulevard facing south and Planet Hollywood Las Vegas File:Fremont East District Neon - panoramio.jpg|Fremont East File:Bellagio caesar's palace 2010.JPG|The Bellagio (left) and Caesar's Palace (right) File:MacDonaldHighlands1.jpg|MacDonald Highlands, one of many affluent neighborhoods in the valley File:Project CityCenter in Las Vegas.jpg|CityCenter complex File:The Wynn (9638502887).jpg|Wynn Las Vegas File:Fashionshowmall.jpg|The Fashion Show Mall File:Fountains and Rainbow @ Bellagio, Las Vegas (2597936256).jpg|Fountains of Bellagio File:Crystals Retail and Entertainment, City Center, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA (8477909548).jpg|Crystals at CityCenter File:Downtown, Las Vegas, NV, USA - panoramio (6).jpg|High Roller File:Caesars Palace, Las Vegas (5527011351).jpg|The Forum Shops at Caesars File:Red Rock Canyon NCA (25112604635).jpg|Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area File:Arts District, Las Vegas, United States (Unsplash).jpg|Las Vegas Arts District File:One Magic Mountain (Unsplash).jpg|Ugo Rondinone's Seven Magic Mountains ==Culture and the arts== thumb|Reynolds Hall main stage at The Smith Center The "First Friday" celebration, held on the first Friday of each month, exhibits the works of local artists and musicians in an area just south of downtown. The city is home to an extensive Downtown Arts District which hosts numerous galleries, film festivals, and events. The Southern Nevada Zoological-Botanical Park, also known as the Las Vegas Zoo, used to exhibit over 150 species of animals and plants. The Zoo closed its doors in September 2013. The Shark Reef Aquarium at Mandalay Bay is the only aquarium that is accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums in the state of Nevada. It features over 2,000 animals and 1,200 species in 1.6 million gallons of seawater. The $485 million Smith Center for the Performing Arts is located downtown in Symphony Park. The center is appropriate for Broadway shows and other major touring attractions as well as orchestral, opera, choir, jazz, and dance performances. Bellagio Gallery of Fine Art is a facility presenting high-quality art exhibitions from major national and international museums. Past exhibits have included the works of Andy Warhol, Alexander Calder, and Peter Carl Fabergé. A self-guided audio tour is also offered. The Las Vegas Natural History Museum features robot dinosaurs, live fish, and more than 26 species of preserved animals. There are several "hands-on" areas where animals can be petted. The Atomic Testing Museum, affiliated with the Smithsonian Institution, houses artifacts from the Nevada Test Site and records the dramatic history of the atomic age through a series of interactive modules, timelines, films, and actual equipment and gadgets from the site. In 2019, The New York Times noted that there was a "burgeoning literary scene" at Las Vegas centered around the Black Mountain Institute, a literature organization at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, and its literary magazine, The Believer. The valley is home to numerous other art galleries, orchestras, ballets, theaters, sculptures, and museums as well. ===Festivals=== * CineVegas * Helldorado Days * Electric Daisy Carnival * Feast of San Gennaro * Las Vegas Pride Festival * The Dam Short Film FestivalWhile outside of the Valley, considered to be a Las Vegas destination due to close proximity. * Life is Beautiful * ===Gardens=== * Alan Bible Botanical Garden * Ethel M Botanical Cactus Garden * Bellagio Conservatory & Botanical Gardens * The Gardens at the Las Vegas Springs Preserve * UNLV Arboretum ===Libraries and bookstores=== * The Writer's Block * Architecture Studies Library * Las Vegas–Clark County Library District * Lied Library (at UNLV) * North Las Vegas Library District ===Museums=== * Atomic Testing Museum * Burlesque Hall of Fame * Clark County Heritage Museum * Discovery Children's Museum * Erotic Heritage Museum * Howard W. Cannon Aviation Museum * The Linq Auto Collection * Las Vegas Art Museum * Las Vegas Museum of Organized Crime and Law Enforcement * Las Vegas Natural History Museum * Liberace Museum * Lost City Museum * Madame Tussauds * Marjorie Barrick Museum (at UNLV) * Neon Museum * Nevada State Museum * Nevada Southern Railroad Museum * Pinball Hall of Fame * Shelby Museum * Southern Nevada Museum of Fine Art * Thunderbirds Museum ===Parks and attractions=== * Acacia Demonstration Gardens * The Amanda & Stacy Darling Memorial Tennis Center * Bettye Wilson Soccer Complex * Clark County Shooting Park * Clark County Wetlands Park * Floyd Lamb Park at Tule Springs * Hoover Dam * Lake Mead National Recreation Area * Las Vegas Motor Speedway * Las Vegas Springs Preserve * Mount Charleston * Old Las Vegas Mormon Fort State Historic Park * Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area * Spring Mountains National Recreation Area * Sunset Park * Tule Springs Fossil Beds National Monument * Valley of Fire State Park * Wet'n'Wild Las Vegas ===Theaters=== *Huntridge Theater *Lance Burton Theatre *Las Vegas Little Theater *The Smith Center for the Performing Arts *Theatre for the Performing Arts ===Wildlife=== * Southern Nevada Zoological-Botanical Park * Shark Reef at Mandalay Bay * Siegfried & Roy's Secret Garden and Dolphin Habitat ==Communities== ===Cities=== * Boulder City * Henderson * Las Vegas * North Las Vegas ===Las Vegas neighborhoods=== * Aliante * Anthem/Anthem Country Club * Centennial Hills * Chinatown * Downtown Las Vegas * Green Valley * Lake Las Vegas * Las Vegas Country Club * MacDonald Highlands * Mountain's Edge * Paradise Palms * Queensridge & One Queensridge Place * Red Rock Country Club * Rhodes Ranch * Seven Hills * Southern Highlands * Southern Highlands Golf Club * Summerlin * Summerlin South * The Lakes * The Ridges * Tuscany Village * West Las Vegas ===Census-designated places=== * Blue Diamond * Enterprise * Paradise * Spring Valley * Summerlin South * Sunrise Manor * Whitney * Winchester ===Other communities=== * Sloan ==Media== ===Newspapers=== * Las Vegas Review-Journal, the area's largest daily newspaper, is published every morning. It was formed in 1909 but has roots back to 1905. It is the largest newspaper in Nevada and is ranked as one of the top 25 newspapers in the United States by circulation. In 2000, the Review-Journal installed the largest newspaper printing press in the world. It cost $40 million, weighs 910 tons and consists of 16 towers. The newspaper is owned by casino magnate Sheldon Adelson. He purchased the newspaper for $140 million in December 2015. In 2018, the Review-Journal received the Sigma Delta Chi Award from the Society of Professional Journalists for reporting the 2017 Las Vegas shooting. In 2018, Editor and Publisher magazine named the Review-Journal as one of 10 newspapers in the United States "doing it right". * Las Vegas Sun is a daily 8-page newspaper distributed as a section of the Review-Journal. It is owned by the Greenspun family and is affiliated with Greenspun Media Group. The Sun was founded in 1950 and in 1989 entered into a Joint Operating Agreement with the Review- Journal, which runs through 2040. It has been described as "politically liberal." In 2009, the Sun was awarded a Pulitzer Prize for Public Service for coverage of the high death rate of construction workers on the Las Vegas Strip amid lax enforcement of regulations. * Las Vegas Weekly is a free alternative weekly newspaper based in Henderson, Nevada. It covers Las Vegas arts, entertainment, culture and news. Las Vegas Weekly was founded in 1992 and is published by Greenspun Media Group. ===Broadcast=== Las Vegas is served by 22 television and 46 radio stations. The area is also served by two NOAA Weather Radio transmitters (162.55 MHz located in Boulder City and 162.40 MHz located on Mount Potosi). * Radio stations in Las Vegas * Television stations in Las Vegas ===Magazines=== * Desert Companion * Las Vegas Weekly * Luxury Las Vegas ==Transportation== Harry Reid International Airport (LAS) provides commercial flights into the Las Vegas Valley. The airport serves domestic, international and cargo flights, as well as some private aircraft. General aviation traffic, however, will typically use the much smaller North Las Vegas Airport or other airfields in the county. Public transportation is provided by RTC Transit. Numerous bus routes cover Las Vegas, Henderson, North Las Vegas and other suburban areas. The Las Vegas Monorail runs from MGM Grand Las Vegas at the south end of the Strip to the Sahara Las Vegas at the north end of the Strip. The street numbering system is divided by the following streets: * Westcliff Drive, US 95, Fremont Street and Charleston Boulevard divide the north–south block numbers from west to east. * Las Vegas Boulevard divides the east–west streets from the Las Vegas Strip to near the Stratosphere, then Main Street becomes the dividing line from the Stratosphere to the North Las Vegas border, after which the Goldfield Street alignment officially divides east and west. * On the east side of Las Vegas, block numbers between Charleston Boulevard and Washington Avenue are different along Nellis Boulevard, which is the eastern border of the city limits. * All city street signs begin with a N, S, W or E designation. Until 1997, the Amtrak Desert Wind train service ran through Las Vegas using the Union Pacific Railroad (UP) rails that run through the city; Amtrak service to Las Vegas has since been replaced by Amtrak's Thruway Motorcoach bus service. Plans to restore Los Angeles to Las Vegas Amtrak service using a Talgo train have been discussed but no plan for a replacement has been implemented. The Las Vegas Amtrak station was located in the Plaza Hotel. It had the distinction of being the only train station located in a casino. ===Airports=== * Henderson Executive Airport * Ivanpah Valley Airport (planned) * Harry Reid International Airport * North Las Vegas Airport ===Rail and bus=== While the Las Vegas area does not have any passenger rail service, the Brightline West intends to revive passenger trains to Las Vegas with a high-speed train from Victorville, California. Las Vegas receives about 30 freight trains per day , and serves as a district crew change point, requiring all trains to stop in downtown. Freight traffic was 179,284 cars in 2004.Las Vegas to Los Angeles Rail Corridor Improvement Feasibility Study p172 Regional Transportation Commission of Southern Nevada, June 2007. Retrieved December 12, 2011. ====Existing services==== * RTC Transit ** Las Vegas Monorail =====Resort trams===== * Aria Express * Mandalay Bay Tram * The Mirage- Treasure Island Tram ===Roads=== Two major freeways—Interstate 15 and Interstate 515 (including US 93 and US 95)—cross in downtown Las Vegas. I-15 connects Las Vegas to Los Angeles and San Diego, and heads northeast to Salt Lake City and beyond. Interstate 11 will eventually serve the connection from Nogales, Arizona to the Reno and Sparks vicinity of either Fernley or at the Reno Spaghetti Bowl in Reno when completed. I-515 goes southeast to Henderson, beyond which Interstate 11 bypasses Boulder City and U.S. Route 93 continues past the Mike O'Callaghan–Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge over the Colorado River towards Phoenix, Arizona. US 95 connects the city to northwestern Nevada, including Carson City (the state capitol) and Reno. US 93 splits from I-15 northeast of Las Vegas and goes north through the northeastern part of the state, serving Ely and Wells and US 95 heads south from I-11 and US 93 in Boulder City through far southeastern California. A three-quarters of the Las Vegas Beltway has been built, consisting of Interstate 215 on the south and Clark County 215 on the west and north. Other radial routes include SR 160 to Pahrump and SR 147 and SR 564 (former SR 146) to Lake Mead. With the notable exceptions of Las Vegas Boulevard, Boulder Highway and Tonopah Highway (better known as the northern part of Rancho Drive), the majority of surface streets outside downtown Las Vegas are laid out along Public Land Survey System section lines. Many are maintained, in part, by the Nevada Department of Transportation (NDOT) as state highways. ;East–west roads, north to southMost arterial roads are shown, as indicated on the Nevada Department of Transportation's 2004 Roadway Functional Classification map . Retrieved May 2008. * Elkhorn Road * 20px Las Vegas Beltway (CC 215) * Ann Road * 20px Craig Road (SR 573) * 20px Cheyenne Avenue (SR 574) * Carey Avenue * 20px Lake Mead Boulevard (SR 147) * 20px Washington Avenue (SR 578) * 20px Summerlin Parkway (SR 613) – on the west side past Rainbow Boulevard * 20px Bonanza Road (SR 579) * 20px US 95 – on the west side of the valley * 25px 20px 20px – Interstate 515, US 93 and US 95 on the east side of the valley * 20px Charleston Boulevard (SR 159) * Sahara Avenue (former SR 589) * Desert Inn Road * Spring Mountain Road (former SR 591) * 20px Flamingo Road (SR 592) * 20px Tropicana Avenue (SR 593) * 20px Russell Road (SR 594) * 20px Sunset Road (SR 562) * Warm Springs Road * 20px Blue Diamond Road (SR 160) * 25px Las Vegas Beltway (I-215) * 20px Lake Mead Parkway (formerly Lake Mead Drive) (SR 564) * Horizon Ridge Parkway * 20px Saint Rose Parkway (formerly Lake Mead Drive) (SR 146) ;North–south roads, west to east * 20px Las Vegas Beltway (CC 215) * Durango Drive * Buffalo Drive * 20px Rainbow Boulevard (SR 595) * 20px Jones Boulevard (SR 596) * Decatur Boulevard * Valley View Boulevard * Dean Martin Drive (formerly Industrial Road) * 20px Interstate 15 * 20px Las Vegas Boulevard (SR 604) * 20px Rancho Drive (SR 599) * 20px Paradise Road (SR 605) * Maryland Parkway * 20px Eastern Avenue (SR 607) * Pecos Road * 25px 20px 20px – Interstate 515, US 93 and US 95 south of Charleston Boulevard * 20px Lamb Boulevard (SR 610) * 20px Nellis Boulevard (SR 612) ;Major Freeways * 20px Interstate 11 * 20px Interstate 15 * 25px Las Vegas Beltway (I-215) * 25px Interstate 515 * 20px Las Vegas Beltway (CC 215) * 20px US 95 * 20px Summerlin Parkway (SR 613) ===Fuel=== The Las Vegas area is dependent on imported gasoline, diesel and aviation fuel as is most of Nevada, which has only one refinery. The region is dependent on the Calnev Pipeline and Unev pipeline as its two main sources of supply. Limited diesel is delivered to a dedicated terminal in North Las Vegas by rail. Diversified supply was provided by the completion of construction on the Unev pipeline in 2011 and its full operational status in 2012. ===Electricity=== About 25% of the electric power from Hoover Dam goes to Nevada, and about 70% of power to Southern Nevada comes from natural gas fired power stations.Where Our Power Comes From NVEnergy. Retrieved February 26, 2012. ==Sports== Las Vegas is home to several notable minor league teams, as well as the UNLV Rebels, and three major professional teams, the Las Vegas Raiders of the National Football League, the Vegas Golden Knights of the National Hockey League, and the Las Vegas Aces of the Women's National Basketball Association. The Oakland Athletics plan to move to Las Vegas in the mid-2020s. Professional sports teams Club Sport League Venue (capacity) Since Titles Las Vegas Raiders Football NFL Allegiant Stadium (65,000) 2020 3 Vegas Golden Knights Ice hockey NHL T-Mobile Arena (17,368) 2017 1 Las Vegas Aces Basketball WNBA Michelob Ultra Arena (12,000) 2018 1 Las Vegas Aviators Baseball PCL Las Vegas Ballpark (10,000) 1983 2 Henderson Silver Knights Ice hockey AHL Dollar Loan Center (5,567) 2021 0 Las Vegas Lights FC Soccer USLC Cashman Field (9,300) 2018 0 ==Recreation== Las Vegas has many natural outdoor recreational options. There are several multi- use trail systems within the valley operated by multiple organizations. The River Mountains Loop Trail is a trail that connects the west side of the valley with Hoover Dam and Lake Mead. Summerlin offers more than 150 miles of award-winning trails within the community. There are also the Angel Park Trail, Bonanza Trail, and the county's Flamingo Arroyo Trail, I-215 West Beltway Trail (), I-215 East Beltway Trail (), Tropicana/Flamingo Washes Trail and the Western Trails Park Area Equestrian Trails (4 miles). The Las Vegas Valley also hosts world class mountain biking including Bootleg Canyon Mountain Bike Park located in Boulder City which boasts itself as one of the International Mountain Biking Association's "epic rides". ==Education== ===Primary and secondary=== The Clark County School District operates all of the public primary and secondary schools in the county with the exception of 37 sponsored public charter schools. ; Selected private schools : Alexander Dawson School : Bishop Gorman High School : Faith Lutheran Jr/Sr High School : The Meadows School ===Colleges and universities=== The University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV) is in Paradise, about three miles (5 km) south of the city limits and roughly two miles east of the Strip. Several national colleges, including the University of Phoenix and Le Cordon Bleu, have campuses in the Las Vegas area. Nevada State College, National University and Touro University Nevada are nearby Henderson. The College of Southern Nevada has campuses in Las Vegas, North Las Vegas and Henderson. Henderson also is home to DeVry University, as well as the Roseman University of Health Sciences. Other private entity in the Las Vegas Valley includes Carrington College. ==Venues in Las Vegas== * Music venues in Las Vegas * Sports venues in Las Vegas * City of Rock (Las Vegas) ==See also== *Architecture of Las Vegas *List of Las Vegas Strip hotels *List of people from Las Vegas *List of restaurants in the Las Vegas Valley *Las Vegas shows ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * CAC (Civil Applications Committee)/USGS Global Fiducials Program web page containing scientific description of the region and interactive map viewer featuring declassified high-resolution time-series imagery * City of Las Vegas official website Category:Metropolitan areas of Nevada Category:Regions of Nevada Category:Valleys of Nevada Category:Valleys of Clark County, Nevada Category:Valleys of the Mojave Desert Category:Populated places in the Mojave Desert |
The Commissioner's Historic Achievement Award is awarded by the Commissioner of Baseball, the chief executive of Major League Baseball (MLB), to a group or person who has made a "major impact on the sport" of baseball. It is not an annual award; rather, the Commissioner presents it at his discretion. The trophy is a gold baseball sitting atop a cylindrical silver base, created by Tiffany & Co. The award has been presented sixteen times: thirteen times to players, once to a team, and twice to a non-player. Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa were the first to receive the award for their parts in the 1998 MLB home run record chase. The most recent recipient is Shohei Ohtani, who was honored in 2021 for being the first player in MLB history to be an All-Star as both a starting pitcher and a lead-off hitter in the 2021 All-Star Game and for completing a two-way season as a hitter and as a pitcher. The 2001 Seattle Mariners won the award as a team for posting a 116–46 record one season after losing Alex Rodriguez to the Texas Rangers. Roberto Clemente, the 2006 awardee, is the only player to receive the award posthumously; his award was accepted by his wife, Vera. Three years after McGwire and Sosa were honored, Cal Ripken Jr. and Tony Gwynn, both of whom retired after the 2001 season, received the award and were honored at the 2001 MLB All-Star Game; Ripken was elected to the American League All-Star team as a starter at third base, while Gwynn was later added as an honorary member of the National League team. During the first inning of the game, Rodriguez, who had been elected the starter at shortstop—the position at which Ripken played for most of his career—switched positions with Ripken for the first inning of the game as a tribute. Including the presentation of the award to the Mariners following the season, the 2001 season's three awards are the most presented in a single year. Barry Bonds received the award in 2002, becoming the third player so honored for breaking the single-season home run record. Bonds was the first of two players to receive the award that season, along with Rickey Henderson. The award was given in each year from 2004 until 2007: Roger Clemens was honored during the 2004 All-Star Game, and Ichiro Suzuki was presented with the award for breaking the single-season hits record in 2005. Rachel Robinson was honored in 2007, receiving the award for establishing the Jackie Robinson Foundation. She was the first woman and the first non-player to be thus honored. In 2014 Vin Scully became the second non-player to be honored. ==Awardees== Awardee(s) Image Year presented Achievement alt=A man in a white baseball uniform stands in the left-handed batter's box. He is holding a black bat and wearing a black batting helmet. His uniform reads "Giants" across the chest. 2002 Bonds set the MLB single-season home run record with 73 in the 2001 season. He also amassed 137 runs batted in, 177 walks, and an .863 slugging percentage; the last two broke records set by Babe Ruth. Bonds later went on to surpass both Ruth and Hank Aaron as the all-time MLB home run leader. alt=A man in a gray baseball uniform catches a baseball with his bare right hand. He is wearing a navy blue cap on his head with an interlocked "NY" and a black baseball glove on his left hand. His uniform reads "New York" across the chest. 2004 Clemens won seven Cy Young Awards during his career (six at the time of the award presentation), posted six seasons in which he won 20 or more games (career-high 24 wins in 1986), and won 354 games in his career. Clemens is only the fourth pitcher to surpass 4,000 strikeouts and appeared in 10 All-Star Games in his 24-year career. 100px 2006 Clemente is the only posthumous recipient of the Commissioner's Historic Achievement Award. He led the league in batting average four times in his career, notching his 3,000th hit in the 1972 season (September 30). Inducted into the Hall of Fame after his death at sea, Clemente was recognized not only for his statistical achievements over his 17 seasons, but for his humanitarian contributions. 100px 2011 Griffey was retired at the time of his award after having hit over 600 home runs, winning an MVP Award in 1997, and being named to the All-Century Team throughout his career. Commissioner Bud Selig described Griffey in a statement, saying he "was a gifted all-around player with a perfect swing, a brilliant glove, and a childlike joy for the game. From the time he was just 19, Ken represented MLB with excellence and grace, and he was one of our sport's greatest ambassadors not only in Seattle and Cincinnati but also around the world. I am most appreciative for all of Ken's contributions to our national pastime." For photo of award presentation, see: alt=Profile view of a dark-skinned, heavyset man wearing a dark suit, white dress shirt, and a ballcap. He is in an elevated, sitting position in a car pointing to the left with his right arm. 2001 Gwynn played 20 seasons with the San Diego Padres, amassing 15 All-Star appearances and leading the league in batting average 8 times. His .338 average ranks him 17th on the all-time list for career batting average. Gwynn was the 1999 recipient of the Roberto Clemente Award, won five Gold Glove Awards, and notched a .306 career average in the postseason. alt=A dark-skinned man in a dark blue shirt. He is holding a black baseball bat over his shoulder in both hands. He is wearing a navy blue baseball cap with a red "B" outlined in white, and the same "B" logo is shown on his shirt at the neck. 2002 During his 25-season career, Henderson set numerous MLB records, including most runs scored, most unintentional walks, most stolen bases in a season and a career, and most leadoff home runs in league history. Henderson began to play at the age of 20 with the 1979 Oakland Athletics, and continued through the 2003 season, playing for the Los Angeles Dodgers at age 44. Henderson continued to play after his unofficial retirement from MLB, appearing for several independent league teams. left|Jeter in 2007|alt=Derek Jeter wearing a navy hat and grey baseball uniform with a black glove stares into the distance. 2014 After a 20-season career with the New York Yankees, Jeter retired with the sixth-most career hits in MLB history. A five-time World Series champion, he set numerous MLB postseason career records, including most hits (200), most runs scored (111), most doubles (32), most extra-base hits (57) and most total bases (302). Jeter is also the Yankees' franchise leader in hits, games played, stolen bases, and at bats. Selig described Jeter as "one of the most accomplished shortstops of all-time" who "always represent[ed] the best of our National Pastime." alt=McGwire with the A's, 1989 1998 McGwire's name is linked with that of fellow 1998 award winner Sammy Sosa for their part in the MLB home run record chase of that season. McGwire ended the 1998 season with 70 home runs, the first player ever to reach the mark in a season and only the third player to break 60 home runs. McGwire finished his career with 583 home runs. alt=Shohei Ohtani with the Angels in 2019 2021 Ohtani was an unprecedented kind of player during his first four years in Major League Baseball, performing effectively both as a starting pitcher and as a designated hitter for the Los Angeles Angels. He won the American League Rookie of the Year Award in 2018 when he hit 22 home runs as a hitter and earned four wins in ten starts as a pitcher. He did not pitch in 2019 due to Tommy John surgery, but in 2021 he broke out with 46 home runs, 100 RBIs, and 26 stolen bases offensively and recording nine wins and a 3.18 ERA on the mound. Ohtani was unanimously voted the American League Most Valuable Player, and was also the first player in MLB history to be an All-Star as both a starting pitcher and a lead-off hitter in the 2021 All-Star Game. This was the first time the award was presented by Rob Manfred. alt=A man with short hair prepares to swing a baseball bat. He is wearing a black shirt with "Orioles" written in orange (obscured), and the bat is held over his right shoulder. He is wearing orange and black batting gloves on his hands. 2001 Ripken broke one of baseball's "unbreakable" records by playing in 2,131 consecutive games. His durability earned him the nickname "Iron Man", referencing Lou Gehrig (the "Iron Horse"), the player whose record he broke. Ripken would finish his career with 2,632 consecutive games played out of his 3,001 career games. He played for the Baltimore Orioles for 21 seasons, hitting 431 home runs and redefining the role of the shortstop in baseball. alt=Mariano Rivera in a gray baseball uniform and navy blue cap stands on a dirt mound. He is striding forward to the right as he clutches a baseball behind his head. His uniform reads "New York" in navy blue letters across the chest. His face is contorted in concentration. 2013 Rivera retired as MLB's career leader in saves (652) and games finished (952) after a 19-year career with the New York Yankees, 17 of which were spent as the team's closer. A five-time World Series champion, Rivera set numerous postseason records, including most saves (42) and lowest earned run average (0.70). He was the final MLB player to wear the uniform number 42 following its league-wide retirement in honor of Jackie Robinson. Selig described Rivera as "a great ambassador of the game" who "represented his family, his country, the Yankees and all of Major League Baseball with the utmost class and dignity". alt=A dark-skinned woman holds a medal in a green case. She is standing in a group of four people and has a wide smile. The woman has wavy gray hair and is dressed in a white suit. 2007 Robinson, the wife of pioneer Jackie Robinson, is the only woman and the first non-player to win the Commissioner's Historic Achievement Award. In honor of her "contribution and sacrifice to the legacy of her husband", Selig presented the award to Robinson for her work with the Jackie Robinson Foundation. The Foundation has awarded more than $14 million in scholarships to students in need. alt=An older man, wearing a suit and a rose corsage, smiles in the sunlight. 2014 Scully is the second non-player and the first broadcaster to win the award. He was given the award during his 65th season broadcasting games for the Dodgers, with Commissioner Selig recognizing Scully's "lifetime of extraordinary service." Scully broadcast Dodgers games from 1950 to 2016. He was honored with the Ford Frick Award in 1982 and was inducted in the National Radio Hall of Fame in 1995. alt=A large moose mascot runs down the third-base line of a baseball diamond. He is carrying a large navy blue flag adorned with a teal and silver compass. 2001 After the 2000 season, the Mariners lost shortstop Alex Rodriguez to the Texas Rangers via free agency. Adding Orix BlueWave outfielder Ichiro Suzuki from the Japanese league, the 2001 Mariners won their division with a 116–46 record, 14 games ahead of the second-place Oakland Athletics. Suzuki finished with a team-high .350 batting average, winning the Rookie of the Year award, and was named the league's Most Valuable Player. In the second round of the playoffs, the Mariners were defeated by the Yankees. alt=A black-and-white photo of a dark-skinned man in a baseball uniform. His face is partially obscured by the shadow of his batting helmet. His white uniform reads "Orioles" across the chest (obscured). 1998 Sosa and Mark McGwire's chase for the single-season home run record thrust the National League Central division into the spotlight, but Sosa's Chicago Cubs finished ahead of McGwire's St. Louis Cardinals in the division standings, second to the 102-win Houston Astros. Thus, Sosa was the recipient of the 1998 Most Valuable Player Award, though his 66 home runs placed him 4 behind McGwire's record of 70. Sosa went on to be the only player in MLB history to collect three 60-home-run seasons (1998, 1999, 2001). alt=A man in a gray baseball uniform running to the right. The uniform reads "Seattle" across the front, and has a sleeve patch with a teal and silver compass surrounded by "Seattle Mariners". The man is wearing a dark batting helmet. 2005 In breaking a record many thought "unbreakable", Ichiro amassed 262 hits in 2004 (an MLB-leading .372 batting average). The previous single-season record had been set in 1920 by George Sisler of the St. Louis Browns (257). Ichiro also led the league in at-bats (704), plate appearances (762), and intentional walks (19). ==References== ;General * ;Inline citations Category:Major League Baseball trophies and awards Category:Awards established in 1998 |
Shelton Jackson "Spike" Lee (born March 20, 1957) is an American filmmaker and actor. Lee's work has continually explored race relations, issues within the black community, the role of media in contemporary life, urban crime and poverty, and other political issues. He has won numerous accolades for his work, including an Academy Award, a Student Academy Award, two Primetime Emmy Awards, a BAFTA Award, and two Peabody Awards. He has also been honored with an Honorary BAFTA Award in 2002, an Honorary César in 2003, the Academy Honorary Award in 2019, and a Gala Tribute from the Film Society of Lincoln Center as well as the Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize. His production company, 40 Acres and a Mule Filmworks, has produced more than 35 films since 1983. He made his directorial debut with She's Gotta Have It (1986). He has since written and directed such films as School Daze (1988), Do the Right Thing (1989), Mo' Better Blues (1990), Jungle Fever (1991), Malcolm X (1992), Crooklyn (1994), Clockers (1995), 25th Hour (2002), Inside Man (2006), Chi-Raq (2015), BlacKkKlansman (2018) and Da 5 Bloods (2020). Lee also acted in eleven of his feature films. His films have featured breakthrough and acclaimed performances from actors such as Denzel Washington, Laurence Fishburne, Samuel L. Jackson, Giancarlo Esposito, Rosie Perez, Delroy Lindo and John David Washington. Lee's films Do the Right Thing, Malcolm X, 4 Little Girls and She's Gotta Have It were each selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". == Early life == Shelton Jackson Lee was born in Atlanta, Georgia, the son of Jacqueline Carroll ( Shelton), a teacher of arts and black literature, and William James Edward Lee III, a jazz musician and composer. Lee has five younger siblings, three of whom (Joie, David, and Cinqué) have worked in many different positions in Lee's films; a fourth, Christopher, died in 2014. His youngest sibling is half-brother Arnold. Director Malcolm D. Lee is his cousin. When he was a child, the family moved from Atlanta to Brooklyn, New York. His mother nicknamed him "Spike" during his childhood. He attended John Dewey High School in Brooklyn's Gravesend neighborhood. Lee enrolled in Morehouse College, a historically black college in Atlanta, where he made his first student film, Last Hustle in Brooklyn. He took film courses at Clark Atlanta University and graduated with a B.A. in mass communication from Morehouse. He did graduate work at New York University's Tisch School of the Arts, where he earned a Master of Fine Arts in film and television. == Career == === 1980s === In 1983, Lee premiered his first independent short film titled, Joe's Bed-Stuy Barbershop: We Cut Heads. Lee submitted the film as his master's degree thesis at the Tisch School of the Arts. Lee's classmates Ang Lee and Ernest R. Dickerson worked on the film as assistant director and cinematographer, respectively. The film was the first student film to be showcased in Lincoln Center's New Directors New Films Festival. Lee's father, Bill Lee, composed the score. The film won a Student Academy Award. thumb|left|Lee circa 1990s In 1985, Lee began work on his first feature film, She's Gotta Have It. The black-and-white film concerns a young woman (played by Tracy Camilla Johns) who is seeing three men, and the feelings this arrangement provokes. The film was Lee's first feature-length film, and launched Lee's career. Lee wrote, directed, produced, starred and edited the film with a budget of $175,000, he shot the film in two weeks. When the film was released in 1986, it grossed over $7 million at the U.S. box office. New York Times film critic A.O. Scott wrote that the film "ushered in (along with Jim Jarmusch's Stranger Than Paradise) the American independent film movement of the 1980s. It was also a groundbreaking film for African- American filmmakers and a welcome change in the representation of blacks in American cinema, depicting men and women of color not as pimps and whores, but as intelligent, upscale urbanites." In 1989, Lee made perhaps his most seminal film, Do the Right Thing, which focused on a Brooklyn neighborhood's simmering racial tension on a hot summer day. The film's cast included Lee, Danny Aiello, Bill Nunn, Ossie Davis, Ruby Dee, Giancarlo Esposito, Rosie Perez, John Turturro, Martin Lawrence and Samuel L. Jackson. The film gained critical acclaim as one of the best films of the year from film critics including both Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert who ranked the film as the best of 1989, and later in their top 10 films of the decade ( for Siskel and for Ebert). Ebert later added the film to his list of The Great Movies. To many people's surprise, the film was not nominated for Best Picture or Best Director at the Academy Awards. The film only earned two Academy Award nominations for Best Original Screenplay, Spike Lee's first Oscar nomination, and for Best Supporting Actor for Danny Aiello. At the Academy ceremony Kim Basinger, who was a presenter that evening, stated that Do the Right Thing also deserved a Best Picture nomination stating, "We've got five great films here, and they are great for one reason, because they tell the truth, but there is one film missing from this list because ironically it might tell the biggest truth of all and that's Do the Right Thing". The film that did win Best Picture was Driving Miss Daisy, a film that focused on race relations between an elderly Jewish woman (Jessica Tandy) and her driver (Morgan Freeman). Lee said in an April 7, 2006, interview with New York magazine that the other film's success, which he thought was based on safe stereotypes, hurt him more than if his film had not been nominated for an award. === 1990s === After the 1990 release of Mo' Better Blues, Lee was accused of antisemitism by the Anti-Defamation League and several film critics. They criticized the characters of the club owners Josh and Moe Flatbush, described as "Shylocks". Lee denied the charge, explaining that he wrote those characters in order to depict how black artists struggled against exploitation. Lee said that Lew Wasserman, Sidney Sheinberg, or Tom Pollock, the Jewish heads of MCA and Universal Studios, were unlikely to allow antisemitic content in a film they produced. He said he could not make an antisemitic film because Jews run Hollywood, and "that's a fact". In 1992, Spike released his biographical epic film Malcolm X based on the Autobiography of Malcolm X, starring Denzel Washington as the famed civil rights leader. The film dramatizes key events in Malcolm X's life: his criminal career, his incarceration, his conversion to Islam, his ministry as a member of the Nation of Islam and his later falling out with the organization, his marriage to Betty X, his pilgrimage to Mecca and reevaluation of his views concerning whites, and his assassination on February 21, 1965. Defining childhood incidents, including his father's death, his mother's mental illness, and his experiences with racism are dramatized in flashbacks. The film received widespread critical acclaim including from critic Roger Ebert ranked the film No. 1 on his Top 10 list for 1992 and described the film as "one of the great screen biographies, celebrating the sweep of an American life that bottomed out in prison before its hero reinvented himself." Ebert and Martin Scorsese, who was sitting in for late At the Movies co-host Gene Siskel, both ranked Malcolm X among the ten best films of the 1990s. Denzel Washington's portrayal of Malcolm X in particular was widely praised and he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor. Washington lost to Al Pacino (Scent of a Woman), a decision which Lee criticized, saying "I'm not the only one who thinks Denzel was robbed on that one." His 1997 documentary 4 Little Girls, about the girls killed in the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing in Birmingham, Alabama, in 1963, was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Feature Documentary. In 2017, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". === 2000s === In 2002, Lee directed 25th Hour starring Edward Norton, and Philip Seymour Hoffman which opened to positive reviews, with several critics since having named it one of the best films of its decade. Film critic Roger Ebert added the film to his "Great Movies" list on December 16, 2009. A. O. Scott, Richard Roeper and Roger Ebert all put it on their "best films of the decade" lists. It was later named the 26th greatest film since 2000 in a BBC poll of 177 critics. The film was also a financial success earning almost $24 million against a $5 million budget. In 2006, Lee directed Inside Man starring Denzel Washington, Jodie Foster, and Clive Owen, Chiwetel Ejiofor, Willem Dafoe and Christopher Plummer. The film was an unusual film for Lee considering it was a studio heist thriller. The film was a critical and financial success earning $186 million off a $45 million budget. Empire gave the film four stars out of five, concluding, "It's certainly a Spike Lee film, but no Spike Lee Joint. Still, he's delivered a pacy, vigorous and frequently masterful take on a well-worn genre. Thanks to some slick lens work and a cast on cracking form, Lee proves (perhaps above all to himself?) that playing it straight is not always a bad thing." On May 2, 2007, the 50th San Francisco International Film Festival honored Spike Lee with the San Francisco Film Society's Directing Award. In 2008, he received the Wexner Prize. In 2013, he won The Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize, one of the richest prizes in the American arts worth $300,000. === 2010s === In 2015, Lee received an Academy Honorary Award from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for his contributions to film. Friends and frequent collaborators Wesley Snipes, Denzel Washington, Samuel L. Jackson presented Lee with the award at the private Governors Awards ceremony. Lee directed, wrote, and produced the MyCareer story mode in the video game NBA 2K16. Later that same year, after a perceived long dip in quality, Lee rebounded with a musical drama film, Chi-Raq. The film is a modern-day adaptation of the ancient Greek play "Lysistrata" by Aristophanes set in modern-day Chicago's Southside and explores the challenges of race, sex, and violence in America. Teyonah Parris, Angela Bassett, Jennifer Hudson, Nick Cannon, Dave Chappelle, Wesley Snipes, John Cusack, and Samuel L. Jackson starred in the film. The film was released by Amazon Studios in select cities in November. Chi-Raq received generally positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has rating of 82% with the site's critical consensus stating, "Chi-Raq is as urgently topical and satisfyingly ambitious as it is wildly uneven – and it contains some of Spike Lee's smartest, sharpest, and all-around entertaining late-period work." Lee's 2018 film BlacKkKlansman, a true crime drama set in the 1970s centered around the true story of a black police officer, Ron Stallworth infiltrating the Ku Klux Klan. The film premiered at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival, where it won the Grand Prix and opened the following August. The film received near universal praise when it opened in North America receiving a 96% on Rotten Tomatoes with the critics consensus reading, "BlacKkKlansman uses history to offer bitingly trenchant commentary on current events – and brings out some of Spike Lee's hardest- hitting work in decades along the way." In 2019, during the awards season leading up to the Academy Awards, Lee was invited to join a Directors Roundtable conversation run by The Hollywood Reporter. The roundtable included Ryan Coogler (Black Panther), Yorgos Lanthimos (The Favourite), Alfonso Cuarón (Roma), Marielle Heller (Can You Ever Forgive Me?), and Bradley Cooper (A Star is Born). It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture and Best Director (Lee's first ever nomination in this category). Lee won his first competitive Academy Award in the category Best Adapted Screenplay. When asked by journalists from the BBC if the Best Picture winner Green Book offended him, Lee replied, "Let me give you a British answer, it's not my cup of tea". Many journalists in the industry noted how the 2019 Oscars with BlacKkKlansman competing against eventual winner Green Book mirrored the 1989 Oscars with Lee's film Do the Right Thing missing out on a Best Picture nomination over the eventual winner Driving Miss Daisy. === 2020s === Lee's Vietnam war film Da 5 Bloods was released on Netflix. The film starred Delroy Lindo, Jonathan Majors, Clarke Peters, Isiah Whitlock Jr., Mélanie Thierry, Paul Walter Hauser and Chadwick Boseman. The film was released worldwide on June 12, 2020. The film's plot follows a group of aging Vietnam War veterans who return to the country in search of the remains of their fallen squad leader, as well as the treasure they buried while serving there. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the film was originally scheduled to premiere out-of-competition at the 2020 Cannes Film Festival, then play in theaters in May or June before streaming on Netflix. The film received widespread critical acclaim with the website Rotten Tomatoes' approval rating being 92% based on 252 reviews, with the critical consensus reading: "Fierce energy and ambition course through Da 5 Bloods, coming together to fuel one of Spike Lee's most urgent and impactful films." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 82 out of 100, based on 49 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Lee's next project will be a movie musical about the origin story of Viagra, Pfizer's erectile dysfunction drug. Most recently, he had signed an overall deal with Netflix to direct and produce newer movies. == Academic career and teaching == In 1991, Lee taught a course at Harvard about filmmaking. In 1993, he began to teach at New York University's Tisch School of the Arts in the Graduate Film Program. It was there that he received his master of fine arts. In 2002, he was appointed as artistic director of the school. He is now a tenured professor at NYU. == Commercials == In mid-1990, Levi's hired Lee to direct a series of TV commercials for their 501 button-fly jeans.Elliott, Stuart (July 22, 1991). "THE MEDIA BUSINESS: [sic] Advertising; Levi and Spike Lee Return In 'Button Your Fly' Part 2". The New York Times. Marketing executives from Nike offered Lee a job directing commercials for the company. They wanted to pair Lee's character, Mars Blackmon, who greatly admired athlete Michael Jordan, and Jordan in a marketing campaign for the Air Jordan line. Later, Lee was asked to comment on the phenomenon of violence related to inner-city youths trying to steal Air Jordans from other kids. He said that, rather than blaming manufacturers of apparel that gained popularity, "deal with the conditions that make a kid put so much importance on a pair of sneakers, a jacket and gold". Through the marketing wing of 40 Acres and a Mule, Lee has directed commercials for Converse, Jaguar, Taco Bell, and Ben & Jerry's. == Artistic style and themes == thumb|Lee in September 2011|right|197x197px Lee's films are typically referred to as "Spike Lee Joints". The closing credits always end with the phrases "By Any Means Necessary", "Ya Dig", and "Sho Nuff". His 2013 film, Oldboy, used the traditional "A Spike Lee Film" credit after producers had it re-edited. === Themes === Lee's films have examined race relations, colorism in the black community, the role of media in contemporary life, urban crime and poverty, and other political issues. His films are also noted for their unique stylistic elements, including the use of dolly shots to portray the characters "floating" through their surroundings, which he has had his cinematographers repeatedly use in his work. === Influences === In 2018, during an interview with GQ, Lee cited some of his favorite films as Elia Kazan's On the Waterfront (1954) and A Face in the Crowd (1957), as well as Martin Scorsese's Mean Streets (1973). Lee says that he befriended Scorsese after attending a screening of After Hours at NYU. == Filmography == Directed features Year Title Distributor 1986 She's Gotta Have It Island Pictures 1988 School Daze Columbia Pictures 1989 Do the Right Thing Universal Pictures 1990 Mo' Better Blues Universal Pictures 1991 Jungle Fever Universal Pictures 1992 Malcolm X Warner Bros. 1994 Crooklyn Universal Pictures 1995 Clockers Universal Pictures 1996 Girl 6 20th Century Fox 1996 Get on the Bus Columbia Pictures 1998 He Got Game Touchstone Pictures 1999 Summer of Sam Touchstone Pictures 2000 Bamboozled New Line Cinema 2002 25th Hour Touchstone Pictures 2004 She Hate Me Sony Pictures Classics 2006 Inside Man Universal Pictures 2008 Miracle at St. Anna Touchstone Pictures 2012 Red Hook Summer Variance Films 2013 Oldboy FilmDistrict 2014 Da Sweet Blood of Jesus Gravitas Ventures 2015 Chi-Raq Roadside Attractions 2018 Pass Over Amazon Studios 2018 BlacKkKlansman Focus Features 2020 Da 5 Bloods Netflix == Awards and honors == In 1983, Lee won the Student Academy Award for his film Joe's Bed-Stuy Barbershop: We Cut Heads. He won awards at the Black Reel Awards for Love and Basketball, the Black Movie Awards for Inside Man, and the Berlin International Film Festival for Get on the Bus. He won BAFTA Award for Best Adapted Screenplay for BlacKkKlansman. Lee was nominated for Academy Awards for Best Original Screenplay for Do the Right Thing and Best Documentary for 4 Little Girls, but did not win either award. In November 2015, he was given the Academy Honorary Award for his contributions to filmmaking. In 2019, he received his first Best Picture and Best Director nominations. In 2015, at the age of 58, Lee became the youngest person ever to receive an Honorary Academy Award. Lee received the award as "a champion of independent film and an inspiration to young filmmakers". Frequent collaborators Denzel Washington, Samuel L. Jackson, and Wesley Snipes presented Lee with the award at a private ceremony at the Governors Awards. In 2019, Lee's film BlacKkKlansman went on to receive 6 Academy Award nominations. Lee himself was nominated for 3 Oscars for Lee for Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Adapted Screenplay. He went on to win the Best Adapted Screenplay, his first Academy Award. Two of his films have competed for the Palme d'Or award at the Cannes Film Festival, and of the two, BlacKkKlansman won the Grand Prix in 2018. Lee's films Do the Right Thing, Malcolm X, 4 Little Girls, and She's Gotta Have It were each selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". On May 18, 2016, Lee delivered the Commencement address for The Johns Hopkins University Class of 2016. == Personal life == Lee met his wife, attorney Tonya Lewis Lee, in 1992, and they were married a year later in New York. They have two children. Spike Lee is a fan of the New York Knicks basketball team, the New York Yankees baseball team (although he grew up a New York Mets fan), the New York Rangers ice hockey team, and the English football club Arsenal. One of the documentaries in ESPN's 30 for 30 series, Winning Time: Reggie Miller vs. The New York Knicks, focuses partly on Lee's interaction with Miller at Knicks games in Madison Square Garden. In June 2003, Lee sought an injunction against Spike TV to prevent them from using his nickname. He claimed that because of his fame, viewers would think he was associated with the channel. When asked by the BBC whether he believed in God, Lee said: "Yes. I have faith that there is a higher being. All this cannot be an accident." Lee continues to maintain an office in Fort Greene, Brooklyn, but he and his wife live on the Upper East Side of Manhattan. In May 2020, Lee published a three-minute short film, NEW YORK NEW YORK, on Instagram that was later featured on the city's official website. Lee celebrated Joe Biden's victory over Donald Trump in the 2020 presidential election with champagne amid a crowd on the streets of Brooklyn. Photos and videos thereof subsequently went viral on Twitter. == Controversies == In May 1999, the New York Post reported that Lee made an inflammatory comment about Charlton Heston, president of the National Rifle Association, while speaking to reporters at the Cannes Film Festival. Lee was quoted as saying the National Rifle Association should be disbanded and, of Heston, someone should "Shoot him with a .44 Bull Dog." Lee said he intended it as a joke. He was responding to coverage about whether Hollywood was responsible for school shootings. "The problem is guns", he said. Republican House Majority Leader Dick Armey condemned Lee as having "nothing to offer the debate on school violence except more violence and more hate". In October 2005, Lee responded to a CNN anchor's question as to whether the government intentionally ignored the plight of black Americans during the 2005 Hurricane Katrina catastrophe by saying, "It's not too far-fetched. I don't put anything past the United States government. I don't find it too far-fetched that they tried to displace all the black people out of New Orleans." In later comments, Lee cited the government's past including the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. At the 2008 Cannes Film Festival, Lee, who was then making Miracle at St. Anna, about an all-black U.S. division fighting in Italy during World War II, criticized director Clint Eastwood for not depicting black Marines in his own World War II film, Flags of Our Fathers. Citing historical accuracy, Eastwood responded that his film was specifically about the Marines who raised the flag on Mount Suribachi at Iwo Jima, pointing out that while black Marines did fight at Iwo Jima, the U.S. military was racially segregated during World War II, and none of the men who raised the flag were black. He angrily said that Lee should "shut his face". Lee responded that Eastwood was acting like an "angry old man", and argued that despite making two Iwo Jima films back to back, Letters from Iwo Jima and Flags of Our Fathers, "there was not one black soldier in both of those films". He added that he and Eastwood were "not on a plantation". Lee later claimed that the event was exaggerated by the media and that he and Eastwood had reconciled through mutual friend Steven Spielberg, culminating in his sending Eastwood a print of Miracle at St. Anna. Lee has been criticized for his representation of women. For example, bell hooks said that he wrote black women in the same objectifying way that white male filmmakers write the characters of white women. Rosie Perez, who was in an acting role for the first time as Tina in Do the Right Thing, said later that she was very uncomfortable with doing the nude scene in the film: In March 2012, after the killing of Trayvon Martin, Spike Lee was one of many people who used Twitter to circulate a message that claimed to give the home address of the shooter George Zimmerman. The address turned out to be incorrect, causing the real occupants, Elaine and David McClain, to leave home and stay at a hotel due to numerous death threats. Lee issued an apology and reached an agreement with the McClains, which reportedly included "compensation", with their attorney stating "The McClains' claim is fully resolved". Nevertheless, in November 2013, the McClains filed a negligence lawsuit which accused Lee of "encouraging a dangerous mob mentality among his Twitter followers, as well as the public-at-large". The lawsuit, which a court filing reportedly valued at $1.2 million, alleged that the couple suffered "injuries and damages" that continued after the initial settlement up through Zimmerman's trial in 2013. A Seminole County judge dismissed the McClains' suit, agreeing with Lee that the issue had already been settled previously. In March 2020, a video of Lee was released on Twitter showing the director having an altercation with the security team near the elevators at Madison Square Garden. Speculation arose as to whether Lee was being removed from the building. The New York Knicks released a statement saying, "The idea that Spike Lee is a victim because we have repeatedly asked him to not use our employee entrance and instead use a dedicated VIP entrance—which is used by every other celebrity who enters The Garden—is laughable. He is welcome to come to The Garden anytime via the VIP or general entrance; just not through our employee entrance, which is what he and Jim (James L. Dolan) agreed to [Monday] night when they shook hands." Lee disputed Dolan's story, alleging that he had been using the same entrance for the past 28 years. Lee stated he wouldn't attend the rest of the games for the season. In June 2020, Lee defended filmmaker Woody Allen during a radio interview, despite Allen's sexual abuse allegation, stating: "I'd just like to say Woody Allen is a great, great filmmaker and this cancel thing is not just Woody. And I think when we look back on it we are going to see that short of killing somebody, I don't know you that you can just erase somebody like they never existed. Woody's a friend of mine. I know he's going through it right now." Following social media backlash, Lee issued an apology on Twitter. Lee has also defended Michael Jackson and Nate Parker, both of whom have been accused of sexual assault. == References == == External links == * * * * * * *Ubben Lecture at DePauw University *Criterion Collection Essay on Spike Lee's Do the Right Thing *Lee's Lens Exposes Inequalities, but he's no Revolutionary by Brendan Kelly, Canwest, April 11, 2009 *Interview with Politico Magazine February 7, 2019 Category:1957 births Category:20th-century American male actors Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American screenwriters Category:21st-century American male actors Category:21st-century American male writers Category:21st-century American screenwriters Category:Academy Honorary Award recipients Category:African- American film directors Category:African-American film producers Category:African-American male actors Category:African-American screenwriters Category:African-American television producers Category:American documentary film directors Category:American film producers Category:American male film actors Category:American male screenwriters Category:American music video directors Category:Best Adapted Screenplay Academy Award winners Category:Best Adapted Screenplay BAFTA Award winners Category:César Honorary Award recipients Category:Culture of Brooklyn Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Category:Film directors from New York City Category:John Dewey High School alumni Category:Living people Category:Male actors from Atlanta Category:Male actors from New York City Category:Morehouse College alumni Category:People from Fort Greene, Brooklyn Category:People from the Upper East Side Category:Primetime Emmy Award winners Category:Screenwriters from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:Screenwriters from New York (state) Category:Television commercial directors Category:Television producers from New York City Category:Tisch School of the Arts alumni Category:Tisch School of the Arts faculty Category:Writers from Atlanta Category:Writers from Brooklyn Category:Writers from Manhattan Category:National Arts Club Medal of Honor Recipients |
Eloquentia perfecta, a tradition of the Society of Jesus, is a value of Jesuit rhetoric that revolves around cultivating a person as a whole, as one learns to speak and write for the common good. is a Latin term which means "perfect eloquence". The term connotes values of eloquent expression and action for the common good. For Jesuits, the term was understood as the joining of knowledge and wisdom with virtue and morality. == History == === Origins in Greek rhetorical thought === Eloquentia was born, as a concept, in the rhetorical studies of ancient Greece. However, the term eloquentia perfecta was coined in 1599 with the Ratio Studiorum, which laid out the groundwork for Jesuit educational curriculum. In classical Greek rhetorical thought the idea of a perfectly eloquent speaker was one who understood the subject matter they were speaking about in intimate detail, yet was able to communicate those same ideas in straightforward language that would be clearly understood by the listener they were addressing at the time. In Plato's dialogue the Phaedrus, Socrates states this idea that a speaker must craft their discourse dependent on the intended listener in order to most effectively communicate, instruct, or persuade that listener. > [277b] Socrates: A man must know the truth about all the particular things > of which he speaks or writes, and must be able to define everything > separately; then when he has defined them, he must know how to divide them > by classes until further division is impossible; and in the same way he must > understand the nature of the soul, [277c] must find out the class of speech > adapted to each nature, and must arrange and adorn his discourse > accordingly, offering to the complex soul elaborate and harmonious > discourses, and simple talks to the simple soul. Until he has attained to > all this, he will not be able to speak by the method of art, so far as > speech can be controlled by method, either for purposes of instruction or of > persuasion. This has been taught by our whole preceding discussion. === 1534–1599: The early Jesuit order and the first Jesuit school === The Jesuit order, or Society of Jesus, was founded in 1540 by Ignatius of Loyola (1491–1556) who was a Basque nobleman and soldier. After having his leg broken by a cannon ball in battle, Ignatius spent time recovering and studying scripture. During his convalescence he underwent a spiritual awakening and decided to dedicate his life to serving God. He also decided that the best way to do this was to continue his education and join the clergy. In 1534, while attending the University of Paris, Ignatius along with several of his classmates decided to commit themselves to the service of the Lord and took vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience to the Pope. They imagined themselves as soldiers of the Lord and named their order Compañía de Jesús or Company of Jesus. It was not until 1540 that the order was recognized by the Pope and officially formed as the Society of Jesus or Jesuit Order. Education was not the original goal of the Jesuits. They had intended to work as missionaries to the Holy land, converting people to Christianity and saving souls. However in an effort to compete with Christian protestants and reformers in Europe a need was recognized by the Roman Catholic church for better educated clergy. Through the Council of Trent (1546–63) the Jesuits were called on by the Pope to help improve the education of clergy. Ignatius and his six students took vows of poverty and chastity in an attempt to work for the conversion of Muslims. After being unable to travel to Jerusalem because of the Turkish wars, they went to Rome instead to meet with the pope and request permission to form a new religious order. In September 1540, Pope Paul III approved Ignatius’ outline of the Society of Jesus, and the Jesuit order was born. The Jesuits adhered to Ignatius's meditative practices, the Spiritual Exercises and centered their lives on active service rather than subdued monasticism. The Jesuit order played an important role in the Counter-Reformation and eventually succeeded in converting millions around the world to Catholicism. The Jesuit movement was founded in August 1534 by Ignatius de Loyola. === 1599–1773: Ratio Studiorum and expansion of Jesuit schools through Europe === Through the work in the school in Messina and other Jesuit colleges, the Jesuits began to formulate an approach to education that was formalized in a document titled the Ratio atque Institutio Studiorum Societatis Iesu (The Official Plan for Jesuit Education), or often shortened to Ratio Studiorum (Latin: Plan of Studies). The Ratio Studiorum provided the primary and static conventions for Jesuit teaching for 400 years. It was sufficient in outlining what should be strived for and the core values of Jesuit education. This plan contained such revolutionary ideas as segregating students into smaller groups by their level or ability in a subject. The curriculum consisted heavily of study of classical subjects such as theology, philosophy, Latin and Greek. Jesuit institutions were enhanced by many influential mantras. Some of these phrases (and their direct translations) include Cura Personalis (care for the whole person), Magis (to do more), Nuestro Modo de Procedor (our way of proceeding), and Eloquentia Perfecta (perfect eloquence). The goal of the Ratio Studiorum was not only to educated better clergy but to also do Gods work by also improving the world by creating better educated and compassionate civic leaders. Over the next two hundred years Jesuit schools spread through Europe and beyond. By 1599 there were 245 Jesuit colleges in operation. The growth continued until 1773, when it is estimated that the Jesuits operated over eight hundred separate schools, colleges, seminaries and universities across the globe. === 1773–1814: Suppression of the Jesuit order by Pope Clement XIV === In July 1773, the Jesuit order was suppressed by an order from Pope Clement XIV and all Jesuit colleges under Papal rule were closed indefinitely. Only schools located in Prussia remained open as Jesuits in Europe, the Americas, India, and Asia obeyed the orders of the Pope and closed the institutions. === 1814–1900: Restoration of the Jesuit order and founding of new colleges === In August 1814, the suppression of the Jesuit order was reversed. Following the restoration the Jesuit order founded several new universities and expanded into the United States of America. The Association of Jesuit Colleges and Universities (AJCU) began in 1789 when Georgetown University was founded in Washington, D.C. Saint Louis University, founded in 1818 in St. Louis, Missouri, is the second oldest Jesuit university in the United States. === 1900s: Translation of traditions into the modern perspective === The goal of education, being strengthening the students communication skills with leadership skills, emotions, and eloquence, remained. However, by the mid-20th century, the modern world called for adjustments to the curriculum. Vatican II, or the Second Vatican Council, took place from 1962 to 1965. After the Council, members of the Jesuit academic world began taking into account the characteristics of a contemporary world that was evolving at a quick pace. The Society's new goal at this time was to consolidate the identity of Jesuit education, and to achieve this they sought out particular ways of teaching. 1975 saw a modern adaptation of the Society of Jesus' goals. For example, the traditional goals of the Society, which were set forth in 1540, were translated after the 32nd General Congregation of Jesuits held in Rome from 1974 to 1975. "Defense and propagation of the faith" turned into "service of faith and promotion of justice which it includes", and "salvation and protection of souls" became "total integration and liberation of man leading to participation in the life of God". In 1986, the Jesuit Society released The Characteristics of Jesuit Education. This document set forth a concept for modern Jesuit education, which was reiterated in greater detail with the 1993 document Ignatian Pedagogy: A Practical Approach. These two documents, detailing the values of education and how to approach them in a classroom setting, set the stage for contemporary Jesuit education. While the Ratio Studiorum description of rhetoric emphasized only oratory and poetry, today's Jesuit rhetorical education accepts the appreciation of multiple genres in different media These rhetoric classes promoted both useful skills and cultural enrichment. The classes combined general ideas and stylistic practices from Greco-Roman culture and joined these ideas with the learnings of the church. == Education == === Jesuit rhetoric === The phrase was aimed to produce a Christian version of a classical ideal speaker, one who is good in writing and presenting for the common good. This has remained the Jesuit goal over the last three and a half centuries. Rhetoric can be described as the way one arranges and expresses a thought in a way to adapt and influence someone else's mind. Jesuit rhetoric is often presented with strong emotions. It is important to know what the perfect orator is also considering of the safety and welfare of the whole community and not only their own dignity. Jesuit schools aim to promote eloquentia perfecta by educating their students into ideal orators by incorporating critical thinking, civic responsibility, and ethics into a Jesuit rhetoric curriculum in colleges. Jesuit rhetoric has evolved from teaching, preaching, running missions, as well as hearing confessions. While their teachings have stayed fairly similar, Jesuits changed their phrasing which changed the most in order to be better heard by their followers. In 1599, the Society of Jesus was presented with Ratio Studiorum, which included Jesuit educational framework and rules for the professors of rhetoric. Within this framework was the values of eloquentia perfecta which was, and continues to be, taught in Jesuit schools worldwide. Gert Beista, the author of The Beautiful Risk of Education, explains that there are three objectives to Jesuit rhetoric that focuses on "reconnecting with the question of purpose in education". The first is that Jesuit rhetoric provides students with the knowledge, skills, and judgment that enables them to do something within their current society such as training for real-world issues with eloquence. The second of the three objectives is , about which Beista states: "Through education, we become members of and part of particular social, cultural and political orders." The last objective is what Beista likes to call . This term is characterized to be the opposite of socialization, in which its emphasis is on individualization and independence in one's thinking and actions. Eloquentia perfecta is built on “the classical ideal of the good person writing and speaking well for the public good and promotes the teaching of eloquence combined with erudition and moral discernment. Developing this tradition in modern composition study and communication theory, the course of rhetorical art complements the other foundation courses with topics such as ethics and communication, virtue and authority, knowledge and social obligation.” In sum, the courses offered at a school with Jesuit values aim to foster critical thinking, moral reflection, and articulate expression. A Jesuit education centers itself around the goal to provide its students with “the ability to use speech and writing effectively, logically, gracefully, persuasively, and responsibly”. American schools are trying to revitalize traditions for rhetoric in relation to core curriculum. There is a new focus on combining written and oral rhetoric, speaking and listening with writing and reading. Media is becoming the biggest way to receive messages across the world, but it is also one of the greatest mediators. Jesuit schools are also engaging literacy with other forms of expression such as the new digital revolution and new media technologies which are visual, aural, kinesthetic, and verbal. === Eloquentia perfecta in Jesuit colleges === After the American Civil War, non-Jesuit colleges began to differ in the curriculum. This divergence was due to the molding of non-Jesuit schools by the elective system, while Jesuit colleges conserved classical courses involving Greek and Latin literature. This however did not stick and there was a decline in the teachings of Latin especially. In 1814, there was an official restoration of the society which the phrase Eloquentia Perfecta lived through. A type of eloquence not often talked about is the heroic. This term combines human skill and divine inspiration which has come from informed thinking, moral discernment, and civic responsibility. Steven Mailloux, a professor of rhetoric at Loyola Marymount University (LMU), concluded that "an optimal orator would combine written and oral language concepts such as morality or ethics and intelligence". This concept has expanded from education in Jesuit colleges and preaching this tradition and guiding Spiritual Exercises to courses in American colleges such as LMU, University of San Francisco, and Fordham University. According to the dean of Fordham University in New York, Robert Grimes, eloquentia perfecta is composed of three characteristics—"the right use of reason ... to be able to express your thoughts into words ... [and] to [communicate] gracefully, that is, do it in a way so that people are willing to listen to what you say". LMU's core curriculum provides a few aspects that construct eloquentia perfecta, the first being that it "incorporates the traditional mode of rhetoric through writing, reading, speaking, and listening". The second aspect is the "remediation of this form of rhetoric in terms of adapting to the information age and its digital elements". Eloquentia Perfecta is a long-valued tradition of Jesuit education meaning “right reason expressed effectively, responsibly, and gracefully.” Jesuit schools find ways to incorporate these values into their core curriculum to help students develop skills in oral and written expression, which will serve them well in college and beyond. These courses also incorporate the Jesuit value of cura personalis; the caring for a whole person, to ensure that each student is valued as a unique and multifaceted individual.Clarke, Kevin (May 2011). "How to Build a Better Student". America. The core curriculum at Fordham University now incorporates four eloquentia perfecta seminars, differing from other classes in their direct focus on written and oral skills of communication. Fordham is not the only Jesuit institution to begin experimenting ways to incorporate this concept into modern academics. Clarke notes that such institutions are doing so since "every 10 years or so most institutions take a hard look at the structure and emphasis of their core curriculum to see whether adjustments or even major restructuring is in order". Thus, eloquentia perfecta has been researched and incorporated much more recently, not that has been absent in Jesuit education completely, but the key term and attention to it has. In a sense, Jesuit institutions are beginning to explicitly teach eloquentia perfecta rather than implicitly. However, this concept will only continue to progress and change with the digital age, as students and the population as a whole have so many means of communication. It is the responsibility of the Jesuit institutions to uphold the concept and teachings of eloquentia perfecta, one that may even affirm the Jesuit identity among these institutions. Although Jesuit rhetoric promotes the study of eloquentia perfecta, by 20th midcentury in the United States, Jesuit rhetorical studies differed little in comparison to rhetorical studies in non-Jesuit Schools. This is due to the similarity of the fundamental study of Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian. With the advancements of Jesuit rhetoric, Jesuit colleges introduced three important rhetorics written by Jesuits. These three rhetorics included Ars Dicendi by German Jesuit Joseph Kleutgen, A Practical Introduction to English Rhetoric, and The Art of Oratorical Composition, both written by a Belgian-born Jesuit, Charles Coppens. Coppens taught at multiple American Jesuit colleges including the Jesuit seminary St. Stanislaus in Florissant, Missouri. He defines the three terms rhetoric, oratory, and eloquence. Coppens states that rhetoric is "the art of inventing, arranging, and expressing thought in a manner adapted to influence or control the minds and wills of others". He defines oratory as "the branch of rhetoric which expresses through orally". Lastly, he defines eloquence as "the expression or utterance of strong emotion in a manner adapted to excite correspondent emotions in others". === Ignatian pedagogy === The eloquentia-based Ignatian pedagogy is aimed at educating the whole person. They integrate eloquence and critical thinking with moral discernment. Teaching methods and content that is being put out should be modeled on the institutional embeddedness of the first Jesuit ministries which were created after the Second Vatican Council with their emphasis on verbal dialogue and written conversation. Schools should strive to encompass what makes Jesuit education distinctive and incorporate rhetoric tradition in all historically rich aspects. True eloquence was thought to only exist when one was the perfect orator as the good person speaking well. == Modern times == === Contemporary reach of Eloquentia perfecta === As John Callahan, S.J. says in their essay Jesuits and Jesuit Education, “no longer is Jesuit education the exclusive property of Jesuits. Rather, Jesuits and Jesuit education is the property of all the men and women who work in educational institutions which claim the Ignation heritage.Callahan, John Jesuits and Jesuit Education” While Jesuit institutions and their corresponding eloquentia perfecta rhetorics have grown in the United States and worldwide, the number of active Jesuit individuals has dropped over the past fifty years, going from 36,000 in the 1960s to approximately 19,000 in 2013 (with many of those 19,000 being in retirement age). Many of these modern Jesuits do their work through Jesuit ministries and other social justice organizations worldwide, with only 5.8% of Jesuit-school faculty and staff directly belonging to the Jesuit community. === Adaptation to rhetorical changes in eloquentia perfecta === Many scholars might have the assumption that the original traditions of eloquentia perfecta have been erased in the later century, both through religious and academic teachings. However, though the term has been altered to fit modern society communication, the traditional teachings of the topic are very much alive. Through both digital technology and verbal communication, eloquentia perfecta continues to carry on the original goal of rhetorical eloquence to spread justice to all. Many of the Jesuit scholars have had to really adapt to new medians of expression and constantly have to recreate lesson plans for students to adapt to current societal standards. As stated by Morgan T. Reitmeyer and Susan A. Sci in their article "How To Talk Ethically: Cultivating the Digital Citizen through Eloquentia Perfecta": "News is no longer something to simply consume; rather it is something to which we are compelled to respond within a wide array of media." === Eloquentia perfecta in the digital age === According to Cinthia Gannett, many universities have integrated eloquentia perfecta at all tiers of their institutions. She further adds that several universities are revising their Core curriculums to include aspects of eloquentia perfecta tied in with digital literacy and communication. Specifically, Gannett highlights the everchanging new technologies, and how to navigate them in the space of higher education. Many Jesuit-affiliated universities have created a required course for all incoming first year students to take eloquentia perfecta. Today there are means for people to share their voices publicly using all different types of technology. Many of the digital platforms (i.e. Snapchat, Twitter, and Instagram) allow people to integrate their personal insight and moral judgments to their followers. There are many famous people who use their public voice on these platforms in society to relay eloquent, justice-based messages. Many of these messages relate to real-life issues within different cultures around the world. == People == === People of the past === Cicero (106 BC – 43 BC) was a prominent rhetorician, philosopher, lawyer, and is considered the most notable of the Roman orators. When Cicero was twenty years old, he wrote De Inventione, a document that encapsulates the characteristics of first-century BC rhetoric. He believed that the perfect orator should speak eloquently and with dignity, and his ideals molded the values of eloquentia perfecta in Jesuit education. Marcus Fabius Quintilianus, also known as Quintilian, was an ancient Roman philosopher, orator, rhetorician who lived from 35 A.D. to 95 A.D. Quintilian embodied eloquentia perfecta with his philosophical work on rhetoric titled Institutio Oratoria. The Institutio Oratoria was a piece advocating for a return to simpler language after a trend of highly embellished rhetoric spread across the Roman Empire. Quintilian laid the groundwork for the core value of eloquentia perfecta that states that the perfect speaker should be able to communicate in ways that are easy to understand. Cyprian Soarez synthesized the rhetorical theories of Cicero, Aristotle, and Quintilian in his rhetorical textbook titled De arte rhetorica. In this work, Soarez called for combining Christian morality with non- religious learning. Nicolas Caussin was a French Jesuit who theorized that there were three types of eloquence: human, divine, and heroic. These three distinguished types of eloquence each carry unique qualities. Caussin said that human eloquence is natural and admirable. Divine eloquence could be carried out by divine figures such as St. Paul and Isaiah. Caussin stated, "In this incident appears how weak and meager is human eloquence, compared with the divine ... Paul demolished the machinations of that rhetorician with a crushing blow of the spirit." Heroic eloquence is a combination of "human skill and divine inspiration." === People of modern times === Father Pedro Arrupe made the assertion that all students must become people of the world who help people to truly reach the fundamental goal of academic Jesuit teachings. He meant this in a rhetorical and philosophical way and not only referred to pure Jesuit practice. Women and men should be serving others to truly reach the Jesuit-practice goals. Jeannie Gaffigan is a writer, actress, and Catholic comedian who exemplifies values of eloquentia perfecta in her work and life. Gaffigan was awarded the Inaugural Eloquentia Perfecta Award from Fordham's Graduate School of Religion and Religious Education (GRE) and the Paulist Press in October 2016. The award was given to Gaffigan because of her constant dedication to capturing the core significance of humanity. As a public figure, and social activist, she shines light on the idea that humanity is full of flaws that must be addressed. She bases her career on bringing people from all over the world together through skepticism, errors and uncertainty. As she receives much of her inspiration through Catholic religion, one of her most inspirational quotes to live by is by St. Ignatius of Loyola, founder of Society of Jesus, which reads, "Love ought to manifest itself in deeds rather than in words", and spreads this faith through her many social platforms. Cinthia Gannett is a prominent educator who has taught and written about eloquentia perfecta throughout her career. Through her works and teaching, she intertwines traditional values of eloquentia perfecta with 21st century perspective. == See also == * Cura personalis * Digital rhetoric * Magis * Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola ==References== Category:Society of Jesus Category:Rhetoric |
William Reid Stowe (born January 6, 1952) is an American artist and mariner. Stowe grew up around sailboats on the East Coast, sailing on the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans in his late teens and early twenties. By age 26, he had built two of his own sailboats with the help of his family and friends. Stowe subsequently sailed to the Antarctic with his schooner Anne in 1986 and completed a 194-day journey without touching land in 1999. In 2010 Stowe completed a more extensive ocean voyage, entitled 1000 Days at Sea: The Mars Ocean Odyssey—a journey that commenced on April 21, 2007, from the 12th St. Pier, Hoboken, New Jersey.Sailing Duo Begin 1,000-Day Ocean Voyage. Tariq Malik, Live Science: _Strange News_ ; posted: 21 April 2007. Retrieved 1 May 2010. Stowe was the principal designer and builder of the Anne, a 70 ft (21.3 m), 60-ton (54,400 kg) gaff-rigged schooner which he sailed on this voyage. The purpose of the enterprise was to remain on the open ocean, without resupply or pulling into any harbor, for a period of one thousand days, along with some other goals that were not met, such as circumnavigating the globe four times.Launch Brochure–as it appeared on 1 November 2014. Retrieved 18 May 2017. (Ed's note: This is the newest version of the Launch Brochure from the Web Archives.) The single circumnavigation involved active management of a sailboat under varying weather conditions, with continuous wear and tear of equipment on the schooner, although the schooner was not always under full sail.Daily Logs (1000 Days at Sea). For example, see the log entries for Days 333, 622, 848, 868, 878 and 1048. On June 17, 2010, Reid Stowe sailed the schooner Anne up the Hudson River, accompanied by Sail Magazine's Executive Editor Charles Doane, and docked in New York.Onboard Anne with Reid Stowe. Sail Magazine, 6 July 2010. Retrieved 23 December 2016.] The total voyage duration claimed by Stowe was 1,152 days, a potential record for the longest continuous sea voyage without resupply or stepping on land. Upon landing at Pier 81 in Manhattan, he was met by family and friends, by his girlfriend Soanya Ahmad—who had accompanied him for the first quarter of the journey—and their toddler son, as well as by the press. ==Childhood== Reid Stowe was born January 6, 1952, near Moses Lake, Washington Mission accomplished for the longest sea voyage in history. "Conversations with Harold Hudson Channer," Cable Television Systems in Manhattan, New York. Jan. 28, 2010. to Harry and Anne Stowe; and is the oldest of six siblings. His father, an officer in the United States Air Force, was posted to many parts of the world during that time and usually his family travelled with him. Growing up, Reid spent three years in Germany, two years in the Philippines, plus state-side tours in Mississippi, Illinois, Arizona, and Virginia. Traveling notwithstanding, the family generally spent summers with Anne Stowe's father, who had constructed a beach cottage on the Intracoastal Waterway near Ocean Isle Beach, North Carolina. Anne's father and uncles frequently built and rebuilt portions of the home, and built small craft for use on the waterway. It was during these summer interludes that Reid absorbed carpentry, and, during his high school years with his younger brother Wave, Stowe built fiberglass surf boards. He and his brother employed workshops that his family maintained in various winter residences to complete their work after school. ==Early voyages== Reid Stowe initially pursued studies in the arts, enrolling in the University of Arizona, where he took up painting and sculpture. During his late teens, Stowe visited Hawaii in the summer to surf. During one of these Hawaiian excursions, when Stowe was nineteen, he fell in with Craige Fostvedt, The first name is spelled "Craig" on Fostvedt's own website, and is the most common spelling of this name. For some unknown reason, Reid Stowe adds an 'e' at the end of the name. "Craige" is typically employed as a surname, and is also the name of a student residence at UNC Chapel Hill. who had invested some of his college funds to purchase a small sailing vessel. Invited to accompany him on an extended sail through the South Pacific to New Zealand, Stowe was obliged to obtain a passport, for which he needed a copy of his birth certificate. Years later, Stowe recalled to interviewer Harold Channer that his parents could very well have refused to send him the certificate and instead could have insisted on his return to school. That they chose otherwise, Stowe regards as a life-affirming experience, the tacit parental support giving him confidence to proceed. The South Pacific trip was Stowe's first experience with open ocean sailing, for which he acquired a passion. Following his South Pacific voyage, Stowe returned to his grandfather's residence in Ocean Isle Beach, North Carolina, where he spent eight months constructing a and catamaran named Tantra, specifically for open ocean sailing. During its construction, he was visited by a Dutchman—whom he had first met on his South Pacific voyage—who persuaded Stowe to take the catamaran across the North Atlantic to the Netherlands.Comprehending Reid Stowe: Early Voyages & The Moitessier Factor. Charles Doane, Boats.com, April 20, 2010. Retrieved 1 May 2010. The two embarked on their journey to the Netherlands in June, 1973. After their arrival, Reid Stowe continued on a solo voyage which took him to Africa, a second Atlantic crossing, a trip to Brazil and the Amazon, returning to the United States in 1976. In his 2003 interview with Harold Channer, Stowe claimed that the catamaran Tantra was "the smallest boat to cross the Atlantic Ocean twice," though on closer reading it appears that a smaller boat has made the round-trip crossing as early as the nineteenth century. In 1880–1881, George P. Thomas and Frederick Norman navigated their dory Little Western from Gloucester, Massachusetts, to Cowes, England, in June 1880, stayed in England for nearly one year, and returned to America the following June. ===Construction of the Anne (originally named Tantra Schooner)=== Following his return to the United States, Stowe's thoughts turned to the construction of a vessel well suited to extended voyages. He was particularly impressed with gaff-rigged schooners, which he felt represented a culmination of craft and technique for sailing vessels. In 1976, he took up residence in the North Carolina beach cottage of his maternal grandfather, and with extensive help from his mother's family, his father—now a retired Colonel—and his siblings, Reid Stowe began the construction of a sailing vessel designed after late nineteenth-century American gaff-rigged fishing schooners, prevalent from the 1880s to the 1900s. The completed design called for a 60-ton (54,400 kg), two- masted gaff-rigged vessel, 70 ft (21.3 m) in length with a beam. Unlike the nineteenth century antecedent, however, Stowe and his family employed Ferralite over steel wire mesh for the hull,Fer-A-Lite is a thermosetting polyester resin synthetic mortar; a trademark held by SmallYachts, Land O Lakes, FLTantra construction, steel & glass. Posted on SailNet, Dec. 11, 2007. Retrieved 4 May 2010. with interior spaces finished in Caribbean hardwood supplied largely from debris thrown up by Hurricane David.. In an interview with Harold Channer, Stowe likened the hull to a sealed steel and fiberglass bottle. Additionally, electricity for computers and communication equipment is generated from wind, solar, and water motion generators. Stowe, his family, and friends of the family, were engaged in building the craft over the next eighteen months, completing the work in 1978. The shipyard was entirely confined to the beach cottage property of his grandfather. Named Tantra Schooner at launch, Stowe established the ship as his home, sailing it originally to the Caribbean with his then wife, Iris and baby daughter Viva, "[finishing] the interior en route and in the islands." Author Jill Bobrow, in her 1982 Classic Yacht Interiors attributed some of the interior handiwork to Iris: "a beautiful walnut inlaid with enamel." ==Voyages with the Anne== === The Caribbean and Antarctica === According to Bobrow, Stowe initially sailed the Tantra Schooner as a charter boat, but indirectly noted the possibility of extended voyaging even in the early eighties: "The charter accommodations are fabricated so that when extra quarters are not necessary, that space is set up to be a cargo hold — the intent being to make Tantra Schooner totally self- supporting." In this early description of the vessel and her crew, Bobrow reported: "Reid and Iris are a delightful, spiritual couple. Their boat reflects their ingenuity, creativity, and joy of life." Renamed the Anne in honor of his mother and her family, Stowe took the schooner to Antarctic waters in 1986 with a crew of eight, his first long-term trial with the vessel. For five months, Stowe and his crew sailed the waters around the Antarctic Peninsula and the South Shetland Islands. Stowe navigated into ice packs and claimed winds of up to . Later, Stowe told Nik Kleinberg of ESPN: "You're geared up like an ice man, goggles, everything, not a bit of skin exposed. We had a gust of wind that blew the boat completely over." To combat boredom, the crew "fought the lack of sensory stimulation with plastic filters that allowed people to bathe in different colored lights, and a 'bag of tricks' that included scented herbs and spices, stones, religious artifacts, pebbles, sand, and other items that stimulated the senses and kindled fond memories of home." It was during this voyage that Stowe began seriously considering a trip of extremely long duration. Author Albert A. Harrison characterized these circa 1990 plans in his 2001 book, Spacefaring: The Human Dimension. "The Anne, [seventy feet] longAlbert A. Harrison quoted the length at "twelve meters", when in fact the boat is seventy feet, or 21.336 meters in length. and displacing sixty tons, would set forth with a crew of six to eight (the same size as an initial Mars crew under some scenarios) and three years worth of provisions. For a thousand days they would sail outside of normal trade routes and without entering port. The crew would consist of scientists who would study weather, water, and atmospheric pollution, and ozone depletion in remote and little-documented regions of the world. Stowe hoped to conduct field tests of communication satellites, water purification systems and other equipment potentially useful for exploring Mars." Later, Stowe, with Harrison, authored the paper, "One thousand days non-stop at sea – Lessons for a mission to Mars" outlining a "1000-day voyage without touching land or receiving supplies from other craft. The goals of this expedition include the evaluation of equipment, supplies, and humans under conditions of isolation and confinement that will resemble some of those of the initial Mars voyage." ===The Port of New York=== In the fall of 1997, Stowe began using Pier 63 as a base of operations, located in the Chelsea section of Manhattan, New York City at a marina operated by John Krevey. He promoted his one thousand days voyage in earnest, calling it the "1000 Days at Sea: The Mars Ocean Odyssey," and one news article at the time suggested a launch date of 1999.In one of history's more audacious acts of voyaging, Reid Stowe is preparing to hoist his sails, slip his mooring, and disappear for 1,000 days at sea. Tim Zimmermann, Outside Online, Oct., 1998. Retrieved 24 January 2012. It would be eight years, and one marriage later, before Stowe found sufficient funding and media support for the project. In the intervening time, Stowe made his home on board the Anne, used Pier 63 as his address, and undertook preliminary trips with Laurence Guillem, whom he had married in 1999. By 2001, the couple was stocking up on provisions for the planned 1000-day voyage.Stocking Up for an Organic Odyssey. (Reid Stowe). Cruising World, August 2001, p. 76 In 2006, the construction of a new park along the Hudson River forced the owner of the maritime barge at Pier 63—where Reid had kept his schooner Anne—to relocate to Pier 66.Haggerty at Large (Haggerty, Betsy Frawley). Boating on the Hudson. May 2010, pg.6. This article is no longer available online, at the magazine's archives.History of Pier 66 Maritime. Website for Pier 66 Maritime. Retrieved 27 April 2010. This caused the move of the schooner Anne to the 12th St. Pier across the river in Hoboken, on the New Jersey side, from which Reid eventually embarked on his epic voyage. ====Voyage of the Turtle: Prelude to '1000 Days at Sea'==== Stowe's prelude to the present voyage was undertaken in 1999, when he and his new bride, Laurence Guillem, voyaged the South Atlantic Ocean for 194 days on the Anne, an expedition which Guillem dubbed "The Odyssey of the Sea Turtle." (Ed's note: Guillem was misspelled in this article as "Guillen".) Stowe's intent during this preliminary voyage was to shape a course literally in the shape of a turtle, as a form of GPS art. Of this choice, Stowe said: "There's also something to be said about not racing around all the time. So this voyage was sort of an antidote to our speed-obsessed society. And the turtle is also a reminder about endangered species and the environment. I'm sure it's going to be interpreted in different ways." The voyage lasted from June 4, to December 17, 1999, with no major mishap, though it had its tribulations. The Anne suffered engine failure under the Verrazano- Narrows Bridge, aging sailcloth limited the precision of Stowe's navigation — the turtle was neither as large nor as complete as he had originally hoped — and a brush with Hurricane Lenny on their return leg hampered their return to the port of New York. Still, he and his sailing mate had spent over a half year out of sight of land. ====Subsequent attempts==== Stowe and Guillem undertook a second exercise in January 2001, a voyage to Trinidad in which the Anne encountered severe weather off Bermuda.John Doswell's account of Anne's January 2001 trip to Bermuda. Archived at Web Archives [from Mar. 6, 2012] The ship knocked over on its side once (although local papers incorrectly reported three knockdowns) in high seas, but righted itself. Having injured her jaw in the mishap, it was the last significant voyage that Guillem undertook with Stowe. Of her reluctance to return to sea, she said of him: "J'aime Reid, mais lui c'est un poisson et moi non." ("I love Reid, but he is a fish and I am not.")From a letter by Eric Hunter Slater to the editors of Latitude 38. thumb|alt=Soanya Ahmad in conversation with Harold Channer, 2010|Soanya Ahmad in January 2010 ===The 1000-day voyage=== Stowe and Ahmad departed on the 1000-day voyage on April 21, 2007, at 3:00 PM EDT from the 12th St. Pier in Hoboken, New Jersey, witnessed by about 100 well-wishers, including his parents and his former wife, Laurence Guillem..N.Y. duo sets sail on 1,000-day cruise. Retrieved 28 April 2010. The heavily laden schooner passed through New York Harbor and into the open ocean by the evening of April 21. thumb|alt=schooner_anne alt text|Schooner Anne The departure put into execution plans that, in some respects, closely resembled those put forth by Stowe and Harrison in a 1992 paper. They had postulated that conditions of confinement and isolation experience during an extended sea voyage would be similar in some respects to those experienced during a voyage to Mars. The name, 1000 Days at Sea: The Mars Ocean Odyssey, the duration and the challenges of the voyage echo concepts that were put forth in the paper and reiterated in the departure press release. The scientific goals that had been outlined in the departure press release—the study of weather, water, atmospheric pollution and ozone depletion in little-documented regions of the world—have not been fully realized due to lack of proper equipment, as indicated by periodic entries in the voyage's log.Daily Logs (1000 Days at Sea). An article at the MarineBuzz website Soanya Ahmad Abandons 1000 Days at Sea Expedition After 306 Days. Posted on Feb. 23, 2008. Retrieved 2 May 2010. explained some of the technical aspects of the schooner's supplies, and summarized Soanya's role in the expedition up to the point where she had to depart the schooner and hand over her tasks to Reid (see below). Several unexpected events occurred during the course of this voyage, two of them near the outset. On April 25, 2007, the schooner ventured near a US Navy missile firing trial that was being conducted off the New Jersey coast. After United States Coast Guard personnel alerted the schooner, the crew diverted their course with no further mishap. A second, more serious mishap occurred on May 6, 2007, when the schooner ran into a container ship that left the schooner's bowsprit heavily damaged, though the hull and the remainder of the boat was unscathed. Stowe was able to make a replacement, albeit shortened, bowsprit from less-damaged portions.Day 22 Log Entry from 1000 Days at Sea archived at Wayback Machine. Retrieved 13 February 2019. Following these incidents, the vessel spent much of the second half of 2007 in the Southern Atlantic, passing the tip of Africa in mid December, 2007. ====Soanya leaves the journey==== One significant incident occurred on February 22, 2008, when Stowe's companion, Soanya Ahmad decided to leave the voyage. After 306 days spent on board the schooner Anne, Ahmad had to disembark due to what later was discovered to be morning sickness. She disembarked from the schooner off Rottnest Island, near Perth, Western Australia. Solo at sea for New Year's Eve – Who's Who. 30 December 2009. Retrieved 5 Oct 2010. Members from the Royal Perth Yacht Club, including Jon Sanders,Jock Main and Jon Harper of http://FreoDoctor.com.au interviewed Soanya Ahmad. They briefly interviewed Jon Sanders as well. rendezvoused with the Anne around 1800 local time (+9 UTC) and assisted with Ms. Ahmad's departure. She arrived in Perth around 2100 local time. Ms. Ahmad reported she had been suffering from chronic seasickness since November. Ms. Ahmad's departure left Stowe without a crew and compromised an original tenet of the voyage, "...to leave the land and all support, sail for 1,000 days, non-stop at sea without receiving help, to live at sea, to be healthy, to send back good messages and have the whole world follow the voyage and understand the importance of it..." Mr. Stowe intended to complete the mission plan alone. According to The Age, the schooner Anne was to maintain a position beyond sight of land during the transfer so Mr Stowe could continue his attempt to break records. Jon Sanders, the current record holder for longest solo time at sea, was asked in an interview whether Reid could break his record. Sanders, who was also a member of Ms. Ahmad's rescue party responded—"I think the boat by the look of it will stay in one piece. It won't break any records." However, he quickly followed that with, "But...I couldn't say anything that it wouldn't...He's still got a lot of patience and time." He then admitted that Reid Stowe could do it—Interviewer: "There's a possibility he could take your record out." Sanders: "Ah, ya." After leaving the schooner Anne on Day 306, Ahmad returned to New York, where in July 2008, she gave birth to a son, Darshen. Two years later, the whole family would be living aboard the Anne.The Man Who Fell to Shore. (Adam Sternbergh). New York Magazine, 19 September 2010. Retrieved 22 November 2011.Interview at sea with Reid Stowe on his record-breaking voyage. Interview with Reid (at sea) and Soanya (on land) – Peter Roth's "Energy Stew", 11 September 2008. Retrieved 21 December 2011. ====Completion of the voyage==== On Day 658, Reid Stowe broke the world record for the longest non-stop ocean voyage, previously held by Jon Sanders, if one disregards Nansen's Fram expedition, during which the schooner Fram lay trapped on ice for nearly three years, and the crew was away from land for at least 1067 days. Reid Stowe and his support team have since accomplished one of their goals of a person sailing on the open seas without resupply for 1000 days, as well as breaking the 1067-day record set by the Fram in 1896.Reid Stowe: Longest Voyage in History (Undisputed!) Charles Doane, Wavetrain, Mar. 16, 2010. Retrieved 3 May 2010. January 16, 2010, was officially the day of the 1000-day mark,Sailor spends 1000 days at sea. Retrieved 30 April 2010. while March 24, 2010, equalled the 1067-day mark. Subsequent to the first 306 days with Soanya Ahmad, Reid Stowe also broke the record for the longest solo sea voyage without resupply, on Day 964 (Dec. 11, 2009).1000 Days at Sea – Fact Sheet. Retrieved June 3, 2010. Furthermore, as a two-member male-and-female crew, Stowe and Ahmad could also lay claim to the longest non-stop voyage on the ocean by a man and a woman since Bernard Moitessier and his wife Françoise completed a 126-day voyage in 1966, from Tahiti to Spain.Comprehending Reid Stowe: His Various Purposes. (Charles Doane). Boats.com, 3 June 2010. Retrieved 3 January 2012. None of the records claimed by Stowe were ever officially recognized. The World Sailing Speed Record Council explains on their website:World Sailing Speed Record Council. Retrieved 5 February 2016. "We concentrate on speed record attempts and claims, and no longer recognize "human condition" categories which can expand to such an extent that almost anyone would be able to claim a record of some sort." Throughout the journey, Stowe maintained contact with the New York City–based support team via an Iridium phone. Stowe employed a VHF marine transceiver for ship-to-ship communications. Volunteers maintained a web site so that the general public could follow the progress of the voyage. The entire route of the schooner Anne was verified daily by GPS tracking,Google Maps – Location. 1000 Days at Sea (archived). Retrieved 1 April 2018. [from 3 February 2013] and the manufacturer of the equipment has made the database available online.1000 Days at Sea – METOCEAN MetTrac Vessel Monitoring System. Retrieved 21 December 2011. Until the computers broke down in December, 2009, there were also almost daily logs—with a photo—sent as email via the satellite telephone. These missives were originally contributed by Soanya and Reid, until Soanya's departure from the schooner, when Reid took over the role of sole communicator. Reid Stowe saw his son for the first time, after landing his 70-foot schooner 'Anne' in New York and reuniting with girlfriend Soanya Ahmad on Thursday, June 17, 2010. The couple hadn't seen each other since Soanya had to leave the voyage in February, 2008.New York Sailor Returns After 3-Year Voyage. (Multimedia: includes video, and telephone interview with Reid Stowe). MYFOXNY.COM, June 18, 2010. Retrieved 17 Aug 2010. .1,152 Days at Sea, an Amazing Surprise on Land. NBC New York, 17 June 2010. Retrieved 2 December 2016. ==See also== *List of circumnavigations *GPS drawing *Tania Aebi *Colin Angus *Robin Lee Graham *Roz Savage *Katie Spotz *Henk de Velde ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== *The Voyage of the Sea Turtle. (Reid Stowe). Cruising World, August 2000, p. 44 *1000 Days – Original and Official Website. [N.B. These are the archives from the entire history of the website. July 7, 2013 was the date for most recent information before the site was abandoned.] Retrieved 24 June 2018. *John Doswell's account of Anne's January 2001 trip to Bermuda. Archived at Web Archives [from Mar. 6, 2012] *Coverage of the 1000-day voyage of the Schooner Anne, with a musical twist [from Oct. 11, 2008] and the follow-up report on Weekend America (America Public Media) [from Oct. 25, 2008]. *Peter Roth from "Energy Stew" talks with Soanya Ahmad on January 2, 2010 – Celebration of over 970 consecutive days at sea without stopping. (Note: "970 days" represents December 16, 2009; the audio clip for this interview is no longer available online). *Sea*Fever Blog, 17 June 2010. A link to a series of short articles by the blogger Peter A. Mello, chronicling the entire journey by Stowe and Ahmad on the Anne. *Highlights of the 1000-day voyage from the daily logs: Beyond 1000 Days. *Interview with Reid Stowe and Soanya Ahmad, recorded on June 23, 2010, for NPR's On Point. * Reid Stowe interviewed by Marc Germain of Talk Radio One: broadcast on June 28, 2010 (starting at 77:22 min. into the 2 hr. show; best heard by opening the above MP3 audio stream in an MP3 player, like Winamp or QuickTime; in the segment from 7 to 14 min. of Hour 1, Marc and co-hosts, Dina and Rob, engage in a candid discussion about the whole concept of sailing on the open seas, first as a duo and then solo, for a total of 1152 days—their opinions shed some light on how an uninformed public might view such an accomplishment, at first glance). *Interview with Reid Stowe, by Ben Sargent of "Catch It, Cook It & Eat It", on the Heritage Radio Network. Aired 1 July 2010. (A short video accompanied this broadcast – Catch It, Cook It, Eat It – 1000 Days At Sea.) Retrieved 9 April 2019. *Conversation with Stowe and Ahmad on the weekly radio program "Energy Stew," hosted by Peter Roth—July 11, 2010. (N.B. The audio clip for this interview is no longer available online). *The Huffington Post online journal has been hosting Reid Stowe and Soanya Ahmad since Oct., 2010. *New York Magazine feature, 17 September 2010. *O. Henry Magazine, "Anne of a Thousand Days", (Schlosser, Jim) April 2013, pp. 48–51 (Starting at p. 50 in the bottom bar index, once arriving at the magazine website). **[N.B. This magazine article has a couple of factual errors. 1) Ahmad was misspelled as 'Ahnad' throughout the article; 2) She was not rescued by helicopter near Australia, but by an inflatable rescue boat from the Royal Perth Yacht Club; 3) Stowe did sight land at least once during his voyage, although it was only Rottnest Island, which lies 18 km. west of Fremantle, AUS; 4) Stowe's catamaran was not the smallest boat to cross the Atlantic twice (in 1976), as claimed. It had been done before with a much smaller dory in 1881, also propelled by wind.] *Living 1,152 Days at Sea – Reid Stowe. National Geographic Weekend (radio program); Broadcast date: 21 September 2014; 11 mins. Retrieved 11 April 2019. *Whatever Floats His Boat. Spear's magazine. Retrieved 3 July 2017. *The Shaman of the Sea (John Wolfe); Salt Magazine, 1 January 2018 *He Sailed the Longest Ocean Voyage in History and Turned It Into Art (Alex Vadukul); The New York Times, 24 October 2019. Retrieved 25 October 2019. Category:American artists Category:American explorers Category:American sailors Category:Single-handed sailors Category:1952 births Category:Living people Category:Sailing expeditions |
Tracee Joy Silberstein (born October 29, 1972), known professionally as Tracee Ellis Ross, is an American actress. She is known for her lead roles in the television series Girlfriends (2000–2008) and Black-ish (2014–2022). She is the daughter of actress and Motown recording artist Diana Ross and Robert Ellis Silberstein. She began acting in independent films and variety series. She hosted the pop-culture magazine The Dish on Lifetime. From 2000 to 2008 she played the starring role of Joan Clayton in the UPN/CW comedy series Girlfriends, for which she received two NAACP Image Awards for Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series. She also has appeared in the films Hanging Up (2000), I-See-You.Com (2006), and Daddy's Little Girls (2007), before returning to television playing Dr. Carla Reed on the BET sitcom Reed Between the Lines (2011), for which she received her third NAACP Image Award. From 2014 to 2022, Ross starred as Dr. Rainbow Johnson in the ABC comedy series, Black-ish. Her work on it has earned her six NAACP Image Awards and a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy. She has also received nominations for two Critics' Choice Television Awards and five Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series. In 2019, she co-created a prequel spin-off of Black-ish titled Mixed-ish. In 2020, she starred in and recorded the soundtrack album for the musical film The High Note. ==Early life== Ross was born October 29, 1972 in Los Angeles, California, the daughter of Motown singer/actress Diana Ross and music business manager Robert Ellis Silberstein. Actor and musician Evan Ross is her half-brother. Her father is Jewish; her mother is African-American and a Baptist. She adopted the name Tracee Ellis Ross, wishing to retain both of her parents' names after her father dropped the name Silberstein. She has two sisters, Rhonda Ross Kendrick and Chudney Lane Silberstein. In the 80s, Tracee was photographed along with her mother, Rhonda and Chudney by Andy Warhol. Her mother used her own photo for the cover of her 1982 album, Silk Electric, to which Warhol was given credit. When her mother married Arne Næss Jr. in 1985, Tracee gained three step-siblings: Katinka, Christoffer, and folk singer Leona Naess. She remains on close terms with all of them. Before her mother and Naess divorced in 2000, they welcomed her two half-brothers, Ross Arne in 1987 and Evan Ross in 1988. Ross attended The Dalton School in Manhattan, Riverdale Country School in the Bronx and the Institut Le Rosey in Switzerland. She was a model in her teens. She attended Brown University, where she appeared in plays, and graduated in 1994 with a theatre degree. She later worked in the fashion industry as a model and contributing fashion editor to Mirabella and New York magazines. Ross has ptosis, slightly affecting her left eye-lid. Following a speech at the American Music Awards, Internet trolls commented on her condition, leading her to post an Instagram video saying, "I know y'all make fun of my eyes, you know what I mean? Well, f**ck off, 'cause it's not my fault, alright? My body does what it does, I don't know why. But sometimes when I'm tired, this one just gives up, and it's like, 'Goodnight!'..."Go ahead, make fun of my eyes, OK? But I think they're nice, I think they're so nice, I do." ==Career== ===Early works=== Ross made her big-screen debut in 1996, playing a Jewish/African-American woman in the independent feature film Far Harbor. The following year, she debuted as host of The Dish, a Lifetime TV magazine series keeping tabs on popular culture. In 1998, she starred as a former high school track star who remained silent about having been abused at the hands of a coach, in the NBC made-for-TV movie Race Against Fear: A Moment of Truth. Her next role was an independent feature film titled Sue. In 2000, she landed her first major studio role in Diane Keaton's Hanging Up. That same year, she broke into comedy as a regular performer in the MTV series The Lyricist Lounge Show, a hip-hop variety series mixing music, dramatic sketches, and comedic skits. In February 2006 she starred in Kanye West’s "Touch The Sky" MTV music video, playing the role of the best friend of Kanye's ex. ===2000–2013: Breakthrough with Girlfriends === thumb|Ross with Mara Brock Akil and Girlfriends cast in 2013Ross's biggest career achievement came when she landed the lead role in the hit UPN/The CW series Girlfriends, starring as the show's protagonist Joan Carol Clayton — a successful (and often neurotic) lawyer looking for love, challenges, and adventure. The series centered on four (later three) young African-American women, and their male best friend. In 2007, Ross won an NAACP Image Award in the category, Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series for her role on the series. She won a second Image Award for the role in 2009. In 2007, Ross starred with her brother Evan Ross and Queen Latifah in the HBO movie Life Support. That same year, she appeared in the Tyler Perry theatrical movie Daddy's Little Girls. She appeared in the 2009 film Labor Pains. In 2010, she appeared in an episode of Private Practice as a pregnant doctor. In 2011, Ross appeared in four episodes of CSI as the estranged wife of Laurence Fishburne's character. Ross starred in the sitcom Reed Between the Lines with Malcolm-Jamal Warner airing on BET starting in October 2011. She won a third NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series in 2012 for her performance in the series. In August 2012, it was announced that Ross would not return for Season Two. In 2011, she appeared in the Lifetime film Five directed by Alicia Keys. The performance in the film earned her nominations for an NAACP Image Award and Black Reel Awards for Outstanding Actress in a Television Movie or Mini- Series. In 2012, Ross starred in the NBC drama pilot Bad Girls. === 2014–present: Black-ish and mainstream success === left|thumb|Ross at the 2014 NAACP Image Awards In 2014, Ross was cast in the ABC comedy series Black-ish, opposite Anthony Anderson. She plays the female lead role of Dr. Rainbow Johnson. The series debuted with generally positive reviews from critics. Ross received three NAACP Image Awards and received nominations for two Critics' Choice Television Awards, four Primetime Emmy Awards, and two Screen Actors Guild Awards for her performance in the series. Ross's 2016 nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series was the first for an African- American woman in that category in 30 years. The same year, Ross and Anderson faced off on Spike's Lip Sync Battle. She emerged victorious with performances of Nicki Minaj's "Super Bass" and Pat Benatar's "Love Is a Battlefield". In 2015, Ross was awarded an honorary doctorate of fine art (honoris causa) by Brown University."Brown awards six honorary doctorates: Tracee Ellis Ross, Doctor of Fine Arts" , Brown University, May 23, 2015. Ross hosted the BET Awards in 2015 and 2016, and the American Music Awards in 2017 and 2018. She also hosted The Fashion Awards in 2019. As of 2018, as CEO of Pattern Beauty LLC of El Segundo, California, Ross produces a line of "Juicy and Joyful" beauty hair care products made with safe ingredients for curls and promotes support organizations to empower women and people of color. Ross appeared in the fourth episode of A Little Late with Lilly Singh. In 2019, Ross created, alongside Kenya Barris, a prequel spin-off of Black-ish called Mixed-ish. Ross serves as a narrator for the series starring Tika Sumpter and Mark-Paul Gosselaar. Ross will star in and executive produce the adult animated comedy Jodie, the first in a series of spin-offs based on MTV's Daria franchise. Ross will voice the title character, Jodie Landon. In 2020, Ross played the leading role as Grace Davis, the legendary superstar singer, in the musical comedy- drama film The High Note for Focus Features. The High Note marks the first big-screen role for Ross since the 2007 comedy-drama Daddy’s Little Girls. The film was scheduled to be theatrically released on May 8, 2020, but the theatrical release was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The film later moved its release date to May 29, 2020, through video on demand. In The High Note Ross made her singing debut, recording a soundtrack album titled The High Note (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack). The lead single, pop-ballad "Love Myself" was released on May 15, 2020, through Republic Records. Ross emceed the second night of the 2020 Democratic National Convention. In September 2020, she signed a deal with ABC Signature. In 2021, she was included on the Time 100, Times annual list of the 100 most influential people in the world. In 2022, after ending of Black-ish, Ross appeared as Lainie in the seventh episode of the revived The Kids in the Hall, released in May 2022. She produced The Hair Tales, a limited docuseries for hulu and Oprah Winfrey Network. Later in 2022, she starred in the upcoming psychological thriller film, Cold Copy. She starred in the upcoming Erasure adaptation opposite Jeffrey Wright. In 2023, she was cast opposite Eddie Murphy in the holiday comedy Candy Cane Lane directed by Reginald Hudlin. ==Filmography== ===Film=== Key Denotes works that have not yet been released Year Title Role Notes 1996 Far Harbor Kiki 1997 Sue Lost in Manhattan Linda 1999 A Fare To Remember Jane 2000 Hanging Up Kim In the Weeds Caroline 2006 I-See-You.Com Nancy Tanaka 2009 Daddy's Little Girls Cynthia Labor Pains Kristin 2019 Little Homegirl Voice 2020 The High Note Grace Davis 2023 Cold Copy Post-production Untitled Erasure adaptation Lisa Post-production Candy Cane Lane Post-production TBA Jodie Jodie Landon Voice; in production === Television === Year Title Role Notes 1998 Broken Silence Kaycee King Television film 2000 The Lyricist Lounge Show Various roles 1 episode 2000–2008 Girlfriends Joan Clayton Series regular, 172 episodes 2004 Second Time Around Naomi Episode: "A Kiss Is Still a Kiss" 2007 Life Support Tanya Television film 2010 Private Practice Ellen Episode: "War" 2011 CSI: Crime Scene Investigation Gloria Parkes Recurring role, 4 episodes Reed Between the Lines Dr. Carla Reed Series regular, 25 episodes and producer Five Alyssa Television film; segment "Lili" 2012 Bad Girls Rachel Unsold pilot 2014–2022 Black-ish Dr. Rainbow "Bow" Johnson Lead role, director of 2 episodes and producer 2016 Lip Sync Battle Herself Episode: “Tracee Ellis Ross vs. Anthony Anderson” Broad City Winona Episode: "Jews on a Plane" 2018–2022 Grown-ish Dr. Rainbow "Bow" Johnson 2 episodes 2018 Portlandia Professional In Getting Her Picture Taken Episode: "You Do You" 2019–2021 Mixed-ish Dr. Rainbow "Bow" Johnson/Narrator Also co-creator, executive producer 2021 The Runaway Bunny Narrator Television special The Premise Rayna Bradshaw Episode: "Social Justice Sex Tape" 2022 The Kids in the Hall Lainie Episode 7 Norman Lear: 100 Years of Music & Laughter Herself Television special ===Music videos=== Year Song Artist Role 2004 “The New Workout Plan” Kanye West Fifi LeBeouff/ Herself 2005 "Touch the Sky" Kanye West Herself 2018 "Nice for What" Drake Herself 2019 "Earfquake" Tyler, the Creator Pearl Edwards (Talk Show Host) ==Discography== *The High Note (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) (2020) :*"Love Myself" (single) :*"Stop For A Minute" :*"Bad Girl" :*"New To Me" :*"Like I Do" - with Kelvin Harrison Jr. :*Love Myself (Film Version) - with Amie Doherty ==Awards and nominations== Year Award Category Nominated work Result 2002 NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series Girlfriends 2003 Prism Award Best Performance in a Comedy Series 2003 NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series 2004 BET Comedy Awards Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series 2005 BET Comedy Awards Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series 2006 NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series 2007 NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series 2008 NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series 2009 NAACP Image Award Outstanding Directing in a Comedy Series Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series 2012 NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Television Movie, Mini-Series or Dramatic Special Five Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series Reed Between the Lines Black Reel Awards Outstanding Actress in a Television Movie or Mini-Series Five NAMIC Vision Award Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series Reed Between the Lines 2015 NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series Black- ish BET Awards Best Actress EWwy Awards Best Actress, Comedy 2016 Critics' Choice Television Award Best Actress in a Comedy Series NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series Online Film & Television Association Award Best Actress in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series Satellite Award Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy"The International Press Academy Announces Winners for the 21th Annual Satellite™ Awards" , International Press Academy, December 19, 2016. BET Awards Best Actress 2017 Critics' Choice Television Award Best Actress in a Comedy Series Golden Globe Award Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy Screen Actors Guild Award Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Comedy SeriesSchwartz, Ryan, "NAACP Image Awards: This Is Us, black-ish, Queen Sugar Among Winners" , TVLine, February 11, 2017. Primetime Emmy Award Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series 2018 Screen Actors Guild Award Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series 2019 People's Choice Awards Favorite Comedy TV Star Satellite Awards Best Actress in a Series, Comedy or Musical NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series Black Reel Awards Outstanding Directing, Comedy Series Black Reel Awards Outstanding Actress, Comedy Series 2020 NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series Black Reel Awards Outstanding Comedy Series Black Reel Awards Outstanding Actress, Comedy Series People's Choice Awards Fashion icon Fashion People's Choice Awards Favorite Drama Movie Star The High Note Hollywood Critics Association Best Supporting Actress Guild of Music Supervisors Awards Best Song Written and/or Recording Created for a Film 2021 NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Motion Picture NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series Black-ish Primetime Emmy Award Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award Outstanding Comedy Series Black Reel Awards Outstanding Actress, Comedy Series Hollywood Critics Association Television Awards Best Actress in a Broadcast Network or Cable Series, Comedy 2022 People's Choice Awards The Comedy TV Star of 2022 Golden Globe Award Best Performance by an Actress in a Television Series - Musical or Comedy Hollywood Critics Association Television Awards Best Actress in a Broadcast Network or Cable Series, Comedy NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series Black Reel Awards Outstanding Actress, Comedy Series Disney Legends For her extraordinary contribution to television 2023 NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series Black-ish == Business == Tracee Ellis Ross is also the founder of Pattern Beauty, a company which makes natural hair care products for curly and textured hair. The company was founded in 2018. == See also == * African- American Jews ==References== ==External links== * * * Category:Actresses from Los Angeles Category:African-American actresses Category:American film actresses Category:American television actresses Category:Brown University alumni Category:Living people Category:Alumni of Institut Le Rosey Category:20th-century American actresses Category:21st-century American actresses Category:Dalton School alumni Category:Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe (television) winners Category:African-American Jews Category:Riverdale Country School alumni Category:Silberstein family Category:California Democrats Category:20th-century African-American women Category:20th-century African-American people Category:21st-century African- American women Category:21st-century African-American people Category:1972 births Category:Disney Legends |
Blackrock () is a suburb of Dublin, Ireland, northwest of Dún Laoghaire. ==Location and access== Blackrock covers a large but not precisely defined area, rising from sea level on the coast to at White's Cross on the N11 national primary road. Blackrock is bordered by Booterstown, Mount Merrion, Stillorgan, Foxrock, Deansgrange and Monkstown. ===Transport=== Blackrock has a station on the Dublin Area Rapid Transit (DART) line, which is 15 minutes away by train from the city centre. The DART runs on the same track that was built in 1834 for the Dublin and Kingstown Railway. Blackrock railway station, on both the DART and the mainline South Eastern Commuter railway line, opened on 17 December 1834. Bus services operated by Dublin Bus and Go-Ahead Ireland also serve the area with multiple bus routes. These are routes 4, 7/A/D, 17/C/D, 46E, 84/A, 114 and 7N.dublinbus.ie>goaheadireland.ie The Aircoach services to Dublin Airport from Dalkey and Greystones call at Blackrock en route to the airport. The Blackrock bypass was built in the late 1980s and officially opened by Councillor Anne Brady on 24 March 1988. The bypass is part of the N31 which joins the harbour at Dún Laoghaire to the national Primary Route network. ==History== Blackrock was historically a small fishing village, which began to be developed only in the 19th century, although a settlement at the same location from medieval times is well attested to. ===Origin of the name=== Blackrock, some hundreds of years ago, was variously called Newtown-at-the Black Rock, Newtown on the Strand by the Black Rock, Newtown Castle Byrne, or simply Newtown, so that "Blackrock" is simply an abbreviation of one of its ancient titles.The Neighbourhood of Dublin The Rock Road – Ballsbridge, Merrion, Booterstown, Blackrock and Monkstown For example, the town was called Newtown in a 1488 Act of Parliament.The Neighbourhood of Dublin: The English Pale The name still survives in Newtown Avenue, and Newtown House. It was thus distinguished from Newtown-in-the-Deer-Park, as the village of Newtown Park was then called, from the circumstance that it was built in the Deer Park belonging to Stillorgan House, or Castle (a quo Newtownpark Avenue).History of Blackrock from circa 1892 Blackrock is named after the local geological rock formation to be found in the area of Blackrock Park. Most of it is now buried under the park, but it is said that it is possible to see it just north of the pond. The rock itself is a limestone calp that when wet appears black, thus giving the name Black Rock. For the construction of the railway in 1834, the rock was extensively used for the wall cappings between Williamstown and Blackrock and can also be seen in the walls of the train station at Blackrock.MacCóil, Liam (1977). "The Book of Blackrock", The Blackrock Council of Community Services, Carraig BooksCarey, Tim (2009). "Did you know?", Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown County Council p99, 124, 156 St. Marys's Chapel of Ease on St. Mary's Place, nicknamed the Black Church, is constructed using the same Black Rock (limestone calp), although the rock used in its construction is locally sourced to the church.Costello, Peter (1989). "Dublin Churches", Gill and Macmillan, p214 ===The Rock Road=== thumb|right|150px|8th or 9th Century Cross at Blackrock said to mark the boundary of Dublin city The Rock Road, which forms the south-western boundary of the park, is said to form part of one of the oldest roads in the country, having been part of the ancient Slíghe Chualann constructed by the High King of Ireland several centuries before St. Patrick, and which connected Tara with what is now southern County Dublin and north-east County Wicklow. The road may have facilitated the O'Toole and the O'Byrne clans in their raids on the neighbourhood of Dublin. In 1787, the Blackrock Road was such a common place for highway robberies that, in an attempt to put an end to these crimes, a local meeting was held at Jennett's Tavern in Blackrock which was chaired by the 4th Viscount Ranelagh. The meeting concluded when one of the outcomes was "Resolved, That we will give a reward of £20 to any person who will apprehend and prosecute to conviction any person guilty of a robbery upon the Blackrock- road, from Dublin to Dunleary, Bullock, Dalkey, Rochestown, Cabinteely, and Loughlinstown". In 1826, Rev. George Wogan, the curate of Donnybrook, was murdered in his house in Spafield Place near Ballsbridge. Later on the evening of his murder, two bandits were apprehended for a highway robbery on the Blackrock Road and confessed to the murder, and were hanged. This illustrates the danger faced by travellers of the Blackrock road at certain times in the past.Blacker, B.H (1860). "Brief sketches of the parishes of Booterstown and Donnybrook", p92, p175 ===Blackrock Park=== thumb|right|View from Blackrock railway station (1834). The Williamstown Martello tower is depicted in the distance, to the left of the train track, surrounded by water at high tide. Blackrock had a beach that was a popular bathing place until the construction of the railway close to the shoreline. The space between the shore and the railway created an area that flooded with seawater at high tide. This created a malodorous salty marsh similar to that at Booterstown marsh. This marsh was a cause of local discomfort for years until it was decided by the Blackrock Town Commissioners (established in 1860) to fill the area in and create a park. The park, which stretches from Blackrock to Booterstown (encompassing Williamstown), was created in the early 1870s. The granite gates at the main entrance once belonged to a house called Vauxhall. The gardens at the entrance were part of the gardens of the old house.DLR County Council . Dlrcoco.ie (2006-12-01). Retrieved on 2011-06-29. The Williamstown Martello Tower in Blackrock Park was built between 1804 and 1806. When the tower was built, it would have been surrounded by seawater at high tide as it was built in the inter-tidal beach area. The tower became isolated from the sea when the construction of the railway took place, but seawater still flowed into the area at high tide. It wasn't until the filling in of the area to form the Blackrock Park that the tower was to be on dry land. That part of the tower, which is visible today, is actually the first floor as the ground floor is buried underground. In 2007, Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown County Council published plans for the conservation and development of the park. The plans include the extensive redevelopment of the course of the Priory River, as well as the refurbishment of several of the buildings within the park. As of 2013, no work has been carried out as part of the redevelopment master plan, with no start date published."Blackrock Park, Dublin" , Peter Donegan Landscaping Weblog "Draft Blackrock Local Area Plan" ===Blackrock Baths=== thumb|right|Blackrock Baths in 2007. Now demolished The Blackrock baths were provided for by the railway company in 1839 and were built beside the Blackrock train station.Leigh's New Pocket Road-book of Ireland, No. 207. From Dublin to WEXFORD. Archive.org. Retrieved on 2011-06-29, quote: "BLACKROCK, in Dublin, is the most celebrated sea-bathing place in the vicinity of the capital. The streets are rather confined, but the extraordinary beauty of the country residences, and of the seashore, secures to the Rock a long train of equestrian visitors and jaunting cars, which have, however, considerably decreased since the railway to Kingstown was established. A special train ticket also permitted entrance to the baths. In 1887, the baths were rebuilt in concrete with a large gentlemen's bath and a smaller ladies' bath. In 1928, the Urban District Council bought the baths for £2,000 and readied them for the Tailteann Games. The baths, with a 50-metre pool, were well known for their swimming galas and water polo and could accommodate up to 1,000 spectators." Eddie Heron lived in Sandycove and is known for his achievement as 36 years undefeated Springboard and Highboard Diving Champion of Ireland. A plaque commemorating him is on the railway bridge that crosses over to the baths. On 11 September 1891, Thomas Crean, while swimming with fellow students near Blackrock, helped rescue a 21-year-old art student named William Ahern. Crean noticed that Ahern was in trouble and together with a young solicitor named Leachman from Dundrum, he managed to bring him ashore. For his bravery, he was awarded a medal by the Royal Humane Society. The decline in the use of the baths started in the 1960s when indoor heated swimming pools started to appear. Dún Laoghaire Corporation closed the Blackrock Baths in the late 1980s and by 1992, due to lack of maintenance, parts of the baths were dismantled. They have since been sold to developers Treasury Holdings.Green Party hosts public meeting on future of Blackrock Baths . Ciarancuffe.com (2006-10-19). Retrieved on 2011-06-29. In 2013, the baths were demolished due to safety concerns following a routine inspection by Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown County Council. It was found that the diving platform had been significantly corroded and detached from the pool base. ===Historic houses=== Many fine houses of historical and architectural significance were built in the area, some of which are still existing today, while others have been demolished. Frescati House, built in 1739, was a fine example and was at one time the childhood home of Lord Edward FitzGerald. Frescati, despite much local protest to save it, was demolished in 1983 and Frascati Shopping Centre now stands in its place.Brady, Tom. (2010-11-18) Roches sale puts reclusive retail dynasty in limelight for last time – National News, Frontpage – Independent.ie . Unison.ie. Retrieved on 2011-06-29. Maretimo House was built in 1770 as a summer residence for Nicholas Lawless, 1st Baron Cloncurry, who had his main house at Lyons Hill, County Kildare. His son Valentine Lawless, 2nd Baron Cloncurry gave land beside the house for the building of the Roman Catholic Church, St. John the Baptist. At the time of the construction of the Dublin and Kingstown Railway, Lord Cloncurry was compensated with, among other things, a private railway bridge and harbour. Maretimo house was demolished in 1970 and apartments of the same name now stand in its place. The private railway bridge can still be seen today but is not maintained and its once elegant walkway has been replaced by a corrugated iron walkway.Pearson, P (2001). "Between the Mountains and the Sea" Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown County, The O'Brien Press Blackrock House, built-in 1774 by Sir John Lees (1737–1811), is one of a few 18th-century houses built with red brick. It has some fine features such as a two-storey red brick porch. It also features a large coach- house, stable yard and gate lodge. With the construction of the railway, Lees was also compensated with a tunnel being built through his land. There is a ruin of a small summer house near Lord Cloncurry's harbour. In the nineteenth century, it was owned by the Vance family. The house is still here to be seen today, although it is currently divided into flats. Rosefield (previously Belleville) was demolished in 1983 to make way for the Blackrock Clinic. Rosefield was one of the first seaside villas built on the Fitzwilliam estate around 1750. Talbot Lodge was an 18th-century villa that was later doubled in size. It was bought by the Sisters of Charity and became part of the Linden Convalescent Home. It was sold to developers and was demolished in December 1989. Neptune House, built in 1767, is a Georgian building with a colourful history. It was the country residence of John Scott, the first Earl of Clonmel, who was chief justice of the King's Bench in 1784. He was also known as 'Copper-faced Jack' for his aggressiveness in argument and skin tone. In 1916, British troops who landed in Dún Laoghaire during the Easter Rising stayed in Neptune House. ===Religion in history=== thumb|Saint Mary Magdalena by Blackrock-born artist Reginald Gray – it hangs in The Church of The Holy Cross, St.Pancras, London The Church of Ireland built two churches in the area. The Booterstown parish was established in 1821 from the Donnybrook parish and the first church built was St. Philip and St. James Church in 1822 on Cross Avenue. To follow was All Saints Church on Carysfort Avenue in 1868. The Catholic Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul founded St. Catherine's Seminary in 1939 with the purchase of the house Dunardagh, Temple Hill. The Catholic Dominican Order came to Blackrock in the 1830s with the purchase of the house Sion Hill on the corner of Mount Merrion Avenue and Cross Avenue. They set up Sion Hill Convent, a girls' school called Dominican College Sion Hill, and Froebel College of Education. They also run an Adult Education Centre and they ran St. Catherine's College of Education for Home Economics between 1929 and 2007.St. Catherines Past Student's Union . Stcatherinespsu.com. Retrieved on 2011-06-29. The Catholic Holy Ghost Fathers came to Blackrock from Paris and established Blackrock College in 1860 with the purchase of Castle Dawson. They later bought Williamstown Castle in 1875, Clareville in 1899 and Willow Park in 1924. All of these buildings, except Clareville, are still standing today and form Blackrock College and Willow Park School. The Kellyite sect was formed by Rev. Thomas Kelly (1769–1855), who broke away from the Church of Ireland. He built a church called Christchurch on Carysfort Avenue. In 1872 the church was handed over to the Church of Ireland. In the early 1960s, the church was demolished as it was surplus to needs. The old church was located where the car park is on the corner of Carysfort Avenue and the Blackrock Bypass.Smith, Cornelius F. (2001). "Newtownpark Avenue: Its people and their houses", Albany Press. The Methodist congregation established a church on George's Avenue in the 19th century. The church is still standing but disused. The congregation moved to a new church beside the town hall on Newtown Avenue. The congregation consolidated with that of Dún Laoghaire around the middle of the 20th century. Since then the Blackrock building is used as a community meeting place called Urban Junction.Dun Laoghaire Methodist Church . Dlmc.org. Retrieved on 2011-06-29.Urban Junction. Urban Junction. Retrieved on 2011-06-29. The Catholic Order of St. Camillus have a community residing at South Hill AvenueOrder of St. Camillus Communities . Orderofstcamillus.ie. Retrieved on 2011-06-29. while Opus Dei established Rosemont secondary school off Temple Hill around 1970.Rosemont School . Rosemont.ie. Retrieved on 2011-06-29. The Presbyterian Church in Ireland established their Blackrock Congregation in 1895. It met in the Blackrock Town Hall until they built St. Andrew's Church on Mount Merrion Avenue in 1899.St. Andrew's Presbyterian Church Blackrock History . Standrewsblackrockpc.org. Retrieved on 2011-06-29. The Catholic Religious Sisters of Charity arrived in 1864 with the purchase of Linden and established Linden Convalescent Home. They later bought Talbot Lodge which became part of the convalescent home. The home was sold in the late 1990s to developers who built the Linden residential complex. More recently, in 2003, the congregation expanded Our Lady's Hospice to Blackrock with the opening of The Venerable Louis and Zelie Martin Hospice. The Roman Catholic parish of Blackrock was established from Booterstown in 1922. The first church in the area was built on Sweetman's Avenue in 1823. In 1845 a much larger church, St. John the Baptist was constructed on Temple Hill. Another church was built in 1967 on Newtownpark Avenue called the Church of the Guardian Angels. The Society of Friends (Quakers) have their Dublin burial grounds, Friends Burial Ground, at Temple Hill. Their meeting house is on Carrickbrennan Road, Monkstown.Quakers in Ireland . Quakers-in-ireland.ie. Retrieved on 2011-06-29. ===Local government=== The districts of Blackrock, Monkstown and Booterstown were joined to form a single township under the Blackrock Township Act 1863. Under the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, this became an urban district in 1899. The urban district of Blackrock was abolished in 1930, with its area becoming part of the borough of Dún Laoghaire. The borough was abolished in 1994, on the establishment of the county of Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown.; Blackrock is a local electoral area that elects six councillors to Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown County Council. ==Blackrock today== ===Features=== thumb Blackrock Clinic, a private clinic in Williamstown, was built on the site of Rosefield House. The town hall was completed in 1865 while the Carnegie Library and the Technical Institute were built-in 1905. The site for the Technical Institute was presented to the Town Commissioners by a resident, William Field MP, in 1898.AAI | Postcards of Ireland ===Commerce=== Blackrock is a large commercial centre with cafes, restaurants, an award-winning independent fine wine and craft beer store (Blackrock Cellar), boutiques, hairdressers and barbers, a tattoo and piercing studio, pharmacies, supermarkets, art galleries, antiques and home improvements outlets as well as bars such as Jack O'Rourkes, Flash Harry's, Conways, The Wicked Wolf, Kelly & Coopers and The Blackrock. The Blackrock Shopping Centre was built in 1984 by Superquinn who managed the development and is the anchor store. Superquinn has now become Supervalu. There are branches of AIB, Bank of Ireland, EBS, Permanent TSB and the Blackrock Credit Union. Permanent TSB also have their administrative offices on Carysfort Avenue. There are many office buildings that house large corporations such as Zurich Financial Services and AIG, and car dealers such as Carroll & Kinsella Motors, Maxwell Motors (generally BMW) and Eco Aer (eco electric vehicles). The Blackrock Market was established in 1986 through 19A Main Street and houses over 30 independent stallholders like Kimi's Beauty Shop that sell all sorts of items like bean bags, candles, stamps and coins, second-hand books and antiques. In addition, there are a number of foods stalls selling worldwide cuisines, cakes and ethnic food, there are a number of restaurants including 3 Leaves (recommended by Michelin since 2019 for its classic and contemporary Indian food, Blossom (vegetarian Lebanese),El Cellar Tapas and Wine Bar, Ciamei Cafe (Italian), The Cake Room and Slow Food Experience (fusion). Finally, there is the recently awarded two Michelin star Liath Restaurant. Liath has become one of the best-known restaurants in Ireland for its fun fine dining experience and experimentation with food. The market is open Saturday, Sunday, and Bank Holidays from 11am-5:30pm, and many stalls and restaurants open during the week also.Blackrock Market . Blackrock Market. Retrieved on 2011-06-29.thumb|left|Blackrock Market entrance ===Enterprise & community=== The area has a range of industries, notably in the IT and service areas. In April 2010, a new business organisation for the area was formed. It is known as the Blackrock Business Network (BBN). In Spring 2011, a new website "I Love Blackrock" was launched."I Love Blackrock" and promotes over 400 businesses in the area. In 2016 they launched their first Leprechaun Chase, a hugely popular fun run event for the local community on Saint Patrick's day followed by village entertainment - a Ceilí at the Cross and street performers. ===Education=== ====Primary schools==== For a more comprehensive list of schools in Blackrock and its hinterland, see the link below (Primary Schools in South County Dublin). * Benincasa, Mount Merrion Avenue (Roman Catholic) * Carysfort National School, Convent Road (Roman Catholic) * Guardian Angels, Newtownpark Avenue (Roman Catholic) * International School of Dublin, Temple Road (non-denominational) * Willow Park, Rock Road (Roman Catholic) * St. Augustine's, Obelisk Park (Roman Catholic) * All Saints, Carysfort Avenue (Church of Ireland) * Booterstown National School, Cross Avenue (Church of Ireland) * Our Lady of Mercy National School, Rosemount Avenue (Roman Catholic) ====Secondary schools==== * Blackrock College, Rock Road (Roman Catholic) * Blackrock Educate Together Secondary School, Newtownpark Avenue * Dominican College Sion Hill, Cross Avenue (Roman Catholic) * Newpark Comprehensive School, Newtownpark Avenue (Church of Ireland) * Newpark Music School, Newtownpark Avenue * Rosemont Secondary School, Temple Road (Roman Catholic)Rosemont Secondary School for Girls . Rosemont.ie. Retrieved on 2011-06-29. * St. Andrew's College, Booterstown Avenue (Inter-Denominational) ====Third level==== * Carysfort College was a large teacher training college in the area until its closure in 1988 * Froebel College of Education, Cross Avenue is one of the 5 major Teacher Training Colleges in Ireland. (Moved to NUI Maynooth campus in 2013) * Michael Smurfit Graduate School of Business is a business school of UCD that occupies the old buildings of Carysfort College * Newpark Music Jazz School, Newtownpark Avenue * Progressive College, Carysfort Avenue and UCD Blackrock Campus, specialises in the provision of a range of childcare and healthcare courses.Progressive College website . Progressivecollege.com (2011-02-07). Retrieved on 2011-06-29. * Blackrock Further Education Institute, located in the centre of Blackrock since 2015, following a re-location of Senior College Dun Laoghaire ===Churches=== * All Saints, Carysfort Avenue (Church of Ireland) * Blackrock Methodist Church/Ignite, Main St * Church of the Guardian Angels, Newtownpark Avenue (Roman Catholic) * St. Andrew's, Mount Merrion Avenue (Presbyterian) * St. John the Baptist, Blackrock (Roman Catholic) * St. Philip and St. James, Cross Avenue, (Church of Ireland) ==People== Lord Edward FitzGerald (1763–1798) was born and lived in Frescati House for a part of his life. He was an Irish aristocrat and revolutionary and was one of the commanders in the Irish Rebellion of 1798. Valentine Lawless (1773–1853) the second Baron Cloncurry, was an Irish politician and landowner that had a summer residence in Blackrock called Maretimo. He is reputed to have played a part in the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and 1803. Patrick Byrne (1783–1864) lived at 3 Waltham Terrace from 1855. He was an architect who built many Catholic churches in Dublin including the local Catholic parish church, St. John the Baptist. He also served as a vice president of the Royal Institute of the Architects of Ireland.Patrick Byrne on the Directory of Irish Architects . Dia.ie. Retrieved on 2011-06-29. James Stephens (1825–1901) at one time lived at 82 George's Avenue, Blackrock and was a founding member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood.Tom Roche and Ken Finlay (2003). "Blackrock, Dun Laoghaire and Dalkey (Along the coast from Booterstown to Killiney)" Charles Kickham (1828–1882) lived at James O'Connors former house of 2 Montpelier Place, off Temple Hill. He was a novelist, poet, journalist and one of the most prominent members of the Irish Republican Brotherhood. Lieutenant General Harry Hammon Lyster (1830–1922) was born in Blackrock and was an Anglo-Irish recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces. William Edward Hartpole Lecky (1838–1903) was an Irish historian and publicist born in Newtown Park. He is noted for his chief work of A History of England during the Eighteenth Century. John Boyd Dunlop (1840–1921) lived in a large 18th-century house called South Hill and developed the first practical pneumatic or inflatable tyre. He was one of the founders of the rubber company that bore his name, Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Company. Sir William Orpen (1878–1931) lived in a house called Oriel on Grove Avenue, just off Mount Merrion Avenue. He was a portrait painter and official war artist in the First World War. Some of his work is permanently on display in the National Gallery of Ireland. Maurice Walsh (1879–1964) lived on both Stillorgan Park Avenue and Avoca Road in Blackrock. He is noted as a novelist and best known for his short story The Quiet Man. Éamon de Valera (1882–1975) lived in a few houses in the area including Bellevue on Cross Avenue 1933–1940. He was educated at Blackrock College and later taught there and at Our Lady of Mercy College, Carysfort. He retired to Linden Convalescent Home after his presidential term ended in 1973 and died there on 29 August 1975. The writer James Joyce (1882–1941) lived at 23 Carysfort Avenue known as Leoville for one year in the early 1890s. This house is still extant. In his book A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man he makes reference to the local parish church St. John the Baptist. Kevin O'Higgins (1892–1927) rented Lisaniskea ("Lios na Uisce"), near Blackrock, in 1923–1925. He later moved to Dunamase on Cross Avenue and was the Minister for Justice in the Government of The Irish Free State. He was assassinated on the Booterstown end of Cross Avenue on his way to Mass at his local parish church on 10 July 1927 by members of the IRA. It is believed that he was assassinated for ordering the execution of many republicans, including Rory O'Connor (Irish republican). Rory O'Connor was Kevin's best man at his wedding in 1921. Brian O'Nolan (1911–1966) lived at 4 Avoca Terrace and later at 81 Merrion Avenue. He was an Irish novelist and satirist, best known for his novels At Swim-Two- Birds and The Third Policeman written under the nom de plume Flann O'Brien. The abstract painter Cecil King (1921–1986) lived for many years on Idrone Terrace, and one of his paintings is entitled Idrone. George Thomas Stokes (1843-1898) was an Irish ecclesiastical historian and Church of Ireland clergyman. In 1868, he was nominated first vicar of the newly constituted charge of All Saints, Newtown Park, Co. Dublin, which he held till his death. The portrait painter Reginald Gray was born in Blackrock in 1930. He lived for twenty-seven years at 10 Avoca Place and was a near neighbour of the artist Seán O'Sullivan. He lived most of his life in France. He is an elected member of The American Society of Portrait Artists. Rowan Gillespie is an Irish bronze casting sculptor of international renown, who created the "Blackrock Dolmen" sculpture in Blackrock. He works out of Blackrock with a purpose-built bronze casting foundry in a house called Clonlea. Eoin Dillon, Uilleann piper, of Kila, was brought up in the Blackrock area and lived in Hollypark. Living in Blackrock influenced many of his contemporary tunes. Artist Fergus Martin lived for much of his childhood (1962-1970) in Prince Edward Terrace, Carysfort Avenue. Actor Frank Kelly, best known for playing Father Jack on the television comedy series Father Ted, was born and lived for most of his life in Blackrock. Travel writer and hospital founder Sarah Maud Heckford (1839-1903), was born in Blackrock.Vivien Allen, "Sarah Maud Heckford" in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford University Press 2004). First- class cricketer and British Army officer William Payne-Gallwey was born in Blackrock. ==Gallery== File:Blackrock Park view to Howth.JPG|View from Blackrock Park across Dublin Bay to Howth File:Newtown House, Blackrock, Dublin.JPG|Newtown House in Blackrock File:Old Post Office building, Blackrock, Dublin.JPG|The old post office building File:James Joyce pub award at Jack O'Roukes, Blackrock.JPG|James Joyce pub award at Jack O'Roukes pub File:St. John The Baptist, Blackrock.JPG|St. John The Baptist church File:Blackrock Town Hall, Dublin.JPG|The Blackrock Town Hall File:Methodist Church, Georges Avenue, Blackrock, Dublin.JPG|The old Methodist church on Georges Avenue File:Our Lady's Hospice, Blackrock Chapel.JPG|Our Lady's Hospice, Blackrock Chapel File:Blackrock Shopping Centre.JPG|Blackrock Shopping Centre ==See also== * List of towns and villages in Ireland * Black Rock, Victoria ==References== ==External links== *Primary Schools in South County Dublin *Dublin Historic Maps: Dublin Townships and Urban Districts, between 1847 and 1930 Category:Former urban districts in the Republic of Ireland |
The following is a list of Major League Baseball players, retired or active. As of the end of the 2011 season, there have been 320 players with a last name that begins with O who have been on a major league roster at some point. ==O== Name Debut Final game Position Teams Ref Mike O'Berry April 8, 1979 October 4, 1985 Catcher Boston Red Sox, Chicago Cubs, Cincinnati Reds, California Angels, New York Yankees, Montreal Expos Billy O'Brien September 27, 1884 October 3, 1890 First baseman St. Paul Saints, Kansas City Cowboys (UA), Washington Nationals (1886–1889), Brooklyn Gladiators Bob O'Brien April 11, 1971 July 7, 1971 Pitcher Los Angeles Dodgers Buck O'Brien September 9, 1911 August 6, 1913 Pitcher Boston Red Sox, Chicago White Sox Charlie O'Brien June 2, 1985 June 21, 2000 Catcher Oakland Athletics, Milwaukee Brewers, New York Mets, Atlanta Braves, Toronto Blue Jays, Chicago White Sox, Anaheim Angels, Montreal Expos Cinders O'Brien June 23, 1888 October 2, 1891 Pitcher Cleveland Blues, Cleveland Spiders, Cleveland Infants, Boston Reds (AA) Dan O'Brien September 4, 1978 September 28, 1979 Pitcher St. Louis Cardinals Darby O'Brien April 16, 1887 October 15, 1892 Outfielder New York Metropolitans, Brooklyn Bridegrooms/Grooms Dink O'Brien April 26, 1923 September 15, 1923 Catcher Philadelphia Phillies Eddie O'Brien April 25, 1953 April 19, 1958 Shortstop Pittsburgh Pirates George O'Brien August 16, 1915 August 23, 1915 Catcher St. Louis Browns Jack O'Brien (C) May 2, 1882 September 16, 1890 Catcher Philadelphia Athletics (AA), Brooklyn Grays, Baltimore Orioles (AA) Jack O'Brien (OF) April 14, 1899 September 28, 1903 Outfielder Washington Senators (NL), Cleveland Blues (AL), Boston Americans John O'Brien (OF) April 19, 1884 May 31, 1884 Outfielder Baltimore Monumentals John O'Brien (2B) April 22, 1891 October 7, 1899 Second baseman Brooklyn Grooms, Chicago Colts, Louisville Colonels, Washington Senators (NL), Baltimore Orioles (NL), Pittsburgh Pirates Johnny O'Brien April 19, 1953 July 19, 1959 Second baseman Pittsburgh Pirates, St. Louis Cardinals, Milwaukee Braves Pete O'Brien (1890s 2B) August 2, 1887 June 16, 1890 Second baseman Washington Nationals (1886–1889), Chicago Colts Pete O'Brien (1900s 2B) September 21, 1901 October 2, 1907 Second baseman Cincinnati Reds, St. Louis Browns, Cleveland Naps, Washington Senators Pete O'Brien (1B) September 3, 1982 July 20, 1995 First baseman Texas Rangers, Cleveland Indians, Seattle Mariners Ray O'Brien June 27, 1916 July 12, 1916 Outfielder Pittsburgh Pirates Syd O'Brien April 15, 1969 October 1, 1972 Third baseman Boston Red Sox, Chicago White Sox, California Angels, Milwaukee Brewers Tom O'Brien (2B) June 14, 1882 July 28, 1890 Second baseman Worcester Ruby Legs, Baltimore Orioles (AA), Boston Reds (UA), New York Metropolitans, Rochester Broncos Tom O'Brien (OF) May 10, 1897 October 13, 1900 Outfielder Baltimore Orioles (NL), Pittsburgh Pirates, New York Giants Tommy O'Brien April 24, 1943 May 13, 1950 Outfielder Pittsburgh Pirates, Boston Red Sox, Washington Senators Danny O'Connell July 14, 1950 September 26, 1962 Second baseman Pittsburgh Pirates, Milwaukee Braves, New York/San Francisco Giants, Washington Senators (1961–1971) Jimmy O'Connell April 17, 1923 September 28, 1924 Outfielder New York Giants John O'Connell (2B) August 22, 1891 September 20, 1902 Second baseman Baltimore Orioles (AA), Detroit Tigers John O'Connell (C) August 16, 1928 October 6, 1929 Catcher Pittsburgh Pirates Pat O'Connell July 22, 1886 September 9, 1886 Outfielder Baltimore Orioles (AA) Andy O'Connor October 6, 1908 October 6, 1908 Pitcher New York Highlanders Brian O'Connor May 13, 2000 September 27, 2000 Pitcher Pittsburgh Pirates Dan O'Connor June 3, 1890 July 19, 1890 First baseman Louisville Colonels Frank O'Connor August 3, 1893 August 7, 1893 Pitcher Philadelphia Phillies Jack O'Connor (C) April 20, 1887 October 9, 1910 Catcher Cincinnati Red Stockings (AA), Columbus Solons, Cleveland Spiders, St. Louis Perfectos/Cardinals, Pittsburgh Pirates, New York Highlanders, St. Louis Browns Jack O'Connor (P) April 9, 1981 October 3, 1987 Pitcher Minnesota Twins, Montreal Expos, Baltimore Orioles Johnny O'Connor September 16, 1916 September 16, 1916 Catcher Chicago Cubs Michael O'Connor April 27, 2006 Pitcher Washington Nationals, New York Mets Paddy O'Connor April 17, 1908 July 22, 1918 Catcher Pittsburgh Pirates, St. Louis Cardinals, Pittsburgh Rebels, New York Yankees Darren O'Day March 31, 2008 Pitcher Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, New York Mets, Texas Rangers Hank O'Day May 2, 1884 October 3, 1890 Pitcher Toledo Blue Stockings, Pittsburgh Alleghenys, Washington Nationals (1886–1889), New York Giants, New York Giants (PL) Ken O'Dea April 21, 1935 August 6, 1946 Catcher Chicago Cubs, New York Giants, St. Louis Cardinals, Boston Braves Paul O'Dea April 19, 1944 September 20, 1945 Outfielder Cleveland Indians Billy O'Dell June 20, 1954 September 12, 1967 Pitcher Baltimore Orioles, San Francisco Giants, Milwaukee/Atlanta Braves, Pittsburgh Pirates George O'Donnell April 18, 1954 July 25, 1954 Pitcher Pittsburgh Pirates Harry O'Donnell April 30, 1927 September 30, 1927 Catcher Philadelphia Phillies John O'Donnell July 16, 1884 July 16, 1884 Catcher Philadelphia Keystones John O'Donoghue (1960s P) September 29, 1963 June 22, 1971 Pitcher Kansas City Athletics, Cleveland Indians, Baltimore Orioles, Seattle Pilots, Milwaukee Brewers, Montreal Expos John O'Donoghue (1990s P) June 27, 1993 October 3, 1993 Pitcher Baltimore Orioles Lefty O'Doul April 29, 1919 September 30, 1934 Outfielder New York Yankees, Boston Red Sox, New York Giants, Philadelphia Phillies, Brooklyn Robins/Dodgers Bob O'Farrell September 5, 1915 September 23, 1935 Catcher Chicago Cubs, San Francisco Giants, St. Louis Cardinals, Cincinnati Reds Eric O'Flaherty August 16, 2006 Pitcher Seattle Mariners, Atlanta Braves Hal O'Hagan September 24, 1892 July 17, 1902 First baseman Washington Senators (NL), Chicago Orphans, New York Giants, Cleveland Bronchos Greg O'Halloran May 16, 1994 August 6, 1994 Catcher Florida Marlins Bill O'Hara April 15, 1909 May 8, 1910 Outfielder New York Giants, St. Louis Cardinals Kid O'Hara September 15, 1904 September 22, 1904 Outfielder Boston Beaneaters Tom O'Hara September 19, 1906 July 4, 1907 Outfielder St. Louis Cardinals Charley O'Leary April 14, 1904 September 30, 1934 Shortstop Detroit Tigers, St. Louis Cardinals, St. Louis Browns Dan O'Leary September 3, 1879 August 6, 1884 Outfielder Providence Grays, Boston Red Caps, Detroit Wolverines, Worcester Ruby Legs, Cincinnati Outlaw Reds Troy O'Leary May 9, 1993 September 28, 2003 Outfielder Milwaukee Brewers, Boston Red Sox, Montreal Expos, Chicago Cubs Ryan O'Malley August 16, 2006 August 22, 2006 Pitcher Chicago Cubs Tom O'Malley May 8, 1982 October 3, 1990 Third baseman Sand Francisco Giants, Chicago White Sox, Baltimore Orioles, Texas Rangers, Montreal Expos, New York Mets Ollie O'Mara September 8, 1912 April 19, 1919 Shortstop Detroit Tigers, Brooklyn Robins Tom O'Meara September 29, 1895 July 22, 1896 Catcher Cleveland Spiders Randy O'Neal September 12, 1984 October 2, 1990 Pitcher Detroit Tigers, Atlanta Braves, St. Louis Cardinals, Philadelphia Phillies, San Francisco Giants Skinny O'Neal April 18, 1925 May 27, 1927 Pitcher Philadelphia Phillies Denny O'Neil June 18, 1893 July 26, 1893 First baseman St. Louis Browns (NL) Ed O'Neil June 20, 1890 October 12, 1890 Pitcher Toledo Maumees, Philadelphia Athletics (AA) Fancy O'Neil October 23, 1874 October 23, 1874 Right fielder Hartford Dark Blues Hugh O'Neil August 20, 1875 October 9, 1875 Utility player Brooklyn Atlantics John O'Neil April 16, 1946 September 29, 1946 Shortstop Philadelphia Phillies Mickey O'Neil September 12, 1919 June 19, 1927 Catcher Boston Braves, Brooklyn Robins, Washington Senators, New York Giants Bill O'Neill May 7, 1904 October 7, 1906 Outfielder Boston Americans, Washington Senators, Chicago White Sox Emmett O'Neill August 3, 1943 June 5, 1946 Pitcher Boston Red Sox, Chicago Cubs, Chicago White Sox Fred O'Neill May 3, 1887 May 22, 1887 Outfielder New York Metropolitans Harry O'Neill (P) September 15, 1922 May 28, 1923 Pitcher Philadelphia Athletics Harry O'Neill (C) July 23, 1939 July 23, 1939 Catcher Philadelphia Athletics Jack O'Neill April 21, 1902 October 3, 1906 Catcher St. Louis Cardinals, Chicago Cubs, Boston Beaneaters Jim O'Neill April 15, 1920 July 29, 1923 Shortstop Washington Senators John O'Neill September 6, 1899 September 5, 1902 Catcher New York Giants Mike O'Neill September 20, 1901 October 6, 1907 Pitcher St. Louis Cardinals Paul O'Neill September 3, 1985 October 7, 2001 Outfielder Cincinnati Reds, New York Yankees Peaches O'Neill April 16, 1904 August 4, 1904 Catcher Cincinnati Reds Steve O'Neill September 18, 1911 September 14, 1928 Catcher Cleveland Naps/Indians, Boston Red Sox, New York Yankees, St. Louis Browns Tip O'Neill May 5, 1883 August 30, 1892 Outfielder New York Gothams, St. Louis Browns, Chicago Pirates, Cincinnati Reds Don O'Riley June 20, 1969 August 1, 1970 Pitcher Kansas City Royals O'Rourke, first name unknown July 9, 1872 July 9, 1872 Pitcher Eckford of Brooklyn Charlie O'Rourke June 16, 1959 June 16, 1959 Pinch hitter St. Louis Cardinals Frank O'Rourke June 12, 1912 July 28, 1931 Third baseman Boston Braves, Brooklyn Robins, Washington Senators, Boston Red Sox, Detroit Tigers, St. Louis Browns Jim O'Rourke β April 26, 1872 September 22, 1904 Outfielder Middletown Mansfields, Boston Red Stockings/Red Caps, Providence Grays, Buffalo Bisons (NL), New York Giants, New York Giants (PL), Washington Senators (NL) Jimmy O'Rourke August 15, 1908 October 8, 1908 Utility player New York Highlanders Joe O'Rourke April 19, 1929 June 5, 1929 Pinch hitter Philadelphia Phillies John O'Rourke May 1, 1879 September 10, 1883 Outfielder Boston Red Caps, New York Metropolitans Mike O'Rourke September 1, 1890 October 15, 1890 Pitcher Baltimore Orioles (AA) Patsy O'Rourke April 16, 1908 July 12, 1908 Shortstop St. Louis Cardinals Tim O'Rourke May 27, 1890 August 7, 1894 Utility player Syracuse Stars (AA), Columbus Solons, Baltimore Orioles (NL), Louisville Colonels, St. Louis Browns (NL), Washington Senators (NL) Tom O'Rourke May 11, 1887 August 1, 1890 Catcher Boston Beaneaters, New York Giants, Syracuse Stars (AA) Sean O'Sullivan June 16, 2009 Pitcher Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, Kansas City Royals Dennis O'Toole September 8, 1969 June 23, 1973 Pitcher Chicago White Sox Jim O'Toole September 26, 1958 July 22, 1967 Pitcher Cincinnati Redlegs/Reds, Chicago White Sox Marty O'Toole September 21, 1908 October 6, 1914 Pitcher Cincinnati Reds, Pittsburgh Pirates, New York Giants Rebel Oakes April 14, 1909 October 3, 1915 Outfielder Cincinnati Reds, St. Louis Cardinals, Pittsburgh Rebels Prince Oana April 22, 1934 September 18, 1945 Pitcher Philadelphia Phillies, Detroit Tigers Johnny Oates September 17, 1970 May 24, 1981 Catcher Baltimore Orioles, Atlanta Braves, Philadelphia Phillies, Los Angeles Dodgers, New York Yankees Sherman Obando April 10, 1993 July 21, 1997 Outfielder Baltimore Orioles, Montreal Expos Henry Oberbeck May 7, 1883 October 18, 1884 Outfielder Pittsburgh Alleghenys, St. Louis Browns (AA), Baltimore Monumentals, Kansas City Cowboys (UA) Ken Oberkfell August 22, 1977 October 4, 1992 Third baseman St. Louis Cardinals, Atlanta Braves, Pittsburgh Pirates, San Francisco Giants, Houston Astros, California Angels Doc Oberlander May 16, 1888 June 2, 1888 Pitcher Cleveland Blues (AA) Frank Oberlin September 20, 1906 June 28, 1910 Pitcher Boston Red Sox, Washington Senators Wes Obermueller September 20, 2002 July 13, 2007 Pitcher Kansas City Royals, Milwaukee Brewers, Florida Marlins Jim Obradovich September 12, 1978 September 29, 1978 First baseman Houston Astros Alex Ochoa September 18, 1995 September 29, 2002 Outfielder New York Mets, Minnesota Twins, Milwaukee Brewers, Cincinnati Reds, Colorado Rockies, Anaheim Angels Iván Ochoa July 12, 2008 Shortstop San Francisco Giants Whitey Ock September 29, 1935 September 29, 1935 Catcher Brooklyn Dodgers Walter Ockey May 3, 1944 May 20, 1944 Pitcher New York Giants Ted Odenwald April 13, 1921 April 21, 1922 Pitcher Cleveland Indians Blue Moon Odom September 5, 1964 August 17, 1976 Pitcher Kansas City/Oakland Athletics, Cleveland Indians, Atlanta Braves, Chicago White Sox Dave Odom May 31, 1943 September 13, 1943 Pitcher Boston Braves Heinie Odom April 22, 1925 April 22, 1925 Third baseman New York Yankees Fred Odwell April 16, 1904 September 12, 1907 Outfielder Cincinnati Reds Bryan Oelkers April 9, 1983 October 3, 1986 Pitcher Minnesota Twins, Cleveland Indians Trent Oeltjen August 6, 2009 Outfielder Arizona Diamondbacks, Los Angeles Dodgers Chuck Oertel September 1, 1958 September 26, 1958 Outfielder Baltimore Orioles Joe Oeschger April 21, 1914 September 6, 1925 Pitcher Philadelphia Phillies, New York Giants, Boston Braves, Philadelphia Phillies, Brooklyn Robins Ron Oester September 10, 1978 October 3, 1990 Second baseman Cincinnati Reds José Offerman August 19, 1990 October 2, 2005 Utility infielder Los Angeles Dodgers, Kansas City Royals, Boston Red Sox, Seattle Mariners, Minnesota Twins, Philadelphia Phillies, New York Mets Rowland Office August 5, 1972 April 20, 1983 Outfielder Atlanta Braves, Montreal Expos, New York Yankees Alexi Ogando June 15, 2010 Pitcher Texas Rangers Curly Ogden July 18, 1922 July 21, 1926 Pitcher Philadelphia Athletics, Washington Senators Jack Ogden June 22, 1918 September 9, 1932 Pitcher New York Giants, St. Louis Browns, Cincinnati Reds Chad Ogea May 3, 1994 October 2, 1999 Pitcher Cleveland Indians, Philadelphia Phillies Jim Oglesby April 14, 1936 April 17, 1936 First baseman Philadelphia Athletics Ben Oglivie September 4, 1971 October 5, 1986 Outfielder Boston Red Sox, Detroit Tigers, Milwaukee Brewers Bruce Ogrodowski April 14, 1936 October 3, 1937 Catcher St. Louis Cardinals Joe Ogrodowski April 27, 1925 April 27, 1925 Pitcher Boston Braves Tomo Ohka July 19, 1999 Pitcher Boston Red Sox, Montreal Expos, Washington Nationals, Milwaukee Brewers, Toronto Blue Jays, Cleveland Indians Joe Ohl July 29, 1909 August 5, 1909 Pitcher Washington Senators Ross Ohlendorf September 11, 2007 Pitcher New York Yankees, Pittsburgh Pirates Will Ohman September 19, 2000 Pitcher Chicago Cubs, Atlanta Braves, Los Angeles Dodgers, Baltimore Orioles, Florida Marlins, Chicago White Sox Kevin Ohme April 14, 2003 April 15, 2003 Pitcher St. Louis Cardinals Kirt Ojala August 18, 1997 May 4, 1999 Pitcher Florida Marlins Augie Ojeda June 4, 2000 Utility infielder Chicago Cubs, Minnesota Twins, Arizona Diamondbacks Bob Ojeda July 13, 1980 April 22, 1994 Pitcher Boston Red Sox, New York Mets, Los Angeles Dodgers, Cleveland Indians, New York Yankees Miguel Ojeda May 17, 2003 October 1, 2006 Catcher San Diego Padres, Seattle Mariners, Colorado Rockies, Texas Rangers Hideki Okajima April 2, 2007 Pitcher Boston Red Sox Frank Okrie April 20, 1920 August 4, 1920 Pitcher Detroit Tigers Len Okrie June 16, 1948 April 16, 1952 Catcher Washington Senators, Boston Red Sox Jim Olander September 20, 1991 October 5, 1991 Outfielder Milwaukee Brewers Patrick O'Loughlin May 9, 1883 May 9, 1883 Outfielder Baltimore Orioles (AA) Dave Oldfield June 28, 1883 October 11, 1886 Catcher Baltimore Orioles (AA), Brooklyn Grays, Washington Nationals (1886–1889) John Oldham September 2, 1956 September 2, 1956 Pinch runner Cincinnati Redlegs Red Oldham August 19, 1914 July 8, 1926 Pitcher Detroit Tigers, Pittsburgh Pirates Bob Oldis April 28, 1953 September 29, 1963 Catcher Washington Senators, Pittsburgh Pirates, Philadelphia Phillies Rube Oldring October 2, 1905 August 30, 1918 Outfielder New York Highlanders/Yankees, Philadelphia Athletics John Olerud September 3, 1989 October 2, 2005 First baseman Toronto Blue Jays, New York Mets, Seattle Mariners, New York Yankees, Boston Red Sox Frank Olin July 4, 1884 June 10, 1885 Outfielder Washington Nationals (AA), Washington Nationals (UA), Toledo Blue Stockings, Detroit Wolverines Steve Olin July 29, 1989 October 4, 1992 Pitcher Cleveland Indians José Oliva July 1, 1994 October 1, 1995 Third baseman Atlanta Braves, St. Louis Cardinals Tony Oliva September 9, 1962 September 29, 1976 Outfielder Minnesota Twins Ed Olivares September 16, 1960 September 26, 1961 Outfielder St. Louis Cardinals Omar Olivares August 18, 1990 September 28, 2001 Pitcher St. Louis Cardinals, Colorado Rockies, Philadelphia Phillies, Detroit Tigers, Seattle Mariners, Anaheim Angels, Oakland Athletics, Pirates Al Oliver September 23, 1968 October 5, 1985 Outfielder Pittsburgh Pirates, Texas Rangers, Montreal Expos, San Francisco Giants, Philadelphia Phillies, Los Angeles Dodgers, Toronto Blue Jays Andrew Oliver June 25, 2010 Pitcher Detroit Tigers Bob Oliver September 10, 1965 July 3, 1975 First baseman Pittsburgh Pirates, Kansas City Royals, California Angels, Baltimore Orioles, New York Yankees Darren Oliver September 1, 1993 Pitcher Texas Rangers, St. Louis Cardinals, Boston Red Sox, Colorado Rockies, Florida Marlins, Houston Astros, New York Mets, Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim Dave Oliver September 25, 1977 October 2, 1977 Second baseman Cleveland Indians Gene Oliver June 6, 1959 August 24, 1969 Utility player St. Louis Cardinals, Milwaukee/Atlanta Braves, Philadelphia Phillies, Boston Red Sox, Chicago Cubs Joe Oliver July 15, 1989 October 6, 2001 Catcher Cincinnati Reds, Milwaukee Brewers, Detroit Tigers, Seattle Mariners, New York Yankees, Boston Red Sox Nate Oliver April 9, 1963 September 27, 1969 Second baseman Los Angeles Dodgers, San Francisco Giants, New York Yankees, Chicago Cubs Tom Oliver April 14, 1930 September 23, 1933 Outfielder Boston Red Sox Francisco Oliveras May 3, 1989 October 3, 1992 Pitcher Minnesota Twins, San Francisco Giants Lester Oliveros July 1, 2011 Pitcher Detroit Tigers, Minnesota Twins Chi-Chi Olivo June 5, 1961 October 1, 1966 Pitcher Milwaukee/Atlanta Braves Diomedes Olivo September 5, 1960 June 12, 1963 Pitcher Pittsburgh Pirates, St. Louis Cardinals Miguel Olivo September 15, 2002 Catcher Chicago White Sox, Seattle Mariners, San Diego Padres, Florida Marlins, Kansas City Royals, Colorado Rockies, Seattle Mariners Jim Ollom September 3, 1966 September 15, 1967 Pitcher Minnesota Twins Ray Olmedo May 25, 2003 Shortstop Cincinnati Reds, Toronto Blue Jays Luis Olmo July 23, 1943 June 6, 1951 Outfielder Brooklyn Dodgers, Boston Braves Fred Olmstead July 2, 1908 September 4, 1911 Pitcher Chicago White Sox Al Olmsted September 12, 1980 October 3, 1980 Pitcher St. Louis Cardinals Hank Olmsted July 15, 1905 July 26, 1905 Pitcher Boston Americans Barney Olsen April 17, 1941 September 28, 1941 Outfielder Chicago Cubs Kevin Olsen September 7, 2001 September 27, 2003 Pitcher Florida Marlins Ole Olsen April 12, 1922 September 24, 1923 Pitcher Detroit Tigers Scott Olsen June 25, 2005 Pitcher Florida Marlins, Washington Nationals Vern Olsen September 8, 1939 September 13, 1946 Pitcher Chicago Cubs Garrett Olson July 4, 2007 Pitcher Baltimore Orioles, Seattle Mariners, Pittsburgh Pirates Greg Olson June 27, 1989 September 30, 1993 Catcher Minnesota Twins, Atlanta Braves Gregg Olson September 2, 1988 June 22, 2001 Pitcher Baltimore Orioles, Atlanta Braves, Cleveland Indians, Kansas City Royals, Detroit Tigers, Houston Astros, Minnesota Twins, Arizona Diamondbacks, Los Angeles Dodgers Ivy Olson April 12, 1911 July 21, 1924 Shortstop Cleveland Naps, Cincinnati Reds, Brooklyn Robins Karl Olson June 30, 1951 June 10, 1957 Outfielder Boston Red Sox, Washington Senators, Detroit Tigers Marv Olson September 13, 1931 April 30, 1933 Second baseman Boston Red Sox Ted Olson June 21, 1936 September 13, 1938 Pitcher Boston Red Sox Tim Olson May 30, 2004 June 19, 2005 Utility infielder Arizona Diamondbacks, Colorado Rockies Ed Olwine June 2, 1986 October 2, 1988 Pitcher Atlanta Braves Logan Ondrusek April 5, 2010 Pitcher Cincinnati Reds Ralph Onis April 27, 1935 April 27, 1935 Catcher Brooklyn Dodgers Eddie Onslow August 7, 1912 September 14, 1927 First baseman Detroit Tigers, Cleveland Indians, Washington Senators Jack Onslow May 2, 1912 October 3, 1917 Catcher Detroit Tigers, New York Giants Steve Ontiveros (IF) August 5, 1973 June 21, 1980 Third baseman San Francisco Giants, Chicago Cubs Steve Ontiveros (P) June 14, 1985 October 1, 2000 Pitcher Oakland Athletics, Philadelphia Phillies, Seattle Mariners, Boston Red Sox José Oquendo May 2, 1983 September 29, 1995 Second baseman New York Mets, St. Louis Cardinals Mike Oquist August 14, 1993 September 21, 1999 Pitcher Baltimore Orioles, San Diego Padres, Oakland Athletics Tom Oran May 4, 1875 July 4, 1875 Outfielder St. Louis Red Stockings Ernie Oravetz April 11, 1955 September 30, 1956 Outfielder Washington Senators Luis Ordaz September 3, 1997 April 3, 2006 Shortstop St. Louis Cardinals, Kansas City Royals, Tampa Bay Devil Rays Tony Ordeñana October 3, 1943 October 3, 1943 Shortstop Pittsburgh Pirates Magglio Ordóñez August 29, 1997 Outfielder Chicago White Sox, Detroit Tigers Rey Ordóñez April 1, 1996 July 17, 2004 Shortstop New York Mets, Tampa Bay Devil Rays, Chicago Cubs Joe Orengo April 18, 1939 September 25, 1945 Utility infielder St. Louis Cardinals, New York Giants, Brooklyn Dodgers, Detroit Tigers, Chicago White Sox Kevin Orie April 1, 1997 September 26, 2002 Third baseman Chicago Cubs, Florida Marlins George Orme September 14, 1920 September 17, 1920 Outfielder Boston Red Sox Jess Orndorff April 18, 1907 April 24, 1907 Catcher Boston Doves Eddie Oropesa April 2, 2001 May 20, 2004 Pitcher Philadelphia Phillies, Arizona Diamondbacks, San Diego Padres Jesse Orosco April 5, 1979 September 27, 2003 Pitcher New York Mets, Los Angeles Dodgers, Cleveland Indians, Milwaukee Brewers, Baltimore Orioles, St. Louis Cardinals, San Diego Padres, New York Yankees, Minnesota Twins Billy Orr May 3, 1913 May 22, 1914 Shortstop Philadelphia Athletics Dave Orr May 17, 1883 October 2, 1890 First baseman New York Metropolitans, New York Gothams, Brooklyn Bridegrooms, Columbus Solons, Brooklyn Ward's Wonders Pete Orr April 5, 2005 Utility infielder Atlanta Braves, Washington Nationals, Philadelphia Phillies Joe Orrell August 12, 1943 August 6, 1945 Pitcher Detroit Tigers Ernie Orsatti September 4, 1927 September 28, 1935 Outfielder St. Louis Cardinals John Orsino July 14, 1961 September 10, 1967 Catcher San Francisco Giants, Baltimore Orioles, Washington Senators (1961–1971) Joe Orsulak September 1, 1983 September 25, 1997 Outfielder Pittsburgh Pirates, Baltimore Orioles, New York Mets, Florida Marlins, Montreal Expos Jorge Orta April 15, 1972 June 10, 1987 Second baseman Chicago White Sox, Cleveland Indians, Los Angeles Dodgers, Toronto Blue Jays, Kansas City Royals Anthony Ortega April 25, 2009 Pitcher Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim Bill Ortega September 7, 2001 September 28, 2001 Pinch hitter St. Louis Cardinals Phil Ortega September 10, 1960 May 4, 1969 Pitcher Los Angeles Dodgers, Washington Senators (1961–1971), California Angels Frank Ortenzio September 9, 1973 September 30, 1973 First baseman Kansas City Royals Al Orth August 15, 1895 September 20, 1909 Pitcher Philadelphia Phillies, Washington Senators, New York Highlanders Baby Ortiz September 23, 1944 September 27, 1944 Pitcher Washington Senators David Ortiz September 2, 1997 Designated hitter Minnesota Twins, Boston Red Sox Héctor Ortiz September 14, 1998 May 15, 2002 Catcher Kansas City Royals, Texas Rangers Javier Ortiz June 15, 1990 October 6, 1991 Outfielder Houston Astros José Ortiz (OF) September 4, 1969 June 16, 1971 Outfielder Chicago White Sox, Chicago Cubs José Ortiz (2B) September 15, 2000 September 27, 2002 Second baseman Oakland Athletics, Colorado Rockies Junior Ortiz September 20, 1982 August 8, 1994 Catcher Pittsburgh Pirates, New York Mets, Minnesota Twins, Cleveland Indians, Texas Rangers Luis Ortiz August 31, 1993 September 28, 1996 Third baseman Boston Red Sox, Texas Rangers Ramón Ortiz August 19, 1999 Pitcher Anaheim Angels, Cincinnati Reds, Washington Nationals, Minnesota Twins, Colorado Rockies, Los Angeles Dodgers, Chicago Cubs Roberto Ortiz September 6, 1941 September 2, 1950 Outfielder Washington Senators, Philadelphia Athletics Russ Ortiz April 2, 1998 Pitcher San Francisco Giants, Atlanta Braves, Arizona Diamondbacks, Baltimore Orioles, Houston Astros, Los Angeles Dodgers Daniel Ortmeier September 5, 2005 Outfielder San Francisco Giants John Orton August 20, 1989 July 4, 1993 Catcher California Angels Chad Orvella May 31, 2005 Pitcher Tampa Bay Devil Rays Ossie Orwoll April 13, 1928 August 21, 1929 Utility player Philadelphia Athletics Bob Osborn September 16, 1925 September 24, 1931 Pitcher Chicago Cubs, Pittsburgh Pirates Fred Osborn June 8, 1907 July 24, 1909 Outfielder Philadelphia Phillies Ozzie Osborn April 26, 1975 September 23, 1975 Pitcher Chicago White Sox Bobo Osborne June 27, 1957 September 24, 1963 First baseman Detroit Tigers, Washington Senators (1961–1971) Donovan Osborne April 9, 1992 May 15, 2004 Pitcher St. Louis Cardinals, Chicago Cubs, New York Yankees Fred Osborne July 14, 1890 September 1, 1890 Outfielder Pittsburgh Alleghenys Tiny Osborne April 15, 1922 September 28, 1925 Pitcher Chicago Cubs, Brooklyn Robins Wayne Osborne April 18, 1935 May 6, 1936 Pitcher Pittsburgh Pirates, Boston Bees Pat Osburn April 13, 1974 September 22, 1975 Pitcher Cincinnati Reds, Milwaukee Brewers Charlie Osgood June 18, 1944 June 18, 1944 Pitcher Brooklyn Dodgers Keith Osik April 5, 1996 October 1, 2005 Catcher Pittsburgh Pirates, Milwaukee Brewers, Baltimore Orioles, Washington Nationals Dan Osinski April 11, 1962 April 16, 1970 Pitcher Los Angeles Angels, Milwaukee Braves, Boston Red Sox, Chicago White Sox, Houston Astros Franquelis Osoria June 7, 2005 July 30, 2008 Pitcher Los Angeles Dodgers, Pittsburgh Pirates Harry Ostdiek September 10, 1904 October 7, 1908 Catcher Cleveland Naps, Boston Red Sox Champ Osteen September 18, 1903 May 3, 1909 Shortstop Washington Senators, New York Yankees, St. Louis Cardinals Claude Osteen July 6, 1957 September 27, 1975 Pitcher Cincinnati Redlegs/Reds, Washington Senators (1961–1971), Los Angeles Dodgers, Houston Astros, St. Louis Cardinals, Chicago White Sox Darrell Osteen September 2, 1965 July 19, 1970 Pitcher Cincinnati Reds, Oakland Athletics Fred Ostendorf July 16, 1914 July 16, 1914 Pitcher Indianapolis Hoosiers (FL) Bill Oster August 23, 1954 September 20, 1954 Pitcher Philadelphia Athletics Red Ostergard June 14, 1921 August 17, 1921 Pinch hitter Chicago White Sox Charlie Osterhout June 23, 1879 September 6, 1879 Catcher/Outfielder Syracuse Stars (NL) Fritz Ostermueller April 21, 1934 September 30, 1948 Pitcher Boston Red Sox, St. Louis Browns, Brooklyn Dodgers, Pittsburgh Pirates Jimmy Osting May 2, 2001 August 27, 2002 Pitcher San Diego Padres, Milwaukee Brewers Brian Ostrosser August 5, 1973 August 13, 1973 Shortstop New York Mets Joe Ostrowski July 18, 1948 August 20, 1952 Pitcher St. Louis Browns, New York Yankees Johnny Ostrowski September 24, 1943 October 1, 1950 Outfielder Chicago Cubs, Boston Red Sox, Chicago White Sox, Washington Senators Al Osuna September 2, 1990 September 27, 1996 Pitcher Houston Astros, Los Angeles Dodgers, San Diego Padres Antonio Osuna April 25, 1995 April 10, 2005 Pitcher Los Angeles Dodgers, Chicago White Sox, New York Yankees, San Diego Padres, Washington Nationals Roy Oswalt May 6, 2001 Pitcher Houston Astros, Philadelphia Phillies Willis Otáñez August 25, 1998 October 3, 1999 Third baseman Baltimore Orioles, Toronto Blue Jays Reggie Otero September 2, 1945 September 29, 1945 First baseman Chicago Cubs Ricky Otero April 26, 1995 August 17, 1997 Outfielder New York Mets, Philadelphia Phillies Bill Otey September 27, 1907 June 24, 1911 Pitcher Pittsburgh Pirates, Washington Senators Amos Otis September 6, 1967 August 5, 1984 Outfielder New York Mets, Kansas City Royals, Pittsburgh Pirates Bill Otis July 4, 1912 July 6, 1912 Outfielder New York Highlanders Harry Otis September 5, 1909 September 29, 1909 Pitcher Cleveland Naps Akinori Otsuka April 6, 2004 July 1, 2007 Pitcher San Diego Padres, Texas Rangers Billy Ott September 4, 1962 July 14, 1964 Outfielder Chicago Cubs Ed Ott June 10, 1974 October 2, 1981 Catcher Pittsburgh Pirates, California Angels Mel Ott β April 27, 1926 July 11, 1947 Outfielder New York Giants Adam Ottavino May 29, 2010 Pitcher St. Louis Cardinals Jim Otten July 31, 1974 September 30, 1981 Pitcher Chicago White Sox, St. Louis Cardinals John Otten July 5, 1895 September 28, 1895 Catcher St. Louis Browns (NL) Billy Otterson September 4, 1887 October 10, 1887 Shortstop Brooklyn Grays Dave Otto September 8, 1987 August 10, 1994 Pitcher Oakland Athletics, Cleveland Indians, Pittsburgh Pirates, Chicago Cubs Phil Ouellette September 10, 1986 October 3, 1986 Catcher San Francisco Giants Johnny Oulliber July 25, 1933 October 1, 1933 Outfielder Cleveland Indians Chink Outen April 16, 1933 October 1, 1933 Catcher Brooklyn Dodgers Jimmy Outlaw April 20, 1937 May 8, 1949 Outfielder Cincinnati Reds, Boston Bees, Detroit Tigers Josh Outman September 2, 2008 Pitcher Oakland Athletics Orval Overall April 16, 1905 July 29, 1913 Pitcher Cincinnati Reds, Chicago Cubs Lyle Overbay September 19, 2001 First baseman Arizona Diamondbacks, Milwaukee Brewers, Toronto Blue Jays, Pittsburgh Pirates Stubby Overmire April 25, 1943 August 3, 1952 Pitcher Detroit Tigers, St. Louis Browns, New York Yankees Mike Overy August 14, 1976 September 9, 1976 Pitcher California Angels Ernie Ovitz June 22, 1911 June 22, 1911 Pitcher Chicago Cubs Bob Owchinko September 25, 1976 October 1, 1986 Pitcher San Diego Padres, Cleveland Indians, Oakland Athletics, Pittsburgh Pirates, Cincinnati Reds, Montreal Expos Dave Owen September 6, 1983 October 2, 1988 Shortstop Chicago Cubs, Kansas City Royals Frank Owen April 29, 1901 May 12, 1909 Pitcher Detroit Tigers, Chicago White Sox Larry Owen August 14, 1981 September 25, 1988 Catcher Atlanta Braves, Kansas City Royals Marv Owen April 16, 1931 August 2, 1940 Third baseman Detroit Tigers, Chicago White Sox, Boston Red Sox Mickey Owen May 2, 1937 September 11, 1954 Catcher St. Louis Cardinals, Brooklyn Dodgers, Chicago Cubs, Boston Red Sox Spike Owen June 25, 1983 October 2, 1995 Shortstop Seattle Mariners, Boston Red Sox, Montreal Expos, New York Yankees, California Angels Eric Owens June 6, 1995 September 27, 2003 Outfielder Cincinnati Reds, Milwaukee Brewers, San Diego Padres, Florida Marlins, Anaheim Angels Henry Owens July 7, 2006 Pitcher New York Mets, Florida Marlins Jack Owens September 21, 1935 September 22, 1935 Catcher Philadelphia Athletics Jayhawk Owens June 6, 1993 September 28, 1996 Catcher Colorado Rockies Jerry Owens September 11, 2006 Outfielder Chicago White Sox Jim Owens April 19, 1955 June 20, 1967 Pitcher Philadelphia Phillies, Cincinnati Reds, Houston Colt .45s/Astros Red Owens July 28, 1899 May 31, 1905 Second baseman Philadelphia Phillies, Brooklyn Superbas Yip Owens September 11, 1905 October 3, 1915 Catcher Boston Americans, Chicago White Sox, Brooklyn Tip-Tops, Baltimore Terrapins Micah Owings April 6, 2007 Pitcher Arizona Diamondbacks, Cincinnati Reds Rick Ownbey August 17, 1982 July 3, 1986 Pitcher New York Mets, St. Louis Cardinals Henry Oxley July 30, 1884 October 10, 1884 Catcher New York Gothams, New York Metropolitans Chris Oxspring September 2, 2005 September 17, 2005 Pitcher San Diego Padres Andy Oyler May 8, 1902 July 21, 1902 Third baseman Baltimore Orioles (1901–02) Ray Oyler April 18, 1965 October 1, 1970 Shortstop Detroit Tigers, Seattle Pilots, California Angels Doc Ozmer May 11, 1923 May 11, 1923 Pitcher Philadelphia Athletics Pablo Ozuna April 23, 2000 Utility player Florida Marlins, Colorado Rockies, Chicago White Sox, Los Angeles Dodgers == References == == External links == *Last Names starting with O – Baseball-Reference.com O |
Where on Earth Is Carmen Sandiego? is an American live action/animated television series based on the series of computer games. The show was produced by DIC Productions L.P. and originally aired from 1994 to 1999, on Saturday mornings during FOX's Fox Kids Network block. Reruns aired on the Qubo television network from June 9, 2012 (alongside Animal Atlas) to May 26, 2018. The series won a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Animated Program in 1995, and in the same year was spun-off into a Where in the World- styled video game entitled Carmen Sandiego Junior Detective. Its theme song uses the melody from the chorus "Singt dem großen Bassa Lieder" ("Sing Songs of the Great Pasha") from Mozart's opera Die Entführung aus dem Serail (The Abduction from the Seraglio). ==History== ===Production and broadcast (1994–1999)=== The script for every Earth episode had to meet the approval of Broderbund, which created and, at the time, owned the Carmen franchise. Their cause for concern was the level of the violence on other FOX children's shows such as X-Men and Mighty Morphin Power Rangers. Broderbund did not require this of the creators of the World and Time game shows that aired on PBS, presumably since PBS, as the distributor of such shows as Sesame Street, had a long-standing reputation for non-violent educational children's programming. The lead characters of Earth were featured in Carmen Sandiego Junior Detective, released in 1995. The opening theme song for the show is "Singt dem großen Bassa Lieder" from Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Die Entführung aus dem Serail, with new lyrics, pop instrumentation, and a backbeat. The Rainbow Animation Group (later renamed Galaxy World, Inc., not to be confused with the Italian studio Rainbow S.p.A.), and Han Yang Productions contributed some animation for this series. ===Home media releases=== Fox Video originally released the series on VHS through their Fox Kids Video label, which contained two episodes each. In November 2001, Lions Gate Home Entertainment and Trimark Home Video released two VHS tapes, Carmen's Revenge and Time Traveler, consisting of the show's three-part episodes ("Retribution" and "Labyrinth") in a feature-length format. Time Traveller was also released on DVD, and alongside the "Labyrinth" episode, also came with a demo of Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego? Treasures of Knowledge. A video of the episode "Timing is Everything" was included with some versions of the mentioned game. In September 2003, Sterling Entertainment released Into the Maelstrom and No Place like Home on VHS and DVD. Into the Maelstrom contained the three part "Retribution" episode, while No Place like Home contained the episode "The Remnants" and the two-part episode "Can You Ever Go Home Again?" The DVD versions contained "When it Rains..." and "Follow My Footprints" as bonus episodes, respectively. NCircle Entertainment reissued both DVDs in 2007. In June 2006, Shout! Factory and Sony BMG Music Entertainment released the first season on DVD. Due to poor sales, no further seasons were released. Mill Creek Entertainment released Where on Earth Is Carmen Sandiego? – The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1 on February 21, 2012. This four-disc set contains all forty episodes of the series. They also released a ten-episode best-of collection the same day. These releases have been discontinued and are now out of print. Mill Creek re-released the complete series on DVD in Region 1 in June 2017. PIDAX, a German company, released the complete series on DVD for Region 2 in 3 Volumes in 2019 in English and German. The whole series is available to stream on Paramount+. ==Plot== Following the plot of the Carmen Sandiego franchise, Earth sees international thief Carmen Sandiego (voiced by Rita Moreno) lead the organization V.I.L.E. in stealing treasures from around the world and leaving clues behind for ACME agents Zack (voiced by Scott Menville) and Ivy (voiced by Jennifer Hale), under the guidance of the Chief (voiced by Rodger Bumpass), to find, in order to capture her. In this version, Carmen Sandiego is a former agent of ACME who left to seek a greater challenge, and has a strong code of ethics when stealing items. The Player is an unseen live-action character who bookends acts by communicating with Carmen; it is implied that the television series is a video game that they are playing from a computer. While Carmen is originally presented as the show's antagonist, she becomes more like an anti-hero as the series progresses; she even helps Zack and Ivy against mutual enemies. ==Characters== ===Main characters=== * Carmen Sandiego (voiced by Rita Moreno) – An international thief and the head of V.I.L.E. Despite the name of her organization, she has a strong code of morals and only steals for the challenge of it. She was a former agent of the ACME Detective Agency. * Chief (voiced by Rodger Bumpass) – The head of ACME. Short for Computerized Holographic Imaging Educational Facilitator, his role consisted of providing exposition, information, alerts of Carmen's recent crime, and comic relief. He had a very intimate professional and personal relationship with Carmen. He once also had a robotic body while working with Carmen back when she was still part of the ACME Detective Agency. * Ivy (voiced by Jennifer Hale) – A young woman who has short red hair and green eyes. She and Carmen seem to have a past history, although it is only hinted at in the series. Her skills include having multiple black belts in martial arts and being an expert pilot. She can get frustrated easily, such as hating it when Zack calls her "sis" or when Carmen is getting away. * Zack (voiced by Scott Menville) – Ivy's younger brother, who has blond hair and blue eyes. He takes cases less seriously than his sister Ivy. Zack's jacket has his name misspelled as Zak. * Player (portrayed by Jeffrey Tucker in season 1, Justin Shenkarow in season 2, Asi Lang and Joanie Pleasant in seasons 3–4) – The only live-action character on the program, always seen from behind as a computer user at the beginning and ending of the show. They are the ones who transport Zack and Ivy to their locations and summon ACME detectives to their aid. ===ACME detectives=== The following are ACME detectives who assist Zack and Ivy: * Aileen (voiced by Janice Kawaye) – A Hawaiian detective. Her older brother Max is a TV news reporter where they appear in "Curses, Foiled Again". * Amati – A Black detective and archaeologist who appears in "A Higher Calling" and "Follow My Footprints". * Armando Arguella – An Argentinian detective and gaucho who appears in "The Good Old Bad Old Days," "Scavenger Hunt," "Just Like Old Times," and "Can You Ever Go Home Again?" 2. * Billy Running Bird – A Native American detective who appears in "Shaman Spirits". * Chester – An young American detective and amateur ornithologist who appears in "Birds of a Feather". * Gro (voiced by Chadwick Pelletier) – A Norwegian detective and friend of Zack who appears in "Retribution" Pt. 2. * Jasmine – A Jamaican detective who appears in "Skull and Double-Crossbones". * Josha – An American detective and computer expert who appears in "Retribution" Pt. 3, "The Trial of Carmen Sandiego," "Cupid Sandiego," and "Can You Ever Go Home Again?" Pt. 1. He has a crush on, and later dates, Ivy. * Ketut – An Indonesian detective from Bali who enjoys hang-gliding. He appears in "Hot Ice". * Li – A detective from Macao who appears in "Skull and Double-Crossbones" and "Can You Ever Go Home Again?" Pt. 2. * Maria (voiced by Kath Soucie) – A Brazilian detective from ACME's Rio de Janeiro office who seems to have a crush on Zack. She appears in "Music to My Ears". * Marco – An Italian detective and friend of Ivy who appears in "Split Up". * Michelle – A young African American Space Camp Florida participant in "Moondreams" and later becomes an ACME detective in "Follow My Footprints". * Reggis and Barrow – A team of Black/White British detectives who appear in "Just Like Old Times". * Tatiana (voiced by Candi Milo) – A Russian ACME detective whom Zack has a crush on as seen in "Just Like Old Times," "Scavenger Hunt," and "Can You Ever Go Home Again?" Pt. 2. * Wahidullah – An Afghan detective ("Birds of a Feather"). ===V.I.L.E. agents=== The following are agents who work for Carmen Sandiego's organization, V.I.L.E.: * Abe L. Body – A V.I.L.E. agent and an athlete who's a team player to V.I.L.E. who likes to steal items from the Olympics and any other sports. He was mentioned in "Follow My Footprints" to have been arrested by authorities for trying to steal some volcanic ashes as a possible answer to one the clues to a contest on who will succeed Carmen Sandiego following her apparent death. His name is a play on "able body". * Al Loy – A hotheaded American metallurgist who appears in "A Date with Carmen" 1 & 2, "All for One". His name is a play on "alloy." * Archie Ology – A white American archaeologist who appears in "Follow My Footprints" and "The Trial of Carmen Sandiego". His name is a play on "archaeology." * Auntie Bellum – A white American agent from the South who appears in "Timing Is Everything". Her name is a play on "Antebellum." * Buck N. Bronco – A white American agent from the West who appears in "The Good Old Bad Old Days". His name is a play on "bucking bronco." * Clair E. Net and Cora Net (both voiced by Kath Soucie) – White American twin sister musicians: Clair is a singer, while Cora is a pianist and electric guitarist. They were once "busted in a lip-synching scandal" as mentioned by the Chief when they appeared in "Music to My Ears". Their names are plays on "clarinet" and "cornet." * Clay Tandoori – An Indian agent who appears in "Dinosaur Delirium" and "Labyrinth" Pt. 1. His name is a reference to tandoors, traditionally made of clay. * Dara Riska – An equally hotheaded white American agent and rival of Al Loy who appears in "All for One". Her name is apparently a play on "dare a risk." * Dee Tritus – A white American gemologist who appears in "Hot Ice". Her name is a play on "detritus." * Four Chin Hunter – An Asian American treasure hunter who appears in "A Higher Calling" and "A Date with Carmen" Pt. 1. His name is a play on "fortune hunter." * Frank M. Poster – A white British master of disguise who appears in "By a Whisker" and "Birds of a Feather". His name is a play on "frank impostor." * Hannah Lulu – A superstitious Hawaiian agent who appears in "Curses, Foiled Again". She was later mentioned in "Can You Ever Go Home Again?" Pt. 2. Her name is a play on "Honolulu." * Lars Vegas – A greedy, vain white American agent who appears in "Follow My Footprints," "Just Like Old Times," and "Cupid Sandiego". His name is a play on "Las Vegas." * Lee Galese – Carmen Sandiego's lawyer who acts as executor of her estate in "Follow My Footprints" and as her defense attorney in "The Trial of Carmen Sandiego." His name is a play on "legalese." * Moe Skeeter – A bumbling white American agent who always appears with Lars Vegas in "Follow My Footprints," "Just Like Old Times," and "Cupid Sandiego". His name is a play on "mosquito." * Paige Turner – A white American literature expert who appears in "Chapter and Verse". Her name is a play on "page-turner." * Pearl Diver – An American underwater diver who appears in "A Date with Carmen" Pts. 1 & 2\. * Pop A. Wheelie and Iggy Nition – A team of white American agents and motorcyclists who appear in "The Remnants". Their names are plays on "pop a wheelie" and "ignition." * R.B. Traitor – Supposedly a judge turned criminal who hunts crooks down and sentences them to a secret jail while stealing their loot, he is in fact a V.I.L.E. agent assisting Carmen by using Zack and Ivy to lead her past security measures to her desired loot, an original copy of the Magna Carta as seen in "The Trial of Carmen Sandiego". His name is a play on "arbitrator." * Rip Shipoff – A white pirate who has a pet parrot who appears in "Skull and Double-Crossbones". His name seems to mean "rip off a ship." * Stu L. Pijin – A bird trainer who appears in "Birds of a Feather". His name is a play on "stool pigeon." * Touriste Classé – A French "international con man and master art thief" who appears in "The Stolen Smile" and "Labyrinth" Pt. 1. His name is a play on "tourist class." * An unnamed pair of agents, one man and one woman, presumably Chinese, whose hideout is a junk on the Yangtze River. Each has a tattoo of half of a yin and yang symbol, and the man has a pet cormorant. They only appear in "Moondreams". * A substantial number of unnamed henchmen who work for Carmen Sandiego and other V.I.L.E. agents. They wear head-to-toe blue outfits with goggles and boots and appear in most episodes. ===Other villains=== As Carmen Sandiego became less villainous and evolved into more of an antihero, other characters began to fill her original role as the show's antagonist. The following villains are: * Dr. Sara Bellum – Carmen Sandiego's former robotics and computer expert who appears in "Split Up" and "Chapter and Verse". She betrays V.I.L.E., impersonating Carmen in an attempt to become known as the world's greatest thief in "When It Rains", but later appears to be a V.I.L.E. member again in "Follow My Footprints" where she competes to become Carmen's successor following her apparent death. Her name is a play on "cerebellum." ** Ira Gation (voiced by Michael Earl) – Sara's sole henchperson during her time away from V.I.L.E. who appears in "When It Rains". His name is a play on "irrigation." * Dr. Gunnar Maelstrom (voiced by Tim Curry) – A hostile and extremely violent criminal who considers Carmen Sandiego his archenemy and appears in the three part "Retribution" episodes. As an ACME detective, Carmen pursued him and eventually put him in prison following his attempt to steal the wreck of the Titanic. Years later, following his escape from prison and apparent death, Carmen had come to consider him a rolemodel, but his escape was in fact part of a plot for revenge on her. His last name is a reference to maelstroms, a term for powerful oceanic whirlpools. ** Bilge – Maelstrom's lead henchman who appears in "Retribution" Pts. 1–3. * Mason Dixon – A V.I.L.E. agent and avowed Southerner who resents Carmen's success and appears in "Timing Is Everything". In 1989, the two were partners in an art theft in Amsterdam, but Mason was arrested and Carmen escaped when he turned the wrong way down a street and was captured by police. He uses her time machine to change the outcome of that incident, allowing him to take over V.I.L.E. and leaving Carmen exceedingly meek, and to attempt to overturn the outcome of the Civil War. His name is a reference to the Mason–Dixon line. * Lee Jordan (voiced by David Coburn) – The first ACME agent to have captured Carmen Sandiego, he was among ACME's most accomplished employees, making him arrogant and womanizing. Embittered by his fame and the lack of challenge in fighting crime, he left ACME and helped Carmen Sandiego escape in order to train to be a V.I.L.E. agent. However, his impulsive and violent nature clashed greatly with Carmen's more refined, pacifistic approach, leading her to fire him. One plot had him getting close to Ivy in "Boyhood's End" Pts. 1 & 2 so that he can have his revenge on Carmen Sandiego. In "Can You Ever Go Home Again?" Pt. 1 and 2, Lee sought his latest revenge on her, eventually kidnapping Malcolm Avalon, a businessman she believed to be her birth father, in order to blackmail her into stealing for him. ** Cruiser – Lee Jordan's lead henchman ("Can You Ever Go Home Again?" Pts. 1&2). ==Episodes== ==Cast== * Rita Moreno as Carmen Sandiego * Jennifer Hale as Ivy * Scott Menville as Zack * Rodger Bumpass as the Chief * Justin Shenkarow as the Player (season 1) * Jeffrey Tucker as the Player (season 2) * Asi Lang as Player #1 (seasons 3–4) * Joanie Pleasant as Player #2 (seasons 3–4) ===Additional voices=== * James Avery * Yoshio Be * Jim Belushi – Paul Revere ("A Date with Carmen" 1&2) * Susan Blu * Bettina Bush * Rocky Carroll * Kevin Castro * David Coburn – Lee Jordan ("Boyhood's End" Pts. 1 & 2, "Can You Ever Go Home Again?" Pts. 1 & 2) * Jesse Corti * Tim Curry – Dr. Gunnar Maelstrom ("Retribution" Pts. 1–3) * Shelly DeSai * Grisha Dimant * Feisha Dimetros * Michael Earl – Ira Gation ("When it Rains") * Jeannie Elias * Dave Fennoy * Efrain Figueroa * John Garry * Brian George * Dan Gilvezan * Fernanda Gordon * Kevin Guillaume * Alaina Reed Hall * Clayton Halsey * Jamie Hanes * Dorian Harewood * Jess Harnell * Karen Hartman * Phil Hayes * Hector Herrera * Amy Hill * Vien Hong * Michael Horse * Patricia Van Ingen * Robert Ito * Marabina Jaimes * Nick Jameson * Marcia Jeffries * Jamie Kaplan * Janice Kawaye – Aileen ("Curses, Foiled Again") * Gene Kidwell * Clyde Kusatsu * Alexander Kusnetzsrv * Maurice LaMarche * Joe Lala * Frederick Lopez * Danny Mann * Dawn McMillan * Sidney Miller * Candi Milo – Tatiana ("Rules of the Game") * Pat Musick * Humberto Ortiz * Laurel Page * Samantha Paris * Chadwick Pelletier – Gro ("Retribution" Pt. 2) * Stan Phillips * Matt Plendl * Phil Proctor * Lisa Raggio * Don Reed * Frank Renzulli * Kevin Michael Richardson * Robbie Rist * Brogan Roche * Eugene Roche * Sean Roche * Roger Rose * John Rubinow * Marco Sanchez * Brandon Scott * Alan Shearman * Stacy Sibley * Susan Silo * Jane Singer * Kath Soucie – Maria, Claire E. Net, Cora Net ("Music To My Ears") * David H. Sterry * Michael Su * Russi Taylor * Dierk Torsek * Frank Welker * Ian Whitcomb * Reuven Bar Yotam ==Critical reception== The show was given a rating of 4 stars out of 5 by Common Sense Media, noting that the format of the show – which includes trivia sessions between acts, vocabulary definitions, and the use of foreign languages – is "designed to pique kids' interest in these subjects". DVD Talk noted that the show exceeded the obligatory action of comedy of a cartoon, by respecting its audience with an intelligent sensibility rarely seen in children's television. ==References== ==External links== * Earth Category:1990s American animated television series Category:Television series by DIC Entertainment Category:1994 American television series debuts Category:1999 American television series endings Category:Fox Broadcasting Company original programming Category:American children's animated action television series Category:American children's animated adventure television series Category:American children's animated education television series Category:American children's animated mystery television series Category:American children's animated comic science fiction television series Category:English-language television shows Category:Fox Kids Category:Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program winners Category:American animated television spin-offs Category:Animated series based on video games Category:Television shows set in San Francisco Category:American detective television series Category:American television series with live action and animation Category:Works set in computers |
Reinhard Marx (born 21 September 1953) is a German cardinal of the Catholic Church. He serves as the Archbishop of Munich and Freising. Pope Benedict XVI elevated Marx to the cardinalate in a consistory in 2010. == Biography == Born in Geseke, North Rhine-Westphalia, Marx was ordained to the priesthood, for the Archdiocese of Paderborn, by Archbishop Johannes Joachim Degenhardt on 2 June 1979. He had studied in Paris alongside future fellow Cardinal Philippe Barbarin. He obtained a doctorate in theology from the University of Bochum in 1989. On 23 July 1996, he was appointed Auxiliary Bishop of Paderborn and Titular Bishop of Petina by Pope John Paul II. He received his episcopal consecration on 21 September, his forty-third birthday, from Archbishop Degenhardt, with Bishops Hans Drewes and Paul Consbruch serving as co- consecrators. On 20 December 2001 he was named Bishop of Trier, the oldest diocese in Germany. On 30 November 2007 Pope Benedict XVI appointed Marx metropolitan archbishop of Munich and Freising, a position that Benedict held from 1977 to 1981. On 2 February 2008, Marx was installed as Archbishop of Munich and Freising in the Munich Frauenkirche. He became first Cardinal- Priest of San Corbiniano on 20 November 2010. Marx's title is that of Saint Corbinian, who was the first bishop of Freising and of whom Marx is the successor. Marx currently serves as head of the committee for social issues at the German Bishops' Conference. In addition to his duties as archbishop of Munich, on 11 December 2010 Marx was named by Pope Benedict as a member of the Congregation for Catholic Education for a five-year renewable term. On 29 December 2010 he was appointed a member of the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace. On 7 March 2012, he was appointed a member of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches. On 22 March 2012, the Commission of the Bishops' Conferences of the European Community elected him its president. He was one of the cardinal electors who participated in the 2013 papal conclave that elected Pope Francis. On 13 April 2013 he was appointed to a Council of Cardinal Advisers, a group established by Pope Francis, exactly a month after his election, to advise him and to study a plan for revising the Apostolic Constitution on the Roman Curia, Pastor Bonus. On the question whether the Church should allow people who have divorced and attempted remarriage to partake in Holy Communion, it came to disagreements with Gerhard Ludwig Müller, the head of the Congregation of the Faith at the Vatican, in November 2013. Marx called for a wide debate on the treatment of the Catholic Church with those who have attempted remarriage. When the Vatican suspended Franz- Peter Tebartz-van Elst in 2013 over his alleged lavish spending, Marx was also criticized as he spent around $11 million renovating the archbishop's residence and another $13 million for a guesthouse in Rome. On 19 February 2014 he was confirmed as a member of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches until the end of his current five-year term. On 12 March 2014 Marx was also elected chairman of the German Bishops' Conference as successor of Robert Zollitsch. He was elected in Münster by the German bishops and auxiliary bishops only in the fifth round of voting in which a simple majority is sufficient. He served in this capacity until his replacement Georg Bätzing was elected on 3 March 2020. On 15 October 2020, Pope Francis renewed Marx's term on the Council of Cardinal Advisers. In May 2021, Marx offered his resignation as archbishop of Munich to Pope Francis, citing his responsibility for the response to the sexual abuse crisis. On 10 June 2021, the pope declined his resignation. He accepted Marx's description of clerical abuse as a "catastrophe" that requires every bishop to engage with it personally, to "put their own flesh on the line". He wrote: "We will not be saved by investigations or the power of institutions. The prestige of our Church which tends to conceal her sins will not save us; neither the power of money nor the opinion of the media will save us." Instead he proposed all "confess our nakedness" and admit to sin and ask for "the grace of shame". He compared Marx's statement to Peter's confession to Christ: "Turn away from me for I am a sinful man" and countered with Christ's exhortation to Peter: "Feed my sheep." In March 2023, Cardinal Marx was removed from Pope Francis's council of cardinals. On May 20, 2023, Marx presided over the marriage of Prince Ludwig of Bavaria of the House of Wittelsbach and his bride Sophie-Alexandra Evekink in Munich. ==President of the Bishops' Conference of the European Community== He was elected as President of the Commission of the Bishops' Conferences of the European Community on 22 March 2012. After Britain voted to leave the European Union in June 2016, Marx issued a statement saying: "This decision of the British voters should of course be respected, even if we, as COMECE, find it extremely regrettable." He praised the EU's "project of community and solidarity" but also stated: "We need to 'rethink' Europe in some way. ... we will only be able to build a good future if the nations of Europe are united. It also raises the question on the way to achieve the 'true European humanism' to which Pope Francis has encouraged the Europeans." Despite protests by Catholics in Germany, including the Catholic Workers Movement, Marx spoke positively of the proposed Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership. He said: "Given today’s huge social and environmental challenges, I won’t have a good feeling if Europe pulls out of shaping globalization and leaves the issues and actions to others". Following the Christmas market attack in Berlin in December 2016, Marx said "The news from Berlin have deeply shocked me. The violence on the Christmas market is the opposite of what visitors were seeking. My compassion goes to the relatives of the dead and injured. For all of them I will pray." In April 2017, Marx met with Jean-Claude Juncker, the President of the European Commission, and he hailed the great achievements that had been made in Europe in recent history. In a joint statement with Anglican bishop Christopher Hill, Marx said: "In the decades since the founding of the European Union and its predecessor institutions, Europeans have benefitted from historic periods of peace, the expansion of democracy on the continent, and increased freedom to work, travel, and study,' and 'We believe more than ever in the European project and believe that a common path resting on shared values is the best path, ... A united Europe brings about peace in a world where peace cannot be taken for granted." In May 2017, the leaders of COMECE met in Rome in relation to a high-level congress to take place in Rome on the theme 'Rethinking Europe'. On the occasion, Marx stated that putting the human person back at the centre of European public policy was, along with dying to oneself, the church's message and he further stated, "I see, when I meet politicians and 'other' people, that they are open to discuss. ...We cannot [do] politics, we are not politicians ... but we can enable the way." On 2 December 2018, Marx attended the "Pulse of Europe" meeting in Munich and made statements in favour of greater European unity. He said "Nationalism means war. Germany first? That is egotism and won’t get us any further" and "The Romanian poor and the Italian unemployed are all our problem". He also said he did not understand why no one was speaking of United States of Europe any longer. ==Contribution to global Synod of Bishops== Marx participated in the Synod of Bishops on the Family in 2014 and 2015. In 2014, addressing a question raised on the family, he argued that church doctrine can change over time, and "doesn't depend on the spirit of time but can develop over time. ...Saying that the doctrine will never change is a restrictive view of things," Marx later clarified at a Vatican press conference: "The core of the Catholic Church remains the Gospel, but have we discovered everything? This is what I doubt." Marx has supported the view that no second marriage is possible within Catholic teaching, but he wanted it to be possible that people whose marriages had "failed" could still be accepted within the church. He supported Cardinal Walter Kasper's proposal that Catholics who have divorced and attempted remarriage outside the Church be admitted to Communion, emphasizing that it would be applied to individual cases: "Not for no one, and not for everyone." Though he once suggested that the German church might go in a different direction than the Synod, Marx insisted at the 2015 Synod that he would abide by whatever the Pope decided. He said "the Church is the only institution in the world that can reach unanimous agreement. Thank God we have the pope. We bishops do not have to decide. Church unity is not in danger. And once the pope has decided, we will abide by his decision." When several cardinals who believed that no circumstances allow for someone who had attempted remarriage to receive communion published a set of questions asking for clarifications of Amoris Laetitia, Marx objected. He said that the exhortation was not ambiguous as some said, and that it did in fact allow for people to receive the Eucharist after attempted remarriage under certain circumstances. In February 2017, Marx, when speaking of the events surrounding this controversy, stated: "We have discussions in the church, normal discussions, tensions. It will be forever like this." Marx also said he believed that support for the Pope within the church was substantial. ==Coordinator for Council of the Economy== In 2014, Pope Francis created a new agency for organizing the economic affairs of the Holy See called the 'Secretariat for the Economy'. In coordination with this, the Pope also created a council of bishops and laity who would oversee the secretariat known as the Council for the Economy. Marx was named as coordinator of this council. The Vatican reported a budget deficit of 70 million Euros for the year 2018, which was double the previous year. Marx commented on this situation at the time that the deficit could be resolved within a year or two. In October 2019, he said "We have to go forward, otherwise I cannot see how to sign a budget with a structural deficit," and "But that is a way we can go in several years. That is not a catastrophe." Vatican revenues and finances went into further collapse in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. In February 2020, cardinal Marx announced he would not have accepted a new six-year mandate as head of the German Bishops' Conference, due to his age of 66. Two months later, Father Juan Antonio Guerrero, the head of the Vatican's Dicastery for Finances, and Marx sent a letter to Vatican offices to get them to drastically cut costs and revise their budgets for 2020. The contents of the letter called for a reduction of travel throughout the year, a cancellation of all conferences, meeting and ad limina visits, radical limits on consultancy and overtime, as well as to postpone all work to the following year which wasn't absolutely necessary. ==Views== thumb|Marx in 2007 ===Economic reform=== Marx has been critical of some aspects of capitalism and he has also promoted some economic reform ideas. While he was bishop of Trier, he criticized a culture of greed in modern capitalism and called for managers to subscribe to the social components of a social market economy. In 2006 he criticized the 'audacious' salary hikes of top managers. He said: "We are more and more moving away from a social market economy to capitalism, where the return is the only thing that counts.", "The other goals of companies, like for example, generating jobs, are not kept in mind anymore. That’s a mistake", and "It’s pure capitalism without social responsibility. The other Marx from Trier could still be proven right. And that, I would find awful". In 2020 he echoed Pope Francis's call for a universal basic income as part of recovery plans from the COVID-19 pandemic. Marx is also a member of the World Economic Forum. ===Homosexuality, gay rights, and the Church=== In 2011, Marx was reported as saying that the Catholic Church "has not always adopted the right tone" toward LGBT people. He went on to add that, while he cannot officially bless a union between two people of the same sex, he can (and implicitly will) pray for their relationship if asked. "Homosexuality is not a sin. It corresponds to a Christian attitude” Marx said. Marx also admitted to blessing same-sex couples. In 2014, Marx responded in an interview to the issues under consideration at the Synod of Bishops concerning the Church's treatment of people that are gay: "I have the impression that we have a lot of work to do in the theological field, not only related to the question of divorce, but also the theology of marriage. I am astonished that some can say, "Everything is clear" on this topic. Things are not clear. It is not about church doctrine being determined by modern times. It is a question of aggiornamento, to say it in a way that the people can understand, and to always adapt our doctrine to the Gospel, to theology, in order to find in a new way the sense of what Jesus said, the meaning of the tradition of the church and of theology and so on. There is a lot to do". He went on to say, "Take the case of two homosexuals who have been living together for 35 years and taking care of each other, even in the last phases of their lives. How can I say that this has no value?" At the 2015 Synod in Rome, Marx urged his fellow bishops that, "We must make it clear that we do not only judge people according to their sexual orientation. ...If a same-sex couple are faithful, care for one another and intend to stay together for life God won't say 'All that doesn't interest me, I'm only interested in your sexual orientation.'" Marx supports legal recognition for same-sex unions arguing that there are positive elements that can be found and supported in same-sex relationships, but is against same-sex marriage. In 2015, in Germany he stated: "Human dignity is not state-made, it’s not made by the constitution, which is why neither the constitution nor the state can pass judgment on it. ...And this also applies to the topic of marriage and the family." In June 2016, on a visit to Ireland, Marx argued that the church and society had harmed gay people in the past and should publicly apologise. In July 2017, in an interview with the Augsburger Allgemeine in Germany, Marx commented on the recent legalization of same-sex marriage in Germany and said that it was not a concern for the church. He said that church teaching cannot be moulded into the laws of a secular state and he said: "In a secular society, the state must make laws that are valid for everyone". He also lamented that the Catholic church in Germany had not done more in the past to fight against laws that criminalized homosexual activity in Germany. In February 2018, it was widely reported that Marx said in an interview with German journalists that blessing of same-sex unions is possible in Catholic churches in Germany, but later clarified that he had not implied this and was misunderstood, stating that there merely could be "spiritual encouragement." In December 2019 Marx allegedly said again that same-sex couples can be blessed. In February 2022, following a television documentary produced by a group called 'OutinChurch', in which 120 German priests, church employees and lay people identified themselves as LGBT, Cardinal Marx stated "Not everyone is obliged to declare [to others] their own sexual inclination, whether heterosexual or homosexual. It's up to him to decide," and "But if he does, then that must be respected and it is not a restriction on his ability to become a priest. This is my position and we must defend it". These remarks were themselves contrasted with current rules from the Holy See since 2005 that have banned same-sex attracted persons from being ordained to holy orders. On March 13, 2022, Cardinal Marx celebrated a mass marking '20 years of queer worship and pastoral care' at St Paul's parish church in Munich church. The sanctuary was decorated with a rainbow flag during the event. He said on the occasion that he was shocked by the ongoing discrimination against the homosexual community by Christians. He also said "I desire an inclusive Church. A Church that includes all who want to walk the way of Jesus." He called for a 'dynamic of openness', referring to the synodal path of the Catholic Church in Germany, and said that this was what Pope Francis meant when he spoke about the need to "discover what the Spirit has to say to us today." Later in March 2022, Marx expressed an openness to changing the teaching of the Catechism regarding homosexuality, saying that "[t]he Catechism is not set in stone. One may also question what it says." He also went on to say that "Homosexuality is not a sin. It corresponds to a Christian attitude when two people, regardless of gender, stand up for each other, in joy and sorrow." He added that LGBTQ persons are loved by God as a part of His creation, and that they should not be discriminated against. Marx also admitted to blessing two same-sex couples several years prior in Los Angeles. He expressed an openness to blessing same- sex couples but reiterated that the Church cannot offer them the sacrament of matrimony. It was reported in August 2022, that Marx was going to award the Catholic Media Prize to the LGBT documentary "Wie Gott uns schuf – Coming-out in der Katholischen Kirche". Marx was going to give out this award as part of his role as chairman of the journalistic commission of the German bishops' conference. ===Abortion, suicide and euthanasia=== Marx is an active opponent of abortion in Germany and has also spoken against physician-assisted suicide as well as embryonic stem cell research. On the occasion of the 2015 pro-life march in Germany, he publicly stated: "As Christians we share the conviction that the inviolable dignity of every human being has its origin in God, the Creator of all life." German Catholic and Protestant leaders, including Marx, began an anti-suicide campaign in 2019. A mass was done in the city of Hanover to initiate the campaign. On the occasion, Cardinal Marx preached the homily and said, "We want to be where we are needed, as Jesus of Nazareth has told us.... In order for the silence and taboo to stop.... [Society] must wake up to the issue". ===Church role in the modern world=== In a visit to Ireland in June 2016, Marx said that Christianity is the 'religion of the future'. He quoted the speech by Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) in Paris in 2000, when Ratzinger said that Christianity was not a faith that dealt with 'magic things' but with the real world. Marx said that Christianity had a role in making the world a better place. He said that in past times there were occasions when the church was on 'the wrong side' of various issues, but that in the future it must rely on its own social doctrine and Christian anthropology as a source from which to help make a new and better society, which also embraced the marginalized. He also expressed concern over a tendency by some to want to go back to a dream of society where things were 'more cohesive and simpler', and that future debates would be about identity and security rather than freedom. On the occasion of the death of former German Chancellor Helmut Kohl in June 2017, Marx praised Kohl (who was a practicing Catholic) as an example of Christian witness in the modern world. Marx praised Kohl's work for German reunification, work for democracy and human rights, work for European integration, and his work to create a social market economy in Germany based on church teaching. Marx said of Kohl: "The Church in Germany is grateful for the Christian testimony of Helmut Kohl. Wherever the values of a free society were trampled on in the world, he pledged that these values be respected. He wanted and knew how to show his Christian convictions in Europe. " In October 2017, Marx along with other bishops and European politicians attended a conference in Rome entitled "Thinking Europe: A Christian Contribution to the Future of the European Project" that was meant to discuss the role of religion in the future of Europe. On the occasion, Marx commented that 20 years prior, many people thought that religion would disappear from society, but that that was not the case. He stated that the great fear for religion was not that it would disappear but rather "it will be instrumentalized for other reasons, for political reasons. That will be perhaps the great fear for the 21st century." In 2018, after Pope Francis had endorsed Pope Benedict's rejection of the "Marxist state", Marx told an interviewer that without Karl Marx "there would not be any Catholic social doctrine" and that Marx the 19th-century sociologist is not responsible for the crimes of those who claim to be inspired by him. On 1 September 2018 the anniversary of the German invasion of Poland, Marx visited the Polish city of Gdansk and paid tribute to the Polish Solidarity movement supported by the church that had fought against communism in the 1980s. In an interview on the occasion, he spoke about future of Europe and said that the church was in favour of European unification and against Nationalism. On the occasion, he said, "Faith tells us we belong to a human family. Patriotism is good, but nationalism is not Catholic. I agree with Franz-Josef Strauss, who has always said: Bavaria is our home, Germany is our fatherland, Europe is our future." While attending the Synod on Youth in Rome in October 2018, Marx said that Pope Francis had decided to use synods as a way of moving the church forward and that it was important for the church to accompany young adults at their sensitive age, otherwise the church would be "a lost playing field" for evangelization. He reiterated his call for women to be given real participation in the church's decision-making process and his view that the church would be foolish not to make use of their potential. ===Migration=== Marx has consistently criticized European policies towards asylum seekers, saying that they keep away people who need help. On the occasion of the sinking of a migrant boat near Lampedusa in 2013, he said: > For years, we have followed a policy which has prevented those in need > reaching our shores. This is not the kind of Europe we want. To claim asylum > is a fundamental human right which we must respect. Refugees and asylum > seekers deserve to be treated humanely. On 5 September 2015, Marx along with Lutheran bishop Heinrich Bedford-Strohm, members of the clergy and crowds of Germans enthusiastically welcomed Syrian refugees coming to Germany at the Munich train station. He has also spoken out against xenophobia and violence done against migrants in Germany. He said that Catholics are not allowed to be xenophobic. In September 2015, he chaired a meeting of COMECE joined by the Conference of European Churches, which had been convened to discuss the Syrian migrant crisis in Europe. Marx made clear that "Those who enter Europe must not be afraid to drown or suffocate. And they must get a fair asylum process. These are minimum standards which must apply throughout Europe." Following the 2015-2016 New Year's Eve attacks on women in Germany and the discovery that most of the violence was carried out by people from the Middle East or North Africa who entered Germany as refugees, Marx condemned the violence: "These new forms of violence and especially the inhumane treatment of women cannot be tolerated" and he demanded that "all the different forces in society must work together to prevent this type of incidents and guarantee safety." On 6 February 2016, he remarked that Germany cannot take in all of the world's refugees and that there needs to be a reduction in the number coming in. There had already been 1.1 million migrants entering Germany in the past year up to that point, and an unknown number yet to come. He said that in order to help refugees, it needed not only "charity but also reason". At the same time, Marx also criticized the anti-foreigner sentiments growing in Germany that had been spreading in society. In September 2016, an aide to the head of the Christian Social Union (CSU) party in Germany made negative comments about refugees, saying it was hard to deport them. Marx criticized the remarks and said that politicians should by finding ways to integrate them, rather than get rid of them. At the 2016 St Michael's reception in Berlin, Marx addressed a crowd of 800, including Chancellor Merkel, and praised Germany's policy of welcoming in refugees. He also warned against nationalism and stated: 'Patriotism yes, we love our homeland, but any form of nationalism must be opposed." In February 2017, Marx praised Chancellor Angela Merkel over her policy towards refugees: "In a critical phase of Europe, you have set an important sign of humanity and given an example of Christian love of neighbor in politics," he said, adding, "she knows that Christians must not simply let the world run its course. We have helped shape it!" Marx also criticized populist movements, stating that "a retreat to the national, to the closed is no Christian option." In the wake of the German parliamentary elections in September 2017 that saw the far-right AfD party enter the German parliament for the first time, Marx spoke out in support of reaffirming Germany's commitment to help migrants and refugees, saying: "For Christians, who'll be present in all parties, topics of fundamental importance will include dealing with foreigners seeking our protection and with our society's poor and disadvantaged. ...In the common struggle for the right path, black-and-white images of hate and exclusion aren't appropriate." In July 2018, the Bavarian Christian Social Union (CSU) party nearly pushed Angela Merkel's government to the brink of collapse after it demanded that she do more to restrict the number of migrants entering Germany. In response, Marx criticized the CSU for going against Christian values: "A party that has chosen the C in the name has an obligation, in the spirit of Christian social teaching, especially in its attitude towards the poor and the weak". In July 2020 a Benedictine abbess named Mechthild Thürmer in Bavaria sheltered a migrant at her Abbey who the government wanted to deport. The abbess granted church asylum to the migrant and a Bamberg court threatened her with imprisonment. Marx and other Bavarian bishops came out in strong support for the abbess. Marx commented: "The bishops see no reason for a court sentence. They fully support the tradition of church asylum, which lays bare the exceptionally inhuman hardship of the EU asylum system". ===Environment=== Marx has asserted that climate change and the refugee crisis are the two biggest problems facing Europe. He has repeated Pope Francis' words in asserting the existence of an 'ecological debt' of richer more developed nations to poorer less developed nations. He has said that the Church can learn from the world in 'recognizing the signs of the times'. === Foreign relations === Marx has served as the representative of the church in Germany in other parts of the world. In 2015, he visited the United States, including the US-Mexican border. He spoke about this experience in 2016, by saying, 'When I visited the U.S.-Mexican border last year and saw the Mexico- United States barrier with its series of walls, I thought to myself that cannot be the future of European borders." In January 2016, he visited Viet Nam and had a meeting with the chief of the Vietnamese Fatherland Front, a communist party umbrella-organization that has control of all social organizations within Viet Nam. The President of the Front stated that relations between Viet Nam and the Holy See had greatly improved, and that the church in Viet Nam was engaging in many activities that benefited Vietnamese society. Marx expressed his hope that the Front would assist in developing Catholicism in Viet Nam and facilitating humanitarian activities among the Catholic community. During the same visit, Marx was refused permission to travel to Vinh diocese, without any stated reason from official sources. It may have been related to the cases of religious persecution that had occurred in Vinh against the clergy and laity of the diocese. Marx said that "no political and economic organizations can injure religious freedom". ===Reconciliation=== On 22 November 2015, to mark the 50th anniversary of the exchange of letters between German and Polish bishops in 1965, German and Polish bishops met at the monastery of Jasna Góra in Poland. Marx gave the homily at the Mass where Polish Archbishop Stanisław Gądecki was the celebrant. Representatives of each country's bishops signed a statement about their common mission to build a Europe based on Christianity and the need for continued efforts to recover from their past as wartime adversaries. They also noted with grief about the situation in the Ukraine, where its territorial integrity had been breached by separatists backed by Russia. They also praised the work of Polish bishops 50 years ago, who had been the first to reach out to German bishops, even though their nation had been the victim of the war. They also called for Christian to reach out to the refugees from other parts of the world and to protect all human life from conception until natural death. In September 2016, in anticipation of the 500th anniversary of the Reformation, Marx and Lutheran bishop Heinrich Bedford-Strohm called for healing of past wounds between Catholics and Protestants. Their statement said: "A look at history reveals the suffering and wounds that Christians have inflicted on each other. This shocks and shames us. ...We see it as an exceptional moment of our fellowship, after centuries of mutual separation, to mark a Reformation anniversary with such readiness to engage in forgiveness and a new beginning." They planned to mark the anniversary with a mutual ecumenical meeting at Hildesheim on 11 March 2017 where "we will confess our guilt before God on behalf of our churches, asking God and each other for forgiveness and committing ourselves before God to continue to deepen our togetherness". Marx said of Luther："We as Catholics can now clearly say that Luther never wanted to create a new Church." In February 2017, Marx attended an ecumenical meeting of Catholics and Lutherans in Stuttgart to release revised versions of German translations of the Catholic and Lutheran bibles. At the event, Marx said, "I am very pleased that we are placing God's word in our midst in such an ecumenically meaningful year as 2017, in which we together recall the events of the Reformation 500 years ago and celebrate them today as a celebration of Christ, to place God's word in our midst." In August 2020, Marx and Lutheran Bishop Heinrich Bedford-Strohm were awarded the 2020 for their "unconditional will to live together in peace". Marx was praised for his commitment to ecumenical dialogue and cooperation between the two churches that had long been divided for the past 500 years. Marx said on the occasion: "Christianity in Germany and Europe will only have a future if we strongly work together and stay together ecumenically. That is important, and that is where I see the prize as encouragement". In September 2019, representatives of the Catholic and Protestant churches in Germany proposed "reciprocal Eucharistic hospitality". In September 2020, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith criticized it for doctrinal errors. Marx supported the proposal, saying that plans were "already far advanced" and that "the ball is in the Vatican's court". He said: "I would like to see Christians celebrate the eucharist together, without becoming a unified Church. Ecumenism only works if we try to understand the position of others and sometimes accept differences." ===Church reform === Marx has taught that Catholic doctrine remains the same, but the church's understanding of it changes over time. He has said that theology and doctrine are not the same, and that theology can change, but doctrine can't. He has said that "truth does not change but we gain greater understanding of the truth as we grow... We don't own the truth, the truth owns us, since it is a person we encounter, not something we possess." While at the 2015 Synod of the family, he contrasted Pope Pius XI's encyclical Casti connubii and Pope John Paul II's Apostolic Exhortation 'Familiaris Consortio' as evidence of the church's living tradition. In relation to the 2001 Congregation for Divine Worship's document Liturgiam Authenticam, which called for literal translations of the Latin into the vernacular, Marx commented that it was too 'narrow in view' and a 'dead end'. In June 2017, Marx called for the global church to admit more women into top leadership positions. He said "And that is why I want to emphasize that positions of responsibility and executive positions in the Church that are open to lay people must be shared by both men and women." In 2018, Marx and a majority of other German bishops supported a proposal to allow Protestant spouses of German Catholics to receive the Eucharist at Mass. However, a minority of German bishops opposed this proposal and appealed to the Vatican for clarification of the issue. Archbishop Luis Ladaria, representing Pope Francis, issued a statement in June 2018 that temporarily rejected the German proposal on several grounds, including that it was an issue for the wider church as a whole to consider. In September 2019, Marx gave his support to the idea of having married priests within certain regions and under certain conditions. In July 2020, the Vatican's Congregation of the Clergy issued a document on parish reform entitled: "The pastoral conversion of the parish community at the service of the evangelizing mission of the Church". Many German bishops criticized this document, including Marx. Marx criticized the way that the document was issued from the Vatican without consultation at the local level. In Munich Cathedral, on 24 July, he said: "It is a little strange that a document arrives from Rome without ever having been discussed with us. Is this the coexistence of the universal Church with the particular Church that they have desired? Not really!". He then added: "It is not for one person to proclaim something and for others to simply follow, but to listen to each other, to learn together, to absorb the experiences of the local Church—which is missing from the document that has been released these days. As if in Germany we had never thought of missionary parishes!". However, Marx welcomed Pope Francis' drive for a more synodal church. From September 30 to October 2, 2021, Marx and other German bishops attended a plenary assembly for discussing the 'German Synodal Path' in Frankfurt. Marx spoke in favour of the text that was passed that discussed power and checks and balances, he said: "I think the text is good because it is realistic and does not say that we want to change canon law but that we can move forward step by step". Following the publication of the report on sex abuse in the Munich archdiocese in early 2022, Cardinal Marx spoke out in favour of lifting celibacy rules for priests. Speaking to the Sueddeutsche Zeitung newspaper, Marx said that things cannot continue as they are. He also said: "And if some say: without the obligation of celibacy, they will all get married! My answer is: so what! If they all marry, it would at least be a sign that things are not currently working." At the 102nd German Katholikentag in 2022, Cardinal Marx criticized the church's "speechlessness" in relation to the clerical abuse scandal. He also criticized the Vatican's "no" to gay blessings in 2021, claiming it was "not only theologically skimpy”, but also “decidedly offbeat." At the 'Synodal Path' meeting held in Frankfurt in September 2022, a proposed document calling for changes to church teaching on various subjects, including sex, gender and masturbation, failed to pass as a result of a lack of necessary votes. Pope Francis had already warned the German church against adopting teachings that had not been adopted by the universal church. Cardinal Marx had supported the document and said after the vote that he was 'very disappointed. The bishops must also publicly stand by their positions and should justify them.' At the same meeting, Cardinal Marx said that the Pope wanted a 'synodal church' and that the church in Germany was following this path. In a September 2022 interview with La Croix, Marx claimed that they had no intention of 'rewriting dogma' and that the proposals at the Synodal Path to allow for blessings for homosexual couples and remarried divorcees were a 'change of paradigm and perspective'. He said that he felt some in Rome and other places were looking at the German synodal path with apprehension and that it was therefore important to present theological texts that were well argued. In November 2022, the German bishops made their ad limina visit to Rome. The Synodal Way was criticized by some Vatican cardinals during the visit and Cardinal Marx responded that he viewed this criticism as an opinion rather than a papal decision. In December 2022, Cardinal Marx had an interview in which he commented on the Pope's view on the Synodal Way. On the occasion, he said: “The Pope is open at least to the fact that the [Synodal] Way continues...But he has to keep an eye on the big picture. As bishops, we want to work to ensure that the connection to the path of the whole Church continues to be possible.” In February 2023, prior to the opening of the German bishops' spring plenary meeting, Cardinal Marx spoke in favour of the Synodal process and said it was only the beginning of the beginning while comparing it with the changes brought by the Second Vatican Council. He commented, "Why are we so afraid of what is to come?” A Catholic museum in Freising put on an exhibition entitled 'Damned Lust – Church. Body. Art' about the Catholic Church's relationship with human sexuality. The exhibition was reportedly conceived by Marx himself and was meant to show the strained relationship between many Catholics and sexuality, including repression and double standards concerning sexuality. ===Ecumenism=== While president of the German Conference of Catholic Bishops, Marx supported the guide the organization issued to allow for Lutheran spouses of Catholics to receive Holy Communion in Catholic churches. ===Persecution of Christians=== In April 2017, during the Good Friday service held in Munich, Marx lamented the persecution of Christians that occurred in the world, especially in nations that had been shaped by Islam: "there can be no peace between religions," he said, unless "all human beings are permitted to live their faith and be respected in it." === Violence and religion === In June 2017, during an interview Marx said that religious leaders needed to be on guard to make sure that they did not provide a kind of pious framework from which religious extremists could perform violence. He indicated that both Catholics and Muslims needed to think about this. He said, "Religions simply must ask themselves—and permit themselves to be asked—whether by the way they are being interpreted or lived, they are contributing toward justifying or even fueling conflicts" In September 2022, Cardinal Marx criticized the Russian Orthodox church for supporting Russia's war in Ukraine. === Democracy and human rights === In August 2020, Marx spoke out in favour of the pro-democracy protestors in Belarus. On 15 August, he preached in Munich Cathedral: "Everywhere where people rise up and defend human dignity, the dignity of life and the dignity of freedom, one becomes conscious of Easter and that includes Belarus. Easter means rising up against hatred, violence and injustice" In September 2020, Marx spoke out against an attempt in the Danish parliament to ban non-medical circumcision. He said, "The Catholic Church in the European Union considers any attempt on the fundamental right to freedom of religion as unacceptable. The criminalization of circumcision is a very grave measure that raises deep concern". Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Cardinal Marx attended a Ukrainian Catholic divine liturgy in Munich on February 27, 2022. He made a direct appeal to Patriarch Kirill of the Russian Orthodox Church to use his influence to put an end to the war. He said, 'I implore the Patriarch of Moscow to exert his influence on the president so that the war stops and arms are laid down' and 'While we bishops are not politicians, it is our task and our duty to proclaim the Gospel’s message of peace – especially to those who are of the opinion that they can push their political aims on people with force and terror'. On the occasion, he also assured Ukrainian Catholics that they could count on the aid and solidarity of German Catholics. Following the end of the liturgy, he and Bishop Bohdan Dzyurakh of the Ukrainian Catholic Church in Germany, together prayed the prayer of peace in German and Ukrainian that John Paul II had prayed shortly before the beginning of the 1991 Iraq war. Marx criticized Patriarch Kirill in an October 2022 interview for supporting the war in Ukraine as a 'holy war', which Marx considered as something that was 'behind us'. While Marx himself supported giving weapons to Ukraine as a 'lesser evil', in the same interview he took issue with people criticizing pacifists who were against this and said: "I find it bad that pacifists are being denigrated as idiots." In a Christmas Eve message in 2022, Cardinal Marx and Annette Kurschus, the head of the Evangelical Church in Germany, condemned war and violence while justifying Ukraine's right to defend itself against Russian aggression. On the occasion, Marx stated: "Any war rhetoric that relativizes the victims on all sides contradicts the Christmas message". ==Opposition== During the 2015 Synod on the family, Marx faced opposition from other bishops for supporting Kasper's proposal that the rules be relaxed to allow people who have divorced and attempted remarriage to receive Holy Communion. Divisions were particularly acute between the group of bishops from Germany (notably Marx), and conservatives such as George Pell of Sydney. Marx accused Pell of trying to foster division by making it seem as if there were two camps within the Church, one around Pope Benedict XVI and the other around Kasper. A spokesman for Pell welcomed the suggestion that Marx saw no differences between the two groups. Marx was indirectly criticized by retired Pope Benedict in a 2016 book of interviews. with Peter Seewald. The occasion was related to how, shortly before Benedict's resignation in 2013, Marx had criticized him by saying he had turned the Roman curia into his own court. In response to this, Benedict said "I have always lived simply, always, ever since my childhood." The retired Pope's personal secretary Georg Gänswein also stated "One should be careful of making statements or valuations of a situation that one does not know well.". When Pope Benedict died on December 31, 2022, Cardinal Marx praised him and said "We mourn a faithful witness to God’s love and an important teacher of the Church, whose proclamation already shone far beyond the borders of the Archdiocese during his time as Archbishop of Munich.". Marx held a requiem mass for Benedict on January 3 at the Church of Our Lady in Munich, during which he both praised Benedict, but also welcomed "his critics and those who look ambivalently on his life, one with failures that every life has". In August 2020, the German Bishops Conference published a photo of Marx posed in front of a monumental statue of Karl Marx on its Facebook page. A Polish Catholic magazine, , said the photo showed "where contemporary modernist Catholicism has gone". It described the cardinal as "inspired by the Red Revolution not only in economics" but even in supporting sexual "liberation". It said he was "trying to reinterpret Scripture and Tradition in the light of contemporary (anti) culture and the often questionable findings of science". Marx and other German bishops have been widely criticized, including from other bishops, about a 'synodal' path for reform of the church that they are alleged to be conducting within the church in Germany. Attempts by Marx and the German bishops to try to have synods that make decisions for church issues within Germany are seen by such critics as being on a path to 'schism' and 'heresy'. Others, however, have given support for this path, including Brisbane Archbishop Mark Coleridge who dismissed the criticism and said in May 2021 "I have great confidence in the Germans (and) in Marx," Cardinal Gerhard Muller criticized Marx in June 2021 in an article in the Bonn General-Anzeiger. Müller, who has himself been severely criticized for his handling of abuse accusations, claimed that the Cologne abuse crisis was not about abuse but was an attempt by Marx to discredit Cardinal Woelki, who was opposed to the German 'synodal path' being supported by Marx. Muller alleged that the synodal path Marx was initiating was an "attempt to react to the abuse crisis with a heretical and schismatic agenda". Cardinal Müller criticized Marx again in September 2022 wben he spoke regarding texts that Marx and Bishop Batzing were supporting that were calling for the Pope to change church teachings on sexual morality and the ordination of women: "There are two errors in this that only theologically ignorant can commit: 1) the Pope has no authority to change the teaching of the Church, which is based on God’s revelation. By doing so, he would exalt himself as a man above God. 2) the apostles can only teach and order what Jesus commanded them to teach (Mt 28:19)". In November 2022, in another interview, Muller criticized Cardinal Marx for putting away his pectoral cross when he visited the city of Jerusalem out of respect for other faiths. In February 2022, Czech Cardinal Dominik Duka accused Cardinal Marx of "defaming and tarnishing" the reputation of former Pope Benedict XVI. This was due to the fact that the report on sex abuse in the Munich archdiocese, which had been commissioned by Cardinal Marx, faulted Pope Benedict (then Joseph Ratzinger) for his handling of four cases of sex abuse while he was serving as Archbishop of Munich in the 1970s and 1980s. Marx expressed grief over the findings of the report and said that the church needed to change, however, he did not make any public statement about the findings as it related to Pope Benedict. Cardinal Duka, however, held Marx responsible for damaging Pope Benedict's reputation through the report. After Cardinal Marx's interview on March 31, 2022, was published in which he appeared to call for change to the church teaching on homosexuality, Bishop Joseph Strickland of the Diocese of Tyler in Texas accused him of apostasy on Twitter and called on him to resign.https://twitter.com/Bishopoftyler/status/1509691289352212484 Bishop J. Strickland Twitter feed, March 31st 2022 American cardinal Raymond Leo Burke in a May 2022 interview claimed that the German bishops who were advocating changes to church teaching on homosexuality or women's ordination were supporting heresy. He claimed in the same interview that they should either renounce their position or be removed from their offices as bishops. ==Sexual abuse== German media reported that an unidentified priest in the diocese of Trier had allegedly sexually abused minors, and that this priest was not removed by Cardinal Marx when he was bishop of Trier, even though he had been made aware of the case. Cardinal Marx's spokesperson claimed that Marx had acted with the relevant guidelines in place at the time. It was further claimed by the media that the priest continued to serve in Trier until 2015 and his abuse also allegedly continued up until that point. The rules governing these cases were reformed in 2010 and 2013, and the spokesperson claimed that had the new rules been in place at the time, the church would have acted differently. Marx opened a meeting of bishops in Fulda in late September 2018 to discuss a study concerning widespread sexual abuse within the German church. The study had been commissioned by the German bishops' conference and given to the press in September 2018, and it showed widespread sexual abuse had occurred in the German church from 1946 to 2014, with almost 4,000 victims abused. On the occasion, Marx said the report "makes it clear to us that the Catholic Church has by no means overcome the issue of dealing with the sexual abuse of minors." "I feel we have reached a turning point about the issues such as prevention and the treatment of victims, but also about how the Church will deal with its own future" and "We must do more: listen, understand and take appropriate measures." In February 2019 Marx spoke at a conference on paedophilia in the Catholic church summoned by Pope Francis, saying that procedures to prosecute offenders "were deliberately not complied with", and files were destroyed, or not created, allowing abuse to continue. "Instead of the perpetrators, the victims were regulated and silence imposed on them." He called for greater transparency, saying that it is not transparency that damages the church, but its lack, and covering up. In December 2020 Marx called the Archdiocese of Cologne's decision not to publish an investigation into clergy sexual abuse as 'devastating' for the entire church. In a newspaper interview, Marx said "the public now perceives that lawyers are quibbling over details on the backs of the victims". Marx promised that the Archdiocese of Munich would publish its own report on sexual abuse once it was finished in 2021, which would name those who were responsible and that it would not be about sparing his predecessors (Joseph Ratzinger and Friedrich Wetter). Also in December 2020, Marx announced he would set up a charitable foundation in his diocese to help people who were affected by sexual abuse in the church and that he would be giving the vast majority of his private assets, which totaled 500,000 Euros, to the foundation. In February 2021, Marx was accused in a report published by Deutschlandfunk of mishandling a case in the Diocese of Trier that said he had investigated a priest who had gotten a parish employee pregnant around 2000 but not a second priest who, in the confessional, had advised her to have an abortion. Marx confessed this error to the Congregation for Clergy in 2007. Also in the same month, Christian Pfeiffer, a German criminologist who had been hired by the German Bishops' Conference in 2011 to investigate sex abuse, accused Marx of denying his team access to some key documents. He had similar criticisms a year before. He alleged that Marx was trying to protect Pope Benedict, himself as well as other German church leaders. Marx rejected the allegations as baseless. Sex abuse victims, in April 2021, urged German President Frank-Walter Steinmeier not to go ahead with plans to award Marx with the Knight Commander's Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany on grounds of his alleged mishandling of sex abuse cases in the past. Peter Bringmann-Henselder who represented sex abuse victims and was himself a recipient of the same award said he would give back his award if Marx was awarded. Marx responded by declining the award and said: "I take very seriously the criticism now being leveled by people dealing with sexual abuse in the Church, regardless of the correctness of the individual statements in open letters and in the media" and said he would not ignore the criticism. While Marx has not been directly implicated in any wrongdoing regarding the Church sexual abuse crisis, he said that all members of the hierarchy bear some responsibility for it, and that it has led to a credibility crisis among Church leadership. Marx said that the Church has reached a "dead end" regarding the sex abuse crisis and hopes that his resignation would be "a personal signal for a new beginning, for a new awakening of the Church, not only in Germany." In May 2021 Marx sent a letter to Pope Francis offering to resign as archbishop. Marx wrote, "I have to share responsibility for the catastrophe of sexual abuse by officials of the church over past decades". Marx wrote further there were, "a lot of personal failure and administrative errors" and also, "institutional and systemic failure" and Marx wrote as well, "I would like to make it clear that I am ready to take personal responsibility, not only for my own mistakes but for the church as an institution which I have helped to shape over the decades." The Archdiocese of Munich stated that Pope Francis had allowed Marx to make his resignation letter public, and asked him to remain in his role until he had received an answer. A law firm commissioned by the archdiocese to investigate historic sexual abuse allegations is set to release its report shortly after the letter became public. On 10 June 2021, in a lengthy letter addressed to Marx, Pope Francis informed him that he should continue as Archbishop of Munich and Freising. In July 2021, Marx visited a parish in Garching an der Alz in his diocese where a priest accused of abuse of minors had been stationed prior to Marx's becoming Archbishop. A spokesman for the Catholic reform movement 'We are Church' commented that the visit was 'a concrete opportunity to demonstrate his pastoral commitment as a pastor and to work for the spiritual renewal of the Church – as he offered in his resignation and as Pope Francis then instructed him in his refusal'. Marx suggested in July 2021 that he might offer a second resignation. He said: "I do not understand my service as a bishop as an office that belongs to me and that I have to defend, but as a mission for the people of this archdiocese and as a service to the unity of the Church" and "Should I no longer be able to fulfill this ministry, then it would be time — after consultation with the diocesan bodies and also the abuse appraisal commission and the affected persons’ advisory board — to decide for the good of the Church and offer my resignation from office once again." An ecclesiastical document cited by German media in January 2022 criticized Cardinal Marx for failing to remove a Chaplain cited as 'Peter H' from the priesthood in the late 2000s. The same document also faulted former Pope Benedict XVI for failing with regard to the same priest while he served as Archbishop of Munich. It was reported in November 2021 that the Munich law firm Westpfahl Spilker Wastl had been investigating Cardinal Marx and several other bishops as part of a report on sexual abuse in the Archdiocese of Munich and Freising due to be published in 2022. They published their report on January 20th 2022. In the report, Cardinal Marx was accused of mishandling two cases of sex abuse in the archdiocese. Following the release, he made a statement: "My first thought today is for those affected by sexual abuse, who have experienced harm and suffering at the hands of Church representatives, priests, and other employees in the sphere of the Church, on an appalling scale. I am shocked and ashamed." Martin Pusch one of the authors of the report, alleged that Marx had said the main responsibility for handling abuse cases belonged to archdiocese's ordinariate and vicariate general. Push questioned Marx's position by saying: 'When, if not in the case of the sexual abuse of minors, is the classification of an issue as a ‘matter for the boss’ applicable?'. Marion Westpfahl one of the founding partners of the law firm, also lamented that Cardinal Marx was absent for the presentation of the report. In the aftermath of the report by the law firm, Marx said he would not attempt to make another resignation as he had done the previous year and said that: "I am ready to continue serving if that is helpful for the further steps that have to be taken for a more reliable reappraisal, even more attention to those affected and for reform of the church". However, he also said that if he found that his continued presence was more of a hindrance than a help that he would step aside. He also pointed at the report and said that what they saw in it was a disaster, and he repeated calls that the church needed deep reform, including the 'synodal path' that would open up debate within the church about issues the church faced including homosexuality, priestly celibacy and the role of women. He said, 'Anyone who still denies systemic causes and opposes a necessary reform of the church in its stances and structures hasn't understood the challenge.' Cardinal Marx held a meeting on March 21, 2022, in Munich with abuse victims. He mentioned on the occasion that the issues regarding the abuse related to systemic and deep issues within the church that needed to be addressed. An interim report published in August 2022 by an independent commission investigating sexual abuse in the diocese of Trier was criticized for failing to mention a case in which accusations of breach of duty against Reinhard Marx, when he was bishop of Trier.https://www.ncronline.org/news/accountability/interim-report-priests- transferred-german-diocese-continued-abuse, Catholic News Service, Interim report: Priests transferred by German diocese continued to abuse, retrieved August 30th 2022 In January 2023, on the one-year anniversary of the publication of the report on sexual abuse in the Munich archdiocese, Marx commented, "I will always be responsible for the suffering that this entails and I therefore apologize again...I can’t undo what happened, but I can act differently now and in the future. And I’m doing that." In May 2023, a group of German abuse survivors went by bicycle from Germany to Rome to press the Pope on church sex abuse; the group travelled with Cardinal Marx's support. ==Books== In October 2008 Marx published Das Kapital: A Plea for the Human Being. He described it as "an argument with Marxism". It opened with a letter addressed to Karl Marx: "The consequences of your thinking were disastrous." Contrary to his namesake's prediction of the inevitable collapse of capitalism, he proposed an important role for the Church in the survival of a healthy form of capitalism: "Capitalism without humanity, solidarity and justice has no morals and no future." ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * *Catholic-Hierarchy *Archdiocese of Munich and Freising *Diocese of Trier } Category:1953 births Category:Living people Category:People from Geseke Category:Roman Catholic archbishops of Munich and Freising Category:21st-century German cardinals Category:21st-century Roman Catholic archbishops in Germany Category:Roman Catholic bishops of Trier Category:Cardinals created by Pope Benedict XVI Category:Members of the Congregation for Catholic Education Category:Members of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches Category:German Roman Catholic archbishops Category:German anti-communists Category:Critics of Marxism |
Various polling organisations have been conducting opinion polling in specific ridings in the lead up to the 2015 Canadian general election. The results of publicised opinion polling for individual constituencies are detailed in this article. Opinion polls have been conducted from the months following the previous general election held in May 2011, and have increased in frequency leading up to the general election. Given the expense of polling individual constituencies, constituencies are usually only polled if they are of some particular interest, e.g. they are thought to be marginal or facing an impending by-election. The constituencies polled are not necessarily representative of a national average swing. Under the first-past-the-post electoral system the true marginal seats, by definition, will be decisive as to the outcome of the election. A total of 204 polls in 107 ridings across 9 provinces and 1 territory were conducted. ==Constituency polls== ===Alberta=== ====Calgary Centre==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 38 19 39 6 0 ±3.72 pp 688 IVR Environics HTML 47 11 39 3 0 ±4.3 pp 531 IVR Environics PDF 44 17 32 7 0 ±4.3 pp 517 IVR 2012 By-election HTML 37 4 33 26 1 ±0.0 pp 27,732 Election 2011 Election HTML 55 15 19 10 0 ±0.0 pp 41,452 Election ====Calgary Confederation==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 37 19 38 6 0 ±3.7 pp 679 IVR 2011 Election HTML 52 16 18 14 0 ±0.0 pp 50,770 Election ====Edmonton Centre==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method ThinkHQ PDF 36 24 33 4 2 ±4.3 pp 517 IVR Mainstreet Research PDF 31 38 27 3 0 ±3.7 pp 701 IVR Forum Research HTML 40 30 27 4 0 ±5.0 pp 524 IVR Environics PDF 39 35 22 5 0 ±4.2 pp 547 IVR 2011 Election HTML 46 26 24 4 1 ±0.0 pp 43,093 Election ====Edmonton Griesbach==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics PDF 32 48 15 5 0 ±4.3 pp 509 IVR 2011 Election HTML 53 37 7 3 0 ±0.0 pp 37,766 Election ====Edmonton Manning==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics PDF 45 33 18 4 0 ±4.3 pp 512 IVR 2011 Election HTML 55 27 9 3 6 ±0.0 pp 34,180 Election ====Edmonton Mill Woods==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research PDF 39 15 39 7 0 ±3.73 pp 684 IVR 2011 Election HTML 59 25 12 3 1 ±0.0 pp 35,454 Election ====Edmonton Riverbend==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics PDF 44 34 18 4 0 ±4.3 pp 522 IVR 2011 Election HTML 59 21 15 5 0 ±0.0 pp 43,267 Election ====Edmonton West==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics PDF 48 19 29 4 0 ±3.9 pp 618 IVR 2011 Election HTML 64 19 13 4 0 ±0.0 pp 43,267 Election ====Fort McMurray—Cold Lake==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 45 15 35 5 0 ±4.4 pp 494 IVR 2011 Election HTML 73 13 11 4 0 ±0.0 pp 25,650 Election ====Lethbridge==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 56 26 13 4 0 ±3.81 pp 657 IVR Environics PDF 48 34 14 5 0 ±3.8 pp 639 IVR 2011 Election HTML 52 30 9 5 4 ±0.0 pp 41,165 Election ====St. Albert—Edmonton==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 43 20 7 2 28 ±3.74 pp 681 IVR Forum Research HTML 38 19 10 4 29 ±5.0 pp 490 IVR Environics PDF 39 20 15 4 22 ±3.1 pp 1,030 IVR 2011 Election HTML 64 20 11 5 0 ±0.0 pp 42,842 Election ====Yellowhead==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 63 15 15 3 3 ±4.1 pp 569 IVR 2014 By-election HTML 63 10 20 5 3 ±0.0 pp 12,601 Election Forum Research PDF 51 13 24 0 13 ±6.0 pp 311 IVR Forum Research PDF 62 12 16 0 10 ±5.6 pp 360 IVR 2011 Election HTML 78 13 3 5 1 ±0.0 pp 40,013 Election ===British Columbia=== ====Burnaby North—Seymour==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 38 26 27 9 0 ±3.65 pp 716 IVR Insights West HTML 33 36 21 9 1 ±4.9 pp 400 Telephone Insights West HTML 33 37 21 9 0 ±5.6 pp 301 Telephone Insights West PDF 20 46 8 25 1 ±5.6 pp 301 Telephone 2011 Election HTML 44 35 16 4 1 ±0.0 pp 43,290 Election ====Cariboo—Prince George==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics PDF 30 36 29 5 0 ±4.4 pp 500 IVR 2011 Election 56 30 5 6 2 ±0.0 pp 43,239 Election ====Coquitlam—Port Coquitlam==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics PDF 31 34 29 6 0 ±4.4 pp 504 IVR 2011 Election 56 31 8 4 1 ±0.0 pp 40,286 Election ====Courtenay—Alberni==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Insights West HTML 32 34 18 15 1 ±4.9 pp 400 Telephone Mainstreet Research PDF 30 33 20 16 0 ±3.76 pp 672 IVR Insights West HTML 33 39 13 12 3 ±5.6 pp 301 Telephone Insights West PDF 30 42 14 11 3 ±5.6 pp 301 Telephone 2011 Election 45 41 7 7 1 ±0.0 pp 54,470 Election ====Cowichan—Malahat—Langford==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Insights West HTML 28 35 14 19 4 ±4.9 pp 400 Telephone Insights West PDF 28 41 15 10 5 ±5.6 pp 302 Telephone 2011 Election 43 44 6 7 0 ±0.0 pp 47,766 Election ====Esquimalt—Saanich—Sooke==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Insights West HTML 19 39 20 21 1 ±5.6 pp 300 Telephone Insights West HTML 20 39 19 19 3 ±5.6 pp 300 Telephone Insights West PDF 17 50 14 16 4 ±5.6 pp 301 Telephone 2011 Election 37 39 10 13 0 ±0.0 pp 56,652 Election ====Fleetwood—Port Kells==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 35 24 35 6 0 ±3.8 pp 661 IVR 2011 Election 48 33 16 3 0 ±0.0 pp 34,582 Election ====Kootenay—Columbia==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 37 37 15 11 0 ±4.3 pp 529 IVR 2011 Election 50 39 3 6 1 ±0.0 pp 52,801 Election ====Nanaimo—Ladysmith==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Insights West HTML 26 35 18 21 1 ±4.9 pp 400 Telephone Environics HTML 24 34 17 24 0 ±3.7 pp 699 IVR 2011 Election 40 45 7 7 0 ±0.0 pp 55,879 Election ====North Island—Powell River==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 27 41 18 14 0 ±4.2 pp 556 IVR 2011 Election 46 41 6 5 1 ±0.0 pp 50,897 Election ====North Okanagan—Shuswap==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics PDF 33 37 22 8 0 ±3.6 pp 755 IVR Mainstreet Research PDF 45 26 24 5 0 ±4.1 pp 567 IVR Oraclepoll Research PDF 38 41 12 9 0 ±5.5 pp 312 Telephone 2011 Election 55 26 7 11 0 ±0.0 pp 56,921 Election ====North Vancouver==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Insights West HTML 33 11 41 15 0 ±4.9 pp 400 Telephone Insights West HTML 31 14 41 13 1 ±5.6 pp 297 Telephone Insights West PDF 30 24 31 14 1 ±5.6 pp 305 Telephone 2011 Election 48 17 30 5 1 ±0.0 pp 50,306 Election ====Pitt Meadows—Maple Ridge==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 35 41 19 6 0 ±4.2 pp 543 IVR 2011 Election 55 35 6 5 0 ±0.0 pp 38,418 Election ====Port Moody—Coquitlam==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 34 41 19 7 0 ±4.3 pp 529 IVR Environics PDF 27 54 14 5 0 ±4.3 pp 511 IVR 2011 Election 46 40 9 4 0 ±0.0 pp 43,458 Election ====South Okanagan—West Kootenay==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Insights West HTML 31 36 23 8 3 ±5.6 pp 301 Telephone Insights West HTML 33 42 18 4 3 ±5.6 pp 303 Telephone Insights West PDF 25 55 11 6 2 ±5.6 pp 302 Telephone 2011 Election 39 45 7 8 1 ±0.0 pp 56,652 Election ====Vancouver Granville==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics PDF 28 33 35 4 0 ±4.4 pp 505 IVR Mainstreet Research PDF 20 28 44 9 0 ±3.8 pp 665 IVR Environics HTML 29 36 30 6 0 ±4.2 pp 541 IVR Environics PDF 30 36 24 10 0 ±4.5 pp 482 IVR 2011 Election 35 24 30 9 1 ±0.0 pp 43,654 Election ====Vancouver South==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Insights West HTML 33 19 38 8 1 ±5.6 pp 301 Telephone Insights West HTML 27 22 40 8 3 ±5.6 pp 303 Telephone Insights West PDF 24 30 39 4 3 ±5.6 pp 301 Telephone 2011 Election 42 21 34 2 1 ±0.0 pp 36,706 Election ====West Vancouver—Sunshine Coast—Sea to Sky Country==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 32 15 37 16 0 ±3.76 pp 673 IVR Insights West HTML 31 14 42 13 0 ±4.9 pp 403 Telephone Insights West HTML 30 22 34 11 2 ±5.6 pp 302 Telephone Environics PDF 23 27 30 19 0 ±4.1 pp 582 IVR Insights West PDF 30 26 31 12 1 ±5.6 pp 301 Telephone 2011 Election 46 21 24 8 1 ±0.0 pp 52,062 Election ===Manitoba=== ====Elmwood—Transcona==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 39 37 20 4 0 ±4.2 pp 552 IVR Environics PDF 30 39 25 6 0 ±4.3 pp 517 IVR 2011 Election 47 45 5 3 0 ±0.0 pp 34,287 Election ====Saint Boniface—Saint Vital==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 33 25 37 5 0 ±3.83 pp 651 IVR 2011 Election 50 16 31 3 0 ±0.0 pp 40,418 Election ====Winnipeg South Centre==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 31 23 38 8 0 ±4.0 pp 597 IVR 2011 Election 41 18 37 3 1 ±0.0 pp 46,619 Election ===New Brunswick=== ====Fredericton==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 32 14 43 12 0 ±3.4 pp 839 IVR Environics PDF 32 20 37 10 0 ±4.1 pp 580 IVR Environics PDF 29 26 34 12 0 ±3.5 pp 799 IVR 2011 Election 47 24 24 4 1 ±0.0 pp 38,772 Election ====Saint John—Rothesay==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research PDF 36 26 34 4 0 ±4.33 pp 510 IVR Environics HTML 38 25 33 4 0 ±3.7 pp 623 IVR 2011 Election 50 31 16 3 1 ±0.0 pp 35,964 Election ===Newfoundland and Labrador=== ====Avalon==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 14 19 43 4 19 ±3.74 pp 679 IVR 2011 Election 37 29 33 1 1 ±0.0 pp 35,623 Election ===Nova Scotia=== ====Central Nova==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 23 20 50 7 0 ±4.1 pp 573 IVR Mainstreet Research HTML 36 26 30 8 0 ±3.82 pp 652 IVR 2011 Election 55 27 14 4 0 ±0.0 pp 38,878 Election ====Cumberland—Colchester==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 32 7 54 6 0 ±3.9 pp 617 IVR Mainstreet Research HTML 33 12 48 7 0 ±3.79 pp 660 IVR 2011 Election 53 22 18 5 1 ±0.0 pp 38,878 Election ===Ontario=== ====Ajax==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 39 20 37 4 0 ±3.7 pp 690 IVR Forum Research PDF 35 17 46 2 0 ±4.0 pp 425 IVR 2011 Election 44 15 38 3 0 ±0.0 pp 44,166 Election ====Algoma—Manitoulin—Kapuskasing==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Oraclepoll Research HTML 30 45 20 5 0 ±5.6 pp 300 Telephone 2011 Election 33 50 14 3 0 ±0.0 pp 39,174 Election ====Brampton Centre==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research PDF 40 14 41 5 0 ±3.8 pp 653 IVR Forum Research PDF 39 25 32 4 0 ±5.0 pp 456 IVR Mainstreet Research PDF 40 24 30 6 0 ±3.99 pp 598 IVR 2011 Election HTML 46 23 25 4 1 ±0.0 pp 34,796 Election ====Brampton East==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 35 24 36 5 0 ±3.73pp 684 IVR Mainstreet Research PDF 23 38 36 3 0 ±3.98 pp 600 IVR 2011 Election HTML 29 38 31 2 1 ±0.0 pp 28,625 Election ====Brampton North==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research PDF 37 16 46 1 0 ±3.7 pp 689 IVR Forum Research PDF 39 24 34 2 0 ±5.0 pp 336 IVR Mainstreet Research PDF 42 20 33 5 0 ±3.99 pp 600 IVR 2011 Election HTML 49 19 28 4 0 ±0.0 pp 39,812 Election ====Brampton South==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research PDF 40 18 39 3 0 ±3.99 pp 599 IVR 2011 Election HTML 45 16 35 2 1 ±0.0 pp 35,560 Election ====Brampton West==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research PDF 40 19 38 2 0 ±3.99 pp 600 IVR 2011 Election HTML 42 20 36 2 1 ±0.0 pp 28,505 Election ====Brantford—Brant==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 39 30 25 6 0 ±3.9 pp 622 IVR 2011 Election HTML 48 29 19 3 1 ±0.0 pp 55,085 Election ====Bruce—Grey—Owen Sound==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics PDF 41 16 40 4 0 ±3.2 pp 966 IVR Environics HTML 43 20 29 9 0 ±3.1 pp 1,022 IVR 2011 Election HTML 56 18 16 10 1 ±0.0 pp 51,054 Election ====Cambridge==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 43 17 34 6 0 ±4.2 pp 552 IVR 2011 Election HTML 53 28 15 4 1 ±0.0 pp 44,827 Election ====Chatham-Kent—Leamington==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 45 23 27 4 0 ±3.88pp 625 IVR 2011 Election 53 27 16 3 0 ±0.0 pp 46,376 Election ====Don Valley West==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 35 13 47 4 0 ±3.72pp 688 IVR 2011 Election 44 11 41 4 0 ±0.0 pp 38,984 Election ====Eglinton—Lawrence==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 39 14 44 3 0 ±3.4 pp 823 IVR Forum Research PDF 38 17 44 2 0 ±4.0 pp 634 IVR Environics HTML 35 24 37 4 0 ±4.1 pp 565 IVR Environics PDF 36 25 35 4 0 ±4.0 pp 588 IVR Forum Research HTML 41 20 34 5 1 ±4.0 pp 709 IVR Forum Research HTML 49 13 28 7 0 ±4.0 pp 659 IVR 2011 Election 47 12 38 3 0 ±0.0 pp 48,389 Election ====Essex==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 38 37 22 4 0 ±3.8 pp 655 IVR 2011 Election HTML 48 35 14 2 0 ±0.0 pp 50,219 Election ====Etobicoke Centre==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Forum Research PDF 42 11 43 3 1 ±3 pp 885 IVR 2011 Election 42 15 41 3 0 ±0.0 pp 49,685 Election ====Etobicoke—Lakeshore==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 36 16 43 4 0 ±3.8 pp 665 IVR Environics HTML 38 19 40 3 0 ±4.2 pp 537 IVR Forum Research PDF 33 22 41 4 0 ±3 pp 835 IVR Environics PDF 31 28 36 5 0 ±4.2 pp 544 IVR 2011 Election 40 20 35 4 0 ±0.0 pp 50,920 Election ====Flamborough—Glanbrook==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research PDF 48 14 28 9 0 ±3.80 pp 659 IVR 2011 Election 55 23 17 4 1 ±0.0 pp 45,387 Election ====Guelph==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 25 18 45 12 0 ±4.0 pp 601 IVR Environics HTML 28 38 27 7 0 ±4.0 pp 597 IVR 2011 Election 33 17 43 6 1 ±0.0 pp 59,218 Election ====Hamilton West—Ancaster—Dundas==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research PDF 27 16 50 7 0 ±3.76 pp 672 IVR 2011 Election 42 28 25 4 1 ±0.0 pp 53,119 Election ====Kanata—Carleton==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics PDF 39 8 50 3 0 ±3.4 pp 861 IVR Mainstreet Research HTML 45 8 43 4 0 ±3.89 pp 630 IVR Environics HTML 44 13 37 5 0 ±4.1 pp 562 IVR 2011 Election HTML 54 15 26 5 0 ±0.0 pp 50,802 Election ====Kenora==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 40 29 28 4 0 ±3.8 pp 647 IVR 2011 Election HTML 47 28 22 3 1 ±0.0 pp 24,586 Election ====Kingston and the Islands==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 23 37 36 5 0 ±4.0 pp 563 IVR 2011 Election 34 22 40 4 0 ±0.0 pp 56,663 Election ====Kitchener Centre==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics PDF 28 22 46 4 0 ±3.4 pp 856 IVR Environics HTML 31 30 33 7 0 ±3.8 pp 672 IVR Environics PDF 29 33 31 7 0 ±3.9 pp 625 IVR 2011 Election 40 22 32 5 1 ±0.0 pp 46,998 Election ====London North Centre==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 32 15 48 5 0 ±3.8 pp 668 IVR Environics HTML 35 25 35 5 0 ±4.2 pp 540 IVR Environics PDF 32 27 34 6 0 ±3.7 pp 700 IVR 2011 Election 37 24 34 4 0 ±0.0 pp 53,445 Election ====London West==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research PDF 33 19 42 6 0 ±3.75 pp 678 IVR Environics HTML 38 20 37 5 0 ±2.9 pp 1,132 IVR 2011 Election 45 25 27 3 0 ±0.0 pp 58,342 Election ====Markham—Stouffville==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Forum Research PDF 40 6 51 2 0 ±5.0 pp 439 IVR 2011 Election 50 17 29 3 1 ±0.0 pp 47,183 Election ====Mississauga Centre==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Forum Research PDF 35 16 44 5 0 ±5.0 pp 308 IVR Mainstreet Research PDF 36 20 41 3 0 ±3.99 pp 600 IVR 2011 Election HTML 42 19 37 2 0 ±0.0 pp 42,677 Election ====Mississauga East—Cooksville==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research PDF 37 19 41 3 0 ±3.99 pp 601 IVR 2011 Election HTML 44 18 36 2 0 ±0.0 pp 44,249 Election ====Mississauga—Erin Mills==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research PDF 41 16 39 4 0 ±3.99 pp 600 IVR 2011 Election HTML 47 16 34 3 0 ±0.0 pp 46,468 Election ====Mississauga—Lakeshore==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Forum Research PDF 41 12 44 3 0 ±4.0 pp 538 IVR Mainstreet Research PDF 32 24 42 3 0 ±3.99 pp 600 IVR 2011 Election HTML 47 13 37 0 0 ±0.0 pp 51,746 Election ====Mississauga—Malton==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Forum Research PDF 29 20 44 5 2 ±5.0 pp 335 IVR Mainstreet Research PDF 41 14 41 4 0 ±3.99 pp 600 IVR 2011 Election HTML 38 23 37 2 0 ±0.0 pp 36,632 Election ====Mississauga—Streetsville==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research PDF 40 16 40 5 0 ±3.99 pp 599 IVR 2011 Election HTML 46 15 35 4 0 ±0.0 pp 46,236 Election ====Nepean==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics PDF 40 10 47 4 0 ±3.2 pp 1,032 IVR Mainstreet Research HTML 41 13 42 4 0 ±3.81 pp 655 IVR Environics HTML 40 19 34 8 0 ±4.1 pp 569 IVR 2011 Election HTML 51 18 27 4 0 ±0.0 pp 51,130 Election ====Niagara Falls==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 42 27 25 6 0 ±4.2 pp 557 IVR 2011 Election HTML 53 23 19 4 0 ±0.0 pp 53,980 Election ====Nickel Belt==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Oraclepoll Research HTML 14 46 35 5 0 ±5.6 pp 300 Telephone 2011 Election 28 55 14 3 0 ±0.0 pp 44,148 Election ====Nipissing—Timiskaming==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Oraclepoll Research HTML 31 16 47 6 0 ±5.6 pp 300 Telephone 2011 Election 36 21 37 6 0 ±0.0 pp 39,174 Election ====Oakville North—Burlington==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Forum Research PDF 42 8 45 3 2 ±4.0 pp 530 IVR 2011 Election 54 16 27 3 0 ±0.0 pp 46,840 Election ====Orléans==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 33 19 40 8 0 ±3.8pp 660 IVR Environics HTML 36 11 51 3 0 ±4.1 pp 567 IVR 2011 Election HTML 45 14 38 3 0 ±0.0 pp 64,007 Election ====Ottawa Centre==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 22 42 30 6 0 ±3.79 pp 685 IVR 2011 Election HTML 22 52 20 5 1 ±0.0 pp 64,689 Election ====Ottawa West—Nepean==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 29 20 47 4 0 ±3.72 pp 661 IVR Forum Research PDF 35 15 46 0 4 ±3.0pp 1,083 IVR Environics HTML 35 20 39 5 0 ±3.6 pp 747 IVR 2011 Election HTML 45 20 31 4 0 ±0.0 pp 56,602 Election ====Perth—Wellington==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 36 21 35 8 0 ±3.8 pp 652 IVR 2011 Election HTML 54 21 18 5 2 ±0.0 pp 46,401 Election ====Peterborough—Kawartha==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics PDF 34 17 46 3 0 ±3.4 pp 859 IVR Forum Research PDF 34 24 37 4 1 ±3.0 pp 1294 IVR Nanos Research HTML 29 27 41 4 0 ±5.7 pp 300 Telephone 2011 Election 50 25 21 4 0 ±0.0 pp 57,384 Election ====Sault Ste. Marie==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Oraclepoll Research HTML 36 23 35 6 0 ±5.6 pp 300 Telephone Environics HTML 31 30 34 6 0 ±3.9 pp 632 IVR 2011 Election 40 37 20 2 0 ±0.0 pp 40,390 Election ====Scarborough Centre==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Forum Research PDF 36 19 43 2 0 ±5.0 pp 458 IVR 2011 Election 35 30 32 3 0 ±0.0 pp 36,811 Election ====Scarborough Southwest==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 21 37 40 3 0 ±3.83pp 654 IVR Forum Research PDF 27 32 35 5 1 ±4.0 pp 608 IVR Forum Research HTML 20 34 42 3 1 ±4.0 pp 587 IVR Forum Research PDF 27 29 39 4 1 ±4.0 pp 557 IVR 2011 Election 32 35 29 4 0 ±0.0 pp 39,379 Election ====Spadina—Fort York==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Forum Research HTML 17 42 37 5 0 ±5.0 pp 461 IVR Mainstreet Research HTML 13 45 39 3 0 ±3.72 pp 671 IVR Forum Research PDF 10 57 28 4 1 ±5.0 pp 345 IVR Mainstreet Research HTML 14 44 36 6 0 ±3.87 pp 606 IVR 2011 Election 21 50 24 4 1 ±0.0 pp 36,969 Election ====Sudbury==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Oraclepoll Research HTML 27 38 31 4 0 ±4.9 pp 400 Telephone Mainstreet Research HTML 22 29 46 3 0 ±3.98 pp 602 IVR 2011 Election 28 50 18 3 1 ±0.0 pp 45,441 Election ====Timmins—James Bay==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Oraclepoll Research HTML 11 62 21 5 0 ±5.6 pp 300 Telephone 2011 Election 32 50 16 2 0 ±0.0 pp 33,706 Election ====Toronto Centre==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Forum Research HTML 17 37 42 4 0 ±4.0 pp 597 IVR Forum Research PDF 14 41 40 4 1 ±4.0 pp 488 IVR 2011 Election 17 36 40 5 1 ±0.0 pp 37,350 Election ====University—Rosedale==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Forum Research HTML 20 39 38 3 0 ±4.0 pp 604 IVR Mainstreet Research HTML 15 43 39 3 0 ±3.84pp 644 IVR Forum Research PDF 17 46 32 5 0 ±4.0 pp 528 IVR 2011 Election 20 44 31 5 1 ±0.0 pp 46,665 Election ====Waterloo==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 31 26 39 3 0 ±3.8 pp 658 IVR 2011 Election HTML 41 15 38 5 0 ±0.0 pp 53,632 Election ====Willowdale==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 36 15 45 5 0 ±4.2 pp 535 IVR Environics PDF 32 26 37 5 0 ±4.3 pp 508 IVR 2011 Election 41 19 39 0 0 ±0.0 pp 38,984 Election ====Windsor West==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 21 39 37 3 0 ±3.97pp 581 IVR 2011 Election 32 54 11 3 0 ±0.0 pp 39,745 Election ====York Centre==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Forum Research PDF 40 17 39 3 2 ±5.0 pp 387 IVR 2011 Election HTML 49 16 33 2 0 ±0.0 pp 35,546 Election ===Quebec=== ====Ahuntsic- Cartierville==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal BQ Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 13 37 34 13 3 0 ±3.7 pp 698 IVR Mainstreet Research PDF 6 13 45 31 4 0 ±3.8 pp 661 IVR 2011 Election 9 30 31 28 1 1 ±0.0 pp 48,602 Election ====Chicoutimi—Le Fjord==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal BQ Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Segma Research HTML 19.7 33.1 22.3 22.1 2.8 Segma Research HTML 17.0 41.2 18.9 17.8 5.1 2011 Election 25.6 37.7 5.8 28.9 1.5 0.7 ±0.0 pp 43,094 Election ====Jonquière==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal BQ Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Segma Research HTML 20.3 33.0 23.8 19.2 2.9 0.8 Segma Research HTML 20.1 37.1 18.0 20.0 4.8 2011 Election 34 43 3 19 1 0 ±0.0 pp 46,657 Election ====Lac-Saint-Jean==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal BQ Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Segma Research HTML 34.6 29.6 15.8 17.2 2.9 0 Segma Research HTML 34.7 29.4 10.6 20.6 4.7 0 2011 Election 42 32 3 21 1 0 ±0.0 pp 54,920 Election ====Laurier—Sainte-Marie==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal BQ Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method CROP HTML 2 57 15 20 4 2 ±5.0 pp 377 Telephone Mainstreet Research PDF 6 32 26 36 1 0 ±3.82 pp 653 IVR 2011 Election 4 46 11 35 3 1 ±0.0 pp 51,102 Election ====Montarville==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal BQ Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Solutions Logik HTML 9 28 14 46 3 0 2011 Election 10 45 13 29 2 2 ±0.0 pp 52,165 Election ====Mount Royal==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal BQ Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 27 16 50 7 2 0 ±3.76 pp 672 IVR Mainstreet Research PDF 16 15 56 7 6 0 ±3.93 pp 618 IVR 2011 Election 36 18 41 3 2 0 ±0.0 pp 39,007 Election ====Notre-Dame-de-Grâce—Westmount==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal BQ Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 10 33 40 7 10 0 665 IVR Mainstreet Research PDF 13 22 52 10 3 0 ±3.9 pp 626 IVR 2011 Election 18 35 38 4 4 1 ±0.0 pp 44,642 Election ====Papineau==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal BQ Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 11 36 41 12 0 0 ±3.49 pp 783 IVR CROP HTML 5 46 35 10 4 0 ±5.06 pp 375 Telephone Mainstreet Research PDF 5 14 61 20 0 0 ±4.13 pp 560 IVR 2011 Election 5 29 38 25 2 1 ±0.0 pp 45,887 Election ====Pontiac==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal BQ Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 19 36 34 8 3 0 ±3.74 pp 673 IVR 2011 Election 26 47 15 10 2 0 ±0.0 pp 35,508 Election ====Richmond—Arthabaska==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal BQ Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 46 35 7 10 2 0 ±3.77 pp 668 IVR 2011 Election 25 32 7 34 2 0 ±0.0 pp 53,303 Election ===Saskatchewan=== ====Regina—Lewvan==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 40 34 21 5 0 ±3.85 pp 639 IVR 2011 Election 44 45 8 3 0 ±0.0 pp 38,508 Election ====Saskatoon—University==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 37 37 22 4 0 ±3.4 pp 853 IVR Environics PDF 34 41 22 4 0 ±3.7 pp 691 IVR 2011 Election 49 38 10 3 1 ±0.0 pp 35,122 Election ====Saskatoon West==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Mainstreet Research HTML 31 36 25 9 0 ±3.83 pp 658 IVR 2011 Election 43 51 4 3 0 ±0.0 pp 30,459 Election ===Yukon=== ====Yukon==== Polling Firm Last Date of Polling Link Cons. NDP Liberal Green Other Margin of Error Sample Size Polling Method Environics HTML 27 29 39 4 0 ±4.4 pp 497 IVR 2011 Election 34 14 33 19 0 ±0.0 pp 16,057 Election ==See also== *Opinion polling in the Canadian federal election, 2015 ==Notes== Notes : In cases when linked poll details distinguish between the margin of error associated with the total sample of respondents (including undecided and non-voters) and that of the subsample of decided/leaning voters, the latter is included in the table. Also not included is the margin of error created by rounding to the nearest whole number or any margin of error from methodological sources. Most online polls—because of their opt-in method of recruiting panellists which results in a non-random sample—cannot have a margin of error. In such cases, shown is what the margin of error would be for a survey using a random probability- based sample of equivalent size.American Association for Public Opinion Research (undated), Best Practices for Survey and Public Opinion Research , retrieved October 17, 2012 : Refers to the total sample size, including undecided and non-voters. : "Telephone" refers to traditional telephone polls conducted by live interviewers; "IVR" refers to automated Interactive Voice Response polls conducted by telephone; "online" refers to polls conducted exclusively over the internet; "telephone/online" refers to polls which combine results from both telephone and online surveys, or for which respondents are initially recruited by telephone and then asked to complete an online survey. : Election Results shown for 2011 are the redistributed results for the 2015 districts. These are fixed until 2023 under the present federal electoral system. About 80% of the 308 districts defined in 2003 changed their borders or are entirely new: 338 districts were defined in 2015. ==References== Category:2015 Canadian federal election Category:Opinion polling for elections in Canada |
The Pan-Pacific Trade Union Secretariat (PPTUS) was a regional subdivision of the Red International of Labor Unions (RILU, commonly known as the Profintern), the trade union organization associated with the Communist International. Established in Hankow, China, in May 1927, the PPTUS attempted to coordinate communist activity in the organized labor movement of China and the Pacific basin, including particularly Japan, Korea, Indonesia, the Philippines, Australia, and the United States. ==Organizational history== ===Establishment=== The Pan-Pacific Trade Union Secretariat (PPTUS) was established as the Asian and Pacific branch of the Red International of Trade Unions (RILU or Profintern), to coordinate radical trade union activities in China and the countries Pacific basin, which shared oceanic-based trade relations. The idea for a Pan-Pacific conference originated with Communists in the Australian trade union movement, who sought to emulate a previous conference of Pacific seamen and dock workers which had been held in Canton in June 1924.E.H. Carr, A History of Soviet Russia, Volume 14: Foundations of a Planned Economy, 1926-1929, Volume 3, Part 3. London: Macmillan, 1978; pg. 800. A convention call was issued for a gathering to be held in Sydney, Australia on July 1, 1926, at under the auspices of the communist-led New South Wales Trades and Labour Council, but the Nationalist government of Stanley Bruce denied travel visas to the assembly's scheduled participants and the meeting was therefore postponed and moved to another location.William Lawrence, "Australia and the Comintern — An Incident," Australian Quarterly, vol. 23, no. 3 (Sept. 1951), pg. 71. A second effort at organization would not follow until the following year, with the Profintern initially seeking a gathering at Canton In conjunction with May Day of 1927.Carr, A History of Soviet Russia, Vol. 14, pp. 800-801. Rapidly changing political events in China in the spring of 1927 had made both the time and the place impossible, however, and the decision was made to move to the safer ground of Hankow, immediately following the closure of the 5th Congress of the Communist Party of ChinaCarr, A History of Soviet Russia, Vol. 14, pg. 801. Hankow was selected owing to its place at the center of the Wuhan government of the Kuomintang, a revolutionary nationalist organization which was at the time briefly in alliance with the international Communist movement.Harrison George, "Two Years of the Pan-Pacific Trade Union Secretariat (Part One)," Daily Worker, vol. 6, no. 148 (Aug. 28, 1929), pg. 3. The convention opened on May 20, 1927, and was attended to delegates from 8 nations — China, the Soviet Union, Japan, Indonesia, Korea, France, the United States, and Great Britain.Carr, A History of Soviet Russia, Vol. 14, pp. 801-802. Planned delegates from India and Australia ran afoul of their various departments of state, while Philippine delegates decided against attending due to the turbulent situation in China, marked by mass arrests and executions of Communists and trade unionists in Canton. A single delegate from Mexico arrived late.Carr, A History of Soviet Russia, Vol. 14, pg. 802. The opening of the convention was the cause of a mass one day strike in Wuhan, with an estimated 100,000 workers participating in a mass demonstration. The keynote address at the founding conference of the PPTUS was delivered by Profintern chief Solomon Lozovsky. The gathering determined to establish permanent headquarters of the new organization in the Chinese industrial city of Shanghai. ===Personnel and constituent organizations=== The First Secretary of the PPTUS was American CPUSA member Earl Browder, later to become General Secretary of that organization.Lawrence, "Australia and the Comintern — An Incident," pg. 72. Other members of the inaugural secretariat of the PPTUS included Jack Ryan of Australian, Crisanto Evangelista from the Philippines, Su Chao-jen of China, and K. Kawasaki of Japan. Editor of the group's English- language official organ was another American, Harrison George. The PPTUC counted among its members eleven radical trade union organizations. These were the Australian Council of Trade Unions, the All-China Federation of Trade Unions, the Indonesian Labor Federation, the Japanese Trade Union Council, the National Minority Movement (Great Britain), the Confédération Générale du Travail Unitaire (France), the Korean Workers and Peasants Federation, the Philippine Labor Congress, the National Confederation of Farm Laborers and Tenants of the Philippines, the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions (USSR), and the Trade Union Educational League (USA). Member organizations endorsed a seven point platform which pledged the PPTUS to carry on a joint struggle against war between the military powers of the Pacific, to defend the Chinese Revolution, to aid oppressed nations of the region to liberate themselves from imperial powers, to fight against racial and national barriers, joint action, and a unified world trade union movement through a single Trade Union International.Lawrence, "Australia and the Comintern — An Incident," pg. 73. ===Development=== While the headquarters of the PPTUS was nominally located in Shanghai, in actuality the "home office" of the organization (as its leading functionaries referred to it) was Moscow — headquarters city of the Comintern and Profintern and location of the various World Congresses and Enlarged Plenums of these organizations.Josephine Fowler, "To Be Red and Oriental": The Experiences of Japanese and Chinese Immigrant Communists in American and International Communist Movements, 1919-1933: Volume 1. PhD dissertation, University of Minnesota, 2003; pg. 132. It was from there whence financial resources flowed and where organizational decisions were debated and determined, with representatives of the various constituent Communist and trade unions living permanently in Moscow's Hotel Lux.Fowler, "To Be Red and Oriental," pp. 133-134. Historian E. H. Carr counts two early successes of the Pan-Pacific Trade Union Secretariat: the adhesion of the 70,000 member Philippine national trade union congress in June 1927 and the Australian Council of Trade Unions, claiming 500,000 members, in August of that same year.Carr, A History of Soviet Russia, Vol. 14, pg. 1040. Individuals associated with the Pan-Pacific Trade Union Secretariat were subjected to repression by the various national governments. The Chinese movement was effectively smashed in various cities throughout the second half of 1927, culminating with the crushing of the Canton rising of December 1927. In March and April 1928 a wave of arrests were conducted in Japan, leading to the imprisonment of 638 individuals, with 218 sentenced to long terms of imprisonment and hundreds of others held in jail for more than 18 months without hearing or trial. The situation faced by radical trade unionists in China was reportedly even more draconian, with a report by Teng Chung-hsia submitted to the PPTUS in 1928 asserting that nearly 38,000 had been killed in China — including 25,000 killed in fighting various government and paramilitary forces and 13,000 who suffered execution.Jacques Guillermaz, A History of the Chinese Communist Party, 1921-1949. [1968] Anne Destenay, trans. New York: Random House, 1972; pg. 226. By August 1930 total membership in semi-underground red trade unions in the whole of China controlled by the Kuomintang is said to have been reduced by mass killings and attrition to just 49,826 members. ===Second Conference=== The second international conference of the Pan-Pacific Secretariat was convened in the Soviet Pacific port city of Vladivostok, Siberia on August 1, 1929.Carr, A History of Soviet Russia, Vol. 14, pg. 1042. By this time it was already clear that the PPTUS had failed as an instrument for amplifying labor radicalism, with Solomon Lozovsky noting that "extremely unfavorable conditions" had rendered the organization unable to meet openly in any capitalist country in the region. A total of 25 voting delegates and 17 observers were able to make it to Vladivostok for the opening of the assembly, with many Asian delegates blocked from attendance by government restrictions. Grand designs for a new labor international were deemphasized in favor of practical politics in defense of the Russian Revolution against imperialist intervention.Lawrence, "Australia and the Comintern — An Incident," pg. 74. The conference adopted a program of activity which called for the organization of a mass campaign at the shop level to "explain the imperialist policy against the Soviet Union" and to make use of mass demonstrations and enlist the labor press in this campaign. It also called for the establishment of special committees of transport workers and workers in munitions plants to obstruct production of war materiel for use in any future conflict against the USSR. E.H. Carr notes that the only record of the second and final conference appears in a pessimistic account by Lozovsky in the Comintern magazine Kommunisticheskii Internatsional, with the memoir of one participant published a quarter century later indicating that the gathering was moved to Shanghai during the proceedings.Carr, A History of Soviet Russia, Vol. 14, pg. 1042, citing Lozovsky in Kommunisticheskii Internatsional (Russian Edition), 1929 #38/39 (whole no. 216/217), pp. 16-20 and George Hardy, Those Stormy Years: Memories of the Fight for Freedom on Five Continents. (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1956), pg. 209. ===Official organ=== The official organ of the Secretariat was initially named the Pan- Pacific Worker, a monthly magazine."Pan-Pacific Secretariat: More Disclosures: Combating 'White Terror': Australian Unions' New Alliance," The Argus [Mebourne, Australia], July 24, 1928, pg. 11. Only two issues of the English- language publication were able to be published in Hankow before the publication was shut down by the Kuomintang government following a violent split between the Chinese nationalist movement and its temporary Communist allies.Carr, A History of Soviet Russia, Vol. 14 pg. 803. Plans were made to move production of the periodical to Australia, but this scheme fell through, and in December 1927 the editorial office was moved to Shanghai, where underground production continued throughout 1928. Production of the journal in Nationalist China was difficult and dangerous. In May 1928 PPTUS chief Earl Browder and his assistant, the Latvian-American Communist Karlis Janson, reported to Moscow that earlier that year one Shanghai print shop suspected of having printed a radical leaflet had its entire staff of 17 workers taken out and summarily shot.Fowler, "To Be Red and Oriental," pg. 3. The effect of the terror had been immediate, with the PPTUS unable to obtain printed materials from their own clandestine printing shop for three months. Browder's own time in Shanghai was correspondingly short, lasting from February until June 1928, after which he departed for the "Home Office" in Moscow and thereafter to the United States.Fowler, "To Be Red and Oriental," pg. 4. Editor of the publication was Harrison George.Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, The Secret World of American Communism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995; pg. 52. Secretary of the Pan-Pacific Secretariat Earl Browder sought to move George and the editorial office of the magazine from Shanghai to San Francisco in February 1929 and consulted with the Comintern to this end,Klehr et al., The Secret World of American Communism, pg. 50. with the move following shortly thereafter.Carr, A History of Soviet Russia, Vol. 14, pp. 1040-1041, fn. 7. An English-language Australian edition was also produced in that country under the auspices of the PPTUS and the Australian Council of Trade Unions from April 1928 until January 1932.The Pan-Pacific Worker: Australian Edition," State Library of New South Wales, www.http://library.sl.nsw.gov.au/ The first editor of this publication seems to have been Australian Communist and trade union activist Jack Ryan.Ryan was ultimately expelled from the Australian Communist Party in 1930. See: Lyndall Ryan, Caught Out: Edna and Jack Ryan and the 1951 Referendum," Inside Story, Oct. 13, 2014. The Australian edition was briefly imported into India for distribution there until it was banned by postal authorities in October 1929."Pan-Pacific Worker: Banned in India," Sydney Morning Herald, Oct. 23. 1929. pg. 16. The English-language publication's name changed almost as often as its editorial office relocated, taking on the new name Far Eastern Monthly in April 1928 before becoming assuming its ultimate name, Pacific Monthly, in San Francisco in April 1929. In addition to the English-language magazine, the 2nd conference of the Pan-Pacific Trade Union Secretariat, held in Vladivostok in August 1929, determined to establish a Vladivostok Bureau of the PPTUS which would launch monthly editions of the Pan-Pacific Worker in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean.Josephine Fowler, Japanese and Chinese Immigrant Activists: Organizing in American and International Communist Movements, 1919-1933. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2007; pg. 85. The American center of the PPTUS also took over the publication of the 32-page Japanese biweekly Taiheiyo Rodosha from early 1932. ===Demise and legacy=== The establishment of the PPTUS was echoed by the Profintern in May 1929 with its establishment in Montevideo, Argentina of the Latin American Trade Union Confederation for the coordination of activity of left wing trade union activists and labor unions in Central and South America.Harrison George, "Two Years of the Pan-Pacific Trade Union Secretariat (Part Two)," Daily Worker, vol. 6, no. 149 (Aug. 29, 1929), pg. 3. In practical terms little was accomplished by the PPTUS outside of the adoption of ephemeral formal resolutions accompanied by the occasional ineffectual demonstration, however. ==Plenary conferences== Conference Location Date Notes and references Founding Conference Hankow, China May 20-??, 1927 Attended by representatives of 11 labor organizations. 2nd Plenary Conference Vladivostok, USSR Aug. 1-??, 1929 Attended by 25 voting delegates and 17 observers. ==See also== * Jakob Rudnik (also known as Hilaire Noulens) - secretary of PPTUS * Far Eastern Bureau of the Comintern ==Footnotes== ==Further reading== * E.H. Carr, A History of Soviet Russia, Volume 14: Foundations of a Planned Economy, 1926-1929, Volume 3, Part 3. London: Macmillan, 1978. Frank Farrell, International Socialism and Australian Labor: The Left in Australia, 1919-1939 (Sydney: Hale and Iremonger, 1981), pp. 126-143, 188-197. * Josephine Fowler, "From East to West and West to East: Ties of Solidarity in the Pan-Pacific Revolutionary Trade Union Movement, 1923–1934," International Labor and Working Class History, vol. 66 (Oct. 2004), pp. 99-117. * Josephine Fowler, Japanese and Chinese Immigrant Activists: Organizing in American and International Communist Movements, 1919-1933. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2007. * Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, The Secret World of American Communism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995. * William Lawrence, "Australia and the Comintern — An Incident," Australian Quarterly, vol. 23, no. 3 (Sept. 1951), pp. 71-74. In JSTOR * Albert Resis, The Profintern: Origins to 1923. PhD dissertation. Columbia University, 1964. ==Archival holdings== * Russian State Archive of Social and Political History (RGASPI), Moscow: fond 534, Profintern Archive, opis 4, Pan-Pacific Trade Union Secretariat. Category:Organizations established in 1927 Category:Profintern Category:Comintern Category:Defunct transnational trade unions |
The Georgia State Panthers are the intercollegiate athletics teams that represent Georgia State University, located in Atlanta, Georgia. Almost all GSU teams compete at the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I level as members of the Sun Belt Conference, a conference of which they were a charter member. Previously, GSU was a member of the CAA, and prior to that, the ASUN Conference (then known as the Trans America Athletic Conference, or TAAC). Two GSU sports play outside the Sun Belt, both in sports not sponsored by that league; both teams joined their current conference homes in July 2021. The women's beach volleyball team joined the newly launched beach volleyball league of Conference USA after having been members of the Coastal Collegiate Sports Association, a conference that sponsors only that sport plus men's and women's swimming & diving. The men's soccer team, which had competed in the Sun Belt through the 2020–21 school year, moved to the Mid-American Conference following the demise of the Sun Belt men's soccer league. ==History== ===Prior to conference affiliation=== Georgia State became a fully accredited NCAA Division I athletics program in 1963, which saw the university give scholarships at the highest level of competition for college athletics. However, sports did exist at GSU prior to becoming an NCAA member; In 1956, the Panthers began a baseball team, the oldest sport played at Georgia State. Prior to joining the NCAA, no scholarships were given and no sports were part of any national affiliate. When GSU did join the NCAA, only basketball, cross country, golf, and tennis were played as NCAA sports (only men's teams were allowed to compete in the NCAA until 1980). In 1975, five women's sports also joined, playing in the New South Women's Athletic Conference, or NSWAC, a conference of the AIAW. ===Founding of the Sun Belt Conference=== In 1976, the Sun Belt Conference was formed with Georgia State being one of its founding members. However, in 1980, the Panthers left the Sun Belt, with the most cited reason being that the conference encouraged its members to play in the largest basketball venue in town; in the case of the Panthers, that was the 16,500 seat Omni Coliseum, an NBA venue where the Atlanta Hawks played. With only a few hundred fans attending each game, this became a joke to media outlets, who purposefully tried to get pictures of the action with a lack of a crowd in the background. After leaving the Sun Belt, the Panthers played as independents for three years before joining the TAAC. ===Addition of football=== Once Georgia State entered the CAA, a recurring question of whether the university should add football was brought up, leading to the commissioning of a feasibility study in 2006. After gauging student and alumni interest, the administration found enough support to continue onwards with the effort, leading to the hire of former Atlanta Falcons head coach Dan Reeves as a consultant. This culminated in the official launch of the football program on April 17, 2008. Due to GSU's membership as a part of the CAA, membership into the football division of the conference was sought after, leading to the Panthers being invited to become a football participant for the 2012 season. Due to the addition of men's scholarships (63 full scholarship equivalents for inclusion in the FCS), Title IX regulations required the university to have additional women's scholarships added, leading to the addition of beach volleyball (then called "sand volleyball" and, at the time, a non-NCAA sport). With the addition of football, a rebrand of athletics took place, changing the logos, fight song, and mascot design. The university also decided to go back on one of its previous institutional name rules in making GSU a secondary name for the university. In February 2012, the university announced that it had commissioned a study to find the feasibility of moving up to the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), the highest level of collegiate football, citing that the shifts in landscape due to conference realignment offered opportunities that should be carefully considered. The study was conducted by Collegiate Consulting, who concluded that the university was in a good position to move up to the FBS. On April 9, 2012, Georgia State officially accepted an invitation to rejoin the Sun Belt Conference on July 1, 2013. ===Relocation to Downtown Atlanta=== Although the athletic department was housed within the GSU Sports Arena, the limited space available in Downtown Atlanta forced different sports to be played in different areas around Metropolitan Atlanta. A complex in the Panthersville community housed a baseball field, soccer pitch, and softball field, as well as intramural fields, approximately 7 miles from the central campus and not regularly accessible by campus transportation. With the relocation of the Atlanta Braves from Turner Field in Downtown to SunTrust Park, an opportunity for the different Panther athletic programs to relocate to the central campus opened. Georgia State, along with Carter, a real estate company in Atlanta, would bid for the stadium and surrounding lands, eventually purchasing all 68-acres (including the stadium) for $30 million. Between the 2016 and 2017 season, Turner Field would be converted to Center Parc Stadium, a football specific stadium with an initial capacity of 25,000 (that will be increased to 35,000 after future renovations). The stadium also hosts the athletics department (which moved from GSU Sports Arena), and will host the School of Hospitality. The purchase also included the surrounding parking lots, including the footprint of Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium, which housed the Atlanta Braves when they first moved to Atlanta, and where Hank Aaron would break Babe Ruth's home run record. The university plans to erect a new baseball stadium in this footprint for the GSU baseball team to play at. ===Conference membership=== *Sun Belt Conference (1976–1981) *Independent (1981–1983) *TAAC/Atlantic Sun (1983–2005) *Colonial Athletic Association (2005–2013) *Sun Belt Conference (2013–present) == Sports sponsored == Baseball Basketball Basketball Beach volleyball Football Cross country Golf Golf Soccer Soccer Tennis Softball Tennis Track & field† Volleyball thumb|240px|Georgia State is a member of the Sun Belt Conference === Basketball === ==== Men's basketball ==== *First season: 1963 *Conference Championships (6) **2000, 2001, 2002, 2014, 2015, 2019 *Conference Tournament Championships (6) **1991, 2001, 2015, 2018, 2019, 2022 *NCAA Tournament Appearances (6) **1991 (1st round) **2001 (2nd round) **2015 (3rd round) **2018 (1st round) **2019 (1st round) **2022 (1st round) *NIT Appearances (2) **2002 (1st round) **2014 (1st round) *CIT Appearances (2) **2012 (2nd round) **2017 (1st round) *Retired Jerseys **3 Rodney Hamilton **5 Thomas Terrell **13 Kevin Morris ==== Women's basketball ==== *First season: 1975 *Conference Championships (2) **2002, 2003 *Conference Regular Season Champions **2000, 2001, 2002, 2004 *NCAA/AIAW Appearances (4) **1981 (1st Round) **2001 (1st Round) **2002 (1st Round) **2003 (1st Round) *WNIT Appearances (1) **2000 === Baseball === thumb|right|A Panthers baseball player during a 2014 road game *First season: 1965 *Conference Championships (1) **2009 *NCAA Tournament Appearances (1) **2009 *Retired Jerseys **30 Mike Hurst (head coach) === Beach volleyball === *First season: 2013 *AVCC National Championship Appearances (1) **2015 *NCAA National Championship Appearances (1) **2016 === Football === *First Season: 2010 *Move to FBS: 2013 *Bowl Games (5) **2015 – Cure Bowl – San Jose State, L **2017 – Cure Bowl – Western Kentucky, W **2019 – Nova Home Loans Arizona Bowl – Wyoming, L **2020 – Lending Tree Bowl – Western Kentucky, W **2021- TaxAct Camellia Bowl- Ball State, W === Golf === ==== Men's golf ==== Records for men's golf are incomplete between 1968 and 1988 *Conference Championships (9) **1998, 2000, 2001, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2014, 2017 *NCAA Regionals **1999, 13th place **2000, 5th place **2001, 18th place **2003, 13th place **2004, 7th place **2005, 4th place **2006, 11th place **2007, 9th place **2008, 17th place **2009, 6th place **2010, 26th place (individual, Tom Sherreard) **2014, 2nd place *NCAA Championship **2000, unranked **2004, 11th place **2005, 13th place **2007, unranked **2008, 13th place (individual, Joel Sjoholm) **2014, 23rd place ==== Women's golf ==== *Conference Championships (5) **2003, 2005, 2006, 2009, 2010 *NCAA Regionals **2003, 18th place **2005, 17th place **2006, 11th place **2008, 14th place **2009, 9th place **2010, 21st place **2011, 87th place (individual) **2012, unranked (individual) *NCAA Championship **2006, 43rd place (individual) === Soccer === ==== Men's soccer ==== *First Season: 1968 *Conference Championships (6) **1983, 1986, 1987, 1997, 2000, 2018 *NCAA Appearances (4) **1997, 2000, 2011, 2018 ==== Women's soccer ==== *First Season: 1994 *Conference Championships (1) **1997 *NCAA Appearances (1) **1997 === Softball === *First Season: 1985 *Conference Championships (6) **1989, 1990, 1992, 1993, 1994, 2011 *NCAA Tournament Appearances (2) **1994, 2011 *NISC Tournament Appearances (1) **2017 === Tennis === ==== Men's tennis ==== Records for men's tennis are incomplete between 1984 and 1987 *First Season: 1959 *Conference Championships (8) **1989, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2007, 2013, 2017 *NCAA Appearances (7) **1998, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2007, 2013, 2017 *Individual NCAA Appearances (2) **2007 (Martin Stiegwardt), 2013 (Victor Valente) ==== Women's tennis ==== *Sun Belt Conference Championships (2) **2014, 2016 == Rivalries == Georgia State has Sun Belt rivalries with all of the East Division schools (Coastal Carolina, Appalachian State, Georgia Southern, Troy, and South Alabama). Georgia State's main Sun Belt rivals are Georgia Southern and South Alabama. === Georgia Southern === Although Georgia State has only played football since 2010, rivalries have been formed on the basketball court, most notably against Georgia Southern. Both schools participated in the Atlantic Sun Conference (then the TAAC, now the ASUN) between 1983 and 1992. Since the rivalry began, the two teams have played each other 51 times (after the 2015–16 season), with Southern holding the series at 34–17. Since both schools can be abbreviated GSU, a point of conflict between the two schools is that both fan-bases claim that their university is, in fact, the real GSU. Georgia State lays claim to the initials as it became a university (and therefore GSU) long before Georgia Southern did (in 1990; Georgia State became a university in 1969). Also, Georgia State's URL and official logo's both contain the acronym. Georgia Southern doesn't officially recognize GSU as an abbreviation for the school, actively discouraging it in its identification standards, and generally uses GS in its own branding. The beginning of the football rivalry was initiated after the hire of former Appalachian State (a major rival of Georgia Southern) athletic director Charlie Cobb to the same position at GSU. During Georgia State's press release introducing Cobb, he revealed that Georgia Southern's athletic director Tom Kleinlein told him "welcome, now the war is on." The two teams met on the gridiron during the 2014 football season at Georgia Dome. During the run up to the game, fans from both teams expressed their dislike for the other over social media outlets such as Twitter, at times trending with tags of "SouthernNotState" and "StateNotSouthern" both of which were used as slogans for shirts given out by both universities. During the period before the game, fans dubbed the matchup as "Modern Day Hate," a play on the rivalry between Georgia Tech and UGA, Clean, Old-Fashioned Hate. The game would go on to draw the second largest crowd of any Georgia State game at 28,427, ending with Georgia Southern beating Georgia State by a final score of 69 to 31. In 2015, Georgia State beat Georgia Southern 34–7, the worst home defeat for Georgia Southern in school history. Currently, Georgia State holds a 3–1 lead in the football series. In October 2015, it was announced that Georgia State and Georgia Southern would begin a rivalry series spanning all of the sports played between the two schools. Each match-up would be worth a point, except football, which would be worth two, and baseball and softball, to which points would be allocated based on the series winner. Any competition in which all competing teams are ranked, the team that ranks higher would earn that point. Bonus points are awarded if a contest occurs during the conference tournament, with an extra bonus point being awarded if the competition results in one of the schools winning an automatic bid a national tournament. The previous years trophy is awarded during a half-time presentation at the two schools football match-up. After its second year, Georgia State leads the series 2–0. ===South Alabama=== Both Georgia State and South Alabama's football teams were founded and played their first games within a year of each other, with South Alabama's first season starting in 2009 and Georgia State's first season starting in 2010. After finishing their first season without a loss, South Alabama faced Georgia State on October 30, 2010, who until that point had a 5–3 record. The game was held at South Alabama's home field, Ladd–Peebles Stadium in Mobile, Alabama. The final score, a loss of 34–39, kept South Alabama's perfect record intact while Georgia State fell in their first season to 5–4. This set the stage for the 2011 season game between the two programs. Georgia State set their home match against South Alabama as their homecoming game. Although South Alabama had already suffered their first loss earlier in the season, Georgia State's record going into the game of 1–5 left the odds in favor of a South Alabama win. However, after seemingly winning the game in regulation time by an interception by Mark Hogan with 8 seconds on the clock, the referees called a false start penalty negating the play. In the second overtime period, Hogan intercepted another ball to win the game, giving one of only three wins on the season, and setting the record at 1–1. During the 2011–12 offseason, it was announced that Georgia State would join the Sun Belt Conference, the same conference to which South Alabama belonged, setting up yearly games between the two teams. During the 2014 offseason, South Alabama set their home game against GSU during the 2014–15 season as their homecoming game, announcing the title "Clash of the Claws" to represent the scrimmage, referencing both schools' use of big cats as their mascots. In 2015, South Alabama visited the Georgia Dome holding a season record of 5–4. A victory by the Jaguars would have granted them instant bowl eligibility. However, Georgia State won the game 24–10. South Alabama would go on to lose the remainder of its 2015 games and be denied a bowl slot. The series record in football currently stands at 3–4 in South Alabama's favor. == Traditions == === Nickname and mascot === The nickname "Panthers" has existed as the name for all Georgia State teams since 1963, when the university held a student vote to determine what the representing mascot should be. It wasn't until 1989 that an official mascot appeared in the form of Urbie, a crimson panther. This was later replaced in 1993 by an early iteration of the current mascot, Pounce, a blue panther. Pounce's appearance has changed twice since his debut, most recently in 2009 when the current incarnation was presented during a basketball game against Georgia Southern. The first team name to represent Georgia State was the Owls, used between 1940 and 1947, used as a representation of the schools title at the time of "Georgia Evening College." Between 1947 and 1963, GSU teams went by the name "Ramblers," although no reasoning for why has been presented. The teams were also briefly referred to as the "Crimson Panthers" during the Urbie era. === Logo === thumb|150px|right|Current Wordmark The primary athletics logo contains a picture of the newest incarnation of Pounce, the university's mascot. This primary logo is interchangeable with the words Georgia State beneath Pounce. The secondary logo is an italicized, capitalized GSU in white with blue outlining with a red streak beneath. The new logos replaced the face of Pounce prior to 2009, as a highly stylized cartoon panther beneath the old Georgia State wordmark. == Facilities == *Men's and women's basketball: Compete at the 8,000 person capacity Georgia State Convocation Center. *Football: Since the 2017 season, Center Parc Stadium has been the home stadium for the Panthers. This is the third incarnation of a venue originally built for the 1996 Olympics and Paralympics as Centennial Olympic Stadium and reconfigured into the baseball-specific Turner Field for Major League Baseball's Atlanta Braves, opening in that form in 1997. Following the Braves' move to the venue now known as Truist Park after their 2016 season, GSU bought Turner Field and adjacent property for a major campus expansion project. In its football form, Center Parc Stadium seats slightly more than 24,000, with possible future expansion to 33,000. Before the move to Center Parc Stadium, the Panthers played at the Georgia Dome, an off-campus facility located less than a mile from the central campus that was demolished in 2017 with the completion of Mercedes-Benz Stadium nearby. The Georgia Dome had a capacity of 71,228, but seating for most GSU home games was set at 28,155 unless overflow was needed. Practice fields owned by the school are located south of the main campus on Martin Luther King Drive. *Volleyball: Compete at the GSU Sports Arena. *Softball: Compete at Bob Heck field, a school owned off campus facility located east of campus in Panthersville, Georgia. *Baseball: Currently competes at the Georgia State University Baseball Complex, a school owned off campus facility located east of campus in Panthersville, Georgia. As part of the Turner Field purchase, the university also acquired the former site of Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium, which had been home to the Braves before the opening of Turner Field and the NFL's Atlanta Falcons before the opening of the Georgia Dome. GSU plans to build a new baseball park on the stadium site, incorporating a preserved section of the former stadium wall marking the landing site of Hank Aaron's 715th career home run, then an MLB record. *Men's and women's soccer: Compete at the GSU Soccer Field, a school owned off-campus facility located east of campus in Panthersville, Georgia. *Men's and women's tennis: Compete at the Sharon Lester Tennis Center at Piedmont Park, a city owned park to the north of campus in the Midtown neighborhood *Men's and women's golf: Compete at Eagles Landing Country Club, a 27-hole golf course in Stockbridge, Georgia. *Beach volleyball: Compete at the 340-person capacity Sand Volleyball Complex, located behind the GSU Sports Arena === Facilities master plan === On May 7, 2014, Georgia State announced its intentions to purchase Turner Field and the surrounding parking lots after the Atlanta Braves announced that they would move to the new SunTrust Park in Cobb County, west of Atlanta. This would include re-purposing Turner Field into a 30,000 seat stadium that would house the Georgia State Football program as well as the school's soccer programs. It would also include rebuilding a baseball stadium in the footprint of the old Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium that was knocked down after the 1996 Summer Olympics. The plan would maintain the famous Hank Aaron wall that still stands in the Turner Field parking lot. The proposal would also include private dorms, public housing, shopping areas, and academic buildings. On December 21, 2015, the Atlanta-Fulton County Recreation Authority announced that Georgia State's bid to redevelop Turner Field had been accepted. On August 18, 2016, Georgia State and the Recreation Authority reached a tentative purchase agreement for Turner Field, and the purchase and redevelopment plan was approved by the Board of Regents on November 9, 2016. On January 5, 2017, the sale of Turner Field, now renamed Center Parc Stadium, to Georgia State was officially closed, with the stadium conversion project beginning in February 2017. The first phase of construction for Center Parc Stadium was completed in time for Georgia State's 2017 season opener on August 31. On January 31, 2018, Georgia State officially announced its intention to build a new Arena and Convocation Center that would host the school's basketball games. The arena will be built on land acquired from the city north of the Turner Field site that was converted into a football stadium for the football team. ==References== ==External links== * |
Bob Jones University v. Simon, 416 U.S. 725 (1974), is a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States holding that Bob Jones University, which had its 501(c)(3) status revoked by the Internal Revenue Service for practicing "racially discriminatory admissions policies" towards African- Americans, could not sue for an injunction to prevent losing its tax-exempt status.. The question of Bob Jones University's tax-exempt status was ultimately resolved in Bob Jones University v. United States, in which the court ruled that the First Amendment did not protect discriminatory organizations from losing tax-exempt status.. ==Background== Bob Jones University is devoted to the teaching of fundamentalist religious beliefs, one of which is that God intended that people of different races live separately and not intermarry. When the university was founded in 1927, it denied admission to black students. The school began allowing unmarried blacks to enroll in 1975, but it forbade interracial dating or marriage. Until 1970, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) granted tax-exempt status to all private schools, regardless of their admissions policies.. Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 lists organizations that qualify for tax-exempt status and includes those which are charitable, religious, or for educational purposes. But a rise in the prevalence of Christian private schools in the 1960s and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 led the IRS to re-evaluate its policy. The IRS announced in 1970 that private schools with racially discriminatory admissions policies would no longer receive tax exemptions. The IRS then notified Bob Jones University of its intention to revoke the university's tax- exempt status because of the university's racially discriminatory admissions policy. As a result, the university would be subject to taxation and its donors would not be able to claim their gifts to the school as charitable deductions.Bob Jones Univ. v. Simon, 416 U.S. at 727. Bob Jones University filed suit to block the IRS from revoking its tax-exempt status, alleging "irreparable injury in the form of substantial federal income tax liability." In 1971, the United States District Court for the District of South Carolina granted a preliminary injunction, but in 1973 the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit reversed that decision. The Court of Appeals relied on the Anti-Injunction Act, which states that "no suit for the purpose of restraining the assessment or collection of any tax shall be maintained in any court." A party cannot stop the government from collecting taxes. Instead, in order to protect the Government's need to assess and collect taxes efficiently, the proper procedure is for the party to pay the disputed tax and then file an action for refund. The Supreme Court granted a petition for certiorari to determine whether the Anti-Injunction Act barred Bob Jones University's suit to enjoin the IRS from revoking its tax-exempt status.Bob Jones Univ. v. Simon, 416 U.S. at 734. ==Before the Supreme Court== The case of Bob Jones University v. Simon was presided over by Chief Justice Warren Burger and Associate Justices William O. Douglas, William J. Brennan, Jr., Potter Stewart, Byron R. White, Thurgood Marshall, Harry A. Blackmun, Lewis F. Powell, Jr., and William H. Rehnquist. Arguing on behalf of Bob Jones University was John D. "J.D." Todd Jr., a lawyer from Greenville, South Carolina, who served on the South Carolina Bar Board of Governors. The United States Treasury was represented by Assistant Attorney General Scott P. Crampton, with Solicitor General Robert Bork accompanying on the brief. Todd argued that Bob Jones University had met all the requirements of 501(c)(3) as set forth by Congress but had its 501(c)(3) status revoked by the IRS nonetheless. Inclusion on the list of tax-exempt organizations was essential to receive donations from foundations and individuals, and Bob Jones argued that removal from this list constituted irreparable harm to the university. Todd claimed that "the lower court held that the [IRS] Commissioner exceeded the statutory authority given him, that he has authority to promulgate regulations but not to change law, and that that's a matter for Congress to decide, and we of course contend that that's absolutely correct." He also argued that Bob Jones University was not seeking an injunction on the collection of taxes resulting from the loss of tax-exempt status, but rather sought only an injunction on the removal of the university from the IRS list of registered 501(c)(3)s. This argument suggested that the case "involved taxes only very remotely" and was therefore not covered by the Anti-Injunction Act, which would bar Federal Courts from preventing the collection of any taxes by the IRS. Lastly, Todd contended that revocation of tax-exempt status by the IRS was an attempt to regulate the admissions policies of private universities, and not an effort motivated by protecting tax revenue. On behalf of the Treasury, Crampton argued that Bob Jones would owe $1.25 million in income taxes and saw their actions as "taxpayers trying to stop the assessment of tax." ==Supreme Court decision== thumb|US Supreme Court Justice Lewis Powell - Wrote the opinion of this case Bob Jones University v. Simon was decided May 15, 1974 in an 8-1 decision with majority opinion written by Lewis F. Powell, Jr., in which Justice Burger, Brennan, Stewart, White, Marshall, and Rehnquist joined. Justice Blackmun filed an opinion concurring in the result of the Court's decision. Justice Douglas took no part in the decision of this case. The Court held that the Anti-Injunction Act of the Internal Revenue Code, 26 USC § 7421(a), prohibited the university from obtaining judicial review by way of injunctive action. The Court further upheld that the Court of Appeals did not err in "holding that § 7421(a) deprived the District Court of jurisdiction to the issue of injunctive relief the petitioner sought."Bob Jones Univ. v. Simon, 416 U.S. at 749. Lastly, the Court admits to recognizing the "harsh regime" in which § 7421(a) has placed on §501 (c)(3) organizations threatened with loss of tax-exempt status and withdrawal of advanced assurance of deductibility of contributions. But, the Court stated that "this matter is for Congress, which is the appropriate body to weigh the relevant, policy-laden considerations, such as the harshness of the present law." Within Section I of the Court's opinion the Court sought to detail the provisions which outlined the requirements needed in order for an organization to be exempt from the taxes and receive tax-deductibles as stated in the Internal Revenue Code of 1954, specifically Section 501(c)(3). Additionally under the Internal Revenue Code of 1954, for organizations that had their 501(c)(3) status revoked, a provision allowed for litigation concerning the legality of the IRS's action after the assessment and attempted collection of taxes.Bob Jones Univ. v. Simon, 416 U.S. 725 at 731. A legal suit could also be brought forward in a federal District Court or in the Court of Claims following the collection of any federal tax and the denial of a refund by the IRS. The court made it explicit that the language of the Anti-Injunction Act mandates that "no suit for the purpose of restraining the assessment or collection of any tax shall be maintained in any court." Furthermore, the courts have interpreted the principle language of the act to serve as "the protection of the Government's need to assess and collect taxes as expeditiously as possible with a minimum of pre-enforcement judicial interference." Organizations seeking injunctive relief against the Service of the proposed action "conflict directly with a congressional prohibition of such pre-enforcement tax suits. In force continuously since its enactment in 1867. It was held that: # operation of the Anti-Injunction Act could be avoided only if there was proof of both irreparable injury and certainty of success on the merits, a pre-enforcement injunction being permissible only if it was clear that under no circumstances could the government ultimately prevail; # the instant action was a suit "for the purpose of restraining the assessment or collection of any tax" under the Anti-Injunction Act, since (a) the plaintiff's allegations indicated that a primary purpose of the suit was to prevent the assessment and collection of income taxes from the plaintiff,Bob Jones University v. Simon, 416 U.S. at 736–48. (b) even if the plaintiff would owe no federal income taxes because of possible deductions for depreciation of plant and equipment, the plaintiff would still be liable for federal social security and unemployment taxes, which taxes were also contemplated by the Anti-Injunction Act, and (c) in any event, the plaintiff sought to restrain the collection of taxes from its donors by forcing the Internal Revenue Service to continue to provide advance assurance that contributions to the plaintiff would be tax-deductible, thereby reducing the donors' tax liability, which aspect was also covered by the Anti-Injunction Act even though the plaintiff sought to lower the taxes of persons other than itself; # the Anti-Injunction Act was not rendered inapplicable on the ground that the Service's actions constituted an attempt to regulate the admissions policies of private universities rather than an effort to protect the government's tax revenues, since there was no showing that the Service's position did not represent a good-faith effort to enforce technical requirements of the tax laws; # application of the Anti- Injunction Act did not deny due process of law to the plaintiff because of any irreparable injury it would suffer pending resort to alternative procedures for review whereby the plaintiff could obtain Tax Court review of any assessment for income taxes or alternatively could institute a refund suit after payment of income, social security, or unemployment taxes, since such alternative procedures offered the plaintiff a full, even though delayed, opportunity to litigate the legality of the Service's actions; # the Anti-Injunction Act barred the instant action since the plaintiff's contentions as to violations of its constitutional rights were sufficiently debatable so as to foreclose the necessary determination that under no circumstances could the government ultimately prevail. ===Concurring opinion=== thumb|US Supreme Court Justice Harry Blackmun, concurred on the opinion of the Court Justice Blackmun concurring on the result of the Court: Justice Blackmun expressed the view that the purpose of the suit was to restrain "the assessment and collection" of a tax under the Anti-Injunction Act, since an injunction, if granted, would directly prevent the collection of income taxes from the plaintiff, and the action was barred since it had not been shown that under no circumstances could the government ultimately prevail. Concurring Opinion of Justice Harry Blackmun ==Impact/reception== Following the trial, the Internal Revenue Service clarified its anti-discrimination guidelines for public and church-operated private schools. In order to gain tax-exempt status, private schools were required to publicize their non-discrimination policies for selecting students and employees. Student loans and scholarships were to be allotted on a non- discriminatory basis. Schools must not only fulfill the requirements, but also report the racial composition of their student body and staff as well as how loans and scholarships were distributed. Although protected by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, church-operated private schools cannot abstain from Federal public policies against racial discrimination if they are to receive tax-exempt status. On January 19, 1976, the IRS revoked Bob Jones University's tax-exempt status.Bob Jones University v. United States, 461 U.S. at 581. Subsequently, the university paid the Federal Unemployment Tax Act (FUTA) tax of $21 on one of its employees for that year in order to not come under the purview of the Anti-Injunction Act. After being denied a refund, the university proceeded to sue the IRS for revoking its tax- exempt status. The United States government filed for a counterclaim of $498,675.59 for unpaid federal unemployment taxes for the years 1971 to 1975.Bob Jones University v. United States, 461 U.S. at 582. At the time, the school had already begun changing its admission policy by extending admission to unmarried blacks (married black people had already been admitted in 1971). However, interracial dating and interracial marriage remained strictly prohibited by the university. The IRS refused to reinstate the university's tax-exempt status, arguing that the dating policies violated its nondiscriminatory requirements. The US District Court for the District of South Carolina ordered the IRS to restore the university's tax-exempt status on the grounds that the IRS policies violated the Free Exercise and Establishment Clause. In 1980, the Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit, in a split decision, determined that the dating policy, even if founded on religious conviction, violated its nondiscriminatory public policy. The request for a refund was dismissed and the government's counterclaim was reinstated. Bob Jones University proceeded to appeal the decision and the Supreme Court would determine the verdict in Bob Jones University v. United States. ==Role in subsequent decisions== Bob Jones University v. Simon has been cited in multiple cases in the Court of Appeals and Supreme Court since its 1974 ruling. The exceptions to the Anti-Injunction Act laid out in Bob Jones University v. Simon have been followed in several cases, notably in its "companion case" Alexander v. "Americans United" Inc.. In Alexander, the Supreme Court considered the exemptions in determining that a non-profit organization's suit against the IRS based on constitutional claims would not continue under the Anti-Injunction Act. The rulings in Bob Jones University v. Simon and Alexander are considered a stricter reading of the Anti-Injunction Act for limiting the kinds of suits allowed to proceed before the enforcement of taxation by the IRS. Bob Jones Univ. v. Simon has also been cited and distinguished in the decisions of other cases. In Security and Exchange Commission v. Credit Bancorp Ltd. as considered by the District Court for the Southern District of New York, the use of liens by the IRS were considered to be too different from the facts of Bob Jones University v. Simon for application of the earlier ruling without careful consideration. When the case came before the Second Circuit Court of Appeals, the exceptions put forth by Bob Jones Univ. v. Simon were used in part to determine the case. More recently, Bob Jones Univ. v. Simon has been cited and considered in a suite of cases concerning the legislation of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. In cases such as Commonwealth ex rel. Cuccinelli v. Sebelius and Halbig v. Sebelius, injunctions against the IRS in regards to tax policies related to the Affordable Care Act were not granted by the District Courts.Commonwealth ex rel. Cuccinelli v. Sebelius. 728 F. Supp. 2d 768. United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia, Richmond Division. 2010. p.790.Halbig v. Sebelius. 2014 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 4853. United States District Court for the District of Columbia. 2014. p.64. In the lower court rulings of Thomas More Law Center v. Obama and Hobby Lobby Stores Inc. v. Sebelius, the Anti-Injunction Act was found to be not applicable in either case.Hobby Lobby Stores Inc. v. Sebelius. 723 F.3d 1114. United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit. 2013. p.1159. In the Supreme Court case National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, the Court requested arguments to be made concerning the Anti-Injunction Act and its possible application to the Affordable Care Act by an outside attorney, as neither the government nor the plaintiffs wished to argue its potential implications. In each of these cases the Anti-Injunction Act was not applied primarily due to the use of the term 'penalties' in the language of the Affordable Care Act, which the language of the Anti-Injunction Act does not explicitly cover. ===Partial overruling and criticism=== In the 1984 ruling of South Carolina v. Regan, Justice William Brennan delivered the Supreme Court's opinion detailing that the Anti- Injunction Act could not be used to prevent a legal suit if there did not exist a judicial process through which a plaintiff could make their case. This occurred due to the state of South Carolina lacking a direct method of challenging the removal of bearer bonds. The ruling therefore expanded on the instances in which the Anti-Injunction Act was not applicable, beyond the two exceptions set out by Bob Jones Univ. v. Simon and the earlier court case Enochs v. Williams Packing Co., and thus partially overruling Bob Jones Univ. v. Simon with the modifications to the use of the Anti-Injunction Act concerning future suits. Several cases have also criticized the criteria for exemption as discussed in Bob Jones University v. Simon. In the dissenting opinion of Alexander v. "Americans United" Inc., Justice Harry Blackmun argued that the use of the Anti-Injunction Act to prevent suits based on constitutional arguments until after the IRS had acted disrupted the "system of checks and balances provided by judicial review." Another such case is that of Kahn v. United States, in which the Third Circuit Court of Appeals considered the three criteria test provided by Mathews v. Eldridge to determine whether a lawsuit should be allowed to be litigated before policy enforcement by the IRS, even if a suit could be brought afterwards. The three criteria test is considered by some legal scholars to be valid in any case concerning the application of due process, including those of taxation. ==References== ==External links== * Category:United States Supreme Court cases Category:United States Supreme Court cases of the Burger Court Category:1974 in United States case law Category:1974 in education Category:United States civil procedure case law Category:Bob Jones University |
A subpoena duces tecum (pronounced in English ), or subpoena for production of evidence, is a court summons ordering the recipient to appear before the court and produce documents or other tangible evidence for use at a hearing or trial. In some jurisdictions, it can also be issued by legislative bodies such as county boards of supervisors. The summons is known by various names in different jurisdictions. The term subpoena duces tecum is used in the United States, as well as some other common law jurisdictions such as South Africa and Canada. The summons is called a "subpoena for production of evidence" in some U.S. states that have sought to reduce the use of non-English words and phrases in court terminology. The subpoena duces tecum is similar to the subpoena ad testificandum, which is a writ summoning a witness to testify orally. However, unlike the latter summons, the subpoena duces tecum instructs the witness to bring in hand books, papers, or evidence for the court. In most jurisdictions, a subpoena usually has to be served personally. ==Etymology== The phrase sub poena duces tecum is a Latin expression meaning literally "under [threat of] penalty [or punishment], you will bring [it] with you." The word means "under" and "penalty"; "you will lead, guide, pull, bring"; and "with you". ==Order pursuant to a deposition== In the United States, a notice to a party deponent (a person called to testify in a deposition) may be accompanied by a request for production of documents and other tangible things during the taking of a deposition. The notice to produce (literally: "bring these documents with you to the deposition") is served prior to the deposition. This follows the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure.Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 30(b)(5), also called FRCP The method of using a subpoena duces tecum is generally valid only to compel a witness to produce documents and other things at the time of the deposition. If a deponent is a non-party to the action (not involved directly in the litigation, but wanted for testimony), production of documents can be compelled only through a proper subpoena duces tecum. Federal cases and some states follow Rule 27(a)(3) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure concerning the production of documents in pretrial discovery, including those pertaining to depositions. These can include the subpoena duces tecum to produce documents, or in some cases to undergo a physical or mental examination. In the Ninth Circuit, interpreting Rule 27 literally, it has been held that a party can simply produce the documents only, and in certain cases, avoid an oral deposition when presented with a subpoena duces tecum.23 Am Jur 2nd Depositions and Discovery, §§ 126-127 ==Failure to produce documents== A continuance (a rescheduling of a court hearing at a later date) of a civil action may be granted due to the absence of documents or papers. The party failing to produce the documents requested by a subpoena duces tecum must show good reason why there was a failure to do so. Acceptable explanations have included loss or destruction of papers, or an agreement to use copies. The party seeking the continuance must show that the absence of the documents is not because of the negligence of their own, or of the attorney of record.17 Am Jur 2nd "Continuance",§ 20 Similarly, a continuance may be granted in a criminal case if there is good reason documents pertinent to the case could not be produced at the time of trial. For example, a continuance should be granted for failure to produce a transcript of testimony given at a previous trial. In general, it is reversible error to proceed with a criminal trial in the absence of a previous trial transcript, when such contains pertinent information that should have been considered in the new trial. In these cases, a continuance is the usual remedy.17 Am Jur 2nd "Continuance", § 81 ==Jencks Act cases== In the 1957 case Jencks v. United States the United States Supreme Court ruled that a defendant must have access to government witnesses who will testify against him in a criminal trial, and must also have access to any documents pertaining to that testimony.Jencks v. United States, 355, US 657 (1957) This includes papers, documents, written statements and the like. This led to passage of the Jencks Act, 18 USC, Part II, Chapter 223, § 3500, which allows for subpoena duces tecum of relevant government documents, but only after a government agent or employee has testified at trial. There can be no pre-trial discovery. The subpoena is allowed by the trial judge. The government has the right to deny access to the documents. This may be due to the sensitive nature of the documents, or because they are classified. If a remedy is granted, there is a mistrial and dismissal of criminal charges.23 Am Jur 2nd "Depositions and Discovery", § 443Jencks v. United States idem. An accused criminal has no right to subpoena the work product of the prosecution in a criminal case.23 Am Jur 2nd "Depositions and Discovery", § 444 ==Writ of mandamus== A writ of mandamus (Latin for "we command") is appropriate to compel surrender of documents in the possession of attorneys or other persons that have been illegally obtained under the abuse of a writ of attachment.Rosenthal v. Dickerman, Michigan Mandamus can vacate an order to produce books and papers.International Harvester Co. v. Eaton Circuit Judge, Michigan In an 1893 case, the United States Attorney for Alabama refused to vacate his office, refusing to surrender books, papers and other materials to the newly appointed US Attorney. The federal court in Alabama issued a writ directing the previous attorney to relinquish the documents. He, in turn, sought relief from the Supreme Court, which denied his application, saying it would not interfere with the properly conducted internal matters of a court. In the case In re: Parsons, the US Supreme Court wrote: "If the orders be regarded merely as directions in the administration of judicial affairs in respect of the immediate possession of property or custody of prisoners, we cannot be properly called to, by reason of anything appearing on these records, in the exercise of appellate jurisdiction in this manner, to direct them to be set aside. And if the proceedings should be treated as involving a final determination as on issues joined to the right to such possession and custody, there was no complaint of want of notice or of hearing, and the summary made adopted did not in itself affect the jurisdiction of the Circuit Court upon the ground that it had exceeded its powers."52 Am Jur 2nd "Mandamus" § 314 Mandamus is the remedy where a lower court has clearly failed to issue compulsion to produce documents, or to allow the petitioner access to such documents as may be in the possession of the court or the parties to the action. Mandamus can be used to compel a court to enforce an order to answer interrogatories (questions submitted by the court or one of the parties to be answered under oath and pain of perjury).Smith v. Superior Court of San Joaquin County, California88 ALR 2nd 650For mandamus as it generally applies to witnesses, see: 41 ALR 433 and 112 ALR 438 Mandamus is the proper remedy to compel the quashing of a subpoena duces tecum for the production before a grand jury of documents protected by attorney–client privilege.Continental Oil Co. v. United States, Arizona9 ALR 3rd 1413 Presumably, this would apply to attorney work product, although there is no case law on the matter.52 Am Jur 2nd "Mandamus", § 367, Grand Juries ==Commitment of witness; contempt of court== A witness who has refused to obey a lawful order to produce books, documents and papers may be incarcerated for contempt of court. A writ of habeas corpus will not apply unless it can be shown the witness could not have legally had possession of such documents. In such a situation the writ of habeas corpus will properly apply, and is the remedy for such improper action.Ex Parte Clarke, California39 Am Jur 2nd "Habeas Corpus", § 97 At common law, and under various statutes pertaining to a given jurisdiction, a right to action for damages, or for a statutory penalty or forfeiture, exists against a witness who, without sufficient excuse, fails or refuses to give oral testimony or to produce documents or other specified items in obedience to the command of a properly issued and served subpoena.Cases listed and discussed in 81 ALR 3rd 1297, §§ 3 (b), 8 (a), 9 (a) There are certain conditions precedent, or defenses, to a recovery of damages for a person's failure to testify, or to provide documents pertinent to a hearing or trial. There must be a breach of testimonial duty, after having been properly served with a legitimately executed subpoena. There must be a demonstration of actual damages incurred from the absence of testimony. Most courts have rejected the arguments for seeking damages in this kind of case. Giving false testimony in a judicial proceeding even though the allegation is made that the person giving the testimony knew it to be false, does not give rise, either at common law or by statute, to a civil action for damages resulting from such testimony. The situation is probably different if intentionally false documents are submitted under a subpoena duces tecum.Generally 61 ALR 3rd 129781 Am Jur 2nd "Witnesses", § 79 ==Privileges== Attorney–client privilege is generally recognized by the courts. Communications between lawyer and client are generally immune from subpoena. In other words, a lawyer cannot be compelled to testify in a trial unless the lawyer becomes, or appears to become, a party to the litigation. A similar situation exists with "work product", meaning written documents or computer records generated in preparation for a trial or hearing. This includes information such as potential questions that may be asked of witnesses, lists of possible witnesses, memoranda, notes, trial strategies, written briefs, or documents that may, or may not end up being used in the course of litigation. Usually, none of this can be the subject of a subpoena duces tecum. If a communication between lawyer and client is made in the presence of the third party, the privilege is not recognized to exist.14 ALR 3rd 59481 Am Jur 2nd Witnesses, §§ 172 et seq1 ALR 4th 112459 ALR 3rd 44155 ALR 3rd 132244 ALR 3rd 24 The federal courts will apply the common law rule of attorney–client privilege unless there is an intervening state law applying to the central issues of the matter. In those cases, the federal court uses the effective state law.Federal Rules of Civil or Criminal Procedure, Rule 501 in the Federal Rules of Evidence48 ALR Fed 259 Physician–patient privilege is usually statutorily defined, and can vary from state to state. The usual rule is that medical records are immune from subpoena if the plaintiff has not alleged physical or mental injuries or damages. Once the plaintiff alleges physical or mental injuries proximately flowing from a potentially tortious act by the defendant, or in some other disability hearing, medical records can be subject to subpoena duces tecum. While witnesses may try to resist legal discovery by asking the judge to protect them from questioning or inspection of documents, the policy of the courts is in favor of full disclosure. It is the intent of the rules of procedure that pre-trial discovery take place without any intervention of a judge. So-called "fishing expeditions" (massive and aimless calls for all documents related to the litigation) are permissible under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 26 (b) (1). This rule is repeated in many states' rules of procedure: "Parties may obtain discovery regarding any matter, not privileged, which is relevant ... if the information sought appears reasonably calculated to lead to the discovery of admissible evidence." The looseness of the definition of relevant evidence is generally construed to mean "liberal" production. The physician who is the party to an action does not own the records of patients he has treated. They are not privileged if the patient has waived confidentiality. Physicians must produce medical records under subpoena duces tecum.Sharpe, Fascina and Head, "Law and Medicine", p. 5 Peer review records, and other hospital documents of quality control committee meetings are generally not subject to subpoena duces tecum, since these have statutory immunity. The theory is that the frankness of peer review would be chilled if these records could be routinely compelled.Matchett v. Superior Court, CaliforniaSharpe Fiscina and Head, "Law and Medicine" p. 69 Several United States Federal Circuit Courts have recognized a limited reporter's privilege. In some states (such as California), rape crisis counselors and domestic violence advocates hold a statutory privilege analogous to therapist–client privilege. (See, for example, 1035 Cal. Evidence Code for rape crisis advocates,CA Codes (evid:1035-1036.2) retrieved 2009-11-26 and 1037.6 Cal. Evidence Code for domestic violence advocates).CA Codes (evid:1037-1037.8) ==Pre- and post-judgment execution proceedings== Discovery can be authorized for the production of documents for both pre-trial and post-trial actions. Most states either follow, or have modeled their procedures after, the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure Rule 69(a). Judgment creditors (those who have received a favorable court ruling for monetary damages) are permitted to ask questions about a debtor's residence; recent employment history; business relationships, including partners, co- shareholders, co-officers, co-directors; the contents of a will; transfers of property; and the identity of persons who either owed a debt to the judgment debtor, or received things of value from the debtor. Information in bank accounts can also be the subject of a subpoena duces tecum.General case law is reviewed in 30 Am Jur 2nd "Executions, Etc.", §§ 720 and 714 In federal court proceedings concerning judgment debtors, the inquiry is usually limited to the discovery of assets. In international cases, being tried in United States Federal Courts, the application of the Hague Service Convention is utilized where appropriate.20 Am Jur 2nd "Executions, Etc." ==Public access to documents filed with the court== The right of the public to access judicial records is fundamental to a democratic state and is analogous to the United States' First Amendment right of freedom of speech and of the press and the Sixth Amendment right to public trials.Barron v. Florida Freedom Newspapers, Florida75 Am Jur 2nd "Trial" § 20521 A Am Jur 2nd 'Criminal Law" sections 666 et seq; 876 et seq While the right to access trial records is not absolute, it is framed in presumption of public access to the proceedings and records.Re: Iowa Freedom of Information Council, IowaOxnard Publishing Co.v. Superior Court of Ventura County, CaliforniaGlobe Newspaper Co. v. Superior Court of County of Norfolk; US Supreme CourtPress-Enterprise Co. v. Superior Court of California; US Supreme Court75 Am Jur 2nd "Trials", §§ 205-216 United States Code 11, Section 107 (a), of the federal bankruptcy law, is a codification of the common-law general right to inspect judicial records and documents. However, the right is not absolute and may be denied when the entity seeking to view the records has an improper purpose. The general intent of the statute is to favor public access to court documents.9 Am Jur 2nd "Bankruptcy", § 829 ==Production of documents in bankruptcy== An entity (person or a corporation) may be compelled to produce documentary evidence in accordance with the subpoena powers of Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 45 as applied by Bankruptcy Rule 9016. The United States Bankruptcy Court has powers to compel production of documents from a non-debtor corporation or person concerning transactions involving the debtor corporation or person. Production of documents can be challenged as being burdensome. Assets diverted to outside corporations or bank accounts/stock portfolios and such other assets as land holdings lie within the power to compel production under subpoena duces tecum. Federal law recognizes no accountant-client privilege. A subpoena duce tecum served pursuant to Bankruptcy Rule 2004 is not a violation of accountant-client privilege. 11 United States Code section 107 (a) provides that papers filed in cases under the Bankruptcy Code and dockets of the Bankruptcy Courts are public records and are to be open to examination at reasonable times without charge.9 Am Jur 2nd "Bankruptcy", sections 828-829 ==Compelling a foreign corporation to produce documents== A domestic corporation may be considered to be a "person" within the meaning of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. It is not necessary to treat a corporation as a person in all circumstances. United States case law is confusing concerning this matter when dealing with foreign corporations, and their operation within the United States. Especially troubling have been rulings concerning the Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution and Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution. A foreign agent may not claim Fifth Amendment provisions against self-incrimination. Nor can records be withheld from subpoena duces tecum on the grounds that production of such documents would incriminate officers or other members of the foreign corporation. However, there is case authority in which foreign corporations have been protected from illegal searches and seizures, including documents and books.See case law: 120 ALR 1103 The matter of a foreign corporation operating as a "person" within the United States being afforded protection under the Fourteenth Amendment is discussed.49 ALR 73277 ALR 149036 Am Jur 2nd "Foreign Corporations", §§ 44 and 45 ==Subpoena of welfare documents== Statutes governing the disclosure of information contained in welfare records exist in many jurisdictions. The rationale for the existence of these regulations is to encourage full and frank disclosure by the welfare recipient of his situation and the protection of the recipient from the embarrassment likely to result from the disclosure of information contained in such records.54 ALR 3rd 768, § 24 In some states, records can be disclosed at the discretion of the state director of welfare. In general, welfare records are not public records, and should not be considered to be such. Disclosure of information is usually limited to purposes directly connected with the administration of welfare benefits. The investigation of costs of welfare programs have been held to be sufficiently related to the matters in question to justify disclosure. Statutes designed to limit welfare record availability are generally held by the courts to be not immune from the power of subpoena duces tecum. Certain state laws limit the availability of information that can be obtained from the subpoena of such documents. These are always subject to a court challenge, on a case-by-case basis. Welfare recipients are generally allowed access to their files, by subpoena duces tecum. Death of a welfare recipient is considered in some states to be sufficient reason to remove the reason for confidentiality. Some states have passed so-called "Right to Know" statutes, which would make welfare recipients and the information available to the public. These, along with common law, and state and federal constitutions guaranteeing freedom of the press do not give newspapers (or other news media) the right to access the names of persons on welfare, or the amounts they receive.79 Am Jur 2nd, "Welfare", § 50 ==Federal Trade Commission hearings in monopoly actions== Whenever the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has reason to believe that any person has violated 15 USC section 13, 14, 18 or 19, it must issue and serve on that person and on the Attorney General of the United States, a complaint stating its charges in that regard. The notice shall also give a date for a hearing in the matter. Delivery of the subpoena duces tecum for production of documents may be done in person, or by certified letter. Receipt of the letter is considered proof of service.54 Am Jur 2nd "Monopolies", § 394 Power to issue subpoenas is extended to Robinson–Patman Act cases of price-fixing and Clayton Act cases of unlawful acquisition.54 Am Jur 2nd "Monopolies", § 398-399 A Federal District Court lacks jurisdiction to enjoin the Federal Trade Commission from proceeding in an investigation. It cannot stay (stop) a subpoena duces tecum to produce documents in the investigative stage. An injunction by a federal court does not have the power to restrain the FTC from enforcing an order requiring corporations to furnish reports and documents un 15 USC § 49. The only relief available to stop a demand for documents is to seek an action of compliance in mandamus by the Attorney General of the United States, or under 15 USC § 50 to enforce fines and forfeitures.54 Am Jur 2nd "Monopolies", § 862 If the FTC institutes an adjudicative proceeding (a hearing), the person who originated the matter by complaining to the FTC is not a party to the action and does not have any control over it. The FTC may allow the complaining person to participate in the proceeding by virtue of 15 USC, section 45. This allows participation for good cause, either by counsel (lawyer) or in person. You cannot intervene in an FTC hearing, except by demonstrating that substantial issues of law or fact would not be properly raised and argued--and that these issues are important and immediate enough to warrant additional expenditure of FTC resources. This involvement can be enhanced by subpoena duces tecum. Pre-hearing conferences are the norm. These are useful in: * Clarifying or simplifying issues * Amending pleadings * Entering stipulations, admissions of fact, and contents and authenticity of documents * Expediting discovery and presentation of evidence, including restriction of witnesses * Matters subject to official notice that may be resolved by further production of documents related to the case In general, pre-hearing conferences are not public.55 Am Jur 2nd, § 836 The FTC is not restricted by a rigid rule of evidence.55 Am Jur 2nd, § 840 ==Subpoena of medical records== ===Administrative law=== Disabled persons under the age of 65 years can be eligible for disability benefits under Social Security Titles II and XVI.70 A Am Jur 2nd "Social Security and Medicare", sections 468 et seq The seminal case in Social Security law is Richardson v. Perales, a Supreme Court decision from 1971. The court directed that medical reports put forth by a treating physician in Social Security hearings should be accepted as evidence, despite the hearsay nature of the medical records. These should be accepted, even if cross-examination is not available. The claimant has the right to subpoena the treating physician. In cases of conflicting medical evidence, it is not unconstitutional for the hearing officer to obtain independent medical advice to help resolve the physical questions involved. Under the Administrative Procedure Act, hearsay in the form of medical records are admissible up to the point of relevancy.Richardson v. Perales, US Supreme Court, 1971 Several federal agencies have adopted Jencks Act rules. Although the Jencks Act applies only to government agents or employees who testify in criminal cases, making these witnesses and relevant documents available for cross-examination after testimony, it has been applied in administrative law cases in the interests of justice and fair play.Fairback v. Hardin, 9th Circuit The party of record must make an official request to the hearing officer to have Jencks rules followed.2 Am Jur 2nd "Administrative Law", section 329 Some agency rules, such as National Labor Relations Board automatically follow Jencks Act requirements.Am. Jur. 2nd, "Administrative Law", § 329 ===Medical malpractice actions=== In a case of alleged negligence by a physician, written summaries of the case by physicians provided to the insurance carrier or other parties can be the subject of a subpoena duces tecum, if, in the opinion of the court, they are relevant to the plaintiff's case. Claims that these statements are "work product" will generally fail.Butler v. Doyle, Arizona Medical records form the core of any medical malpractice case.61 Am Jur 2nd "Physicians, Surgeons, Etc" Actions for malpractice are controlled by the general rules of evidence in civil procedure.29A Am Jur 2nd "Evidence", §§ 29-30 A malpractice action necessarily involves the question of requisite care and skill applied in a medical case. With the exception of res ipsa loquitur cases, medical opinion about the care is essential. This involves the necessity to obtain a subpoena duces tecum for medical records.61 Am Jur 2nd "Physicians, Surgeons, Etc.", §§ 200-377Sharpe Fiscina and Head, "Law and Medicine""Pegalis and Wachsman "American Law of Medical Malpractice" Admission of "learned treatises" (published books and medical articles) at trial varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Some require that the expert admit it is an authoritative reference.Federal Rules of Evidence, Rule 80364 ALR Fed 971 Others will allow admission of learned treatises by judicial notice.Am Jur 2nd "Evidence" § 1416, 1417Fed Rules of Evidence § 195, 258 ===Experts and opinion evidence=== In tort actions for recovery of damages, it is necessary for the introduction of medical records to establish a basis for the claimed loss. An injured plaintiff is entitled to recover the expenses necessary to cure or treat injuries.128 ALR 68266 ALR 1186151 ALR 47510 ALR 11522 ALR 3rd 28690 ALR 2nd 132376 ALR 2nd 946 Courts frequently call upon expert testimony to interpret and advise, after examining medical records concerning the nature of injuries, future medical, disability and other issues before the court.Stein, J., "Damages and Recovery"Sharpe, Fiscina and Head, "Law and Medicine"Pegalis and Wachsman, "American Law of Malpractice"31 A Am Jur 2nd "Expert and Opinion Evidence", §§ 129-277 ===Worker's Compensation actions=== Medical records introduced as evidence are crucial in determining both causation and impairment in worker's compensation cases. In cases where the evidence is contested, medical evidence in the form of records, opinions, affidavits and testimony concerning both fact and opinion is necessary. When oral testimony is taken from physicians, the usual standard is to state an opinion "within a reasonable degree of medical certainty".Malone, Plant and Little, "Worker's Compensation and Employment Rights", pp.288-29121 ALR 3rd 912 Worker's compensation laws are dictated by state statute or Federal Employers Liability Act.Malone, Platt and Little, p. 879 et seq In many states, the employer has the right to demand an independent examination and can also direct treatment be carried out by certain physicians.82 Am Jur 2nd "Workers' Compensation", §§ 504 et seq ===Mandatory reporting of child abuse=== In the landmark 1976 California case of Landeros v. Flood,17 Cal 3d, 399, 131 Cal rptr 69, 551 P2d, 389 the California Supreme Court remanded a case to the trial court for action in tort against a treating physician for failure to report suspected child abuse.97 ALR 3rd 324Sharpe, Fiscina and Head, p. 48 The theory at trial was that the plaintiff, a child of about 12 months of age, had been returned to a home where further physical abuse occurred, causing more damages. This was because the physician had failed to report the abuse in violation of California law. After this case, all states instituted mandatory reporting by physicians and other medical personnel of any suspected child abuse or neglect cases. In general, reporting in good faith shields the physician or health care worker from tort liability. Reporting to police or social services necessitates obtaining medical records by subpoena duces tecum. This case, and legislation that followed it were in response to several articles that appeared in the medical literature that defined battered child syndrome and child abuse syndrome.See: Caffey, Kempe references The 1962 Social Security AmendmentsPub. L. No. 87-543 require each state to make child welfare services available throughout the state to all children and provide coordination between child welfare services (Title IV-B) and social services provided under the Aid to Families with Dependent Children Act (ADC, later known as AFDC; now called Title XX) Determinations in these cases frequently require production of medical records. In 1972, Congressional hearings began on child abuse and neglect. In response, Congress passed the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act,Pub. L. No. 93-247 which defined abuse as "physical or mental injury, negligent treatment, or maltreatment of a child under the age of 18 by a person who is responsible for the child's welfare under circumstances which would indicate that the child's health or welfare is harmed or threatened thereby". The legislation created the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect as an information clearinghouse. The Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act of 1974 ( - ) defined "child abuse and neglect" as "physical or mental injury, sexual abuse, negligent treatment, or maltreatment of a child under the age of eighteen by a person responsible for the child's welfare under circumstances which indicate that the child's health or welfare is harmed or threatened thereby."3 Proof of Facts, p.265 et seq The Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act of 1988Pub. L. No. 100-294 when enacted, expanded the definition of abuse. Sexual crimes were specifically identified in Sex Crimes Against Children Act of 1995Pub. L. No. 104-71 These laws have made child abuse a federal crime, and routinely mandate production of medical records.2 Proof of Facts 2nd 365 et seqLanderos v. Flood: 97 ALR 3rd 3246 Proof of Facts 2nd p. 345 et seq22 ALR 4th 77416 A Am Jur 2nd "Constitutional Law" § 73849 ALR Fed 674 ===Mandatory reporting of wounds and injuries=== Physician-patient privilege is defined and limited by statute. Many jurisdictions have mandatory reporting laws requiring treating physicians or other medical personnel to report any suspicious injury to police or other appropriate authorities. These requirements may be imposed by statute, ordinance or regulation. Some of these may be limited to wounds typically inflicted by gun or knife. There may be similar reporting requirements in cases of domestic violence. These statutes have been generally upheld to constitutional challenges. Reporting of such cases usually voids any challenge to subpoena duces tecum of the medical records by police or state authorities.85 ALR 3rd 1196 ===Peer review records in medical licensing and hospital credential actions=== The issue of removal of a doctor from a hospital staff, or revoking or limiting a license to practice medicine usually involve various state and federal immunities. The Healthcare Quality Improvement Act (HCQIA) of 1986 granted doctors sitting on peer review committees immunity from subpoena duces tecum, or liability for the revocation of hospital privileges of other doctors. The matters of peer review cannot, in the normal course of events, be the subject of a subpoena duces tecum. This has led to claims that powerful doctors can abuse the process to punish other doctors for reasons unrelated to medical issues (termed "sham peer review"). The American Medical Association conducted a probe of the sham peer review issue and found that no pervasive problem exists. Allegations of sham peer review are easy to make (for example, by doctors whose medical mistakes have made them targets of peer review), but actual infractions are rare."Inappropriate Peer Review. Report of the Board of Trustees of the American Medical Association." Opponents of peer review counter that the sparcity of successful challenges is indicative of how widespread the problem is and how difficult these actions are to win. ==See also== * Administrative Procedure Act (United States) * Attorney–client privilege * Bankruptcy in the United States * Deposition (law) * Documentary evidence * Federal Rules of Civil Procedure * Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution * Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution * Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution * Interrogatories * Legal discovery * Physician–patient privilege * Reporter's privilege * Subpoena ad testificandum ==References== ===Notes=== ===Sources=== * 11 USCS section 107 (a) * Federal Rule 27 (a) (3) * FRCP 30 (b) (5) * FRCP 34 * FRCP 69 (a) * Caffey, "Multiple Fractures in the Long Bones of Infants Suffering from Chronic Subdural Hematoma", 56 Am. J. Roentgen 163 (1946) * Caffey, "Some Traumatic Lesions in Growing Bones Other Than Fractures and Dislocation - Clinical and Radiological Features", 30 Br. J. Radiol. 225, 1957 * Kempe, "The Battered Child Syndrome", Journal of the American Medical Syndrome", 181, July 7, 1962 * Malone, Plant and Little, "Worker's Compensation and Employment Rights", West, 1980 * Pegalis, S. and Wachsman, H., "American Law of Medical Malpractice", Lawyers Cooperative, Bancroft Whitney, 1980 * Sharpe, D., Fiscina, S. and Head, M., "Law and Medicine" West, 1978 * Stein, J., "Damages and Recovery, Personal Injury and Death Actions", Lawyers Cooperative, Bancroft Whitney, 1972 ====American jurisprudence==== * 2 Am Jur 2nd "Administrative Law", section 328 (Jencks Act) * 9 Am Jur 2nd "Bankruptcy", section 829, 828-829 * 16 A Am Jur 2nd "Constitutional Law", section 738 * 17 Am Jur 2nd "Continuance", sections 20, 81 * 21 A Am Jur 2nd "Criminal Law", section 666 et seq; 876 et seq * 23 Am Jur 2nd "Depositions and Discovery", sections 126-127 * 29 A Am Jur 2nd "Evidence", sections 1416-1420 * 30 Am Jur 2nd "Executions, Etc.", sections 720, 714, 722 * 31 A Am Jur 2nd "Expert and Opinion Evidence" sections 127-277 * 36 Am Jur 2nd "Foreign Corporations" sections 4-45 * 39 Am Jur 2nd "Habeas Corpus", section 97 * 52 Am Jur 2nd "Mandamus", section 314, 367 * 54 Am Jur 2nd "Monopolies", sections 394, 398–399, 836, 840, 862 * 61 Am Jur 2nd "Physicians, Surgeons, Etc." sections 200-377 * 70 A Am Jur 2nd "Social Security and Medicare", sections 468 et seq * 75 AM Jur 2nd "Trial", sections 205-216 * 79 Am Jur 2nd "Welfare", section 50 * 81 Am Jur 2nd "Witnesses", section 79, 172 et seq * 82 Am Jur 2nd "Worker's Compensation", sections 504 et seq ====American law reports==== * 48 ALR Fed 259 * 49 ALR Fed 674 * 64 ALR Fed 971 (learned treatises) * 10 ALR 1152 * 41 ALR 433 (mandamus) * 49 ALR 732 * 77 ALR 1490 * 112 ALR 438 (mandamus) * 120 ALR 1103 * 128 ALR 682 * 151 ALR 475 * 76 ALR 2nd 946 * 88 ALR 2nd 650 * 90 ALR 2nd 1323 * 2 ALR 3rd 286 * 9 ALR 3rd 1413 * 14 ALR 3rd 594 * 21 ALR 3rd 912 (workers' comp discovery) * 44 ALR 3rd 24 * 55 ALR 3rd 1322 * 59 ALR 3rd 441 * 61 ALR 3rd 1297 * 81 ALR 3rd 1297 section 3 (b), 8 (a), 9(a) * 85 ALR 3rd 1196 (mandatory reporting of suspicious wounds) * 97 ALR 3rd 324 (Landeros v. Flood) * 1 ALR 4th 1124 * 22 ALR 4th 774 ====Proof of facts==== * 2 Proof of Facts 2nd 365 et seq (child abuse) * 3 Proof of Facts 2nd 265 et seq (child abuse) * 6 Proof of Facts 2nd 345 et seq (child abuse) ====Case law citation==== * Barron v. Florida Freedom Newspapers Inc., (Fla) 531 So 2nd 113, 13 FLW 497, 15 Media LR 1901 * Barsky v. Board of Regents, Supreme Court of the United States, 1954, 347, US 442, 74 S. Ct. 650, 98 L. Ed. 829 * Butler v. Doyle, Supreme Court of Arizona, 112 Ariz. 522, 544 P. 2nd 204 * Colorado State Board of Medical Examiners v. District Court, 191 Colo. -, 551, P. 2nd 194 (1976) * Continental Oil Co. v. United States (Ca 9 Ariz) 330 F 2nd 347 reprinted in 9 ALR 3rd 1413 * Ex Parte Clarke, 126 Cal, 235, 58 P 546 * Fairbank v. hardin (CA 9) 429, F2d 264, cert edn 400 US 943, 27 L Ed 2nd 247, 91 S. Ct. 244 * Globe Newspaper Co. v. Superior Court of County of Norfolk, 457 US 596, 73 L ED 2nd 248, 102 S. Ct. 2613, 8 Media LR 1689 * In Re Parsons, 150 US 150, 37, 1, L Ed 1034, 14 US Supreme Court, 50 * International Harvester Co. v. Eaton Circuit Judge, 163 Mich 5, 127 NW 695 * Jencks v. United States, 355, US 657 (1957) * Klinge v. Lutheran Charites Ass'n, United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit, 1975, 523 F. 2nd 56 * Landeros v. Flood 17 Cal. 3rd 399, 131, Cal. Reporter, 69, 551 P.2nd 389 * Matchett v. Superior Court, 40 Cal. App. 3rd, 623, 115 Cal. Reporter 317 (1974) * Oxnard Publishing Co. v. Superior Court of Ventura County (Cal App) 68 Cal Reporter 83 * Perales v. Richardson 91 A SCR 1420, 1971 * Press-Enterprise Co. v. Superior Court of California, 478 US 1, 92 L Ed 2nd 1, 106 S. Ct. 2735, 13 Media LR 1001 * Re Iowa Freedom of Information Council (CA Iowa) 724 F 2nd 658, 10 Media LR 1120; * Rosenthal v. Dickerman, 98 Mich 208, 57, NW 112 * Smith v. Superior Court of San Joaquin County, 189 Cal.App.2d 6; 1 Cal Reporter reprinted in 88 ALR 2nd 650 Category:Writs Category:Legal documents with Latin names |
Lucas Stephen French (born September 13, 1985) is an American former professional baseball pitcher. He was selected by the Detroit Tigers in the eighth round of the 2004 Major League Baseball Draft. French debuted with the Tigers in 2009, then played with the Seattle Mariners in 2009 and 2010. Born in Kansas, French attended Heritage High School in Littleton, Colorado, where he was a Louisville Slugger Preseason High School All-American in his senior year. Drafted by the Tigers, he spent the next several years in their minor league system before making his debut with the team in 2009. He won his first game in the major leagues on July 9, then was traded to the Mariners on July 31 as part of a deal that brought Jarrod Washburn to Detroit to help the Tigers try to win the American League Central Division. With Seattle, French replaced Washburn in the starting rotation. He had more wins that year with them than he did in Detroit, but his earned run average (ERA) was higher. In 2010, he split the year between the Mariners and the Triple-A Tacoma Rainiers, though after Ryan Rowland-Smith was placed on the disabled list on July 28, he spent the rest of the year in the Mariners' starting rotation. Twice, he took a no-hitter through five innings. At Tacoma, he tied for fifth in the Pacific Coast League in wins despite only pitching half the season for them; in Seattle, he had a 5–7 record and a 4.83 ERA. French would never appear in a Major League Baseball game again after 2010. He spent all of 2011 with Tacoma, where his ERA was 6.27. Allowed to become a free agent after the season, he pitched one final season in the Minnesota Twins organization in 2012. ==Early life== Luke was born to Greg and Colleen French on September 13, 1985, in Salina, Kansas. He grew up rooting for the Seattle Mariners, listing Ken Griffey Jr., Randy Johnson, and Jay Buhner among his favorite players. At Heritage High School in Littleton, Colorado, he played football, basketball, and baseball. After his freshman year, he stopped playing football to focus more on baseball; then after his sophomore year, he quit basketball for the same reason. As a senior, he was a Louisville Slugger Preseason High School All-American selection. French was selected to play in the inaugural Aflac All-America High School Baseball Classic on August 23, 2003 at Hammond Stadium in Ft. Myers, Florida. He said this about the experience: At the end of his senior year, French was drafted by the Detroit Tigers in the eighth round of the 2004 Major League Baseball (MLB) Draft. ==Professional career== ===Detroit Tigers=== In 2004, French began his minor league career with the Rookie-level Gulf Coast League (GCL) Tigers. In 11 games (10 starts), he had a 1–3 record, a 2.74 earned run average (ERA), 49 strikeouts, and 19 walks in innings pitched. French split the next season between the GCL Tigers, the Single-A West Michigan Whitecaps of the Midwest League, and the Single-A advanced Lakeland Tigers of the Florida State League (FSL). In 12 starts among all three, he had a 5–3 record, a 5.45 ERA, 50 strikeouts, and 87 hits allowed in innings pitched. French spent all of 2006 with West Michigan. Used exclusively as a starter in his 26 appearances, he had an 11–8 record, a 3.72 ERA, 94 strikeouts, and 156 hits allowed in innings pitched. His 11 wins tied with three other starters for seventh in the Midwest League, and his innings pitched ranked sixth. For the 2007 season, French spent the whole year with Lakeland. He finished second in the FSL with 14 losses (behind Zach Ward with 17), tied for second with 27 starts (tied with three others behind Tyler Norrick's 28), and finished fourth with 149 innings pitched (behind Norrick's , Drew Carpenter's 163, and Brandon Magee's ) in 2007. French earned a promotion to the Double-A Erie SeaWolves in 2008. He went 9–11 with a 4.02 ERA in 27 games (26 starts). French led the Eastern League with 170 innings pitched and 195 hits allowed, while he tied Brad Bergesen and Magee for the lead with three complete games, finished second with the same amount of losses as four other starters (11, behind Magee's 13), and gave up the fifth-most walks in the league (60, tied for fifth with Kyle Aselton). In 2009, French began the year with the Triple-A Toledo Mud Hens of the International League. He was called up to the Tigers on May 14, 2009, when Nate Robertson was placed on the disabled list retroactive to May 6. He said he was very excited about the chance to pitch in the major leagues: He made his major league debut on May 15 in the 9th inning of a 14–1 victory over the Oakland Athletics. French appeared in one more game before being optioned back to Toledo on May 21 after Robertson returned from the disabled list. At Toledo, French went 4–4 with a 2.98 ERA in 13 games (all starts). He was called up at the end of June, this time to serve as a starter, replacing Alfredo Figaro on the Tigers' roster. On July 3, he made his first major league start, holding the Minnesota Twins to two runs over innings. He got a no-decision, but the Tigers won 11–9. Six days later, he logged his first major league win, holding the Kansas City Royals to one run over innings in a 3–1 triumph, defeating Zack Greinke, who would go on to win the American League (AL) Cy Young Award in 2009. It was his only win in seven games (five starts) for the Tigers through the end of July, but French posted a 3.38 ERA in that span. ===Seattle Mariners=== Though they led the AL Central through the 2009 season's first four months, the Tigers wanted some help for their rotation as they sought to make the playoffs. On July 31, 2009, French and prospect Mauricio Robles were traded to the Seattle Mariners for Jarrod Washburn. The trade brought French to the team he rooted for as a kid: French replaced Washburn in Seattle's rotation and won his first start for the Mariners. In his August 5 debut, he gave up four runs over five innings but again defeated the Royals in an 11–6 victory. On August 15, he was the losing pitcher in a 5–2 defeat by the New York Yankees, but all four runs French allowed were unearned, the result of a Franklin Gutiérrez error in the second inning. After he started for the Mariners on September 5, manager Don Wakamatsu moved him to the bullpen so the team could use Brandon Morrow in the starting rotation. French was only used once the rest of the year, on September 19. In eight games (seven starts) for Seattle, he had a 3–3 record, a 6.63 ERA, 23 strikeouts, and 54 hits allowed in 38 innings. His combined totals between Seattle and Detroit were a 4–5 record, a 5.21 ERA, 42 strikeouts, and 87 hits allowed in innings. In 2010, French started the season with Tacoma, where he had a 6–2 record and a 1.93 ERA (second in the league) through June 6. On that day, he was recalled by the Mariners to work out of the bullpen when Doug Fister went on the disabled list. He made two relief appearances and started a game on June 14 in place of Ian Snell, who had not been pitching well. French allowed four runs in four innings in a 9–3 loss to the St. Louis Cardinals. Four days later, French was optioned back to Tacoma. (Note: For transaction info, may need to click "more" under transactions section) He was briefly recalled on July 9, making a relief appearance against the Yankees before being sent back to Tacoma the next day. After Ryan Rowland- Smith was placed on the disabled list, French was called up on July 28 to take his spot in the Mariners' rotation. He remained in the rotation the rest of the year. On August 6, he again beat Greinke and the Royals, limiting Kansas City to one run over eight innings in a 7–1 victory. Eleven days later against the Baltimore Orioles, he had a no-hitter going until Josh Bell had a single with one out in the sixth inning, but he allowed no runs in innings as the Mariners won 4–0. On August 29, he held the Twins to three hits in seven innings. One of the hits was a home run by Michael Cuddyer, but Seattle scored two runs to defeat Minnesota 2–1. Five days later, French carried a no-hitter through six innings before Shelley Duncan singled with one out in the seventh. He finished the game with seven scoreless innings and got the win as Seattle beat the Cleveland Indians 1–0. His season ended poorly, as he gave up eight runs in four innings on October 1 against the Oakland Athletics in what ESPN called "the worst of his 13 [2010] starts for the Mariners." French glumly reviewed his performance, saying, "All I can say is it wasn't my night. It's going to happen. It's not very fun, not the way you want to end the season." In 17 starts for Tacoma in 2010, French had an 11–3 record, a 2.94 ERA, 63 strikeouts, and 109 hits allowed in innings pitched. Though he only made 17 starts for Tacoma, his 11 wins tied with six others for fifth in the league. Additionally, his .786 winning percentage was the third-highest among starters with at least 100 innings pitched in the PCL. In 16 games (13 starts) with Seattle, he had a 5–7 record, a 4.83 ERA, 37 strikeouts, and 88 hits allowed in innings. French participated in spring training in 2011 for the Mariners, competing for a long relief spot in the bullpen. He was sent to Tacoma at the end of spring training. On August 13, 2011, French was designated for assignment by the Mariners to allow Wily Mo Peña onto the team's 40-man roster. In 26 starts for Tacoma, he had a 9–9 record, a 6.27 ERA, and 81 strikeouts in innings. He ranked among PCL leaders in runs allowed (115, second to Alan Johnson's 118), earned runs allowed (102, second to Johnson's 109 and Chris Seddon's 104), and hits allowed (196, fifth in the PCL). The Mariners allowed him to become a free agent after the season. ===Minnesota Twins organization=== French signed a minor league contract with the Minnesota Twins on January 27, 2012. He split the season between the Eastern League's New Britain Rock Cats and the International League's Rochester Red Wings. In nine starts for New Britain, he had a 4–1 record, a 2.10 ERA, 27 strikeouts, and 35 hits allowed in innings. With Rochester, he appeared in 19 games, 14 of which were starts. He had a 1–5 record, a 6.42 ERA, 49 strikeouts, and 90 hits allowed in innings. On November 3, he became a free agent. ==Further biography== Before he reached the major leagues in 2009, French married his wife, Blythe. He threw a fastball, slider, and changeup during his baseball career. When the Tigers played the Mariners in 2009, Griffey (back with the Mariners for his final season) gave French, who was a fan of his growing up, an autographed jersey. Griffey later became his teammate on the Mariners. "Mike Sweeney and I were talking when he walked up and stood there near us," Griffey recalled French's first day with the team. "We knew he wanted to introduce himself, so when we were done talking, both of us turned and started to walk away. Luke had his hand out and he just stared. Then I turned around and said, 'I'm just messin' with you.'" ==References== ==External links== Category:1985 births Category:Living people Category:Detroit Tigers players Category:Seattle Mariners players Category:Baseball players from Kansas Category:Major League Baseball pitchers Category:Sportspeople from Salina, Kansas Category:Gulf Coast Tigers players Category:West Michigan Whitecaps players Category:Lakeland Tigers players Category:Lakeland Flying Tigers players Category:Erie SeaWolves players Category:Toledo Mud Hens players Category:Tacoma Rainiers players Category:New Britain Rock Cats players Category:Rochester Red Wings players |
Ola Raknes (17 January 1887 – 28 January 1975) was a Norwegian psychologist, philologist and non-fiction writer. Born in Bergen, Norway, he was internationally known as a psychoanalyst in the Reichian tradition. He has been described as someone who spent his entire life working with the conveying of ideas through many languages and between different epistemological systems of reference, science and religion (Dannevig, 1975). For large portions of his life he was actively contributing to the public discourse in Norway. He has also been credited for his contributions to strengthening and enriching the Nynorsk language and its use in the public sphere. Raknes was known as a thorough philologist and a controversial therapist. Internationally he was known as one of Wilhelm Reich's closest students and defenders. ==Family== Ola Raknes was the son of the farmer Erik Askildson (Askjellson) Raknes (1856–1926) and Magdali Olsdotter (born Raknes) (1859–96) and grew up at the family farm of Raknes in Hamre on the island Osterøy in the Osterfjorden fjord near Bergen in a strict pietist environment. There were altogether 10 children of whom 7 grew up to become adults, and five of his siblings emigrated to the United States.Gatland 2010, p. 15f. He was married twice: in his first marriage in 1911 with Aslaug Vaa (1889 – 1965, the marriage was dissolved in 1938) they begot the children Magli (1912–1993), Anne (1914–2001), Tora (1916–1995), Erik (1919–) and Tor (1923–). The second marriage in 1941 with Gjertrud Bonde (1913–1975) gave him the daughter Ada (born 1952). ==Studies and work side by side== Ola Raknes attended folkeskole (primary school) on the neighbouring farm and then worked for a while on the family's farm prior to enrolling at middelskole (the next higher level in the education system of that time) in Volda. After that he graduated from the Hambros skole in Bergen in 1904. He took his examen artium as private candidate at Kristiania katedralskole in 1907. During the winter of 1907–08 he joined the elephant seal-catching vessel Solglimt to the Crozet islands in the southern Indian Ocean to collect plants and animals for the university in Kristiania. A liverwort, Jamesoniella raknesii was named after him. During the summers between 1910 and 1916 he served his military draft duty. Ola Raknes took on miscellaneous teaching positions in the years between 1910 and 1914 and worked as a journalist from 1914 to 1916 in the newspaper Den 17de Mai ("the 17th of May") while at the same time continuing his studies. In addition he worked during this period as a hotel worker. In 1915 he took his cand. philol. linguistical-historical "embedseksamen" (a public exam required for most professional positions in the public sphere) with Norwegian language as major subject and English and French as minor subjects. His major thesis was about Egill Skallagrímsson. In 1916 he was headmaster at Larvik higher school for one year. In 1917 he got a position as lector in Norwegian language and Norwegian literature at Sorbonne in Paris, and he spent the four years here earnestly by studying general psychology, psychology of religion, biology, sosiology, and furthermore medieval literature, medieval philosophy and theology on the side of his teaching position. He continued these studies when, after Sorbonne, he began as lector in Norwegian at University College in London where he stayed from 1921 to 1922. Ola Raknes' working capacity was widely spoken of, and during a period he worked both as secretary for Det Norske Samlaget, while at the same time working on the dictionary and preparing his doctoral thesis in psychology of religion, Møtet med det heilage ("Encounter with the Holy"), which was published in 1927. The dissertation which was also published as a book (and republished again in the 1970s), investigates the phenomenon of religious ecstasy in view of what was then recent findings and theories in the fields of ethnology, but particularly in psychology and psychoanalysis. In 1924 he went on to finish studies in pedagogy. Apart from this he also worked as a literary translator. Raknes studied psychoanalysis at the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute from 1928 to 1929 and later at the Orgone Institute in New York City in 1946. From 1929 on he had a private practice as psychoanalyst. He published some popularized essays on psychology which he collected in the book Fri vokster which was published in 1949. This was the first book which introduced Wilhelm Reich's theories and therapeutical practice to a Norwegian audience (Dannevig, 1975). ==Working for the Nynorsk== In May 1908 Ola Raknes, then still a student, became manager and handyman for Norskt Maalkontor (literally "Norwegian language office"), an office dedicated to promoting the still young Nynorsk language. In this job which he had until 1910 he dealt with book sales and administrative chores for Det Norske Samlaget. He provided the momentum behind book publications as well as sales, and he brought the accounting into order, since it hadn't been attended to for the last three years. Being the first secretary of the Samlaget he made a significant contribution to the establishing of its first real administration in a time period when publishing in Nynorsk was starting to become self-sufficient (Skard, 1975). Ola Raknes joined the Studentmållaget i Oslo (A pro-Nynorsk organization among students in Oslo) which was founded in 1900, and he attained a central position, among other things he was elected chairman in 1913 but had to renounce the position. In later times he would serve as an often used speaker both in the 20s and 30s. Already as a student Ola Raknes published French-Norwegian Wordlist. Having returned from London he began working on English-Norwegian Dictionary, which was produced between 1922 and 1927. This as well as French-Norwegian Dictionary, which was written between 1939 and 1942, were both written for the "school book committee" within the Samlaget, where Raknes was a board member between 1915 and 1917. Ola Raknes loved poetry, and together with I. C. Grøndahl he published the first Norwegian literature history volume in English in 1923. He was an appreciated literary translator, both of scholarly as well as artistic prose. He was the philological supervisor of Henrik Rytter's ten- volume translation of Shakespeare. Sigmund Skard writes of the two dictionaries which Ola Raknes wrote (Skard, 1975), that far from being mere glossaries, they were very personal works which again reflected the quest of Ola Raknes for his identity. Skard compares this work with that of Ivar Aasen more than 50 years earlier. Aasen had made his way through the entire tributary of Norwegian folk speech and compared it with another Nordic language: Danish. Skard writes that Raknes, "with strong power of empathy, integrated the values of two of the largest and oldest European cultural languages, procured everything that they possessed, from past to present, and confronted that with his own linguistic heritage and his personal linguistic sense. To check himself he drew in the living present-day speech in one of the richest East Norwegian rural dialects, in collaboration with his first wife, the poet Aslaug Vaa, as well as her father, the farmer Tor Vaa. Long into the future will these books be the daily benefit to everyone who works with the Norwegian language." Both the school book committee and to some extent the popular writings committee of which he was also a member from 1911, acted as schools in publishing where the students had to deal with all aspects of book publishing: market evaluations, editorial reviews, recruitment of authors, practical editorial chores, deals with publishing houses or printers, distribution, marketing and economy. Ola Raknes' dictionaries were reputedly so meticulous that even the most abject taboo words were included, and they became important tools in the cultural struggle of the Nynorsk movement. From 1922 to 1930 he again worked for the Samlaget, this time as secretary to the board, however, in reality he was director of the publishing house. Raknes also translated several works of fiction as well as non-fiction into Nynorsk. He did a groundbreaking job in establishing a philological and psychological terminology for the language.(Dannevig, 1975) Raknes was deeply involved in the Nynorsk movement, which included the Høgnorsk movement, and he was a founding member of Norsk Måldyrkingslag ("Norwegian society for language cultivation") in 1928. ==From childhood through early adulthood== ===Religious longing=== Already at a very early age Ola Raknes was intensely occupied with religion. It was particularly the thought and the fear of Hell which these ruminations centered on. Sometime between the age of seven and eleven he began to wonder about what the saved people told, that by repenting they had begot, or been allowed to take part in, a new and better life, a life which the non- repented didn't know of and could not comprehend. He had a vague sense of them being right in some way, but at the same time he felt that they also were wrong. He had an opaque reminiscence of once having experienced this life, in his own words from the time he was about 3 or 4 years old, "when he was a church-builder". Later he considered this to have been a child's way of expressing that he had known another life before. From about the age of ten and several years onward he attempted to come in contact with this other life. He went to edifying meetings in the village, and he often attended church, although he, just like the saved people, figured that that in particular was less important because it was a lesser likelihood that a conversion would start there. It was a constant fear of ending in Hell which spurred him, because he was certain that was where he would go if he failed in finding his way to the new life. Despite all his toils he never succeeded in attaining religious conversion. He felt that it would be dishonest of him if he stood up and testified the way some of his friends had done, that he had been graced, and he was also very ambivalent about believing whether all those who did so were totally honest. In hindsight Raknes found that partly what held him back was a fear of relinquishing. ===Discovered determinism=== During Christmas break, shortly before he turned 17, he stumbled across a booklet about determinism. Flem, Ivar: Mennesket naturbestemt eller determinismen Høvik, Bibliothek for de tusen hjem (1891) With the exception of some popularized scientific articles by G. H. Armauer Hansen, this was the first literary encounter he had which made him doubt the religious teachings which he had received until then. Even though he would later forget most of the content of the booklet, it made him consider the belief in eternal Hell without sense, and it also provided him with courage to trust his own thoughts and feelings a lot more than he had previously dared. When a little later he told his best friend, county school director Per Erdal, about his newly gained perspective on Hell, he was joyed to hear that his friend shared his view. The keen interest in religion would now lose its grip on Raknes for a number of years, and the interest in a life after death disappeared, never to return. In the years both before and after he, as a twenty-year-old, got his examen artium, it was common practice among his comrades to make jokes about and with both religion, philosophy and psychology, which was deemed more or less as superstition or play with empty words. Raknes felt that such subjects were unfit for someone who had set out to do something useful with his life, which he had. When he began to study philology after secondary school, he was hoping that the goals and literature which he would study were going to show him a field where he felt that he had a particular calling. However, as absorbing as many subjects seemed at first, none offered to him the labor which would consume him fully. And he felt likewise when it came to the women: He met many whom he liked and also many which, in retrospect, he believed also were fond of him, but during this time it felt like no woman could ever love him – even though that was what he longed for more than anything else. ===Falling in love and first marriage=== He was twenty-four and a half years old when he experienced his first big love affair since childhood, an event which he experienced as both a revelation and a revolution. Up until this time he had felt as if life only moved ahead in front of him, he being merely a passive spectator. From now on he felt that he lived and that he was himself a part of life, even though he still hadn't found his particular slot work-wise. Ola Raknes and Aslaug Vaa met in the Studentmållaget i Oslo. They also were colleagues as journalists for the newspaper Den 17de Mai ("May the 17th" a now defunct Nynorsk newspaper, at that time one of the nation's most subscribed to. The name is a reference to the date of the Norwegian Constitution Day). It was the interest for intellectual activities which brought them together, believed Aslaug's sister-in-law Thora Vaa (married to Aslaug's brother Dyre Vaa)(Fyllingsnes, page 11). The next years would be focused on more hands-on work: the philology studies, money that had to be earned, as well as an unceasingly growing family. The first daughter, Magli, was born in Oslo the year after Ola and Aslaug married. The family was constantly moving about the first years, and the second daughter, Anne, was born at the Vaa family farm in Kviteseid in Vest-Telemark. In between they had been living in Paris where Ola and also Aslaug were enrolled as students, and they also moved back to Paris in 1919. They lived in Rue Bonnard in a milieu of Norwegian artists, Henrik Sørensen and Dagfin Werenskiold being their closest neighbours, but hanging out with the artists was more to the liking of Aslaug. When Aslaug caught typhus and had to return home to Norway after two years in Paris, the two youngest of the then four children went with her while the two oldest, Magli and Anne remained in Paris together with Ola. After the stay in Paris the family lived for about a year in Kviteseid again. Then it moved to an apartment block in Johan Bruns gate at Adamstuen in Oslo which Ola Raknes had bought. There they lived for four years. Following that they moved to Lysaker (just outside Oslo's western city limits) where they remained until 1932–33. By then Ola had begun making enough money so that they once more could move back to Oslo (Fyllingsnes, p. 6). As the 1930s went on, the marriage began to fall apart. Ola Raknes became more absorbed by psychoanalysis while Aslaug Vaa found her path in writing poetry. Her debut occurred as late as 1934. Their marriage ended on a bitter note in 1938, following years of separate living. ==Interest in the religious== ===Religious debate=== About the time he turned thirty he got involved in a newspaper debate with the school man Jakob Naadland and bishop Peter Hognestad concerning reward for good deeds. The other two believed that man requires a promise of reward to be able to stay on the straight path. Ola Raknes, however, asserted, "that it is natural for man to love and be good, those are fundamental characteristics of man and needs no other 'payment' than to have the opportunity to function freely" (Raknes, 1959). Subsequent to this debate he started reading different books, mostly at random, about foreign religions, primitive as well as culture religions. ===Religion studies=== In the same year, 1917, Raknes commenced his four years as lector of Norwegian language and literature at Sorbonne in Paris, and he had planned his stay such that he would get the opportunity to study of his own heart a portion of the time. The first thing he wanted to study was the relationship between French and Norwegian literature in the Middle Ages. He started to read Joseph Bédier's great work about Les Légendes Épiques, a work which stunned him and convinced him that if he was ever going to understand the effects of Medieval French literature and its influences, he would also have to know something about Medieval philosophy and theology. Consequently, he contacted the university's professor of these subjects, François Picavet, studied several of his books, attended his lectures, and had several talks with him. Picavet possessed the enviable quality of making compendia when he had worked on a subject, where he summed up the development up through the present time. In this fashion Raknes started to read William James' book The Varieties of Religious Experience, the one book that would make the strongest impression on him above all others, and which later he would translate to Nynorsk. This was the first time that he had experienced that religion was dealt with as a natural phenomenon, and which in any case attempted to free itself from how the religions perceive themselves. He spent many weeks working his way through this book, and he walked about completely absorbed with new thoughts and feelings. Looking back, he writes that most of his friends looked upon him as if he were a loony, although a couple of artists appeared to envy him. On his last birthday, shortly before he died, Raknes described William James as the person who had had the greatest significance in his life (Dannevig). The revelation brought on him by this book was what he had been waiting for and which would show him a field of work to which he could apply himself wholly, one which in any case had importance to him, and maybe also to a lot of others. Raknes now experienced that he could understand the religions from the "inside", even though he himself didn't believe in any dogmatic religion. This would have to be his task, he felt; to point out what really was true and valuable in religions and at the same time how there had entered into each single religion so much that was not true, but quite the contrary, inimical to life. His yearning to obtain further information grew strong. He needed concrete knowledge, both about the various religions, about philosophies of religion, about ethnology which provides backdrop and fertile ground for the different religions, and about life in all its appearances. He started to read as much as he could in all of these fields, partly at random, and at the university he attended lectures, classes, and seminars in general psychology and psychology of religion. psychopathology and psychiatry, and in biology. Raknes read the basics of the French school of sociology, works by among others Durkheim, Mauss, and Lévy-Bruhl, and he read numerous books about mysticism. His favourite was Les grands mystiques by Henri Delacroix, who was his teacher. He also read the main works of the then fledgling psychology of religion which had its origin predominantly in America, and of ethnology he read among other things a series of books by Roman Catholic missionaries Raknes continued these studies when, after Sorbonne, he started in a position as Norwegian lector at University College in London where he stayed between 1921 and 1922. ===The source of true religion=== What Raknes intended in this manner was for him to be able to explain and demonstrate his strong conviction, which he knew he was yet unable to prove. "I wanted to be able to explain and demonstrate my own conviction, which already from the outset I perceived to be true, even though I was aware that I wasn't able to prove it. The conviction was that the source of all true religion is an inner experiencing of life and growth and contact with something outside of one's own narrow self. In its narrowest form, you can have this experience localized in a wound healing, in its widest form, it is a sensation of communion with the entire universe. At first I meant to call this experience 'growth consciousness'." (Raknes, 1959) ===Back in Norway=== After three years abroad, Raknes's finances were at a low point, and all time had to be directed toward financially profitable work. He taught languages and literature in high schools and wrote his English-Norwegian dictionary. It was not until 1927, after he had turned 40, that he was able to complete the book he had begun contemplating when he was in Paris, and begun working on in London. The book was Møtet med det heilage ("Encounter with the Holy"), and the next year he received his doctorate based upon it. In the later years of his life Raknes explained: "I count myself a religious man, but I am an opponent of all dogmatic religion. The core of all religion is a certain experience both of oneself as a unit and of the unity between oneself and the universe." (Raknes, 1959) ==From psychology of religion to psychoanalysis== From his work with the psychology of religion, Raknes had come to the conclusion that he needed some method for investigating the subconscious if he was to go further in understanding human behaviour. That time, at the end of the 1920s, no such method existed except for psychoanalysis. In 1928, for that reason, Ola Raknes finished up his school work and moved to Berlin and began studying at the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute with a grant from the Nansen fund. From this point he was lost to philology with the exception of finishing his French- Norwegian dictionary, which had contributed to make it possible for him to go to Berlin. While he attended apprentice analysis in Berlin with Karen Horney (who was later known as a "neo-Freudian"), he got convinced that psychoanalytic therapy was a vocation well suited to his abilities and interests. After having delivered a lecture to the Berlin chapter on "Viewpoints on psychoanalytical psychology of religion" in 1929, he was selected as member of the International Psychoanalytical Association. In the lecture Ola Raknes clearly stated his opposition to Freud's theories on religion. Raknes experienced progression in his new field of activity, and despite strong opposition from large parts of the medical profession, he was in the process of making a name for himself. ===Energy- and body-based forms of therapy=== ====From classical psychoanalysis to the character analysis of Reich==== Ola Raknes was always searching for improvements of the therapeutic technique, and he was also dissatisfied with the traditional psychoanalytical explanatory models for man's basic drives, instincts, and aggression, and he was skeptical of the psychological dualism of Freud's theories of these contradictory basic drives, which at first moved between the instinct for self preservation and sexuality, and later between the life instinct (Eros) and the death instinct (Thanatos). It was during his stay in Berlin that Ola Raknes heard Wilhelm Reich's name for the first time, but there would still be some years before he read anything by Reich. He was still busy studying Freud and other "orthodox" psychoanalysts. It was after Reich had published his book Charakteranalyse in 1933 that Ola Raknes in earnest began moving toward Reich's teachings. Following that book Raknes absorbed himself in Die Funktion des Orgasmus, then in Reich's articles in various psychoanalytical journals, and finally in Reich's own Zeitschrift für politische Psychologie und Sexualökonomie. Ola Raknes found it all to be most interesting and rich in perspective, however, this did not cause him to change either his basic attitudes or his psychotherapeutical technique. ====1934 – Meeting Wilhelm Reich==== Ola Raknes met Wilhelm Reich for the first time at the Scandinavian psychoanalysts meeting in Oslo in the Easter of 1934. Raknes was very much impressed by this strong personality, and the succinctness of his presentations and with which he presented himself during discussions about core elements of the themes that he discussed, helped Raknes attain a clearer understanding of many things. Wilhelm Reich's starting point was the psychoanalytical theories of Freud, but as early as 1925, based on experiences gained through volunteer work at his counselling clinic in Vienna for people with sexual problems, he began developing his theory of sex economy, a work which would continue until 1938. Raknes' first choice would be to commence apprentice therapy with Reich immediately, however, he had no way of travelling to Sweden where Reich was working at that time. In any case, they met again in August that same year on the 13th psychoanalytical congress in Luzern. There Ola Raknes, together with the two other Norwegian participants, professor of psychology Harald Schjelderup and child psychiatrist Nic. Hoel (who would later change her name to Nic. Waal), vehemently protested the blackballing of Reich from the International Psychoanalytical Association (I.P.V.). The Norwegian contingent was later at the congress approved as a distinct group, and this meant they could admit Reich in their membership. Wilhelm Reich did not, however, accept the offer of becoming a member when he moved to Norway later in 1934. At that time Raknes had already started in apprentice therapy with Otto Fenichel, whom he counted as one of Reich's friends and co-workers. He had from the outset told Fenichel that he would have gone to Reich if Reich had been in Norway. ====Character analysis and apprentice therapy with Reich==== Shortly after Reich had arrived in Norway, he opened a seminar in character analysis. Raknes was admitted to this despite not having undergone any such analysis himself. He tried out the techniques that he learned on a couple of his patients, with fairly good results. In the fall of 1936 he asked if Wilhelm Reich would accept him for apprentice therapy, both because of personal problems and because he thought that Reich's therapeutic approach was far more efficient than the classical Freudian technique which he had applied so far. Reich was in doubt and felt that Ola Raknes was a bit old and too armored, but in the end he accepted. Ola Raknes was probably one of the first patients to whom Reich consistently applied his new technique, which he labeled characteranalytic vegetotherapy. Not surprisingly, due to Raknes' advanced age, the restructuring of his character, that is the apprentice therapy, was cumbersome and lasted for almost three years, three sessions a week. The response did not fail to appear. At times everything felt so destitute and hopeless that he doubted whether he would ever be able to do the work that he still believed he was created to do, in a way he himself would be content with – and if he couldn't manage that, there would be no reason to live even. But after a long period of time he finally began noticing that the energies started to make themselves felt; he started noticing what took place inside of his own organism, and what it would mean to be functioning freely. He was struck by the fundamental differences between characteranalytic vegetotherapy and traditional psychoanalysis. Even though he had read Reich's book on character analysis, and he had also applied the technique on his own patients, having the technique work on his own body was something altogether new. Compared to classical psychoanalysis, the technique was now extended to the interpretation of character expressions and bodily attitudes, and to working through somatical blockings through direct manipulation. (Raknes, 1959) ====Characteranalytic vegetotherapy==== In his practice Raknes emphasized assisting people in working through to the living in themselves and work to release the innate propensity for development, the "free growth". The way of doing this was by removing the obstacles and blockages standing in the way, and this in turn would be effected when the person learned to acknowledge him- or herself, together with their thoughts, feelings and impulses. The most important part of this was to integrate body perception – to feel what one wanted, to yield to the urge if nothing of significance gainsayed it. In the article "Life and Religion" Raknes, Ola (1956) "Liv og religion", lecture given at the 4th Nordic Psychology meeting. Copenhagen. [Printed in Nordisk Psykologi's abstract from the meeting and as afterword to the 2nd edition of Encounter with the Holy] Raknes pointed to Wilhelm Reich's definition of life as a continuous process consisting of rhythmical shifts between mechanical tension, bioenergetic charge, bioenergetic discharge, and mechanical relaxation. In it he wrote, "Most people are going to need a certain amount of practice in noticing their own bodily states before they can experience this life rhythm. But then they are clearly going to experience it, in particular in two guises: in the rhythmical flow that penetrates the entire body when it is able to freely go along with the breathing, and particularly intense in the state popularly called 'living together', that is in the sexual orgasm". ====The orgone energy==== Even though Raknes conceded that the orgone theory of Wilhelm Reich – an expanding of Freud's libido concept to encompass a general life energy, which Reich called orgone – wasn't exhaustively proven with reference to the natural sciences' demands for proof, he felt that from his own observations and experiences it must have some merit. In the book Wilhelm Reich and orgonomy (written in English, but translated into many different languages), which he wrote a few years prior to his death, he explains in an educational and easy- to-comprehend manner the theory and its implications for various scientific disciplines, and in relation to society. How Reich was apparently able to make use of this energy in producing rain, using a so-called cloudbuster, a technical apparatus which is said to focus and project orgone energy, Raknes was himself a witness during a visit to Reich's estate "Orgonon" in Maine in 1953: :There had been a drought that had lasted for weeks, and the weather report predicted continued drought across the Eastern United States. Then Reich pointed the apparatus at a certain point in the sky and left it on for an hour and a half. If this is correctly set up, he said, we are going to experience rain within 8–9 hours. And quite correctly. After 8 hours we received an 8-hour streaming downpour across some tens of square kilometers surrounding the apparatus! An experience of that sort makes a certain impression. (Gabrielsen, 1962) Six times after the war Raknes traveled to the US to visit Reich, and to keep his skills and knowledge up-to-date with respect to the development of Reich's theories and methods. Then, upon his return to Norway, he would replicate as much as he could of the observations and experiments that he had witnessed in Reich's laboratory, experiments which constituted the foundation for the discovery of the bions and the orgone energy in the body. Raknes was of the opinion that what Reich had discovered was what others before him had described, but then using other names, such as animal magnetism, chi, and prana. Raknes also believed that such phenomena as telepathy and clairvoyance were real, and felt that the only thing that would cause scientists to deny their existence was narrow-mindedness and dogmatism (Gabrielsen, 1962). He believed that continued investigation and research into the orgone energy would possibly shed light on these phenomena. Factors drawing Raknes toward the orgone theory were his lifelong curiosity and interest for the origin of religions, the religious experience and how it shapes man, and he felt it could contribute in shedding light upon these areas on a scientific basis. Furthermore, he felt that it constituted an expansion of therapeutic treatment, from being a limited psychotherapy to deserving to be called a biotherapy. ===Active as a therapist until the end=== Ola Raknes had his treatment room in the basement of his home at Nordberg in Oslo, and there he also had his own "orgone closet" where his patients sat in order to be supplied life energy, a so-called orgone accumulator. He was sought after in many locations around the world, and as late as in his last year of living, albeit tired and marked by illness (Skard, 1975), he traveled to Denmark, Germany, France, Italy, England, and the United States, to visit friends, give lectures and receive patients in orgone therapy. He treated a total of 800 patients, and on his last working day he received five patients. Ola Raknes' work as a psychotherapist is being continued by several psychologists in Norway and also branched to other countries, in particular through Gerda Boyesen and David Boadella, both students of Raknes, who later established institutions for education of therapists in London and Switzerland, respectively. In 1972, at the age of 85, he initiated the founding of the "Forum for karakteranalytisk vegetoterapi" (this was also the name of a journal which was established in 1992) to assist in recruiting new vegetotherapists (being then at a low point). ==A notable figure in public discourse== His support for Wilhelm Reich when he was barred from the International Psychoanalytical Association in 1934 has already been mentioned. During Reich's residency in Norway between 1934 and 1939 there were vituperative debates over his theories and practice, and Ola Raknes was one of his strongest apologists. During the so-called Reich strife in the fall of 1937 and throughout 1938 the criticism that was leveled at Reich's theories and methods, in particular from traditional psychiatry, was unusually harsh. The attacks, some of which deteriorated to mudslinging and slander, were often strongly emotional, and Ola Raknes was among those of Reich's proponents who countered the criticism, which was most forcibly promulgated by the psychiatrist Johan Scharffenberg who insinuated that Reich merely pretended to be a physician, that he performed illegal medical treatment, and that Reich had wanted to perform electrical measurements on insane patients having sexual intercourse (Stai, 1954), and later by physician Gabriel Langfeldt (Raknes, 1939). Both in conjunction with the strife surrounding Reich in Norwegian public discourse, and later, during the resistance which Ola Raknes was met with in his work being an exponent for a controversial branch of psychotherapy, what Raknes "would represent, was founded on one ground only; his own experience and his scientific conscience. He was not someone merely parroting his great teacher. Nor was he an errand-boy; as a therapist he was in time going to speak out with professional authority. And the only thing that drove him, was what he believed to be the truth. In this respect he showed no deference, and cared not how others might judge him." (Skard, 1975) ===Journal editor=== Raknes organized study circles and was also involved in Reich's journal projects Zeitschrift für Politische Psychologie und Sexualökonomie (published 1934–1938)Zeitschrift für Politische Psychologie und Sexualökonomie (German) and Tidsskrift for seksualøkonomi (Norw. "Journal for sex economy", one issue only published in 1939) which he was editing together with Odd Havrevold. ===Growing recognition=== After Wilhelm Reich had left Norway for the United States in 1939, few people associated with the community of Norwegian psychoanalysts where longer willing to defend his teachings. Even the American Reich supporters were according to Raknes "disappointingly orthodox" (Dannevig, 1975). The only people left to carry on Reich's work appeared to be Ola Raknes and Nic. Waal, and following the death of Waal in 1960, Raknes was sometimes condescendingly referred to as "Reich's last disciple". Nevertheless, several psychiatrists had confidence in him, and his matter-of-fact style and all-over good reputation as a therapist saw to it that the demand from would-be patients never relented, in particular from abroad. And for the last 10–15 years of his life Ola Raknes was met with unanimous professional acceptance and veneration. (Skard, 1975; Kile, 1989). One among many, actor Sean Connery came to Oslo in 1967 to receive treatments by Ola Raknes (Haga, 2002), something which, for the first and only time, made the popular media give attention to his work, as they created a commotion outside his practice (Kile, 1989). ==Raknes and his influence on Wilhelm Reich== The collaboration and friendship between Ola Raknes and Wilhelm Reich would last through to Reich's death in an American prison cell in 1957. Most people have assumed that the influence between the two for the most part has gone from Wilhem Reich to Raknes, but this may not be the full picture. In the preface to the book Det levande i muskelpanseret ("The Living inside the Muscular Armor") which was published the same year Raknes died, another Reich therapist, Einar Dannevig, writes, "With his modest appearance and infinite loyalty toward his friend, Raknes contributed to a distorted image of himself. He is easily perceived as a loyal and grateful student of the great master even where he expressed opinions of his own which were hard fought for and well tested, Not until after he had turned 80, he wrote in the preface of his book Wilhelm Reich and Orgonomy: 'Some developments of Reich's ideas are due to myself and I am unable to tell, in some cases, which ideas were first mentioned by me, and which ones by Reich'. The fact that this is mentioned this late in a small preface of the best and probably most integrated presentation of Reich's life work having been written, has made many people overlook the fact that Raknes to a higher degree than any other has been co- creating in the development of those ideas which today form the foundation for the advanced development in different disciplines that one sees as the aftergrowth after Wilhelm Reich. With his firm integrity and independence, coupled with realizations which Raknes had arrived at through his studies in psychology of religion, philosophy, and psychoanalysis before meeting Reich, Raknes becomes a true friend and associate to Wilhelm Reich. With his lacking need for prestige, he was able to satisfy Reich's unusually strong demands for outward loyalty, while at the same time acting tactfully as a correcting agent when Reich in his later years could become the victim of his usually creative, but sometimes too lively and lonely imagination. With his more thorough philosophical background and acquaintance with philosophy of science, as well as his manifested ability to systematize, Raknes has meant very much to the development of the psychotherapeutic, biological, and natural philosophical theories that are usually ascribed to Wilhelm Reich alone." (Dannevig, 1975) ==Left-wing society involvement== As he took part in the shaping of society, both the Norwegian and in general, he was focusing on the forces that frustrate and impede free life expression, in the areas love and work both. He was deeply influenced in this by Reich's sex economical sociology and mass psychology. He was a member of Norwegian Democratic Group and he joined the circle of people centering on Orientering in 1953. He was a member of the Socialist People's Party also from that year, and that party's successor, the Socialist Left Party. His opinion was that the making conscious of the individual's bodily-psychological awareness, to which he could contribute through his work, had to progress hand-in-hand with societal changes – in the working place, in family life and in neighborhoods. He felt that the way society was organized created dependent individuals. Those family types and norms for child rearing which were prevalent created overwhelming sensations of angst, helplessness and feelings of littleness in the small child when its vital urges and needs – sexual or related to contact with other people, or other still – were thrashed, rejected or ignored. This in turn, Raknes felt, led, in the adult individual, to a necessity, in order for it to survive, for adaptation through one of two life strategies – either a constant, compulsive striving for power and competitive mentality, or equally compulsive attempts to ingratiate with those in power, through self-effacing submission and dutifullness. Ola Raknes thus placed the focus on the connection between current character traits in Norwegian society, such as feelings of either superiority or inferiority, competitiveness and self-effacing dutifullness, and characteristic structural traits in society itself such as concentration of power and bureaucratic control, in which the former provides fertile ground for the latter. (Grønseth, 2004) ==A rare aptitude for communication== Out of all that he wrote, it was the article from 1953 whose title in English was "The Orgonomic Concept of Health and its Social Consequences" that Raknes himself valued most highly. It presents a comprehensive psychological and biological perspective of the term health and has garnered praise from many directions and has also been translated into many languages. Many people have nevertheless asserted "Liv og religion" ("Life and Religion") to be Raknes' best article, originally a lecture given to the 4th Nordic Psychologist Meeting in 1956 and which deals with the living, the very feeling of being alive. It has been described as "a wise man's integrated understanding of what he has encountered in life, but also an encompassing, non-confessional faith." (Dannevig, 1975) Characteristic of his seemingly rock solid grasp of language as a tool for the conveying of thoughts, Raknes, being a lifelong proponent of the radical Nynorsk language, presented his speech in an "impeccable, pure in style and somewhat conservative Riksmål (a very conservative variant of the Bokmål language) in consideration of the Danes." (Dannevig, 1975) ==With focus on the child and the living== ===Free child rearing=== Ola Raknes was a strong proponent of providing freedom to the child so that it could make its own experiences instead of being told by adults how to perceive things: "Children always pick their own ideals. As soon as we put up ideals for them, they will start cheating on themselves. They are the ones who should make the choice." (Gabrielsen, 1962) In one of the essays in the book Fri Vokster ("Free growth") Raknes elaborates on how he as a psychologist sees the child's developmental dynamics being critically dependent on being given the opportunity to learn for itself to regulate such matters as going to the bathroom, what and when to eat and when and how much it wants to sleep, through experiencing and through practicing to master, without the adults spurring the child on. Such moral rules as not to inflict harm on others or to abstain from stealing, Raknes believed children had to find out about on their own, not through admonitions or prohibitions from the parents: "I believe that when a child lies, it is because it has been punished for telling the truth. And when it steals, it is because it feels neglected in one way or another. [...children] steal the love that isn't given to them." With respect to war Raknes meant for instance that it would be fine if the parents explained why people make wars against each other and to what this can lead, but they ought to leave it to the child to figure out what to make of it all. (Gabrielsen, 1962) ===The child in each of us=== Although Raknes mostly treated adult patients (Dannevig, 1975), it was the child that Ola Raknes focused on so strongly in his educational efforts to promote values and also as a therapist. The child is the center of focus in the article "Life and Religion", in the book Fri Vokster, in his therapy and in himself the way he was – the child in the adult and the child in itself, in center and teeming with life, the child which is devoid of sentimentality and childishness. His friend and student, Rolf Grønseth said of him that Ola Raknes manifested this child himself in his eagerness and his joy in searching and in pride in himself the way it can be seen in children, but that has been lost in most all adults – but that he combined this with an unusual degree of sober attitude. He saw things simply and straightforwardly and gave them names that all could understand. He could easily be misjudged as being naïve, but in reality he held a broad view. (Grønseth, 1975) Similarly was his repulsion great when it came to use of force and repression of others (Dannevig, 1975). Ola Raknes once said to his friend and student Rolf Grønseth: "I too must be allowed to die at some time". He died pursuant to a brief bout of pneumonia at the end of January 1975, only a few days after his 88th birthday. Einar Dannevig sums up his experience of Ola Raknes as a man of spirit: "The clarity of thought and emotion, conveyed through many languages, the ability to simplify with a taste for the big and significant parts of it all together with a genuine modesty and complete absence of ambitions for power made it a distinctive and a big experience to meet Ola Raknes, preferably in person, but also in writing." (Dannevig, 1975) ==Offices and associations== * Secretary of Det norske Samlaget 1922–29. "Heiderslagsmann" (honorary member) 1948 * Honorary member of Studentmållaget i Oslo from 1950 * Member of the board of Det norske teatret 1923–47, * Member of the International Psychoanalytical Society 1929–38 * Member of Norsk Psykologforening from 1935 * Member of the International Institute for Sex Economy 1939 * American Association for medical orgonomy 1949 * The Wilhelm Reich Foundation 1950–56 * American College of Orgonomy from 1968 * Forum for karakteranalytisk vegetoterapi (Norwegian) from 1972 ==Bibliography== * Fransk-norsk ordliste ("French – Norwegian Wordlist") (1914) * Chapters in Norwegian Literature (in collaboration with I. C. Grøndahl – 1923) * Engelsk- norsk ordbok ("English – Norwegian Dictionary") (1927) * Møtet med det heilage ("Encounter with the Holy") (1927) * Fransk-norsk ordbok ("French – Norwegian Dictionary") (1939–42) (new edition 1976) * Fri Vokster (psychological essays – 1949) * "Eit orgonomisk syn på helse og nokre terapeutiske, pedagogiske og sosiale fylgjer av det" – article in (supplement) "Psykisk sunnhet som psykologisk problem" of the journal Nordisk Psykologi 1953 (published in English as "The Orgonomic Concept of Health and its Social Concequences" in Wilhelm Reich and Orgonomy) * Wilhelm Reich and Orgonomy (1970 – translated into a number of languages, though not Norwegian) Raknes also wrote articles in amongst others the International Journal of Sex Economy and Orgone Research (under the pseudonym Carl Arnold), Orgone Energy Bulletin, Orgonomic Medicine and Syn og Segn. Translations into Nynorsk: * Colomba, Prosper Mérimée * David Copperfield, Charles Dickens * Religiøs røynsle i sine ymse former (1920), William James (original title The Varieties of Religious Experience) * Låtten, Henri Bergson (original title Le Rire) ==Sources== ;All sources are in Norwegian * Almenningen, Olaf et al.: Studentar i målstrid: Studentmållaget i Oslo 1900–2000 Oslo, Studentmållaget i Oslo, Det norske Samlaget (2003) * Faleide, Asbjørn; Grønseth, Rolf; Urdal, Bjørn (eds.): Dannevig, Einar Tellef: "Innleiing" In: Det levande i muskepanseret. Om kropp og sjel, muskelspenningar og psykoterapi, seksualitet og tilhøve mellom barn og vaksne Oslo – Bergen – Tromsø, Universitetsforlaget * Fyllingsnes, Ottar (1998) "Møttest i Mållaget" – Dag og Tid – Aslaug Vaa [supplement to Dag og Tid no. 22, 28 May 1998] * Gabrielsen, Bjørn (13 January 1962) "Trollmannens lærling" – Arbeiderbladet * * Grønseth, Erik (2004) Raknes, Ola – NorgesLexi [online edition]. Accessed 29 July 2008 * Grønseth, Rolf (1975) "Ola Raknes til minne" – Tidsskrift for Norsk Psykologforening, vol. 12, no. 3 * * Kile, Svein M. (1989) "Ola Raknes, hjelpar og ven" – Fra Fjon til Fusa. Årbok for Hordamuseet og for Nord- og Midhordaland Sogelag. Vol. 42, pages 58–60 * Nilsen, Håvard: "Ola Raknes" In: Norsk biografisk leksikon 2nd ed. vol. 7. Oslo, Kunnskapsforlaget (2003) * Raknes, Ola (1959) "Ola Raknes" – Norsk pedagogisk tidsskrift. Vol. 43, pages 272–279 [autobiographical article which for the most part was based on a letter which Raknes wrote to Wilhelm Reich in 1950 and which was printed in Orgone Energy Bulletin volume 4 (4), 1952. The article is also printed in Åse Gruda Skard (ed.) Psykologi og psykologar i Norge (Universitetsforlaget, Oslo, 1959) * Raknes, Ola (2003) "Reichs orgonterapi" – Tidsskrift for Den norske Lægeforening. Vol. 123, number 1634 [From the debate column in the 69th volume (1939)] * Skard, Sigmund (1975) "Ola Raknes" – Syn og Segn. Vol. 81, number 5, pages 268–274 [possibly identical to Skard's eulogy at the funeral of Raknes on 4 February 1975 in the chapel of Vestre Gravlund cemetery] * Stai, Arne "Oppgjøret omkring psykoanalysen og Wilhelm Reich! In: Norsk kultur- og moraldebatt i 1930–årene. 2nd ed. Oslo, Gyldendal (1954) [1978 edition in the "Fakkel" series] * Steenstrup, Bjørn (ed.): "Raknes, Ola" In: Hvem er Hvem? 11th ed., page 450. Oslo, Aschehoug (1973) ==Notes== ==References== Category:1887 births Category:1975 deaths Category:Academics of University College London Category:English–Norwegian translators Category:French–Norwegian translators Category:Deaths from pneumonia in Norway Category:People from Osterøy Category:Norwegian psychoanalysts Category:Norwegian language Category:Norwegian psychologists Category:Norwegian sexologists Category:Norwegian philologists Category:Norwegian book publishers (people) Category:Norwegian lexicographers Category:Norwegian literary historians Category:Norwegian anthropologists Category:20th-century Norwegian philosophers Category:Norwegian non-fiction writers Category:Norwegian psychology writers Category:Norwegian essayists Category:Norwegian editors Category:Heads of schools in Norway Category:Academic staff of the University of Paris Category:Wilhelm Reich Category:20th-century Norwegian translators Category:20th-century essayists Category:20th-century anthropologists Category:20th-century psychologists Category:20th-century Norwegian journalists Category:20th-century philologists Category:20th-century lexicographers |
Sino–Arab relations (, ), have extended historically back to the first Caliphate, with important trade routes, and good diplomatic relations. Since the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC), modern Sino-Arab relations have gotten significantly closer, with the China–Arab States Cooperation Forum (CASCF) helping the People's Republic of China and the Arab nations to establish a new partnership in an era of the growing globalization. As a result, close economic, political and military relations between the two sides have been maintained. From 2018, the relations became significantly warmer, with the PRC and the Arab countries exchanging state visits, establishing cooperation mechanism and providing support to each other. Since 1990, no Arab country has official diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (ROC), although it is diplomatically represented in some nations via Taipei Economic and Cultural Offices. == History == ===Medieval era=== During the Tang dynasty, when relations with Arabs were first established, the Chinese called the Arabs 大食 (Dàyì or Dayi). The Caliphate was called "Da Yi Guo" 大食國.(Original from Harvard University) The word is thought to be a transcription of Persian Tāzik or Tāzī, derived from a nisba of the Arab tribe Ṭayyiʾ. The modern term for Arab is 阿拉伯 (Ālābó or Alabo). The Arab Islamic Caliph Uthman Ibn Affan (r. 644–656) sent an embassy to the Tang court at Chang'an. Arab sources claim Qutayba ibn Muslim briefly took Kashgar from China and withdrew after an agreement but modern historians entirely dismiss this claim. The Arab Umayyad Caliphate in 715 AD deposed Ikhshid, the king the Fergana Valley, and installed a new king Alutar on the throne. The deposed king fled to Kucha (seat of Anxi Protectorate), and sought Chinese intervention. The Chinese sent 10,000 troops under Zhang Xiaosong to Fergana. He defeated Alutar and the Arab occupation force at Namangan and reinstalled Ikhshid on the throne.*Bai, Shouyi et al. (2003). A History of Chinese Muslim (Vol.2). Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company. ., pp. 235-236 Chinese General Tang Jiahui led the Chinese to defeat the following Arab-Tibetan attack in the Battle of Aksu (717). The attack on Aksu was joined by Turgesh Khan Suluk. Both Uch Turfan and Aksu were attacked by the Turgesh, Arab, and Tibetan force on 15 August 717. Qarluqs serving under Chinese command, under Arsila Xian, a Western Turkic Qaghan serving under the Chinese Assistant Grand Protector General Tang Jiahui defeated the attack. Al-Yashkuri, the Arab commander and his army fled to Tashkent after they were defeated. Although the Tang dynasty and the Abbasid Caliphate had fought at Talas, on June 11, 758, an Abbasid embassy arrived at Chang'an simultaneously with the Uyghur Khaganate envoys in order to pay tribute. A Chinese captured at Talas, Du Huan, was brought to Baghdad and toured throughout the caliphate. He observed that in Merv, Khurasan, Arabs and Persians lived in mixed concentrations. He gave an account of the Arab people in the Tongdian in 801 which he wrote when he returned to China. > Arabia [Dashi] was originally part of Persia. The men have high noses, are > dark, and bearded. The women are very fair [white] and when they go out they > veil the face. Five times daily they worship God [Tianshen]. They wear > silver girdles, with silver knives suspended. They do not drink wine, nor > use music. Their place of worship will accommodate several hundreds of > people. Every seventh day the king (Caliph) sits on high, and speaks to > those below saying, ' Those who are killed by the enemy will be born in > heaven above; those who slay the enemy will receive happiness.' Therefore > they are usually valiant fighters. Their land is sandy and stony, not fit > for cultivation; so they hunt and eat flesh. (Original from Harvard University)(Original from the University of California) > This (Kufa) is the place of their capital. Its men and women are attractive > in appearance and large in stature. Their clothing is handsome, and their > carriage and demeanor leisurely and lovely. When women go outdoors, they > always cover their faces, regardless of whether they are noble or base. They > pray to heaven five times a day. They eat meat [ even] when practicing > abstention, [for] they believe the taking of life to be meritorious. > The followers of the confession of the “Dashi” (the Arabs) have a means to > denote the degrees of family relations, but it is degenerated and they don’t > bother about it. They don’t eat the meat of pigs, dogs, donkeys and horses, > they don’t respect neither the king of the country, neither their parents, > they don’t believe in supernatural powers, they perform sacrifice to heaven > and to no one else. According their customs every seventh day is a holiday, > on which no trade and no cash transactions are done, whereas when they drink > alcohol, they are behaving in a ridiculous and undisciplined way during the > whole day. An Arab envoy presented horses and a girdle to the Chinese in 713, but he refused to pay homage to the Emperor, said, he said "In my country we only bow to God never to a Prince". The first thing the court was going to do was to murder the envoy, however, a minister intervened, saying "a difference in the court etiquette of foreign countries ought not to be considered a crime." A second Arab envoy performed the required rituals and paid homage to the Emperor in 726 A.D. He was gifted with a "purple robe and a girdle".(Original from Harvard University) There was a controversy between the Arab ambassadors and Uyghur Khaganate Ambassadors over who should go first into the Chinese court, they were then guided by the Master of Ceremonies into two different entrances. Three Da shi ambassadors arrived at the Tang court in 798 A.D. A war which was raging between the Arabs and Tibetans from 785 to 804 benefited the Chinese.(Original from Harvard University) Products were traded by sea routes between China and Arabs. According to Professor Samy S. Swayd Fatimid missionaries made their Dawah in China during the reign of al-'Aziz bi-Allah. ===Military and political relations=== One legend among Muslims in China said that China during the Tang dynasty exchanged 3,000 Chinese soldiers sending them to the Arabs and the Arabs in turn sent 3000 Arab Muslim soldiers to China. In 756, 3,000 Arab mercenaries joined the Chinese against An Lushan A massacre of foreign Arab and Persian Muslim merchants by Tian Shengong happened during the An Lushan rebellion in the Yangzhou massacre (760), since Tian Shengong was defecting to the Tang dynasty and wanted them to publicly recognized and acknowledge him, and the Tang court portrayed the war as between rebel hu barbarians of the Yan against Han Chinese of the Tang dynasty, Tian Shengong slaughtered foreigners as a blood sacrifice to prove he was loyal to the Han Chinese Tang dynasty state and for them to recognize him as a regional warlord without him giving up territory, and he killed other foreign Hu barbarian ethnicities as well whose ethnic groups were not specified, not only Arabs and Persians since it was directed against all foreigners.Old Tang History "至揚州，大掠百姓商人資產，郡內比屋發掘略遍，商胡波斯被殺者數千人" "商胡大食, 波斯等商旅死者數千人波斯等商旅死者數千人." The Tang dynasty recovered its power decades after the An Lushan rebellion and was still able to launch offensive conquests and campaigns like its destruction of the Uyghur Khaganate in Mongolia in 840-847. It was the Huang Chao rebellion in 874–884 by the native Han rebel Huang Chao that permanently destroyed the power of the Tang dynasty since Huang Chao not only devastated the north but marched into southern China which An Lushan failed to do due to the Battle of Suiyang. Huang Chao's army in southern China committed the Guangzhou massacre against foreign Arab and Persian Muslim, Zoroastrian, Jewish and Christian merchants in 878–879 at the seaport and trading entrepot of Guangzhou, and captured both Tang dynasty capitals, Luoyang and Chang'an. A medieval Chinese source claimed that Huang Chao killed 8 million people.《殘唐五代史演義傳》：“卓吾子評：‘僖宗以貌取人，失之巢賊，致令殺人八百萬，血流三千里’” Even though Huang Chao was eventually defeated, the Tang Emperors lost all their power to regional jiedushi and Huang Chao's former lieutenant Zhu Wen who had defected to the Tang court turned the Tang emperors into his puppets and completed the destruction of Chang'an by dismantling Chang'an and transporting the materials east to Luoyang when he forced the court to move the capital. Zhu Wen deposed the last Tang Emperor in 907 and founded Later Liang (Five Dynasties), plunging China into the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period as regional jiedushi warlords declared their own dynasties and kingdoms. Arab Caliph Harun al-Rashid established an alliance with China. The Abbasid caliph Abu Ja'far Abdallah ibn Muhammad al-Mansur (Abu Giafar) was the one who sent the mercenaries. Several embassies from the Abbaside Caliphs to the Chinese Court are recorded in the T'ang Annals, the most important of these being those of (A-bo-lo-ba) Abul Abbas, the founder of the new dynasty, that of (A-p'u-ch'a-fo) Abu Giafar, the builder of Bagdad, of whom more must be said immediately; and that of (A-lun) Harun al Raschid, best known, perhaps, in modern days through the popular work, Arabian Nights. The Abbasides or " Black Flags," as they were commonly called, are known in Chinese history as the Heh-i Ta-shih, " The Black-robed Arabs."Original from the University of CaliforniaOriginal from Princeton UniversityOriginal from the University of CaliforniaOriginal from the New York Public Library (Original from the University of Michigan )(Original from the University of Michigan, Library of Catalonia )(Original from the University of California )(Original from Indiana University ) ===Trade=== In Islamic times Muslims from Arabia traded with China. For instance, China imported frankincense from southern Arabia via Srivijaya. ===20th century=== The Republic of China under the Kuomintang had established relations with Egypt and Saudi Arabia in the 1930s. The Chinese government sponsored students like Wang Jingzhai and Muhammad Ma Jian to go the Al-Azhar University to study. Muslim pilgrims also made the Hajj to Mecca from China. left|thumb|150px|Ma Bufang in Egypt in 1955. Chinese Muslims were sent to Saudi Arabia and Egypt to denounce the Japanese during the Second Sino-Japanese War. The Fuad Muslim Library in China was named after King Fuad I of Egypt by the Chinese Muslim Ma Songting. In 1939 Isa Yusuf Alptekin and Ma Fuliang () were sent by the Kuomintang to Middle Eastern countries such as Egypt, Turkey, and Syria to gain support for China in the Second Sino-Japanese War. Others included Wang Zengshan, Xue Wenbo, and Lin Zhongming. The Hui Muslim Imam () also toured the Middle East to confront Japanese propagandists in Arab countries and denounce their invasion to the Islamic world. He directly confronted Japanese agents in Arab countries and challenged them in public over their propaganda. He went to British India, Hejaz in Saudi Arabia and Cairo in Egypt. Egypt maintained relations until 1956, when Gamal Abdel Nasser cut off relations and established them with the communist People's Republic of China instead. Ma Bufang, who was then living in Egypt, then was ordered to move to Saudi Arabia, and became the Republic of China ambassador to Saudi Arabia. Ambassador Wang Shi-ming was a Chinese Muslim, and the Republic of China ambassador to Kuwait. The Republic of China also maintained relations with Libya, and Saudi Arabia. right|thumb|180px|Ma Bufang and Family in Egypt in 1954. By the 1990s all Arab states cut off ties with the Republic of China and established ties with the PRC. The relations between China and the Arab League as an organization officially started in 1956, yet it was in 1993 when the Arab League opened its first office in China, when then- Secretary-General Asmat Abdel-Meguid went to an official visit to Beijing. In 1996, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) general secretary Jiang Zemin gave an interview to Abdel-Meguid during his visit to Egypt, and became the first Chinese leader to officially visit the Arab League. === 21st century === thumb|Emirates aircraft in Taiwan Adam Hoffman and Roie Yellinek of the Middle East Institute wrote in May 2020 that the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, which spread from China to the Arab states, has set a complex dynamic in relations between the sides, created an opportunity for solidarity and assistance, and at the same time exacerbating present challenges. 15 of the 22 Arab League member states had backed the 2020 Hong Kong national security law at the United Nations, alongside 38 other countries. There are 14 Confucius Institutes in the Arab world. Confucius Institutes are one of the major ways China invests soft power in the Arab countries and in the world. After 14 years of operation in the region, it can be said that the Institutes, as an instrument of Chinese soft power, have effectively penetrated the Arab world and are welcomed without significant criticism. == Sino-Arab Cooperation Forum == In the opening ceremony of the Forum in 2004, Chinese foreign minister Li Zhaoxing said that the Arab world is an important force in the international arena, and that China and Arab countries enjoy a time-honored friendship, remarking "Similar histories, common objectives and wide-ranging shared interests have enabled the two sides to strengthen cooperation. No matter how the international situation changes, China has always been the sincere friend of the Arab world." The Sino-Arab Cooperation Forum was formally established during CCP general secretary Hu Jintao's visit to the League's headquarters in January 2004. Hu noted at the time that the formation of the forum was a continuation of the traditional friendship between China and the Arab world and an important move to promote bilateral ties under new circumstances. Li stated that "the establishment of the forum would be conducive to expanding mutually beneficial cooperation in a variety of areas." "China has submitted four proposals. First, maintaining mutual respect, equitable treatment and sincere cooperation on the political front. Second, promoting economic and trade ties through cooperation in investment, trade, contracted projects, labor service, energy, transportation, telecommunications, agriculture, environmental protection and information. Third, expanding cultural exchanges. Finally, conducting personnel training," he said. Arab foreign ministers attending the meeting agreed that the formal inauguration of the forum was a significant event in the history of Arab ties with China. They submitted a variety of proposals on promoting Sino-Arab friendship and cooperation. At the conclusion of the meeting, Li and Arab League Secretary General Amr Moussa signed a declaration and an action plan for the forum. Li arrived in Cairo on Sunday evening for a three-day visit to Egypt, the last leg of a Middle East tour that has taken him to Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman. The 2nd CASCF was held in Beijing in 2006, it discussed the Chinese proposal of a Middle east Nuclear-free, and the peace process between Palestinians and Israelis. while the 3rd SAFC is set to be held in Bahrain 2008 ==Comparison== Common Name Arab League ChinaRetroactively known as “Communist China” or “Red China”, but it is commonly known as “China”. TaiwanAlso known as “Formosa”. It is historically sometimes referred to as “Nationalist China”, “Free China” or simply known as “China” until the 1970s. See Political status of Taiwan and One-China policy. Official name League of Arab States People's Republic of China Republic of China Flag Population 407,251,880 (2018) 1,403,500,365 (2017) 23,577,271 (2018) Area 13,953,041 km2 (5,382,910 sq mi) 9,640,821 km2 (3,704,427 sq mi ) 36,193 km2 (13,974 sq mi) Population Density 24.33/km2 (63 /sq mi) 139.6/km2 (363.3/sq mi) 644/km2 (1,664/sq mi) Capital Cairo Beijing Taipei (de facto) Nanjing (de jure) Largest City Cairo - 19,500,000 (20,439,541 Metro) Shanghai - 19,210,000 Municipality New Taipei City - 3,935,072) Organization and Government Type regional organisation and Political union Unitary Marxist–Leninist single-party socialist republic Unitary parliamentary constitutional republic under a semi-presidential system Leader Secretary General of the Arab League General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party President of the Republic of China Official languages Arabic Mandarin (Putonghua) Mandarin (Guoyu) Main Religions 91% Islam Sino-traditions, Buddhism, Taoism and alike combined (no exact criteria and hard to estimate) 35.1% Buddhism, 33.0% Taoist, 18.7% Non-religious, 3.9% Christianity, 3.5% Yiguandao (XTD), 2.4% Other, 2.2% Tiandism (XTD), 1.1% Miledadao (XTD), 0.8% Zailiism, 0.7% Xuanyuanism GDP (nominal) $6.484 trillion ($9,347 per capita) $13.118 trillion ($9,376 per capita) $566.757 billion ($24,027 per capita) ==The Joint Communiqué== One of the major Joint Projects involves the Environment, the AL and PROC signed the Executive Program of the Joint Communiqué between the Environmental Cooperation for 2008–2009 The League of Arab States and the Government of People's Republic of China signed the Joint Communiqué on Environmental Cooperation (referred to as the Joint Communiqué) on 1 June 2006. The Joint Communiqué is an important instrument that aims to deepen the regional environmental partnership between the two parties. Since the signing of the Joint Communiqué, the Chinese Ministry of Commerce and the Chinese Ministry of Environmental Protection have co-organized two environmental protection training courses in June 2006 and June 2007 respectively, in China. In order to implement article 4 of the Joint Communiqué, both parties shall develop this Executive Program for 2008 and 2009. It aims to enhance the cooperation between the League of Arab States and China in the field of environmental protection, which is in line with the common aspiration of the two parties and their long term interests, and will help to promote the friendship between the two parties. The two parties will try to involve relevant government departments and sectors, and will actively promote and seek cooperation on the projects and activities in the following areas: 01*Environmental Policies and Legislation 02*Biodiversity Conservation 03*Prevention and Control of Water Pollution, Waste Management and Control of Other Kinds of Pollution 04*Cooperation on Combating Desertification and Managing Water Resources in Arid Areas 05*Coordinating the Stand on Global Environmental Issues 06*Environmental Industry 07*Enhancing Environmental Education and Raising Public Awareness in Environment 08*Other Projects that the two may develop and implement other projects of common interest after negotiating with relevant government departments and sectors. 09*Financial Arrangements 10*Final Provisions This treaty was signed by Arab Ambassador Ahmed Benhelli Under secretary general Am Moussa's Approval, and Xu Qinghua Director General Department for International Cooperation, Ministry of Environmental Protection. == See also== *Silk Road *Sino-Roman relations *China–Lebanon relations *Saudi Arabia–Taiwan relations == Notes == == References == * ==External links== *1stmaroc.com *China–Arab States Cooperation Forum (in Chinese) * China Arab League Arab League |
Slovakia competed at the 2015 European Games, in Baku, Azerbaijan from 12 to 28 June 2015. Slovakia won 1 gold, 3 silver and 3 bronze medals in Baku. Originally, Slovakia won 2 gold medals, but after Azerbaijan's Dzmitry Marshin was suspended for four years after he failed a drug test, Slovakia lost athletics gold medal because this subsequent doping disqualification led to changes in final standings. Austria received an additional point and overhauled Slovakia.Europaspiele: Kurioser Dopingfall beschert Österreich Gold hdsports.at 3. November 2015 Doping scandal! We lost gold medal from EH in Baku. TV Noviny. Retrieved on 2016-08-10. ==Medalists== | width=78% align=left valign=top | Medal Name Sport Event Date Shooting Mixed Trap Athletics Mixed team Shooting Men's Trap Shooting Men's 50 metre pistol Boxing Men's 52 kg Shooting Men's 10 metre air pistol wrestling Men's Greco-Roman 66kg |width=22% align=left valign=top | Medals by sport Medals by sport Medals by sport Medals by sport Medals by sport Sport Total Shooting 1 2 1 4 Athletics 1 0 0 1 Boxing 0 0 1 1 wrestling 0 0 1 1 Total 2 2 3 7 ==Archery== ;Men Athlete Event Ranking round Round of 64 Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final / Score Seed Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Boris Baláž Individual 623 55 Q L 0–6 colspan=5 33 Individual Individual ;Women Athlete Event Ranking round Round of 64 Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final / Score Seed Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Alexandra Longová Individual 642 12 Q W 6–0 L 2–6 colspan=4 17 Individual Individual ;Mixed Athlete Event Ranking round Round of 64 Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final / Score Seed Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Boris Baláž Alexandra Longová Mixed Team 1265 22 colspan=6 22 ==Athletics== *Men's (Tomáš Benko, Andrej Bician, Jakub Bottlík, Matúš Bubeník, Tomáš Čelko, Denis Danáč, Slaven Dizdarević, Martin Koch, Martin Kučera, Marcel Lomnický, Jakub Matúš, Matúš Olej, Dušan Páleník, Jozef Pelikán, Lukáš Privalinec, Jozef Repčík, Marek Šefránek, Roman Turčáni, Jozef Urban, Tomáš Veszelka, Juraj Vitko, Ján Volko, Adam Závacký, Ján Zmoray, Pavol Ženčár, Patrik Žeňúch Reserve: (Peter Ďurec, Alexander Jablokov, Leonard Lendvorský, Róbert Lӧbb, Lukáš Beer, Tomáš Krajňak, Martin Benák, Libor Charfreitag) *Women's (Katarína Beľová, Katarína Berešová, Alexandra Bezeková, Paula Habovštiaková, Andrea Holleyová, Martina Hrašnová, Anna Mária Hrvolová, Zuzana Karaffová, Lucia Klocová, Lenka Kršáková, Veronika Ľašová, Ľubomíra Maníková, Lucia Mokrášová, Michaela Pešková, Katarína Pokorná, Iveta Putalová, Lucia Slaničková, Patrícia Slošárová, Sylvia Šalgovičová, Alexandra Štuková, Ivona Tomanová, Dana Velďáková, Jana Velďáková, Monika Weigertová) Reserve: (Júlia Kočárová, Nikola Lomnická, Klaudia Kálnayová, Ivana Krasňanová, Miroslava Vargová) Gender Participant Event Round Mark Place Men's Tomáš Benko 100 metres Heat 2 10.60 GR 1st place Men's Ján Volko 200 metres Heat 2 21.08 GR 1st place Men's Lukas Privalinec 400 metres Heat 2 48.65 6th place Men's Jozef Repčík 800 metres 1:51.51 2nd place Men's Jozef Pelikán 1500 metres 3:51.07 2nd place Men's Jozef Pelikán 3000 metres 8:24.29 5th place Men's Juraj Vitko 5000 metres 14:56.08 5th place Men's Alexander Jablokov 3000 metres steeplechase 9:26.23 7th place Men's Jakub Bottlík 110 metres hurdles Heat 2 16.41 8th place Men's Martin Kučera 400 metres hurdles Heat 2 50.70 GR 1st place Men's Denis Danac Roman Turcani Ján Volko Tomáš Benkoh 4 x 100 metre relay Heat 2 40.80 3rd place Men's Lukáš Privalinec Jozef Repčík Denis Danac Martin Kučera 4 x 400 metre relay Heat 2 3:08.80 GR 1st place Men's Matúš Bubeník High Jump 2.26 GR 1st place Men's Ján Zmoray Pole Vault 5.15 GR 1st place Men's Tomáš Veszelka Long Jump 7.01 6th place Men's Martin Koch Triple Jump 15.38 6th place Men's Matúš Olej Shot Put 17.61 5th place Men's Matúš Olej Discus Throw 47.54 7th place Men's Marcel Lomnický Hammer Throw 75.41 GR 1st place Men's Patrik Žeňúch Javelin Throw 74.89 GR 1st place Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Gender Participant Event Round Mark Place Women's Lenka Kršáková 100 metres Heat 2 11.76 3rd place Women's Alexandra Bezeková 200 metres Heat 2 23.72 2nd place Women's Iveta Putalová 400 metres Heat 2 53.07 GR 1st place Women's Paula Habovštiaková 800 metres 2:07.67 5th place Women's Paula Habovštiaková 1500 metres 4:30.17 5th place Women's Ľubomíra Maníková 3000 metres 9:57.89 5th place Women's Katarína Berešová 5000 metres 16:52.06 4th place Women's Katarína Beľová 3000 metres steeplechase 11:11.34 6th place Women's Lucia Mokrášová 110 metres hurdles Heat 2 13.92 2nd place Women's Andrea Holleyová 400 metres hurdles Heat 2 59.81 3rd place Women's Lenka Kršáková Iveta Putalová Jana Velďáková Alexandra Bezeková 4 x 100 metre relay Heat 2 44.92 GR 1st place Women's Sylvia Šalgovičová Alexandra Štuková Alexandra Bezeková Iveta Putalová 4 x 400 metre relay Heat 2 3:35.03 GR 1st place Women's Zuzana Karaffová High Jump 1.74 6th place Women's Anna Mária Hrvolová Pole Vault 3.40 5th place Women's Jana Velďáková Long Jump 6.68 GR 1st place Women's Dana Velďáková Triple Jump 13.95 2nd place Women's Patrícia Slošárov Shot Put 14.18 4th place Women's Ivona Tomanová Discus Throw 42.02 7th place Women's Martina Hrašnová Hammer Throw 69.31 GR 1st place Women's Veronika Ľašová Javelin Throw 40.35 7th place Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's Women's ==Badminton== ;Men Athlete Event Group stage Group stage Group stage Group stage Round of 16 Quarterfinal Semifinal Final / Final / Athlete Event Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Jarolím Vicen Singles L 23–25, 15–21 L 13–21, 16–21 L 17–21, 12–21 4 colspan=4 GS ;Women Athlete Event Group stage Group stage Group stage Group stage Round of 16 Quarterfinal Semifinal Final / Final / Athlete Event Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Jana Čižnárová Singles W 10–21, 23–21, 21–16 L 16–21, 17–21 L 13–21, 11–21 3 colspan=4 GS ==3x3 Basketball== ===Women's tournament=== ;Team * Alexandra Pribulová * Alexandra Riecka * Zuzana Mračnová * Dominika Baburová ;Group Play \---- ;Eighth Finals ==Boxing== ;Men Athlete Event Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Final Final Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Viliam Tankó 52 kg W 3—0 W 2—1 L 0—3 Michal Zátorský 60 kg L 1—2 colspan=3 R16 Matúš Strnisko 81 kg W 3—0 L 0—3 colspan=3 R16 Erik Tlkanec 91 kg 0—3 colspan=4 R32 ==Canoe sprint== ;Men Athlete Event Heats Heats Semifinals Semifinals Finals Finals Time Rank Time Rank Time Rank Ľubomír Hagara C1 200 m 42.034 6 QS 40.695 8 FB 42.507 15 Matej Rusnák C1 1000 m 4:04.777 4 QS 3:47.954 4 colspan=2 Miroslav Zaťko K1 200 m 36.282 6 QS 35.808 7 FB 37.700 17 Peter Gelle K1 1000 m 3:40.139 5 QS 3:25.951 4 FB 3:35.203 10 Marek Krajčovič K1 5000 m colspan=4 22:30.158 16 Martin Jankovec Ľubomír Beňo K2 200 m 3:14:468 3 QS 33.144 8 colspan=2 Erik Vlček Juraj Tarr K2 1000 m 33.448 8 FA colspan=2 3:13:865 4 Marek Krajčovič Matej Michálek Viktor Demin Gabor Jakubík K4 1000 m 2:54.252 4 QS 2:50.523 1 FA 3:10.773 7 ;Women Athlete Event Heats Heats Semifinals Semifinals Finals Finals Time Rank Time Rank Time Rank Ivana Kmeťová Martina Kohlová K2 200 m 38.085 5 QS 36.847 GB 1 FA 41.853 8 Ivana Kmeťová Martina Kohlová K2 500 m 1:44.421 6 QS 1:39.875 2 FA 1:55.995 7 Lucia Mištinová K1 5000 m 24:22.429 14 ==Cycling== Spain has qualified for the following events based on the UCI Nations Rankings ===Road=== Athlete Event Time Rank Erik Baška Men's road race DNF DNF Michael Kolář Men's road race 5:42:25 (+15:00) 50 Ľuboš Malovec Men's road race DNF DNF Tereza Medveďová Women's road race 3:34:09 (+13:33) 44 Tereza Medveďová ===Mountain biking=== Athlete Event Time Rank František Lámi Men's cross-country LAP 26 Michal Lámi Men's cross-country LAP 28 ===BMX=== ;Men Athlete Event Qualifying Time Trial Time Trial Super Final Motos Semifinal Final Result Rank Result Rank Points Rank Result Rank Result Rank Michal Tomčo Men's BMX 36.723 26 colspan=2 18 6 colspan=4 ==Fencing== ;Men Athlete Event Pool Round Table of 32 Table of 16 Quarterfinal Semifinal Final / Final / Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank David Vegh Individual foil Nista (ITA) L 1–5 Mourrain (FRA) L 2–5 Tsoronis (DEN) L 3–5 Pelermann (GER) L 3–5 Khovanskiy (RUS) L 1–5 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance ;Women Athlete Event Pool Round Table of 32 Table of 16 Quarterfinal Semifinal Final / Final / Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Michala Cellerová Individual foil Golya (HUN) L 2–5 Chrzanowska (POL) L 3–5 Leleyko (UKR) W 5–1 Yakovleva (RUS) L 2–5 Wohlgemuth (AUT) L 0–5 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Dagmar Cipárová Individual épée Bukocki (HUN) L 2–5 Beljajeva (EST) L 2–5 Khudaverdiyeva (AZE) W 5–3 Nelip (POL) L 4–5 Samuelsson (SWE) L 2–5 Branza (ROM) W 5–3 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance ==Gymnastics== ===Artistic=== ;Men ;Individual Athlete Event Final Final Final Final Final Final Final Final Athlete Event Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Total Rank Athlete Event Total Rank Slavomír Michňák All-around 11.500 14.666 12.066 13.433 13.066 13.766 78.497 48 ;Women ;Individual Athlete Event Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Qualification Final Final Final Final Final Final Athlete Event Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Total Rank Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Apparatus Total Rank Athlete Event Total Rank Total Rank Barbora Mokošová All-around 13.933 11.166 12.333 12.600 50.032 38 Q 13.833 12.166 10.633 12.200 48.832 18 ==Judo== Athlete Event Round of 64 Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Repechage Final / Final / Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Matúš Milichovský Men's −81 kg Margiani (GEO) L 000–101 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Milan Randl Men's −90 kg Bauza (LIT) L 000–100 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Matej Hajas Men's −100 kg Wojcik (POL) L 000–100 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance ==Karate== ;Women Athlete Event Group phase Semifinal Final / Final / Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Ingrida Suchánková Women's −61 kg D 2–2 L 0–2 D 0–0 3 colspan=2 5–6 == Shooting == ;Men Athlete Event Qualification Qualification Semifinal Semifinal Final Final Points Rank Points Rank Points Rank Juraj Tužinský 10 m air pistol 582 2 colspan=2 rowspan=3 180.1 Pavol Kopp 10 m air pistol 578 10 10 Pavol Kopp 50 metre pistol 557 7 187.5 Erik Varga Trap 123 GR 2 15 1 14 Marián Kovačócy Trap 118 19 colspan=3 19 Hubert Andrzej Olejník Double trap 140 6 27 6 6 Štefan Zemko Skeet 117 22 colspan=3 22 ;Women Athlete Event Qualification Qualification Semifinal Semifinal Final Final Points Rank Points Rank Points Rank Jana Hyblerová 10 m air rifle 410.1 31 colspan=2 colspan=2 Jana Hyblerová 50 m rifle 3 positions 575 23 colspan=2 colspan=2 Daniela Pešková 10 m air rifle 413.0 16 colspan=2 colspan=2 Daniela Pešková 50 m rifle 3 positions 577 15 colspan=2 colspan=2 Zuzana Štefečeková Trap 70 8 colspan=4 Danka Barteková Skeet 72 4 14 3 15 4 Andrea Stráňovská Skeet 64 19 colspan=3 19 ;Mixed Athlete Event Qualification Qualification Semifinal Semifinal Final Final Points Rank Points Rank Points Rank Erik Varga Zuzana Štefečeková Trap 94 1 28 1 27 Štefan Zemko Danka Barteková Skeet 91 4 25 2 25 4 ==Synchronised swimming== Slovakia has qualified for the following events Athlete Event Qualification Free Routine Qualification Free Routine Final Final Athlete Event Points Rank Points Rank Simona Barutova Nada Daabousova Petra Durisova Miroslava Kratinova Sophia Lobpreisova Diana Miskechova Natalia Pivarciova Rebecca Schererova Sarah Kartousova Julia BacharovaRes Alexandra RatajovaRes Team 138.7097 12 Q 139.8430 12 ==Table Tennis== Slovakia has qualified the following quota places: ;Men Athlete Event Round of 64 Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinal Semifinal Final / Final / Athlete Event Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Ľubomír Pištej Singles W 4–0 L 0–4 colspan=4 R32 Yang Wang Singles W 4–3 w/o L 2–4 colspan=3 R16 ;Women Athlete Event Round of 64 Round of 32 Round of 16 Quarterfinal Semifinal Final / Final / Athlete Event Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Opposition Score Rank Eva Ódorová Singles W 4–2 W 4–1 W 4–2 W 4–1 L 0–4 L 1–4 4 Barbora Balážová Singles 4–1 3–4 colspan=4 R32 == Taekwondo == Athlete Event Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Repechage Bronze medal Final Final Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Terézia Pavková Women's −49 kg Zaninovic (CRO) L 2–14 Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance Did not advance ==Triathlon== Athlete Event Swim (1.5 km) Trans 1 Bike (40 km) Trans 2 Run (10 km) Total Time Rank Richard Varga Men's 18:39 0:46 56:42 0:24 33:01 1:49:32 (+1:01) 5 Lukáš Šiška Men's 19:55 0:50 1:03:51 0:27 35:54 2:00:57 (+12:26) 44 Romana Gajdošová Women's 23:16 0:50 1:10:31 0:28 39:39 2:14:44 (+14:16) 33 Ivana Kuriačková Women's 23:12 0:55 1:10:29 0:29 41:13 2:16:18 (+15:50) 35 == Swimming == ;Men Athlete Event Heat Semifinals Final Time Rank Time Rank Time Rank Alexander Svetlík 50 m backstroke 27.58 32 colspan=4 Alexander Svetlík 100 m backstroke 59.53 44 colspan=4 Alexander Svetlík 200 m backstroke 2:09.43 30 colspan=4 Peter Ďurišin 50 m breaststroke 29.20 18 colspan=4 Peter Ďurišin 100 m breaststroke 1:05.15 30 colspan=4 Vladimír Štefánik 50 m butterfly 25.15 29 colspan=4 Vladimír Štefánik 100 m butterfly 55.32 15 54.59 12 colspan=2 Vladimír Štefánik 100 m freestyle 51.57 29 colspan=4 ;Women Athlete Event Heat Semifinals Final Time Rank Time Rank Time Rank Lara Babská 50 m breaststroke 33.92 26 colspan=4 Lara Babská 100 m breaststroke 1:15.76 34 colspan=4 Zuzana Pavlikovská 100 m freestyle 59.82 51 colspan=4 Zuzana Pavlikovská 200 m breaststroke 2:39.25 24 colspan=4 Zuzana Pavlikovská 200 m individual medley 2:26.92 32 colspan=4 Lucia Simovičová 50 m freestyle 27.26 33 colspan=4 Lucia Simovičová 100 m freestyle 58.82 34 colspan=4 Lucia Simovičová 50 m butterfly 28.52 27 colspan=4 ==Volleyball== Slovakia has qualified for the following events ===Men's indoor=== Group – Pool B Quarter-finals ==Water Polo== See Water polo at the 2015 European Games ===Men's tournament=== Group D \---- \---- Play-off ===Women's tournament=== Group B \---- \---- \---- ==Wrestling== ;Men's Greco-Roman Athlete Event Qualification Round of 16 Quarterfinal Semifinal Repechage 1 Repechage 2 Final / Final / Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank István Lévai 66 kg W 4—1 W 4—1 L 0—4 W 3—1 W 3—1 Vojtech Jakuš 71 kg L 0—3 colspan=6 QR Richard Rigo 75 kg L 0—4 colspan=3 L 1—3 colspan=2 R16 ;Men's freestyle Athlete Event Qualification Round of 16 Quarterfinal Semifinal Repechage 1 Repechage 2 Final / Final / Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Róbert Olle 70 kg L 0—4 colspan=5 R16 Mykola Bolotnjuk 61 kg W 3—1 L 0—4 colspan=4 QF Jozef Jaloviar 97 kg W 3—1 L 1—3 W 3—1 L 0—4 4 Michal Duba 74 kg L 0—4 colspan=6 QR Soslan Gagloev 125 kg W 4—0 W 4—1 W 3—1 L 0—5 L 1—3 4 ;Women's freestyle Athlete Event Qualification Round of 16 Quarterfinal Semifinal Repechage 1 Repechage 2 Final / Final / Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Opposition Result Rank Lenka Matejová 48 kg L 0–5 colspan=5 R16 ==References== Category:Nations at the 2015 European Games European Games 2015 |
The small group of , natively called , depending on classification, are either the most divergent form of Japanese, or comprise a branch of Japonic (alongside mainland Japanese, Northern Ryukyuan, and Southern Ryukyuan).Thomas Pellard. The comparative study of the Japonic languages. Approaches to endangered languages in Japan and Northeast Asia: Description, documentation and revitalization, National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics, Aug 2018, Tachikawa, Japan. ffhal-01856152 Hachijō is currently spoken on two of the Izu Islands south of Tokyo (Hachijō-jima and the smaller Aogashima) as well as on the Daitō Islands of Okinawa Prefecture, which were settled from Hachijō-jima in the Meiji period. It was also previously spoken on the island of Hachijō-kojima, which is now abandoned. Based on the criterion of mutual intelligibility, Hachijō may be considered a distinct Japonic language, rather than a dialect of Japanese. Hachijō is a descendant of Eastern Old Japanese, retaining several unique grammatical and phonetic features recorded in the Azuma-dialect poems of the 8th-century Man'yōshū and the Fudoki of Hitachi Province. Hachijō also has lexical similarities with the dialects of Kyushu and even the Ryukyuan languages; it is not clear if these indicate that the southern Izu islands were settled from that region, if they are loans brought by sailors traveling among the southern islands, or if they might be independent retentions from Old Japanese.Masayoshi Shibatani, 1990. The Languages of Japan, p. 207. Hachijō is a moribund language with a small and dwindling population of primarily elderly speakers. Since at least 2009, the town of Hachijō has supported efforts to educate its younger generations about the language through primary school classes, karuta games, and Hachijō- language theater productions. Nevertheless, native speakers are estimated to number in the "low hundreds," and younger generations are not learning or using the language at home. ==Classification and dialects== The Izu Islands dialects of Hachijō are classified into eight groups according to the various historical villages within Hachijō Subprefecture. On Hachijō-jima, these are Ōkagō, Mitsune, Nakanogō, Kashitate, and Sueyoshi; on Hachijō-kojima, these were Utsuki and Toriuchi; and the village of Aogashima is its own group. The dialects of Ōkagō and Mitsune are very similar, as are those of Nakanogō and Kashitate, while the Aogashima and Sueyoshi dialects are distinct from these two groups. The Utsuki and Toriuchi dialects have not been subcategorized within Hachijō, though the Toriuchi dialect has been noted to be very similar to the Ōkagō dialect in phonology. The dialect(s) of the Daitō Islands also remain uncategorized. The Hachijō language and its dialects are classified by John Kupchik and the National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics (NINJAL), respectively, within the Japonic family as follows: *Proto-Japonic ** Proto-Japanese ***Eastern Old Japanese ****Hachijō language ***** Ōkagō & Mitsune dialects (Downhill dialects) ***** Nakanogō & Kashitate dialects (Uphill dialects) ***** Sueyoshi dialect ***** Aogashima dialect ***Central Old Japanese (including Western Old Japanese) ****Japanese language ** Proto- Ryukyuan ***Ryukyuan languages The dialects of Aogashima and Utsuki are quite distinct from the other varieties (and each other). The Aogashima dialect exhibits slight grammatical differences from other varieties, as well as noticeable lexical differences. The Utsuki dialect, on the other hand, is lexically similar to the Toriuchi dialect and those of Hachijō-jima, but has undergone several unique sound shifts such as the elimination of the phonemes and ; the loss of the latter is referred to as being sitagirecjaQcja "cut- tongued" by those of other villages, or citagije in Utsuki. The dialects of Hachijō-jima are, like its villages, often referred as being or . The villages of Ōkagō and Mitsune in the northwest are Downhill, while the villages of Nakanogō, Kashitate, and Sueyoshi in the south are Uphill—though the Sueyoshi dialect is not particularly close to those of the other "Uphill" villages. Therefore, the Sueyoshi dialect is often excluded from the term "Uphill dialects." As the number of remaining speakers of Hachijō as a whole is unknown, the numbers of remaining speakers of each dialect are also unknown. Since the abandonment of Hachijō-kojima in 1969, some speakers of the Utsuki and Toriuchi dialects have moved to Hachijō-jima and continue to speak the Hachijō language, though their speech seems to have converged with that of the Downhill dialects. As late as 2009, the Toriuchi dialect had at least one remaining speaker, while the Utsuki dialect had at least five.山田平右エ門 (Yamada Heiuemon), 2010. 消えていく島言葉～八丈語の継承と存続を願って～ (A Disappearing Island Language ~Wishing for the Inheritance and Survival of the Hachijō Language~), pp. 181–182. ==Phonology== ===Phonotactics=== Like Standard Japanese, Hachijō syllables are (C)(j)V(C), that is, with an optional syllable onset C, optional medial glide , a mandatory syllable nucleus V, and an optional coda or . The coda can only be present word-medially, and syllable nuclei can be short or long vowels. The medial glide represents palatalization of the consonant it follows, which also involves a change in place or manner of articulation for certain consonants. Like in Japanese, these changes can also be analyzed phonemically using separate sets of palatalized and non-palatalized consonants. However, from a morphological and cross-dialectal perspective, it is more straightforward to treat palatalized consonants as sequences of consonants and , as is done in this article, following the phonemic analysis made by Kaneda (2001). Furthermore, when a vowel begins with the close front vowel , the preceding consonant (if any) becomes palatalized just as if a medial were present. Hachijō contrasts three syllable weights depending on their rimes: * Light syllables end in a short vowel with no coda (e.g., ko). * Heavy syllables have either a short vowel with a coda (e.g., koN), or a long vowel with no coda (e.g., koo). * Superheavy syllables have both a long vowel and a coda (e.g., kooN). Unlike light and heavy syllables, superheavy syllables are strongly avoided in Hachijō, and they are forbidden outright in most verbal inflections. Where they would occur, they are generally resolved by deletion of the coda or by shortening of the long vowel. Where the latter occurs, it can be written with a tie or as a short vowel, e.g., ⟨kogo͡oN⟩ or ⟨kogoN⟩ "in this way"; the former practice will be followed here. Though these shortened vowels are pronounced the same length as short vowels, they still follow the dialectal correspondences for long vowels (listed below). Finally, there are a small number of words that contain N as a syllable nucleus instead of a vowel, such as NNmakja "tasty" (stem NNma-, cognate to Japanese uma-i). ===Vowels=== There are five short vowels found in all varieties of Hachijō: Short Vowels in Hachijō Front Central Back Close Mid Open Many of Hachijō’s long vowels are properly diphthongs, though the majority of them vary in quality based on region, being long monophthongs in some dialects and diphthongs in others. Therefore, in this article, the term "long vowel" will be used to include diphthongs as well. There are relatively straightforward correspondences between the dialectsʼ long vowels: Long Vowel Correspondences This Article ii uu aa ee ei oo ou aĭ uĭ oĭ Kashitate Nakanogō Sueyoshi Mitsune Ōkagō Toriuchi Utsuki Aogashima Minami DaitōNakai Seiichi, Daniel Long, et al. 南洋プランテーション社会における方言—南大東島のフィールドワークをもとに— (Dialect in a South Seas Plantation Society: From Fieldwork on Minami Daito-jima). 地域言語 第１５号 (Regional Linguistics, issue 15), pp. 51–60. 地域言語研究会 (Regional Language Research Group), 26 Oct 2003. Toyama, Japan. The long vowels aĭ, uĭ, and oĭ are comparatively rare, arising mainly from contractions. Lastly, there are a very small number of discourse markers that contain nasal vowels, such as oĩ "Oh my!" and hõõ "Oh?" or "Oho!" ===Consonants=== Hachijō contains roughly the same consonants as Standard Japanese, with most consonants able to be followed by all vowels as well as by the medial glide . Consonant Phonemes in Hachijō Bilabial Coronal Velar Laryngeal Nasal Plosive / Affricate Voiceless Voiced Fricative Tap Approximant Special morae , /Q/ ===Phonological processes=== In addition to the variations described above, Hachijō also exhibits a handful of other conditioned sound alternations: ====Affrication of and ==== When followed by the high vowels or (short or long), the plosive consonants t and d become sibilant affricates, merging into c and z respectively, which is also reflected in orthography (as shown here). This change happens in addition to the palatalization of coronal consonants described below. ====Palatalization of coronal consonants==== When followed by the vowel (short or long), or when combined with the medial glide , the coronal nasal n as well as all coronal obstruents—namely, t, d, c, z, s—change from an alveolar place of articulation to a palatal one. This change happens in addition to the affrication of t and d mentioned previously. Thus, t-j and c-j become cj , d-j and z-j become zj , s-j becomes sj , and n-j becomes nj . The consonant j is already palatal in articulation, reducing any would-be sequences of to simply . Lastly, the coronal affricates c and z have a tendency to be sporadically palatalized to cj and zj; compare Utsuki mizoma and Kashitate mizjoma "sewer, drainage," cognate to Japanese 溝 mizo "ditch." ====Vowel coalescence==== Hachijō generally disallows vocalic segments in hiatus except for in the long vowels listed above. Where such a hiatus would appear (from compounding, affixation, consonant elision, etc.), coalescence generally occurs instead. For combinations of two vowels, the following chart gives a general overview: -e -i -o -u -wa a- ee oo ee oo awa, oo e- ei ei ei ei ewa, ja i- je ii jo ju iwa, ja o- ei ei ou ou owa, oo u- ii ii uu uu uwa, uu Noteworthy irregularities or exceptions include: * a-wo → ou, seen in the inflection of Class 1.1Aʼ verbs whose stems end in ...aw-, such as utaw- "to sing" → attributive *utaw-o → utou. * e-wa → a, seen on personal pronouns with the topic-marking -wa in some dialects (ware-wa → wara). * o-wa → a, seen in the verbal inflection of the stative -ar- (*-arowa → -ara), copula dara (*darowa → dara), new-type negative -Nn(ak)- (*-Nnakowa → -Nnaka), etc. And although these rules are usually followed etymologically as well, there are some exceptions: * *uwa → a, seen in words like *kuwa → ka "hoe" (related to Standard Japanese 鍬 kuwa). * *ie → ei, seen in several Class 2 verbs such as *kierowa → keirowa "to disappear" (related to Old Japanese 消ゆ ki1yu, ki1ye-). * *ue → ei, seen in words like *suerowa → seirowa "to set" (related to Standard Japanese 据える sueru). * *ui → ei, seen in words like *uttui → uQcei "the day before yesterday" (related to Standard Japanese 一昨日 ototoi). * *ei → ee, seen in a single word: *tame(s)ite → tameete "attempting" (participle form of tamesowa "to attempt," related to Japanese 試す tamesu). * *owa → ou, seen in a single word: *kowasowa → kousowa "to destroy" (related to Japanese 壊す kowasu). Coalescence can be blocked by leveling and reversed or altered by influence from other dialects or mainland Japanese. =====Non-coalescence===== As an exception to the vowel coalescence rules given above, there are special situations where the vowel can diphthongize with another short vowel a, o, or u without coalescing with it, forming the long vowels aĭ, oĭ, or uĭ instead of the expected ee, ei, or ii. Many notable examples of this occur when the light syllable re is contracted to , such as in waĭra "we" (from warera) and nomaraĭdou "despite drinking" (from nomararedou). The frequency of such contracted forms depends on the dialect and individual. Non-coalescing vowels are comparatively common in the Utsuki dialect, as , , and often occur in place of other dialectsʼ ri, ru, and re due to the loss of the phoneme word- medially. As a result, former ari and aru have merged into the reflexes and of Common Hachijō ei and ou. Compare the following vocabulary: Common Hachijō Mitsune Pronunciation Utsuki Pronunciation Meaning ozjarijare "welcome!" taru "barrel" marubara "died," "has died" okireba "when (he) awakens" kabure "wear (the hat)!" ====Consonant gemination==== The majority of consonants undergo no special changes when geminated, merely becoming longer, e.g.: t → Qt . However, there are a few main exceptions. These first exceptions usually arise by the prefixing of -final suffixes onto words: * Gemination of h: When an h is made geminate, it becomes Qp —for example, oQ- (intensifier) + hesowa "to push" → oQpesowa "to push." * Gemination of n and m: When an n or m is made geminate, it becomes Nn or Nm , respectively—for example, hiQ- (intensifier) + magarowa "to bend" → hiNmagarowa "to bend." * Gemination of s: When an s or sj is made geminate, an excrescent causes it to become Qc or Qcj , respectively—for example, hiQ- (intensifier) + simerowa "to tie" → hiQcimerowa "to tie." This feature occurs in all dialects except for Sueyoshi, which has Qs and Qsj in these cases. Lastly, in the Uphill dialects (and occasionally for other dialect speakers as well), a sound shift has occurred wherein /N/ has become /Q/ when followed by a voiced obstruent: * Special gemination of b, d, g, z: In the Uphill dialects, etymological Nb, Nd, Ng, and Nz have often changed into geminate Qb, Qd, Qg, and Qz. For example, the participle of jomowa "to read" in the Kashitate dialect is joQde in contrast to most other dialectsʼ joNde . ====Rendaku==== Like all Japonic languages, Hachijō exhibits , wherein word-initial voiceless obstruents alternate with voiced ones in some compounds. The alternation is straightforward in Hachijō: Without Rendaku p h t c s k With Rendaku b d z g All other consonants are unaffected by rendaku. ==Grammar== Hachijō is head-final, left-branching, topic-prominent, often omits nouns that can be understood from context, and has default subject–object–verb word order. Nouns do not exhibit grammatical gender, nor do they usually indicate grammatical number. Hachijō preserves several grammatical features from Old Japanese—particularly Eastern Old Japanese (EOJ)—that are not reflected in Modern Standard Japanese, for example: * Verbal adjectives use the attributive ending -ke, from EOJ. Contrast Western Old Japanese -ki1, Modern Japanese ～い -i. * Verbs use the attributive ending -o ~ -ro, from EOJ. Contrast Western Old Japanese and Modern Japanese -u ~ -ru. * Verbs use the stative derivation -ar-, from EOJ. Contrast Western Old Japanese -e1r-, obsolete in Modern Japanese. * Verbs use the past tense -ci ~ -zi, from Old Japanese -si (attributive form of -ki1). This affix is obsolete in Modern Japanese. * Verbs use the conjectural extension -naw-, descended from EOJ -nam-. Contrast Western Old Japanese -ram-, Modern Japanese -rō. * The existence verb arowa is used with all subjects, without the animate–inanimate (iru–aru) distinction made in Standard Japanese. ** Relatedly, the verb irowa (cognate to Japanese iru) has only its original meaning of "to sit." * The particles ga and no are both used to mark the nominative and genitive cases. * Many interrogative particles are based on an-, such as ani "what," aNde "why," and aNsei "why." Contrast the Japanese cognates based on nan-: 何 nani "what," なんで nande "why," and なぜ naze "why". * The Japonic grammatical phenomenon of still occurs with the question particle ka (related to Japanese か ka) and the focus particles ka and koo (perhaps related to Japanese こそ koso). This phenomenon started disappearing in Japanese in Late Middle Japanese, and it was lost entirely in Standard Japanese around the Edo Period. * Many cases of Proto-Japanese *e and *o are reflected as Hachijo e and o, as seen in EOJ. Contrast Western Old Japanese, which usually merged these vowels into i1 and u. Hachijō has also had developments and innovations not found in Modern Standard Japanese: * The final verb ending -u ~ -ru has been replaced by a new declarative -owa ~ -rowa for many uses. * The participle (te-form) of k- and g-stem verbs end in -Qte and -Nde, in contrast to most Japanese dialectsʼ -ite and -ide. * Several verb affixes have arisen based around an optative-like suffix -oosi, related in some way to the Middle Japanese optative ～ま欲し -(a)maosi. ==Vocabulary== Hachijō contains a large number of vocabulary words whose phonetic shapes are not predictable from their Japanese cognates. These differences often reflect forms Hachijō inherited from Eastern Old Japanese (rather than from mainland Japanese’s ancestor of Western-Central Old Japanese) or irregular sound changes in one or both languages. Hachijō Eastern OJ Cognate(s) nubur- "to climb" -- 上る nobor- (ModJ) no2bor- (WOJ) nubuyuɴ (Okinawan) horow- "pick up" pirop- 拾う hirow- (ModJ) 拾ふ firof- (EMJ) pi1rip- (WOJ) firiɴ ~ firiyuɴ (Okinawan) pʰurūruɴ (Nakijin Kunigami) houm- "hold in the mouth" popom- 含む fukum- "contain" (ModJ) pupum- (WOJ) nogow- "wipe" nogop- 拭う nuguw- (ModJ) 拭ふ nogof- (EMJ) nuguyuɴ (Okinawan) ote- "to fall" -- 落ちる ochi- (ModJ) oti- (WOJ) *ote- (PR) ʔutiyuɴ (Okinawan) ore- "to descend, to disembark" -- 降りる ori- (ModJ) ori- (WOJ) *ore- (PR) ʔuriyuɴ (Okinawan) memezume "earthworm" -- 蚯蚓 mimizu (ModJ) mimidu (EMJ) *memezu (PR) mimiji (Okinawan) asub- "to play" -- 遊ぶ asob- (ModJ) aso1b- (WOJ) *asub- (PR) asibuɴ ~ ashibuɴ (Okinawan) igok- "to work" -- 動く ugok- "to move" (ModJ) ugo1k- (WOJ) *igok- (PR) ʔɴjuchuɴ, ʔɴjuk- (Okinawan) kasjag- "to lean, to slant" -- 傾ぐ kashig- (ModJ) kashig-, katag- (Early ModJ) kasik- "to cook by steaming or boiling" -- 炊ぐ kashig- (ModJ) kasik- (EMJ) kashichii "okowa" (Okinawan) katog- "to bear" -- 担ぐ katsug- (ModJ) katug- (Early ModJ) jo "fish" -- 魚 uo (ModJ) uwo ~ iwo (EMJ) *iyo (PR) ʔiyu (Okinawan) ɿɿu (Miyako) hito, tecu ~ teQcu "one, one thing" -- 一 hito, 一つ hitotsu (ModJ) pi1to2, pi1to2tu (WOJ) *pito, *pitetu (PR) chu, tiitsi (Okinawan) pɿtu, pɿtiitsɿ (Miyako) Hachijō also preserves vocabulary that has become obsolete in most Japanese dialects, such as: Hachijō Cognate(s) magure- "to faint" 眩る magure- "to get dizzy" (LMJ) heirak- "to hurt, to sting" 疼らく fifirak- "to tingle, to sting" (EMJ) hotour- "to be hot" 熱る fotofor- ~ fotobor- "to emit heat" (EMJ) sjo-ke "known" 著き siru-ki1 ~ (iti)siro1-ki1 "known, evident" (WOJ) nabure- "to hide" 隠る nabar- ~ namar- "to hide" (EMJ) njow- "to groan" 呻吟ふ niyof- ~ niyob- "to groan" (EMJ) kour- "to love" 恋ふ kofi- (EMJ) ko1pi2\- (WOJ) There are some words which do occur in standard Japanese, but with different meanings: Hachijō Japanese Cognate jama "field" 山 yama "mountain" gomi "firewood" ゴミ gomi "trash" oyako "relatives, kin" 親子 oyako "parent and child" kowakja "tired, exhausted" 怖い kowai "scary, scared" nikukja "ugly" 憎い nikui "detestable, difficult" kamowa "to eat" 噛む kamu "to chew, to bite" izimerowa "to scold" 苛める ijimeru "to tease, to bully" heirowa "to shout, to cry out" 吠える hoeru "(of a dog) to bark, to howl" jadorowa "to sleep (honorific)" 宿る yadoru "to stay the night" marubowa "to die" 転ぶ marobu "to collapse, to fall down" Lastly, Hachijō also has unique vocabulary words whose relationship to Japonic are unclear or unknown: Hachijō Meaning togirowa to invite, to call out to kasurowa to forget deecikja pretty, clean, tidy kucukawasime cicada keebjoome lizard hjoura lunch, midday meal cube roof zokume bull abi strawberry, raspberry ==See also== * Japanese language * Japanese dialects * Japanese phonology ==References== === Works cited === * * * * * * * * ==Further reading== * Sound clip and transcription of Hachijō * Database of Endangered Languages of Japan Category:Japanese dialects Category:Languages of Japan |
This is a list collecting the most notable films produced in Hungary and in the Hungarian language during 1990–. ==1990s== Title Director Cast Genre Notes 1990 Eszterkönyv Krisztina Deák Eszter Nagy-Kálózy, András Bálint, Károly Eperjes Drama Tutajosok Judit Elek Pál Hetényi, András Stohl, Sándor Gáspár, Pieczka Franciszek Drama Napló apámnak, anyámnak Márta Mészáros Zsuzsa Czinkóczi, Jan Nowicki Biography drama Az erdő kapitánya Attila Dargay László Csákányi (voice), János Gálvölgyi (voice) Animation adventure comedy Szédülés János Szász Tamás Jordán, Zoltán Hegyi Drama Vattatyúk Mária Dobos Gabriella Juhász Comedy crime És mégis… Zsolt Kézdi-Kovács András Kozák, Irén Bordán Drama Sárkány és papucs Tibor Hernádi István Sztankay (voice), Éva Almási (voice), János Gálvölgyi (voice) Animation 1991 Félálom János Rózsa Csaba Újvári, Bernadett Visy, Zsolt Gazdag Drama Hamis a baba István Bujtor István Bujtor, András Kern Comedy crime Itt a szabadság! Péter Vajda Péter Andorai Drama Entered into the 17th Moscow International Film Festival Magyar rekviem Károly Makk György Cserhalmi Drama Halálutak és angyalok Zoltán Kamondi Enikő Eszenyi Drama Screened at the 1991 Cannes Film Festival A hetedik testvér Jenő Koltai, Tibor Hernádi Csongor Szalay (voice), Balázs Simonyi (voice), Álmos Elõd (voice) Animated fantasy-comedy-drama Szerelmes szívek György Dobray Szandi, Péter Andorai Comedy musical romance Szoba kiáltással János Xantus Klára Falvay, András Fekete, Andrzej Ferenc Drama 1992 Édes Emma, drága Böbe - vázlatok, aktok István Szabó Johanna ter Steege, Enikő Börcsök Drama Goldberg variációk Ferenc Grunwalsky Péter Andorai, Erzsi Cserhalmi Kék Duna keringő Miklós Jancsó Ildikó Bánsági, György Cserhalmi Roncsfilm György Szomjas Ági Szirtes, Zoltán Mucsi, Sándor Gáspár, Flóra Kádár A nyaraló Can Togay Géza Balkay, Mari Törőcsik Drama Screened at the 1992 Cannes Film Festival 1993 Children of Iron Gods Tamás Tóth Entered into the 18th Moscow International Film Festival A hercegnő és a kobold József Gémes Joss Ackland, Claire Bloom, Roy Kinnear, Sally Ann Marsh, Rik Mayall, Peggy Mount, Peter Murray, Victor Spinetti, Mollie Sugden, Frank Rozelaar Green, William Hootkins, Maxine Howe, Steve Lyons, Robin Lyons Animated fantasy Sose halunk meg Róbert Koltai Róbert Koltai, Mihály Szabados, Gábor Máté, Flóra Kádár Senkiföldje András Jeles Cora Fischer Vigyázók Sándor Sára Eszter Nagy-Kálózy, Gábor Máté Hoppá Gyula Maár Dezső Garas Comedy Entered into the 43rd Berlin International Film Festival 1994 Utrius Ferenc Grunwalsky Mihály Szabados, Ildikó Szücs, Ágnes Csere Drama Ábel a rengetegben Sándor Mihályfy Levente Ilyés Az igazi Mao Szilveszter Siklósi Philip Balla, Margit Huckaby, András Sándor A magzat Márta Mészáros Adél Kováts Drama Entered into the 44th Berlin International Film Festival Magic Hunter Ildikó Enyedi Gary Kemp, Sadie Frost Fantasy Sátántangó Béla Tarr Mihály Víg Woyzeck János Szász Lajos Kovács Prinzenbad Richard Blank Bernhard Wicki, Ulrich Wildgruber, Róbert Alföldi Comedy drama 1995 A részleg Péter Gothár Mari Nagy, József Szarvas Drama Screened at the 1995 Cannes Film Festival Esti Kornél csodálatos utazása József Pacskovszky Gábor Máté, Mátyás Erdély Entered into the 19th Moscow International Film Festival A Kid in King Arthur's Court Michael Gottlieb Thomas Ian Nicholas, Joss Ackland, Art Malik Adventure comedy fantasy The Real Shlemiel Albert Hanan Kaminski Tommy J. Michaels (voice), Tovah Feldshuh (voice), Harry Goz (voice), Stephen D. Newman (voice) Adventure-fantasy 1996 A három testőr Afrikában István Bujtor Gábor Koncz, István Szilágyi, Zoltán Rátóti, Béla Stenczer, Ilus Vay The Conquest Gábor Koltay Franco Nero, Imre Sinkovits aka The Conquest Szamba Róbert Koltai László Görög, Róbert Koltai Sztracsatella András Kern András Kern, Enikő Eszenyi, Dorottya Udvaros Vaska Easoff Péter Gothár Pepolino and the Treasure of the Mermaid János Uzsák Attila Bardóczy (voice), Árpád Besenczi (voice), Paul Bürks (voice) Animation Santa Claus and the Magic Drum Mauri Kunnas, Pekka Lehtosaari Esa Saario (voice), Ulla Tapaninen (voice), Henna Haverinen (voice), Olli Parviainen (voice), Aarre Karén (voice) Animation A csónak biztonsága István Szabó 1997 Out of Order András Kern András Kern, Róbert Koltai, Kata Dobó Csinibaba Péter Tímár János Gálvölgyi, Gábor Reviczky, Péter Andorai Wittman fiúk János Szász Maia Morgenstern Drama Screened at the 1997 Cannes Film Festival and the 20th Moscow International Film Festival Franciska vasárnapjai Sándor Simó Éva Kerekes, Dénes Ujlaki Long Twilight Attila Janisch Vacak 2 - az erdő hőse József Gémes, Jenő Koltai Aaron Bybee (voice), Laura Schulties (voice), Joey Lopez (voice) Animated comedy-drama Tamas and Juli Ildikó Enyedi Romance 2000, Seen By... film A játékos Károly Makk Michael Gambon, Jodhi May 1998 Ámbár tanár úr Róbert Koltai Róbert Koltai, Kata Dobó, Judit Hernádi Presszó Tamás Sas Andrea Fullajtár, Andrea Söptei, Karina Kecskés Ábel Amerikában I–II. Sándor Mihályfy Szenvedély György Fehér Ildikó Bánsági Drama Screened at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival 1999 Kalózok Tamás Sas Gabi Gubás, Viktor Bodó, Attila Király A napfény íze István Szabó Ralph Fiennes, Jennifer Ehle, Flóra Kádár Historical drama Nekem lámpást adott kezembe az Úr Pesten Miklós Jancsó Zoltán Mucsi, Péter Scherer Simon mágus Ildikó Enyedi Péter Andorai Cukorkékség Gergely Pohárnok Tibor Vécsi, Erika Marozsán Európa expressz Csaba Horváth Iván Kamarás, Kata Dobó Action thriller 6:3 Play It Again Tutti Péter Tímár Entered into the 21st Moscow International Film Festival A Monkey's Tale Jean-François Laguionie Tara Römer (voice), Nadia Farès (voice), Pierre Arditi (voice), Jean Piat (voice), Yves Barsacq (voice) Animated Egérút Béla Ternovszky Gábor Mádi Szabó (voice), Béla Paudits (voice), Éva Schubert (voice), Gábor Vass (voice) 2D Computer-animated ==2000s== Title Director Cast Genre Notes 2000 A négy évszak Ferenc Cakó Animation Anyád! A Szúnyogok Miklós Jancsó Zoltán Mucsi, Péter Scherer, József Szarvas Drama, satire Üvegtigris Péter Rudolf, Iván Kapitány Péter Rudolf, Gábor Reviczky, Imre Csuja Comedy Jadviga párnája Krisztina Deák Ildikó Tóth, Viktor Bodó Our Love József Pacskovszky Entered into the 22nd Moscow International Film Festival Rosszfiúk Tamás Sas Viktor Bodó, Gábor Máté Werckmeister harmóniák Béla Tarr Lars Rudolph, Peter Fitz, Hanna Schygulla Drama Nincsen nekem vágyam semmi Kornél Mundruczó Ervin Nagy, Roland Rába, Martina Kovács Drama Portugál Andor Lukáts Imre Csuja, Réka Pelsöczy, Ági Szirtes Comedy drama A Holocaust szemei János Szász Kati Sabella, Rezsõné Bartha, Júlia Buda Documentary history A kis utazás Mihály Buzás, György Pálos Arnold Farkas, József Szikra, Imola Gáspár Comedy drama romance Film... András Surányi Hédi Temessy, Iván Darvas, Juli Básti Drama 2001 Blind Guys Péter Tímár Entered into the 23rd Moscow International Film Festival Moszkva tér Ferenc Török Gábor Karalyos, Erzsi Pápai, Eszter Balla Comedy Csocsó, avagy Éljen május elseje! Róbert Koltai Róbert Koltai, András Kern, András Stohl Comedy Hamvadó cigarettavég Péter Bacsó Eszter Nagy-Kálózy, Péter Rudolf, György Cserhalmi Paszport Péter Gothár Utolsó vacsora az Arabs Szürkénél Miklós Jancsó Zoltán Mucsi, Péter Scherer 2002 Valami Amerika Herendi Gábor Tibor Szervét, Csaba Pindroch, Győző Szabó Comedy Song of the Miraculous Hind Marcell Jankovics Animated mythological and historical Hukkle György Pálfi Ferenc Bandi, Józsefné Rácz, József Farkas Drama A Hídember The Bridgeman Géza Bereményi Károly Eperjes, Irina Latchina, Iván Darvas, György Cserhalmi Drama film The Princess and the Pea Mark Swan Amanda Waring (voice), Jonathan Firth (voice), Dan Finnerty (voice), Steven Webb (voice), Nigel Lambert (voice), Lincoln Hoppe (voice), Ronan Vibert (voice), Eve Karpf (voice), Liz May Brice (voice), Richard Ridings (voice), Patsy Rowlands (voice) Animated musical fantasy Max Menno Meyjes John Cusack, Noah Taylor, Leelee Sobieski, Molly Parker drama Felhő a Gangesz felett György Dobray Zoltán Ternyák, Ildikó Tóth 2003 A Long Weekend in Pest and Buda Károly Makk Entered into the 25th Moscow International Film Festival Kontroll Nimród Antal Sándor Csányi, Zoltán Mucsi Comedy, drama Screened at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival Magyar vándor Herendi Gábor TiborSzervét, János Gyuriska, János Greifenstein Comedy Libiomfi Zoltán Kálmánchelyi Zoltán Mucsi, Gábor Dióssi, Zsolt Végh Tesó Zsombor Dyga Gábor Welker, Zoltán Schmied A boldogság színe József Pacskovszky Anna Györgyi, Erik Desfosses, Sándor Szakácsi Drama Underworld Len Wiseman Kate Beckinsale, Scott Speedman, Michael Sheen, Shane Brolly, Erwin Leder, Bill Nighy action horror 2004 Másnap Attila Janisch Tibor Gáspár Crime drama Magyar vándor Gábor Herendi Károly Gesztesi, János Gyuriska Adventure comedy Mix Steven Lovy János Kulka, Alex Weed, Dorka Gryllus Rap, Revü, Rómeó Oláh J. Gábor János Gálvölgyi, András Stohl, Eszter Ónodi Comedy, maffia Európából Európába Ildikó Enyedi, Benedek Fliegauf, Miklós Jancsó, Zsolt Kézdi-Kovács, Elemér Ragályi, János Rózsa, István Szabó, Pál Sándor, Sándor Sára, Ferenc Török Ildikó Enyedi, Dezsö Garas, Zoltán Gulyás Kiss Documentary short Csodálatos Júlia István Szabó Annette Bening, Jeremy Irons, Shaun Evans comedy-drama A temetetlen halott Márta Mészáros Jan Nowicki, Lili Horváth Szezon Ferenc Török , Ervin Nagy, Péter Kokics Csoda Krakkóban Dianna Groó Maciej Adamczyk, Franciszek Pieczka, Pawel Gedlek Nyócker! Áron Gauder, Erik Novák Animation Won Best Animated Feature Film at the 7th Kecskeméti Animációs FilmfesztiválA 4. Nemzetközi Animációs Játékfilm Fesztivál díjai (English: "Awards of the 4th International Festival of Animated Feature Films"). Kecskeméti Animáció Film Fesztivál. 2005. 2005 Rokonok István Szabó Sándor Csányi, Ildikó Tóth, Károly Eperjes Drama Entered into the 28th Moscow International Film Festival Dallas Pashamende Robert-Adrian Pejo Zsolt Bogdán, Dorka Gryllus Fekete kefe Roland Vranik Gergely Bánki, Károly Hajduk, Csaba Hernádi A halál kilovagolt Perzsiából Putyi Horváth László Melis, Zoltán Schneider A porcelánbaba Gárdos Péter Csányi Sándor, Németh Judit Drama Entered into the 27th Moscow International Film Festival Ég veled! József Pacskovszy Natalia Szeliversztova, Dmitrij Pavlenko A fény ösvényei Attila Mispál Annamária Cseh, György Cserhalmi, Mari Törőcsik Sorstalanság Lajos Koltai Marcell Nagy, Péter Haumann, Péter Harkányi Drama Maestro Géza M. Tóth Computer-animated short Johanna Kornél Mundruczó Orsolya Tóth Musical Screened at the 2005 Cannes Film Festival 2006 Szabadság, szerelem Krisztina Goda Iván Fenyő, Kata Dobó, Sándor Csányi, Viktória Szávai, Károly Gesztesi, Péter Haumann Romance, drama, historical A harag napja Adrian Rudomin Christopher Lambert, Oroszlán Szonja Action, thriller, drama A herceg haladéka Péter Tímár Gabi Szabó, Tibor Gáspár De kik azok a Lumnitzer nővérek? Péter Bacsó Róbert Alföldi, Péter Rudolf, Barbara Hegyi Fehér tenyér Szabolcs Hajdu Miklós Zoltán Hajdu, Kyle Shewfelt Mansfeld Andor Szilágyi Péter Fancsikai, Maia Morgenstern Taxidermia György Pálfi Gergő Trócsányi Horror Screened at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival Egyetleneim Gyula Nemes Krisztián Kovács, Orsolya Tóth Vadászat angolokra Bertalan Bagó György Cserhalmi 2007 Fészekrakók Balázs Dobóczi György Mihály, Réka Bolváry Mihályné Documentary La Reine Soleil Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque Coralie Vanderlinden, David Scarpuzza, Arnaud Léonard Animated Megy a gőzös Róbert Koltai Róbert Koltai, Judit Pogány, Tamás Szabó, Katinka Egres, Károly Gesztesi Comedy Lora Gábor Herendi Lucia Brawley, Péter Nagy, Ernő Fekete Romance, drama Adjátok vissza a hegyeimet Gábor Koltay Károly Rékasi Egon & Dönci Ádám Magyar Animation First freely downloadable 3D computer animated feature-film Iszka utazása Csaba Bollók Mária Varga, Marian Ursache A Nap utcai fiúk György Szomjas Kata Gáspár, Péter Bárnai Ópium – Egy elmebeteg nő naplója János Szász Ulrich Thomsen, Kirsti Stuboe Entered into the 29th Moscow International Film Festival Töredék Gyula Maár Annamária Cseh, Mari Törőcsik A londoni férfi Béla Tarr Miroslav Krobot, Miroslav Krobot Film noir, crime film, art film Entered into the 2007 Cannes Film Festival Macskafogó 2 - A sátán macskája Béla Ternovszky László Sinkó, Péter Rudolf, Miklós Benedek, Péter Haumann, György Dörner, Béla Stenczer, Péter Balázs, Mátyás Usztics, Gábor Reviczky, Iván Darvas, Ilona Béres, András Kern, Zsuzsa Pálos, Gyula Szombathy, Gyula Bodrogi, István Mikó, Károly Mécs, László Szacsvay Animated comedy-fantasy 2008 A Fox's Tale György Gát, János Uzsák Freddie Highmore, Miranda Richardson, Bill Nighy, Sienna Miller, Clemency Burton-Hill, Matthew McNulty animated A nyomozó Attila Gigor Zsolt Anger Eszter hagyatéka József Sipos Eszter Nagy-Kálózy, Cserhalmi György, Mari Törőcsik, Károly Eperjes The Secret of Moonacre Gábor Csupó Ioan Gruffudd, Tim Curry, Natascha McElhone, Juliet Stevenson, Dakota Blue Richards fantasy Kaméleon Krisztina Goda Ervin Nagy, Gabriella Hámori Virtually a Virgin Péter Bacsó Entered into the 30th Moscow International Film Festival Immigrants - Jóska menni Amerika Gábor Csupó Hank Azaria, Eric McCormack Animated comedy 2009 Álom.net Gábor Forgács Lilla Labanc, Kinga Czifra, Ádám Csernóczki Romantic comedy 1 Pater Sparrow Zoltán Kamondi ==2010s== Title Director Cast Genre Notes 2010 Bibliothèque Pascal Szabolcs Hajdu Pál Adrienn Ágnes Kocsis Éva Gábor, István Znamenák, Ákos Horváth, Lia Pokorny, Izabella Hegyi Drama It was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival East Side Stories Márk Bodzsár, Csaba Bollók, Szabolcs Hajdu, Ferenc Török Bogyó és Babóca - 13 mese Antonin Krizanics, Géza M. Tóth Becca Laidler, Judit Pogány 2D animation 2011 Adventure The Maiden Danced to Death Endre Hules The Turin Horse Béla Tarr Bogyó és Babóca 2. - 13 új mese Antonin Krizanics, Géza M. Tóth Becca Laidler, Judit Pogány 2D animation Az ember tragédiája Marcell Jankovics Tibor Szilágyi, Mátyás Usztics, Ágnes Bertalan, Tamás Széles, Piroska Molnár Animated drama 2012 Just the Wind Benedek Fliegauf Won the Jury Grand Prix on the 62nd Berlin International Film Festival The Door István Szabó Helen Mirren Ciklus Zoltán Sóstai Mike Kelly, Mark C. Phelan, Márk Györgyfalvay CG animation 2013 The Notebook János Szász 2014 Symphony No. 42 Réka Bucsi Animated short Land of Storms (Viharsarok) Ádám Császi András Sütö, Ádám Varga, Sebastian Urzendowsky White God Kornél Mundruczó Zsófia Psotta, Sándor Zsótér, Lili Horváth, Drama Manieggs: Egy kemény tojás bosszúja Zoltán Miklósy Titanilla Bogdányi, Zoltán Boros, Imre Csuja Animation action comedy Bogyó és Babóca 3. - Játszótársak Antonin Krizanics, Géza M. Tóth Becca Laidler, Judit Pogány Animation family 2015 Liza, the Fox-Fairy Károly Ujj Mészáros Monika Balsai, Szabolcs Bede-Fazekas, David Sakurai Son of Saul László Nemes Géza Röhrig, Levente Molnár Drama Won the award for Best Foreign Language Film at the 88th Academy Awards, also won the Grand Prix at the 2015 Cannes Film Festival and the Golden Globe for Best Foreign Language Film 2016 Superbia Luca Tóth Animated short A martfűi rém Árpád Sopsits Károly Hajduk, Mónika Balsai, Péter Bárnai, Zsolt Anger, Zsolt Trill, Gábor Jászberényi, Zsófia Szamosi Neo-noir crime 2017 On Body and Soul Ildikó Enyedi Géza Morcsányi, Alexandra Borbély Entered into the 90th Academy Awards 1945 Ferenc Török Péter Rudolf, Bence Tasnádi, Tamás Szabó Kimmel Drama Kojot Márk Kostyál András Mészáros, Mária Dobra, László Mátray Action drama Lengemesék Zsolt Pálfi András Faragó, Anna Kubik, Tamás Markovics Animated adventure fantasy family Jupiter holdja Kornél Mundruczó Merab Ninidze drama Egy kupac kufli Kristóf Jurik, Szabolcs Pálfi, Géza M. Tóth Péter Scherer Animation family Salamon király kalandjai Albert Hanan Kaminski Ori Pfeffer, Hana Laslo, Ori Laizerouvich Animation family history A Viszkis Nimród Antal Bence Szalay Action 2018 Sunset László Nemes Juli Jakab, Vlad Ivanov, Marcin Czarnik, Evelin Dobos, Judit Bárdos Entered into the 91st Academy Awards Another Day of Life Raul de la Fuente, Damian Nenow Artur Queiroz, Luis Alberto Ferreira, Carlota Machado, Joaquim António Lopes Farrusco, Miroslaw Haniszewski, Vergil J. Smith, Tomasz Zietek, Olga Boladz, Rafal Fudalej, Pawel Paczesny, Jakub Kamienski, Kerry Shale, Daniel Flynn, Youssef Kerkour, Lillie Flynn, Akie Kotabe, Ben Elliot, Emma Tate Animated Ruben Brandt, a gyűjtő Milorad Krstić Iván Kamarás, Csaba "Kor" Márton, Gabriella Hámori, Matt Devere, Henry Grant, Christian Nielson Buckholdt, Katalin Dombi, Paul Bellantoni, Geoffrey Thomas Animated crime thriller Lengemesék 2 - Tél a Nádtengeren Zsólt Pálfi András Faragó, Anna Kubik, Tamás Markovics Animation family 2019 Those Who Remained Barnabás Tóth Károly Hajduk, Abigél Szõke Drama Entered into the 92nd Academy Awards A Pásztor László Illés Miklós Székely B., Ákos Horváth, Tamás Jordán Drama Mi újság kuflik? Kristóf Jurik, Géza M. Tóth Péter Scherer Animation family Boxi a Film Béla Klingl, Áron Gauder, Péter Horog, Árpád Koós, József Sándor Adventure ==2020s== Title Director Cast Genre Notes 2020 Zárójelentés István Szabó Klaus Maria Brandauer, Károly Eperjes, Dorottya Udvaros Drama Bogyó és Babóca 4 - Tündérkártyák Antonin Krizanics, Géza M. Tóth Becca Laidler, Judit Pogány Animation Preparations to Be Together for an Unknown Period of Time (Felkészülés meghatározatlan ideig tartó együttlétre) Lili Horvát Natasa Stork, Viktor Bodó Drama Magic Arch 3D Vasiliy Rovenskiy Stephen Thomas Ochsner, Daniil Medvedev, Liza Klimova Animation family fantasy Post Mortem Péter Bergendy Viktor Klem Horror A pozsonyi csata Tamás Baltavári Paul Mackie, Károly Rékasi Animation fantasy history 2021 Családi legendák Katalin Glaser Animation Natural Light Dénes Nagy Drama Kuflik és az Akármi Kristóf Jurik Péter Scherer Animation 2022 Legendárium - Mesék Székelyföldről Szabolcs Fazakas Animation Toldi, a mozifilm Marcell Jankovics, Lajos Csákovics Tamás Széles Animation adventure comedy Big Trip 2: Special Delivery Vasily Rovensky, Natalya Nilova Daniil Medvedev, Bernard Jacobsen, Stephen Thomas Ochsner Animation adventure comedy ==References== ==External links== *Hungarian film at the Internet Movie Database 1990 |
Jon Scott Ashjian (born 1964), commonly known as Scott Ashjian, was the candidate of the Tea Party of Nevada in the race for United States Senate in the 2010 Nevada general election. Ashjian was born in Fresno, California; the oldest of eight children. After graduating from South Lake Tahoe High School in 1982, he started his own auto detailing company in Bakersfield, California, and grew it to include locations in Fresno, Bakersfield, and Visalia, California. He is a Mormon, and served on a mission in Argentina from 1986 to 1988. Ashjian moved from California to Nevada in 1995. He resides in Las Vegas, Nevada, where he works as a businessman, paving contractor, and real estate investor, and is owner of an asphalt company. With his wife, Bonnie, he has two sons and one daughter. Ashjian was a member of the Republican Party, and voted for the presidential candidacies of Ronald Reagan, George W. Bush and John McCain. In 2010, Ashjian and his supporters created the Tea Party of Nevada, whose values espouse small government, freedom, liberty, and decreasing the United States public debt. Ashjian filed his candidacy papers for the Tea Party, a registered minor party in Nevada, at Carson City on March 2, 2010. Ashjian's U.S. Senate candidacy was challenged in court in April 2010, and Carson City, Nevada district judge James Todd Russell ruled that he could stay on the ballot. This decision was appealed, and the Nevada Supreme Court ruled in a unanimous decision on October 6, 2010 that Ashjian would remain on the November 2010 ballot for U.S. Senate. In media interviews, Ashjian emphasized his values included decreased power of government, and a strict interpretation of the United States Constitution. He identified with the views of politicians including Ronald Reagan, Sarah Palin, and Ron Paul. His political campaign was run as a grass-roots movement, and he served as his own communications director. He explained his decision to manage a minimalist and inexpensive campaign came from a desire to avoid a disconnect between politics and the people he wished to represent. Ashjian asserted he was confident his campaign would beat opponents from the two major political parties, Democrat Harry Reid and Republican Sharron Angle. In October 2010, Ashjian released an audio-tape to the media of a recorded conversation with Angle, in which she asked him to drop out of the U.S. Senate race. Angle told him she did not believe she could beat U.S. Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid, if Ashjian remained on the ballot. Ashjian said he would stay in the race, and criticized both the major parties as inadequate choices in the election that would further the status quo. Harry Reid won the 2010 race and was reelected to the U.S. Senate. ==Early life and family== Scott Ashjian was born in Fresno, California in 1964; the oldest of eight children. His grandfather, John M. Ashjian, worked in law enforcement and was appointed by the Board of County Supervisors of Bakersfield, California as Chief Probation Officer. Ashjian graduated from South Lake Tahoe High School in 1982, where he was a wrestler. As a teenager, Ashjian gained experience managing businesses. Ashjian started an auto detailing company in Bakersfield, California in 1982. He grew this business to include facilities in Fresno, Bakersfield and Visalia, California. Ashjian is a Mormon. He served a mission in Argentina from 1986 to 1988. After completing his mission in Argentina, Ashjian returned to California and married his wife, Bonnie. Ashjian moved from California to Nevada in 1995. Ashjian and his wife have two sons and a daughter. His son Brogan served in 2010 on a religious mission in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Ashjian's daughter Bostyn participates in dance competition; his son Bronson wrestles in his high school. In 2010, Ashjian resided in Las Vegas, where he worked as a businessman and paving contractor. Ashjian is a real estate investor, and is the owner of an asphalt company, A&A; Asphalt. He is involved with California based agricultural ventures. ==Political career== Prior to his political aspirations for the U.S. Senate, Ashjian was a member of the Republican Party, and voted for the presidential candidacies of Ronald Reagan, George W. Bush and John McCain. Ashjian filed his candidacy on March 2, 2010, and became the candidate of the Tea Party of Nevada for United States Senate in the 2010 Nevada general election. Early polling the week Ashjian filed his candidacy, showed him drawing double-digit support. Ashjian's candidacy is the only one which appears as the "Tea Party" on the November 2010 ballot. It is his first entrance into an election for political office. The Tea Party of Nevada qualified as a minor political party with the Nevada Secretary of State on January 27, 2010. Ashjian's supporters created the party, by successfully filing more than the 250 signatures needed. The Tea Party of Nevada's stated goals include striving to "promote this nation's founding principles of freedom, liberty and a small representative government." The party stated in its preamble that both major political parties were responsible for a "massive national debt" in the United States, and that the "great conservative majority in America" should not believe that the Democrats and Republicans would support their views. In April 2010, Ashjian faced a legal challenge which attempted to remove his name from the ballot, as he had been a registered Republican shortly before he submitted his candidacy. Carson City, Nevada district judge James Todd Russell heard arguments on whether Ashjian could remain on the ballot starting on April 14. Judge Russell ultimately ruled that Ashjian complied with the intent of the law and he could remain on the ballot. The American Independent Party, which brought the suit against Ashjian, filed an appeal of the case to the Nevada Supreme Court. Ashjian commented on attempts to remove him from the ballot, "They are doing the bidding for the Republican Party. They should welcome the ability of minor parties to field candidates when the two major political parties have failed us so badly." On October 6, 2010, the Nevada Supreme Court issued a unanimous ruling that Ashjian's candidacy would remain on the November 2010 ballot. Describing his political views, Ashjian stated to the Las Vegas Review-Journal that he espouses Tea Party views including limiting the role of government, and a strict interpretation of the United States Constitution. Ashjian aligns himself with the conservative views of politicians Ronald Reagan, Ron Paul and Sarah Palin. He said in April 2010 that he was "100 percent sure" he would win the election and beat opponents Harry Reid and Sharron Angle in the November 2010 general election, "by a large margin". He explained that he filed to run for U.S. Senate, because individuals in Nevada who identified with Tea Party values had been "duped by the Republican Party". Ashjian noted, "The GOP is trying to co-opt the Tea Party. That is one of the reasons I did what I did. I don't see a difference between Democrats and Republicans." Ashjian stated he did not think Sharron Angle would be able to win the U.S. Senate race against Harry Reid, and stated "Republican attack committees are running the (national) Tea Party show." In May 2010 Ashjian asserted to the Las Vegas Review-Journal, "I will pick up a large percentage of votes on both sides (Republican and Democrat) and those in the middle." Ashjian's political campaign was structured as a grass-roots movement. The candidate served as his own communications director, and relied on his family and friends for assistance. His campaign website contained the declaration, "I am running because I love my country and Harry Reid, Nancy Pelosi and Barack Obama are ruining it. It is time to take our country back and I am asking you to join me in this fight." Ashjian stated in an interview with the Las Vegas Review- Journal, "I'm a frustrated patriot. I'm not a politician. I'm not savvy with radio and TV. But I believe I can make a change, and that's what I'm here for. I'm here to give people a third choice." When asked to characterize the Tea Party of Nevada, Ashjian responded, "We're not Republican or Democrat. We won't fold into one party or the other. We're a tax-paying party that can make a difference and a party of normal people who want change. Bigger government and higher taxes is not working. Right now we're at a real crossroads to make change, and the bottom line is there's never been so much disdain for politicians." He explained why he chose to run a minimalist campaign, "The political race is for the rich. Why would (politicians) want to spend X millions of dollars on a campaign? It has to be for political gain. That disconnect is why I'm running for office." Ashjian asserted that results for voters would be similar with both major party candidates as opposed to a third option, "I'm here to say there is a choice. If you want to stick to the status quo, pick the Republicans or Democrats, but don't complain. Nobody can do a better job than I can." Regarding overtures from the Republican Party asking Ashjian to acquiesce to the two-party-system, Ashjian said, "By them saying I should fall in line is an insult. I'm not asking for an invitation. I think they should get behind me, not fall in line like sheep. They're so paranoid, it makes me think they have weak candidates and they're afraid. The more they attack, the more they show their hand, and I mean that across party lines. It's not politics as usual. We're running a different campaign, and they're scared to death." In October 2010, Ashjian released a tape to the media of a recorded conversation he had with Sharron Angle where she asked him to drop out of the race. In the tape, Angle says that she cannot defeat Harry Reid with Ashjian on the ballot. Ashjian commented about the meeting, in an interview with the Las Vegas Review-Journal, "She asked that I support her, and I said, 'Why would I go and do that?'". He stated he would never entertain the notion of dropping out of the race, "She said, 'I can't win without you getting out of the race.' But I said I couldn't. I'm going to beat Harry Reid." He emphasized that he would not drop out of the race, "I call the shots. ... I fought too hard to be on the ballot to get off." Ashjian remarked of the pressure involved in running for office, "I've had personal threats against me and my family. I've had my phone tapped, and I've been followed." He commented that Angle was too close with the Republican Party, and therefore not a true outsider candidate. Ashjian sent a letter to Nevada Secretary of State Ross Miller in October 2010, asking that party abbreviations on ballots be removed. On October 28, 2010, a second ruling by the Nevada Supreme Court again affirmed Ashjian's ability to stand as a candidate in the 2010 Nevada election for U.S. Senate. In the case, the office of the Secretary of State of Nevada had asserted that the effort to appeal the case to the Nevada Supreme Court was without merit, because voters had already received absentee ballots and a removal of the candidate's entry would have the impact of therefore disenfranchising voters. In its unanimous decision, the Nevada Supreme Court ruled, "(The) appellant's unexplained delay in prosecuting this appeal militates against disrupting the election process, which is already underway." One day before the U.S. Senate election, Ashjian received three percent in a survey from Public Policy Polling. Harry Reid won the race, and was reelected to the U.S. Senate. ==See also== * Opinion polling for the 2010 United States Senate elections, Nevada * Tea Party Express * Tea Party movement * Tea Party Nation * Tea Party Patriots * Tea Party protests * United States Senate election in Nevada, 2010 ==References== ==External links== * Scott Ashjian for the U.S. Senate, official website * Scott Ashjian, at Project Vote Smart * Constitution and Bylaws of the Tea Party of Nevada, Office of the Nevada Secretary of State. Retrieved July 29, 2010. Category:1964 births Category:Living people Category:Latter Day Saints from California Category:American Mormon missionaries in Argentina Category:People from Fresno, California Category:People from the Las Vegas Valley Category:Candidates in the 2010 United States elections Category:21st-century American politicians Category:Tea Party movement activists Category:American real estate businesspeople Category:American investors Category:2010 Nevada elections Category:Nevada Republicans Category:American people of Armenian descent Category:Activists from California Category:Latter Day Saints from Nevada |
The Citroën Type C was a light car made by the French Citroën car company between 1922 and 1926 with almost 81,000 units being made. Known as Citroën 5HP or 5CV in France and 7.5HP in Britain, it was the second model of automobile designed and marketed by André Citroën, between 1922 and 1926. It followed the 10HP "Type A " (1919), then 10HP "B2" (1921); they were the first European mass-produced cars. The first colour in which it was made was a pale "grapefruit" yellow which earned it the first nickname "petite citron" (little lemon). It was also nicknamed "Cul de poule" (hen's bottom) or "boat tail" due to the rear of the little car's body and also "Trefle" (clover leaf) referring to the shape of the three-seat version. thumb|Oct.1921 Paris Motor Show == History == Sources The genesis of the Type C took place in the immediate post- war period, when the whole of Europe was in a disastrous state, especially economically, with relentless inflation reducing the value of savings and investments of all kinds. Only those industrialists with a particularly modern approach to production could hope to weather the financial crisis with a minimum of damage. The first of these in Europe was André Citroën, a fervent admirer of Henry Ford's methods of mass production, especially after his visit to Detroit in 1912. He had been able to put these methods into practice during the war in his ammunition factory where he had achieved remarkable levels of production (50,000 shells per day). By the end of the war, Citroën had a fully equipped factory, which he decided to use for mass production of vehicles as Henry Ford had done with his famous Model T since 1908. thumb|Andre Citroën & Henry Ford – Jun. 1923. While the French government encouraged, by means of tax benefits, car manufacturers to invest in cyclecars (maximum weight: 350 kg), André Citroën preferred to enter the small car sector, then monopolized by Peugeot and Renault. Despite its resemblance to the Type A designed by Jules Salomon, the 5HP was above all the work of the engineer Edmond Moyet who, like Jules Salomon, arrived at the Quai de Javel from "le Zèbre", after a significant experience in the field of popular cars; a few months earlier, he had designed a very similar vehicle for Amilcar: the "CC" The result of this project was presented for the first time at the Motor Show in November 1921 as the Type C, although orders and first deliveries of the car were not received until spring 1922. It was a small car offered only with a two-seater Torpedo body, with a length of only 3.2 metres and a wheelbase of 2.25 metres (short chassis). The lines were elegant, despite the small size of the body. The front had one of the most handsome radiator masks and the rear bodywork had a tapered boat deck shape. The 5HP was a popular car, intended to enter the market segment below the 10 HP Type A. It was "delivered complete, without extra charge, with electric starting and lighting, five tyred wheels and a rear axle with differential". The selling price of the 5HP Torpedo in 1922 (8500 FR) was about 60% of that of the 10 HP B2 (13900 FR) and was also much lower than its main competitor, the Peugeot Quadrilette (10000 FR) which was only a cycle car. Although an engineer by training, André Citroën was above all a business genius in search of new ideas to assimilate and exploit. Thus he founded a consumer credit company, allowing customers to buy cars on credit, a new method for the time. Citroën also invented the spare parts manual , the repair instructions manual, detailed repair rates and the standard exchange system for mechanical parts refurbished at the factory. The genius of André Citroën was to promote this car to a female audience, which was very unusual at the time. All the 5HP advertising documents represented the car driven by a young woman. After a slow start in 1922, the 5HP was so successful that by 1924 it accounted for half of Citroën's sales: nearly 30,000 vehicles per year and became the leading popular European car. The initial commercial name: 5HP became 5CV in 1925 on the occasion of the change of calculation of the power of engines: from HP (Horse Power) to CV (Cheval Vapeur). Louis Renault is said to have described the 5HP as "the car that kept him from falling asleep"... Pierre Dumont in "Quai de Javel, Quai Andre Citroen", (1976) wrote: " The 5 CV Citroën ran at 60 km/h, a speed it seemed to be able to maintain indefinitely, and it was incredibly robust. It was a great success, as much because of its qualities, its elegance, especially as a cabriolet, as its price"... Between 1919 and 1925, Citroen set up a network of five thousand agents throughout the world, and subsidiaries and exclusive dealerships were established in Japan, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Denmark, North Africa, Australia, South America, etc. Factories were built in Spain, Italy, Poland, Algeria, Belgium, and England from 1925 in order to avoid customs taxes on imported products (such as Mac Kenna taxes in England). Launched in May 1922, the "Torpedo" (tourer), was a two-seat version, which in 1923, became available in a more luxurious "Cabriolet" (convertible) version. In 1924, a three-seater version of the "Torpedo" and a van were added. thumb|"Bubsy" arriving at Sidney – Dec. 1925. The 5HP was a model of reliability and frugality compared to the competition; it was extremely robust evidenced by the journey of 17000 km in 5 months around Australia in 1925 of Bubsy, a "used" Torpedo with two students on board: in extreme conditions without any engine problem. Unfortunately, although the 5HP was a success, it was insufficiently profitable, and in order to prepare for the introduction of the "all steel" B14, André Citroën personally took the decision, against general opinion, to end its production in May 1926. A C4 "all steel" version was envisaged but was abandoned because of excessive cost. Today, the 5HP is the typical 20s vintage car. Its success is due to the fact that it was already an immense commercial success in its time and also that it is possible to rebuild it very easily from period parts and re-fabrications. Of the 81000 5HP built, many have been converted into utility vehicles, tractors, etc. It is estimated that about 3000 (4%) survived. == Technical == Source thumb|Controls on Torpedo T2 1922 thumb|... and on Cabriolet C3 The little Citroën was ahead of the competition: it was equipped with a differential and an electric starter, allowing the car to be advertised as especially suitable for lady drivers sensitive to ease of driving. The weight of 543 kg is essentially that of the engine, gearbox, and rear axle . The maximum speed was 60 km/h (37 mph) with a fuel consumption of 5 L/100 km (56 mpg imp; 47 mpg US). The 5HP chassis were assembled in the Levallois factory (Paris suburbs), and the assembly of the car was in the Javel factory; Right-hand drive versions were available for the French market (there was still a demand for this) and for export (England, Commonwealth, Sweden, Argentina, Australia). The body was of a wooden structure, on which the body panels were nailed. It was the last Citroen with a wooden body. The car had only one door, on the passenger side, it opened forwards. The hinges were invisible (except for the "Cabriolet") and the vibrations were absorbed by a double cone lock avoiding accidental opening of the doors. Early vehicles had a bonnet with 3 air vents that was quickly followed by a 16 air vents version. In 1922, for technical reasons, the radiator was separated into a cooling element and a nickel-plated outer casing. Initially the first Citroën badge on the radiator was blue chevrons on a nickel-plated base; later the colours were swapped. The four- cylinder, 856 cc (52.2 cu in) engine had a bore of 55 mm (2.2 in) and stroke of 90 mm (3.5 in), generating an output of 8.2 kW (11 bhp) and was cooled by thermosiphon. From June 1, 1925, the cooling system was improved on all models by a fan ( previously fitted only to the Cabriolet ). There was a single Solex carburettor. The original battery, coil and distributor ignition was replaced after only six months by a magneto ignition due to insufficient reliability. The gearbox had three unsynchronized ratios plus a reverse gear; the straight- sized sprocket tended to "sing" especially in 1st and 2nd gear (not in 3rd, direct drive), and became noisy when the gears were worn or when the bush between the primary and secondary shaft was loose. This excessive play caused the primary train to become misaligned from the second train. As on contemporary cars of the time, the accelerator pedal was located centrally between those of the clutch and the brake. There was no braking on the front wheels but braking on the transmission was controlled by the foot brake and on the rear wheels by a hand brake lever. Braking was not the strong point of the car; it was necessary to anticipate and balance the action of the two braking systems at the risk of breaking a rear wheel shaft. Many 5HP have been modified to couple the transmission brake and the rear brakes. thumb|5HP engine with Solex carburetter thumb|Engine with RB magneto To avoid distortion of the U shaped side members, the ladder frame was trapezoidal and reinforced by cross beams. The suspension consisted of four inverted quarter-elliptical leaf springs. Friction dampers became fitted, at the rear from 1925 on the heavier "Cabriolet". At the end of 1923, the short chassis Type C.2 was lengthened by 10 cm from 2.25 m (7 ft 5 in) to 2.35m (7 ft 9 in) and re- inforced by an additional crossbar which protruded from the rear deck and supported the rear of the body. This became the long-wheelbase chassis Type C.3. The extension of the bodywork had become necessary to allow the construction of the new "three-seat" version of the "Torpedo" as well as the "Voiture de Livraison" (delivery car). The lengthening can be noted by the long distance between the spare wheel and the rear wing. This chassis was produced without modification until the end of production. The rear axle was of the "banjo" type with a round, then oblong (oval) shape. The teeth of the rear axle pinion were of the "Citroën chevron" type. An helical-cut, easier to produce, and more robust became available, as replacement parts, in 1928. Initially, the 700x80 beaded edge Michelin "Cablé" tyres were inflated at "high pressure", (4 to 5 bars), hence a mediocre road holding and comfort. They were replaced in June 1924 by 715x115 beaded edge Michelin "Cablé Confort" (balloon ) tyres inflated at low pressure (2.5 bars), initially offered as extra equipment, and then fitted on all cars in June. 11-12x45 wired on rims appeared in 1927 with " Confort Bibendum " tyres, low pressure (1.5 to 1.75 bars) and were fitted as replacement of original beaded edge rims. The equipment level of the 5 HP being relatively basic, many component suppliers took the opportunity to offer multiple solutions to improve driving comfort or performance such as luggage rack, petrol gauge (OS), water thermometer (Boyer-Meter), speedometer, and watch (Jaeger, OS), shock absorbers (Houdaille, Repusseau), front brakes (Poulet, Acmos), engine improvements (Super-Culasse Desprez, Transformations F. Crespelle, Ruby- Ricardo cylinder head). Vehicles imported to England or assembled there were retrofitted with side lamps, rear-view mirrors, windscreen wipers, and speedometers by the importer in Slough (London). == Models == Source In 1922–23, the "2-seater Torpedo" T2 and the "2-seater Cabriolet" TL were mounted on the short chassis (C2). In October 1923, these bodies, as well as the "Delivery Car" VL and the "3-seater Torpedo " T3-1 will then be mounted on the long chassis (C3). In October 1924, the Torpedo T3-1 was replaced by the "3-seater Torpedo Cloverleaf" T3-2 with room for a single passenger in the rear. The Citroën system of naming car types, chassis and bodywork was complex and confusing. The lack of historical documentation due to the total destruction of the archives during the war allowed errors and legends to develop and spread in the following decades. It is now accepted that only two types of cars: the "C" and "C "3 types on two chassis types: the "C.2" (short) and "C.3" (long) types were marketed... in spring 1922 and October 1923 respectively. thumb|5HP C2 Torpédo 2 seater original version – Oct.1921 thumb|5HP C2 T2 Torpedo2 seater === Torpédo 2 seater T2 === Source Production: Short wheelbase Chassis C2: May 1922 to September 1923 ... then Long wheelbase chassis C3: October 1923 to Spring 1925 thumb|5HP C3 T2 Torpédo 2 seater 1924 Its back end gave the "Torpedo" a sporty look but it also added the nickname "Cul de Poule"(hen's bottom). The original (C2-1922/23) body colour was yellow then with the introduction of the long chassis (C3-1924/25), colours available were: Bordeaux red, blue, or Havana (brown). The comfortable bench seat was covered with leatherette initially (C2): black, then (C3): red, black (for blue cars), or brown. The floor covering was a brush carpet. Door storage pockets were fitted in the door and alongside the driver. The spare wheel was mounted on the driver's side. The door hinges were not visible. At the rear of the car was a chest, accessible from the top, and closed by a lid. On the boot lid could be fitted two supports to fit a trunk of dimensions 40 x 80 cm. The running boards were made of aluminium reinforced with long grooves. They were black in colour, the top of the grooves was polished. The wings and bodywork were made of the black painted metal sheet. The headlamps (bowls: black paint; rims: nickeled) were connected by an adjustable nickel-plated crossbar. The polished and machined aluminium dashboard was simple, with only an ammeter and a headlight/ignition switch. The pivot point of the movable windshield was placed in the top third section. The convertible top was openable around a single axis and covered with a waterproof fabric. The hood irons were bent ash. All-weather equipment (side curtains) was provided. The flat-profile wings, called "flat wings" (ailes plates) were replaced for the 1926 model by "round wings" (ailes rondes): very few such cars were made. thumb|Citroen 5HP Torpedo T3-1 === "Torpedo 3-seater a Strapontin " (with "folding seat) T3-1 === Source Production: Long wheelbase chassis C3: October 1923 to September 1924. thumb|5HP C3 T3-1 Torpedo 3-seater a Strapontin – Catalog 1923 The body, based on the 2-seater "Torpedo" but with a rounded rear end was enlarged to be more spacious. The spare wheel was mounted on the driver's side. Its door was enlarged by 7 cm compared to model T2. The boot compartment was located behind the driver's seat. It was accessible from above and closed by a lid. The driver's seat was fixed. The passenger seat-mounted on two cylindrical rails could be moved back and forth. At the front, under the dashboard, was a folding jump seat that could be mounted when the passenger seat was in the rear position. Body colour: Bordeaux red, blue, or Havana. A small number were painted green (moss green). Seats and interior fittings: leatherette red, black (for blue car), or brown. The floor covering was a black brush carpet. Door storage pockets were fitted in the door and alongside the driver. This model had a limited production (only 8000) because the customers did not like the discomfort of the folding seat. This model has since been improperly called "Faux Trefle" (false clover leaf) by collectors. thumb|5HP C3 T3-2 Torpedo 3-seater Trefle === "Torpedo 3-seater Trefle " ( Clover leaf ) T3-2 === Source Production: Long wheelbase chassis C3: October 1924 to June 1926. thumb|5HP C3 T3-2 – Catalog 1924 This model replaced T3-1. At the front, were two individual seats; the third seat was placed at the rear, in the centre, hence the nickname "Torpedo Trefle". A passage between the front seats allowed access to the rear seat. Two small compartments were placed to the right and left of the rear seat. They were accessible from above and closed by a lid. Body colour: dark beige until December 24, then became Bordeaux red, Canon blue or Havana. Seats and interior fittings in leatherette: red or black for red cars; black for blue cars; brown or black for Havana cars. The floor covering was a black brush carpet. Door storage pockets were fitted in the door and alongside the driver. The spare wheel was fitted at the back. thumb|5HP C2 cabriolet TL Oct 1922 thumb|5HP C3 Cabriolet TL – Catalog 1924 === "Cabriolet" ( convertible ) TL === Source Production: Short wheelbase chassis (C2): March 1923 to September 1923 ... then Long wheelbase chassis (C3) : October 1923 to June 1926. The "cabriolet" was a more luxurious and comfortable version than the Torpedo; notably thanks to the hermetic closure of the hood and the sliding windows transforming the car into a closed version; which earned it the misnomer "Coupe Docteur" by collectors. The hood was made of black imitation leather, with a fabric liner, and metal hoops. It could be opened and closed from the inside. On long wheelbase chassis, the hood became available in red, brown, or black imitation leather. Body colour: yellow or Havana (C2- mid-1923), then (C3-mid-1923/26): Bordeaux red, Canon blue, or Havana. Seats and interior fittings: leatherette: red or black for red cars; black for blue cars; brown or black for Havana cars. The floor covering was black brush carpet. Door storage pockets were fitted in the door and alongside the driver. On the short wheelbase chassis, the lid of the luggage compartment was larger than on the T2 model; which did not allow the fitting of the external luggage rack; Following Customers complaints, the long-wheelbase chassis reverted to the smaller lid. Inside, behind the seats, there was a hatch closed by a lid giving access to the trunk. A T-shaped door handle was mounted on the outside. The hinges are visible. A comfortable bench seat offered enough space for two people. On the first models, the passenger seat was slightly narrower for ease of access. On the short-wheelbase chassis, the dashboard was polished machined aluminium; on the long-wheelbase chassis, it was replaced by mahogany varnished with inlaid cabinetry friezes on the dashboard and inlays on the strips below the windows. The two side windows could go down into the interior of the door and were operated by a strap as on the railway cars of the time. These windows could also be kept clipped in the high position when the hood was open. The windshield was in two parts, the upper part opens towards the front in order to give more fresh air and some visibility in case of heavy rain. thumb|5HP C3 VL === " Voiture de Livraison" (Delivery Car) VL === Source Production: Chassis Long (C3): Early 1924 to mid-1925 The payload of the vehicle was 125 kg. This was considered insufficient by the clientele, hence the reduced production volume (1083 units). The internal dimensions of the utility section are 750 mm long, 1,070 mm wide and 1,070 mm wide. The car had two separate seats, imitation leather. The driver's seat was fixed; the passenger's cushion could be removed. The roof is a single piece consisting of a wood frame covered with moleskin or leatherette Door storage pockets were fitted in the door and alongside the driver. The dashboard was made of black lacquered sheet metal. The handrails were made of aluminium and painted black. The windshield was in two parts, the upper part opens towards the front as on the Cabriolet ; The area at the rear was equipped with two swing doors. In the front passenger partition was a sliding door allowing carrying loads of 1500 mm long. The vehicle had only one door, optionally to the right or left, which opened forwards. On both sides, were curtains made of waterproof canvas. Body color: Havana; Seats: black leatherette. The floor was covered with rubber. ==Gallery== File:5hp10 Jouet Citroen 5HP Torped - exposition de jouets anciens - Musee des Arts Decoratifs , Strasbourg.jpg|Toy 5HP Torpedo T2 File:1922Citroen5HOTypCTorpedo.jpg|5HP C2 T2 Yellow File:JML - Citroen Type C Torpedo C2 T2 1923.jpg|5HP C2 T2 1923 File:T3-1 JMS Citroen Torpedo T3-1 a strapontin 1924.jpg|5HP C3 T3-1 File:02 T3-2 LS - CITROEN Type C 5HP T3-2 TREFLE 1924.jpg|5HP C3 T3-2 1924 File:Ixus 040-1 Citroen 5HP C3 T3.2 Trèfle défilé de voitures fleuries.jpg|5HP C3 T3-2 Beige File:JPR0053 Citroen 5HP C3 Cabriolet 1924.jpg|5HP C3 TL 1924 File:2015-10-11 12.33.43 Deux Citroen Type C3 Cabriolet 1924.jpg|5HP Cabriolets TL 1924 File:Image013 Citroen Type C3 Cabriolet 1924.jpg|5HP TL Bordeaux red File:30 Citroen Type C3.jpg|5HP TL Havana File:P1150462 Citroen type C.jpg|5HP TL Havana File:317c - Citroen 5HP Cabriolet TL 1924.jpg|5HP TL Bordeaux red File:Mimi4 - Citroen 5 HP Type C Vehicule de Livraison Annee 1924 no 33943.jpg|5HP VL Havana File:F0285a (1) - Citroen 5 HP Type C Vehicule de Livraison.jpg|5 HP C3 VL Voiture de Livraison 1924 ==Sources== * *Bernard Laurent, Citroën 5HP, Éditions Bernard Laurent, février 2006. * * . * . * . thumb|Datation per chassis no and model, plus production stats per year and model == References == ==External links== * The French article from which this article was translated * Type C links at Citroën World * Citroën Type C 5CV history and specs * Citroën Type C specification * Amicale 5HP Citroen 45640 Sandillon * Forum Amicale 5HP citroen Type C Category:Cars introduced in 1922 |
Christopher "Chris" Smith, also known as the Peacemaker, is a fictional antihero in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU) and DC Universe (DCU) media franchises, based on the Charlton / DC Comics character of the same name. Adapted for film by writer/director James Gunn, he is portrayed by John Cena. Smith operates as a vigilante who aims to achieve peace at any cost, which results in a 30-year prison sentence at Belle Reve Penitentiary. He is approached by the facility's warden and the director of A.R.G.U.S., Amanda Waller, to join a strike team called Task Force X aka the Suicide Squad composed of other inmates on an infiltration mission en route to the remote island of Corto Maltese. Upon turning on his teammates, secretly by under orders of Waller, and being incapacitated during the mission, he is nursed back to health by A.R.G.U.S. and sent on another mission immediately by her afterwards, now being tasked with accompanying a group of alumni from A.R.G.U.S. to prevent a world-threatening epidemic known as "Project Butterfly". As of 2022, the character is a central figure in DC media, having appeared in two projects thus far: the feature film The Suicide Squad (2021) and the first season of the eponymous HBO Max streaming television series Peacemaker, both set in the DCEU. The character is set to return in the latter show's second season, set in the soft rebooted DCU. ==Character development and execution== === Background === In October 2018, James Gunn was hired by Warner Bros. to write and direct a planned sequel to the DC Extended Universe (DCEU) film Suicide Squad (2016), after he had just been fired from Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures as writer/director of the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) film Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3 (2023), in light of a series of controversial tweets he had made many years prior that he would later apologize for. While he would be almost immediately reinstated by Disney and Marvel Studios following his hiring by Warner Bros. & DC Films, his commitment to his engagement with the latter studios meant that production on Vol. 3 would have to be pushed back significantly to accommodate for his projects with DC, with Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige encouraging Gunn to make "a great movie" during a discussion regarding his prioritization of the latter project, and pushing the production start date for the former film into 2021. Gunn's Suicide Squad film, eventually titled The Suicide Squad, was intended to act as a relaunch of the IP and characters as opposed to a direct sequel to the previous film directed by David Ayer, that would take the franchise in a new direction and feature a largely new cast. Roven and Peter Safran were set as producers, with Zack Snyder and Deborah Snyder as executive producers. Safran had pushed for Gunn to take on the project, feeling that there was no better director than him to "bring together a disparate group of outsiders on a mission". === Adapting Peacemaker to film and television === Among the new characters that would be part of the film's revised team lineup, James Gunn selected the character Peacemaker, originally created by Joe Gill and Pat Boyette for appearances in Charlton Comics publications prior to the character's absorption into DC Comics alongside other Charlton properties in the 1985 crossover event storyline "Crisis on Infinite Earths", which would integrate Peacemaker into the main DC Universe. Gunn was initially looking to cast Dave Bautista in the role, as the two had previously collaborated on the Guardians of the Galaxy films in the MCU franchise with Bautista's portrayal of Drax the Destroyer. However, Bautista was unavailable for the role due to taking the lead role of Zack Snyder's Army of the Dead (2021). Fellow WWE alumni John Cena entered talks to portray the character in April 2019, as Gunn had wanted to work with Cena upon seeing his performance in the romantic comedy Trainwreck (2015), and had been looking for an appropriate role for him for a while. Cena had previously auditioned unsuccessfully for roles in both Marvel and DC Comics-based films, notably being rejected for both Cable in Deadpool 2 (2018) and the titular character in Shazam! (2019), in addition to various MCU roles. He would however, be openly passionate about working on a project with James Gunn, reflecting in January 2022 that, During the promotion of The Suicide Squad, Cena decided to wear the Peacemaker costume for interviews and other promotional events as a way to familiarize the audience with the lesser-known character, which was a tactic that he had previously used when he was a professional wrestler. After finishing work on The Suicide Squad, Gunn began working on a spinoff series about the origins of Peacemaker "just for fun" during his COVID-19 lockdown isolation. He brought the idea to producer Peter Safran, who was later approached by DC Films to create a Suicide Squad spinoff series. The Peacemaker series was eventually picked up by HBO Max in September 2020, with Gunn writing all eight episodes of the first season and directing five of them. Cena agreed to reprise the role for the series in 2020, becoming an executive producer with Gunn and Safran. As a result, Peacemaker, who was originally intended to die in The Suicide Squad, was kept alive for the series, and a post-credits scene was filmed in January 2021 for the film in order to set up Peacemaker, which also began filming around that time. Following the first season's success, a second season of Peacemaker was ordered in 2022. ===Characterization=== Cena would describe his character as "a douchey Captain America", with Gunn adding that the character would go to as many lengths as possible to achieve peace. Upon being cast, Gunn would also tell Cena not to read any comics featuring Peacemaker to develop background knowledge with the character, as having a preconceived notion of what the character could be would distract from the story Gunn wanted to tell. Cena would paraphrase Gunn in an interview as saying, "you have what I’m looking for. Just be yourself, and if you’re willing to take direction, I think we can do something special." Cena originally envisioned the character as "a drill sergeant, Full Metal Jacket-esque personality", with the actor being told to change direction and emphasize his "do-gooder side" about 20 minutes into filming his first scene in-costume. Cena during the same interview, would contrast his acting career in regards to this role, to his career as a professional wrestler, stating that "Whenever I play a role in a movie, it really is never myself. Whereas WWE is the odd thing that a lot of times you have to create an extension of yourself because the narrative is just so damn long". Despite being portrayed as self-righteous, duty-driven, and egotistical in The Suicide Squad and continuing to flaunt that facade in Peacemaker, Smith is in actuality a broken, self-loathing man trying to find a purpose in the world, but is too haunted by the horrible actions he committed to adjust in a normal environment. Smith's time with the 11th Street Kids, as portrayed in the series, allows him to slowly come to terms with his past demons and reconsider his world views, showing his vulnerable side more often to others and learning to process his repressed emotions, but also becoming more emotionally unstable and prone to bursts of anger. Viewers noted that Peacemaker received less character development in The Suicide Squad compared to other characters such as Robert DuBois / Bloodsport, Cleo Cazo / Ratcatcher 2, and King Shark, and that the Peacemaker was considered "irredeemable" in the film, but this was intended by Gunn to set the character's development in his eponymous series. Gunn used the series as an opportunity to explore current world issues through the title character, in addition to expanding on his relationship with his father, which was alluded to in the film. The decision to make Smith bisexual, confirmed by the penultimate episode of the first season of Peacemaker, was floated by Cena, according to Gunn. He states that "Peacemaker is an interesting character because he's so fucked-up in so many ways, and then in other ways, he is kind of weirdly forward-thinking. John does improv all the time, and he just turned Christopher Smith into this hyper-sexualized dude that is open to anything sexually. I was surprised by that. But I thought, 'I guess it makes sense that this guy isn't one- dimensional.'" Cena examined the history of the character in the comics and determined that with Christopher Smith's childhood struggles and hardships, he would be "willing to do anything to a certain extent." ==Fictional character biography== === Early life === Christopher "Chris" Smith was born in Evergreen, Charlton County in Washington state to August "Auggie" Smith, a former soldier turned former vigilante operating under the alias of White Dragon who was infamous for his nature as a white supremacist and his neo-Nazi beliefs. Auggie trained Chris to kill at a young age against his will, permanently warping his sense of morality. Chris would soon accidentally cause the death of his brother Keith, whom Auggie favored greatly over Chris, deeply angering the former and traumatizing the latter. As he grew up, Chris became mentally unstable, swearing an oath to keep the peace at any cost, regardless of the means he would use to achieve it and how many people he would have to kill. In pursuit of this, he creates his own uniform and adopts the alias "Peacemaker" as he begins his pursuit for justice by any means necessary. Along the way, Chris befriends local crimefighter Adrian Chase, also known as "Vigilante" and encounters future Justice League members the Flash and Wonder Woman in person, with one of his first major activities including the apprehension of a criminal called "Kite Man". After he begins killing criminals and other civilians in the name of peace, Chris is arrested and sentenced to 30 years at Belle Reve Penitentiary. ===Task Force X and Project Starfish=== While imprisoned, Chris is recruited by A.R.G.U.S. director Amanda Waller into a privately sanctioned strike team of imprisoned metahumans and criminals codenamed "Task Force X". The squad is tasked with a mission in Corto Maltese to eliminate an anti-American regime that has overthrown the island's government and destroy a Nazi-era laboratory named Jötunheim, which contains the secret experiment "Project Starfish". After a faction of team members led by Col. Rick Flag are quickly killed in action, Chris, alongside his comrades - Robert DuBois / Bloodsport, Cleo Cazo / Ratcatcher 2, Nanaue / King Shark, and Abner Krill / Polka-Dot Man - infiltrate Corto Maltese from a separate beach as Flag and surviving member Harley Quinn are captured by the Freedom Fighters, a Corto Maltese resistance group and the island's new government, respectively. The second squad locate Flag at a resistance movement base camp and convince the rebellion's leader, Sol Soria, to assist them in the coming conflict. Sometime after retrieving Quinn from a compound occupied by the Corto Maltesean regime, they capture the lead scientist in charge of Project Starfish, the Thinker, who assists them in breaking into Jötunheim, allowing Chris, Harley, DuBois, Krill, and Nanaue to rig the facility with explosives while Flag and Cleo accompany Thinker to the laboratory. Thinker reveals to Flag and Cleo that Project Starfish involved the capture and experimentation of an extraterrestrial being known as Starro, who was brought to Earth by the U.S. government, which had secretly funded the project for decades, after making a secret deal with the Corto Maltesean government, while using thousands of Corto Maltesean natives as unwitting test subjects. Flag, horrified by the ethical implications, decides to take the hard drive containing the project's details and leak it as evidence. However, he is confronted and killed by a remorseful Chris, who was secretly under orders from Waller herself to cover up the U.S.'s involvement in the project. As a skirmish between the other squad members and the Corto Maltesean military leads to Krill prematurely detonating the explosives, Cleo takes the drive while Chris attempts to execute her. DuBois intervenes, saving Cazo and shooting Chris, leaving him with near-fatal injuries while Cleo, DuBois and the rest of their teammates flee the crumbling facility with the drive. As the remaining Task Force X members kill the now-freed Starro and save Corto Maltese, a separate group from Belle Reve is dispatched to retrieve Chris from Jötunheim's ruins and return him to Charlton County. Following Starro's defeat and the dissolution of the squad, two of Waller's associates, John Economos and Emilia Harcourt, visit Evergreen Hospital to check on Chris's recovery, with Harcourt proclaiming that keeping him alive is important as he will be needed to "save the world again". === Project Butterfly === ==== Meeting Clemson Murn and encountering a Butterfly ==== Upon being released from intensive care five months later and returning to his nearby trailer home, Chris is approached by a team consisting of Economos, Harcourt, new recruit and Waller's daughter, Leota Adebayo, and spearheaded by an informant of Waller's named Clemson Murn. Murn briefs Chris and the team on parasitic aliens codenamed "Butterflies" and arranges a group meeting later that evening. Chris then visits Auggie, who supplies his son with new helmets. Following the briefing, Chris engages in a one-night stand with Annie Sturphausen, who is possessed by a Butterfly and attacks him. He kills her using his "sonic boom helmet", but the local police, headed by detective Sophie Song, are alerted to the incident and investigate. Harcourt and Adebayo assist Chris in evading them until Economos accidentally incriminates Auggie in the crime, leading to the latter's unintended arrest and incarceration. ==== Assassinating the Goff Family ==== Upon being shunned by the team for the incident, Chris returns home and meets with Chase, during which they collectively discover that a device belonging to Sturphausen is actually a miniature spaceship. The following day, Murn briefs the team on their first ops mission, directing them to assassinate United States Senator Royland Goff and his family, who are presumed to all be Butterflies. Smith and Harcourt infiltrate the Goff home, but Chris hesitates to execute Goff's family. Chase volunteers to do so, but before he can kill Goff, the team is attacked by Goff's bodyguard Judomaster, who knocks out Harcourt and captures Chris and Chase for questioning. Goff attempts to goad Chris into confessing intel by torturing Chase, but Harcourt, Murn, and Adebayo intervene, allowing Chris to free himself and kill Goff while Economos incapacitates the escaping Judomaster. After a butterfly emerges from Goff's corpse, Chris secretly captures it and claims he killed it. ==== Interrogating Judomaster ==== As the team bring Judomaster back to their hideout to interrogate him, Chris and Chase learn of Auggie's arrest. Despite Murn and Adebayo telling him otherwise, Chris visits Auggie in prison, where the latter threatens to expose Project Butterfly to the authorities. Following this, Chris and Adebayo discover Judomaster in the midst of escaping. Following a lengthy confrontation between Chris and Judomaster, Adebayo abruptly shoots the latter as he is about to reveal the Butterflies' true purpose. Disillusioned, Chris returns to his trailer and grieves over his having to kill Flag and Keith's death. ==== Glan Tai infiltration and Butterfly takeover ==== Auggie pleads his innocence to Song, who deduces Chris killed Sturphausen. Concurrently, Chris is briefed on the Butterflies' parasitic nature and their desire to feed on an amber-like fluid. A discovery Adebayo made the previous night leads Project Butterfly to the Glan Tai bottling facility, where they kill the Butterfly-possessed workers and an escaped zoo gorilla and Chris earns the team's respect. While bonding on the way back, Chris invites Adebayo over to his trailer, where she secretly replaces his personal diary with a replica under Waller's orders. Song arranges for Auggie's release and Chris' arrest, much to the dismay of Deputy Locke, who is secretly collaborating with Murn unbeknownst to the rest of the team. The Goff butterfly attempts to communicate with Chris and Chase just as the Evergreen police come to arrest the former. While escaping to Project Butterfly's hideout with Locke's help, Chase accidentally drops the jar containing "Goff", allowing it to escape and kill and possess Song while Locke receives Chris' diary. As Economos traces the Butterflies' activities to Coverdale Ranch, where the team suspects that they are utilizing a giant alien larva, or "cow", to mass-produce the fluid, Adebayo experiences guilt over hiding confidential information about the operation from Chris and Waller and discovering that Murn is a rogue Butterfly called Ik Nobe Lok who wants to stop his own species, who came to Earth after they killed their own planet. Elsewhere, "Goff" summons an army of Butterflies to possess the Evergreen Police Department and Evergreen Corrections Center while Auggie rallies a group of followers and reassumes his White Dragon alias to kill Chris, who watches a television broadcast wherein the possessed Locke publicly incriminates him using his "diary" and calls for his arrest. ==== Facing his father and the Cow ==== Feeling betrayed by his companions, Chris decides to find and eliminate the "cow" himself. However, the team is intercepted by Auggie and his followers. Chris's pet eagle Eagly attempts to save Chris, only to be injured by Auggie, who nearly executes Chris. Chase exposes a weak point in Auggie's armor, allowing Chris to overpower and reluctantly kill him. Project Butterfly reunite at a nearby veterinary clinic, where Eagly is treated for his injuries and they learn "Murn" was killed by the Butterfly-possessed police officers. The team elects Harcourt as their new leader, who briefs them on the Butterflies' objective to teleport the "cow" to another enclave and leave to stop them. Upon reaching Coverdale Ranch, Chris and Chase learn about Adebayo's true parentage and "Murn's" true identity before the team improvise a plan due to a shortage of time. After Economos fails to remotely kill the Cow, Chris, Harcourt, and Chase launch a frontal assault, eliminating multiple Butterflies, though Harcourt and Chase are grievously injured. Meanwhile, Smith confronts "Goff", who attempts to sway him to the Butterflies' cause by revealing the Butterflies originally came to Earth seeking refuge before realizing that the planet was at the mercy of humans attempting to profit off of its resources and shifting their goals towards assimilating humanity and guiding them towards peace. Aggravated, Chris launches Adebayo at the Cow using his "human torpedo" helmet so she can destroy it while he kills Butterfly-Locke and Song's body, sparing "Goff". In the aftermath, Harcourt, Economos, and Chase undergo medical treatment while Adebayo and Chris make amends. Inspired, she publicly leaks Project Butterfly and Waller's role in Task Force X, clearing Chris' name. As he returns home with Eagly and "Goff" however, he becomes haunted by a hallucination of Auggie. ==Reception== ===Reviews=== Cena's portrayal of Christopher Smith / Peacemaker across his appearances in the DCEU has received positive reactions. Speaking on his performance in The Suicide Squad, Katie Rife, writing for The A.V. Club, stated that "Cena once again proves himself to be a talented comedic actor" in the role, describing the character as a "living action figure". Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times would further add that Cena's performance as his "ironically named" character wound up adding "to a terrific ensemble and a deft balance of brains, heart and other viscera". Commenting on the chemistry between Cena's Peacemaker and Idris Elba's character Robert DuBois / Bloodsport, CNET's Richard Trenholm observed that a constant positive throughout the film was "The pair clashing hilariously as they try to one-up each other in homicidal creativity", further complimenting Cena as being "so good and so funny as the uptight Peacemaker, he seems like an entirely different actor from the block of wood who fell off the screen with a dull thunk in this year's Fast and Furious 9". Critics similarly welcomed Cena's performance in Peacemaker the following year. IGN writer Samantha Nelson observed the progression in characterization in the series, contemplating that "Peacemaker quickly becomes a significantly more sympathetic character than he was in Gunn’s film, even if he is exasperating to his teammates such as Belle Reve warden John Economos (Steve Agee), who Peacemaker constantly accuses of dying his beard." She further comments that "Cena has a great sense of humor and seemingly no shame as he plays a sad-sack heel whose best friend is his bald eagle sidekick, Eagly". Charles Bramesco of The Guardian highlighted Cena as "the show’s strongest attribute", attributing it to "his veiny musculature lending a much-needed weight to face-offs that falter when ramping up the plastic-looking CGI". He likens Cena's presence and prowess in the series to physical comedy, iterating that "the bass has been cranked into the red every time he hits a wall or floor, letting us feel the heaviness of his elephantine body. He’s well-suited to the role as a budding comic performer too, his alpha-man-boy bluster the ideal fit for Gunn’s sophomoric hijinks". ===Audience viewership=== According to Samba TV, 638,000 US households watched John Cena in the premiere episode in its first 4 days of streaming on HBO Max. ==See also== *Characters of the DC Extended Universe *Peacemaker cast and characters ==References== 50px The fictional character biography and portions of the characterization were adapted from Peacemaker, The Suicide Squad, and respective pages for episodes of Peacemaker (TV series) at DC Extended Universe Wiki, which are available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 license. == External links == * Category:American male characters in television Category:DC Comics male superheroes Category:DC Comics LGBT superheroes Category:DC Extended Universe characters Category:Fictional bisexual males Category:Fictional characters from Washington (state) Category:Fictional diarists Category:Fictional fratricides Category:Fictional LGBT characters in television Category:Fictional marksmen and snipers Category:Fictional mass murderers Category:Fictional mercenaries Category:Fictional patricides Category:Fictional prisoners and detainees in the United States Category:Fictional vigilantes Category:Film characters introduced in 2021 Category:Male characters in film Category:Peacemaker (comics) Category:Suicide Squad (film series) Category:Superhero film characters Category:Superhero television characters Category:Male film villains Category:United States-themed superheroes Category:Film supervillains |
Pink Floyd was considered a pioneer in the live music experience for combining intense visual experiences with music to create a show in which the performers themselves were almost secondary. As well as visuals, Pink Floyd set standards in sound quality with innovative use of sound effects and panning quadrophonic speaker systems. ==Special effects== Besides the music, an elaborate part to any Pink Floyd live show is the special effects. ===The light show=== Pink Floyd were among the first bands to use a dedicated travelling light show in conjunction with their performances. During the Barrett era, dynamic liquid light shows were projected onto enormous screens behind the band while they played, and the band also incorporated large numbers of strobe lights, which were controlled manually by an engineer. This had the effect of totally obscuring the band itself, except for their shadows, which Barrett took advantage of: he would hold his arms up during parts where he was not required to play, making his shadow grow, shrink and undulate, adding to the visual spectacle. They developed many of these lighting techniques through their early association with light artist Mike Leonard. When psychedelia fell out of fashion from around 1970 onwards, elevated platforms of the type conventionally used for roof maintenance in high buildings were brought on tour and filled with lighting equipment to be raised and lowered during performances. Following Roger Waters' departure in 1985, the Pink Floyd light show reached a pinnacle. Marc Brickman, the group's lighting designer, utilized hundreds of automated intelligent lighting fixtures and lasers, which were state-of-the-art at the time. By the 1994 Division Bell tour, the band was using extremely powerful, isotope-splitting copper-vapour lasers. These gold-coloured lasers were worth over $120,000 a piece and previously had only been used in nuclear research and high speed photography. A large circular projection panel dubbed "Mr Screen" first made an appearance during performances of Dark Side of the Moon in 1974 and became a staple thereafter. The high quality, extreme wide angle projection required special high-speed, 35mm, 10,000 watt xenon film projectors, with custom lenses, all designed, built and toured by Associates & Ferren. Specially recorded films and animations were projected onto it, and for the 1977 "In the Flesh" and 1980–1981 "The Wall Live" tours, coloured spotlights were fixed around the rim, an effect which reached its zenith with the dancing patterns of multi- coloured lights in the A Momentary Lapse of Reason and Division Bell tours. In the latter, the screen could be retracted behind the stage when not required, and was tilted horizontally with its peripheral lights focused onto the stage into a single spotlight during the final guitar solo in "Comfortably Numb". Several generations of giant glitter balls began with the Dark Side of the Moon tour. By the Division Bell tour, the ball had evolved into a globe 4.9 metres in diameter, which rose from the mixing station to a height of 21.3 metres before opening into an array of petals 7.3 metres wide during the final guitar solo of "Comfortably Numb", revealing a 12 kilowatt Phobeus HMI lamp inside. ===Props and pyrotechnics=== Pyrotechnics (such as exploding flashpots, an exploding gong and fireworks) and dry ice were used extensively throughout Pink Floyd's career. In 1973's tour to promote The Dark Side of the Moon, a large scale model plane flew over the audience and crashed onto the stage with a spectacular explosion, an effect repeated at the start of The Wall and the Division Bell shows. During shows to promote A Momentary Lapse of Reason, a similar effect was achieved with a flying bed. Oversized helium balloons were first introduced during the Dark Side of the Moon tours, but in 1975, this element began to play a central part in the live show. For the U.S. leg of the 1975 tour, a pyramid shaped dirigible was floated above the stage. It proved unstable in windy conditions and blew into the crowd, which tore it into pieces for souvenirs. The trademark giant pig was brought in for Animals in 1977, floating over the audience, as well as a grotesque 'Nuclear Family', a refrigerator filled with snakes, a television and a Cadillac. In some shows, an envelope of propane gas was put inside the pig, causing it to explode. The inflatables reached their peak in 1980–1981 during The Wall shows, in which several of the characters from the album were brought to life in the form of fully mobile, giant string puppets with menacing spotlights for eyes, taking the traditional balloons to a new level. The characters were designed by the notable satirical artist, Gerald Scarfe.Schaffner, p. 241 Special effects reached a new and outrageous level during these Wall shows. For example, a long, high wall made from 340 white bricks was built between the audience and the band during the first half of the show. The final brick was placed as Roger Waters sang "goodbye" at the end of the song "Goodbye Cruel World." For the second half of the show, the band was largely invisible, except for a hole in the wall that simulated a hotel room where Roger Waters "acted out" the story of Pink, and an appearance by David Gilmour on top of the wall to perform the climactic guitar solo in "Comfortably Numb." Other parts of the story were told by Gerald Scarfe's animations projected onto the wall itself (these animations were later integrated into the film Pink Floyd: The Wall). At the finale of the concert, the wall was demolished amidst sound effects and a spectacular light show. ==Major tours and concerts== *30 September 1966 – The All Saints Church Hall Concert - London Free School/International Times Benefit Show *29–30 April 1967 – The 14 Hour Technicolour Dream concerts *12 May 1967 – Games for May concert *4–12 November 1967 – First US Tour *29 June 1968 – Midsummer High Weekend concert *February – December 1968 – Pink Floyd World Tour 1968 *May – September 1969 – The Man and The Journey Tour *25 October 1969 - Actuel Festival Amougies, Belgium *27 June 1970 – The Bath Festival of Blues and Progressive Music concert *28 June 1970 - The Holland Pop Festival in Kralingen Rotterdam *September 1970 – October 1971 – Atom Heart Mother World Tour *October – November 1971 – Meddle Tour *January 1972 – November 1973 – Dark Side of the Moon Tour *June 1974 – French Summer Tour *November – December 1974 – British Winter Tour *April – July 1975 – Wish You Were Here Tour *January – July 1977 – In the Flesh Tour *February 1980 – June 1981 – The Wall Tour (Is There Anybody Out There? The Wall Live 1980–81) *September 1987 – August 1988 – A Momentary Lapse of Reason Tour (as documented by Delicate Sound of Thunder) *11-12 luglio 1988 - "The Momentary Lapse Of Reason Tour" Tour 88, Rome - Stadio Flaminio - there is no DVD of Rome *May 1989 – July 1989 – Another Lapse Tour *30 June 1990 – Knebworth Festival concert *18 September 1993 – Cowdray Ruins concert *March – October 1994 – The Division Bell Tour (as documented by Pulse) *17 January 1996 – Rock and Roll Hall of Fame performance *2 July 2005 – Live 8 concert *10 May 2007 – Syd Barrett Tribute concert ==Performance history highlights== ===Barrett era=== The earliest shows for what is considered to be "Pink Floyd" occurred in 1965 and included Bob Klose as a member of the band, which at the time played mainly R&B; covers. Klose left the band after 1965. The remaining four members played very small (generally no more than 50 people), mostly unadvertised shows at the Marquee Club in London through June 1966. The set list continued to include R&B;, but some original psychedelia was also being introduced. On 30 September 1966, Pink Floyd were invited to play All Saint's Church Hall to raise money for the nascent International Times newspaper, and quickly became the "house band". At these shows, the band began its use of visual effects and gradually stopped covering R&B.; Word of these shows quickly spread in the London underground culture and soon the band became very well-attended and developed a cult following. On 23 December 1966, the first of the "International Times" associated gigs to be held at the UFO Club was performed. Mainstream interest about the counter-culture was increasing and a very small portion of their 20 January 1967 show at the UFO Club was broadcast as part of Granada TV's documentary entitled It's So Far Out, It's Straight Down, which constitutes the first audial or visual record of the band live. Pink Floyd were among the 30 bands that played The 14 Hour Technicolour Dream benefit gig organised for the "International Times" legal defence fund and held at the Alexandra Palace in London on the eve of 30 April 1967. Some of the other bands who played were The Who, The Move, The Pretty Things, Soft Machine, Tomorrow and The Creation. Notables in attendance included musician John Lennon, artist John Dunbar, actor Michael Caine, artist and musician Yoko Ono, actress Julie Christie, musician Mick Jagger and artist David Hockney. Although both the BBC and filmmaker Peter Whitehead filmed portions of the event, there is no known footage of Pink Floyd. On 12 May 1967, Pink Floyd performed at Queen Elizabeth Hall in London a concert entitled Games for May. At this show, they debuted a multi-speaker pan pot system controlled by a joystick from the stage that allowed them to move the sound to anywhere a speaker had been set up. This precursor to their later "Azimuth Coordinator" unfortunately was stolen after the show. After their debut single, "Arnold Layne", charted well in the UK, the band was invited to perform on the BBC2 music show The Look of the Week on 14 May 1967. The setlist for the broadcast consisted of "Pow R. Toc H." and "Astronomy Domine". This was their first British television appearance. Pink Floyd were invited to appear on the BBC2 music show Top of the Pops in July 1967 for three weeks after their second single "See Emily Play" reached No. 6 on the UK charts. By this time Syd Barrett's behavior had become somewhat unpredictable. On one occasion, the increasingly difficult Barrett remarked that if John Lennon did not have to appear on Top of the Pops neither did he. Consequently, their management company, Blackhill Enterprises, convinced the band to cancel all of their August shows and go to Spain to recuperate. Increasingly, throughout the summer and into the fall of 1967, copious drug use (especially LSD) and pressure by the record company to constantly write new hit songs continued to take a toll on Barrett's mental state. He became unable to make a meaningful contribution to the group on stage, playing his guitar incoherently and sometimes not playing at all. By the time of the band's first tour of the US in early November 1967, his condition was plainly showing. He stared blankly into space on their 4 November American Bandstand performance, listlessly strummed and barely managed to mime the vocals to "Apples and Oranges". On 5 November, things got worse: they appeared on The Pat Boone Show and Barrett sat in stubborn silence, refusing to answer any question put to him. He also refused to mime "See Emily Play": Waters was forced to mime the track instead (Waters confirmed this on the VH1's Legends: Pink Floyd episode). After 22 December show, the rest of the band quietly put out the word that they were in need of a guitarist. Although both Jeff Beck and Davy O'List were considered, it was David Gilmour, then unobligated, who was brought on to augment Barrett as need arose during live shows. For the first four shows of 1968, Pink Floyd was a five-man live act again. When they were on the way to their show at Southampton University on 26 January 1968, they decided not to pick up Barrett. ===Transition and experimentation=== See: Pink Floyd World Tour 1968 A typical 1968 set list would include some of the following: *"Astronomy Domine" *"Interstellar Overdrive" *"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun" *"Pow R. Toc H." *"Let There Be More Light" *"The Massed Gadgets of Hercules" (first performed on 23 May 1968, renamed "A Saucerful of Secrets" ) *"Flaming" *"Keep Smiling People" (a prototype version of "Careful with That Axe, Eugene") Although their management company Blackhill Enterprises parted ways with them over their decision about Syd Barrett on 29 June 1968, Pink Floyd headlined the first free Hyde Park concert organized by Blackhill. Others performing were Tyrannosaurus Rex, Roy Harper and Jethro Tull. A second tour of the US during July and August 1968 (see A Saucerful of Secrets US Tour) was launched to tie into the release of their second album, A Saucerful of Secrets. Increasingly throughout 1968 and 1969, shows consisted of post- Barrett compositions, with notable exceptions being "Astronomy Domine" and "Interstellar Overdrive", both of which were performed into the 1970s. Their audiences changed during this time as well: while Barrett-era crowds consisted mainly of hippies who would dance in time with the music, they now drew more "intellectual" crowd, who would sit and remain quiet until the last note of a song was played.Povey and Russell p. 55-57 By early 1969, most of their excess earnings were funneled into upgrading their sound equipment rather than maintaining a permanent light show. If visuals were to be used at all, they had to be provided by the venue or the local promoter. A typical 1969 set list would include some of the following: See: The Man And The Journey Tour *"The Man/The Journey" *"Astronomy Domine" *"Interstellar Overdrive" *"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun" *"Pow R. Toc H." *"Let There Be More Light" *"A Saucerful of Secrets" *"Cymbaline" *"Green is the Colour" *"Main Theme" (rarely played) *"Careful with That Axe, Eugene" The shows at Mothers, Birmingham on 27 April 1969 and the College of Commerce, Manchester on 2 May 1969 were recorded for the live part of the Ummagumma album. One source also claims that the show at Bromley Technical College on 26 April 1969 was also recorded for the album.Povey and Russell p. 72 On 14 April 1969, at Royal Festival Hall, they debuted their new pan pot 360 degree sound system dubbed the "Azimuth Coordinator". This show, named "More Furious Madness from the Massed Gadgets of Auximenes", consisted of two experimental "suites", "The Man" and "The Journey". Most of the songs were either renamed earlier material or under a different name than they would eventually be released. A UK tour occurred during May and June 1969 culminating in the show dubbed "The Final Lunacy" at Royal Albert Hall on 26 June 1969. Considered one of the most experimental concerts by Pink Floyd, it featured a crew member dressed as a gorilla, a cannon that fired, and band members sawing wood on the stage. At the finale of "The Journey" suite the band was joined on stage by the brass section of the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and the ladies of the Ealing Central Amateur Choir, and at the very end a huge pink smoke bomb was let off.Povey and Russell p. 75 An additional complete performance of "The Man/The Journey" occurred at the Concertgebouw, Amsterdam on 17 September and was taped and later broadcast by Dutch radio station Hilversum 3. Portions of the suites were being performed as late as early 1970. ===The "Atom Heart Mother" era=== A typical 1970 set list would include some of the following: *"Astronomy Domine" *"Interstellar Overdrive" *"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun" *"A Saucerful of Secrets" *"Cymbaline" *"Green is the Colour" *"Main Theme" (rarely played, and only in early 1970) *"Careful with That Axe, Eugene" *"Sysyphus" pts. 1-4 (rarely played, and only in early 1970) *"Grantchester Meadows" *"Embryo" *"The Violent Sequence" (rarely played, and only in early 1970) *"Heart Beat, Pig Meat" performed at Manchester Opera House on 8 February 1970 *"Atom Heart Mother" *"Fat Old Sun" (beginning in September) *"Alan's Psychedelic Breakfast" (only played a few times in December) Early in 1970, Pink Floyd performed at gigs a piece from their film soundtrack for Michelangelo Antonioni's film Zabriskie Point referred to as "The Violent Sequence". This was the musical basis for "Us and Them", from their The Dark Side of the Moon album. Lacking only the lyrics, it is identical to the final song and is the earliest part of the seminal album to have been performed live. The song "Embryo" was also a part of the live repertoire around this time, but was never to appear on a studio album, until the compilation album Works. On 18 January 1970 (possibly 17 January 1970), the band began performing a then untitled instrumental piece, which would eventually become the title track to their next album Atom Heart Mother. At this point, it had no orchestra or choir accompaniment. The song officially debuted at the Bath Festival, Somerset England on 27 June 1970 under the title "The Amazing Pudding" (later the name of a Pink Floyd fanzine) and for the first time with orchestra and choir accompaniment. Announced as "The Atom Heart Mother" by the British broadcaster John Peel on his BBC Radio 1 show "Peel's Sunday Concert" on 16 July 1970, a name suggested by him to the band,Povey and Russell p 83 it was also announced as "The Atomic Heart Mother" two days later at the Hyde Park free concert.Povey and Russell p. 95 Partly because of the difficulties of finding and hiring local orchestras and choirs, the band often played what is referred to as the "small band" version of the song when they performed it live. On 28 June 1970 Fink Floyd was the end- performance of the Kralingen Music Festival or "Stamping Ground" in a park near Rotterdam, The Netherlands. On 18 July Pink Floyd headlined a free concert in Hyde Park organised by Blackhill Enterprises. They closed the show with Atom Heart Mother, which had been given the name after Roger Waters read an article in a newspaper about a woman who had been given a prototype heart pacemaker Pink Floyd also appeared at a Free festival In Canterbury on 31 August which was filmed. This was the end leg of the Medicine Ball Caravan tour organised by Warner Brothers, which was later made into a film of the same name. It appears that the Pink Floyd footage was not included in the movie but spectators report that Atom Heart Mother was part of the set that was recorded. The audience must have been one of the smallest to see Pink Floyd at this era, only 1500 were present as the festival was not widely promoted. In contrast, over 500,000 people witnessed their show at Fête de L'Humanité, Paris on 12 September 1970, their largest crowd ever. Filmed by French TV, the show was never broadcast.Povey and Russell p. 96 Experimental on the album Atom Heart Mother, the song "Alan's Psychedelic Breakfast" was performed at a few gigs in December 1970. "Breakfast" being made was part of the song. The first part of this lasted around four minutes. The second part of "breakfast" preparation was around a minute followed by a 3-minute tape of British DJ Jimmy Young, whom the band disliked. For a great recording of some of their material from this period check out the Fillmore West show in San Francisco, California on 29 April 1970 on Wolfgang's Vault. This show includes material from Ummagumma and Atom Heart Mother. ===Early performances of "Echoes"=== A typical 1971 set list would include some of the following: *"Astronomy Domine" (dropped from the setlist in June) *"Interstellar Overdrive" (dropped from the setlist in November 1970) *"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun" *"A Saucerful of Secrets" *"Cymbaline" *"Green Is the Colour" (dropped from the setlist in August) *"Careful with That Axe, Eugene" *"Embryo" *"Atom Heart Mother" *"Fat Old Sun" *"Echoes" *"One of These Days" (beginning in late September / early October) January 1971 saw the band working on a track in the studio of then unconnected parts whose working title was either "Nothing — Parts 1 to 24"Povey and Russell p. 85 or "Nothing Parts 1–36".Fitch p. 93 This song made its live debut under the working title "Return of the Son of Nothing" on 22 April 1971 in Norwich, England and like "Atom Heart Mother" before it, it was a work in progress. This was later to be released as "Echoes" on the album Meddle. Although announced as "Echoes" on 6 August 1971 at Hakone, Japan, the song was still performed with the additional lyrics at later August gigs. The show on 18 September 1971 at Montreux, Switzerland and subsequent shows do not have the additional lyrics. In 1972, during a German tour, Waters sardonically introduced Echoes as "Looking Through the Knotholes in Granny's Wooden Leg" (a Goon Show reference) on one occasion and "The March of the Dam Busters" on another. On another occasion, during a live radio broadcast, Waters had instructed compére John Peel to announce "One of These Days" to the home audience as "A poignant appraisal of the contemporary social situation." After the band's Crystal Palace Garden Party performance (London, 15 May 1971), it was discovered that the use of fireworks caused some fishes to die, in a pond directly in front of the stage. The band was subsequently pressured to compensate for the damage. ===Eclipse - A Piece for Assorted Lunatics=== A typical 1972 set list included: First Set: * "Breathe in the Air" * "The Travel Sequence" * "Time" * "Home Again" * "The Mortality Sequence" (aka "Religion") * "Money" * "The Violent Sequence" * "Scat" * "Lunatic" * "Eclipse" Second Set: *"One of These Days" *"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun" (or as an encore) *"Careful with That Axe, Eugene" (or as an encore) *"Echoes" (or as an encore) *"Atom Heart Mother" (rarely, last performance on 22 May 1972) *"A Saucerful of Secrets" (rarely in second set, usually as an encore) *"Childhood's End" (rarely, introduced in November 1972) Encore: Rotated one of these three songs: *"A Saucerful of Secrets" (last performance on 23 September 1972) *"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun" (or in second set) *"Echoes" (or in second set) Occasionally, multiple song encores were performed, adding: * "Blues" Playing 98 shows (the most until 1994), 1972 was the last time Pink Floyd varied their set lists each night on a tour until their final one. Songs played in the second set and encore were swapped constantly, and the band even varied the number of songs played in the encore from the usual one, to two or three. 1972 saw Pink Floyd debut the performance of a not just a song (like on previous tours), but an entire album prior to its release. The original title was Eclipse (A Piece for Assorted Lunatics), then The Dark Side of the Moon - A Piece for Assorted Lunatics, the name under which it made its press debut in February 1972 at London's Rainbow Theatre. The title changed for the first part of the US tour to Eclipse (A Piece for Assorted Lunatics) during April and May before reverting to Dark Side of the Moon - A Piece for Assorted Lunatics in September for the second part of the US tourFitch p. 77 and finally released in 1973 under the title of Dark Side of the Moon. One of the two shows at The Dome, Brighton, England on 28 June and 29 June was filmed by Peter Clifton for inclusion on his film Sounds of the City. Clips of these appear occasionally on television and the performance of "Careful with That Axe, Eugene" is on the various artists video Superstars in Concert.Povey and Russell p. 122 In November 1972, during the middle of the European leg of their 1972 world tour and again in January 1973, Pink Floyd performed with the Roland Petit Ballet. The portion of the setlist for which the ballet was choreographed was "One of These Days", "Careful with That Axe, Eugene", "Obscured by Clouds", "When You're In" and "Echoes". ===Dark Side of the Moon=== thumb|Dark Side of the Moon, Earls Court, 1973 An early 1973 set list (until mid-March) included: First Set: *"Echoes" *"Obscured by Clouds"/"When You're In" (The two songs incorporated into a longer piece with a jamming guitar & keyboard section in the middle) *"Childhood's End" (rarely) *"Careful with That Axe, Eugene" Second Set: The Dark Side of the Moon entire album Encore: *"One of These Days" For the remainder of 1973 (except 4 November), the set list included: First Set: *"Obscured by Clouds" *"When You're In" *"Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun" *"Careful with That Axe, Eugene" *"Echoes" Second Set: The Dark Side of the Moon entire album Encore: *"One of These Days" In 1973, the band moved Dark Side of the Moon to the second set (where it would reside through 1975), and played the album version of the piece, notably the revamped versions of "On the Run" and "The Great Gig in the Sky." 1973 saw Pink Floyd go on two relatively short tours of the US, one in March to coincide with the release of The Dark Side of the Moon and a later one in June. Sandwiched between them were two nights at London's Earl's Court on 18 May and 19 May where they debuted the special effect of a plane crashing into the stage at the end of the song "On the Run".Fitch p. 227 This was also the first year that the band took additional musicians on tour with them, unlike the earlier performances of "Atom Heart Mother" where the band would often hire local musicians. Because of the overwhelming chart success of both The Dark Side of the Moon, which reached No. 1 in the US in late April, No. 2 in the UK, and the US-released single "Money", the nature of Pink Floyd's audiences changed in June 1973. David Gilmour said of the change "It was 'Money' that made the difference rather than 'The Dark Side of the Moon'. It gave us a much larger following, for which we should be thankful. ... People at the front shouting, 'Play Money! Gimme something I can shake my ass to!' We had to get used to it, but previously we'd been playing to 10,000 seaters where, in the quiet passages, you could hear a pin drop."Mojo Magazine, March 1998, p 78 They could now sell out stadiums. On 4 November 1973, Pink Floyd played two shows at London's Rainbow Theatre to benefit musician Robert Wyatt formerly the drummer of Soft Machine, a band they'd played with in their UFO Club days. Wyatt fell from a fourth floor window in June 1973, breaking his back and making him a paraplegic. The set list for these two shows were: Main Set: The Dark Side of the Moon entire album Encore: *"Obscured by Clouds" *"When You're In" ===1974 Tours=== A French Summer Tour set list would include all of the following: *"Raving and Drooling" *"Shine On You Crazy Diamond" *"Echoes" *The Dark Side of the Moon (Entire album) Encore (one of the following): *"Careful with That Axe, Eugene" *"One of These Days" A British Winter Tour set list included all of the following: *"Shine On You Crazy Diamond" *"Raving and Drooling" *"You've Got to be Crazy" *The Dark Side of the Moon (Entire album) Encore: *"Echoes" These early versions of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond", "Raving and Drooling" & "You've Got to be Crazy" were released as part of the Wish You Were Here Experience and Immersion sets. ===1975 North America Tour & Knebworth '75=== A typical 1975 set would include all of the following: *"Shine On You Crazy Diamond (Parts I-V)" *"Have a Cigar" *"Shine On You Crazy Diamond (Parts VI- IX)" *"Raving and Drooling" *"You've Got to be Crazy" *The Dark Side of the Moon (entire album) Encore: *"Echoes" In 1975, the band launched a short tour that ended two months prior to the release of Wish You Were Here, which eventually sold out stadiums and arenas across America. The last gig of the tour was as the headliner of the 1975 Knebworth Festival, which also featured The Steve Miller Band, Captain Beefheart and Roy Harper (who joined Pink Floyd on the stage to sing "Have a Cigar"). It was the second Knebworth Festival, which featured artists such as The Rolling Stones, Led Zeppelin, Genesis and Frank Zappa between 1974 and 1979. Despite some technical problems, the band managed to perform a remarkable concert, which as well as the usual special effects featured a fly-past by a pair of Spitfires. This was supposed to synchronise with the start of 'Breathe' but the band had tuning difficulties and the planes flew over before the start of the set. Knebworth was the last time the band would perform "Echoes" and the entire Dark Side of the Moon with Roger Waters. ===In the Flesh=== A typical 1977 set list would include the following: *Animals (entire album) *Wish You Were Here (entire album) Encore: *"Money" *"Us and Them" *"Careful with That Axe, Eugene" (performed once in Oakland, California) *"More Blues" (performed once in Montreal, Quebec, Canada) In 1977, Pink Floyd embarked on a world tour in support of the "Animals" album. Although the album had not sold as well as their two previous releases, "Dark Side Of The Moon" and "Wish You Were Here", the band's popularity was at an all-time high. The band managed to sell out arenas and stadiums in both Europe and America, setting attendance records all along the way. In Chicago, the band played to an estimated audience of 95,000; in Cleveland and Montreal, they set attendance records for those venues by playing to over 80,000 people. The "In The Flesh" tour would later become widely known as their most memorable series of concert performances, and the last in which Roger Waters would accompany the band. The elaborate stage presentations, particularly those constructed for the outdoor venues, were their most complex and elaborate to date. Designed by Mark Fisher and Andrew Sanders, they featured a pyrotechnic "waterfall", umbrella-like canopies that could be deployed to protect the band from the elements, and a variety of characters associated with the "Animals" album; including "Algie", a 40-foot long inflatable pig that drifted out over the audience, the "Average American family" (which, at the time, included Mom, Dad and 2.5 children), and paper sheep that parachuted down on the crowds after being shot from cannons mounted to the sides of the stage.Schaffner, p. 216-217 The musicians that accompanied the band on the tour included veteran saxophone player Dick Parry (occasionally playing keyboards as well) and guitarist Snowy White, who also filled in on bass guitar for some songs. In the first half of each show, the band played all of the songs from Animals, but in a slightly different sequence than the album (typically starting with "Sheep", then "Pigs On the Wing (Part 1)", "Dogs", "Pigs On the Wing (Part 2)" and "Pigs (Three Different Ones)"). The second half of the shows consisted of Wish You Were Here being played in its exact running order ("Shine On You Crazy Diamond (Parts 1-5)", "Welcome to the Machine", "Have a Cigar", "Wish You Were Here" and "Shine On You Crazy Diamond (Parts 6-9)"). The encores would usually consist of either "Money" or "Us and Them" from Dark Side of the Moon or both. At the Oakland, California show on May 9, they played "Careful with That Axe, Eugene" as a third encore, the last time the song was ever performed live. The tour started in Dortmund, West Germany on 23 January and proceeded through Europe, ending in Stafford, England on 31 March. Three weeks later, the North American leg of the tour opened in Miami, Florida on 22 April, concluding in Montreal, Quebec on 6 July. The show in Oakland, California on 9 May is widely regarded as one of the band's finest performances ever. During "Have a Cigar," Waters and Gilmour can be heard laughing as they sing part of the opening line. In the run-up to the band's four-night run at Madison Square Garden in New York City (1–4 July), tour promoters used an aggressive marketing strategy, filling pages of The New York Times and Billboard magazine with ads. In May, there was a Pink Floyd parade on 6th Avenue featuring both inflatable and live animals.Schaffner, p. 218 Another memorable performance occurred in Cleveland, Ohio on 25 June. The show was held at Cleveland Municipal Stadium, just a short distance from Burke Lakefront Airport. Most of the shows opened with a recording of jet airplane taking off, but promoters secretly arranged for the band's Boeing 737 jet to do a low flyover directly over the stadium as the show opened. The FAA later fined the promoters $1,500 over the incident. The show was also delayed briefly by a fan that grabbed the tether line for the inflatable pig and wouldn't release it. At their performance in Boston two nights later, Waters jokingly said "We're going to take a PIG break, back in 20 minutes". He closed the show by gratefully commenting that this had been "the perfect end to the perfect day, good night and God bless". As the tour began, everyone was in good spirits, but the later shows were marred by Roger Waters' increasing annoyance with the raucous fans in attendance. During the last show in Montreal, a noisy fan near the stage irritated Waters to such an extent that he spat on him. The act so disgusted David Gilmour that he left the stage prior to the final encore, "More Blues", leaving Snowy White to fill in as the roadies began dismantling the stage equipment. The insatiable audience clamored for the band to keep playing, and a small riot broke out in front of the stage following the band's eventual exit. Later that night, Waters recounted the incident to his friend, music producer Bob Ezrin, and expressed his growing feelings of alienation toward their fans. Those feeling of detachment became the starting and focal point for Pink Floyd's next album, The Wall.Schaffner, p. 218-219 ===The Wall live=== The 1980/1981 set lists comprised the entire album, The Wall. Pink Floyd mounted its most elaborate stage show in conjunction with the tour of The Wall. A band of session musicians played the first song, wearing rubber face masks taken from the real band members, then backed up the band for the remainder of the show. Most notable was the giant wall constructed between the band and the audience. The costs of the tour were estimated to have reached US$1.5 million even before the first performance. The New York Times stated in its 2 March 1980 edition that: > The 'Wall' show remains a milestone in rock history though and there's no > point in denying it. Never again will one be able to accept the technical > clumsiness, distorted sound and meagre visuals of most arena rock concerts > as inevitable" and concluded that "the 'Wall' show will be the touchstone > against which all future rock spectacles must be measured. The show was designed by Mark Fisher with Art Direction by Gerald Scarfe. The Wall concert was only performed a handful of times each in four cities: Los Angeles, Uniondale (Long Island), Dortmund, and London (at Earl's Court). The primary 'tour' occurred in 1980, but the band performed eight shows at Dortmund (14–20 February 1981) and five more shows at Earl's Court (13–17 June) for filming, with the intention of integrating the shows into the upcoming movie. The resulting footage was deemed substandard and scrapped; years later, Roger Waters has given conflicted answers on the status of the concert films stating from "trying to locate this footage for historical purposes but was unsuccessful and considers it to be lost forever" to "I have all of the film but am reluctant to release". There are several unofficial videos of the entire live show in circulation and some footage is shown on the Behind the Wall documentary. Gilmour and Mason attempted to convince Waters to expand the show for a more lucrative, large-scale stadium tour, but because of the nature of the material (one of the primary themes is the distance between an artist and his audience) Waters balked at this. In fact, Waters had reportedly been offered a guaranteed US$1 million for each additional stadium concert, but declined the offer, insisting that such a tour would be hypocritical. These shows are documented on the album Is There Anybody Out There? The Wall Live 1980-81. Waters recreated the Wall show in Berlin in 1990, alongside the ruins of the Berlin Wall, and was joined by a number of guest artists (including Bryan Adams, Scorpions, Van Morrison, The Band, Tim Curry, Cyndi Lauper, Sinéad O'Connor, Marianne Faithfull, Joni Mitchell, Ute Lemper and Thomas Dolby). This concert was even bigger than the previous ones, as Waters built a long and high wall.Schaffner, p. 308 The size of the theatrical features of The Wall were increased to cater for a sold-out audience of 200,000 people and of another estimated 500 million, in 35 countries, watching on television. After the concert began, the gates were opened and an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 people were able to watch the concert. This show is available on The Wall Live in Berlin album and DVD. Roger staged another tour of The Wall in 2010 saying of the story "It has occurred to me that maybe the story of my fear and loss with its concomitant inevitable residue of ridicule, shame and punishment, provides an allegory for broader concerns: Nationalism, racism, sexism, religion, Whatever! All these issues and ‘isms are driven by the same fears that drove my young life." ===A Momentary Lapse of Reason=== After the release of A Momentary Lapse of Reason in 1987, Pink Floyd embarked on an 11-week tour to promote the album. The two remaining members of the band, David Gilmour and Nick Mason, along with Richard Wright, had just won a legal battle against Roger Waters and the future of the group was uncertain. Having the success of The Wall shows to live up to, the concerts' special effects were more impressive than ever. The initial "promotional tour" was extended, and finally lasted almost two years, ending in 1989 after playing around 200 concerts to about 5.5 million people in total, including 3 dates at Madison Square Garden (5–7 October 1987) and 2 nights on Wembley Stadium (5–6 August 1988). The tour took Pink Floyd to various exotic locations they had never played before such as shows in the forecourt of the Palace of Versailles, Moscow's Olympic Stadium, and Venice, despite fears and protests that the sound would damage the latter city's foundations. These shows are documented by the Delicate Sound of Thunder album and video. Pink Floyd was the second highest grossing act of 1987 and the highest grossing of 1988 in the U.S. Financially, Pink Floyd was the biggest act of these two years combined, grossing almost US$60 million from touring, about the same as U2 and Michael Jackson, their closest rivals, combined. Worldwide, the band grossed around US$135 million. The tour marked the first time that the band played in Russia, Norway, Spain, New Zealand and was the first time they had played in Australia since 1973. A further concert was held at the Knebworth Festival in 1990, a charity event that also featured other Silver Clef Award winners. Pink Floyd was the last act to play, to an audience of 125,000. During this gig Clare Torry sang backing vocals making it the second and last time she did so. Vicki and Sam Brown also attended as backing vocalists, as well as Candy Dulfer with a saxophone solo. The £60,000 firework display that ended the concert was entirely financed by the band. ===The Division Bell=== The Division Bell Tour in 1994 was promoted by Canadian concert impresario Michael Cohl and became the highest-grossing tour in rock music history to that date, with the band playing the entirety of The Dark Side of the Moon in some shows, for the first time since 1975. The concerts featured more elaborate special effects than the previous tour, including two custom designed airships. The arch-shaped stage was designed by Marc Brickman and Mark Fisher with lighting by Marc Brickman. Three stages leapfrogged around North America and Europe, each long and featuring a arch modelled on the Hollywood Bowl. All in all, the tour required 700 tons of steel carried by 53 articulated trucks, a crew of 161 people and an initial investment of US$4 million plus US$25 million of running costs just to stage. This tour played to 5.5 million people in 68 cities; each concert gathered an average 45,000 audience. At the end of the year, the Division Bell Tour was announced as the biggest tour ever, with worldwide gross of over £150 million (about US$250 million). In the U.S. alone, it grossed US$103.5 million from 59 concerts. However, this record was short-lived; less than a year later, The Rolling Stones' Voodoo Lounge Tour (like the Division Bell Tour, also sponsored in part by Volkswagen) finished with a worldwide gross of over US$300 million. The Stones and U2 (with their Vertigo Tour) remain the only acts ever to achieve a higher worldwide gross from a tour, even when adjusting for inflation. These shows are documented by the Pulse album and Pulse (1995 film). ===Post-Pulse era=== ==== 1996: Rock and Roll Hall of Fame performance ==== In 1996, Gilmour and Wright performed "Wish You Were Here" with Billy Corgan (of The Smashing Pumpkins fame) at their Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction. ==== 2001: David Gilmour & Nick Mason statements about Pink Floyd touring again in the future ==== In an interview with BBC Radio 2 in October, 2001, Gilmour implied that the Echoes: The Best of Pink Floyd compilation (released in November 2001) "probably" signaled the end of the band. "You never know exactly what the future (holds)", Gilmour said. "I'm not going to slam any doors too firmly, but I don't see myself doing any more of that, and I certainly don't see myself going out on a big Floyd tour again." A few days later in an interview with Launch.com, Nick Mason contradicted the statement, saying "I don't feel I've retired yet. You know, if everyone wanted to, we could certainly still do something. I've spent 30 years waiting for the planets to align. I'm quite used to it." ==== 2002: David Gilmour in Concert DVD release ==== David Gilmour released a solo concert DVD called David Gilmour in Concert in November 2002 which was compiled from shows on 22 June 2001 and 17 January 2002 at The Royal Festival Hall in London. Richard Wright, Robert Wyatt, and Bob Geldof (Pink in The Wall film) make guest appearances. ==== 2003: Steve O'Rourke's funeral performance ==== Longtime manager Steve O'Rourke died on 30 October 2003. Gilmour, Mason and Wright performed "Fat Old Sun" and "The Great Gig in the Sky" at his funeral at Chichester Cathedral, contrary to reports in the media claiming they played "Wish You Were Here". ==== 2005: Live 8 performance ==== On 2 July 2005 Pink Floyd performed at the London Live 8 concert with Roger Waters rejoining David Gilmour, Nick Mason and Richard Wright. It was the quartet's first performance together in over 24 years — the band's last show with Waters was at Earls Court in London on 17 June 1981. Gilmour announced the Live 8 reunion on 12 June 2005: : The band's set consisted of "Speak to Me/Breathe/Breathe (Reprise)", "Money", "Wish You Were Here", and "Comfortably Numb". This is the only known occurrence when Pink Floyd played "Breathe" and "Breathe (Reprise)" together as a single piece. As on the original recordings, Gilmour sang the lead vocals on "Breathe" and "Money", and shared them with Waters on "Comfortably Numb". For "Wish You Were Here", Waters sang half of the verse's lyrics, unlike the original recording. When Waters was not singing, he was often enthusiastically mouthing the lyrics off-microphone. During the guitar introduction of "Wish You Were Here", Waters said: : They were augmented by guitarist/bassist Tim Renwick (guitarist on Roger Waters' 1984 solo tour, who has since become Pink Floyd's backing guitarist on stage); keyboardist/lap steel guitarist/backup vocalist Jon Carin (Pink Floyd's backing keyboardist from 1987 onward who performed on the 1999–2000 North American leg of Waters' "In the Flesh" tour, his 2006–2008 "Dark Side of the Moon Live" tour, his 2010–2011 "The Wall" tour and David Gilmour's 2006 On an Island tour); saxophonist Dick Parry during "Money" (who played on the original recordings of "Money", "Us and Them", and "Shine on You Crazy Diamond"); and backing singer Carol Kenyon during "Comfortably Numb". During "Breathe", on the screen behind them, film of the iconic pig from the Animals album was shown flying over Battersea Power Station (itself visible on the horizon in television broadcasts of the performance), and during "Money", a shot of The Dark Side of the Moon record being played was shown. During "Comfortably Numb", the three giant screens showed the Pink Floyd Wall (from the cover of The Wall), and during the final guitar solo, the words "Make Poverty History" were written on the wall. At the end, after the last song had been played, Gilmour said "thank you very much, good night" and started to walk off the stage. Waters called him back, however, and the band shared a group hug that became one of the most famous pictures of Live 8. As they proceeded to walk off, Nick Mason threw his drumsticks into the audience. With Wright's subsequent death, in September 2008, this was to be the final concert to feature all four bandmates playing together. ==== 2007: Syd Barrett tribute concert ==== On 10 May 2007 Pink Floyd (Wright, Gilmour and Mason), joined by Andy Bell of Oasis on bass and Jon Carin on keys, performed at London's Barbican Centre as part of "The Madcap's Last Laugh", a tribute concert for Syd Barrett who had died the previous year. They played "Arnold Layne", and later joined other artists to perform "Bike". This would be the last time Wright appeared as part of Pink Floyd, before his own death the following year. Roger Waters appeared in the concert performing his own song "Flickering Flame", also with Jon Carin on keys, but did not take part in either song with the members of Pink Floyd. In 2020, the live recording of "Arnold Layne" from this concert was released as a single for Record Store Day. ==Backing musicians== See: Pink Floyd live backing musicians Because of the increasingly complex nature of Pink Floyd's music, more and more musicians besides the band were required on stage to recreate sounds achieved in the studio. Some performances of Atom Heart Mother featured an entire orchestra and choir, reputedly a nightmare to bring on tour. Less 'weighty' contributions from other musicians followed. In 1973 Dick Parry provided saxophone for Dark Side of the Moon and reprised this for live performances in every subsequent tour except those promoting The Wall and A Momentary Lapse of Reason, the latter in which Scott Page provided sax. For 1977's Animals promotion, Snowy White was brought in as an additional guitarist. He returned for The Wall shows along with a complete "surrogate band" consisting of Peter Wood (keyboards), Willie Wilson (drums) and Andy Bown (bass). Andy Roberts replaced White for the 1981 shows. For the A Momentary Lapse of Reason and Division Bell tours, Jon Carin (whom David Gilmour had met at Live Aid playing in Bryan Ferry's backing band) provided additional synthesizers and keyboards, Guy Pratt replaced Roger Waters on bass, Tim Renwick provided additional guitar and Gary Wallis additional percussion. Several backing vocalists, (the most notable of whom are Rachel Fury, Clare Torry, Sam Brown, Margaret Taylor, Durga McBroom and Carol Kenyon) have accompanied the band on and off from Dark Side of the Moon onwards. During their performance at Live 8, Pink Floyd used Tim Renwick, Jon Carin, Dick Parry and Carol Kenyon. == Notes == ==References== * Fitch, Vernon. The Pink Floyd Encyclopedia, 2005, * Mason, Nick. Inside Out: A Personal History of Pink Floyd, 2004. * Schaffner, Nicholas. Saucerful of Secrets: The Pink Floyd Odyssey, 1991. * Povey, Glenn and Russell, Ian. Pink Floyd: In The Flesh: the complete performance history, 1997. * Scarfe, Gerald. "The Making of Pink Floyd: The Wall", 2010. ==External links== * Mark Fisher's Pink Floyd gallery Category:Pink Floyd concert tours Category:Concerts |
thumb|Ancient settlements in Crimea and surrounding area The recorded history of the Crimean Peninsula, historically known as Tauris, Taurica (), and the Tauric Chersonese (, "Tauric Peninsula"), begins around the 5th century BCE when several Greek colonies were established along its coast, the most important of which was Chersonesos near modern day Sevastopol, with Scythians and Tauri in the hinterland to the north. The southern coast gradually consolidated into the Bosporan Kingdom which was annexed by Pontus and then became a client kingdom of Rome (63 BCE – 341 AD). The south coast remained Greek in culture for almost two thousand years including under Roman successor states, the Byzantine Empire (341–1204), the Empire of Trebizond (1204–1461), and the independent Principality of Theodoro (ended 1475). In the 13th century, some Crimean port cities were controlled by the Venetians and by the Genovese, but the interior was much less stable, enduring a long series of conquests and invasions. In the medieval period, it was partially conquered by Kievan Rus' whose prince Vladimir the Great was baptised at Sevastopol, which marked the beginning of the Christianization of Kievan Rus'. During the Mongol invasion of Europe, the north and centre of Crimea fell to the Mongol Golden Horde, and in the 1440s the Crimean Khanate formed out of the collapse of the horde but quite rapidly itself became subject to the Ottoman Empire, which also conquered the coastal areas which had kept independent of the Khanate. A major source of prosperity in these times was frequent raids into Russia for slaves. In 1774, the Ottoman Empire was defeated by Catherine the Great. After two centuries of conflict, the Russian fleet had destroyed the Ottoman navy and the Russian army had inflicted heavy defeats on the Ottoman land forces. The ensuing Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca forced the Sublime Porte to recognize the Tatars of the Crimea as politically independent. Catherine the Great's incorporation of the Crimea in 1783 from the defeated Ottoman Empire into the Russian Empire increased Russia's power in the Black Sea area. The Crimea was the first Muslim territory to slip from the sultan's suzerainty. The Ottoman Empire's frontiers would gradually shrink, and Russia would proceed to push her frontier westwards to the Dniester. From 1853 to 1856, the strategic position of the peninsula in controlling the Black Sea meant that it was the site of the principal engagements of the Crimean War, where Russia lost to a French-led alliance. During the Russian Civil War, Crimea changed hands many times and was where Wrangel's anti-Bolshevik White Army made their last stand in 1920, with tens of thousands of those who remained being murdered as part of the Red Terror. In 1921, the Crimean ASSR was created as an autonomous republic of the Russian SFSR. During World War II, Crimea was occupied by Germany until 1944. The ASSR was downgraded to an oblast within the Russian SFSR in 1945 following the ethnic cleansing of the Crimean Tatars by the Soviet regime, and in 1954, Crimea was transferred to the Ukrainian SSR as part of celebrations of the 300th anniversary of the Treaty of Pereyaslav, called the "reunification of Ukraine with Russia" in the USSR. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Republic of Crimea was formed in 1992, although the republic was abolished in 1995, with the Autonomous Republic of Crimea established firmly under Ukrainian authority and Sevastopol being administered as a city with special status. A 1997 treaty partitioned the Soviet Black Sea Fleet allowing Russia to continue basing its fleet in Sevastopol with the lease extended in 2010. Crimea's status is disputed. In 2014, Crimea saw intense demonstrations against the removal of the Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovych culminating in pro-Russian forces occupying strategic points in Crimea and the Republic of Crimea declared independence from Ukraine following a disputed referendum supporting reunification. Russia then formally annexed Crimea, although most countries recognise Crimea as part of Ukraine. ==Prehistory== thumb|Bone and tool from the Buran-Kaya caves. Archaeological evidence of human settlement in Crimea dates back to the Middle Paleolithic. Neanderthal remains found at Kiyik-Koba Cave have been dated to about 80,000 BP. Late Neanderthal occupations have also been found at Starosele (c. 46,000 BP) and Buran Kaya III (c. 30,000 BP). Archaeologists have found some of the earliest anatomically modern human remains in Europe in the Buran-Kaya caves in the Crimean Mountains (east of Simferopol). The fossils are about 32,000 years old, with the artifacts linked to the Gravettian culture. During the Last Glacial Maximum, along with the northern coast of the Black Sea in general, Crimea was an important refuge from which north-central Europe was re-populated after the end of the Ice Age. The East European Plain during this time was generally occupied by periglacial loess- steppe environments, although the climate was slightly warmer during several brief interstadials and began to warm significantly after the beginning of the Late Glacial Maximum. Human site occupation density was relatively high in the Crimean region and increased as early as c. 16,000 years before the present. Proponents of the Black Sea deluge hypothesis believe Crimea did not become a peninsula until relatively recently, with the rising of the Black Sea level in the 6th millennium BC. The beginning of the Neolithic in Crimea is not associated with agriculture, but instead with the beginning of pottery production, changes in flint tool-making technologies, and local domestication of pigs. The earliest evidence of domesticated wheat in the Crimean peninsula is from the Chalcolithic Ardych-Burun site, dating to the middle of the 4th millennium BC By the 3rd millennium BC, Crimea had been reached by the Yamna or "pit grave" culture, assumed to correspond to a late phase of Proto-Indo- European culture in the Kurgan hypothesis. ==Antiquity== ===Tauri and Scythians=== thumb|left|Orestes, a curly-haired young man in a Greek robe, is seated before a small group of trees, clasping the right hand of another Greek man, who is standing with his left hand on the seated man's arm. Standing to their left but in the right of the painting is a tall, robed woman of elegant bearing. Behind her are two columns of a classic Greek temple. Low mountains are in the far background. Early Iron Age Crimea was settled by two groups separated by the Crimean Mountains, the Tauri to the south and the Iranic Scythians in the north. Taurians intermixed with the Scythians starting from the end of 3rd century BC were mentioned as "Tauroscythians" and "Scythotaurians" in the works of ancient Greek writers. In Geographica, Strabo refers to the Tauri as a Scythian tribe.Strabo. Geographica. 7. 4. 2. "... generally speaking, the Tauri, a Scythian tribe ..." However, Herodotus states that the Tauri tribes were geographically inhabited by the Scythians, but they are not Scythians.4.99 "Beyond this place [Carcinitis on the Ister], the country fronting the same sea is hilly and projects into the Pontus; it is inhabited by the Tauric nation as far as what is called the Rough Peninsula; and this ends in the eastern sea. For the sea to the south and the sea to the east are two of the four boundary lines of Scythia, just as seas are boundaries of Attica; and the Tauri inhabit a part of Scythia like Attica, as though some other people, not Attic, were to inhabit the heights of Sunium from Thoricus to the town of Anaphlystus, if Sunium jutted farther out into the sea. I mean, so to speak, to compare small things with great. Such a land is the Tauric country. But those who have not sailed along that part of Attica may understand from this other analogy: it is as though in Calabria some other people, not Calabrian, were to live on the promontory within a line drawn from the harbor of Brundisium to Tarentum. I am speaking of these two countries, but there are many others of a similar kind that Tauris resembles." (trans. A. D. Godley) Also, the Taurians inspired the Greek myths of Iphigenia and Orestes. The Greeks, who eventually established colonies in Crimea during the Archaic Period, regarded the Tauri as a savage, warlike people. Even after centuries of Greek and Roman settlement, the Tauri were not pacified and continued to engage in piracy on the Black Sea. By the 2nd century BC they had become subject-allies of the Scythian king Scilurus. The Crimean Peninsula north of the Crimean Mountains was occupied by Scythian tribes. Their center was the city of Scythian Neapolis on the outskirts of present-day Simferopol. The town ruled over a small kingdom covering the lands between the lower Dnieper River and northern Crimea. In the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, Scythian Neapolis was a city "with a mixed Scythian-Greek population, strong defensive walls and large public buildings constructed using the orders of Greek architecture". The city was eventually destroyed in the mid-3rd century AD by the Goths. ===Greek settlement=== The ancient Greeks were the first to name the region Taurica after the Tauri. As the Tauri inhabited only the mountainous regions of southern Crimea, the name Taurica was originally used only for this southern part, but was later extended to refer to the whole peninsula. Greek city-states began establishing colonies along the Black Sea coast of Crimea in the 7th or 6th century BC. Theodosia and Panticapaeum were established by Milesians. In the 5th century BC, Dorians from Heraclea Pontica founded the sea port of Chersonesos (in modern Sevastopol). The Persian Achaemenid Empire under Darius I expanded to Crimea as part of his campaigns against the Scythians in 513 BCE. In 438 BC, the Archon (ruler) of Panticapaeum assumed the title of the King of Cimmerian Bosporus, a state that maintained close relations with Athens, supplying the city with wheat, honey and other commodities. The last of that line of kings, Paerisades V, being hard-pressed by the Scythians, put himself under the protection of Mithridates VI, the king of Pontus, in 114 BC. After the death of this sovereign, his son, Pharnaces II, was invested by Pompey with the Kingdom of the Cimmerian Bosporus in 63 BC as a reward for the assistance rendered to the Romans in their war against his father. In 15 BC, it was once again restored to the king of Pontus, but from then ranked as a tributary state of Rome. ===Roman Empire=== In the 2nd century BC, the eastern part of Taurica became part of the Bosporan Kingdom, before becoming a client kingdom of the Roman Empire in the 1st century BC. During the AD 1st, 2nd and 3rd centuries, Taurica was host to Roman legions and colonists in Charax, Crimea. The Charax colony was founded under Vespasian with the intention of protecting Chersonesos and other Bosporean trade emporiums from the Scythians. The Roman colony was protected by a vexillatio of the Legio I Italica; it also hosted a detachment of the Legio XI Claudia at the end of the 2nd century. The camp was abandoned by the Romans in the mid-3rd century. This de facto province would have been controlled by the legatus of one of the Legions stationed in Charax. Throughout the later centuries, Crimea was invaded or occupied successively by the Goths (AD 250), the Huns (376), the Bulgars (4th–8th century), the Khazars (8th century). Crimean Gothic, an East Germanic language, was spoken by the Crimean Goths in some isolated locations in Crimea until the late 18th century. ==Middle Ages== ===Rus' and Byzantium=== In the 9th century CE, Byzantium established the Theme of Cherson to defend against incursions by the Rus' Khaganate. The Crimean peninsula from this time was contested between Byzantium, Rus' and Khazaria. The area remained the site of overlapping interests and contact between the early medieval Slavic, Turkic and Greek spheres. It became a center of slave trade. Slavs were sold to Byzantium and other places in Anatolia and the Middle East during this period. In the mid-10th century, the eastern area of Crimea was conquered by Prince Sviatoslav I of Kiev and became part of the Kievan Rus' principality of Tmutarakan. The peninsula was wrested from the Byzantines by the Kievan Rus' in the 10th century; a major Byzantine outpost, Chersonesus, was taken in 988 CE. A year later, Grand Prince Vladimir of Kiev accepted the hand of Emperor Basil II's sister Anna in marriage, and was baptized by the local Byzantine priest at Chersonesus, thus marking the entry of Rus' into the Christian world. Chersonesus Cathedral marks the location of this historic event. During the collapse of the Byzantine state some cities fell to its creditor the Republic of Genoa who also conquered cities controlled by its rival the Venice. During the entirety of this period, the urban areas were Greek- speaking and eastern Christian. ===The Crimean steppe=== Throughout the ancient and medieval period the interior and north of Crimea was occupied by a changing cast of invading steppe nomads, such as the Tauri, Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians, Crimean Goths, Alans, Bulgars, Huns, Khazars, Kipchaks and Mongols. The Bosporan Kingdom had exercised some control of the majority of the peninsula at the height of its power, with Kievan Rus' also having some control of the interior of Crimea after the tenth century. ===Mongol invasion and later medieval period=== left|thumb|Khan Uzbek Mosque 1314, Staryi Krym The overseas territories of Trebizond, Perateia, had already been subjected to pressure from the Genoese and Kipchaks by the time Alexios I of Trebizond died in 1222, before the Mongol invasions began its western sweep through Volga Bulgaria in 1223. Kiev lost its hold on the Crimean interior in the early 13th century due to the Mongol invasions. In the summer of 1238 Batu Khan devastated the Crimean peninsula and pacified Mordovia, reaching Kiev by 1240. The Crimean interior came under the control of the Turco-Mongol Golden Horde from 1239 to 1441. The name Crimea (via Italian, from Turkic Qirim) originates as the name of the provincial capital of the Golden Horde, the city now known as Staryi Krym. Trebizond's Perateia soon became the Principality of Theodoro and Genoese Gazaria, respectively sharing control of the south of Crimea until the Ottoman intervention of 1475. In the 13th century the Republic of Genoa seized the settlements that their rivals, the Venetians, had built along the Crimean coast and established themselves at Cembalo (present-day Balaklava), Soldaia (Sudak), Cherco (Kerch) and Caffa (Feodosiya), gaining control of the Crimean economy and the Black Sea commerce for two centuries. Genoa and its colonies fought a series of wars with the Mongol states between the 13th and 15th centuries.Slater, Eric. "Caffa: Early Western Expansion in the Late Medieval World, 1261–1475". Review (Fernand Braudel Center) 29, no. 3 (2006): 271–283. . pp. 271 In 1346 the Golden Horde army besieging Genoese Kaffa (present-day Feodosiya) in the siege of Kaffa catapulted the bodies of Mongol warriors who had died of plague over the walls of the city. Historians have speculated that Genoese refugees from this engagement may have brought the Black Death to Western Europe. ==Crimean Khanate (1443–1783)== After Timur destroyed a Mongol Golden Horde army in 1399, the Crimean Tatars founded an independent Crimean Khanate under Hacı I Giray (a descendant of Genghis Khan) by 1443. Hacı I Giray and his successors reigned first at Qırq Yer, then – from the beginning of the 15th century – at Bakhchisaray."The Tatar Khanate of Crimea". The Crimean Tatars controlled the steppes that stretched from the Kuban to the Dniester River, but they were unable to take control of the commercial Genoese towns in the Crimea. After the Crimean Tatars asked for help from the Ottomans, an Ottoman invasion of the Genoese towns led by Gedik Ahmed Pasha in 1475 brought Kaffa and the other trading towns under their control. After the capture of the Genoese towns, the Ottoman Sultan held Khan Meñli I Giray captive,Mike Bennighof, "Soldier Khan", Avalanche Press. April 2014. later releasing him in return for accepting Ottoman suzerainty over the Crimean Khans and allowing them rule as tributary princes of the Ottoman Empire. However, the Crimean Khans still had a large amount of autonomy from the Ottoman Empire, and followed the rules they thought best for them. Crimean Tatars introduced the practice of raids into Ukrainian lands (the Wild Fields), in which they captured slaves for sale. For example, from 1450 to 1586, eighty-six Tatar raids were recorded, and from 1600 to 1647, seventy. In the 1570s close to 20,000 slaves a year went on sale in Kaffa.Halil Inalcik. "Servile Labor in the Ottoman Empire" in A. Ascher, B. K. Kiraly, and T. Halasi-Kun (eds), The Mutual Effects of the Islamic and Judeo-Christian Worlds: The East European Pattern, Brooklyn College, 1979, pp. 25–43. Slaves and freedmen formed approximately 75% of the Crimean population."Slavery". Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History. In 1769 a last major Tatar raid, which took place during the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774, saw the capture of 20,000 slaves. ===Tatar society === The Crimean Tatars as an ethnic group dominated the Crimean Khanate from the 15th to the 18th centuries. They descend from a complicated mixture of Turkic peoples who settled in the Crimea from the 8th century, presumably also absorbing remnants of the Crimean Goths and the Genoese. Linguistically, the Crimean Tatars are related to the Khazars, who invaded the Crimea in the mid-8th century; the Crimean Tatar language forms part of the Kipchak or Northwestern branch of the Turkic languages, although it shows substantial Oghuz influence due to historical Ottoman Turkish presence in the Crimea. A small enclave of Crimean Karaites, a people of Jewish descent practising Karaism who later adopted a Turkic language, formed in the 13th century. It existed among the Muslim Crimean Tatars, primarily in the mountainous Çufut Qale area. ===Cossack incursions=== In 1553–1554 Cossack Hetman Dmytro Vyshnevetsky (in office: 1550–1557) gathered together groups of Cossacks and constructed a fort designed to obstruct Tatar raids into Ukraine. With this action, he founded the Zaporozhian Sich, with which he would launch a series of attacks on the Crimean Peninsula and the Ottoman Turks. In 1774, the Ottoman Empire was defeated by Catherine the Great. After two centuries of conflict, the Russian fleet had destroyed the Ottoman navy and the Russian army had inflicted heavy defeats on the Ottoman land forces. The ensuing Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca forced the Sublime Porte to recognize the Tatars of the Crimea as politically independent, meaning that the Crimean Khans fell under Russian influence with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca. but did suffered a gradual internal collapse, particularly after a pogrom created a Russian aided exodus of Christian subjects who were overwhelmingly among the urban classes and created cities such as Mariupol. Catherine the Great's later incorporation of the Crimea in 1783 into the Russian Empire increased Russia's power in the Black Sea area. The Crimea was the first Muslim territory to slip from the sultan's suzerainty. The Ottoman Empire's frontiers would gradually shrink, and Russia would proceed to push her frontier westwards to the Dniester. ==Russian Empire (1783–1917)== On 28 December 1783 the Ottoman Empire signed an agreement negotiated by the Russian diplomat Bulgakov that recognised the loss of Crimea and other territories that had been held by the Khanate. Crimea went through a number of administrative reforms after Russian annexation, first as the Taurida Oblast in 1784 but in 1796 it was divided into two counties and attached it to the Novorossiysk Governorate, with a new Taurida Governorate established in 1802 with its capital at Simferopol. The governorate included both Crimea as well as larger adjacent areas of the mainland. In 1826 Adam Mickiewicz published his seminal work The Crimean Sonnets after travelling through the Black Sea Coast. By the late 19th century, Crimean Tatars continued to form a slight plurality of Crimea's still largely rural population and were the predominant portion of the population in the mountainous area and about half of the steppe population. There were large numbers of Russians concentrated in the Feodosiya district and Ukrainians as well as smaller numbers of Jews (including Krymchaks and Crimean Karaites), Belarusians, Turks, Armenians, and Greeks and Roma. Germans and Bulgarians settled in the Crimea at the beginning of the 19th century, receiving a large allotment and fertile land and later wealthy colonists began to buy land, mainly in Perekopsky and Evpatoria uyezds. ===Crimean War=== The Crimean War (1853–1856), a conflict fought between the Russian Empire and an alliance of the French Empire, the British Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the Duchy of Nassau, was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. Russia and the Ottoman Empire went to war in October 1853 over Russia's rights to protect Orthodox Christians; to stop Russia's conquests France and Britain entered in March 1854. While some of the war was fought elsewhere, the principal engagements were in Crimea. The immediate cause of the war involved the rights of Christian minorities in Palestine, which was part of the Ottoman Empire. The French promoted the rights of Roman Catholics, and Russia promoted those of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Longer-term causes involved the decline of the Ottoman Empire, the expansion of the Russian Empire in the preceding Russo-Turkish Wars, and the British and French preference to preserve the Ottoman Empire to maintain the balance of power in the Concert of Europe. It has widely been noted that the causes, in one case involving an argument over a key, had never revealed a "greater confusion of purpose" but led to a war that stood out for its "notoriously incompetent international butchery". Following action in the Danubian Principalities and in the Black Sea, allied troops landed in Crimea in September 1854 and besieged the city of Sevastopol, home of the Tsar's Black Sea Fleet and the associated threat of potential Russian penetration into the Mediterranean. After extensive fighting throughout Crimea, the city fell on 9 September 1855. The war ended with a Russian loss in February 1856. The war devastated much of the economic and social infrastructure of Crimea. The Crimean Tatars had to flee from their homeland en masse, forced by the conditions created by the war, persecution, and land expropriations. Those who survived the trip, famine, and disease, resettled in Dobruja, Anatolia, and other parts of the Ottoman Empire. Finally, the Russian government decided to stop the process, as agriculture began to suffer due to the unattended fertile farmland. ==Russian Civil War (1917–1922)== Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, the military and political situation in Crimea was chaotic like that in much of Russia. During the ensuing Russian Civil War, Crimea changed hands numerous times and was for a time a stronghold of the anti-Bolshevik White Army. It was in Crimea that the White Russians led by General Wrangel made their last stand against Nestor Makhno and the Red Army in 1920. When resistance was crushed, many of the anti-Bolshevik fighters and civilians escaped by ship to Istanbul. Approximately 50,000 White prisoners of war and civilians were summarily executed by shooting or hanging after the defeat of General Wrangel at the end of 1920. This is considered one of the largest massacres in the Civil War.Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartosek, Jean-Louis Panne, Jean-Louis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, Stephane Courtois, Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression, Harvard University Press, 1999, hardcover, page 100, . Chapter 4: The Red Terror Between 56,000 and 150,000 of the civilian population were then murdered as part of the Red Terror, organized by Béla Kun.Красный террор в Крыму 1920-1922: документы ==Soviet Union (1922–1991)== ===Interbellum=== thumb|London Geographical Institute's 1919 map of Europe showing Crimea Crimea became part of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic on 18 October 1921 as the Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, The Russian SFSR founded the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922, with the Crimean ASSR retaining a degree of nominal autonomy and run as a Crimean Tatar enclave. However, this did not protect the Crimean Tatars, who constituted about 25% of the Crimean population,"Crimea: Introduction". The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. from Joseph Stalin's repressions of the 1930s. The Greeks were another cultural group that suffered. Their lands were lost during the process of collectivisation, in which farmers were not compensated with wages. Schools which taught Greek were closed and Greek literature was destroyed, because the Soviets considered the Greeks as "counter-revolutionary" with their links to capitalist state Greece, and their independent culture. From 1923 until 1944 there was an effort to create Jewish settlements in Crimea. There were two attempts to establish Jewish autonomy in Crimea, but both were ultimately unsuccessful.Jeffrey Veidlinger, Before Crimea Was an Ethnic Russian Stronghold, It Was a Potential Jewish Homeland, UCSJ, 7 March 2014 Crimea experienced two severe famines in the 20th century, the Famine of 1921–1922 and the Holodomor of 1932–1933."Famine in Crimea, 1931". International Committee for Crimea. A large Slavic population (mainly Russians and Ukrainians) influx occurred in the 1930s as a result of the Soviet policy of regional development. These demographic changes permanently altered the ethnic balance in the region. ===World War II=== During World War II, Crimea was a scene of some of the bloodiest battles. The leaders of the Third Reich were anxious to conquer and colonize the fertile and beautiful peninsula as part of their policy of resettling the Germans in Eastern Europe at the expense of the Slavs. In the Crimean campaign, German and Romanian troops suffered heavy casualties in the summer of 1941 as they tried to advance through the narrow Isthmus of Perekop linking Crimea to the Soviet mainland. Once the German army broke through (Operation Trappenjagd), they occupied most of Crimea, with the exception of the city of Sevastopol, which was besieged and later awarded the honorary title of Hero City after the war. The Red Army lost over 170,000 men killed or taken prisoner, and three armies (44th, 47th, and 51st) with twenty-one divisions. Sevastopol held out from October 1941 until 4 July 1942 when the Germans finally captured the city. From 1 September 1942, the peninsula was administered as the Generalbezirk Krim (general district of Crimea) und Teilbezirk (and sub-district) Taurien by the Nazi Generalkommissar Alfred Eduard Frauenfeld (1898–1977), under the authority of the three consecutive Reichskommissare for the entire Ukraine. In spite of heavy-handed tactics by the Nazis and the assistance of the Romanian and Italian troops, the Crimean mountains remained an unconquered stronghold of the native resistance (the partisans) until the day when the peninsula was freed from the occupying force. The Crimean Jews were targeted for annihilation during the Nazi occupation. According to Yitzhak Arad, "In January 1942 a company of Tatar volunteers was established in Simferopol under the command of Einsatzgruppe 11. This company participated in anti-Jewish manhunts and murder actions in the rural regions."Yitzhak Arad (2009). "The Holocaust in the Soviet Union". U of Nebraska Press, p.211, Around 40,000 Crimean Jew were murdered. The successful Crimean offensive meant that in 1944 Sevastopol came under the control of troops from the Soviet Union. The so-called "City of Russian Glory" once known for its beautiful architecture was entirely destroyed and had to be rebuilt stone by stone. Due to its enormous historical and symbolic meaning for the Russians, it became a priority for Stalin and the Soviet government to have it restored to its former glory within the shortest time possible. The Crimean port of Yalta hosted the Yalta Conference of Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill which was later seen as dividing Europe between the Communist and democratic spheres. ====Deportation of the Crimean Tatars==== On 18 May 1944, the entire population of the Crimean Tatars were forcibly deported in the "Sürgün" (Crimean Tatar for exile) to Central Asia by Joseph Stalin's Soviet government as a form of collective punishment on the grounds that they allegedly had collaborated with the Nazi occupation forces and formed pro- German Tatar Legions. On 26 June of the same year Armenian, Bulgarian and Greek population was also deported to Central Asia, and partially to Ufa and its surroundings in the Ural mountains. A total of more than 230,000 people – about a fifth of the total population of the Crimean Peninsula at that time – were deported, mainly to Uzbekistan. 14,300 Greeks, 12,075 Bulgarians, and about 10,000 Armenians were also expelled. By the end of summer 1944, the ethnic cleansing of Crimea was complete. In 1967, the Crimean Tatars were rehabilitated, but they were banned from legally returning to their homeland until the last days of the Soviet Union. The deportation was formally recognized as a genocide by Ukraine and three other countries between 2015 and 2019. The peninsula was resettled with other peoples, mainly Russians and Ukrainians. Modern experts say that the deportation was part of the Soviet plan to gain access to the Dardanelles and acquire territory in Turkey, where the Tatars had Turkic ethnic kin, or to remove minorities from the Soviet Union's border regions. Nearly 8,000 Crimean Tatars died during the deportation, and tens of thousands perished subsequently due to the harsh exile conditions. The Crimean Tatar deportation resulted in the abandonment of 80,000 households and 360,000 acres of land. === Post-World War II === The autonomous republic without its titled nationality was downgraded to an oblast (province) within the Russian SFSR on 30 June 1945. A process of de- Tatarization of Crimea was started to remove the memory of the Tartars, including a massive name change of the vast majority of toponyms, which were given Slavic and communist names. Very few localities Bakhchysarai, Dzhankoy, İşün, Alushta, Alupka, and Saky were given their original names back after the fall of the Soviet Union. ==== 1954 transfer to Ukraine SSR ==== thumb|1954 Soviet propaganda stamp marking the 300th anniversary of Ukraine's reunification with Russia. On 19 February 1954, the oblast was transferred from the Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR jurisdiction, on the basis of "the integral character of the economy, the territorial proximity and the close economic and cultural ties between the Crimea Province and the Ukrainian SSR" and to commemorate the 300th anniversary of Ukraine's union with Russia.Crimea profile – Overview BBC News. Retrieved 30 December 2015 Sevastopol was a closed city due to its importance as the port of the Soviet Black Sea Fleet and was attached to the Crimean Oblast only in 1978. The construction of North Crimean Canal, a land improvement canal for irrigation and watering of Kherson Oblast in southern Ukraine, and the Crimean peninsula, was started in 1957 soon after the transfer of Crimea. The canal also has multiple branches throughout Kherson Oblast and the Crimean peninsula. The main project works took place between 1961 and 1971 and had three stages. The construction was conducted by the Komsomol members sent by the Komsomol travel ticket (Komsomolskaya putyovka) as part of shock construction projects and accounted for some 10,000 "volunteer" workers. In the post-war years, Crimea thrived as a tourist destination, with new attractions and sanatoriums for tourists. Tourists came from all around the Soviet Union and its satellite countries, particularly from the GDR. In time the peninsula also became a major tourist destination for cruises originating in Greece and Turkey. Crimea's infrastructure and manufacturing also developed, particularly around the sea ports at Kerch and Sevastopol and in the oblast's landlocked capital, Simferopol. Populations of Ukrainians and Russians alike doubled as a result of assimilationist policies, with more than 1.6 million Russians and 626,000 Ukrainians living on the peninsula by 1989. ==Post-Soviet Union== ===Ukraine (de jure since 1991, de facto 1991–2014)=== With the dissolution of the Soviet Union and Ukrainian independence the majority ethnic Russian Crimean peninsula was reorganized as the Republic of Crimea,Mark Clarence Walke, The Strategic Use of Referendums: Power, Legitimacy, and Democracy, p. 107Roman Szporluk, ed. National Identity and Ethnicity in Russia and the New States of Eurasia. p. 174 after a 1991 referendum with the Crimean authorities pushing for more independence from Ukraine and closer links with Russia. In 1995, the Republic was forcibly abolished by Ukraine with the Autonomous Republic of Crimea established firmly under Ukrainian authority. There were also intermittent tensions with Russia over the Soviet Fleet, although a 1997 treaty partitioned the Soviet Black Sea Fleet allowing Russia to continue basing its fleet in Sevastopol with the lease extended in 2010. As a result of the overthrow of the relatively pro-Russian president Yanukovych, Russian annexed Crimea in 2014. ===Russian annexation=== The events in Kyiv that ousted Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovych sparked demonstrations against the new Ukrainian government."In Yalta was organized Euromaidan, in Sevastopol were demanding to imprison the opposition". . Ukrayinska Pravda. 19 February 2014 At the same time Russian president Vladimir Putin discussed Ukrainian events with security service chiefs remarking that "we must start working on returning Crimea to Russia". On 27 February, Russian troops captured strategic sites across Crimea. This led to the installation of the pro-Russian Aksyonov government in Crimea, the Crimean status referendum and the declaration of Crimea's independence on 16 March 2014. Although Russia initially claimed their military was not involved in the events, it later admitted that they were. Russia formally incorporated Crimea on 18 March 2014. Following the annexation, Russia escalated its military presence on the peninsula and made nuclear threats to solidify the new status quo on the ground. Ukraine and many other countries condemned the annexation and consider it to be a violation of international law and Russian agreements safeguarding the territorial integrity of Ukraine. The annexation led to the other members of the then-G8 suspending Russia from the group and introducing sanctions. The United Nations General Assembly also rejected the referendum and annexation, adopting a resolution affirming the "territorial integrity of Ukraine within its internationally recognised borders". According to survey carried out by Pew Research Center in 2014, the majority of Crimean residents say they believed the referendum was free and fair (91%) and that the government in Kyiv ought to recognize the results of the vote (88%). The Russian government opposes the "annexation" label, with Putin defending the referendum as complying with the principle of the self-determination of peoples. ===Aftermath=== Within days of the signing of the accession treaty, the process of integrating Crimea into the Russian federation began with the Russian ruble going into official circulation and later to be the sole currency for legal tender with clocks also moved to Moscow time. A revision of the Russian Constitution was officially released with the Republic of Crimea and the federal city of Sevastopol added to the federal subjects of the Russian Federation, and the Russian Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev stated that Crimea had been fully integrated into Russia. Since the annexation Russia has supported large migration into Crimea. Once Ukraine lost control of the territory in 2014, it shut off the water supply of the North Crimean Canal which supplies 85% of the peninsula's freshwater needs from the Dnieper river, the nation's main waterway. Development of new sources of water was undertaken, with huge difficulties, to replace closed Ukrainian sources. In 2022, Russia conquered portions of Kherson Oblast, which allowed it to unblock the North Crimean canal by force, resuming water supply into Crimea."In southern Ukraine, Russian forces guard strategic dam" ===2022 Crimea attacks=== Beginning in July 2022, a series of explosions and fires occurred on the Russian-occupied Crimean Peninsula from where the Russian Army had launched its offensive on Southern Ukraine during the full-scale invasion of Ukraine. Occupied Crimea was a base for the subsequent Russian occupation of Kherson Oblast and Russian occupation of Zaporizhzhia Oblast. The Ukrainian government has not accepted responsibility for all of the attacks. ==See also== *Kizil-Koba culture *Cimmerians *Tauri *Scythian Neapolis *Greeks in pre-Roman Crimea *Chersonesus *Bosporan Kingdom *Kingdom of Pontus *Crimea in the Roman era *Akatziri *Crimean Goths *Crimean Tatars *Crimean Khanate *Khazars *Crimean Karaites *Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire *Taurida Oblast *Novorossiya Governorate *Taurida Governorate *Crimean War *Crimean People's Republic *Taurida Soviet Socialist Republic *Crimean Regional Government *Crimean Socialist Soviet Republic *South Russian Government *Government of South Russia *Crimea in the Soviet Union *Crimean Oblast *Crimean ASSR (1991–1992) *Republic of Crimea (1992–1995) *Autonomous Republic of Crimea ==Notes== ==Further reading== * * * * Cordova, Carlos. Crimea and the Black Sea: An environmental history. (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015.) * Dickinson, Sara. "Russia's First 'Orient': Characterizing the Crimea in 1787." Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 3.1 (2002): 3-25. online * * Kent, Neil (2016). Crimea: A History. Hurst Publishers. . * * Kirimli, Hakan. National Movements and National Identity Among the Crimean Tatars (1905 - 1916) (E.J. Brill. 1996) * Magocsi, Paul Robert (2014). This Blessed Land: Crimea and the Crimean Tatars. University of Toronto Press. . * Milner, Thomas. The Crimea: Its Ancient and Modern History: the Khans, the Sultans, and the Czars. Longman, 1855. online * O'Neill, Kelly. Claiming Crimea: A History of Catherine the Great's Southern Empire (Yale University Press, 2017). * Ozhiganov, Edward. "The Crimean Republic: Rivalries for Control." in Managing Conflict in the Former Soviet Union: Russian and American Perspectives (MIT Press. 1997). pp. 83–137. * Pleshakov, Constantine. The Crimean Nexus: Putin's War and the Clash of Civilizations (Yale University Press, 2017). * * Sasse, Gwendolyn. The Crimea Question: Identity, Transition, and Conflict (2007) * * , recent developments * Williams, Brian Glyn. The Crimean Tatars: The Diaspora Experience and the Forging of a Nation (Brill 2001) online ===Historiography=== * Kizilov, Mikhail; Prokhorov, Dmitry. "The Development of Crimean Studies in the Russian Empire, the Soviet Union, and Ukraine," Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae (Dec 2011), Vol. 64 Issue 4, pp437–452. ===Primary sources=== *; complete text online * Wood, Evelyn. The Crimea in 1854, and 1894: With Plans, and Illustrations from Sketches Taken on the Spot by Colonel W. J. Colville (2005) excerpt and text search ==External links== * Historical footage of Crimea, 1918, filmportal.de * On the role of Crimea in the Russian discourse in The Crimean Archipelago: A Multimedia Dossier |
The University of Houston System is a public university system in Texas, comprising four separate and distinct universities. It also owns and holds broadcasting licenses to a public television station (KUHT) and a public radio station (KUHF). The fourth-largest university system in Texas, the UH System has more than 70,000 students and 495,000 alumni from the four distinct universities. Its flagship institution is the University of Houston, a comprehensive doctoral degree-granting research university of about 43,000 students. The economic impact of the UH System contributes over $3 billion annually to the Texas economy, while generating about 24,000 jobs. The administration is housed in the Ezekiel W. Cullen Building, located on the campus of the University of Houston. The chancellor of the UH System is Renu Khator, who serves concurrently as president of the University of Houston. The System is governed by nine voting-member board of regents, appointed by the Governor of Texas. ==History== The University of Houston, founded in 1927, entered the state system of higher education in 1963. The evolvement of a University of Houston System came from a recommendation in May 1968 which called for the creation of a university near NASA's Manned Spacecraft Center to offer upper-division and graduate-level programs. By 1971, the 62nd Texas Legislature passed House Bill 199 authorizing the establishment of the University of Houston at Clear Lake City as a separate and distinct institution with the organization and control vested in the Board of Regents of the University of Houston. Recognizing the need for a university presence in Downtown Houston, the board of regents acquired the assets of South Texas Junior College on August 6, 1974 and opened the University of Houston–Downtown College (UH/DC) as a four-year institution under the organization and control of the University of Houston. By August 1979, it became a stand-alone university when the 66th Texas Legislature established UH/DC as a separate and distinct institution in the University of Houston System. The University of Houston System was created by statute on August 29, 1977, under House Bill 188 during the 65th Texas Legislature. The Board of Regents of the University of Houston was renamed the Board of Regents of the University of Houston System. Philip G. Hoffman became the first chancellor of the System, after serving as president of the University of Houston from 1961 to 1977. During the 68th Texas Legislature, Senate Bill 235 (SB 235) was signed into law and became effective immediately on April 26, 1983. The bill statutorily established the University of Houston–Victoria as a separate and distinct institution in the University of Houston System, and allowed the university system to acquire and dispose of land or other real property outside of Harris County. In addition, SB 235 changed the names of existing UH System institutions as follows: :University of Houston was renamed University of Houston–University Park; :University of Houston at Clear Lake City was renamed University of Houston–Clear Lake; and :University of Houston–Downtown College was renamed University of Houston–Downtown. A proposal to reorganize and consolidate state university systems emerged in 1986. The UH System would have been merged into a new university system to include a total of 10 institutions under the recommended reorganization referred to as the "Gulf Coast System." The proposed consolidation grouping drew oppositions from affected institutions, and the plan never materialized. In 1991, the University of Houston–University Park reverted to its original name: University of Houston. The addition of the "University Park" appellation was done with little discussion and had never gained community acceptance.lrl.state.tx.us In 1997, the administrations of the UH System and the University of Houston were combined under a single chief executive officer, with the dual title of Chancellor of the UH System and President of the University of Houston. Arthur K. Smith became the first person to have held the combined position. In November 2007, Renu Khator was selected as the eighth chancellor of the University of Houston System and thirteenth president of the University of Houston. Khator became the first female to hold the chancellorship position, and took office in January 2008. She is the third person to hold the dual role of UH System chancellor and UH president. On November 16, 2011, the University of Houston System announced that the University of Houston as an institution would replace the university system as the administrative entity for the University of Houston System at Sugar Land. With this action, the campus was renamed the "University of Houston Sugar Land" in January 2012. ==Organizational structure== ===Governance=== The governance, control, jurisdiction, organization, and management of the University of Houston System is vested in its board of regents. The board has all the rights, powers, and duties that it has with respect to the organization and control of the four component institutions in the System; however, each component institution is maintained as a separate and distinct university. The Board consists of a chair, , secretary, and seven other members, including one student who serves a one-year term as regent. Every two years, the Governor of Texas, subject to the confirmation of the Texas Senate, appoints three members to the board of regents. Every member except for the student regent serves a six-year term. Responsibilities for members are specifically listed in the bylaws of the board of regents. The chairman of the board of regents is Tilman J. Fertitta, CEO of Landry's, Inc. Fertitta attended the University of Houston, and was a student in the Hilton College. He was appointed to the board in 2009, and will serve through August 31, 2027—having been reappointed for an additional six-year term. ===Administration=== The chancellor is the chief executive officer of the University of Houston System. The chancellor, appointed by the System's board of regents, has certain authorities that are specified in the regent bylaws. The chancellor has the option to delegate responsibilities to others such as the vice-chancellor, university presidents, and university athletic directors. Such delegations are subject to the board of regents bylaws and UH System policies. Since 1997, the UH System chancellor has been serving concurrently as the President of the University of Houston. Thus, the chancellor holds a dual role. As of January 2008, Renu Khator has been the chancellor of UH System and president of the University of Houston. The administration of the System is located in the Ezekiel W. Cullen Building on the campus of the University of Houston. The Chancellor's official residence is known as the "Wortham House." The house was designed by Alfred C. Finn, and built by Frank P. Sterling in 1925 as the "Sterling House." In 1948, the house was donated to the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, and later sold to Gus and Lyndall Wortham in 1951. Upon her death in July 1980, Lyndall Wortham donated the property to the University of Houston. The house, located in the Houston neighborhood of Southampton, serves as a facility for small functions or gatherings of the UH System. ==Component institutions== At present, the University of Houston System is self described as a "four-university organization" consisting of the campuses listed below. These campuses are under the control of the board of regents and chancellor. Each institution is a stand-alone university, confers its own degrees, and maintain additional instruction sites within the Houston Metropolitan area. Institution Founded Enrollment Campus Acreage Freshman Admission Rate Endowment Research Expenditures Carnegie Classification Carnegie Foundation University Classification|accessdate=2011-02-06 Athletics Rankings Affiliation Nickname Mascot Colors U.S. News & World Report National Ranking U.S. News & World Report Social Mobility Forbes America’s Top Colleges Washington Monthly Rankings 130px University of Houston 1927 42,708 894 59.7% $1.02 billion $241 million Doctoral: Very high research activity (R1) NCAA Div I AAC Cougars Shasta 182 45 111 262 National Universities 1971 8,562 524 57.3% $36.5 million $1.8 million Doctoral/Professional (D/PU) Hawks Hunter the Hawk 331-440 209 302 133 National Universities 1974 14,208 40 84.0% $53.2 million $1.9 million Master's: Larger Program (M1) Gators Ed-U-Gator 78 Regional Universities West 27 171 Master's Universities 1971 4,350 20 90.4% $17.8 million $0.6 million Master's: Larger Program (M1) NAIA Div I RRAC Jaguars jaX 90-117 Regional Universities West 64 312 Master's Universities ===Off campus branches=== Each university has additional instruction sites that make education accessible to the greater population of Houston. Each are degree-granting, and students have the same status as other University of Houston students. The following are schools and their respective off campus branches: University of Houston * UH at Sugar Land * UH at Katy University of Houston-Clear Lake * UHCL at Pearland * UHCL at the Texas Medical Center University of Houston-Downtown *UHD Northwest *UHD at Lone Star College - Cy- Fair *UHD at Lone Star College - Kingwood *UHD at Houston Community College - Coleman University of Houston-Victoria *UHV at Katy ===Other Enterprises=== The University of Houston system owns and operates various facilities, centers, and institutes: University of Houston * University of Houston Coastal Center - the home of the Texas Institute for Coastal Prairie Research and Education * UH Observatory * Advanced Manufacturing Institute (AMI) * Center for Carbon Management in Energy (CCME) * HEALTH Research Institute * Hewlett Packard Enterprise Data Science Institute (HPE DSI) * Humana Integrated Health System Sciences Institute * Hurricane Resilience Research Institute (HuRRI) * Texas Center for Superconductivity at UH (TcSUH) * Texas Institute for Measurement, Evaluation and Statistics (TIMES) * Community Design Resource Center * DesignLAB * Blaffer Art Museum * Cynthia Woods Mitchell Center for the Arts * AIM Center for Investment Management * Dakri Center for Economic Inclusion * Gutierrez Energy Management Institute * Institute for Regional Forecasting * Stagner Sales Excellence Institute * UH Small Business Development Center * Wolff Center for Entrepreneurship * Subsea Institute * Center for Information Security Research and Education * Center for Life Sciences Technology * Computational Biology & Medicine Laboratory * Optical Bioimaging Lab * Power and Energy Conversion (PEC) Lab * UX Lab * Wireless and Optical Networking Lab * Blakely Advocacy Institute * Criminal Justice Institute (CJI) * Health Law & Policy Institute * Institute for Intellectual Property & Information Law (IPIL) * The Texas Innocence Network (TIN) * Arte Público Press * Texas Center for Learning Disabilities * Methodist Sugar Land Hospital Nursing Simulation Center * HCA Houston Healthcare Nursing Simulation Center * The Center for Experimental Therapeutics & Pharmacoinformatics (CEPT) * The Heart and Kidney Institute (HKI) * The Institute of Community Health (ICH) * The Prescription Drug Misuse Education and Research (PREMIER) Center * Hub for Engaged Action Research Lab * Child and Family Center for Innovative Research (CFCIR) * Mental Health Research Innovation Treatment Engagement Service Research Center (MH-RITES) * SUSTAIN Wellbeing COMPASS Coordinating Center * Center for Public Policy * Elizabeth D. Rockwell Center on Ethics and Leadership (EDR Center) University of Houston-Clear Lake * Diplomacy Institute * Environmental Institute of Houston * Health and Human Performance Institute * Institute for Human and Planetary Sustainability * Center for Robotics Software * Center for Autism and Developmental Disabilities * Psychological Services Clinic * McWhirter Professional Development Laboratory School * Center for Workplace Consulting University of Houston-Downtown * Center for Community Engagement and Service Learning * Center for Critical Race Studies * Center for Public Service and Community Research * Center for Latino Studies * Center for Public Deliberation * Center for Plain English Research and Study * Center for Public Deliberation * Center for Diversity & Inclusion * Center for Teaching and Learning Excellence * Center for Urban Agriculture and Sustainability * Cultural Enrichment Center * Institute for Business, Ethics, and Public Issues * Insurance & Risk Management Center University of Houston- Victoria * Victoria Alliance Against Chronic Kidney Disease * Small Business Development Center * Center for Regional Collaboration * Martín De León Symposium on the Humanities * A.D. Sheffield Symposium on African American History ==Student Profile== UH System Student Enrollment Percentages Undergraduate (2022) Graduate (2022) Doctoral (2022) Professional (2022) UH System (2022) Native American or American Indians 0.1% 0.1% 0.2% 0% 0.1% Hispanic and Latino Americans 42.8% 20.4% 12.7% 25.8% 38.1% Non-Hispanic White Americans 19.1% 26.2% 22.3% 20.8% 20.4% Non-Hispanic Asian American 18.0% 12.5% 6.6% 13.3% 16.7% Non- Hispanic Pacific Islander Americans 0.1% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.1% Non-Hispanic African American 12.0% 12.1% 8.1% 33.3% 12.0% Non-Hispanic Multiracial Americans 2.9% 2.2% 1.1% 5.0% 2.7% Unknown 1.1% 1.4% 1.7% 1.7% 1.2% International students 3.8% 25.1% 47.3% 0.0% 8.7% == References == ==External links== * Houston System University of Houston System Houston Category:1977 establishments in Texas |
Sir Joseph Wilson Swan FRS (31 October 1828 – 27 May 1914) was an English physicist, chemist, and inventor. He is known as an independent early developer of a successful incandescent light bulb, and is the person responsible for developing and supplying the first incandescent lights used to illuminate homes and public buildings, including the Savoy Theatre, London, in 1881. In 1904, Swan was knighted by King Edward VII, awarded the Royal Society's Hughes Medal, and was made an honorary member of the Pharmaceutical Society. He had received the highest decoration in France, the Legion of Honour, when he visited the 1881 International Exposition of Electricity, Paris. The exhibition included displays of his inventions, and the city was lit with his electric lighting. ==Early life== Joseph Wilson Swan was born in 1828 at Pallion Hall in Pallion, in the Parish of Bishopwearmouth, Sunderland, County Durham. His parents were John Swan and Isabella Cameron.Davidson, Michael W., and The Florida State University. "Molecular Expressions. Science, optics and you. Pioneers in optics. Joseph Swan (1828–1914)." Last modification 26 February 2004. Retrieved 16 November 2009 Swan was apprenticed for six years to a Sunderland firm of pharmacists/druggists, Hudson and Osbaldiston. However, it is not known whether Swan completed his six-year apprenticeship, as both partners subsequently died. He was said to have had an enquiring mind, even as a child. He augmented his education with a fascination for his surroundings, the industry of the area, and reading at Sunderland Library. He attended lectures at the Sunderland Atheneum. Swan subsequently joined Mawson's, a firm of manufacturing chemists in Newcastle upon Tyne, started in the year of Swan's birth by John Mawson (9 September 1819 – 17 December 1867), the husband of his sister, Elizabeth Swan (22 November 1822 – 2 August 1905). In 1846, Swan was offered a partnership at Mawson's. This company subsequently existed as Mawson, Swan, and Morgan until 1973, formerly located on Grey Street in Newcastle upon Tyne, near Grey's Monument. The premises, now occupied by burger chain restaurant Byron, can be identified by a line of Victorian-style electric street lamps in front of the store on Grey Street. Swan lived at Underhill, Low Fell, Gateshead, a large house on Kells Lane North, where he conducted most of his experiments in the large conservatory. The house was later converted into Beaconsfield School, a private fee-paying grant-aided co-educational grammar school.Electrical times, Volume 145 p. 220. Retrieved 30 December 2010 Students there could still find examples of Swan's original electrical fittings. ==Electric light== In 1850, Swan began working on a light bulb using carbonised paper filaments in an evacuated glass bulb. By 1860, he was able to demonstrate a working device, but the lack of a good vacuum, and of an adequate electric source, resulted in an inefficient light bulb with a short life. In August 1863 he presented his own design for a vacuum pump to a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. The design used mercury falling through a tube to trap air from the system to be evacuated. Swan's design was similar in construction to the Sprengel pump and predates Herman Sprengel's research by two years. Furthermore, it is notable that Sprengel conducted his research while visiting London, and was probably aware of the annual reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Nonetheless, Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison are later reported to have used the Sprengel pump to evacuate their carbon filament lamps. In 1875, Swan returned to consider the problem of the light bulb with the aid of a better vacuum and a carbonised thread as a filament. The most significant feature of Swan's improved lamp was that there was little residual oxygen in the vacuum tube to ignite the filament, thus allowing the filament to glow almost white-hot without catching fire. However, his filament had low resistance, thus needing heavy copper wires to supply it. Swan first publicly demonstrated his incandescent carbon lamp at a lecture for the Newcastle upon Tyne Chemical Society on 18 December 1878. However, after burning with a bright light for some minutes in his laboratory, the lamp broke down owing to excessive current. On 17 January 1879 this lecture was successfully repeated with the lamp shown in actual operation; Swan had solved the problem of incandescent electric lighting by means of a vacuum lamp. On 3 February 1879 he publicly demonstrated a working lamp to an audience of over seven hundred people in the lecture theatre of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne, Sir William Armstrong of Cragside presiding. Swan turned his attention to producing a better carbon filament, and the means of attaching its ends. He devised a method of treating cotton to produce "parchmentised thread", and obtained British Patent 4933 on 27 November 1880.Swan K. R. Sir Joseph Swan and the Invention of the incandescent electric lamp. London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1946 pp. 21–25 From that time he began installing light bulbs in homes and landmarks in England. His house, Underhill, Low Fell, Gateshead, was the world's first to have working light bulbs installed. The Lit & Phil Library in Westgate Road, Newcastle, was the first public room lit by electric light during a lecture by Swan on 20 October 1880.History in pictures – The Lit & Phil, BBC. Retrieved 8 August 2011 In 1881 he founded his own company, The Swan Electric Light Company, and started commercial production.Chirnside, R.C. Sir Joseph Wilson Swan FRS Newcastle upon Tyne: Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne 1979 The Savoy, a state-of-the-art theatre in the City of Westminster, London, was the first public building in the world lit entirely by electricity.Burgess, Michael. "Richard D'Oyly Carte", The Savoyard, January 1975, pp. 7–11 Swan supplied about 1,200 incandescent lamps, powered by an generator on open land near the theatre."The Savoy Theatre", The Times, 3 October 1881 The builder of the Savoy, Richard D'Oyly Carte, explained why he had introduced Swan's electric light: "The greatest drawbacks to the enjoyment of the theatrical performances are, undoubtedly, the foul air and heat which pervade all theatres. As everyone knows, each gas-burner consumes as much oxygen as many people, and causes great heat beside. The incandescent lamps consume no oxygen, and cause no perceptible heat.""Richard D'Oyly Carte" , at the Lyric Opera San Diego website, June 2009 The first generator proved too small to power the whole building, and though the entire front-of-house was electrically lit, the stage was lit by gas until 28 December 1881. At that performance, Carte stepped on stage and broke a glowing lightbulb before the audience to demonstrate the safety of Swan's new technology. On 29 December 1881, The Times described the electric lighting as visually superior to gaslight.Description of lightbulb experiment in The Times, 29 December 1881 The first private residence, other than the inventor's, lit by the new incandescent lamp was that of his friend, Sir William Armstrong at Cragside, near Rothbury, Northumberland. Swan personally supervised the installation there in December 1880. Swan had formed "The Swan Electric Light Company Ltd" with a factory at Benwell, Newcastle, and had established the first commercial manufacture of incandescent lightbulbs by the beginning of 1881. Swan's carbon rod lamp and carbon filament lamp, while functional, were still relatively impractical owing to low resistance (needing very expensive thick copper wiring) and short running life. While searching for a better filament for his light bulb, Swan inadvertently made another advance. In 1881, he developed and patented a process for squeezing nitrocellulose through holes to form conducting fibres. His newly established company (which by merger eventually became the Edison and Swan United Company) used Swan's cellulose filaments in their bulbs. The textile industry has also used this process. The first ship to use Swan's invention was The City of Richmond, owned by the Inman Line. She was fitted with incandescent lamps in June 1881. The Royal Navy also introduced them to its ships soon after; with HMS Inflexible having the new lamps installed in the same year. An early employment in engineering was during the digging of the Severn Tunnel, where the contractor Thomas Walker installed "20-candlepower lamps" in the temporary pilot tunnels. Swan was one of the early developers of the electric safety lamp for miners, exhibiting his first in Newcastle upon Tyne at the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers on 14 May 1881.Swan. J.W. Swan's electric light Transactions, North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers 30, 1881, 149–159 This required a wired supply, so the following year, he presented one with a batterySwan, J.W. On an electric safety lamp, with portable secondary battery Transactions, North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers 31 1881-2, 117–9 and other improved versions followed.Swan, J.W. On an improved electric safety lamp for miners Transactions, North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers 36 1886-7, 3–11 By 1886, a lamp with better light output than a flame safety lamp was in production by the Edison-Swan Company.Discussion on electric lamps Transactions, North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers 36 1886-7 55 – 59 However, it suffered from problems of reliability and was not a success. It took development by others over the next 20 years or so before effective electric lamps were in common use. ==Conjunction with Edison== thumb|Edison & Swan United Electric Light Company, otherwise known as "Ediswan" In what are considered to be independent lines of inquiry, Swan's incandescent electric lamp was developed at the same time that Thomas Edison was working on his incandescent lampMaury Klein, The Power Makers: Steam, Electricity, and the Men Who Invented Modern America, Bloomsbury Publishing USA — 2010, Chapter 9 — The Cowbird, The Plugger, and the Dreamer with Swan's first successful lamp and Edison's lamp both patented in 1880. Edison's goal in developing his lamp was for it to be used as one part of a much larger system: a long-life high-resistance lamp that could be connected in parallel to work economically with the large-scale electric-lighting utility he was creating.David O. Whitten, Bessie Emrick Whitten, Handbook of American Business History: Manufacturing, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1990, pages 315-316 Swan's original lamp design, with its low resistance (the lamp could be used only in series) and short life span, was not suited for such an application. Swan's strong patents in Great Britain led, in 1883, to the two competing companies merging to exploit both Swan's and Edison's inventions, with the establishment of the Edison & Swan United Electric Light Company. Known commonly as "Ediswan", the company sold lamps made with a cellulose filament that Swan had invented in 1881, while the Edison Company continued using bamboo filaments outside of Britain. In 1892, General Electric (GE) began exploiting Swan's patents to produce cellulose filaments, until they were replaced in 1904 by a GE developed "General Electric Metallized" (GEM) baked cellulose filaments.Incandescent Lamps, History of the Incandescent Light (1802 — today), EdisonTechCenter.org In 1886, Ediswan moved production to a former jute mill at Ponders End, North London.Pam, D. (1977),The New Enfield: Stories of Enfield Edmonton and Southgate, a Jubilee History, London Borough of Enfield Libraries, Arts & Entertainment Dept In 1916, Ediswan set up the UK's first radio thermionic valve factory at Ponders End. This area, with nearby Brimsdown subsequently developed as a centre for the manufacture of thermionic valves, cathode ray tubes, etc., and nearby parts of Enfield became an important centre of the electronics industry for much of the 20th century. Ediswan became part of British Thomson-Houston and Associated Electrical Industries (AEI) in the late 1920s.Lewis J.(2001), London's Lea Valley: more secrets revealed, Phillimore, ==Photography== When working with wet photographic plates, Swan noticed that heat increased the sensitivity of the silver bromide emulsion. By 1871, he had devised a method of using dry plates, and substituting nitrocellulose plastic for glass plates, thus initiating the age of convenience in photography. Eight years later, he patented bromide paper, developments of which are still used for black-and- white photographic prints. In 1864, Swan patented the transfer process for making carbon prints, a permanent photographic process. By adding the transfer step, Swan was able easily to make photographs with a full tonal range. ==Honours== In 1894, Swan was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS), and in 1898 he was elected president of the Institution of Electrical Engineers; at the time, Swan was one of its three honorary members, the other two being Lord Kelvin and Henry Wilde. In September 1901, he was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of Science (D.Sc.) from Durham University. He also served as president of the Society of Chemical Industry in 1901, and in 1903 he was chosen first president of the Faraday Society. In 1904, he was knighted, awarded the Royal Society's Hughes Medal, and made an honorary member of the Pharmaceutical Society. In 1906, he received the Albert medal of the Royal Society of Arts. In 1945, the London Power Company commemorated Swan by naming a new 1,554 GRT coastal collier SS Sir Joseph Swan.Sir Josepth Swan and the Invention of the Incandescent Electric Lamp by Kenneth R. Swan 1948 ==Personal life== Swan married firstly Frances "Fanny" White, third daughter of William White, of Liverpool, at Camberwell Chapel, London, on 31 July 1862. They had three surviving children: Cameron, Mary Edmonds, and Joseph Henry. Frances died on 9 January 1868 and he married secondly Hannah White, the younger sister of Frances, at Neuchâtel, Switzerland, on 3 October 1871. They had five children: Hilda, Frances Isobel, Kenneth Rayden, Percival, and Dorothy. Sir Kenneth Rayden Swan was a QC and an acknowledged authority on patent law. Swan died in 1914 at his home in Overhill, Warlingham, Surrey. The funeral took place at All Saints' Church, Warlingham, on 30 May 1914, with interment taking place in the churchyard. Mourners included representatives of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, and the Royal Society. ==References== ==Further reading== * * ==External links== *Tyne & Wear Archives Service Joseph Swan collection * * Category:1828 births Category:1914 deaths Category:People from Sunderland Category:19th-century English people Category:English inventors Category:English chemists Category:English physicists Category:Knights Bachelor Category:Recipients of the Legion of Honour Category:People associated with electricity Category:Fellows of the Royal Society |
William Edwin Self (June 21, 1921 – November 15, 2010) was an American television and feature film producer who began his career as an actor. ==Early life and education== Self was born at Miami Valley Hospital in Dayton, Ohio. During his youth, he lived in Dayton, Akron, Chicago, and Milwaukee. He graduated from Dayton's Roosevelt High School in 1939. Self's father, Edwin Byron Self, worked as an Advertising Manager at the Dayton Rubber Manufacturing Company, Akron Rubber Company, Miller Brewing Company, and Joseph Schlitz Brewing Company. Edwin Self wrote a novel, Limbo City (1949), and at least three plays which opened on Broadway: Junk (1927) starring Sydney Greenstreet,Spiro, J.S. (1944 12 28) "Milwaukee's William Self and His Tennis Racket in Hollywood Swing Now" The Milwaukee Journal Two Strange Women(1933), and The Distant City (1941). His play, The Lady and the Clown, starring Estelle Winwood, opened in 1944 at the Civic Theatre in Chicago with William Self playing a small part. Edwin and Elizabeth (Elsie) Fundus Self, a homemaker, had two children: William and Jean LaVerne Self (later Bright). From childhood, Self has had "enthusiasms," keen interests that started when he was young and had continued throughout his life. Some of these interests had resulted in important connections and personal friendships. Self's fascination with Rudolph Valentino, for example, began when he was only five years old and his sister took him to see The Son of the Sheik (1926). Self had said that because his sister told him that Valentino had just died, he expected to see the movie idol in his casket on screen. Valentino stayed in Self's mind. He saw all the movies and read all the books he could find. As an adult, he became friends with Valentino's personal manager, George Ullman; one of Valentino's best friends, Robert Florey; as well as with Valentino's brother, Alberto. It was also show business that led Self to become an accomplished tennis player. In 1932, age eleven, his parents took him to New York to see a Broadway production of Show Boat. Self's father pointed out tennis champion Bill Tilden in the lobby, telling him that Tilden was the greatest living tennis player. Self did not know anything about tennis, but he was impressed. He asked Tilden to sign his program. Back in Dayton, Self bought Tilden's book, Match Play and the Spin of the Ball,Tilden, Bill Match Play and the Spin of the Ball New York Lawn Tennis Association, 1925 and talked his parents into purchasing him a tennis racket. With time, he would become runner-up in the Wisconsin Junior Tennis Championship, represent Wisconsin on the Junior Davis Cup team and, in 1945, win The Wisconsin State Men's Championship. Self played Varsity tennis at the University of Chicago and in his Senior Year was elected Captain of the team. When he came to Los Angeles in 1944, as an unknown and untried actor, his skill at tennis allowed him to make important contacts. He regularly played with Spencer Tracy, Katharine Hepburn, Charlie Chaplin, and Jack L. Warner, among other Hollywood notables. He also became friends with and played Bill Tilden. One of Self's favorite hobbies was magic. When he was thirteen years old, he won a citywide contest, mounted by the renowned magician Howard Thurston and his traveling show, to name "Dayton's Best Amateur Magician and the Person Most Likely to Become Thurston's Successor." The contest was limited to children thirteen and under. Being the winner, Self appeared at the Colonial Theatre on the stage with Mr. Thurston to perform his trick. Although he had never before performed this trick in public (a fact he had left out on his contest application), it went off perfectly. Self's photograph was taken with Thurston and a notice appeared in a Dayton newspaper. He was friends with some of the best-known magicians and magic historians in the United States, and attended many of the major magic conventions. For many years, he was a member of The Magic Castle, a professional magician's club in Hollywood. In later years he became a close friend of Howard Thurston's daughter, Jane, who had appeared on stage with her father. Another film that sparked a lifelong interest was Annie Oakley (1936), which starred Barbara Stanwyck. Self was fifteen years old when he saw the movie at the Keith Theatre in Dayton. Annie Oakley's brother, who lived in nearby Greenville, Ohio, had lent some of his Oakley memorabilia for display in the lobby. The film and the memorabilia fired Self's imagination, and his fascination with Oakley and Buffalo Bill Cody took root. He looked up Oakley's brother in Greenville and the two became friends. He also started writing an Oakley biography. To research this project, Self, age seventeen, persuaded his family to travel to Cody, Wyoming so that Self could study the Oakley scrapbooks in the small log structure which housed the Buffalo Bill Museum. He also persuaded the museum's founder and curator, Mary Jester Allen (Buffalo Bill's niece), to name him Assistant Historian. Self had letterhead stationary and business cards printed with this title, although he never did anything in the position. The book was never published, but Self went on to serve on the Board of Trustees of the Buffalo Bill Historical Center: the five-museum, five-football-fields-sized outgrowth of the original institution. Many of Oakley's grandnieces and nephews were his friends. While in high school, he decided to take up acting. In 1938, he appeared in Roosevelt High's Junior Class play, and in 1939 he was cast in the leading role of the Senior Class play, The Eyes of Tlaloc by Agnes Emelie Peterson. He also worked behind the scenes as electrician and stage manager. Self's drama teacher, Bertha May Johns, was a great inspiration to him as well as to her other students. Self gave up drama while at the University of Chicago, thinking he should devote himself to more serious pursuits. While there, he joined Phi Kappa Psi fraternity. He graduated from Chicago in 1943 with a degree in Political Science. ==Career== Self graduated from the University of Chicago in 1943 before traveling to Los Angeles to be an actor. His first film role was Private Gawky Henderson in The Story of G.I. Joe (1945) directed by William Wellman. Self also appeared in four films directed by Howard Hawks, including Red River (1948) and the science fiction cult classic, The Thing from Another World (1951).Weaver, Tom Eye on Science Fiction; 20 Interviews with Classic SF and Horror Filmmakers (2003, pp. 269–301) Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company Between 1945 and 1952, he appeared in over thirty films. In 1952, Self left acting to launch a lifelong career in television production. His first producing credit was Assistant to the Producer on the series China Smith starring Dan Duryea. From 1952 until 1956, Self was acting-producer (billed as Associate Producer) and then Producer of the Schlitz Playhouse of Stars. During this period, he produced two-hundred-eight half-hour episodes at fifty- two episodes per year. Many notable actors appeared as guest stars including Anthony Quinn, Peter Lorre, Vincent Price, Walter Brennan, Ronald Reagan, Rod Steiger, Charles Bronson, and James Dean. Self moved on to produce The Frank Sinatra Show in 1957. Later that year, he accepted the post of Program Executive for CBS Television Network where his assignment was to develop new television series. The first pilot he produced was Rod Serling's The Twilight Zone. Self was hired in 1959 by 20th Century Fox where he remained for 15 years. During this period, Self piloted Fox television from near-extinction to become one of the top suppliers of television programming in the business.Haber, Deborah (1965 September) "The Studio that Came in from the Cold" Television Magazine (vol. XXII, no. 9, pp. 32–35; 61–64) In 1966, Fox had more television hours on the air than any other supplier."20th Holds Vidpix Prod'n Lead" Daily Variety (1966 3 22) pp. 1;18 Significant among Fox series were Peyton Place (1964–1969), the first prime time soap-opera; Batman (1966–1968), the first series based on a comic book to air in Prime Time; Julia (1968–1971), the first weekly television series to star an African American woman; and the enduring classic M*A*S*H (1972–1983). Other notable Fox series of the time included Daniel Boone (1964–1969), Twelve O'Clock High (1964–1967), Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea (1964–1968), Lost in Space (1965–1968), The Green Hornet (1966–1967), The Ghost & Mrs. Muir (1968–1970), Land of the Giants (1968–1970), and Room 222 (1969–1972). Self's talents were rewarded by the studio as he was promoted progressively from his original position of Executive Producer/Twentieth Century Fox Television (1962) to Vice-President/Twentieth Century Fox Television (1964) to President/Twentieth Century Fox Television (1968), and finally to Vice-President/Twentieth Century Fox Corporation."Self Promoted to Presidency of 20th-Fox TV" Daily Variety (1968 11 1) pp. 1;26 Self left Fox in 1975 to partner with Mike Frankovich in the development and production of television and feature films.Kaufman, Dave (1975 1 7) "Mike Frankovich, Bill Self Form Indie Prod'n Outfit for Theatrical Features, TV" Daily Variety, pp. 1;3 Although the partnership lasted just a little over a year, Frankovich/Self produced two feature films. These were The Shootist (1976), John Wayne's last film, and From Noon Till Three (1976) starring Charles Bronson. Self returned to CBS in 1977 as Vice-President/Head of the West Coast. A year later, he took on a new challenge when he accepted the position of Vice President in Charge of Television Movies and Mini-Series, also for CBS. Before leaving this job in 1982, he supervised production of about fifty films and three or four mini-series per year. These included The Corn is Green (1979) starring Katharine Hepburn; All Quiet on the Western Front (1979) starring Ernest Borgnine and Richard Thomas; Guyana Tragedy (1980) starring Powers Boothe; Playing For Time (1980) starring Vanessa Redgrave; The Bunker (1981) starring Anthony Hopkins; Bill (1981) starring Mickey Rooney and Dennis Quaid; The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1982) starring Anthony Hopkins; and The Blue and the Gray (1982), an American Civil War mini- series which gained four prime-time Emmy nominations.The Evolution of an Art Form; The Making of Motion Pictures for Television on CBS, (1982) CBS Television Network Sales/Marketing Services Self returned to the feature film in 1982 when he was made President of CBS Theatrical Film Production. He served in this capacity for three years, supervising the making of ten movies including Target (1985) directed by Arthur Penn and starring Gene Hackman and Matt Dillon; Eleni (1985) directed by Peter Yates and starring Kate Nelligan and John Malkovich; Better Off Dead (1985) with John Cusack; and Turtle Diary (1985) starring Glenda Jackson and Ben Kingsley. In 1985, when CBS decided to leave the feature film business, Self established the independent William Self Productions to develop both television and feature films. In partnership with Norman Rosemont, Self produced The Tenth Man (1988) for the Hallmark Hall of Fame. It starred Anthony Hopkins, Kristin Scott Thomas, and Derek Jacobi. He also partnered with Glenn Close in producing three television movies for Hallmark: Sarah, Plain and Tall (1991), Skylark (1993), and Sarah, Plain and Tall: Winter's End (1999), all starring Glenn Close and Christopher Walken. Sarah, Plain and Tall received the highest rating of any Hallmark Hall of Fame to that date. ==Personal life== Self married Margaret Lucille Flynn of Spokane, Washington, his college sweetheart, in 1941, a union which lasted until her death in 2007. Self had two children, Edwin and Barbara. He was a member of the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, and the Directors Guild of America. He had been involved in non-profit work for many years, serving on the Board of Trustees of the John Tracy Clinic, the Motion Picture and Television Fund, and the Buffalo Bill Historical Center in Cody, Wyoming. Self died on November 15, 2010 at the Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center after suffering a heart attack four days earlier. ==Filmography== ===As actor=== * The Story of G.I. Joe (1945) - Pvt. Cookie Henderson (uncredited) * Decoy (1946) - Station Attendant (uncredited) * Monsieur Verdoux (1947) - Max - a Reporter (uncredited) * A Likely Story (1947) - Intern (uncredited) * Kilroy Was Here (1947) - Murdock * Marshal of Cripple Creek (1947) - Dick Lambert * Homecoming (1948) - Lieutenant (uncredited) * A Foreign Affair (1948) - Soldier (uncredited) * Red River (1948) - Sutter - Wounded Wrangler (uncredited) (Credited as Billie Self) * Adventure in Baltimore (1949) - Townsman (uncredited) * The Great Gatsby (1949) - Collegian (uncredited) * I Was a Male War Bride (1949) - Sergeant with War Bride (uncredited) * Father Was a Fullback (1949) - Willie Davis (uncredited) * Battleground (1949) - K Company G.I. (uncredited) * Adam's Rib (1949) - Benjamin Klausner - Jury Foreman (uncredited) * Sands of Iwo Jima (1949) - Pvt. L.D. Fowler Jr. * Malaya (1949) - Henchman (uncredited) * A Ticket to Tomahawk (1950) - Telegrapher (uncredited) * Three Secrets (1950) - Sergeant (uncredited) * Breakthrough (1950) - Pvt. George Glasheen * Operation Pacific (1951) - Helmsman (uncredited) * The Thing from Another World (1951) - Cpl. Barnes * The People Against O'Hara (1951) - Narcotics Squad Technician (uncredited) * Deadline - U.S.A. (1952) - Bellamy (uncredited) * Pat and Mike (1952) - Pat Pemberton's Caddy * Washington Story (1952) - Johnny (uncredited) * The Big Sky (1952) - Boatman (uncredited) * Plymouth Adventure (1952) - Sailor (uncredited) * Battle Circus (1953) - Helicopter Pilot (uncredited) (final film role) ===As film producer=== * Ride the High Iron - (1956) * The Shootist - (1975) * From Noon Till Three - (1976) ===As television producer=== * Schlitz Playhouse of Stars (208 episodes between 1953 and 1956) * The Frank Sinatra Show (ABC) (1957 and 1958) * Adventures in Paradise (3 episodes in 1960 and 1961) * The Time Tunnel (30 episodes in 1966 and 1967) * The Green Hornet (26 episodes in 1966 and 1967) (In charge of production for Twentieth Century-Fox Television * On The Run (1966 Unaired Pilot Starring Jan & Dean) * The Ghost & Mrs. Muir (1968–70) * Emergency! (TV Series 1972–1979) (65 episodes)- IMDb * State Fair (1976) * The Tenth Man (1988) * Sarah, Plain and Tall (1991) * Skylark (1993) * Sarah, Plain and Tall: Winter's End (1999) ===As director=== * The Secret (1954: Season 4, Episode 1 of The Schiltz Playhouse of Stars) * The Last Out (1955: Season 5, Episode 1 of The Schiltz Playhouse of Stars) * The Careless Cadet (1955: Season 5, Episode 9 of The Schiltz Playhouse of Stars) * The Night They Won the Oscar (1956: Season 6, Episode 7 of The Schiltz Playhouse of Stars) ==References== ==External links== * * interviews on Google Video * Archive of American Television interview Category:1921 births Category:2010 deaths Category:American male film actors Category:Television producers from Ohio Category:Businesspeople from Dayton, Ohio Category:University of Chicago alumni Category:Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale) Category:20th- century American businesspeople |
International Financial Reporting Standards, commonly called IFRS, are accounting standards issued by the IFRS Foundation and the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). They constitute a standardised way of describing the company's financial performance and position so that company financial statements are understandable and comparable across international boundaries. They are particularly relevant for companies with shares or securities publicly listed. IFRS have replaced many different national accounting standards around the world but have not replaced the separate accounting standards in the United States where U.S. GAAP is applied. ==History== The International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) was established in June 1973 by accountancy bodies representing ten countries. It devised and published International Accounting Standards (IAS), interpretations and a conceptual framework. These were looked to by many national accounting standard-setters in developing national standards. In 2001 the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) replaced the IASC with a remit to bring about convergence between national accounting standards through the development of global accounting standards. During its first meeting the new Board adopted existing IAS and Standing Interpretations Committee standards (SICs). The IASB has continued to develop standards calling the new standards "International Financial Reporting Standards" (IFRS). In 2002 the European Union (EU) agreed that, from 1 January 2005, International Financial Reporting Standards would apply for the consolidated accounts of the EU listed companies, bringing about the introduction of IFRS to many large entities. Other countries have since followed the lead of the EU. In 2021 on the occasion of COP26 of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in Glasgow the IFRS Foundation announced the formation of the new International Sustainability Standards Board ISSB. ==Adoption== IFRS Standards are required or permitted in 132 jurisdictions across the world, including major countries and territories such as Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, the European Union, GCC countries, Hong Kong, India, Israel, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, South Africa, South Korea, Taiwan, and Turkey. To assess progress towards the goal of a single set of global accounting standards, the IFRS Foundation has developed and posted profiles about the use of IFRS Standards in individual jurisdictions. These are based on information from various sources. The starting point was the responses provided by standard-setting and other relevant bodies to a survey that the IFRS Foundation conducted. As of August 2019, profiles are completed for 166 jurisdictions, with 166 jurisdictions requiring the use of IFRS Standards.Profiles of the IFRS Foundation Due to the difficulty of maintaining up-to-date information in individual jurisdictions, three sources of information on current worldwide IFRS adoption are recommended: * IFRS Foundation profiles page * The World BankWorld Bank Reports on the Observance of Standards and Codes * International Federation of AccountantsIFAC Member Organizations and Country Profiles Ray J. Ball described the expectation by the European Union and others that IFRS adoption worldwide would be beneficial to investors and other users of financial statements, by reducing the costs of comparing investment opportunities and increasing the quality of information. Companies are also expected to benefit, as investors will be more willing to provide financing. Companies that have high levels of international activities are among the group that would benefit from a switch to IFRS Standards. Companies that are involved in foreign activities and investing benefit from the switch due to the increased comparability of a set accounting standard.Bradshaw, M., et al (2010). Response to the SEC's Proposed Rule- Roadmap for the Potential Use of Financial Statements Prepared in Accordance with International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) by U.S. Issuers. Accounting Horizons(24)1 However, Ray J. Ball has expressed some scepticism of the overall cost of the international standard; he argues that the enforcement of the standards could be lax, and the regional differences in accounting could become obscured behind a label. He also expressed concerns about the fair value emphasis of IFRS and the influence of accountants from non-common- law regions, where losses have been recognised in a less timely manner.Ball R. (2006). Accounting and Business Research ==US Generally Accepted Accounting Principles== US Generally Accepted Accounting Principles, commonly called US GAAP, remains separate from IFRS. The Securities Exchange Committee (SEC) requires the use of US GAAP by domestic companies with listed securities and does not permit them to use IFRS; US GAAP is also used by some companies in Japan and the rest of the world. In 2002 IASB and the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), the body supporting US GAAP, announced a programme known as the Norwalk Agreement that aimed at eliminating differences between IFRS and US GAAP. In 2012 the SEC announced that it expected separate US GAAP to continue for the foreseeable future but sought to encourage further work to align the two standards. IFRS is sometimes described as principles-based, as opposed to a rules-based approach in US GAAP; so in US GAAP there is more instruction in the application of standards to specific examples and industries. ==Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting== The Conceptual Framework serves as a tool for the IASB to develop standards. It does not override the requirements of individual IFRSs. Some companies may use the Framework as a reference for selecting their accounting policies in the absence of specific IFRS requirements. ===Objective of financial statements=== The Conceptual Framework states that the primary purpose of financial information is to be useful to existing and potential investors, lenders and other creditors when making decisions about the financing of the entity and exercising rights to vote on, or otherwise influence, management's actions that affect the use of the entity's economic resources. Users base their expectations of returns on their assessment of: *The amount, timing and uncertainty of future net cash inflows to the entity; *Management's stewardship of the entity's resources. ===Qualitative characteristics of financial information === The Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting defines the fundamental qualitative characteristics of financial information to be: * Relevance; and * Faithful representation The Framework also describes and qualitative characteristics: * Comparability * Verifiability * Timeliness * Understandability ===Elements of financial statements=== The Conceptual Framework defines the elements of financial statements to be:-International Accounting Standards Board (2010). Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting, paragraph 4 * Asset: A present economic resource controlled by the entity as a result of past events which are expected to generate future economic benefits * Liability: A present obligation of the entity to transfer an economic resource as a result of past events * Equity: The residual interest in the assets of the entity after deducting all its liabilities * Income: increases in economic benefit during an accounting period in the form of inflows or enhancements of assets, or decrease of liabilities that result in increases in equity. However, it does not include the contributions made by the equity participants (for example owners, partners or shareholders). * Expenses: decreases in assets, or increases in liabilities, that result in decreases in equity. However, these do not include the distributions made to the equity participants. * Other changes in economic resources and claims: Contributions from holders of equity and distributions to them ===Recognition of elements of financial statements=== An item is recognized in the financial statements when:Paragraph 4.38 of the Conceptual Framework of IFRS * it is probable that future economic benefit will flow to or from an entity. * the resource can be reliably measured In some cases specific standards add additional conditions before recognition is possible or prohibit recognition altogether. An example is the recognition of internally generated brands, mastheads, publishing titles, customer lists and items similar in substance, for which recognition is prohibited by IAS 38.Paragraph 63 of the IFRS standard IAS 38 In addition research and development expenses can only be recognised as an intangible asset if they cross the threshold of being classified as 'development cost'.Paragraphs 54 and 57 of the IFRS standard IAS 38 Whilst the standard on provisions, IAS 37, prohibits the recognition of a provision for contingent liabilities,Paragraph 27 of the IFRS standard IAS 37 this prohibition is not applicable to the accounting for contingent liabilities in a business combination. In that case the acquirer shall recognise a contingent liability even if it is not probable that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be required.Paragraph 23 of the IFRS standard IFRS 3 ===Concepts of capital and capital maintenance=== Concepts of capital maintenance are important as only income earned in excess of amounts needed to maintain capital may be regarded as profit. The Conceptual Framework describes the following concepts of capital maintenance: *Financial capital maintenance. Under this concept a profit is earned only if the financial amount of the net assets at the end of the period exceeds the financial (or money) amount of net assets at the beginning of the period, after excluding any distributions to, and contributions from owners during the period. Financial capital maintenance can be measured in either nominal monetary units or units of constant purchasing power; *Physical capital maintenance. Under this concept a profit is earned only if the physical productive capacity (or operating capacity) of the entity (or the resources or funds needed to achieve that capacity) at the end of the period exceeds the physical productive capacity at the beginning of period, after excluding any distributions to, and contributions from owners during the period. Most entities adopt a financial concept of capital maintenance. However, the Conceptual Framework does not prescribe any model of capital maintenance. ==Requirements== ===Presentation of financial statements=== IFRS financial statements consist of:International Accounting Standards Board (2007). IAS1, Presentation of Financial Statements, paragraph 10 * a statement of financial position (balance sheet) * a statement of comprehensive income. This may be presented as a single statement or with a separate statement of profit and loss and a statement of other comprehensive income * a statement of changes in equity * a statement of cash flows * notes, including a summary of the significant accounting policies. Comparative information is required for the prior reporting period. ===General features=== The following are the general features in IFRS: * Fair presentation and compliance with IFRS: Fair presentation requires the faithful representation of the effects of the transactions, other events and conditions in accordance with the definitions and recognition criteria for assets, liabilities, income and expenses set out in the Framework of IFRS.Paragraph 15 of the standard IAS 1 *Going concern: Financial statements are present on a going concern basis unless management either intends to liquidate the entity or to cease trading, or has no realistic alternative but to do so.Paragraph 25 of the standard IAS 1 *Accrual basis of accounting: An entity shall recognise items as assets, liabilities, equity, income and expenses when they satisfy the definition and recognition criteria for those elements in the Framework of IFRS.Paragraph 28 of the standard IAS 1 *Materiality and aggregation: Every material class of similar items has to be presented separately. Items that are of a dissimilar nature or function shall be presented separately unless they are immaterial.Paragraph 29 of the standard IAS 1 *Offsetting: Offsetting is generally forbidden in IFRS.Paragraph 32 of the standard IAS 1 However certain standards require offsetting when specific conditions are satisfied (such as in case of the accounting for defined benefit liabilities in IAS 19Paragraph 57, 63 of the standard IAS 19 and the net presentation of deferred tax liabilities and deferred tax assets in IAS 12Paragraph 71 of the standard IAS 12). * Frequency of reporting: IFRS requires that at least annually a complete set of financial statements is presented.Paragraph 36 of the standard IAS 1 However listed companies generally also publish interim financial statements (for which the accounting is fully IFRS compliant) for which the presentation is in accordance with IAS 34 Interim Financing Reporting. * Comparative information: IFRS requires entities to present comparative information in respect of the preceding period for all amounts reported in the current period's financial statements. In addition comparative information shall also be provided for narrative and descriptive information if it is relevant to understanding the current period's financial statements.Paragraph 38 of the standard IAS 1 The standard IAS 1 also requires an additional statement of financial position (also called a third balance sheet) when an entity applies an accounting policy retrospectively or makes a retrospective restatement of items in its financial statements, or when it reclassifies items in its financial statements. This for example occurred with the adoption of the revised standard IAS 19 (as of 1 January 2013) or when the new consolidation standards IFRS 10-11-12 were adopted (as of 1 January 2013 or 2014 for companies in the European Union).Paragraph 10f of the standard IAS 1 * Consistency of presentation: IFRS requires that the presentation and classification of items in the financial statements is retained from one period to the next unless: ===Cash flow statements=== Cash flow statements in IFRS are presented as follows:International Accounting Standards Board (2016). IAS 7, Statement of Cash Flows * Operating cash flows: the principal revenue-producing activities of the entity and are generally calculated by applying the indirect method, whereby profit or loss is adjusted for the effects of transaction of a non- cash nature, any deferrals or accruals of past or future cash receipts or payments, and items of income or expense associated with investing or financing cash flows. * Investing cash flows: the acquisition and disposal of long-term assets and other investments not included in cash equivalents. These represent the extent to which expenditures have been made for resources intended to generate future income and cash flows. Only expenditures that result in a recognised asset in the statement of financial position are eligible for classification as investing activities. * Financing cash flows: activities that result in changes in the size and composition of the contributed equity and borrowings of the entity. These are important because they are useful in predicting claims on future cash flows by providers of capital to the entity. ==Criticisms== In 2012, staff of the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) issued a report setting out observations on a potential adoption of IFRS in the United States. This included the following criticisms:- *that it would be expensive for companies to move to compliance with IFRS; *that the IASB had reliance on funding from large accounting firms which might jeopardise its actual or perceived independence; *that the process of convergence of IFRS with US GAAP had not made progress in some areas; *that the valuation of inventory under Last In First Out (LIFO) remains common in the United States, where it has some tax advantages, but would be prohibited under IFRS; *that IFRS is not comprehensive in its coverage. IASB staff have responded to these observations and concluded that there were no insurmountable obstacles for the adoption of IFRS by the United States. In 2013 IASB member Philippe Danjou listed ten common criticisms of IFRS. He sought to counter these, describing them as misconceptions *IFRS practise a generalized "fair value" *IFRS are intended to reflect the global financial value of the company *IFRS deny the concept of accounting conservatism *IFRS give prominence to economic reality over legal form *Directors can't make heads or tails of IFRS financial statements *IFRS financial statements do not reflect the business model *Financial instruments are stated at "full fair value", thereby maximizing earnings volatility. The "fair value" is always defined as "market value" even when markets are illiquid. *The treatment of business combinations is irrational. *IFRSs create accounting volatility that does not reflect the economic reality. Charles Lee, professor of accounting at Stanford Graduate School of Business, has also criticised the use of fair values in financial reporting. In 2019, H David Sherman and S David Young criticised the current state of financial reporting under IFRS and US GAAP:- *Convergence of reporting standards has stalled. IFRS is not consistently applied; *Alternative methods of revenue recognition make it difficult to interpret reported results; *Many companies are using unofficial measures, for example earnings before interest, tax, depreciation and amortisation (EBITDA), whether to get around a deficiency in the format in accounting standards or potentially to mislead users; *Companies can control decisions on expenditure to manage results. ==Economic effects== Many researchers have studied the effects of IFRS adoption but results are unclear. For example, one study uses data from 26 countries to study the economic consequences of mandatory IFRS adoption. It shows that, on average, even though market liquidity increases around the time of the introduction of IFRS, it is unclear whether IFRS mandate adoption is the sole reason of observed market effects. Firms' reporting incentives, law enforcement, and increased comparability of financial reports can also explain the effects. The adoption of IFRS in the European Union is a special case because it is an element of wider reforms aiming to consolidate the economies of member countries. One study reports positive market effects for companies adopting IFRS but these positive effects occurred even before the transition took place. Another study looked at the development of the stock market in Poland; it found positive effects associated with Poland joining the EU but no specific effect attributable to the IFRS. Interestingly, member states maintain a large degree of independence in setting national accounting standards for companies that prefer to stay local. ==See also== * List of International Financial Reporting Standards * Chinese accounting standards * Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (Canada) * Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (France) * Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (UK) * Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (United States) * Indian Accounting Standards * International Public Sector Accounting Standards * Nepal Financial Reporting Standards * Philosophy of accounting ==References== ==Further reading== * International Accounting Standards Board (2007): International Financial Reporting Standards 2007 (including International Accounting Standards (IAS(tm)) and Interpretations as of 1 January 2007), LexisNexis, * Original texts of IAS/IFRS, SIC and IFRIC adopted by the Commission of the European Communities and published in Official Journal of the European Union https://web.archive.org/web/20061020223959/http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/accounting/ias_en.htm#adopted- commission * Case studies of IFRS implementation in Brazil , Germany , India, Jamaica , Kenya , Pakistan, South Africa and Turkey. Prepared by the United Nations Intergovernmental Working Group of Experts on International Standards of Accounting and Reporting (ISAR). * Wiley Guide to Fair Value Under IFRS , John Wiley & Sons. * Perramon, J., & Amat, O. (2006). IFRS introduction and its effect on listed companies in Spain. Economics Working Papers 975, Department of Economics and Business, Universitat Pompeu Fabra. Available at SSRN 1002516. ==External links== * IFRS Foundation * International Accounting Standards Board ** The International Accounting Standards Board – (Archive) Free access to all IFRS standards, news and status of projects in progress * PwC IFRS page with news and downloadable documents * The latest IFRS news and resources from the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales (ICAEW) * Initial publication of the International Accounting Standards in the Official Journal of the European Union PB L 261 13-10-2003 * Directorate Internal Market of the European Union on the implementation of the IAS in the European Union * Deloitte: An Overview of International Financial Reporting Standards * The American Institute of CPAs (AICPA) in partnership with its marketing and technology subsidiary, CPA2Biz, has developed the IFRS.com web site. * RSM Richter IFRS page with news and downloadable documents related to IFRS Conversions in Canada *U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission Proposal for First-Time Application of International Financial Reporting Standards by Foreign private issuers registered with the SEC * IFRS for SMEs Presented by Michael Wells, Director of the IFRS Education Initiative at the IASC Foundation * Pricewaterhousecoopers's map of countries that apply IFRS * EY IFRS page with insights on IFRS Standards Category:Financial regulation Category:Accounting terminology |
thumb|alt=The Chimalapas Area|The Chimalapas area For more than 500 years, the indigenous Zoque people of Chimalapas in Southern Mexico have been victim of invasions in their territory. Chimalapas is a region with a large biodiversity and due to that it is of interest to, among others, the federal government, state governments, and a variety of companies. Therefore, throughout history several claims have been laid on this area. This goes against the will of the Zoque people, who want to take care of this land as they have done ever since they started living in this area. ==Area== Chimalapas is primarily located in southeastern Oaxaca and partially in western Chiapas. It is one of the bioregions of top importance in all of Mesoamerica. A variety of ecosystems exists in this area, including rainforests, cloud forests, and pine forests. Chimalapas is also inhabited by a large variety of animal and plant species. Although Chimalapas has a great biodiversity, is not a wildlife reserve or a protected space. The Mexican government has repeatedly tried to classify it that way, but due to the adamant refusal of indigenous communities in the area this has not succeeded. The health, existence, and high quality of conservation of the ecosystems of the Chimalapas area are seen as a direct result of the deliberate care of the indigenous communities living in the area. It is estimated that a single hectare in the region can host up to 900 plant species and over 200 animal species. It houses 149 species of mammals. ==Inhabitants== The original inhabitants of the area are the Zoque people. They are descendants of the Olmeca people, who have lived in Chimalapas for more than 2,500 years. Though the Zoque people are the official land owners, there are currently many different groups of people living within Chimalapas. These ethnic groups include the Chinantecos, Mixtecos, Zapotecos, Tzotziles, Tzeltales, and the Zoque Olmecas. ==History== Before the Spanish arrived in Mexico, the Zoque people of Chimalapas, Tabasco and Chiapas, with the Mixes and Popolucas, were a peaceful people who were trading extensively with each other. By 1300, the Zapotecs, coming from the Central Valleys of Oaxaca, separated the Mixes and the Zoques when they conquered parts of the land. Later on, in 1447, the Mexica, as they passed through the Isthmus towards Chiapas and Guatemala, cut the alliance between the Popolucas and the Mixes, and they defeated the Zoque people of Tabasco and Chiapas, after which they forced them to pay tribute. Since then, the Mexica, allied with the Zapotecs, conquered and plundered various towns of the Zoque, which affected the trade seriously. When eventually the Spanish arrived in Mexico they initially did not enter the Chimalapas, since the dense jungle was no easy terrain. However, in 1647 Burgoa Fran Francis tells of the Chimalapas land and its peoples and quickly this land came under the rule of the Spanish. Then on March 24, 1687, the priest Domingo Pintado paid twenty-five thousand pesos in gold to the Crown of Spain for the lands of Santa María (the Chimalapas were then one community), which existed of 900.000 hectares. Then he resold this back to the Zoque people, arguing that by not getting robbed of their land they had to pay gourds filled with gold. That is also where the name Chimalapas comes from; it means “golden gourd”. In 1842, large areas of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec were devoted to build an interoceanic railway. Because of this project the Zoques of the Chimalapas asked the president Jose Joaquin Herrera in 1850 for the ratification of the colonial title, which was granted. From then until the 20th century, the Zoque of the Chimalapas remained in their forests and jungles as the only people present, with relatively little direct attacks. However, in the meantime estates got created on paper, and further studies were done to open different interoceanic routes through the area. Furthermore, forests were being cleared on the borders of the Chimalapas area. With the agrarian revolution of 1910–1915 and the consequent change in legislation, the Zoque were again forced to seek recognition of their lands, which became invaded by farms in the north and west. At that time, the Zoque made a big mistake by agreeing with having no private ownership of the land, but that they only used the land, and will not populate or colonize the jungle. They remained in the central and western part of the territory and saw the eastern part as a collection area, hunting and nature reserve. Due to this error, landowners, loggers and ranchers, especially from Chiapas, came to gain profit from this land. Between 1911 and 1920 the first group of Zapotec migrants came to the area, fleeing revolutionary violence. This was the start of the formation of the multi-ethnic population that currently exists in the Chimalapas. Furthermore, from 1980 to 1989, the entire eastern part of the Chimalapas became violently colonized by indigenous Tzeltal and Tzotzil people from Chiapas, which made the territorial issue even more complex. Since 1947, five large timber companies, with the full support of the government of Chiapas, started clearing the forest from the east. This was done under the pretext that these lands were in Chiapas territory and were not of anyone (since the error made earlier). Therefore, this part of Chimalapas was declared as public lands belonging to Chiapas. The clearing operation ceased in 1977, when the laborers and workers of the companies went on strike, since they were not allowed to plant their own fields. Then they joined forces with the Zoque villagers in the area who were fighting for their land, and together they started driving out loggers and farmers. The laborers and workers who joined the villagers in this struggle then asked for admission to the community and for the foundation of five communal congregations in the east of the Chimalapas. The official recognition of the Zoque territory of the Chimalapas was achieved only in 1967, when President Gustavo Díaz Ordaz divided the original community into Santa María and San Miguel, which together formed about 594.000 ha.Website San Miguel Chimalapa "Voces de la Selva" , December 1, 2012, accessed May 27, 2012 With this the Chimalapas area of the Zoque suffered a loss of 300.000 ha that had been indicated to be theirs in the original titles. Also, although the communities now had Presidential Resolution, this was not physically carried out until 1992. In order to stop the conflicts the Zoque communities of the Chimalapas determined in 1991 that most ejidatarios of Chiapas are as indigenous and poor as them and that they were both victim of deception and manipulation by the government. Therefore, they decided to start a program, without government intervention, aiming at signing agreements with the indigenous peasants of Chiapas, on the following basis: # The conflict between states should be forgotten, because all are farmers and Mexicans. # There should be mutual respect and absolute possession of the true land by the peasants who live in Chimalapas. # There should be no provocation and aggression among commoners and landowners, but peace among the peasants. # It is not allowed to create new settlements in the region. # There should be mutual support to defend and protect the mountain (especially in preventing and combating forest fires). During that time government of Chiapas was accused of threatening to stop this program and of forcing to withdraw the agreements that had been signed. From that time on violence increased in the Chimalapas area. Because nothing had changed in the meantime, in 1993, 110 indigenous people from Chimalapas moved to Mexico City where they made an international complaint. This resulted in the signing of an Act of Agreements at the end of the year between the communities, the National Committee for the Defence of Chimalapas, the Federal Government, and the governments of Oaxaca and Chiapas, in which they point to the following governmental commitments: # A definitive solution to the agricultural conflict, evicting invasive private farmers and giving a different treatment to the ejidos of Chiapas, incorporating their land into communal possession. # An end to the violation of indigenous human rights. # Respect for the community process to establish their own Campesino Ecological Reserve. These agreements were only partially fulfilled in the following years. Instead, since 1998, the new interim governor of Chiapas, Roberto Albores, restarted a policy of "defense of the state of Chiapas", resulting in continued practices of logging and building of settlements. At the same time when these problems continued occurring in the east, there were also problems in the west. The major threats to the forest are national development projects, illegal logging and ranching. The Community of Santa María and the colony Cuauhtémoc have had a longlasting conflict. This conflict was born in 1957 with the creation of this colony in the historically communal territory. This territory was still not legally recognized by the new governments at that time. While the people of the Chimalapas did not get the demarcation of their communal lands throughout the following years, the colony was claiming more and more land of Chimalapas until they had claimed up to 12.850 ha in 2003. This conflict exploded violently in April 1998 when 22 settlers who were cutting down trees of the jungle were stopped by an indigenous committee and taken to prison in Santa María. This resulted in 900 policemen besieging Santa Maria, taking seven people to jail. After this violent situation, the government of Oaxaca and la Secretaría de la Reforma Agraria (SRA) promised to the community a “prompt” solution, which once again became trapped in bureaucratic and legal procedures, meetings, and so on. Then, in May of that year, the Community Assembly of Santa Maria decided to delimit its boundaries with Cuauhtémoc on the ground “with the government or without it”, which again put up the risk of violence. ==Recent developments== In the meantime, nothing much has changed. The agrarian problem, together with the interstate border conflict between Oaxaca and Chiapas has made the situation very complex. The Oaxacan governor Gabino Cué has met the presidents of the communal land of Santa María and San Miguel Chimalapa, iterating that he wanted to find ways to resolve the problems they have with the states of Veracruz and Chiapas. However, in the meantime still nothing has changed and invasions keep taking place. Again the villagers have been taking the right in their own hands by blocking roads to Chiapanec settlements in the east.Website San Miguel Chimalapa "Voces de la Selva" , December 1, 2012, accessed May 27, 2012 Around the same time the governor of Chiapas, Juan Sabines Guerrero, publicly announced the creation of a new municipality in Chimalapas: Belisario Domínguez, which is now the basis of one of the most intense conflicts in the area.Website San Miguel Chimalapa "Autoridades municipales de los Chimalapas presentan recurso de reclamación ante la SCJN para la defensa de su territorio y bienes naturales comunes" , published February 16, 2012, accessed May 27, 2012Article in Vanguardia news "Denuncian nueva invasión en Chimalapas", published January 16, 2012, accessed May 27, 2012 In the west the issues concerning Cuauhtémoc continue. On February 25, 2004 the President of Mexico, Vicente Fox, gave formal recognition of the possession of the 12.850 acres, that Cuauhtémoc had taken before, to the community of Santa María Chimalapa. Thereby the families of Cuauhtémoc were compensated with 120 million pesos. However, until 2010, the lands have not been given to Santa María physically. There has not been made a physical demarcation of the land since. On March 8, 2012 it was announced that the governors of Oaxaca and Chiapas reached an agreement to avoid confrontation, which had been escalating in the last few years. They said to be working on a legal solution for the problems. Regarding this issue Gabino Cué has argued to defend the Chimalapas area from invasions, but the building of municipalities from Chiapas has not stopped.Article from NSS Oaxaca "Existe acuerdo de Oaxaca y Chiapas en caso Chiamalapas: Poiré" , published March 8, 2012, accessed May 27, 2012 In 2015, the establishment of municipal authorities in Belisario Domínguez was suspended pending the resolution of the Chiapas–Oaxaca border dispute. In November 2021, the Mexican Supreme Court resolved the border dispute in Oaxaca's favour, and annulled the 2011 decree by the Congress of Chiapas that had created Belisario Domínguez. ==See also== * Selva Zoque * Santa María Chimalapa * San Miguel Chimalapa ==References== Category:Oaxaca Category:Chiapas |
The Haunting of Sunshine Girl is an ongoing supernatural horror web series that is currently broadcast on YouTube. The series was created by Paige McKenzie, Nick Hagen, and Mercedes Rose, and is produced by Coat Tale Productions. The series first launched in 2010 and its premiere episode was uploaded on December 10, 2010. The Haunting of Sunshine Girl quickly rose in popularity and between December 2010 to October 2011 the show received more than 4.3 million total hits. The average length of the episodes is about two minutes but can run less depending on the episode and content. The cast of The Haunting of Sunshine Girl is entirely composed of unknown actors. McKenzie, the series's lead actress, did not initially identify herself by her real name, choosing instead to use the pseudonyms Sunshine Girl and Frances Jones until she revealed her real name in June 2013. She stars in the series along with her mother Mercedes Rose, Maxwell Arnold, Seth Renne, and Adrienne Vogel. The series is filmed at Hagen's home in Vancouver, Washington and other places in Washington and Oregon. The Haunting of Sunshine Girl tells the story of a teenage girl documenting the paranormal activity in her house. She uploads the short episodes on her YouTube channel. ==Plot== ===Season #1: The Original Haunting=== When Sunshine and her mother (Mercedes Rose) move into a new house, Sunshine begins experiencing paranormal activity. She decides to document her experiences in order to prove to her mother that the activity is real. Later, a strange woman (Adrienne Vogel) shows up at her house and warns Sunshine that the house is not safe. Meanwhile, the paranormal activity grows and gets more intense. Sunshine receives a photograph of a man and a girl, both with bags over their heads, along with a note reading: "They are watching you." Later, the two ghosts show themselves. The strange woman returns to give a box to Sunshine Girl, warning her not to open it. The box seems to stop the haunting, but it has a foul odor, and Sunshine and her mother open it. The ghosts return, worse than before. One of the ghosts attacks Sunshine Girl, keeping her locked in a bathroom, while the other ghost burns the strange photograph. Sunshine asks the mysterious woman for help. Using a smudge stick, the stranger purifies Sunshine's house. The ghosts vanish, and Sunshine's mother finally believes they were real. ===Season #2: The Oregon Coast Road Trip=== This season has more of a documentary feel, featuring interviews with real people, while continuing the plot. Sunshine and her mother take a roadtrip to Oregon in search of more haunted places. Along the way, Sunshine meets Anna, one of the ghosts haunting her house. Sunshine records strange EVP and hears a voice say "don't trust her." ===Season #3: The Cult and the Demon=== After returning home, Sunshine Girl begins a search for her father. She finds an address that her mother was keeping from her, and, believing it might be her father's new home, she visits the place only to learn that it is a frightening abandoned house. Inside the house, she finds a copy of the same photograph of the man and girl, who she now knows are the spirits haunting her house. While returning home, a strange man tries to kill her. She hits him with her car, only to have him stand up again. Finally she escapes. Sunshine discovers that her mom is possessed by a demon. She finds a local paranormal expert that is calling himself "LeMaster" (Rhyan Schwartz) and a medium called Alistair (Christopher Toyne). Alistair visits the home, where his mouth begins to bleed. He warns Sunshine not to trust her mom. Furious, Sunshine's mom orders the medium to leave. Later, Sunshine calls Alistair, only to learn that he has died. Meanwhile, LeMaster discovers that two ghosts belonged to a cult. The members have to sacrifice their first-born daughters to a demon—the same demon that has possessed Sunshine's mom. LeMaster does not want to become involved in this haunting and rejects Sunshine's pleas for help. Desperate, Sunshine uses her ouija board to contact the spirits. At that moment, the mysterious woman returns, revealing that her name is Victoria. She shows Sunshine the place where the cultists sacrificed their daughters, and tells Sunshine that the only way to save her mom is by pretending to sacrifice herself. During the sacrificial ceremony, the demon appears. Victoria tries to protect Sunshine, but the demon cuts her throat. Victoria disappears. While Sunshine waits in the rain with a bag sheltering her head, the man from the abandoned house appears, removes the bag, and tells her that the demon cannot take her because she is a luiseach: a person with paranormal powers used to fight evil. After the man has gone, Sunshine's mom and Uncle Tommy (Seth Renne) find her. In the next video Sunshine reveals that her name is Frances Jones. ===Season #4: Paranormal Powers=== At the beginning of Season 4, Nolan, a 19-year-old boy, learns that Sunshine Girl is a luiseach. Nolan persuades Sunshine to stay a night in his grandmother's haunted house. There they meet Frederick, a very violent and dangerous ghost. With Victoria's help, Sunshine delivers Frederick from being a ghost and ends the haunting. Sunshine finds another anonymous letter in the mail showing a warehouse. Sunshine and Nolan go there, but can find nothing—until they see a man driving away. The man appears to have followed them. Nolan tells Sunshine that he hears voices. He invites a paranormal expert to go to Sunshine's house, but the expert turns out to be LeMaster. Nolan's voices tell Nolan that LeMaster is evil and is after Sunshine because of her luiseach powers. Nolan, terrified and desperate of protecting Sunshine, shoots LeMaster, who at first appears dead. Suddenly he stands up and threatens Sunshine with a demonic voice. Nolan and LeMaster both disappear. Nolan begins to appear and disappear in Sunshine's house. Sunshine searches for any evidence that Nolan really existed, but even Nolan's grandmother does not remember him. Sunshine returns to the photograph of the warehouse and finds a hidden message reading 3 a.m.. At 3 AM, Sunshine, her mother, and Uncle Tommy go to the warehouse, where they meet Victoria. Victoria tells Sunshine that Nolan is an awaken - a person that had a Near Death Experience and after that has paranormal abilities such as Astral projection. She then tells Sunshine after they find Nolan that her father was a luiseach, but he turned over to the Markons and turned evil. Sunshine finds an 8 mm film in her garden. This film shows a girl being sacrificed by a strange man and a woman Sunshine recognizes as Victoria. The season ends with Sunshine meeting the ghost-girl Anna. She removes the bag from Anna's head, finally revealing that she is the sacrificed girl from the film. ===Season #5: Stranger Turns=== Victoria suddenly shows up to ask Sunshine if she still trusts her. Sunshine answers: "Not really." Despite that Victoria gives the ceremonial knife to Sunshine and asks her to sacrifice her once she has to. Then one night Sunshine hears her mother screaming and Sunshine went downstairs and Victoria showed up telling Sunshine that she needs to know the difference between what is real and what is paranormal. Later, Victoria introduces Sunshine to a man that is claimed to be her mentor. Sunshine experiences much paranormal activity. Nolan visits Sunshine's house and tells her that he had a dream when Sunshine's father had a demon on a leash and he kept on repeating, "We're coming to get you!" A third ghost shows itself in one of her videos. She has a white dress and her hair is almost completely over her face. The paranormal activity in the house is getting worse, and in one video Uncle Tommy spit up that compost again and was bleeding from his face. Victoria comes and says that she wants to do another ritual (the first ritual was the sacrifice) but this one involves burning the house down. Sunshine has also confirmed that they are moving. Victoria returns and tells Sunshine that she was not a Luiseach but a normal teenage girl (which may be hinted that Sunshine's powers were possibly removed for her safety). The Markons had decided to forget about Anna and she did not need Sunshine's help any more. The seasons ends with Sunshine and her mom moving out of the house. ===Season #6: The Cabin in the Woods=== For Sunshine's high school graduation, her mother decides to take her to a "haunted" cabin in the woods. They stay in the cabin for a few days and they start experiencing paranormal activity going on. Sunshine then finds a guest book to the house that contains a name that says that the ghost wants his dog Rex. They later on go outside and they find a metal gold box that contains the dog, Rex in it. It turns out that Rex is a stuffed animal dog. Later on they leave the house for a little bit to get away from the ghost. They come home and the dog is on a bed upstairs. A few nights later the lights go out and there is crazy stuff happening. The boy was not found but he touched Sunshine. Then they leave. ===Season #7: The Haunted River House=== In this less spooky, more humorous season, Sunshine meets Nolan's mom, who says that she knows of a haunted house that Sunshine should check out. Also, the "paranormal investigators" from The Investigation of Haunting of Sunshine Girl keep calling her. They meet up at the haunted river house and they check it out but not that much happens. At the end they do however find out what causes the so-called hauntings. ===Season #8: A New Haunted House=== Sunshine and her mom Kat have moved to a different house, but they are still experiencing paranormal phenomena; voices coming from the ventilation system and kitchen drawers opening by themselves. When Sunshine visits Nolan in his new apartment, the ghost seems to have followed her there. In one episode the haunting is more intense than in previous seasons and episodes, and Kat is briefly possessed. Sunshine discovers that the ghost speaks Latin. ===Halloween Special: A Halloween Haunted Adventure!=== In this Halloween special, Sunshine girl, Kat and Nolan visit a haunted house. When they arrive, they find the door open, with a note indicating that the owner have fled from the house. They go inside anyway and look around, which turns out to be a bad idea, especially for Nolan. ===Season #9: Nolan is missing then found=== Since the Halloween events, Nolan is missing. Sunshine is worried about him and starts to investigate. She meets Nolan's brother Colin, who is also looking for Nolan. She tricks Nolan in showing up, using some psychology, after which Nolan and Colin become rivals for Sunshine's friendship. In the meantime minor paranormal activity takes place - Anna the ghost is playing with the lights and the Latin speaking ghost makes himself heard - but the focus of this season is on Nolan's and Sunshine's friendship. ===Season #10: Answers about the ghosts=== Season 10 is longer than most previous seasons, and consists of 86 episodes, just short of Season One, The Original Haunting, which has 88. The seasons can be broken up into different parts, set in different locations, but all having the same underlying theme; Sunshine learning about ghosts and learning to control and use her luiseach powers. The first part it set in Sunshine’s home, where paranormal activities are more prominent than before. The second part is set at the haunted house of a couple, Jamie and Patrick, who are not telling the whole truth. In the third part Sunshine and Nolan visit the haunted recording and sound editing studio of Marc, where they experience very strange and frightening phenomena. The fourth part is mostly set at Sunshine’s home again, followed by a part where Victoria takes her to a training house to further develop her skills. In the final part Sunshine, Nolan and uncle Tommy set out to find Sunshine’s father, which leads to a dramatic climax. ===Found Videos=== In this section, Sunshine Girl posts videos of paranormal activity that have been sent by fans or that she has found on the internet. The videos include popular myths and urban legends such as Black Eyed Kids or Slender-man. ===The Investigation of The Haunting of Sunshine Girl=== The Investigation of The Haunting of Sunshine Girl (included in season #5) is a video uploaded on 5/16/12 which is 14:15 long (filmed on March 10, 2012). A paranormal team tries to prove if Sunshine's ghost videos are real or a hoax. After a night of terrifying paranormal activity, the investigators flee the house. ==Cast and characters== Character Portrayed by Seasons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Sunshine Girl, Frances Jones:(2010-2013) Paige McKenzie colspan="14" Kat Jones Mercedes Rose colspan="14" Victoria Creepy Lady:(2010-2012) Adrienne Vogel colspan="1" colspan="1" colspan="3" colspan="1" colsapn="1" colspan="5" colspan="1" colspan="1" Uncle (Thomas) Tommy Seth Renne colspan="2" colspan="1" colspan="1" colspan="3" colspan="1" colspan="1" colspan="3" colspan="1" colspan="1" Nolan Maxwell Arnold colspan="3" colspan="2" colspan="1" colspan="1" colspan="1" colspan="2" colspan="3" colspan="1" Herself Lil' Sunshiner colspan="12" colspan="1" colspan="1" Anna (Ghost) N/A colspan="1" colspan="1" colspan="3" colspan="2" colspan="1" colspan="1" colspan="1" colspan="1" colspan="2" colspan="1" Mellowb1rd Himself1 colspan="1" colspan="1" colspan="12" LeMaster (Baily) Rhyan Schwartz colspan="2" colspan="1" colspan="11" Alistar Christopher Toyne colspan="2" colspan="1" colspan="11" Mystery Man Jerry L. Buxbaum colspan="2" colspan="1" colspan="11" Gary Thompson2 Darius Pierce colspan="4" colspan="1" colspan="1" colspan="1" colspan="7" Lionel2 Geno Romo colspan="4" colspan="1" colspan="1" colspan="1" colspan="7" Nolan's Grandma N/A colspan="3" colspan="1" colspan="10" Marcie (Nolan's Mom) Ritah Parrish colspan="6" colspan="1" colspan="1" colspan="1" colspan="5" Colin (Nolan's Brother) N/A colspan="8" colspan="1" colspan="5" Himself3 Myles Webb colspan="9" colspan="2" colspan="3" Goth Girl Tabitha Knight colspan="10" colspan="1" colspan="4" *Paige McKenzie as Sunshine Girl (Season 1-present): Sunshine Girl is a typical teenager and high school student. She likes collecting old things and listening to Vampire Weekend. She doesn’t have many friends, but she spends a lot of time with her mother or with her video camera. It is not until the end of Season 3 that she reveals a fake name to avoid any online stalkers, which is Frances Jones. Finally, she reveals her real name, Paige Mckenzie, due to participating in Seventeen Magazine's Pretty Amazing contest. *Mercedes Rose as Kat (Season 1-present): Kat is Sunshine’s mother. She is cheerful and funny, and she regards her only daughter as a good friend. Although she had interest in paranormal phenomena when she was young, she is a skeptic. Her relationship to Sunshine's father is an important point in the story's plot since she does not like to talk about that time of her life. Uncle Tommy tells Sunshine that Kat disappeared one day and came back later with a little child. *Adrienne Vogel as Victoria (Main: Seasons 1, 3-5, 8-12, and 14-present. Recurring: Season 6): Victoria is a strange woman who earns the nickname "Creepy Lady" during Seasons 1 and 3. Her job is to protect Sunshine Girl and she shows up whenever Sunshine is in danger. *Seth Renne as Uncle Tommy (Guest: Season 3, Main: Seasons 4, 8, 10-12, 14-present. Recurring: Season 9): "Uncle" Tommy is a family friend who is close to Kat and who has known Sunshine since she was a child. Sunshine is very close to him. *Maxwell Arnold as Nolan (Main: Seasons 4-5, 7, 9-10, 14-present. Guest: Season 8): Nolan is a 19-year-old boy. Ten years ago he had a near-death experience. Since then, he can hear voices, astrally project, and does not age. Although Sunshine Girl always states that he would not be her boyfriend, they build a very special relationship. He said he loved her but she never said it back, even though she probably does. *Lil' Sunshiner as herself (Recurring: Season 13. Main: Season 14-present): Lil' Sunshiner is sunshine Girl's (McKenzie) #1 fan since mid-2015. She and her family encounter a ghost wearing a black cloak. Sunshine Girl babysits her and which encounter a ghost which could be caused by the Ghost of Anna. *N/A as Ghost of Anna (Main: Seasons 1, 3-5, and 10. Recurring: Season 11. Guest: Seasons 8, 14): Anna is the first ghost to encounter Sunshine and her family. She is not the only one, her father and other ghosts appear besides her. In season 10,she warns Sunshine about her father. *Mellowb1rd as himself (Main: Season 2): Mellowb1rd was a guest host for season 2 while Sunshine and her mother Kat were away. *Rhyan Schwartz as LeMaster (Baily) (Recurring: Season 3): LeMaster helps Sunshine and Kat with the ghosts or demons. After the incident, he no longer needs Sunshine's plea for help *Christopher Toyne as Alistar (Recurring; Season 3): Alistar is Sunshine Girl's other helper *Jerry L. Buxbaum as Mystery Man (Recurring: Season 3): Is a strange man when Sunshine was looking for her father in an abandon house. He saw Sunshine and chased her out of the house. Sunshine and Kat returned to find her locket. He was nowhere in sight after the chase. *Darius Pierce as Gary Thompson (Main: Season 5, 7): The leader of the paranormal activities who helps Sunshine and Nolan with the ghost in the river house *Geno Romo as Lionel (Main: Season 5, 7): Gary's partner who is also in the paranormal activities who helps Sunshine and Nolan in Season 7 *N/A as Nolan's Grandma (Guest: Season 4): Nolan and Colin's grandmother which she only appears when Nolan went missing *Ritah Parrish as Marcie (Recurring: Season 7, Guest: Season 9): Nolan and Colin's mother. In season 7, she called Sunshine about her recent ghost activities in her river home. In season 9, she break up Nolan and Coin's fight about Sunshine. *N/A as Colin (Guest: Season 9): Nolan's brother and Marcie's second son. He and Nolan fight about Sunshine before their mom broke up the fight. *Myles Webb as himself (Main: Seasons 10-11): Is one of Sunshine's friends. During season 10, he send Sunshine his ghost experience. Then he helps Sunshine and Victoria in Season 11. *Tabitha Knight as Goth Girl (Main: Season 11): She sends her ghost experience like Myles *1 Mellowb1rd guest host while Sunshine (McKenzie) and Kat (Rose) was on their Haunted Hotel Road Trip *2 Gary and Lionel a.k.a. The Real Paranormal Investigators were in Sunshine and Kat's old home during season 5 *3 Myles helped out Sunshine (McKenzie) and Victoria (Vogel) in Season 11 ==Production== In December 2010 Hagen approached actress Mercedes Rose with the idea to create a paranormal web-based show, as he noted that the word "ghost" was a common search term. Rose later described the idea as "Gilmore Girls meets Paranormal Activity with a little Easy A thrown in." The show would be unscripted and center around a "girl trying to prove her house is haunted". Hagen and Rose then enlisted Rose's daughter, Kat McKenzie, to star as the series's main character. From there the three worked on the series's concept and chose to develop the story as the series progressed, as they "wanted something that we could keep doing on YouTube but could also be expanded into a bigger "universe" with these paranormal rules and characters we’ve set up." McKenzie chose to base the character upon herself, as she felt that the channel "wouldn’t feel genuine if it felt like I was putting on some sort of act." McKenzie did not initially reveal her name to viewers until 2013, a move that she later stated was due to fear of stalkers. Most episodes are filmed with a flip camera by the actors themselves. This filming format was chosen as it would allow them to film multiple episodes at a time, which would make it easier to post new videos each week. Hagen noted that he had to use specific keywords that would allow for the best search-engine optimization, which made it easier for users to find and enable them to have "100,000 views within weeks" without having to actively promote the channel. Aside from optimization, McKenzie found that interacting with fans also raised the series's visibility and viewership numbers. Fans can interact with McKenzie via her social media accounts and by sharing videos. The channel became a YouTube Partner in 2011 and during 2014 made $4,000 to $6,000 a month via ads. In 2013 McKenzie took part in a scholarship competition in Seventeen magazine, where she ran under her real name and mentioned The Haunting of Sunshine Girl. This contest attracted the attention of a literary agent, who helped finalize a deal with the Weinstein Company to produce a book and television series based on The Haunting of Sunshine Girl. ==Spin-Offs== ===Sunshine's World=== Sunshine's World is another YouTube channel by Coat Tale Productions. There is no plot. Sunshine Girl just posts videos about her visiting a pumpkin farm, a shop in Portland or showing her posters to the audience. It is the vlog of an 18-year-old girl. The last upload to this channel was March 9, 2018. ===Sunshine Screen Prints=== ===Uncle Tommy's YouTube Confessions=== Uncle Tommy's YouTube Confessions is the first spin-off based on a supporting character of "The Haunting of Sunshine Girl". It is an interactive series in which the audience sends secret confessions via comment or email to "Uncle Tommy," which he and friends might then read on the show. Occasionally Kat or Sunshine Girl appear in Uncle Tommy's videos. ==Feature films== === Sunshine Girl and the Hunt for Black Eyed Kids === In November 2011 Coat Tale Productions launched a Kickstarter project to fund a feature film, In Search of Black Eyed Kids (later retitled Sunshine Girl and the Hunt for Black Eyed Kids). The film would follow Sunshine and other series characters as they search for black-eyed children, an urban legend surrounding supernatural creatures. The Kickstarter campaign met its goals, but Mercedes Rose later stated that the majority of the funding came from friends, family, and members of their film community. Filming for Sunshine Girl and the Hunt for Black Eyed Kids began in January 2012 in Portland, Oregon, and was produced in association with Lyon Films. The movie was released on DVD in December 2012 and is available via download. === THR33 === In November 2013 McKenzie launched an Indiegogo project to fund a second feature film, then temporarily titled Alone, and the campaign raised $2,480. The film is set during the 1980s and centers around a girl (played by McKenzie) stuck in a cabin with a ghost. The film's name was later changed to Three (also stylized as Thr33) and filming commenced in 2014. Thr33 was released on 29 January 2016. === Crescendo Short Film === This short film was Written, Directed, and Edited by Nick Hagen and Produced by Mercedes Rose. A Coat Tale Productions film. Starring Rhyan Schwartz as Adam, Paige McKenzie as Ella, Dan Considine as Charles, and Maria Olsen as Mrs. Black. This short film was released on Oct 28, 2014. ==Books== In 2014 the Weinstein Co. announced that they had closed a multiplatform deal to adapt The Haunting of Sunshine Girl into a young adult novel and film franchise. On March 24, 2015 The Haunting of Sunshine Girl was released in hardback, e-book, and audiobook via Weinstein Books, and follows the same plot as the web series's first story arc. Critical reception for the book was mixed, with some outlets criticizing the work for being too similar to other supernatural young adult novels while others praised it for its character interactions and chills. On March 1, 2016 the sequel to The Haunting of Sunshine Girl was released titled The Awakening of Sunshine Girl in hardback, e-book, and audiobook via Weinstein Books, and like its predecessor had many praises for the scary plot and deep character development and criticism for the lack originality based on other supernatural young adult novels. The third and final book, "The Sacrifice of Sunshine girl", was released April 4, 2017. The book completed the trilogy and was also based on the hit YouTube channel. ==TV show== In March 2015 McKenzie announced that there were plans for the Weinstein Co. to adapt The Haunting of Sunshine Girl into either a feature film or television show, along with a novel. The following month McKenzie issued a press release stating that it had been decided that they would progress with a television show rather than a film, as they felt that "TV would be an easier transition." The series will be based on the novel released in September 2015 and will have McKenzie in the starring role. == References == ==External links== * * * Facebook Page * Article in Oregon Film and TV Dollars * Bad Ronald: The Haunting of Sunshine Girl -- Why Are You Not Watching This!! * Local Webseries Gets Tens of Thousands Views per Day (bePortland) * In search of 'Black Eyed Kids' (The Columbian) * Category:2010s YouTube series Category:Young adult fiction Category:2010 web series debuts Category:2015 web series endings |
Etta Candy is a fictional character appearing in DC Comics publications and related media, commonly as the best friend of the superhero Wonder Woman. Spirited and vivacious, with a devil-may-care attitude, Etta debuted as a young white woman with red hair in 1942's Sensation Comics #2, written by Wonder Woman's creator William Moulton Marston. Enrolled in the fictional Holliday College for Women (and often accompanied by her fellow students, "the Holliday Girls"), Etta would become a constant feature of Wonder Woman's Golden Age adventures, effectively functioning as both the hero's plucky sidekick and her best friend. Unapologetically proud of her plus-sized figure (and vocal about her love of sweets), "Etta's appearance was a stark contrast to the svelte, wasp-waisted women depicted in most comic books, and Etta was a brave and heroic leader who was always in the thick of the fight beside her friend Wonder Woman." Though appearing less frequently in the Silver and Bronze Age, Etta was a recurring presence in Wonder Woman's supporting cast throughout both periods. She would be re-imagined in March 1987Wonder Woman (vol. 2) #2 by comics writer/artist George Pérez as part of his post-Crisis relaunch of the Wonder Woman mythos. This milder-mannered version, a former U.S. Air Force captain and intelligence officer, is not presented as Wonder Woman's best friend, but rather as a genial ally among a larger cast of supporting characters.Jimenez, (2010) pp. 406-407. In 2011, Etta was again updated as part of DC Comics' company-wide New 52 continuity reboot. Still an American intelligence specialist, the rebooted Etta Candy is a Black woman, whose revised history with Wonder Woman restores several Golden Age elements, notably her wise-cracking joie de vivre and her status as the hero's ever- present best friend. Additionally, the New 52 Etta is queer, shown to have a romantic relationship with Barbara Ann Minerva, the British archeologist who would become Wonder Woman's arch-foe the Cheetah. Etta's brassy queerness brings to the surface a consistent lesbian subtext present in William Moulton Marston's original Golden Age characterization of a woman joyously defiant of sex-gender norms. Beatrice Colen portrayed Etta in the 1970s Wonder Woman series. The character made her cinematic debut in the DC Extended Universe in the 2017 film Wonder Woman, played by Lucy Davis. She has been portrayed in animated film by voice actors Julianne Grossman and Adrienne C. Moore. ==Character history== ===Golden Age=== In her 1940s introduction, Etta Candy is a sickly malnourished woman Wonder Woman discovers at a local hospital. [Note, this version is from the Wonder Woman comic strip and written after Etta's first appearance in the comic books in Sensation Comics #2 in 1942.] When next seen, Etta is transformed into a spirited, rotund young woman who has a great love of candy. When Wonder Woman asks about her new body type, Etta tells her that she was rejuvenated by eating many sweets. With her newfound confidence, Etta Candy soon after leads the fictional Beeta Lambda sorority at Holliday College and aids Wonder Woman in her adventures. First, with a hundred other Holliday girls, Etta helps Wonder Woman take over the Nazi base of Doctor Poison without endangering Steve Trevor. Throughout her adventures with Wonder Woman, Etta is known for her moxie, her love of candy, and for her trademark call "Woo! Woo!" (A catch-phrase derived, in part, from exclamations associated with comic actor Hugh Herbert and Curly Howard of The Three Stooges. Other versions of the character have been known to say "Woo! Woo!" and according to at least one version it is a sorority cry at Holliday College.) Other familiar characteristics included her jalopy car nicknamed Esmerelda, and a variety of sassy interjections, such as: "For the love of chocolate!" Her father, Hard Candy, and mother, Sugar Candy, lived on the Bar-L Ranch in Brazos County, Texas, that provided the setting for cowboy- themed adventures. She was shown to have a brother named Mint Candy who served as a soldier in the US Army. Holliday College was the setting for science- driven stories and it was at nearby "Starvard" (portmanteau of Stanford and Harvard), that her boyfriend, the gangling but very loving "Oscar Sweetgulper," studied. She was shown to be brave and even stormed a Nazi concentration camp armed with nothing but a box of candy to rescue captured children. She was also welcomed by Wonder Woman's people, the Amazons of Paradise Island, and even invited to their festivals. She was aware of her weight but never let it bother her. She even joked about it when asked by the Amazons if she would like to join in one of their sporting events. ===Silver and Bronze Age=== When Robert Kanigher became writer and editor of the adventures of Wonder Woman, he made little use of Etta Candy and the Holiday girls. When he did, he portrayed Etta as an insecure, weight-conscious girl who followed but never led the girls in her sorority. This was in sharp contrast to Marston characterization of a bold, sassy, wisecracking leader. Despite a few appearances after Kanigher reintroduced her in 1960 (Wonder Woman #117) Candy was left in limbo for decades. Etta Candy was revived twenty years later in 1980 (Wonder Woman #272), along with Steve Trevor and General Phil Darnell. In the years since her last appearance, Candy had not only graduated from Holiday College, but had become a Lieutenant and was on hand to welcome Wonder Woman back to her old job as Air Force officer Diana Prince something she hadn't done since 1968. Lieutenant Candy was featured as a secretary to Darnell and as Diana's roommate. Despite having been Wonder Woman's friend years previous, Candy had never met Diana Prince or learned her secret identity. Thus, from Candy's point of view, she and Prince met for the first time when Prince returned to the Air Force. She was still portrayed as insecure and weight-conscious and, although she no longer said "for the love of chocolate", was known to swear by Betty Crocker. She also did most of the cooking between herself and her roommate. Her family was not expanded as much as was the family of her golden age incarnation though she did remark on being from a large family and had a niece named Suzie. Her love interest was now nerdy, hopelessly clumsy but nevertheless very loving Howard Huckaby. In one adventure, Etta was kidnapped by Satanists influenced by Klarion the Witch Boy and sent to Hell, where Wonder Woman and Etrigan the demon had to travel to save her, although she remained narcotized and catatonic throughout the ordeal. In the years leading up to Crisis on Infinite Earths (1986), writers Dan Mishkin and Mindy Newell took Etta in a different direction. She displayed more confidence, and even became Wonder Woman for one evening, battling Cheetah, Angle Man, Captain Wonder and Silver Swan. Huckaby, who by then had been convinced for several issues that his girlfriend was the comic book's titular heroine, used Dr. Psycho's machine that could turn his dreams into reality to let the world see Etta as he saw her. After the Amazonian "Wonder Etta" defeated the villains, she and others saw she was his Wonder Woman.Wonder Woman #323 ===Post-Crisis=== After the 1987 Greg Potter–George Pérez revamp of Wonder Woman, Etta was romantically linked with, and eventually married to, Steve Trevor, who was no longer Diana's love interest. A career Air Force officer, Etta served as Steve Trevor's aide when he was framed for treason as part of Ares' scheme to spark a global war. Etta was fiercely dedicated to her friends, and her faith in Steve's innocence helped him clear his name, even though the two temporarily became fugitives while helping Wonder Woman overthrow Ares' plans. While on the run, Steve and Etta realized their love for one another. A happy couple, they remained friends with Wonder Woman. Feeling insecure about her weight, Etta developed an eating disorder that was kept secret from her friends.Wonder Woman (vol. 2) #78 She was able to lose 20 pounds, but at the expense of her health. When she finally collapsed due to a lack of food in front of Wonder Woman while trying on wedding gowns, Diana advised her to take better care of herself and maintain a sensible diet. Since that time, Etta has gained her original weight back. Etta and Steve largely disappeared from the pages of Wonder Woman during the run of writer/artist John Byrne, and they appeared infrequently since then. She did appear once Diana lost her royal title during writer Phil Jimenez's run as her usual supportive friend, but was depicted as still insecure about her heavy weight and apprehensive about her marriage to Steve. Writer Gail Simone later reintroduced Etta Candy as an intelligence officer requested by Sarge Steel to report on Diana Prince and her associations.Wonder Woman (vol. 3) #14 This took place following the Infinite Crisis which altered Diana's origins and to an extent the origins of her supporting cast. Etta remained married to Steve Trevor and was a close friend of Diana and was also aware of Diana's dual identity. The full extent of her history with Diana following the new DCU continuity is not known. Etta joined Wonder Woman on the Khund homeworld to convince an alien race called the 'Ichor' to cease their attacks.Wonder Woman (vol. 3) #19 She was successful but returned to Earth only to be tortured by the villain Genocide, leaving her in a coma state.Wonder Woman (vol. 3) #32 She eventually regained consciousness in the hospital some time during the next few issues, and after imploring Diana to not feel guilty over her torture at the hands of Genocide revealed that she was recruited as an operative by Mr. Terrific and The Green Lantern as part of the U.N. Authority's observation of the D.M.A. three years earlier.Wonder Woman (vol. 3) #40 ===The New 52=== In September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, Etta Candy appeared in the new Justice League title as Steve Trevor's secretary. She was now African American and depicted as young and ambitious, resembling the Etta played by Tracie Thoms in the unaired David E. Kelley Wonder Woman pilot. Trevor soon came to trust Etta, admitting to her secrets he kept close to himself, such as being in love with Wonder Woman.Justice League (vol. 2) #7 (March 2012) During the Forever Evil storyline, Steve Trevor returned to the ruins of Washington DC's A.R.G.U.S. headquarters where Etta Candy told him that the destruction was caused by a massive spike in Doctor Light's body where the energies emitted from it exposed the A.R.G.U.S. agents. Etta Candy was later approached by an energy manifestation of Doctor Light.Forever Evil: A.R.G.U.S. #1 ===Rebirth=== After the events of Rebirth, Etta Candy continued working with Steve Trevor, but has been promoted to Commander Candy.Wonder Woman (vol. 5) #1 (August 2016) Flashbacks throughout the story revealed Etta became friends with Dr. Barbara Minerva prior to becoming Cheetah and developed romantic feelings for her, which Barbara was implied to have returned. Etta is later referenced as working closely with A.R.G.U.S., a government group skilled in dealing with the super-human and super-natural.Justice League Dark #1 (2018) ==Other versions== ===Seven Soldiers=== Writer, Grant Morrison used an aged version of Etta as a counselor in the first issue of Seven Soldiers: Zatanna and showed her as a convention speaker in Seven Soldiers: Bulleteer. ===Earth-Two=== During DC Comics' Pre- Crisis era, the Golden Age versions of its characters were revived. They were retroactively said to have lived on an alternate dimension dubbed Earth-Two thus explaining why the regular Wonder Woman and her supporting cast could appear youthful despite the "original" Wonder Woman having appeared decades earlier. Etta Candy was no exception although her Earth-Two self differed slightly from her Golden Age self. For example, she was shown working for the military instead of being a college student. (Thus was done in order to tie into the popular Wonder Woman television series which was set in the 1940s in order to utilize the titular heroine's Golden Age adventures. (Wonder Woman #229)) In order to harmonize the two versions, it was later explained that this Etta Candy was a college student but had put her studies on hold to serve her country. At war's end, she resumed her studies and became a dietitian. Later appearances of the Earth-Two Etta Candy show her being much more faithful to her Golden Age self. ===Superman & Batman: Generations=== She makes an appearance in the Superman & Batman: Generations miniseries by John Byrne. Generations takes a different approach from the aforementioned example by imagining a world wherein superheroes age in real time relative to their original appearance in comic books. Thus, by 1953 Etta Candy is happily married to Oscar Sweetgulper, her Golden Age beau, and is Mrs. Etta Candy Sweetgulper. ===Wonder Woman: Amazonia=== She appears in Wonder Woman: Amazonia, a Wonder Woman story set in a Victorian Britain. There, Etta grew up a hungry, homeless, destitute orphan on the streets of London. Her only friend was Diana, the girl that would grow up to be Wonder Woman. After they grew up and Diana was offered a job in show business exhibiting her great strength, Etta bid goodbye to her friend. She married an army man but she was forced to take up prostitution in order to survive after he took to drink and abandoned her. When she and Diana were reunited years later, she managed to get a job as a nanny for Diana's children, one of whom was named Etta in honor of her mother's best friend. At the climax of the story, the villain tries to kidnap Wonder Woman's daughters (among other things) but Etta bravely rescues them. It closes with Etta Candy as governess to the Princesses Etta and Victoria and best friend to their mother Queen Diana of Britain and Themyscira. ===Wednesday Comics=== Etta appears as a major supporting character in the Wonder Woman story serialized in Wednesday Comics. In the alternate reality featured in the storyline, Etta is a teenager who befriends the young Diana when she first arrives in America. Etta is eventually kidnapped by Diana's other friend, Priscilla Rich, and is used as bait in a trap set by Doctor Poison. With Etta bound and gagged by Priscilla, Poison attempts to use her as a test subject for her chemicals, only to be defeated when Diana arrives and rescues her friend. ===Convergence: Wonder Woman=== A Pre-Crisis version of Etta appears in "Convergence: Wonder Woman". She alerts Wonder Woman to a doomsday cult which has risen from the events of Convergence. She tries to save Wonder Woman from the fanatical followers, but is spirited away by the vampire Joker from the Red Rain universe. Wonder Woman finds her bitten and drained, though she subsequently becomes a vampire in service of the Joker. She is killed when Steve Trevor, also made a vampire, resists the Joker's control and plunges both of them into a deep chasm opened during the battle. ===Sensation Comics Featuring Wonder Woman=== In Neil Kleid's "Ghosts and Gods," his addition to the collaborative collection "Sensation Comics featuring Wonder Woman Volume 1," Etta is seen as an active sidekick to the Amazonian Princess, helping her raid Ra's Al Ghul's stronghold. Etta shows skill with a grappling hook during the adventure. Etta doesn't get to say much for herself, because when the pair is captured, "Deadman" inhabits her body to help Wonder Woman complete the mission.Sensation Comics featuring Wonder Woman #8 (May 2015) ===The All-New Batman: The Brave and the Bold=== Etta makes an appearance in the comic book version of Batman: The Brave and the Bold. ===Wonder Woman: Earth One=== Etta appears in Wonder Woman: Earth One, but renamed Beth. She's similar to the Pre-Crisis Earth-Two version, being a spirited, plump young woman and the head of the Holiday Girls. She appears to be a lesbian (or possibly bisexual) as she's intrigued by Wonder Woman's stories of Themyscira, an island full of women, but is put off by their attitudes as it "spoil[s] [her] fantasy". She and the Holiday Girls also designed Wonder Woman's costume. She accompanied Wonder Woman and Steve Trevor to Themyscira for Wonder Woman's trial to defend her; all the other Amazons (except Hippolyta) were disgusted by her appearance. ===The Legend of Wonder Woman=== Etta Candy appears as a major supporting character in this alternate re-telling of Wonder Woman's origin. The Holliday Girls are also featured in supporting roles.The Legend of Wonder Woman #1-8 (2016) ===Smallville Season Eleven=== Etta Candy appears as a Lieutenant of United States Air Force. She was described as an excellent pilot and was chosen to escort Queen Hippolyta back to Themyscira. She called her plane the "invisible plane".Smallville Season Eleven #19 (2014) ==In other media== ===Television=== * Beatrice Colen portrayed Etta in the first season of Wonder Woman which aired from 1976 and 1977 on ABC. She was General Phil Blankenship's secretary in this television series. This version of the character was plump rather than obese. Although she was still clearly there to provide comic relief, the show decided to not make fun of her weight. Instead, the writers portrayed her as a woman of very limited intelligence. * Tracie Thoms played Etta in David E Kelley's 2011 unaired Wonder Woman pilot. ===Film=== * Etta Candy appears in the animated direct-to-DVD film, Wonder Woman, voiced by California-born actress Julianne Grossman. In this film, Etta is a slim secretary to Steve Trevor who shamelessly uses her feminine charm on her colleague much to Diana's disgust. * Etta Candy is portrayed by Lucy Davis in the 2017 Wonder Woman film, in the character's first live action theatrical appearance.Wonder Woman (2017 film) In this version, she is portrayed as red-haired and British, and works as Steve Trevor's secretary. In Wonder Woman 1984, an elderly Etta is seen in a photograph with Diana near the shore of New York City, implying that they remained good friends. * Etta Candy appears in the animated film Wonder Woman: Bloodlines as an openly lesbian African-American, voiced by Adrienne C. Moore. ===Video games=== * In the video game Justice League Heroes, one of the buildings is a restaurant called "Etta's" including a classic image of the character. * In Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure, three versions of Etta Candy are among the thousands of characters that can be summoned by the player. ==See also== * List of Wonder Woman supporting characters ==Footnotes== * * ==External links== * Fanzing 37 - Etta Candy Category:Comics characters introduced in 1942 Category:Characters created by William Moulton Marston Category:Characters created by H. G. Peter Category:DC Comics sidekicks Category:DC Comics LGBT characters Category:Wonder Woman characters Category:DC Comics female characters Category:Fictional United States Air Force personnel Category:Fictional commanders Category:Fictional female lieutenants Category:Fictional military lieutenants Category:Fictional female corporals Category:Fictional secretaries Category:Fictional bisexual females Category:Fictional lesbians Category:Fictional female captains Category:Fictional military captains |
Emma of France (died 934 or 935) was a Frankish queen. The daughter of Robert I of France, she was a descendant of the powerful aristocratic Robertian family; her younger brother was Hugh the Great, the duke of the Franks and count of Paris. In 921, she married Duke Raoul (Rudolf) of Burgundy. Raoul was elected king on 13 July 923 in the church of St Médard at Soissons, by Walter, archbishop of Sens; upon his coronation, Emma became queen. After assuming the crown, Raoul did not relinquish his duchy unlike his Robertian predecessor Odo (Eudes) of France, who had stepped down as count of Paris upon being elected king of West Francia in 888. When Raoul was called away from Burgundy, which was often, Emma administered the duchy on his behalf. Emma wielded substantial military and political power during her reign, in large part due to her influence as intermediary between Raoul and her brother, Hugh the Great. Her conflicting loyalties afforded her a position of substantial ambiguity and great power. In 931, Emma captured the fortress of Avallon; in 933, she conducted a successful siege of Château-Thierry, the stronghold of her brother-in-law, Count Herbert II of Vermandois. She was the first Frankish queen who is known to have been formally crowned; her coronation was performed in Reims by Archbishop Séulf sometime in 923, after her husband's coronation. == Lineage and Early Life == === The Rise of the Robertians === Emma was a member of the Robertians, a Frankish aristocratic family in West Francia which eventually gave rise to the Capetian dynasty, whose members ruled France from the accession of Hugh Capet in 987 until 1328. The Robertians' rise to prominence began with Emma’s grandfather, Robert the Strong. Descended from Austrasian nobility, he was a royal military commander and administrative official favored by the Carolingian emperor and king of West Frankish king, Charles the Bald. He defended royal lands in Neustria, as well as several other parts of the region, and was involved in defending against Viking attacks. Despite brief moments of rebellion, he ultimately was made lay abbot of the monastery of St-Martin at Tours, an office that signaled and enhanced his political status within the realm. Although the identity of his wife is contested, he is believed to have been married to a woman named Adelaide, the daughter of Count Hugh of Tours, with whom he had two sons (Odo and Robert) before his death defending Francia against the Vikings north of Angers at Brissarthe in 866. Following a series of short-lived Carolingian reigns after the death of Charles the Bald in 877, Robert's eldest son Odo, who had succeeded him as lay abbot of St. Martin's and who was appointed Count of Paris in 882, was elected king of West Francia in 888. This marked the beginning of a period of alternation between Carolingian and local aristocratic possession of the throne, culminating in the end of Carolingian rulership in 987. Two significant focuses of Odo's reign lay in balancing Carolingian and Robertian leadership and preventing further Viking attacks. When Odo died a decade later with no heirs, Charles the Bald's grandson, Charles the Simple, was recognized as his successor. === Parents and Early Life === King Robert I had two daughters. The first is often called Adela by scholars, but her actual name remains unknown. She is the daughter of Robert I’s first wife and she married Herbert II of Vermandois. Robert I’s second daughter was Emma. Scholars are divided over whether she was the child of Robert’s first wife, or his second wife, Beatrix of Vermandois. Due to the age gap between her and her younger brother, Hugh the Great, who was the son of Beatrix, scholars have largely inferred that she was Robert I’s by his first wife. We have little evidence about Emma’s childhood, aside from her place within the Robertian family. In 921, she married Duke Raoul of Burgundy, who is also known as Ralph and Rudolph. === Robert I and the Election of Raoul === Charles the Simple, although crowned in Laon in 893, only was able to gain full control of the West Frankish kingdom in 898 after Odo's death. While his reign was seemingly more widely accepted than Odo’s, most magnates took exception to his rule. His time on the throne was marked by internal dissension as well as Viking attacks, forcing him to allow Robert I to hold Neustria and other parts of West Francia, a decision which allowed Robert I to gain more legitimacy as a ruler. As a result, the kingdom became a kind of “conglomeration” of independent principalities, rather than a united territory. Despite his powerful position, Robert I exhibited very little interest in gaining the throne, and actively supported Charles the Simple's claim to it. Like his father Robert the Strong, he embraced his role as a military leader and was rewarded with the lordship of the Neustrian territory between the Seine and the Loire. This situation changed, however, when Charles began to make territorial claims on the western region of Lotharingia, which isolated his other supporters. As historian Jim Bradbury remarks, Charles’ actions with Lotharingia were “too much for Robert, who went home and left Charles to face the other nobles without his support”. In 920, Robert I joined forces with Charles's opponents, a move met with much criticism; his contemporaries called him a tyrant and usurper, and claimed he was envious of Charles’ power. After defeating Charles in 920 and again in 922, Robert I was elected king by an assembly of West Frankish magnates on June 29, 922. This second non-Carolingian ruler would reign for only a year, and was killed in a battle against Charles at Soissons in 923.thumb|A picture of King Raoul, husband to Emma. He is the figure in the middle being crowned.Despite Robert's death, Charles the Simple was unable to regain his throne, and was taken into captivity, where he remained until his death in 929. Instead, Emma's husband Raoul was designated by the magnates as the next king of West Francia in 923. As the son-in-law of Robert I, and the son and successor of Duke Richard "the Justiciar" of Burgundy, Raoul marked a transition of sorts between the Robertians and the Carolingians. He was viewed as a “compromise candidate” between the stronger lords, Hugh the Great and Herbert II of Vermandois, who were better prepared to accept him than each other. Notably, contemporaries credited Emma with his successful claim to the throne: Ralph Glaber, a Burgundian monk, reports that when Hugh wrote to Emma asking who should be king, she wrote back stating that she would “rather embrace her husband’s knees than her brother’s”. Ralph thus was elected at Soissons on July 13, 923, and crowned by Archbishop Walter of Sens at the ancient abbey of St-Medard. == Marriage to Raoul == Particularly in times of insecurity and rivalry for the throne, a wife often served as a king's most loyal and trustworthy ally. A wife such as Emma, powerful and clever, was therefore the ideal partner for a new ruler like Raoul, who many considered a usurper due to his lack of direct relation to previous rulers. Marriage to the “beautiful and intelligent’ Emma offered significant advantages. Most notably, she provided him with family connections to the powerful Robertians and her brother Hugh the Great, one of the most powerful magnates in West Francia. These connections helped to strengthen Raoul’s weak claim to the throne. Their marriage, then, is considered a largely strategic one. Emma played a central role during Raoul’s reign, and provided him with many allies. When the house of Vermandois attempted to restore Charles the Simple to the throne, and called on Athelstan to support them, Hugh the Great instead defended his brother-in-law's claim. Emma served for many years as the primary intermediary between Raoul and Hugh. Raoul was an outsider in West Francia, while Emma maintained a number of connections to the region's nobility. Emma's influential position and her family connections brought Raoul his greatest amount of support, making her an important figure in the integrity and success of Raoul’s reign. Unlike many other royal marriages, the union between Emma and Raoul appears to have been monogamous. Their marriage is believed to have produced two children: a son, Louis, and a daughter, Judith. The insecurity of their position and of the West Francia throne appears to have influenced their children’s names; rather than naming them after close relatives, the new parents strategically named their children for Louis the Pious and his wife Judith, positioning them as royal children with a legitimate claim to West Francia. Not only did Emma provide Raoul significant support in terms of political allies, but she also proved a capable military and political strategist. == Military campaigns, 927-933 == Emma was active in a number of military campaigns and political maneuvers. As the historian Simon MacLean writes, one of her influential contemporaries, the scholar Flodoard of Reims, “mentions Emma’s direct involvement in the politics and military affairs of her kingdom as if it were normal, without gendered criticism,” implying that women wielding such substantial political power was at this point normalized in Francia. For Emma, this power was further augmented by the strength of her birth family. Especially as her brother allied with the Vermandois against her husband, Emma grappled with two opposing senses of loyalty. === Laon, 927-928 === Following the death of Count Roger of Laon in 926, Herbert II of Vermandois laid claim to the city, and requested that King Raoul make his son Odo (Eudes) count there. Laon was a strategically important stronghold in the north of Francia, built atop a large, steep hill; it also was one of Raoul’s favourite royal residences. Therefore, Raoul, who had already allowed Herbert his seizure of Rheims, granted Laon to Count Roger’s son instead. Herbert II, insulted, launched an offensive against Raoul at Laon, and in 927 proclaimed Charles the Simple king at St. Quentin. During their reign, the king, following successful military expeditions, had entrusted Emma more and more frequently with custody of the fortified towns which he had taken. Therefore, over the winter of 927-8, Raoul placed Emma in control of Laon; she defended the city adroitly, and Herbert was eventually obliged to capitulate. In 928, however, when the king left Laon for Burgundy, Emma refused to accompany him out of the city. At the time, Hugh the Great and Herbert II of Vermandois had allied against Raoul; Emma’s refusal to leave Laon thus may have been prompted either by a sense of loyalty to her brother, or by a desire to resist his advances and protect her husband's interests in the north. Only after Raoul negotiated a peace with the two rebels did she depart for Burgundy, leaving Laon behind for Herbert II to seize. === Avallon, 931 === Three years later, Emma led a campaign to seize the fortress of Avallon from Giselbert, the count of the Burgundian city of Autun, prompting Giselbert’s defection from Raoul’s kingdom (MacLean). Raoul supported Emma's initiative, as the center of his power in Burgundy lay in the counties of Autun, Avallon, and Lassois. At the same time, this campaign also appears to have been a continuation of a longstanding family conflict between the families of Giselbert and Hugh (and thus, by extension, Emma), in which Emma helped to advance her own kindred's goal of eliminating the pesky Giselbert. === Château-Thierry, 933 === In 933, Emma mounted a successful siege of the Vermandois stronghold of Château-Thierry. In this period, Raoul and Hugh the Great had united against Heribert; therefore, Emma’s marital and familial allegiances were in alignment, making it possible for the siege to enjoy the political and military support of both her husband (whose army she led) and her brother. == Death and Legacy == Emma died only a few years later; different sources report her death to have occurred in either 934 or 935. Raoul survived her for only a brief time, dying in 936. Neither of their children would succeed them on the throne, and little evidence about them survives in the years following Emma and Raoul's death. After Raoul’s death, Charles the Simple's son, Louis IV, was invited back to Francia after having been in exile with his mother in England. He was backed by several magnates and elected the next king in 936. Emma’s brother, Hugh the Great, supported this decision. Perhaps Hugh the Great recognized that Louis was the rightful heir; perhaps he was merely the least contentious option. Hugh the Great became the Duke of Francia, named so by the king, and controlled a number of counties. He also became the lay-abbot of several Robertian monasteries, and was the first Robertian to be called “Capet,” due to the monastic hood he wore as lay-abbot, called a chape or cappa. left|thumb|The Coronation of Hugues Capet (941-996), 988. Miniature from a manuscript of the 13th or 14th century. Hugh's substantial political and military power eventually led to several conflicts with Louis IV and numerous other powerful men in the kingdom. Louis IV, however, remained king until his death, and Hugh the Great supported his son, Lothar, as the next ruler. When Hugh the Great died, his son Hugh Capet took over his father’s position and proved an ally to Lothar. However, the king's policies antagonized Hugh Capet, which precipitated conflict between the two. Following a vision from Saint Valery, in which the saint told Hugh his family would rule for seven generations, Hugh formed an official alliance against Lothar. While the rebellion was unsuccessful and Hugh and Lothar reluctantly made peace, they never achieved the same partnership they had once exhibited. When Lothar's son, Louis V, became king, he only ruled for one year (986-987) and died childless. While there was some competition for the West Francia throne, Hugh Capet became king with relatively little opposition. Emma’s family, then, found survival in West Francia through her younger brother’s line, and the founding of the Capetian dynasty. ==References== ==Sources and Additional Reading== * * * * * * * * |- Category:Frankish queens consort Category:934 deaths Category:French princesses Category:Duchesses of Burgundy Category:Robertians Category:10th- century people from West Francia Category:10th-century French people Category:10th-century French women Category:Daughters of kings |
Electronic Arts Inc. (EA) is an American video game company headquartered in Redwood City, California. Founded in May 1982 by Apple employee Trip Hawkins, the company was a pioneer of the early home computer game industry and promoted the designers and programmers responsible for its games as "software artists". EA published numerous games and some productivity software for personal computers, all of which were developed by external individuals or groups until 1987's Skate or Die!. The company shifted toward internal game studios, often through acquisitions, such as Distinctive Software becoming EA Canada in 1991. Currently, EA develops and publishes games of established franchises, including Battlefield, Need for Speed, The Sims, Medal of Honor, Command & Conquer, Dead Space, Mass Effect, Dragon Age, Army of Two, Apex Legends, and Star Wars, as well as the EA Sports titles FIFA, Madden NFL, NBA Live, NHL, PGA and UFC. Their desktop titles appear on self-developed Origin, an online gaming digital distribution platform for PCs and a direct competitor to Valve's Steam and Epic Games' Store. EA also owns and operates major gaming studios such as EA Tiburon in Orlando, EA Vancouver in Burnaby, EA Romania in Bucharest, DICE in Stockholm, Motive Studio in Montreal, BioWare in Edmonton and Austin, and Respawn Entertainment in Los Angeles and Vancouver. ==History== ===1982–1991: Trip Hawkins era, founding, and early success=== Trip Hawkins had been an employee of Apple since 1978, at a time when the company had only about fifty employees. Over the next four years, the market for home personal computers skyrocketed. By 1982, Apple had completed its initial public offering (IPO) and become a Fortune 500 company with over one thousand employees. In February 1982, Trip Hawkins arranged a meeting with Don Valentine of Sequoia Capital to discuss financing his new venture, Amazin' Software. Valentine encouraged Hawkins to leave Apple, where Hawkins served as Director of Product Marketing, and allowed Hawkins to use Sequoia Capital's spare office space to start the company. On May 27, 1982, Trip Hawkins incorporated and established the company with a personal investment of an estimated . For more than seven months, Hawkins refined his Electronic Arts business plan. With aid from his first employee (with whom he worked in marketing at Apple), Rich Melmon, the original plan was written, mostly by Hawkins, on an Apple II in Sequoia Capital's office in August 1982. During that time, Hawkins also employed two of his former staff from Apple, Dave Evans and Pat Marriott, as producers, and a Stanford MBA classmate, Jeff Burton from Atari for international business development. The business plan was again refined in September and reissued on October 8, 1982. By November, the employee headcount rose to 11, including Tim Mott, Bing Gordon, David Maynard, and Steve Hayes. Having outgrown the office space provided by Sequoia Capital, the company relocated to a San Mateo office that overlooked the San Francisco Airport landing path. Headcount rose rapidly in 1983, including Don Daglow and Richard Hilleman. When he incorporated the company, Hawkins originally chose Amazin' Software as their company name, but his other early employees of the company universally disliked the name, and it changed its name to Electronic Arts in November 1982. He scheduled an off-site meeting in the Pajaro Dunes, where the company once held such off-site meetings. Hawkins had developed the ideas of treating software as an art form and calling the developers, "software artists". Hence, the latest version of the business plan suggested the name "SoftArt". However, Hawkins and Melmon knew the founders of Software Arts, the creators of VisiCalc, and thought their permission should be obtained. Dan Bricklin did not want the name used because it sounded too similar (perhaps "confusingly similar") to Software Arts. However, the name concept was liked by all the attendees. Hawkins had also recently read a bestselling book about the film studio United Artists and liked the reputation that the company had created. Hawkins said everyone had a vote, but they would lose it if they went to sleep. thumb|left|300px|Electronic Arts' original corporate logo, designed by Barry Deutsch, 1982–1999. Hawkins liked the word "electronic", and various employees had considered the phrases "Electronic Artists" and "Electronic Arts". When Gordon and others pushed for "Electronic Artists", in tribute to the film company United Artists, Steve Hayes opposed, saying, "We're not the artists, they [the developers] are..." This statement from Hayes immediately tilted sentiment towards Electronic Arts and the name was unanimously endorsed and adopted later in 1982. He recruited his original employees from Apple, Atari, Xerox PARC, and VisiCorp, and got Steve Wozniak to agree to sit on the board of directors.Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution By Steven Levy, page 335 Hawkins was determined to sell directly to buyers. Combined with the fact that Hawkins was pioneering new game brands, this made sales growth more challenging. Retailers wanted to buy known brands from existing distribution partners. Former CEO Larry Probst arrived as VP of Sales in late 1984 and helped expand the already successful company. This policy of dealing directly with retailers gave EA higher margins and better market awareness, key advantages the company leveraged to leapfrog its early competitors. Promoting its developers was a trademark of EA's early days. Games were sold in square packages modeled after album covers (such as those for 1983's M.U.L.E. and Pinball Construction Set). Hawkins thought the packaging would both save costs and convey an artistic feeling. EA routinely referred to their developers as "artists" and gave them photo credits in their games and full-page magazine ads. Their first such ad, accompanied by the slogan "We see farther," was the first video game advertisement to feature software designers. EA shared lavish profits with their developers, which added to their industry appeal. In the mid-1980s, Electronic Arts aggressively marketed products for the Amiga, a home computer introduced in 1985. Commodore had given EA development tools and prototype machines before Amiga's actual launch. For Amiga EA published some notable non-game titles. A drawing program Deluxe Paint (1985) and its subsequent versions became perhaps the most famous piece of software available for Amiga platform. In addition, EA's Jerry Morrison conceived the idea of a file format that could store images, animations, sounds, and documents simultaneously, and would be compatible with third-party software. He wrote and released to the public the Interchange File Format, which soon became an Amiga standard. Other Amiga programs released by EA included Deluxe Music Construction Set, Instant Music and Deluxe Paint Animation. Some of them, most notably Deluxe Paint, were ported to other platforms. For Macintosh EA released a black & white animation tool called Studio/1, and a series of Paint titles called Studio/8 and Studio/32 (1990). Relationships between Electronic Arts and their external developers often became difficult when the latter missed deadlines or diverged from the former's creative directions. In 1987, EA released Skate or Die!, their first internally developed game. EA continued publishing their external developers' games while experimenting with their internal development strategy. This led to EA's decision of purchasing out a series of companies they identify as successful, as well as the decision to release annualized franchises to cut budget costs. Because of Trip Hawkins' obsession of simulating a sports game, he signed a contract with football coach John Madden that led to EA's developing and releasing annual Madden NFL games. In 1988, EA published a flight simulator game exclusively for Amiga, F/A-18 Interceptor, with filled- polygon graphics that were advanced for the time. Another significant Amiga release (also initially available for Atari ST, later converted for other platforms) was Populous (1989) developed by Bullfrog Productions. It was a pioneering title in the genre that was later called "god games". In 1990, Electronic Arts began producing console games for the Nintendo Entertainment System, after previously licensing its computer games to other console-game publishers. ===1991–2007: Larry Probst era, continuous expansion, and success into the new millennium=== In 1991, Trip Hawkins stepped down as EA's CEO and was succeeded by Larry Probst. Hawkins went on to found the now-defunct 3DO Company, but still remained EA's chair until July 1994. In October 1993, 3DO developed the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer, which at the time was the most powerful game console. Once a critic of game consoles, Hawkins had conceived a console that unlike its competitors would not require a first-party license to be marketed, and was intended to appeal to the PC market. Electronic Arts was The 3DO Company's primary partner in sponsoring their console, showcasing on it their latest games. With a retail price of US$700 () compared to its competitors' $100, the console lagged in sales, and with the 1995 arrival to North America of Sony's PlayStation, a cheaper and more powerful alternative, combined with a lower quality of the 3DO's software library as a backfiring of its liberal license policy, it fell further behind and lost competition. Electronic Arts dropped its support for 3DO in favor of the PlayStation, 3DO's production ceased in 1996 and, for the remainder of the company's lifetime, 3DO developed video games for other consoles and the IBM PC until it folded in 2003. 250px|thumb|right|EA headquarters in October 2007. In 1995, Electronic Arts won the European Computer Trade Show award for best software publisher of the year. As the company was still expanding, they opted to purchase space in Redwood Shores, California in 1995 for construction of a new headquarters, which was completed in 1998. Early in 1997, Next Generation identified Electronic Arts as the only company to regularly profit from video games over the past five years, and noted it had "a critical track record second to none". In 1999, EA replaced their long-running Shapes logo with one based on the EA Sports logo used at the time. EA also started to use a brand-specific structure around this time, with the main publishing side of the company rebranding to EA Games. The EA Sports brand was retained for major sports titles, the new EA Sports Big label would be used for casual sports titles with an arcade twist, and the full Electronic Arts name would be used for co- published and distributed titles. EA began to move toward direct distribution of digital games and services with the acquisition of the popular online gaming site Pogo.com in 2001. In 2009, EA acquired the London-based social gaming startup Playfish. In 2004, EA made a multimillion-dollar donation to fund the development of game production curriculum at the University of Southern California's Interactive Media Division. On February 1, 2006, Electronic Arts announced that it would cut worldwide staff by 5 percent. On June 20, 2006, EA purchased Mythic Entertainment, who are finished making Warhammer Online. After Sega's ESPN NFL 2K5 successfully grabbed market share away from EA's dominant Madden NFL series during the 2004 holiday season, EA responded by making several large sports licensing deals which include an exclusive agreement with the NFL, and in January 2005, a 15-year deal with ESPN. The ESPN deal gave EA exclusive first rights to all ESPN content for sports simulation games. On April 11, 2005, EA announced a similar, 6-year licensing deal with the Collegiate Licensing Company (CLC) for exclusive rights to college football content. Much of EA's success, both in terms of sales and with regards to its stock market valuation, is due to its strategy of platform-agnostic development and the creation of strong multi-year franchises. EA was the first publisher to release yearly updates of its sports franchises—Madden, FIFA, NHL, NBA Live, Tiger Woods, etc.—with updated player rosters and small graphical and gameplay tweaks. Recognizing the risk of franchise fatigue among consumers, EA announced in 2006 that it would concentrate more of its effort on creating new original intellectual property. In September 2006, Nokia and EA announced a partnership in which EA becomes an exclusive major supplier of mobile games to Nokia mobile devices through the Nokia Content Discoverer. In the beginning, Nokia customers were able to download seven EA titles (Tetris, Tetris Mania, The Sims 2, Doom, FIFA 06, Tiger Woods PGA Tour 06 and FIFA Street 2) on the holiday season in 2006. Rick Simonson is the executive vice-president and director of Nokia and starting from 2006 is affiliated with John Riccitiello and are partners. ===2007–2013: John Riccitiello era=== In February 2007, Probst stepped down from the CEO job while remaining on the board of directors. His handpicked successor is John Riccitiello, who had worked at EA for several years previously, departed for a while, and then returned. Riccitiello previously worked for Elevation Partners, Sara Lee and PepsiCo. In June 2007, new CEO John Riccitiello announced that EA would reorganize itself into four labels, each with responsibility for its own product development and publishing (the city-state model). The goal of the reorganization was to empower the labels to operate more autonomously, streamline decision-making, increase creativity and quality, and get games into the market faster. This reorganization came after years of consolidation and acquisition by EA of smaller studios, which some in the industry blamed for a decrease in quality of EA titles. In 2008, at the DICE Summit, Riccitiello called the earlier approach of "buy and assimilate" a mistake, often stripping smaller studios of its creative talent. Riccitiello said that the city-state model allows independent developers to remain autonomous to a large extent, and cited Maxis and BioWare as examples of studios thriving under the new structure. Also, in 2007, EA announced that it would be bringing some of its major titles to the Mac. EA has released Battlefield 2142, Command & Conquer 3: Tiberium Wars, Crysis, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Madden NFL 08, Need for Speed: Carbon and Spore for the Mac. All of the new games have been developed for the Macintosh using Cider, a technology developed by TransGaming that enables Intel-based Macs to run Windows games inside a translation layer running on Mac OS X. They are not playable on PowerPC-based Macs. It was revealed in February 2008 that Electronic Arts had made a takeover bid for rival game company Take-Two Interactive. After its initial offer of per share, all cash stock transaction offer was rejected by the Take-Two board, EA revised it to per share, a 64% premium over the previous day's closing price and made the offer known to the public. Rumours had been floating around the Internet prior to the offer about Take-Two possibly being bought over by a bigger company, albeit with Viacom as the potential bidder. In May 2008, EA announced that it will purchase the assets of Hands-On Mobile Korea, a South Korean mobile game developer and publisher. The company will become EA Mobile Korea. In September 2008, EA dropped its buyout offer of Take-Two. No reason was given. As of November 6, 2008, it was confirmed that Electronic Arts is closing their Casual Label & merging it with their Hasbro partnership with The Sims Label. EA also confirmed the departure of Kathy Vrabeck, who was given the position as former president of the EA Casual Division in May 2007. EA made this statement about the merger: "We've learned a lot about casual entertainment in the past two years, and found that casual gaming defies a single genre and demographic. With the retirement and departure of Kathy Vrabeck, EA is reorganizing to integrate casual games—development and marketing—into other divisions of our business. We are merging our Casual Studios, Hasbro partnership, and Casual marketing organization with The Sims Label to be a new Sims and Casual Label, where there is a deep compatibility in the product design, marketing and demographics. [...] In the days and weeks ahead, we will make further announcements on the reporting structure for the other businesses in the Casual Label including EA Mobile, Pogo, Media Sales and Online Casual Initiatives. Those businesses remain growth priorities for EA and deserve strong support in a group that will complement their objectives." This statement comes a week after EA announced it was laying off 6% about 600 of their staff positions and had a net loss for the quarter. Due to the 2008 economic crisis, Electronic Arts had a poorer than expected 2008 holiday season, moving it in February 2009 to cut approximately 1100 jobs, which it said represented about 11% of its workforce. It also closed 12 of their facilities. Riccitiello, in a conference call with reporters, stated that their poor performance in the fourth quarter was not due entirely to the poor economy, but also to the fact that they did not release any blockbuster titles in the quarter. In the quarter ending December 31, 2008, the company lost . On February 2, 2009, Ludlum Entertainment had inked a deal with Electronic Arts to grant exclusive rights to bring the work of Robert Ludlum into video gaming. As of early May 2009, the subsidiary studio EA Redwood Shores was known as Visceral Games. On June 24, 2009, EA announced it will merge two of its development studios, BioWare and Mythic into one single role-playing video game and MMO development powerhouse. The move will actually place Mythic under control of BioWare as Ray Muzyka and Greg Zeschuk will be in direct control of the new entity. By fall 2012, both Muzyka and Zeschuk had chosen to depart the merged entity in a joint retirement announcement. On November 9, 2009, EA announced layoffs of 1,500 employees, representing 17% of its workforce, across a number of studios including EA Tiburon, Visceral Games, Mythic and EA Black Box. Also affected were "projects and support activities" that, according to Chief Financial Officer Eric Brown "don't make economic sense", resulting in the shutdown of popular communities such as Battlefield News and the EA Community Team. These layoffs also led to the complete shutdown of Pandemic Studios. In October 2010, EA announced the acquisition of England- based iPhone and iPad games publisher Chillingo for in cash. Chillingo published the popular Angry Birds for iOS and Cut the Rope for all platforms, but the deal did not include those properties, so Cut the Rope became published by ZeptoLab, and Angry Birds became published by Rovio Entertainment. On May 4, 2011, EA reported $3.8 billion in revenues for the fiscal year ending March 2011, and on January 13, 2012, EA announced that it had exceeded $1 billion in digital revenue during the previous calendar year. In a note to employees, EA CEO John Riccitiello called this "an incredibly important milestone" for the company. In June 2011, EA launched Origin, an online service to sell downloadable games for personal computers directly to consumers. Around this time, Valve, which runs Steam in direct competition with Origin, announced changes to storefront policy disallowing games that used in-game purchases that were not tied to Steam's purchasing process, and removed several of EA's games, including Crysis 2, Dragon Age II, and Alice: Madness Returns in 2012. Though EA released a new packaged version of Crysis 2 that including all the downloadable content without the storefront features, EA did not publish any additional games on Steam until 2019, instead selling all personal computer versions of games through Origin. In July 2011, EA announced that it had acquired PopCap Games, the company behind games such as Plants vs. Zombies and Bejeweled. EA continued its shift toward digital goods in 2012, folding its mobile-focused EA Interactive (EAi) division "into other organizations throughout the company, specifically those divisions led by EA Labels president Frank Gibeau, COO Peter Moore, and CTO Rajat Taneja, and EVP of digital Kristian Segerstrale." ===2013–2022: Andrew Wilson era, Disney partnership, and monetization=== On March 18, 2013, John Riccitiello announced that he would be stepping down as CEO and a member of the Board of Directors on March 30, 2013. Larry Probst was also appointed executive chairman on the same day. Andrew Wilson was named as the new CEO of EA by September 2013. In April 2013, EA announced a reorganization which was to include dismissal of 10% of their workforce, consolidation of marketing functions which were distributed among the five label organizations, and subsumption of Origin operational leadership under the President of Labels. EA acquired the lucrative exclusive license to develop games within the Star Wars universe from Disney in May 2013, shortly after Disney's closure of its internal LucasArts game development in 2013. EA secured its license from 2013 through 2023, and began to assign new Star Wars projects across several of its internal studios, including BioWare, DICE, Visceral Games, Motive Studios, Capital Games and external developer Respawn Entertainment. In April 2015, EA announced that it would be shutting down various free-to-play games in July of that year, including Battlefield Heroes, Battlefield Play4Free, Need for Speed: World, and FIFA World. The reorganization and revised marketing strategy lead to a gradual increase in stock value. In July 2015, Electronic Arts reached an all-time high with a stock value of US$71.63, surpassing the previous February 2005 record of $68.12. This is also up 54% from $46.57 in early January 2015. The surge was partly attributed to EA's then-highly anticipated Star Wars Battlefront reboot, which released one month before Star Wars: The Force Awakens, also highly anticipated. During E3 2015, vice- president of the company, Patrick Söderlund, announced that the company will start investing more on smaller titles such as Unravel so as to broaden the company's portfolio. On December 10, 2015, EA announced a new division called Competitive Gaming Division, which focuses on creating competitive game experience and organizing ESports events. It was once headed by Peter Moore. In May 2016, Electronic Arts announced that they had formed a new internal division called Frostbite Labs. The new department specializes in creating new projects for virtual reality platforms, and "virtual humans". The new department is located in Stockholm and Vancouver. EA announced the closure of Visceral Games in October 2017. Prior, Visceral had been supporting EA's other games but was also working on a Star Wars title named Project Ragtag since EA's acquisition of the Star Wars license, even hiring Amy Hennig to direct the project. While EA did not formally give a reason for the closure, industry pundits believed that EA was concerned about the principally single-player game which would be difficult to monetize, as well as the slow pace of development. EA's original approach to the microtransactions in Star Wars Battlefront II sparked an industry-wide debate on the use of random-content loot boxes. While other games had used loot boxes, EA's original approach within Battlefront II from its early October 2017 launch included using such mechanics for pay to win gameplay elements, as well as locking various Star Wars characters behind expensive paywalls, leading several gaming journalists and players to complain. EA modified some of the costs of these elements in anticipation of the game's full November 2017 launch, but they were reportedly told by Disney to disable all microtransactions until they could come up with a fairer monetization scheme. Ultimately, by March 2018, EA had developed a fairer system that eliminated the pay to win elements and drastically reduced costs for unlocking characters. The controversy over Battlefront II loot boxes led to an 8.5% drop in stock value in one month—about $3.1 billion and impacted EA's financial results for the following quarters. Further, the visibility of this controversial led to debate at government levels around the world to determine if loot boxes were a form of gambling and if they should be regulated. In January 2018, EA announced eMLS, a new competitive league for EA Sports' FIFA 18 through its Competitive Gaming Division (CGD) and MLS. That same month, EA teamed up with ESPN and Disney XD in a multi-year pact to broadcast Madden NFL competitive matches across the world through its Competitive Gaming Division arm. On August 14, 2018, Patrick Söderlund announced his departure from EA as its vice-president and chief design officer, after serving twelve years with the company. With Söderlund's departure, the SEED group was moved as part of EA's studios, while the EA Originals and EA Partners teams were moved under the company's Strategic Growth group. On February 6, 2019, Electronic Arts' stock value was hit by a decline of 13.3%, the worst decline since Halloween 2008. This was largely due to the marketing of their anticipated title Battlefield V, which was released after the holiday season of October 2018. Stocks were already declining since late August, when EA announced that Battlefield Vs release would be delayed until November. Upon release, the game was met with a mixed reception, and EA sold one million fewer copies than their expected figure of 7.3 million. Also attributed to the stock plunge was the game's lack of the game mode Battle Royale, popularized by PlayerUnknown's Battlegrounds and then Fortnite. Stocks then surged 9.6% with the surprise release of Apex Legends, which garnered 25 million players in just one week, smashing Fortnites record of 10 million players in two weeks. In advance of the end of its financial quarter ending March 31, 2019, Wilson announced they were cutting about 350 jobs, or about 4% of its workforce, primarily from their marketing, publishing, and operations divisions. Wilson stated the layoffs were necessary to "address our challenges and prepare for the opportunities ahead". EA announced in October 2019 that it would be returning to release games on Steam, starting with the November 2019 release of Star Wars: Jedi Fallen Order, as well as bringing the EA Access subscription service to Steam. While EA plans to continue to sell games on Origin, the move to add Steam releases was to help get more consumers to see their offerings. Due to COVID-19 lockdowns and growing demand for online games, EA's revenue grew to $1.4bn in the first quarter of 2020. EA rebranded both EA Access and Origin to EA Play on August 18, 2020, but otherwise without changing the subscription price or services offered as part of a streamlining effort. In December 2020, EA placed a bid to buy Codemasters, a British developer of racing games, in a deal worth $1.2 billion, outbidding an earlier offer placed by Take-Two Interactive. The acquisition, agreed to by Codemasters, was completed by February 18, 2021, with all shares of Codemasters transferred to Codex Games Limited, a subsidiary of EA. Wilson stated that "the franchises in our combined portfolio will enable us to create innovative new experiences and bring more players into the excitement of cars and motorsport". In January 2021, Disney announced it had revived the Lucasfilm Games label for its licensed video game properties and announced new games including a new Star Wars game that would be developed by Ubisoft aimed for release in 2023, indicating that EA's ten-year exclusive license in 2013 to the Star Wars property was likely not extended. EA still maintained a non- exclusive license to Star Wars games, affirming more titles will be coming following this announcement. As of February 2021, EA's Star Wars games had sold more than 52 million copies and brought in more than in revenue. After a six-year absence from producing college sports-based game due to legal issues related to student athlete likenesses with the NCAA, EA announced in February 2021 that it was returning to college sports with a planned EA Sports College Football title to likely be released in 2023. The company announced its plans to extend its mobile commitment in February 2021 by acquiring Glu Mobile in an deal estimated worth . The acquisition was completed by the end of April 2021. The Public Investment Fund of Saudi Arabia acquired 7.4 million shares of EA, valued at , in February 2021. Former CEO and current chairman Probst stated in May 2021 he was retiring from the company. Current EA CEO Wilson took over as chairman. In June 2021, EA confirmed that they had suffered a data breach, with game and engine source code taken from their servers, including the source for the Frostbite Engine and FIFA 21, though assuring no player or user data had been obtained. Hackers that had taken the code had started selling it around on the dark web. The perpetuators of this breach began to extort EA for money in July, releasing small portions of the data to public forums and threatening to release more if their demands were not met. EA acquired mobile game developer Playdemic Studios in Manchester, England from Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment in June 2021 for , following the merger of Discovery, Inc. with WarnerMedia. The acquisition is expected to complete by 2022. In their SEC filings in September 2021, the company said that current CFO and COO Blake Jorgensen will be stepping down by mid-2022. The company's COO role will be taken over by Chief Studios Officer Laura Miele, while a search for a new CFO will be launched. Longtime Microsoft executive Chris Suh was later appointed as CFO in March 2022. Industry reports around May 2022 asserted that EA had been looking to be acquired by larger media firms, including Disney, Apple, and Comcast/NBCUniversal. These reports said that EA had been nearing a final deal that would have had NBCUniversal spun out from Comcast before bringing EA within it. Amazon was also mentioned as a possible customer for EA, though CNBC reported in late August that Amazon is no longer interested in a takeover. ===2023–present: Internal restructuring=== In June 2023, EA announced an internal reorganization of the company: CEO Andrew Wilson announced a realignment of the company into two organizations – EA Sports and EA Entertainment – both which would report directly to him, having Laura Miele, previously Chief Studios Officer and COO as the president of EA Entertainment, and Cam Weber, formerly EVP and group General Manager of EA Sports as president of EA Sports. Vince Zampella, Samantha Ryan and Jeff Karp will continue on EA Entertainment leading and overseeing specific studios under EA Entertainment. Also announced in the same day, CFO Chris Suh and chief experience officer Chris Bruzzo will be leaving the company at the end of the month, with the first leaving for another company while the other going to retire. Replacing Suh as CFO will be Stuart Canfield, a 20-year veteran of the company who has most recently been serving as SVP of enterprise finance and investor relations, while the company's new chief experiences officer will be David Tinson, previously the company's chief marketing officer. == Games == == Company structure == Since June 2023, the company is organized in two main divisions: EA Entertainment Technology & Central Development (EA Entertainment for short, formerly EA Games) and EA Sports. === EA Entertainment === * BioWare in Edmonton, Canada; acquired in October 2007. ** BioWare Austin in Austin, Texas; acquired in October 2007. * DICE in Stockholm, Sweden; acquired in October 2006. ** Frostbite Labs in Stockholm, Sweden and Vancouver, Canada; founded in May 2016. * EA Baton Rouge in Baton Rouge, Louisiana; founded in September 2008. * EA Chillingo in Macclesfield, England; acquired in October 2010, reduced to bare staff in 2017 to primarily support mobile publishing. * EA Galway in Galway, Ireland. * EA Mobile in Los Angeles, California; founded in 2004. ** EA Capital Games in Sacramento, California; acquired in 2011. From 2011 to 2014, the studio was named BioWare Sacramento. ** EA Redwood Studios in Redwood City, California; founded in 2016. ** Firemonkeys Studios in Melbourne, Australia; acquired in July 2012. ** Glu Mobile in San Francisco, California; acquired in April 2021. *** PlayFirst in Delaware; acquired by Glu in September 2014. ** Playdemic in Manchester, England; acquired by EA in June 2021 from WarnerMedia ** Slingshot Games in Hyderabad, India. ** Tracktwenty Studios in Helsinki, Finland; founded in 2012. * Full Circle in Vancouver, Canada; opened in 2021. * Maxis in Redwood City, California; acquired in July 1997. ** Maxis Texas in Austin, Texas was opened in 2019, working on a new IP ** Maxis Europe in multiple locations in Europe, was opened in 2021. * Motive Studio in Montreal, Canada; founded in July 2015. ** Motive Studio Vancouver in Burnaby, Canada; founded in June 2018. * Pogo Studios in Redwood City, California; acquired in March 2001. ** Pogo Studios Shanghai in Shanghai, China. * PopCap Games in Seattle, Washington; acquired in July 2011. ** PopCap Shanghai in Shanghai, China; acquired in July 2011. ** PopCap Hyderabad in Hyderabad, India; acquired in July 2011. * Respawn Entertainment in Sherman Oaks, California; acquired in December 2017. ** Respawn Vancouver established in 2020 in Vancouver. ** Respawn Wisconsin established in 2023 in Madison, Wisconsin * Ridgeline Games in Seattle, Washington, led by Marcus Lehto former creative director of Bungie, founded in October 2021. * Ripple Effect Studio in Los Angeles, California; established in May 2013, previously a subsidiary of DICE called DICE Los Angeles and a support studio before becoming its own company and being renamed in 2021. Some of the staff were originally from Danger Close Games. * Spearhead in Seoul, South Korea; founded in 1998. From 1998 to July 2004, the studio was named EA Korea. * Unnamed studio in Seattle, Washington, led by Kevin Stephens formerly vice-president of Monolith Productions, founded in May 2021. === EA Sports === * EA Sports in Redwood Shores, California; founded in 1991. ** EA Cologne in Cologne, Germany ** EA Madrid in Madrid, Spain; founded in October 2018. ** EA Romania in Bucharest, Romania; acquired in 2006. ** EA Tiburon in Maitland, Florida; acquired in April 1998. ** EA Vancouver in Burnaby, Canada; acquired in 1991. ** Metalhead Software in Victoria, British Columbia; acquired in May 2021. * Codemasters in Southam, England; founded in October 1986, acquired by EA in February 2021. ** Codemasters Birmingham in Birmingham, England ** Codemasters Kuala Lumpur in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia ** Codemasters India in Pune, India ** Slightly Mad Studios in London, England; founded in 2009, acquired by Codemasters in November 2019. * Criterion Games in Guildford, England; acquired in August 2004. * EA Gothenburg in Gothenburg, Sweden; founded in March 2011. From March 2011 to November 2012, the studio was named EA Gothenburg. From November 2012 to January 2020, the studio was named Ghost Games, until the original name came back. ==== Former ==== * BioWare Montreal in Montreal, Canada; founded in March 2009, the studio merged into Motive Studio in August 2017. *BioWare San Francisco in San Francisco, California; founded as EA2D, the studio was renamed in August 2011 and closed in March 2013. * Bullfrog Productions in Guildford, England; acquired in January 1995, the studio closed in 2001. *Danger Close Games in Los Angeles, California; acquired in February 2000, the studio closed in June 2013. * EA Baltimore in Baltimore, Maryland; founded in 1998, the studio closed in 2002. * EA Black Box in Burnaby, Canada; acquired in June 2002 as Black Box Games, later rebranded as EA Black Box. The studio closed in April 2013. * EA Bright Light in Guildford, England; founded in 1995 as EA UK, the studio was renamed in 2008 and closed in October 2011. * EA Chicago in Hoffman Estates, Illinois; founded in February 2004, the studio closed in November 2007. * EA North Carolina in Morrisville, North Carolina; the studio closed in September 2013. * EA Pacific in Irvine, California; the studio was acquired in August 1998 as Westwood Pacific, the studio was renamed in 2002 and closed in 2003. * EA Phenomic in Ingelheim am Rhein, Germany; the studio was acquired in August 2006 and closed in July 2013. * EA Salt Lake in Salt Lake City, Utah; the studio was acquired in December 2006 and closed in April 2017. * EA Seattle in Seattle, Washington; the studio was acquired in January 1996 and closed in 2002. * Easy Studios in Stockholm, Sweden; the studio was founded in 2008 and closed in March 2015. * Codemasters Cheshire in Cheshire, England; merged with Criterion Games in May 2022. * Firemint in Melbourne, Australia; the studio was acquired in May 2011 and merged with Iron Monkey Studios to become Firemonkeys Studios in July 2012. *Hypnotix in Little Falls, New Jersey; acquired in July 2005, the studio was merged into EA Tiburon. * Iron Monkey Studios in Sydney, Australia; the studio was acquired in May 2011 and merged with Firemint to become Firemonkeys Studios in July 2012. * Industrial Toys in Pasadena, California; acquired in July 2018, shut down in January 2023. * Kesmai in Charlottesville, Virginia; the studio was acquired in 1999 and closed in 2001. * Mythic Entertainment in Fairfax, Virginia; acquired in July 2006 as EA Mythic, the studio became Mythic Entertainment in July 2008, then BioWare Mythic in June 2009 and again Mythic Entertainment in 2012. The studio closed in May 2014. * NuFX in Hoffman Estates, Illinois; the studio was acquired in February 2004 and closed in the same year. * Origin Systems in Austin, Texas; the studio was acquired in September 1992 and closed in February 2004. * Pandemic Studios in Los Angeles, California and Brisbane, Australia; the studio was acquired in October 2007 and closed in November 2009. * Playfish in London, England; the studio was acquired in 2009 and closed in June 2013. * Quicklime Games; closed in April 2013. * Uprise in Uppsala, Sweden; founded as Uprise and acquired in 2012 as ESN. From 2014, the studio was named Uprise again. It merged into DICE Stockholm in 2019. * Victory Games in Los Angeles, California; founded in February 2011 as BioWare Victory, the studio was renamed in November 2012 and closed in October 2013. * Visceral Games in Redwood City, California; founded in 1998 as EA Redwood Shores, the studio was renamed in 2009 and closed in October 2017. * Waystone Games in Los Angeles, California; the studio closed in November 2014. * Westwood Studios in Las Vegas, Nevada; the studio was acquired in August 1998 and closed in March 2003. === Labels === ==== EA Sports ==== First introduced in 1991 as the Electronic Arts Sports Network, before being renamed due to a trademark dispute with ESPN, EA Sports publishes all the sports games from EA, including FIFA Football, Madden NFL, Fight Night, NBA Live, NCAA Football, Cricket, NCAA March Madness, Tiger Woods PGA Tour, NHL, NASCAR and Rugby. In 2011, Forbes ranked EA Sports eighth on their list of most valuable sports brands, with a value of . ==== EA All Play ==== EA All Play is a mobile-oriented label that, since 2012, publishes digital titles like The Simpsons', Tetris, and Battlefield, as well as Hasbro board games like Scrabble. ==== EA Competitive Gaming Division ==== The EA Competitive Gaming Division (CGD), founded in 2015 by Peter Moore and currently headed by Todd Sitrin, is the group dedicated on enabling global eSports competitions on EA's biggest franchises including FIFA, Madden NFL, Battlefield and more. ==== SEED ==== The Search for Extraordinary Experiences Division (SEED) was revealed at the 2017 Electronic Entertainment Expo as a technology research division and incubator, using tools like deep learning and neural networks to bring in player experiences and other external factors to help them develop more immersive narratives and games. SEED has offices in Los Angeles and Stockholm. ==== Former labels ==== * EA Kids — A label for educational titles. In January 1995, EA sold the label to and in conjunction with Capital Cities/ABC formed the independent ABC/EA Home Software, which was later absorbed into Creative Wonders in that year's May. In October 1997, EA and ABC sold Creative Wonders to The Learning Company for $40 million. * EA Sports Big — A label used from 2000 to 2008 for arcade-styled extreme sports. * EA Sports Freestyle — A short-lived replacement for EA Sports Big used from 2008 to 2009, which focused exclusively on casual sports games, regardless of genre. The label was used for only three games before being retired. * Electronic Arts Studios * EA Games ==Partnership and initiatives== ===EA Partners program (1997–present)=== EA Partners co-publishing program was dedicated to publishing and distributing games developed by third-party developers. EA Partners began as EA Distribution, formed in 1997 and led by Tom Frisina, a former executive from Accolade and Three-Sixty who helped both companies find third-party developers as to provide publishing support for them. Frisina's early partners included Looking Glass Studios, MGM Interactive for the rights to the James Bond property, DreamWorks Interactive, and eventually DICE; in the latter two cases, these studios were acquired by EA as part of the EA DICE family. In 2003, EA's president John Riccitiello pushed for a renaming of the EA Distribution label, seeing the potential to bring in more independent developers and additional revenue streams. While they rebranded the label as EA Partners in 2003, Riccitiello left EA the following year, which disrupted the direction the label had been aiming to go. Oddworld Inhabitants, who had signed on with EA Partner for their next Oddworld games, found the situation difficult as EA Partners was reluctant to support games where they did not own the intellectual property rights and instead favored internal development. The situation with EA Partners switched gears in 2005 after EA and Valve signed an EA Partners deal for the physical distribution of The Orange Box; EA Partners realized it needed to be flexible to handle the different publishing opportunities presented to them. A similar breakthrough was reached with signing on Harmonix for the distribution of the Rock Band games, requiring them to work closely with MTV Games on the plastic instrument controllers necessary for the titles. A number of major partnerships were made over the next few years, including Namco Bandai, Crytek, Starbreeze Studios, id Software, Epic Games and People Can Fly, Double Fine Productions, Grasshopper Manufacture, Spicy Horse, and Realtime Worlds. While many of these partnerships proved successful, the division had two major marks on its name. It was associated with the situation around Kingdoms of Amalur: Reckoning developed by 38 Studios, which had been significantly backed by loans from taxpayer funds from the state of Rhode Island. Kingdoms failed to be commercially successful, and EA Partners pulled out of making a sequel, leaving 38 Studios in default of its loan payback to the state. Secondly, while The Secret World from Funcom launched as a subscription game, Funcom had to switch their monetization model to free-to-play to improve their revenues, which further affected EA Partners. Around April 2013, as part of a large 1000-employee layoff, many reporters claimed that EA Partners was also being shut down for its poor commercial performance, but the program remained active as the company refocused its efforts. The label remained dormant over the next several years, while Letts expanded on the EA Originals program, but following the move of EA Partners and EA Origins into the Strategic Growth group in August 2018, the label was revived on the March 2019 with a publishing deal with Velan Studios, formed from the former heads of Vicarious Visions. Notable publishing/distribution agreements include: * Alice: Madness Returns – Spicy Horse * APB – Realtime Worlds * Brütal Legend – Double Fine Productions * Bulletstorm – Epic Games * Crysis series – Crytek * DeathSpank – Hothead Games * Fuse – Insomniac Games * Hellgate: London – Flagship Studios * Kingdoms of Amalur: Reckoning – 38 Studios, Big Huge Games * Rock Band series – Harmonix and MTV Games * The Secret World – Funcom * Shadows of the Damned – Grasshopper Manufacture * Shank series – Klei Entertainment * Syndicate – Starbreeze Studios * Warp – Trapdoor === EA Originals label (2017–present) === EA Originals is a label within Electronic Arts own EA Partners program to help support independently developed video games. EA funds the money for development, and once it recoups that, all additional revenue goes to the partner studio that created the game. That studio also gets to keep the intellectual property rights for whatever it creates, and even has creative control over the project. The program was announced at EA's press event at the 2016 E3 Conference, and builds upon the success they had with Unravel from Coldwood Interactive in 2015. The first game to be supported under this program was Fe by Zoink, released in 2018. It was followed by A Way Out from Hazelight Studios, Unravel Two from Coldwood Interactive and Sea of Solitude from Jo-Mei Games. In 2019, during its EA Play event, EA teased three new titles. Among the games featured were Lost in Random from Zoink and an unnamed title from Hazelight Studios. It was also announced that Glowmade would be entering the initiative with a title called RustHeart. In June 2020, Hazelight Studios' untitled project was revealed as It Takes Two and was released the following year. In February 2023, Jeff Gamon, general manager of EA Partners, which oversees the Originals label, said the label will now invest on bigger games, although for those cases, the deal won't be as generous as the smaller games, for obvious reasons, as those are larger companies. Gamon said though, that the company still plans to release smaller and niche games and don't want to completely abandon its roots. List of EA Originals games Year Title Developer Platform(s) 2016 Unravel Coldwood Interactive Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One 2018 Fe Zoink Microsoft Windows, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Xbox One A Way Out Hazelight Studios Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One 2019 Unravel Two Coldwood Interactive Microsoft Windows, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Xbox One Sea of Solitude Jo-Mei Games 2020 Rocket Arena Final Strike Games Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One 2021 It Takes Two Hazelight Studios Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, Xbox Series X/S, Nintendo Switch Knockout City Velan Studios Microsoft Windows, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, Xbox Series X/S Lost in Random Zoink Microsoft Windows, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, Xbox Series X/S 2023 Wild Hearts Omega Force Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 5, Xbox Series X/S Immortals of Aveum Ascendant Studios TBA RustHeart Glowmade Untitled Surgent Studios game Surgent Studios ==Criticism and controversies== Since the mid-2010s, Electronic Arts has been in the center of numerous controversies involving acquisitions of companies and alleged anti-consumerist practices in their individual games, as well as lawsuits alleging EA's anti-competition when signing sports-related contracts. == Notes == ==References== ==Further reading== * * * * * ==External links== * Category:1982 establishments in California Category:Companies based in Redwood City, California Category:Companies listed on the Nasdaq Category:Entertainment companies based in California Category:Golden Joystick Award winners Category:Macintosh software companies Category:Multinational companies headquartered in the United States Category:Public Investment Fund Category:Software companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area Category:Video game companies based in California Category:Video game companies established in 1982 Category:Video game companies of the United States Category:Video game development companies Category:Video game publishers Category:Wargame companies |
Edmund Patrick Cahill (born January 15, 1978)Trongo, Rachel (January 15, 2013). "Happy Birthday, Eddie Cahill!". CSI Files. Archived from the original on February 4, 2013. Retrieved October 26, 2019. is an American actor known for portraying "Miracle on Ice" goalie Jim Craig in the 2004 film Miracle, and for playing the roles of Tag Jones in Friends and Detective Don Flack in CSI: NY. He has had numerous roles in television, films, and theater. His most recent starring role was in 2016 as District Attorney Conner Wallace in Conviction. ==Early life== Cahill was born in New York City, New York. He is the middle of three children with an older and a younger sister. He is of Irish descent from his father, a stockbroker, and of Italian descent from his mother, an elementary school teacher.Quinn, Tony (Winter 2001). "Nice Guy Eddie". Irish Connections. Archived from the original on January 7, 2009. Retrieved March 28, 2016.Staff (January 15, 2002). "Eddie Cahill's Glory Days". TeenTelevision. Archived from the original on July 21, 2011. Retrieved March 29, 2015. Cahill graduated from Byram Hills High School in Armonk, New York in 1996.Leeds, Sarene (April 2002). "I went to high school with a celeb!". Twist. Archived from the original on October 2, 2015. Retrieved December 25, 2015. He attended Skidmore College in Saratoga Springs, New YorkSkidmore College Theater actors. Skidmore College. Retrieved February 27, 2017. and the Atlantic Theater Acting School,"Atlantic Acting School alumni". Atlantic Theater Company. Archived from the original on July 25, 2011. Retrieved December 27, 2020. part of the New York University Tisch School of the Arts."Atlantic Theater Company Acting School". New York University Tisch School of the Arts. Retrieved November 26, 2015. ==Career== In 2000 Cahill performed in Nicky Silver's Off-Broadway production of The Altruists.Brantley, Ben (March 7, 2000). "But Enough About You: Let's Talk About Me". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 9, 2014. Retrieved August 31, 2022. He was noticed by Sarah Jessica ParkerBates, Andy; Cahill, Eddie (May 4, 2017). "Ep 02 Eddie Cahill" (Podcast). The Optimal U. Event occurs at 19:30. Retrieved August 27, 2020. and shortly after he made several television guest- star appearances including Sex and the City, Felicity, and Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Cahill was also a recurring guest-star in the NBC sitcom Friends as Rachel's young assistant and boyfriend, Tag Jones. In 2002, he starred in a short-lived WB drama, Glory Days.Barker, Lynn (January 30, 2002). "Eddie Cahill's Glory Days". TeenTelevision. Archived from the original on October 16, 2009. Retrieved March 29, 2015. In the 2004 hockey movie Miracle, Cahill had the chance to play his boyhood hero, goalie Jim Craig.Murray, Rebecca (January 26, 2004). "Interview with Eddie Cahill and Jim Craig". About.com. Archived from the original on March 10, 2011. Retrieved December 26, 2017. He had never played the goaltender position prior to the movie,Staff (January 30, 2004). "Miracle (2004) – About the Production". HollywoodJesus.com. Archived from the original on November 7, 2007. Retrieved October 31, 2012. so most of the game-action sequences of Craig were filmed with former NHL goalie Bill Ranford doubling for Cahill, although Cahill did shoot several key sequences from within goal.Merron, Jeff (February 12, 2004). "Reel Life: Miracle rings true...". ESPN.com. Archived from the original on March 6, 2004. Retrieved April 25, 2015. thumb|upright|Cahill in 2005 When CBS decided in 2004 to create a third CSI series, CSI: NY, to add to its franchise, Cahill was hired to play the cocky, snarky homicide detective, Don Flack, who backs up the team of CSIs and who gets some of the best lines.Huntley, Kristine (August 8, 2005). "Interview with Eddie Cahill". CSI Files. Retrieved May 14, 2010.Cairns, Bryan (May 2005). "Flack's Jacket". Cult Times. Archived from the original on September 30, 2015. Retrieved October 11, 2015. The show ran for nine seasons and he was in all 197 episodes. Cahill went back to the Atlantic Theater Company in June 2011 and performed at the conclusion of their 25th Anniversary season.Saunders, Shane (November 4, 2011). "Interview: Eddie Cahill". CSI Files. Retrieved November 4, 2011. He was in Tom Donaghy's one-act play, I Need a Quote, about "a hilarious telephone conversation between a single mother and a home insurance salesman."Sholiton, Robert (June 22, 2011). "10X25 – Series C". Bob's Theater Blog. Retrieved November 4, 2011. In the summer of 2012 Cahill performed in David Adjmi's play, 3C, at the Rattlestick Playwrights Theater in New York City.Gordon, David (May 8, 2012). "Photo Flash: Eddie Cahill, Anna Chlumsky, Jake Silbermann and Cast of 3C Meet the Press". TheaterMania. Retrieved May 10, 2012. He played "annoying neighbor Terry, a swinging bachelor true to the era, who unlike everyone else in this play, has no deep feelings at all."Farrar, Jennifer (June 21, 2012). "3C Review: If Chekhov Had Imagined Three's Company". The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on January 25, 2013. Retrieved March 11, 2022. In 2014 Cahill was cast as a main character starting in the second season of the CBS summer drama Under the Dome. He played Sam Verdreaux, a former EMT and reclusive brother-in-law to "Big Jim" Rennie.Goldberg, Lesley (February 4, 2014). "Under the Dome Adds CSI: NY Star, Newcomer as Regulars for Season Two". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved February 5, 2014. The series was canceled after three seasons.Hibberd, James (August 31, 2015). "Under the Dome to end this season". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved September 1, 2015. Cahill was cast as the male lead in the 2016 ABC legal drama Conviction. He played New York County District Attorney Conner Wallace, who creates the Conviction Integrity Unit, which is set up to re-examine cases where there is a credible suspicion of wrongful conviction."Conviction – Conner Wallace". ABC. Archived from the original on September 2, 2019. Retrieved October 26, 2019. The series was canceled after one season.Andreeva, Nellie (May 11, 2017). "Imaginary Mary Among Several Freshman Series Canceled By ABC". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved May 12, 2017. In 2019 Cahill played a charismatic criminal in a three-part story arc in CBS's NCIS: New Orleans. Among other crimes he was involved in the death of NCIS Special Agent Christopher Lasalle.Jacobs, Meredith (November 11, 2019). "Eddie Barrett Returns as NCIS: New Orleans Refocuses on Lasalle's Case". TV Insider. Retrieved November 27, 2019. In this series, he reunited with his former CSI: NY co-star, Vanessa Ferlito. ==Personal life== Cahill married his longtime girlfriend Nikki Uberti in Los Angeles on July 12, 2009.Staff (July 16, 2009). "CSI: NY Star Eddie Cahill Marries Nikki Uberti". Celebrity Bride Guide. Archived from the original on March 12, 2012. Retrieved August 30, 2013. Uberti is a makeup artist,"Nikki Uberti Makeup". Retrieved September 22, 2010. former model,"Nikki Uberti". Fashion Model Directory. Retrieved August 25, 2010. and ex-wife of photographer Terry Richardson.Garnett, Daisy (August 27, 2001). "Sure Shot". New York. Retrieved December 27, 2018. The couple have a son born in 2009.thenikkicahill (November 24, 2014). "Five years ago today, this guy came into my life". Instagram. Archived from the original on December 16, 2015. Retrieved November 24, 2014. On his right shoulder Cahill has a tattoo of his wife's name in a heart with an arrow through it and a swallow on top.Huntley, Kristine (August 9, 2006). "Interview with Eddie Cahill". CSI Files. Retrieved April 22, 2011. Cahill is an avid New York Rangers hockey fan and wrote an NHL Celeb Blog for three seasons.Cahill, Eddie (April 15, 2009). "Rangers look to Capitalize". NHL Celeb Blogs. Retrieved November 3, 2011.Amber, David (May 1, 2007). "Cahill tells us why Rangers fans are rare NHL breed". ESPN.com. Retrieved April 22, 2011. == Filmography == Year Title Role Notes Stage 1999 Gramercy Park is Closed to the Public Dex Powerhouse Theater"Gramercy Park is Closed to the Public". Sundance Institute. Retrieved November 18, 2015."Toni Ann Johnson Bio". ToniAnnJohnson.com. Retrieved September 12, 2015. 2000 The Altruists Lance Vineyard Theatre"The Altruists". Dramatists Play Service. Retrieved November 18, 2015.Sommer, Elyse (March 2, 2000). "The Altruists review". CurtainUp. Retrieved April 28, 2022. 2011 I Need a Quote Salesman Atlantic Theater CompanyStaff (June 10, 2011). "Atlantic Theater Company Concludes Season With 10X25, 6/15–26". BroadwayWorld. Retrieved February 5, 2013. 2012 3C Terry Rattlestick Playwrights TheaterStaff (January 3, 2012). "3C – Rattlestick Playwrights Theater Auditions". BroadwayWorld. Retrieved November 18, 2015.Bittencourt, Ela (June 23, 2012). "Dystopian Days of Disco: David Adjmi's 3C". Slant Magazine. Retrieved July 29, 2014. 2019 Nassim n/a New York City CenterClement, Olivia (March 21, 2019). "Carrie Coon, Guillermo Diaz, Marin Ireland, More Join the Lineup for Off-Broadway's Nassim". Playbill. Retrieved March 24, 2019.Gardner, Lyn (August 9, 2017). "Nassim review – language and life lessons from a vivid Iranian voice". The Guardian. Retrieved March 24, 2019. 2019 The Hard Problem Jerry Krohl James Bridges TheaterBWW News Desk (November 4, 2019). "L.A. Theatre Works Records The Hard Problem By Tom Stoppard At UCLA". BroadwayWorld. Retrieved November 16, 2019.Cahill, Eddie (November 11, 2019). "The Hard Problem by Tom Stoppard". Twitter. Archived from the original on November 12, 2019. Retrieved November 16, 2019. Television 2000 Sex and the City Sean Episode 3.04 "Boy, Girl, Boy, Girl..." 2000–2001 Friends Tag Jones Episodes 7.04 "The One with Rachel's Assistant" 7.05 "The One with the Engagement Picture" 7.08 "The One Where Chandler Doesn't Like Dogs" 7.09 "The One with All the Candy" 7.12 "The One Where They're Up All Night" 7.14 "The One Where They All Turn Thirty" 8.02 "The One with the Red Sweater" 2000 Charmed Sean Episode 3.05 "Sight Unseen" 2000 Felicity James Episodes 3.09 "James and the Giant Piece" 3.10 "Let's Get It On" aka "Final Touches" 3.11 "And to All a Good Night" 2001 Law & Order: Special Victims Unit Tommy Dowd Episode 2.17 "Folly" 2002 Glory Days Mike Dolan All 9 episodes 2002 Haunted Nicholas Trenton Episodes 1.07 "A Three-Hour Tour" 1.09 "Simon Redux" 2002 Dawson's Creek Max Winter Episode 6.09 "Everything Put Together Falls Apart" 2004–2013 CSI: NY Don Flack All 197 episodes 2014–2015 Under the Dome Sam Verdreaux 26 episodes (2.01–3.13) 2016–2017 Conviction Conner Wallace All 13 episodes 2018 Hawaii Five-0 Carson Rodes Episode 9.06 "Aia i Hi'ikua; i Hi'ialo" ("Is Borne on the Back; Is Borne in the Arms") 2019 L.A.'s Finest Michael Alber Episodes 1.12 "Armageddon" 1.13 "Bad Girls" 2019 NCIS: New Orleans Eddie Barrett Episodes 6.06 "Matthew 5:9" 6.09 "Convicted" 6.10 "Requital" 2021 Fantasy Island Jake / James Episodes 1.09 "Welcome to the Snow Globe, Part One" 1.10 "Welcome to the Snow Globe, Part Two" 2023 Blue Bloods Chief Paul Gallagher Episode 13.10 "Fake It 'Til You Make It" Film 2004 Miracle Jim Craig Bill Ranford doubled for most of the on-ice action. 2005 Lords of Dogtown Larry Gordon 2008 This Is Not a Test Robert Forte Cahill worked with CSI: NY castmates Hill Harper and Carmine Giovinazzo. 2008 The Narrows Nicky Shades Cahill was burned when a special effect went wrong.Velle, François (Director); Blackington, Tatiana (Screenwriter) (2009). "Audio commentary of The Narrows" (DVD). Image Entertainment. Event occurs at 1:10:15. 2019 Sextpert Advice Sydney Short filmStaff (September 20, 2019). "Sextpert Advice". Sherman Oaks Film Festival. Retrieved May 26, 2020.Raphael, Tobit (2019). "Sextpert Advice Trailer". Vimeo. Retrieved May 26, 2020. Other 2004 The Making of "Miracle" Himself Video short documentaryZach B. 'Miracle (Widescreen) review". DVDlaunch.com. Archived from the original on March 7, 2010. Retrieved April 28, 2022.Berenbaum, Saul (June 17, 2009). "Miracle DVD review". JustPressPlay. Archived from the original on March 11, 2012. Retrieved December 30, 2010. 2004 From Hockey to Hollywood: Actors' Journeys Himself Video short documentaryThe Shootin Surgeon (October 6, 2004). "Miracle". JoBlo.com. Archived from the original on November 7, 2012. Retrieved November 3, 2018.Bonanno, Luke (May 12, 2004). "Miracle DVD Review". DVDizzy. Archived from the original on July 1, 2011. Retrieved May 28, 2022. 2008 CSI: NY – The Game Don Flack Video game (voice only)Saltzman, Marc (April 1, 2009). "CSI: NY Review". GameZebo. Retrieved June 29, 2014. ==References== ==External links== * *Eddie Cahill at the Internet Off-Broadway Database Category:1978 births Category:20th-century American male actors Category:21st-century American male actors Category:American male film actors Category:American male stage actors Category:American male television actors Category:American male video game actors Category:American people of Irish descent Category:American people of Italian descent Category:Living people Category:Male actors from New York City Category:People from Armonk, New York Category:Skidmore College alumni Category:Tisch School of the Arts alumni |
Big Little Lies is an American drama television series based on the 2014 novel of the same name by Liane Moriarty. Created and written by David E. Kelley, it aired on HBO from February 19, 2017, to July 21, 2019, encompassing 14 episodes and two seasons. Originally billed as a miniseries, Jean-Marc Vallée directed the first season, while Andrea Arnold directed the second season. Big Little Lies stars Reese Witherspoon, Nicole Kidman, Shailene Woodley, Laura Dern, and Zoë Kravitz as five women in Monterey, California, who become embroiled in a murder investigation. Alexander Skarsgård, Adam Scott, James Tupper and Jeffrey Nordling also feature in supporting roles. For the second season, Meryl Streep joined the main cast while Kathryn Newton and Iain Armitage were upgraded following their appearances in recurring capacities. The series has received critical acclaim, particularly for its writing, directing, acting, production values, cinematography and soundtrack. The first season received 16 Primetime Emmy Award nominations and won eight, including Outstanding Limited Series, a directing award for Vallée, and acting awards for Kidman, Skarsgård, and Dern. The trio also won Golden Globe Awards in addition to a Best Miniseries or Television Film win for the series. Kidman and Skarsgård also received Screen Actors Guild Awards for their performances. == Cast and characters == === Main === * Reese Witherspoon as Madeline Mackenzie * Nicole Kidman as Celeste Wright * Shailene Woodley as Jane Chapman * Alexander Skarsgård as Perry Wright, Celeste's husband * Adam Scott as Ed Mackenzie, Madeline's husband * Zoë Kravitz as Bonnie Carlson, Nathan's wife * James Tupper as Nathan Carlson, Madeline's ex-husband and Bonnie's husband * Jeffrey Nordling as Gordon Klein, Renata's husband * Laura Dern as Renata Klein * Kathryn Newton as Abigail Carlson, Madeline and Nathan's daughter (season 2; recurring, season 1) * Iain Armitage as Ziggy Chapman, Jane's son (season 2; recurring, season 1) * Meryl Streep as Mary Louise Wright, Perry's mother (season 2) === Recurring === ==== Introduced in season 1 ==== * Darby Camp as Chloe Adaline Mackenzie, Madeline and Ed's daughter * Cameron and Nicholas Crovetti as Josh and Max Wright, Celeste and Perry's sons * Chloe Coleman as Skye Carlson, Bonnie and Nathan's daughter * Ivy George as Amabella Klein, Renata and Gordon's daughter * Larry Sullivan as Oren Berg, Bernard's husband * Merrin Dungey as Detective Adrienne Quinlan * Santiago Cabrera as Joseph Bachman, a theater director * Kelen Coleman as Harper Stimson, an Otter Bay Elementary mother * P. J. Byrne as Warren Nippal, the principal of Otter Bay Elementary * Gia Carides as Melissa, an Otter Bay Elementary mother * Robin Weigert as Dr. Amanda Reisman, Perry and Celeste's therapist * Larry Bates as Stu, an Otter Bay Elementary father * Nelly Buchet as Juliette, Renata and Gordon's nanny * Sarah Sokolovic as Tori Bachman, Joseph's wife * Kathreen Khavari as Samantha, an Otter Bay Elementary mother (season 1) * David Monahan as Bernard, Oren's husband (season 1) * Sarah Baker as Thea Cunningham, an Otter Bay Elementary mother (season 1) * Sarah Burns as Gabrielle, an Otter Bay Elementary mother (season 1) * Hong Chau as Jackie, an Otter Bay Elementary mother (season 1) * Joseph Cross as Tom, Madeline and Celeste's favorite café owner (season 1) * Virginia Kull as Emily Barnes, the children's elementary-school teacher (season 1) ==== Introduced in season 2 ==== * Douglas Smith as Corey Brockfield, Jane's love interest and co-worker at Monterey Bay Aquarium * Crystal R. Fox as Elizabeth Howard, Bonnie's mother * Martin Donovan as Martin Howard, Bonnie's father * Denis O'Hare as Ira Farber, Mary Louise's lawyer * Becky Ann Baker as Marylin Cipriani, the judge in Celeste and Mary Louise's custody case * Mo McRae as Michael Perkins, a new second-grade teacher at Otter Bay Elementary * Poorna Jagannathan as Katie Richmond, Celeste's lawyer ==Episodes== ===Season 1 (2017)=== ===Season 2 (2019)=== ==Production== ===Development=== Actresses and producers Nicole Kidman and Reese Witherspoon were announced to have optioned the screen rights to Liane Moriarty's novel Big Little Lies on August 6, 2014, less than a month after the book's publication. The two of them were expected to develop the project as a film in which they would star and act as executive producers, sharing the latter duty with Bruna Papandrea and Per Saari; Moriarty was also expected to produce. In November of that year, the actresses announced the format's shift into that of a limited-run television series written by David E. Kelley. In May 2015, HBO gave the series a production order and Kelley was announced to join the team of executive producers. That October, Jean-Marc Vallée was reportedly in talks with the project's team to handle directing of the first episode and potentially others. His involvement with all seven episodes was confirmed almost two months later. The series' release date of February 19, 2017, was unveiled in November 2016. Originally conceived and billed as a miniseries, a potential new season of Big Little Lies was discussed by the series' audience and the media. In July 2017, two weeks after the project and its cast and crew received several nominations for the 69th ceremony of the Primetime Emmy Awards, Witherspoon stated: "As of right now, I think it's pretty whole. I feel really good about where it is, and if this is all it ever was, it's a beautiful thing we all accomplished together". However, in the wake of the nominations, HBO revealed that a second season was possible, and that Moriarty had been asked to write a story for it. During a April 2017 interview, Vallée came out strongly against the idea of producing a second season: "There's no reason to make a season two. That was meant to be a one-time deal, and it's finishing in a way where it's for the audience to imagine what can happen. If we do a season two, we'll break that beautiful thing and spoil it." When he and the series won several accolades at the 69th ceremony of the Primetime Emmy Awards, the director changed his mind: "It'd be great to reunite the team and to do it. Are we going to be able to do it, altogether? I wish." In December 2017, HBO officially renewed the series for a seven-episode second season to be written by Kelley, directed by Andrea Arnold, based on a new novella by Moriarty, and with Vallée remaining an executive producer. The announcement of the second season, and specifically its timing, enraged producers of rival shows that were competing for award nominations in the limited series categories, particularly since it was made after voting for the Critics' Choice Television Award and Golden Globe Award were over. Due to this, the Producers Guild of America restarted voting for the 2018 ceremony of their award show, reclassifying the show from a limited series to a drama series. The second season premiered on June 9, 2019. ====Controversy==== In July 2019, it was reported by IndieWire that director Andrea Arnold lost creative control after filming had completed, and it was given to season 1 director Jean-Marc Vallée in an attempt to unify the style between the seasons. Arnold was initially promised by HBO that the show would be done in her vision, including post-production, and was unaware that Vallée would edit the footage she had shot. Once Vallée completed his work on Sharp Objects, he took over the editing process along with his own editorial team in Montreal. HBO also ordered 17 more days of additional photography, to be filmed by Arnold, but overseen by Vallée. Significant reworking of the episodes also took place, where episodes were shortened. In response, HBO programming president Casey Bloys stated, "There's a lot of misinformation around that subject" and "the director typically does not have final creative control". Bloys clarified that Vallée came back to "hone the episodes" after being asked by the entire producing team, including Reese Witherspoon and Nicole Kidman, and that they were clear with Arnold about how the process would work from the start. ===Casting=== Alongside the initial announcement of the production's development, Kidman and Witherspoon were reported to also star in the adaptation. In December 2015, Shailene Woodley, Adam Scott, Laura Dern, and Zoë Kravitz were announced to have been cast in lead roles, with Kathryn Newton in a recurring one. The following month, Alexander Skarsgård, James Tupper, and Jeffrey Nordling joined the starring cast, while Santiago Cabrera, P. J. Byrne, Kelen Coleman, Sarah Burns, Darby Camp, Cameron and Nicholas Crovetti, Ivy George, Chloe Coleman, Virginia Kull, Sarah Baker, Kathreen Khavari, Larry Bates, Hong Chau, Gia Carides, Merrin Dungey, Larry Sullivan, David Monahan, and Iain Armitage landed supporting roles. The latter one was cast in the role of Woodley's character's son. Following the confirmation of a sophomore season, Meryl Streep was announced in January 2018 to have joined the starring cast in the role of Skarsgård's character's mother. In February, Woodley, Dern, Kravitz, Scott, Tupper, Nordling and Armitage were confirmed to be returning. That March, Douglas Smith was cast in a recurring role. In April, it was reported that Crystal Fox joined the main cast alongside returners Newton and Sokolovic, while Mo McRae and Martin Donovan joined the recurring cast alongside returners Weigert and Dungey. However, only Newton received main billing; Fox and Sokolovic's appearances were credited as recurring. Byrne was announced alongside newcomer Poorna Jagannathan in May, followed by Denis O'Hare in June. ===Filming=== For the first season, Vallée shot the series with an Arri Alexa digital camera and preferred using natural lighting and handheld shooting style to allow actors to move freely around the set. Several scenes were filmed on location in the Monterey Peninsula, Big Sur, Pacific Grove, and Carmel Highlands. ===Soundtrack=== ABKCO Records released soundtracks for the first and second seasons on March 31, 2017, and July 19, 2019, respectively. ==Release== ===Broadcast=== On February 7, 2017, the series held its official premiere at the TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles, California. Internationally, the series premiered on February 20, 2017, in Australia on Showcase, and on March 13, 2017, in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky Atlantic. ===Marketing=== On October 16, 2016, HBO released the first teaser trailer for the series. On December 5, 2016, HBO released a full length trailer for the series. ===Home media=== The first season was released on Blu-ray and DVD on August 1, 2017. The second season was released on January 7, 2020, on DVD and manufacture-on- demand Blu-ray by Warner Home Entertainment and Warner Archive Collection respectively. ==Reception== ===Critical response=== On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the first season holds a 93% "certified fresh" rating with an average rating of 8 out of 10 based on 199 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Bitingly funny and highly addictive, Big Little Lies is a twisty, thrilling, enlightening ride led by a first-rate cast." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the first season a score of 75 out of 100, based on 42 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Time magazine listed Big Little Lies as one of its top ten television shows of 2017. On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season holds an 86% "certified fresh" rating with an average rating of 7.7 out of 10 based on 265 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Gorgeous and gripping, Big Little Lies second season doubles down on the dark humor and gives its impressive cast even more juicy drama to chew on – especially an excellent Meryl Streep." On Metacritic, the season has a score of 82 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Ben Travers of IndieWire wrote a positive review giving it a "B+" grade, concluding that Season 2 is a "wholly different beast" and "doesn't feel like a necessary addition so much as an enjoyable epilogue", yet it is "still very, very good". ===Ratings=== ====Season 1==== ====Season 2==== ===Accolades=== Accolades for Big Little Lies Year Award Category Nominee(s) Result Season 1 2017 American Film Institute Awards Top 10 TV Programs of the Year Big Little Lies Golden Globe Awards Best Miniseries or Television Film Big Little Lies Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film Nicole Kidman Reese Witherspoon Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film Alexander Skarsgård Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film Laura Dern Shailene Woodley Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Limited Series David E. Kelley, Jean-Marc Vallée, Reese Witherspoon, Bruna Papandrea, Nicole Kidman, Per Saari, Gregg Fienberg, Nathan Ross and Barbara A. Hall Outstanding Directing for a Limited Series, Movie or Dramatic Special Jean-Marc Vallée Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie Nicole Kidman Reese Witherspoon Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or Movie Alexander Skarsgård Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or Movie Laura Dern Shailene Woodley Outstanding Writing for a Limited Series, Movie or Dramatic Special David E. Kelley Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards Outstanding Casting for a Limited Series, Movie or Special David Rubin Outstanding Cinematography for a Limited Series or Movie Yves Bélanger Outstanding Contemporary Costumes for a Series, Limited Series or Movie Alix Friedberg, Risa Garcia and Patricia McLaughlin Outstanding Hairstyling for a Limited Series or Movie Michelle Ceglia, Nickole C. Jones, Lona Vigi, Frances Mathias and Jocelyn Mulhern Outstanding Makeup for a Limited Series or Movie (Non- Prosthetic) Steve Artmont, Nicole Artmont, Angela Levin, Molly R Stern and Claudia Humburg Outstanding Music Supervision Susan Jacobs Outstanding Single- Camera Picture Editing for a Limited Series or Movie Veronique Barbe, David Berman, Justin LaChance, Maxime Lahaie, Sylvain Lebel and Jim Vega Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Limited Series or Movie Gavin Fernandes, Louis Gignac and Brendan Beebe TCA Awards Program of the Year Big Little Lies Outstanding Achievement in Movies, Miniseries and Specials Big Little Lies Individual Achievement in Drama Nicole Kidman 2018 ACE Eddie Awards Best Edited Drama Series for Non-Commercial Television David Berman Art Directors Guild Awards Television Movie or Limited Series John Paino (for "Somebody's Dead", "Living the Dream", "You Get What You Need") British Academy Television Awards Best International Programme Big Little Lies Cinema Audio Society Awards Outstanding Achievement in Sound Mixing for a Television Movie or Mini-Series Brendan Beebe, Gavin Fernandes and Louis Gignac (for "You Get What You Need") Costume Designers Guild Awards Excellence in Contemporary Television Series Alix Friedberg Critics' Choice Television Awards Best Limited Series Big Little Lies Best Actress in a Movie Made for TV or Limited Series Nicole Kidman Reese Witherspoon Best Supporting Actor in a Movie Made for TV or Limited Series Alexander Skarsgård Best Supporting Actress in a Movie Made for TV or Limited Series Laura Dern Location Managers Guild Awards Outstanding Locations in Contemporary Television Greg Alpert Producers Guild of America Awards Norman Felton Award for Outstanding Producer of Episodic Television, Drama Big Little Lies Satellite Awards Best Miniseries Big Little Lies Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film Nicole Kidman Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film Alexander Skarsgård Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film Laura Dern Shailene Woodley Screen Actors Guild Awards Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Television Movie or Limited Series Alexander Skarsgård Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Television Movie or Limited Series Laura Dern Nicole Kidman Reese Witherspoon Writers Guild of America Awards Long Form – Adapted David E. Kelley USC Scripter Awards Best Adapted TV Screenplay David E. Kelley and Liane Moriarty Season 2 2019 Satellite Awards Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or TV Film Meryl Streep 2020 Art Directors Guild Awards One-Hour Contemporary Single-Camera Series John Paino (for "What Have They Done?", "The Bad Mother" & "I Want to Know") Black Reel Television Awards Outstanding Supporting Actress, Drama Series Zoë Kravitz Costume Designers Guild Awards Excellence in Contemporary Television Alix Friedberg (for "She Knows") Critics' Choice Television Awards Best Actress in a Drama Series Nicole Kidman Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Series Laura Dern Meryl Streep Golden Globe Awards Best Television Series – Drama Big Little Lies Best Actress – Television Series Drama Nicole Kidman Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film Meryl Streep Make- Up Artists and Hair Stylists Guilds Best Television Series, Mini-Series or New Media Series – Best Contemporary Make-Up Michelle Radow and Erin Good- Rosenmann Best Television Series, Mini-Series or New Media Series – Contemporary Hair Styling Jose Zamora, Lorena Zamora and Lona Vigi Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series Laura Dern (for "Tell-Tale Hearts") Meryl Streep (for "I Want to Know") Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards Outstanding Casting for a Drama Series David Rubin Outstanding Contemporary Makeup (Non-Prosthetic) Michelle Radow, Erin Rosenmann, Karen Rentrop, Molly R. Stern, Angela Levin, Simone Almekias-Siegl, Miho Suzuki and Claudia Humburg (for "She Knows") Outstanding Production Design for a Narrative Contemporary Program (One Hour or More) John Paino, Austin Gorg and Amy Wells (for "What Have They Done?", "The Bad Mother", "I Want to Know") Producers Guild of America Awards Norman Felton Award for Outstanding Producer of Episodic Television, Drama Big Little Lies Screen Actors Guild Awards Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series Iain Armitage, Darby Camp, Chloe Coleman, Cameron Crovetti, Nicholas Crovetti, Laura Dern, Martin Donovan, Merrin Dungey, Crystal Fox, Ivy George, Nicole Kidman, Zoë Kravitz, Kathryn Newton, Jeffrey Nordling, Denis O'Hare, Adam Scott, Alexander Skarsgård, Douglas Smith, Meryl Streep, James Tupper, Robin Weigert, Reese Witherspoon and Shailene Woodley == Future == HBO president Casey Bloys said a third season of the show was "not realistic" due to scheduling the show's actors, but mentioned that the network is more than willing to greenlight it if the cast is able to work out their schedules. In October 2020, Nicole Kidman revealed during a press interview for The Undoing that author Liane Moriarty is writing the plot for a potential third season and that the cast and crew are excited to reunite for it. In a November 2022 interview with GQ, Zoë Kravitz expressed doubt that the series would return for a third season because of the death of director Jean-Marc Vallée. ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * * Category:2010s American drama television series Category:2010s American mystery television series Category:2017 American television series debuts Category:2019 American television series endings Category:Adultery in television Category:Best Miniseries or Television Movie Golden Globe winners Category:Domestic violence in television Category:English-language television shows Category:HBO original programming Category:Monterey, California in fiction Category:Nonlinear narrative television series Category:Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Miniseries winners Category:Primetime Emmy Award-winning television series Category:Rape in television Category:Television controversies in the United States Category:Television shows based on Australian novels Category:Television series by Home Box Office Category:Television series created by David E. Kelley Category:Television shows filmed in California Category:Television shows set in California Category:Infidelity in television |
"Part of Me" is a song by American singer Katy Perry, released as the lead single from Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection. It was written by Perry and Bonnie McKee, with production and additional writing by Dr. Luke, Max Martin, and Cirkut. The song was not included on the original edition of Teenage Dream because Perry felt that it did not fit the composition of the album. A demo of the song leaked online in late 2010, amid speculation that the lyrics were directed to the singer's ex-boyfriend Travie McCoy. "Part of Me" was re-worked and officially released on February 13, 2012, through Capitol Records with artwork by art director Gavin Taylor and photography by Mary Ellen Matthews. A dance-pop and power pop song with a distinctive house beat, it has been compared to Perry's 2010 singles "Firework" and "California Gurls". Its lyrics describe a female protagonist who declares herself as unbreakable and strong following a break-up. Many critics theorized that the lyrics addressed Perry's divorce from British comedian, media personality and actor Russell Brand, although Perry stated it was not about him since it was written in early 2010. "Part of Me" was a commercial success. It was the twentieth song to debut at number one on the Billboard Hot 100, Perry's seventh number-one single on the chart, and her ninth consecutive number-one single on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart. Outside of the United States, "Part of Me" topped the charts in Bulgaria, Canada, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom, and has been certified Triple Platinum in Australia, Canada, and the United States. Marketing campaigns for Adidas and The Sims 3: Showtime have featured it. An accompanying music video was filmed at the United States Marine Corps' Camp Pendleton in Oceanside, California. The video depicts Perry enlisting in the marines following a break-up. It garnered generally positive reviews for Perry's "Girl power" message but drew criticism from feminist author Naomi Wolf, who denounced it as military propaganda. Perry debuted the first televised performance of song on at the 54th Grammy Awards and has also performed the song at the ECHO Awards, the 2012 Kids' Choice Awards, and American Idol. ==Background and release== "Part of Me" was written by Perry herself, Dr. Luke, Brian E. Smith, Bonnie McKee, and Max Martin during the 2010 Teenage Dream writing sessions, which also produced the Hot 100 number-one singles "California Gurls", "Teenage Dream" and "Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)." Perry and McKee had been casual friends prior to Perry's request for her help with a song that Perry had been writing called "Part of Me". According to Rolling Stone, McKee stayed up all night writing the lyrics. When Perry was presented the song, she shouted "We're buying you a car!" by the time she heard the third line. Perry recorded a demo of the track that leaked in full on December 30, 2010. The song was rumored to be a leftover cut from her Teenage Dream recording sessions, and fans speculated that the track might be included in an as-yet-unconfirmed re-release of the LP. This re-release was confirmed in January 2012, when Perry announced through her official website that the album would contain all twelve songs from the original album, plus three new songs and a remix, and would be released on March 26, 2012. Perry's press release stated: "This is the complete story of Teenage Dream. It was an incredible honor to tie the King of Pop's Billboard Hot 100 record, but I'm moving forward and had a few things left to get off my chest. So this is the complete special edition of my album for my fans." On February 13, 2012, "Part of Me" received an official release as the lead single from the album's re-release. Perry had planned all along to release the song on the deluxe edition of the album rather than the original, as it did not fit that album's composition. On February 11, two days before its worldwide premiere, the song was leaked for a second time with a reworked production and slightly changed lyrics. "Part of Me" was released to most iTunes stores worldwide on February 18, 2012, following her performance at the 54th Grammy Awards."Part of Me" was released to most iTunes stores worldwide following Perry's performance at the 54th Annual Grammy Awards on February 13, 2012: * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * In the United States, "Part of Me" was sent to contemporary radio playlists on February 21, 2012. The song was released in England, Scotland, Wales, France, and Ireland on March 18, 2012 under the digital download and CD single formats. Perry revealed via Twitter that all profits raised from the sales of the single would be donated to MusiCares. The photograph by Mary Ellen Matthews that was used on the single cover was part of a photographic essay for Perry's appearance in episode 710 of the television program Saturday Night Live. ==Composition and lyrical interpretation== "Part of Me" is a dance-pop and power pop song set to a house beat. It is composed in the key of F major and set in a 4/4 time signature at a tempo of 130 beats per minute. The melody spans the tonal range of D4 to D5, while the music follows the chord progression of Dm–F–B♭–C and switches to a chord progression of C–Dm–F–C–Dm–F–C–Dm–F–C during the bridge. Production was done by Perry's frequent collaborator, Dr. Luke. The song begins with Perry's somber and emotional delivery of the line, "Days like this I want to drive away/ Pack my bags and watch your shadow fade." At the bridge, the beat amplifies and Perry's lyrics become more aggressive as she commands "Now Look at Me!", signalling to her ex that she is still strong, regardless of what he tries to do to bring her down. The beat reaches a peak at the chorus, and Perry's tone and the song's lyrics become more aggressive and prominent as she sings, "This is the Part of me that you're never gonna ever take away from me." As the song continues, Perry's lyrics become strong and empowered: "So you can keep the diamond ring/ It don't mean nothing anyway/ In fact you can keep everything Yeah/ Yeah Except for me". Perry repeats the ending chorus as the beat fades. James Dinh of MTV noted that "the pop star appears strong, bold and just a tad resentful after a breakup" on the track. His analysis of the lyrics observed that "The singer declares herself unbreakable after a breakup, evident in lines such as "Days like this I want to drive away/ Pack my bags and watch your shadow fade/ 'Cause you chewed me up and spit me out/ Like I was poison in your mouth/ You took my light, you drained me down/ But that was then and this is now, now look at me." Dinh pointed out similarities between "Part of Me" and Perry's previous single "California Gurls", noting that "the tune's steady beat amplifies" as the chorus starts. Andrew Hampp of Billboard described the song as a "dance-floor rave up", and compared the song's composition to Jessie J's "Domino". Edna Gundersen from USA Today stated: "Katy Perry could be addressing her ex or her detractors on this defiant slapdown, a gleaming "Firework"-like pop torpedo propelled by slick beats and a brazen chorus." Chris Ryan, also of MTV, inferred that the song was aimed at Perry's ex-boyfriend Travie McCoy, while New York magazine journalist Amanda Dobbis described it as "another break-up anthem". Fans and media noted differences in the lyrics between the demo and the single, and claimed that the changes redirected the song's subject from McCoy to Perry's ex-husband Russell Brand, from whom she had recently divorced. Perry declared it was not about Brand, stating: > I wrote it two years ago, which is funny because everybody is like "God, it > sounds so current," and some people that I work with were like "You should > just say you wrote it a couple of weeks ago." I'm like "I'm not a dick, I'm > going to tell the truth." I wrote it two years ago when I was writing and > recording Teenage Dream, [but] it didn't feel right on the record. I > would've had to take out one of my other songs that [made the album] a nice, > complete package. ==Critical reception== Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone gave the song three stars out of five, calling it "just plain predictable." Steven Hyden and Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club were positive of the song, with Hyden, giving it a B+, noted that, although the lyrics seemed "dopey", the production and the chorus are "pretty damn sticky", while Koski, giving the song a B, noted that the song follows a similar formula to several of Perry's previous singles but went on to say that "the template works well in the context of a break-up anthem" and positively remarked that it comes off as "a chintzier, 2012 version of 'Since U Been Gone.'" A reviewer from the Christian group Focus on the Family criticized Perry's decision to create an uplifting song about such a serious subject matter as divorce: "Framing the song in terms of her divorce from Brand, though 'Part of Me', puts a much more somber and serious spin on things. This is no mere breakup. It's the demolition of a marital covenant. So no matter how bad things were in her relationship, no matter how much better she feels now, no matter how cathartic the pulsing beats (courtesy of hitmeisters Max Martin and Dr. Luke) might feel, the ultimate end here is a very sad one indeed." Priya Elan of NME panned the song: 'This is the part of me, that you're never going to take away from me,' "she sings in that strange angry robot voice of hers. “The sentiment, as ever, is punch you in face crystal clear and probably meant something to one of the (probably) 17 writers who wrote the song.” ==Chart performance== In the United States, "Part of Me" debuted at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and the U.S. Hot Digital Songs chart, with 411,000 copies sold in its first week. It was the twentieth song to debut atop the Billboard Hot 100. "Part of Me" became Perry's seventh number-one song, and her sixth in the 2010s. The single debuted at number 36 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart, with 35 million radio impressions in its first week, and was Perry's ninth song to top the Hot Dance Club Songs chart. It is Perry's tenth single to be certified Platinum by the RIAA, for sales of over 1 million copies. As of January 2015, the single has sold 2,780,000 copies in the US. In Canada, "Part of Me" debuted at number one on the Canadian Hot 100. In Brazil, it reached the top spot on the Brazil Pop 100. In Mexico, the song peaked in the top 10 of the Mexican Hot 100. It also peaked at number 1 in Venezuela. In New Zealand, song was Perry's first single to debut at number one on the New Zealand Singles Chart, and as her seventh to reach that spot, tied her with Mariah Carey as the artist with the most number-one hits in New Zealand. It has received a Platinum certification by the RIANZ, with over 15,000 copies sold. In Australia, "Part of Me" debuted at number 22 on the ARIA Singles Chart, and peaked at number five on the chart. The recording has been certified 2× platinum by the ARIA, with 140,000 copies sold. In the United Kingdom, "Part of Me" debuted at number 1 on the UK Singles Chart on March 25, 2012 – for the week ending date March 31, 2012 – selling 79,079 copies in its first week, beating "She Doesn't Mind" by Sean Paul to the summit of the chart to become Perry's third number-one song in Britain, following "I Kissed a Girl" in August 2008 and "California Gurls" in June 2010. "Part of Me" was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry for sales and streams of over 600,000. In the Republic of Ireland, "Part of Me" peaked at number five on the Irish Singles Chart and was Perry's twelfth single to reach the top ten in the Irish Republic. In Italy, the song was certified Gold for sales of over 15,000. ==Music video== ===Background and development=== The music video for "Part of Me" was directed by Ben Mor. Filming began on February 16, 2012, and took place over the course of three days at USMC Camp Pendleton in Oceanside, California. Perry announced the video shortly after the song's release, tweeting, "Holy power of the Grammy's, Part Of Me is already top 10 on itunes! U guys are killing it! NICE! Can't wait to shoot this video! #grateful." Her preparation for the video shoot included vigorous training in military basics, including firepower, military etiquette, and combat training. As filming began, pictures from the video set surfaced online, showing Perry with short hair and dressed in military clothing. The music video premiered on March 21, 2012 during the program MTV First: Katy Perry, in which Perry discussed her experiences filming the video and the background of the video's plot: > Well, I actually had the idea, I wrote the story about what it is actually > like to be in the Service, and it does take a lot of physical strength, but > now that I've been through it – and even just for the three days I was > there, [it's] a lot of mental strength. We used only Marines, no actors or > actresses. We used all of the Marine's equipment and they were so lovely to > us, I always have fun even though it's a lot of work. Even though I was sore > and exhausted, I was so educated on people in the service, who I've always > respected but the stuff they go through, and the kind of loyalty they > possess, it's very communal, and community. Not to sound weird, but it seems > like the heart of America. Seriously, the heart. ===Synopsis=== Perry sits in her car outside boyfriend Jason's (Lucas Kerr) workplace and sees him flirting with a woman (Ashley Tisdale). Perry confronts him in his office, slams down her heart pendant on the desk, and ends their relationship before Jason can talk to her. Perry storms out the door. The title track begins as we see Perry driving to a gas station, where she buys a can of tea. After paying for her items, she sees a moto-sticker on a notice board which reads, "All women are created equal, then some become Marines". The increasingly emotional Perry gathers her possessions from her car trunk, enters a nearby restroom, and begins her change of identity. She tearfully cuts her hair short, removes her bracelets, flattens her breasts, and changes into a hoodie and jeans. Perry enlists in the United States Marine Corps, and after a brief scene of recruit training, reports to the School of Infantry for the Marine Corps' rigorous basic combat instruction course. She reminisces over her experiences with her ex-boyfriend, yet remains spiteful towards him. She then burns a love note from him (as opposed to a Dear John letter) and vents her frustration through the Marine Corps Martial Arts Program. The remainder of the video depicts Perry's training, and shows her dancing beneath a large garrison flag. Perry ultimately transforms into a trained warrior, clad in camouflage marine pattern, body armor and face paint. ===Reception=== The video garnered positive reviews from critics, who praised its self- empowerment theme and its different approach in comparison to Perry's previous music videos. Bruna Nessif of E! Online compared the video to Demi Moore's role in G.I. Jane. Ray Rahman from Entertainment Weekly echoed the similarity of the G.I. Jane influence in the video, and called it an "intense ride". MTV's James Montgomery praised the video and Perry's role, saying: > "Over the years, Perry has been a California Gurl, a nerdy teenager, an > alien and just about everything in between, but up until now, she's never > really been an actual person." He went on to praise the video stating: "Part > of Me" is unlike any pop video in recent memory. Rihanna did military chic > in her "Hard" video (she even straddled a tank), and just about every one of > Perry's pop contemporaries have ventured down the same path. But they were > never really in the military; they were just making it more fabulous. Perry > takes the opposite tact: She cuts off her hair, she eschews makeup, she > fights, crawls, suffers. It's a commendable level of commitment. Your move, > everybody else." Feminist author Naomi Wolf criticized the video as propaganda for the Marine Corps, stating "I really want to find out if she was paid by them for making it ..... it is truly shameful. I would suggest a boycott of this singer whom I really liked if you are as offended at this glorification of violence as I am." Glenn Selig, founder of The Publicity Agency, responded to these claims on Fox News Live, stating, "In her efforts to boycott the video, Naomi Wolf has brought more attention to it, without her comments, most people would clearly have seen the military simply as a metaphor and not as an attempt by Katy Perry to glamorize the military or war." Perry told MTV that she chose the military plot because it represented the song, saying, "It's an affirmation of strength, so I wanted to go the strongest route I ever could." ==Live performances== left|thumb|145px|Perry performing "Part of Me" at the premiere of Katy Perry: Part of Me. "Part of Me" was given its first live performance on February 12, 2012, at the 54th Grammy Awards. The performance began with "E.T." with dancers and a singer who appeared to be Perry on a darkened stage. It ended partway through the chorus as electronic sound effects and the lights and sound suddenly went out, implying technical difficulties. Wearing sunglasses and a metallic bodysuit with the appearance of golden armor, a blue-haired Perry, slowly singing the first part of "Part of Me," descended from the roof of the venue in a transparent cube, revealing the singer on the stage below to be a body double. Perry shattered the cube, fireworks went off around the stage, and Perry began "Part of Me" as the dancers present during "E.T." reappeared, lifted her up, and performed a routine behind her. On March 19, 2012, Perry performed "Part of Me" as part of a Live Lounge special for BBC Radio 1, along with "The One That Got Away" (2011), "Firework" (2011), "Thinking of You" (2009) and a censored version of "Niggas in Paris" (2011). The performances were closely similar, through their depiction of Perry as a superhero and their theme of self-empowerment. Katie Brine of MTV commented that "Even when Katy is getting serious, there's always fun to be had." On April 26, 2012, Perry performed the track on season 11 of American Idol. This was similar to her previous performances and the video, but was pre-taped due to illness. After a short, introductory military-style video, Perry made a simulated airdrop onto a military base peopled by female background dancers, all clad in military clothing. The complexity and originality of the performance were praised. Brian Mansfield, of USA Today, called it a "pretty impressive production", but criticized Perry's vocal abilities. Perry included the song in the set list of her June 9, 2012 performance at Capital FM's Summertime Ball festival. DJ Earworm had also made a mashup called "Fly" for the Summertime Ball and included "Part of Me" and Perry's previous single, "The One That Got Away" in the mashup. On June 26, 2012 Perry performed "Part of Me" in her set list at the premiere for her July 2012 3D autobiographical documentary-concert film Katy Perry: Part of Me on Hollywood Boulevard as part of Pepsi's "Summer Beats" concert series. During the performance, Perry emerged from a large box of popcorn, wearing a shirt that resembled a film reel with the stage decorated with life-sized lollipops and neon lights. This was Perry's final performance prior to her taking a musical hiatus after two years of continuous promotion for Teenage Dream. The song is a regular part of the setlist for Perry's Prismatic World Tour and Witness: The Tour. On June 4, 2017, Perry performed an acoustic rendition of "Part of Me" at the One Love Manchester benefit concert for the victims of the Manchester Arena bombing. ==Usage in media== "Part of Me" was used in a national marketing campaign for The Sims 3 limited-edition expansion pack, The Sims 3: Showtime. Perry filmed a 30-second commercial, in which she performed the song onstage as a Sim version of herself. The expansion pack includes Katy Perry-themed items, inspired by the concept and artwork of her album Teenage Dream (2010), that players can use on their own Sims. In May 2012, Perry signed a deal with Pepsi to promote Katy Perry: Part of Me. This deal was a part of Pepsi's first global campaign titled, "Live For Now" which partners with entertainment artists and properties to promote their work. "Part of Me" was used in a series of trailers as part of this deal as well as various other media related campaigns to promote the film. The track is available as downloadable content for the video games Just Dance 4 and Just Dance 2014. ==Formats and track listings== * US Digital download # "Part of Me" – 3:35 * US Digital download – Remix # "Part of Me" (Jacques Lu Cont's Thin White Duke Mix) – 6:02 *UK Digital download – Remix EP # "Part of Me" – 3:35 # "Part of Me" (Jacques Cont's Thin White Duke Mix) – 6:02 # "Part of Me" (Jacques Cont's Thin White Duke Radio Edit) – 3:47 # "Part of Me" (Instrumental) – 3:35 *CD single # "Part of Me" – 3:35 # "Tommie Sunshine's Megasix Smash-Up" – 7:03 *Digital download – The Remixes # Part of Me (Freemasons Radio Edit) – 3:57 # Part of Me (Freemasons Mixshow Edit) – 5:48 # Part of Me (Freemasons Dub) – 7:58 # Part of Me (Freemasons Club Mix) – 8:18 ==Credits and personnel== *Katy Perry – vocals, songwriting *Dr. Luke – songwriting, production *Max Martin – songwriting, production *Bonnie McKee – songwriting *Cirkut – production ==Charts== === Weekly charts === Weekly chart performance for "Part of Me" Chart (2012) Peak position Italy (FIMI) 14 Japan (Japan Hot 100) 22 Lebanon (Lebanese Top 20) 3 Mexico (Mexico Airplay) 8 Turkey (Number One Top 20) 11 US Dance Mix/Show Airplay (Billboard) 4 Venezuela Pop Rock General (Record Report) 1 ===Year-end charts=== 2012 year-end chart performance for "Part of Me" Chart (2012) Position Australia (ARIA) 45 Canada (Canadian Hot 100) 18 France (SNEP) 98 Hungary (Rádiós Top 40) 44 Italy (FIMI) 74 New Zealand (RIANZ) 31 UK Singles (OCC) 55 US Billboard Hot 100 31 US Adult Contemporary (Billboard) 40 US Adult Top 40 (Billboard) 26 US Dance Club Songs (Billboard) 36 US Dance/Mix Show Airplay (Billboard) 31 US Mainstream Top 40 (Billboard) 24 ==Certifications== ==Release history== Release dates and formats for "Part of Me" Region Date Format Label Australia February 14, 2012 Digital download Capitol Austria Belgium Czech Republic Denmark Finland Germany Italy Japan Netherlands New Zealand Norway Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland United States February 21, 2012 Contemporary hit radio Ireland March 18, 2012 Digital download United Kingdom April 23, 2012 CD ==See also== *Military-entertainment complex * Katy Perry: Part of Me, a film by Perry *List of number-one pop hits of 2012 (Brazil) *List of Hot 100 number-one singles of 2012 (U.S.) *List of Hot 100 number-one singles of 2012 (Canada) * List of number-one dance singles of 2012 (U.S.) ==References== ==External links== * Category:Katy Perry songs Category:2011 songs Category:2012 singles Category:Song recordings produced by Cirkut (record producer) Category:Song recordings produced by Dr. Luke Category:Song recordings produced by Max Martin Category:Songs written by Dr. Luke Category:Songs written by Max Martin Category:Songs written by Katy Perry Category:Songs written by Bonnie McKee Category:Number-one singles in New Zealand Category:Number-one singles in Scotland Category:Canadian Hot 100 number-one singles Category:Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles Category:UK Singles Chart number-one singles Category:Record Report Pop Rock General number-one singles Category:Songs with feminist themes Category:Dance-pop songs Category:American power pop songs Category:Music video controversies Category:Works about the United States Marine Corps Category:Propaganda in the United States Category:Propaganda songs |
Feminism in France is the history of feminist thought and movements in France. Feminism in France can be roughly divided into three waves: First-wave feminism from the French Revolution through the Third Republic which was concerned chiefly with suffrage and civic rights for women. Significant contributions came from revolutionary movements of the French Revolution of 1848 and Paris Commune, culminating in 1944 when women gained the right to vote. Second-wave feminism began in the 1940s as a reevaluation of women's role in society, reconciling the inferior treatment of women in society despite their ostensibly equal political status to men. Pioneered by theorists such as Simone de Beauvoir, second wave feminism was an important current within the social turmoil leading up to and following the May 1968 events in France. Political goals included the guarantee of increased bodily autonomy for women via increased access to abortion and birth control. Third-wave feminism since the 2000s continues the legacy of the second wave while adding elements of postcolonial feminism, approaching women's rights in tandem with other ongoing discourses, particularly those surrounding racism. == First-wave feminism == ===The French Revolution=== In November 1789, at the very beginning of the French Revolution, the Women's Petition was addressed to the National Assembly but not discussed. Although various feminist movements emerged during the Revolution, most politicians followed Rousseau's theories as outlined in Emile, which confined women to the roles of mother and spouse. The philosopher Condorcet was a notable exception who advocated equal rights for both sexes. The Société fraternelle de l'un et l'autre sexe ("Fraternal Society of Both Sexes") was founded in 1790 by Claude Dansart. It included prominent individuals such as Etta Palm d'Aelders, Jacques Hébert, Louise- Félicité de Kéralio, Pauline Léon, Théroigne de Méricourt, Madame Roland, Thérésa Cabarrús, and Merlin de Thionville. The following year, Olympe de Gouges published the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen. This was a letter addressed to Queen Marie Antoinette which requested actions in favour of women's rights. Gouges was guillotined two years later, days after the execution of the Girondins. In February 1793, Pauline Léon and Claire Lacombe created the exclusively-female Société des républicaines révolutionnaires (Society of Revolutionary Republicans—the final e in républicaines explicitly denoting Republican Women), which boasted two hundred members. Viewed by the historian Daniel Guérin as a sort of "feminist section of the Enragés",Daniel Guérin, La lutte des classes, 1946 they participated in the fall of the Girondins. Lacombe advocated giving weapons to women. However, the Society was outlawed by the revolutionary government in the following year. ===From the Restoration to the Second Republic=== thumb|left|240px|alt=|Perspective view of the urban area of Fourier's phalansteryThe feminist movement expanded again in Socialist movements of the Romantic generation, in particular among Parisian Saint Simonians. Women freely adopted new lifestyles, inciting indignation in public opinion. They claimed equality of rights and participated in the abundant literary activity, such as Claire Démar's Appel au peuple sur l'affranchissement de la femme (1833), a feminist pamphlet. On the other hand, Charles Fourier's Utopian Socialist theory of passions advocated "free love." His architectural model of the phalanstery community explicitly took into account women's emancipation. The Bourbon Restoration re-established the prohibition of divorce in 1816. When the July Monarchy restricted the political rights of the majority of the population, the feminist struggle rejoined the Republican and Socialist struggle for a "Democratic and Social Republic," leading to the 1848 Revolution and the proclamation of the Second Republic. The 1848 Revolution became the occasion of a public expression of the feminist movement, who organized itself in various associations. Women's political activities led several of them to be proscribed as the other Forty-Eighters. === Belle Époque Era === During the culturally thriving times of the Belle Époque, especially in the late nineteenth century, feminism and the view of femininity experienced substantial shifts evident through acts by women of boldness and rejection of previous stigmas. The most defining characteristic of this period shown by these actions is the power of choice women began to take hold of. Such acts included these women partaking in nonstandard ways of marriage—as divorce during this time had been legally reinstalled as a result of the Naquet Laws—practicing gender role-defying jobs, and profoundly influencing societal ideologies regarding femininity through writings. Feminist newspapers quickly became more widespread and took a role in transforming both the view of women and their rights. As this era held promise of equality, proceeding after the French Revolution, women still had yet to gain the title of equal citizens,Holmes, Diana and Carrie Tarr. "Introduction." In A 'Belle Époque'?: Women in French Society and Culture 1890-1914, edited by Diana Holmes and Carrie Tarr, 23-36. New York: Berghahn Books, 2006. making it a difficult and dangerous venture to publicize opinions promoting the advancement of women's rights. Among these newspapers, the most notable is Marguerite Durand's La Fronde,Allison, Maggie. "Marguerite Durand and La Fronde: Voicing Women of the Belle Epoque." In A 'Belle Époque'?: Women in French Society and Culture 1890-1914, edited by Diana Holmes and Carrie Tarr, 23-36. New York: Berghahn Books, 2006. run entirely by women. ===The Commune and the Union des Femmes=== Some women organized a feminist movement during the Commune, following up on earlier attempts in 1789 and 1848. Nathalie Lemel, a socialist bookbinder, and Élisabeth Dmitrieff, a young Russian exile and member of the Russian section of the First International (IWA), created the Union des femmes pour la défense de Paris et les soins aux blessés ("Women's Union for the Defense of Paris and Care of the Injured") on 11 April 1871. The feminist writer André Léo, a friend of Paule Minck, was also active in the Women's Union. The association demanded gender equality, wage equality, right of divorce for women, and right to secular and professional education for girls. They also demanded suppression of the distinction between married women and concubines, between legitimate and natural children, the abolition of prostitution in closing the maisons de tolérance, or legal official brothels. The Women's Union also participated in several municipal commissions and organized cooperative workshops.Women and the Commune , in L'Humanité, 19 March 2005 Along with Eugène Varlin, Nathalie Le Mel created the cooperative restaurant La Marmite, which served free food for indigents, and then fought during the Bloody Week on the barricades.François Bodinaux, Dominique Plasman, Michèle Ribourdouille. "On les disait 'pétroleuses'... " On the other hand, Paule Minck opened a free school in the Church of Saint Pierre de Montmartre, and animated the Club Saint-Sulpice on the Left Bank. The Russian Anne Jaclard, who declined to marry Dostoievsky and finally became the wife of Blanquist activist Victor Jaclard, founded with André Léo the newspaper La Sociale. She was also a member of the Comité de vigilance de Montmartre, along with Louise Michel and Paule Minck, as well as of the Russian section of the First International. Victorine Brocher, close to the IWA activists and founder of a cooperative bakery in 1867, also fought during the Commune and the Bloody Week. Famous figures such as Louise Michel, the "Red Virgin of Montmartre" who joined the National Guard and would later be sent to New Caledonia, symbolize the active participation of a small number of women in the insurrectionary events. A female battalion from the National Guard defended the Place Blanche during the repression. ===The suffragettes=== In 1909, French noblewoman and feminist Jeanne-Elizabeth Schmahl founded the French Union for Women's Suffrage to advocate for women's right to vote in France. Despite some cultural changes following World War I, which had resulted in women replacing the male workers who had gone to the front, they were known as the Années folles and their exuberance was restricted to a very small group of female elites. Victor Margueritte's La Garçonne (The Flapper, 1922), depicting an emancipated woman, was seen as scandalous and caused him to lose his Legion of Honour. During the Third Republic, the suffragettes movement championed the right to vote for women, but did not insist on the access of women to legislative and executive offices.Christine Bard, Les premières femmes au Gouvernement (France, 1936-1981), Histoire@Politique, n°1, May–June 2007 The suffragettes, however, did honour the achievements of foreign women in power by bringing attention to legislation passed under their influence concerning alcohol (such as Prohibition in the United States), regulation of prostitution, and protection of children's rights. Despite this campaign and the new role of women following World War I, the Third Republic declined to grant them voting rights, mainly because of fear of the influence of clericalism among them, echoing the conservative vote of rural areas for Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte during the Second Republic. After the 1936 Popular Front victory, although he had defended voting rights for women (a proposition included in the program of the French Section of the Workers' International party since 1906), left-wing Prime Minister Léon Blum did not implement the measure, because of the fear of the Radical-Socialist Party. Women obtained the right to vote only after the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF) confirmed, on 5 October 1944, the ordinance of 21 April 1944 of the French Committee of National Liberation. Following the November 1946 elections, the first in which women were permitted to vote, sociologist Robert Verdier refuted any voting gender gap: in May 1947 in Le Populaire, he showed that women do not vote in a consistent way but divide themselves, as men, according to social classes. ===Other rights for women=== Olga Petit, born Scheina Lea-Balachowsky and also referred to as Sonia Olga Balachowsky-Petit, became the first female lawyer in France on 6 December 1900. Marital power (puissance maritale) was abolished in 1938. However, the legal repeal of the specific doctrine of marital power does not necessarily grant married women the same legal rights as their husbands (or as unmarried women) as was notably the case in France, where the legal subordination of the wife (primarily coming from the Napoleonic Code) was gradually abolished with women obtaining full equality in marriage only in the 1980s.Although marital power was abolished in France in 1938, married women in France obtained the right to work without their husbands' permission only in 1965, and the paternal authority of a man over his family was ended in 1970 (before that parental responsibilities belonged solely to the father who made all legal decisions concerning the children). Furthermore, it was only in 1985 that a legal reform abolished the stipulation that the husband had the sole power to administer the children's property. ==Second-wave feminism== thumb|left|190px|De Beauvoir's treatise Le Deuxième Sexe was the starting point of second-wave feminism. ===Post-war period=== Women were not allowed to become judges in France until 1946. During the baby boom period, feminism became a minor movement, despite forerunners such as Simone de Beauvoir, who published The Second Sex in 1949. The Second Sex is a detailed analysis of women's oppression and a foundational tract of contemporary feminism. It sets out a feminist existentialism which prescribes a moral revolution. As an existentialist, de Beauvoir accepted Jean-Paul Sartre's precept that existence precedes essence; hence "one is not born a woman, but becomes one". Her analysis focuses on the social construction of Woman as the Other, this de Beauvoir identifies as fundamental to women's oppression. She argues that women have historically been considered deviant and abnormal, and contends that even Mary Wollstonecraft considered men to be the ideal toward which women should aspire. De Beauvoir argues that for feminism to move forward, this attitude must be set aside. Married French women obtained the right to work without their husband's consent in 1965. The Neuwirth Law legalized birth control in 1967, but the relative executive decrees were blocked for a couple years by the conservative government. ===May 1968 and its aftermath=== A strong feminist movement would only emerge in the aftermath of May 1968, with the creation of the Mouvement de libération des femmes (Women's Liberation Movement, MLF), allegedly by Antoinette Fouque, Monique Wittig and Josiane Chanel in 1968. The name itself was given by the press, in reference to the US Women's Lib movement. In the frame of the cultural and social changes that occurred during the Fifth Republic, they advocated the right of autonomy from their husbands, and the rights to contraception and to abortion. The paternal authority of a man over his family in France was ended in 1970 (before that parental responsibilities belonged solely to the father who made all legal decisions concerning the children). From 1970, the procedures for the use of the title "Mademoiselle" were challenged in France, particularly by feminist groups who wanted it banned. A circular from François Fillon, then Prime Minister, dated 21 February 2012, called for the deletion of the word "Mademoiselle" in all official documents. On 26 December 2012, the Council of State approved the deletion. In 1971, the feminist lawyer Gisèle Halimi founded the group Choisir ("To Choose"), to protect the women who had signed "Le Manifeste des 343 Salopes" (in English "Manifesto of the 343 Sluts" or alternately "Manifesto of the 343 Bitches"), written by Simone de Beauvoir. This provocative title became popular after Cabu's drawing on a satirical journal with the caption: « Who got those 343 whores pregnant? »); the women were admitting to have had illegal abortions, and therefore exposing themselves to judicial actions and prison sentences. Text of the Manifesto of the 343 with list of signatories, on the Nouvel Observateur's website. The Manifesto had been published in Le Nouvel Observateur on 5 April 1971. The Manifesto was the inspiration for a 3 February 1973, manifesto by 331 doctors declaring their support for abortion rights: > We want freedom of abortion. It is entirely the woman's decision. We reject > any entity that forces her to defend herself, perpetuates an atmosphere of > guilt, and allows underground abortions to persist ....Michelle Zancarini- > Fournel, "Histoire(s) du MLAC (1973-1975)", Clio, numéro 18-2003, Mixité et > coéducation, [En ligne], mis en ligne le 04 décembre 2006. URL : > http://clio.revues.org/index624.html. Consulté le 19 décembre 2008. Choisir had transformed into a clearly reformist body in 1972, and their campaign greatly influenced the passing of the law allowing contraception and abortion carried through by Simone Veil in 1975. The Veil Act was at the time hotly contested by Veil's own party, the conservative Union for French Democracy (UDF). In 1974, Françoise d'Eaubonne coined the term "ecofeminism." In the 1970s, French feminist theorists approached feminism with the concept of écriture féminine (which translates as female, or feminine writing).Wright, Elizabeth (2000). Lacan and Postfeminism (Postmodern Encounters). Totem Books or Icon Books. . Hélène Cixous argues that writing and philosophy are phallocentric and along with other French feminists such as Luce Irigaray emphasize "writing from the body" as a subversive exercise. The work of the feminist psychoanalyst and philosopher, Julia Kristeva, has influenced feminist theory in general and feminist literary criticism in particular. From the 1980s onwards the work of the artist and psychoanalyst Bracha Ettinger has influenced literary criticism, art history and film theory.Vanda Zajko and Miriam Leonard (eds.), 'Laughing with Medusa'. Oxford University Press, 2006. 87-117. .Carol Armstrong and Catherine de Zegher, 'Women Artists as the Millennium'. Cambridge Massachusetts: October Books, MIT Press, 2006. 35-83. ISBN. A new reform in France in 1985 abolished the stipulation that the father had the sole power to administer the children's property. In 1999, Florence Montreynaud launched the Chiennes de garde NGO. ===French feminist theory=== In the English-speaking world, the term "French feminism" refers to a branch of theories and philosophies by and about women that emerged in the 1970s to the 1990s. These ideas have run parallel to and sometimes in contradistinction to the political feminist movement in France but is often referred to as "French feminist theory," distinguished by an approach which is more philosophical and literary. Its writings tend to be effusive and metaphorical being less concerned with political doctrine and generally focused on theories of "the body". Notable representatives include Monique WittigBalén, Julia. In Memoriam: Monique Wittig, The Women's Review of Books, January 2004, Vol. XXI, No. 4., quoted in Trivia Magazine, Wittig Obituary. Hélène Cixous,Kelly Ives, Cixous, Irigaray, Kristeva: The Jouissance of French Feminism, Crescent Moon Publishing, 2016. Luce Irigaray, Julia KristevaGriselda Pollock, "To Inscribe in the Feminine". Parallax 8:81-118, 1998. and Bracha Ettinger.Griselda Pollock, Introduction, In: Bracha L. Ettinger, Regard et espace-de-bord matrixiels. Brussels: La Lettre Volée, 1999:7-40.Roy Boyne (ed.), Special Issue: Bracha L. Ettinger. Theory, Culture & Society. Vol. 21 (1), 2004. Texts by Lone Bertelsen, Roy Boyne, B. L. E., Jean-François Lyotard, Griselda Pollock and Couze Venn.Noreen Giffney, Anne Mulhall and Michael O’Rourke, Seduction into Reading: Bracha L. Ettinger’s The Matrixial Borderspace. Studies in the Maternal, 1 (2) 2009.Griselda Pollock, To Inscribe in the Feminine. Parallax 8:81-118, 1998. The term includes writers who are not French, but who have worked substantially in France and the French tradition. ==Third-wave feminism== In the 2000s, some feminist groups such as Ni putes, ni soumises (Neither Whores, Nor Submissives) denounced an increased influence of Islamic extremism in poor suburbs of large immigrant population, claiming they may be pressured into wearing veils, leaving school, and marrying early. On the other hand, a "third wave" of the feminist movement arose, combining the issues of sexism and racism, protesting the perceived Islamophobic instrumentalization of feminism by the French Right. After Ni Putes Ni Soumises activists were received by Prime Minister Jean Pierre Raffarin and their message incorporated into the official celebrations of Bastille Day 2003 in Paris, various left-wing authors (Sylvie Tissot,Sylvie Tissot, Bilan d’un féminisme d’État, in Plein Droit n°75, December 2007 Elsa Dorlin,Elsa Dorlin (professor of philosophy at the Sorbonne, member of NextGenderation), "Pas en notre nom !" – Contre la récupération raciste du féminisme par la droite française (Not in our names! Against the Racist Recuperation of Feminism by the French Right), L'Autre Campagne Étienne Balibar,Étienne Balibar, Uprising in the "banlieues", Conference at the University of Chicago, 10 May 2006 (published in French in Lignes, November 2006) Houria Bouteldja,Houria Bouteldja, De la cérémonie du dévoilement à Alger (1958) à Ni Putes Ni Soumises: l’instrumentalisation coloniale et néo-coloniale de la cause des femmes., Ni putes ni soumises, un appareil idéologique d’État, June 2007 etc.) as well as NGOs such as Les Blédardes (led by Bouteldja), criticized the racist stigmatization of immigrant populations, whose cultures are depicted as inherently sexist. They underline that sexism is not a specificity of immigrant populations, as if French culture itself were devoid of sexism, and that the focus on media-friendly and violent acts (such as the burning of Sohane Benziane) silences the precarization of women. They frame the debate among the French Left concerning the 2004 law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools, mainly targeted against the hijab, under this light. They claimed that Ni Putes Ni Soumises overshadowed the work of other feminist NGOs. After the nomination of its leader Fadela Amara to the government by Nicolas Sarkozy, Sylvie Tissot denounced a "state feminism" (an instrumentalization of feminism by state authorities) while Bouteldja qualified the NGO as an Ideological State Apparatus (AIE). In January 2007, the collective of the Féministes indigènes launched a manifesto in honour of the Mulatress Solitude. The Mulatress Solitude was a heroine who fought with Louis Delgrès against the re-establishment of slavery (abolished during the French Revolution) by Napoleon.Appel des Féministes Indigènes, Sous le Haut Marrainage de Solitude, héroïne de la révolte des esclaves guadeloupéens contre le rétablissement de l’esclavage par Napoléon The manifesto stated that "Western Feminism did not have the monopoly of resistance against masculine domination" and supported a mild form of separatism, refusing to allow others (males or whites) to speak in their names.French: Le féminisme occidental n’a pas le monopole de la résistance à la domination masculine, Appel des Féministes Indigènes, Sous le Haut Marrainage de Solitude, héroïne de la révolte des esclaves guadeloupéens contre le rétablissement de l’esclavage par Napoléon ==Difficult access to government office for women== A few women held public office in the 1930s, although they kept a low profile. In 1936, the new Prime Minister, Léon Blum, included three women in the Popular Front government: Cécile Brunschvicg, Suzanne Lacore and Irène Joliot- Curie. The inclusion of women in the Popular Front government was unanimously appreciated: even the far-right candidate Xavier Vallat addressed his "congratulations" to Blum for this measure while the conservative newspaper Le Temps wrote, on 1 June 1936, that women could be ministers without previous authorizations from their husbands. Cécile Brunschvicg and Irène Joliot-Curie were both legally "under-age" as women. Wars (both World War I and World War II) had seen the provisional emancipation of some, individual, women, but post-war periods signalled the return to conservative roles. For instance, Lucie Aubrac, who was active in the French Resistance—a role highlighted by Gaullist myths—returned to private life after the war. Thirty-three women were elected at the Liberation, but none entered the government, and the euphoria of the Liberation was quickly halted. Women retained a low profile during the Fourth and Fifth Republic. In 1949, Jeanne-Paule Sicard was the first female chief of staff, but was called "Mr. Pleven's (then Minister of Defence) secretary." Marie-France Garaud, who entered Jean Foyer's office at the Ministry of Cooperation and would later become President Georges Pompidou's main counsellor, along with Pierre Juillet, was given the same title. The leftist newspaper Libération, founded in 1973 by Jean-Paul Sartre, would depict Marie-France Garaud as yet another figure of female spin-doctors. However, the new role granted to the President of the Republic in the semi- presidential regime of the Fifth Republic after the 1962 referendum on the election of the President at direct universal suffrage, led to a greater role of the "First Lady of France". Although Charles de Gaulle's wife Yvonne remained out of the public sphere, the image of Claude Pompidou would interest the media more and more. The media frenzy surrounding Cécilia Sarkozy, former wife of the former President Nicolas Sarkozy, would mark the culmination of this current. ===1945–1974=== Of the 27 cabinets formed during the Fourth Republic, only four included women, and never more than one at a time. SFIO member Andrée Viénot, widow of a Resistant, was nominated in June 1946 by the Christian democrat Georges Bidault of the Popular Republican Movement as undersecretary of Youth and Sports. However, she remained in office for only seven months. The next woman to hold government office, Germaine Poinso- Chapuis, was health and education minister from 24 November 1947 to 19 July 1948 in Robert Schuman's cabinet. Remaining one year in office, her name remained attached to a decree financing private education. Published in the Journal officiel on 22 May 1948 with her signature, the decree had been drafted in her absence at the Council of Ministers of France. The Communist and the Radical-Socialist Party called for the repealing of the decree, and finally, Schuman's cabinet was overturned after failing a confidence motion on the subject. Germaine Poinso-Chapuis did not pursue her political career, encouraged to abandon it by Pope Pius XII. The third woman to hold government office would be the Radical-Socialist Jacqueline Thome-Patenôtre, appointed undersecretary of Reconstruction and Lodging in Maurice Bourgès-Maunoury's cabinet in 1957. Nafissa Sid Cara then participated in the government as undersecretary in charge of Algeria from 1959 till the end of the war in 1962. Marie-Madeleine Dienesch, who evolved from Christian-Democracy to Gaullism (in 1966), occupied various offices as undersecretary between 1968 and 1974. Finally, Suzanne Ploux was undersecretary for the Minister of National Education in 1973 and 1974. In total, only seven women acceded to governmental offices between 1946 and 1974, and only one as minister. Historians explain this rarity by underlining the specific context of the Trente Glorieuses (Thirty Glorious Years) and of the baby boom, leading to a strengthening of familialism and patriarchy. Even left-wing cabinets abstained from nominating women: Pierre Mendès-France (advised by Colette Baudry) did not include any woman in his cabinet, neither did Guy Mollet, the secretary general of the SFIO, nor the centrist Antoine Pinay. Although the École nationale d'administration (ENA) elite administrative school (from which a lot of French politicians graduate) became gender-mixed in 1945, only 18 women graduated from it between 1946 and 1956 (compared to 706 men). Of the first eleven cabinets of the Fifth Republic, four did not count any women. In May 1968, the cabinet was exclusively male. This low representation of women was not, however, specific to France: West Germany's government did not include any women in any office from 1949 to 1961, and in 1974–1975, only 12 countries in the world had female ministers. The British government had exclusively male ministers. ===1974–1981=== In 1974, Valéry Giscard d'Estaing was elected President, and nominated 9 women in his government between 1974 and 1981: Simone Veil, the first female minister, Françoise Giroud, named Minister of the Feminine Condition, Hélène Dorlhac, Alice Saunier-Séïté, Annie Lesur and Christiane Scrivener, Nicole Pasquier, Monique Pelletier and Hélène Missoffe. At the end of the 1970s, France was one of the leading countries in the world with respect to the number of female ministers, just behind Sweden. However, they remained highly under-represented in the National Assembly. There were only 14 female deputies (1.8%) in 1973 and 22 (2.8%) in 1978. Janine Alexandre-Derbay, 67-year-old senator of the Republican Party (PR), initiated a hunger strike to protest against the complete absence of women on the governmental majority's electoral lists in Paris. This new, relative feminisation of power was partly explained by Giscard's government's fears of being confronted with another May 1968 and the influence of the MLF: "We can therefore explain the birth of state feminism under the pressure of contest feminism [féminisme de contestation]", wrote Christine Bard. Although the far- left remained indifferent to the feminisation of power, in 1974, Arlette Laguiller became the first woman to present herself at a presidential election (for the Trotskyist party Workers' Struggle, LO), and integrated feminist propositions in her party. Giscard's achievements concerning the inclusion of women in government has been qualified by Françoise Giroud as his most important feat, while others, such as Evelyne Surrot, Benoîte Groult or the minister Monique Pelletier, denounced electoral "alibis". The sociologist Mariette Sineau underlined that Giscard included women only in the low-levels of the governmental hierarchy (state secretaries) and kept them in socio- educative affairs. Seven women in eighteen (from 1936 to 1981) had offices related to youth and education, and four (including two ministers) had offices related to health, reflecting a traditional gender division. The important Ministry of Finances, Defence, Foreign Affairs and Interior remained out of reach for women. Only six women in eighteen had been elected through universal suffrage. The rest were nominated by the Prime Minister. Hélène Missoffe was the only deputy to be named by Giscard. ===From the 1980s to today=== After the election of the socialist candidate François Mitterrand in 1981, Yvette Roudy passed the 1983 law against sexism. Left and right-wing female ministers signed the Manifeste des 10 in 1996 for equal representation of women in politics. It was opposed by feminist historian and psychoanalyst Elisabeth Roudinesco, who believed the existing legislation was sufficient. Socialist Ségolène Royal was the first female presidential candidate to pass the first round of the French presidential election in 2007, confronting the conservative UMP candidate Nicolas Sarkozy. Sarkozy won in a tight contest, but one year later, polls showed voters regretted not sending Royal to the Élysée Palace and that she would win a 2008 match up with Sarkozy easily. She was a front-runner in their leadership election, which took place 20 November 2008 but was narrowly defeated in the second round by rival Martine Aubry, also a woman. Joan Scott, a professor at the Institute for Advanced Study, stated: "There is a longstanding commitment to the notion that the French do gender relations differently – especially from prudish Americans – and that has to do with the French understanding of seduction. Seduction is the alternative to thinking about [sexual harassment] as sexual harassment." Christine Bard, a professor at the University of Angers, echoed those thoughts, saying that there is an "idealization of seduction à la Française, and that anti-feminism has become almost part of the national identity" in France. In 1990, following a case where a man had tortured and raped his wife, the Court of Cassation authorized prosecution of spouses for rape or sexual assault. In 1992, the Court of Cassation convicted a man of the rape of his wife, stating that the presumption that spouses have consented to sexual acts that occur within marriage is only valid when the contrary is not proven. Until 1994, France kept in the French Penal Code the article from 1810 that exonerated a rapist if they later married their victim, and in 1994 Law 94-89 criminalized all marital rape. Sexual harassment in the workplace was made subject to legal sanction in France starting only in 1992. The reach of those laws was not matched by vigorous enforcement, labor lawyers say. France's "reluctance to move more aggressively against sexual harassment reflects deeply rooted ideas about sexual relations and the relative power between men and women", said Scott. France outlawed street sexual harassment in 2018, passing a law declaring catcalling on streets and public transportation is subject to fines of up to €750, with more for more aggressive and physical behavior. The law also declared that sex between an adult and a person of 15 or under can be considered rape if the younger person is judged incompetent to give consent. It also gives underage victims of rape an extra decade to file complaints, extending the deadline to 30 years from their turning 18. ==See also== * Abortion in France * Écriture féminine * French structuralist feminism * History of the Left in France * LGBT rights in France * Protests of 1968 * State feminism * Marie-Laure Sauty de Chalon *Women in the French National Assembly ==References== ==Further reading== *Marie Cerati, Le club des citoyennes républicaines révolutionnaires, Paris, éd. sociales, 1966 *Carolyn Eichner, Surmounting the Barricades: Women in the Paris Commune, Indiana University Press, 2004 *Eric Fassin, Clarisse Fabre, Liberté, égalité, sexualités, Belfond 2003. *Lisa Greenwald, Daughters of 1968: Redefining French Feminism and the Women's Liberation Movement (Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 2018) *M. Jaspard, Enquête sur les violences faites aux femmes, La documentation française, 2002.*Marc de Villiers, Histoire des clubs de femmes et des légions d’Amazones (1793-1848-1871), Paris, Plon-Nourrit et cie, 1910 Category:Political history of France Category:Society of France France |
Pembina County is a county in the U.S. state of North Dakota. At the 2020 census its population was 6,844. The county seat is Cavalier. ==History== For thousands of years, various indigenous peoples inhabited the area along the Pembina and Red rivers. At the time of European contact in the 16th century, the dominant tribes were the Assiniboine and the Lakota (or Sioux, as the French colonists called them). The Ojibwe, also known as Chippewa, a branch of the Anishinaabe-speaking language group, gradually migrated west along both sides of the Great Lakes. They developed a long trading relationship with French trappers and colonists. Throughout the Red River of the North area, French trappers married Native American women, and their descendants continued to hunt and trap. A large mixed-race population developed, recognized as an ethnic First Nations group in Canada called the Métis. The Ojibwe and Métis generally supported the French forces during the Seven Years' War in the mid- eighteenth century against Great Britain. With the British defeat of France and takeover of its colonial territory, the Chippewa learned to deal with a new trading culture. Armed with guns by trading and having adopted the horse from the Mandan and Hidatsa, by the end of the eighteenth century the Chippewa had migrated from woodlands to the Great Plains and begun to push the Lakota west before them. By the time of the War of 1812, the Ojibwe allied with the British against the United States, hoping to forestall European-American settlers' encroaching on their territory. With the settlement of the northern boundary with Canada, the Chippewa within the Dakota Territory were forced to deal with the United States. During the first half of the nineteenth century, the Chippewa had continued conflicts with the Lakota along the Red River, finally pushing them into present-day western North and South Dakota. Father George Belcourt, a Catholic Jesuit missionary who served them, described their territory in 1849 as the following > We understand here, that the district or department called Pembina, > comprises all of the country or basin which is irrigated or traversed by the > tributaries of the Red River, south of the line of the 49th parallel of > latitude. The prairies' rivers and lakes which extend to the height of land > of the Mississippi, and the immense plains which feed innumerable herds of > bison to the westward and from which the Chippewa and half breeds [Métis] of > this region obtain their subsistence, contains within their limits a country > about 400 miles from north to south and more than five hundred miles from > east to west.About US: "Move to the Plains" , Turtle Mountain Band of > Chippewa Indians, accessed June 27, 2011 The Métis used two-wheeled ox-drawn carts to transport furs to market along the Red River Trails, between what is now Winnipeg, Canada and Mendota or St. Paul, Minnesota. They also used ox-carts to transport food and shelter during extended buffalo hunts. Over time, the Ojibwe were persuaded to cede much of their land by treaty to the US, which in turn sold it to homesteaders. They moved to relatively small Indian reservations within their earlier territory. The precursor to Pembina County was a county of the same name in the Minnesota Territory, extending from the Upper Mississippi River to the western boundary of the territory. When Minnesota became a state in 1858, its western boundary was set at the Red River, and the land to its west was unorganized. A new Pembina County was established as part of the Dakota Territory in 1867. At the time it was a large territory, and in 1871 it was expanded to include much of the territory in what is now eastern North Dakota from Canada to the South Dakota border. The Dakota Territory legislature created Pembina County on January 9, 1867, from previously unorganized territory. Its government was organized on August 12 of that same year. It was named for a Chippewa term for stab or stabbing.Ojibwe People's Dictionary, University of Minnesota Pembina, the oldest European-American settlement in the future state, was the county seat. In 1911 the seat was relocated to Cavalier. The county boundaries were altered in 1871, 1873, 1881, and 1887. It has retained its present boundaries since 1887. Between 1873 and 1881, eleven new counties were created from Pembina, including Cass County and Grand Forks County. Pembina took its current form in 1887, when Cavalier County was increased in size. Icelandic State Park is located in Pembina County. The first Icelandic immigrant settlement in present-day North Dakota was in Pembina County in the late 1870s, when a colony of settlers from Iceland moved into the county from the New Iceland homesteads near Lake Winnipeg. thumb|Outline map of Pembina County, North Dakota, 1909 The first Icelandic settlements in what is now North Dakota were established in Pembina County in the late 1870s. Many of the immigrants came from New Iceland near Lake Winnipeg, along with other Icelanders who moved into the area from colonies in Wisconsin. The new settlers lived primarily in the so-called "Icelandic Townships" of Akra, Beaulieu, Gardar, and Thingwalla. The State Historical Society of North Dakota reported fewer than 3 or 4 non-Icelandic families living there in the early 1900s. Evidence of this heritage is found in several township and city names with Icelandic origins. Akra was named after the town of Akranes, near Reykjavík; Gardar was named for Gardar Svavarsson, who was reportedly the first Scandinavian to visit Iceland; and Hallsson was named for an early settler, Johann P. Hallson. Icelandic State Park was established to preserve evidence of this early pioneer heritage. ==Geography== Pembina County lies at the northeastern corner of North Dakota. Its northern boundary line abuts the southern boundary line of Canada and its eastern boundary line abuts the western boundary line of the state of Minnesota (across the Red River, which flows northward along the county's eastern boundary line). The Pembina River flows eastward through the upper portion of the county, discharging into the Red River near the northeastern county corner. The Tongue River flows northeastward through the upper portion of the county, discharging into the Pembina shortly before the Pembina joins the Red River. The county terrain consists of rolling hills, etched by river drainages. The area is devoted to agriculture.Pembina County ND Google Maps (accessed February 26, 2019) The terrain slopes to the east and north; its highest point is on the lower western boundary line, at above sea level. The county has a total area of , of which is land and (0.2%) is water. The lowest point in the state of North Dakota is located on the Red River of the North in Pembina Township in Pembina County, where it flows out of North Dakota and into the Canada–US border of Manitoba. ===Major highways=== * 20px Interstate 29 * 20px U.S. Highway 81 * 20px North Dakota Highway 5 * 20px North Dakota Highway 18 * 20px North Dakota Highway 32 * 20px North Dakota Highway 44 * 20px North Dakota Highway 66 * 20px North Dakota Highway 89 ===Adjacent counties and rural municipalities=== * Rural Municipality of Stanley, Manitoba, Canada - northwest * Municipality of Rhineland, Manitoba, Canada - north * Rural Municipality of Montcalm, Manitoba, Canada - northeast * Kittson County, Minnesota - east * Marshall County, Minnesota - southeast * Walsh County - south * Cavalier County - west ===Protected areas=== * Frost Fire Ski and Snow Board Area * Houghton National Wildlife Management Area * Icelandic State Park * Juhl National Wildlife Management Area * McDonald National Wildlife Management Area * Pembina Gorge State Recreation Area * Pembina Prairie National Wildlife Management Area * Tetrault State Forest (part) ==Demographics== ===2020 census=== At the census of 2020, there were 6,844 people. ===2010 census=== As of the census of 2010, there were 7,413 people, 3,257 households, and 2,069 families in the county. The population density was . There were 3,859 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the county was 95.5% white, 1.9% American Indian, 0.3% black or African American, 0.1% Asian, 0.8% from other races, and 1.3% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 2.6% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 33.8% were German, 21.3% were Norwegian, 10.6% were Irish, 9.5% were English, 8.0% were American, and 5.5% were Swedish. Of the 3,257 households, 24.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.2% were married couples living together, 5.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 36.5% were non-families, and 32.4% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.82. The median age was 46.7 years. The median income for a household in the county was $48,502 and the median income for a family was $61,804. Males had a median income of $40,334 versus $29,662 for females. The per capita income for the county was $27,019. About 4.0% of families and 8.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.5% of those under age 18 and 11.3% of those age 65 or over. ===Population by decade=== Colors= id:lightgrey value:gray(0.9) id:darkgrey value:gray(0.8) id:sfondo value:rgb(1,1,1) id:barra value:rgb(0.55,0.0,0.0) id:darkblue value:rgb(0.0,0.0,0.8) ImageSize = width:675 height:325 PlotArea = left:50 bottom:50 top:30 right:30 DateFormat = x.y Period = from:0 till:18000 TimeAxis = orientation:vertical AlignBars = late ScaleMajor = gridcolor:darkgrey increment:4500 start:0 ScaleMinor = gridcolor:lightgrey increment:2250 start:0 BackgroundColors = canvas:sfondo BarData= bar:1870 text:1870 bar:1880 text:1880 bar:1890 text:1890 bar:1900 text:1900 bar:1910 text:1910 bar:1920 text:1920 bar:1930 text:1930 bar:1940 text:1940 bar:1950 text:1950 bar:1960 text:1960 bar:1970 text:1970 bar:1980 text:1980 bar:1990 text:1990 bar:2000 text:2000 bar:2010 text:2010 bar:2020 text:2020 bar:2022 text:present PlotData= color:barra width:25 align:left bar:1870 from: 0 till:1213 bar:1880 from: 0 till:4862 bar:1890 from: 0 till:14334 bar:1900 from: 0 till:17869 bar:1910 from: 0 till:14749 bar:1920 from: 0 till:15177 bar:1930 from: 0 till:14757 bar:1940 from: 0 till:15671 bar:1950 from: 0 till:13990 bar:1960 from: 0 till:12946 bar:1970 from: 0 till:10728 bar:1980 from: 0 till:10399 bar:1990 from: 0 till:9238 bar:2000 from: 0 till:8585 bar:2010 from: 0 till:7413 bar:2020 from: 0 till:6844 bar:2022 from: 0 till:6763 color:darkblue PlotData= bar:1870 at:1213 fontsize:S text:1213 shift:(-14,5) bar:1880 at:4862 fontsize:S text:4862 shift:(-14,5) bar:1890 at:14334 fontsize:S text:14334 shift:(-14,5) bar:1900 at:17869 fontsize:S text:17869 shift:(-14,5) bar:1910 at:14749 fontsize:S text:14749 shift:(-14,5) bar:1920 at:15177 fontsize:S text:15177 shift:(-14,5) bar:1930 at:14757 fontsize:S text:14757 shift:(-14,5) bar:1940 at:15671 fontsize:S text:15671 shift:(-14,5) bar:1950 at:13990 fontsize:S text:13990 shift:(-14,5) bar:1960 at:12946 fontsize:S text:12946 shift:(-14,5) bar:1970 at:10728 fontsize:S text:10728 shift:(-14,5) bar:1980 at:10399 fontsize:S text:10399 shift:(-14,5) bar:1990 at:9238 fontsize:S text:9238 shift:(-14,5) bar:2000 at:8585 fontsize:S text:8585 shift:(-14,5) bar:2010 at:7413 fontsize:S text:7413 shift:(-14,5) bar:2020 at:6844 fontsize:S text:6844 shift:(-14,5) bar:2022 at:6763 fontsize:S text:6763 shift:(-14,5) TextData= fontsize:S pos:(20,20) text:Data from U.S. Census Bureau ==Communities== ===Cities=== * Bathgate * Canton City * Cavalier (county seat) * Crystal * Drayton * Hamilton * Mountain * Neche * Pembina * St. Thomas * Walhalla ===Unincorporated communities=== * Backoo * Concrete (ghost town) * Gardar * Glasston * Hallson * Joliette ===Townships=== * Advance * Akra * Bathgate * Beaulieu * Carlisle * Cavalier * Crystal * Drayton * Elora * Felson * Gardar * Hamilton * Joliette * La Moure * Lincoln * Lodema * Midland * Neche * Park * Pembina * St. Joseph * St. Thomas * Thingvalla * Walhalla ===American Indian reservations=== * Pembina Band of Chippewa Indians * Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians ==Politics== Pembina County voters have traditionally backed the Republican Party. In only one national election since 1948 has the county selected the Democratic Party candidate (as of 2020). ==See also== * National Register of Historic Places listings in Pembina County, North Dakota ==References== ==External links== * Pembina County official website * Icelandic State Park * Pembina County, North Dakota in the World War (1919) from the Digital Horizons website * Homestead maps of Pembina County from the Digital Horizons website * Pembina's pride-? : our rambling court house : new county buildings--where? (1910) from the Digital Horizons website * Pembina County maps, Sheet 1 (northern) and Sheet 2 (southern), North Dakota DOT Category:North Dakota placenames of Native American origin Category:Icelandic-American culture in North Dakota Category:1867 establishments in Dakota Territory Category:Populated places established in 1867 |
Siebe Gorman & Company Ltd was a British company that developed diving equipment and breathing equipment and worked on commercial diving and marine salvage projects. The company advertised itself as 'Submarine Engineers'. It was founded by Augustus Siebe , a German-born British engineer chiefly known for his contributions to diving equipment. Siebe plc started in the 1970s as a continuation of Siebe Gorman when Siebe Gorman started to take over other firms, to mean the new conglomerate to distinguish it from Siebe Gorman's original breathing apparatus and diving gear core business. Siebe plc was once one of the United Kingdom's largest engineering businesses. It was a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index but in 1999 it merged with BTR plc to form Invensys. Invensys was taken over by the French multinational Schneider Electric for £3.4 billion in January 2014. ==History== *1788: Augustus Siebe was born in Saxony in Germany, named Christian Augustus Siebe.pages 16 etseq, The International History of Diving History vol 4 no. 1, publ. Historical Diving Society He was educated in Berlin and apprenticed to a brass founder. *1812: He served as an artillery officer at the Battle of Leipzig and narrowly escaped death. *1815: He served as an artillery officer in the Prussian army at the Battle of Waterloo. *1816: After that war he moved to London, England. He became a watchmaker, then gunmaker, then instrument maker, and settled at 5 Denmark Street in Soho, London, where he became an engineer. *1819: He started a business as a mechanical engineer at 145 High Holborn, London. He traded as Augustus Siebe and dropped the word "Christian" from his name. Down the years he produced various mechanical devices, not only diving gear.Invensys: About us *1819: He married Susannah Gliddon (from Devon). *1819: He produced a breech-loading firearm. *1823: He was awarded a Vulcan medal for a screw tap for thread cutting. *1826: He moved to 5 Denmark Street, London, which he rented. *1830: His daughter Mary Siebe was born. The company, by then trading as Siebe Gorman, developed its first diving helmet. (Later, William Augustus Gorman (formerly O'Gorman) (an Irish sea captain) married Mary Siebe.) ===Start of involvement in making diving equipment=== thumb|upright|Siebe's design, as refined by 1873. *1830: The Deane brothers asked Siebe to make a variation of their smoke helmet design for underwater use. Later they turned to him to produce more helmets for diving operations. Expanding on improvements already made by another engineer, George Edwards, Siebe produced his own design; a helmet fitted to a full length watertight canvas diving suit (standard diving dress). The real success of the equipment was a valve in the helmet. *1831: He bought 5 Denmark Street's leasehold. He lived and worked there for the rest of his life. *1856: He applied for and was given British citizenship. *1868: He bought the freehold of 5 Denmark Street. *1868: He retired because of old age and ill-health; 4 of his 5 sons had died by this time. *1870: Augustus Siebe passed his business to his son Henry Herapath Siebe and to William Augustus Gorman. The business started trading as 'Siebe & Gorman' *15 April 1872: He died at home of chronic bronchitis. He was buried at the West Norwood Cemetery. *1876: Siebe & Gorman moved to 17 Mason Street (later renamed Boniface Street), Westminster Bridge Road, Lambeth, London. *1878: Henry Fleuss with help from Siebe Gorman designed a practical oxygen rebreather: see Rebreather#History. *1880: The company's name changed to Siebe Gorman & Co. *January 1882: Robert Henry Davis (age 11) (1870–1965) joined Siebe Gorman as an office boy. Over the years he learned much and became good at breathing apparatus engineering. *1887: Henry Herapath Siebe died aged 57. *1894: Robert Davis was promoted to General Manager of Siebe Gorman. ===20th century=== *September 1900: Robert Davis married Margaret Tyrrell. *1901: Robert Davis's and Margaret Tyrrell's first son Robert William Gorman Davis was born. Over the years Robert William Gorman Davis trained as an engineer and later joined the company. *14 Feb 1904: William Augustus Gorman suddenly died aged 69. (He was buried at Claygate Church in Surrey.) The company became a new private company 'Siebe Gorman & Co. Ltd.'. *1905: The Admiralty set up the first Deep Diving Committee. *1907: The resulting naval diving tables appeared. The Admiralty approached Siebe Gorman to help develop better deep- diving gear. *1907: The Siebe Gorman Proto industrial rebreather starts to be made. The Siebe Gorman Salvus and the Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus appeared later. thumb|A Siebe Gorman gas mask (without an exhaust valve) exported in large numbers to Egypt *1930: The Admiralty set up the second Deep Diving Committee. *1932: King George V knighted Robert Davis, largely for inventing the Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus. *1938: Robert Davis, needing more room for factory expansion, bought 6 acres at Tolworth near Chessington in Surrey. The new building on it was named Neptune Works, on Davis Road. ===WWII=== *1938/39: Siebe Gorman was one of a number of British companies to receive contracts for the manufacture of tens of thousands of gas masks including the British Civilian Duty Respirator (for Civil Defence & related use) and the Respirator, Anti-Gas, Civilian Duty (for general public use). *May 1941: Siebe Gorman's factory in Lambeth was bombed during World War II. Massive loss of company and personal historical records. *1941: The company, already planning to leave London, moved to Chessington, Surrey and resumed manufacturing. It has been speculated (although without any real evidence) that André Rubber located to the same area in order to supply Siebe Gorman. *June 1943: Siebe Gorman were contracted by the 79th Armoured Division (United Kingdom) to design specialist apparatus for use by the Duplex Drive Tank crews. Known as the Amphibious Tank Escape Apparatus (ATEA) the equipment was fitted with a protosorb canister and enabled it to be used as a re-breather for up to 7 minutes. Tank crews would strap the inflated ATEA to their chests, and in the event of sinking, would fit the mouth piece and nose clips. The equipment was used extensively in training, during which crews perfected its operation in a water-filled cistern as well as on a submerged tank. No doubt it contributed to the saving of many lives especially on D Day where 35% of the tanks that swam towards the Normandy shore sunk due to the poor sea conditions. 1200 men were trained before D Day using the ATEA, and a further 300 for River Crossing. ===After WWII=== *1948: Siebe Gorman was making aqualungs of the type nicknamed 'Tadpoles'. *around 1950: Peak production of standard diving dress. After this, diving technological development in the USA more and more reduced Siebe Gorman's business, which was halved by the early 1960s. *1951: Birmingham University gave Robert Davis an honorary degree. *1952: Siebe Gorman became a limited company. Robert Davis became its managing director. *1952: Marconi and Siebe Gorman collaborated to produce an underwater television camera system. *1953: Some sport divers find how to make an aqualung regulator out of a Calor gas demand regulator, and spread this knowledge, thus bypassing the naval/industrial monopoly on making usable underwater breathing apparatus. *1954: Around now Siebe Gorman started making Cousteau-Gagnan-type aqualungs, and diving suits for commercial and sport diving. In September 1954, the inaugural issue of the British Sub-Aqua Club magazine Neptune contains a full-page Siebe Gorman advertisementSiebe, Gorman & Co. Ltd.: "'Essjee' Aqualungs (Cousteau-Gagnan Patents)", Neptune Vol. 1 No. 1 (September 1954), p. 13. for three sets of "Essjee" underwater breathing apparatus: The Standard Aqualung (single cylinder); The Twin Cylinder Aqualung (of double capacity) and The Junior Set (a smaller set than the Standard for use by young people). Special suits, swim fins, dive masks, etc. are also available. *1955 or after: Siebe Gorman stops making standard diving dress. The 1955 underwater catalogueLillywhites Ltd. Underwater Catalogue 1955, London: Lillywhites Ltd., p. 1. of the London sporting goods store Lillywhites offers the "Essjee" Standard Aqualung, Twin-Cylinder Aqualung and "Tadpole" Aqualung at £40, £65 and £38 respectively alongside the Essgee full-face mask for use with these breathing sets, the Essjee Mid-Season sponge-rubber wetsuit and the Essgee weight belt. In August 1955, Cogswell & Harrison, another London stockist of Siebe Gorman equipment, places an advertisementCogswell & Harrison Ltd. Neptune Vol. 1 No. 1 (August 1955) (New series), p. 31. in Neptune offering not only the "Essjee" single and twin aqualungs but also Siebe Gorman's Mid-Season sponge-rubber wetsuit, its stockinette-lined drysuit and its proofed gabardine Grenfell drysuit. *1956: The 1956 Lillywhites underwater catalogue introduces Siebe Gorman Mark II Essgee Aqualungs, "now modified with decreased resistance to breathing and improved flow of air".Lillywhites Ltd. Underwater Catalogue 1956, London: Lillywhites Ltd., p. 1. The 1956 Cogswell & Harrison catalogueCogswell & Harrison Ltd.: Catalogue of Underwater Swimming, Exploration and Fishing 1956, London: Cogswell & Harrison Ltd., p. 7-8, 11-14. features the Essgee breathing sets, Essgee Mid- Season sponge-rubber wetsuit, Essgee Grenfell proofed gabardine dry suit, Essgee two-piece dry suit "based on experience with wartime frogmen", "made of green rubberised cotton stockinette" and the Essgee Continental two-piece dry suit "in green vulcanised sheet rubber". *1957: Essgee Mistral Aqualung introduced, made under Cousteau-Gagnan Patents with the general design features of the Spirotechnique "Mistral" and following on the lines of development of the Essgee Mark II with double-lever action to reduce opening resistance to a minimum.Siebe, Gorman & Company: The Essgee "Mistral" Aqualung and ancillary underwater swimming equipment, Chessington, Surrey: Siebe, Gorman & Company, 1957, p. 1. The Essgee Mistral Aqualung appears in the 1957 Lillywhites underwater catalogue alongside the Essgee Mark II Aqualung.Lillywhites Ltd. Underwater Catalogue 1957, London: Lillywhites Ltd., p. 1, 3-4. From January 1957, Siebe Gorman run a series of advertisements in the British Sub-Aqua Club journal Triton offering "everything for underwater swimming" including the Essgee two-piece dry suit, the Essgee Continental two- piece dry suit and the Essgee Dive Mask Mark II.Siebe, Gorman & Co. Ltd.: "For SAFETY, FREEDOM and COMFORT underwater", Triton Vol. 2 No. 1, January/February 1957, p. 21. *1959: The Fairey Aviation Company took over Siebe Gorman. From November 1959 to April 1960, Siebe Gorman run a series of advertisements in Triton celebrating the use of Siebe Gorman wetsuits and weight belts by the British team at the World Underwater Fishing Championships off Malta and Gozo in August 1959.Siebe, Gorman & Co. Ltd.: "Siebe, Gorman go spearfishing", Triton Vol. 4 No. 6, November/December 1959, p. 1. *1960s: Siebe Gorman started making scuba gear aimed at the public market (sometimes using the tradenames Essgee and Essjee), although they had made it earlier for work divers and the Navy. They also continued to make diving bell equipment and pressure chambers. *1960: From May 1960 to June 1961, Siebe Gorman advertises a new range of Essgee Mid-Season foam neoprene wetsuits in Triton.Siebe, Gorman & Co. Ltd.: "Siebe, Gorman announce a new range of ESSGEE wet 'mid- season' suits in foam neoprene", Triton Vol. 5 No. 3, May/June 1960, p. 3. *1961: Siebe Gorman takes over the diving gear maker firm Heinke. A few helmets were given the tag of "Siebe-Heinke", but eventually the name Heinke completely disappeared. The first Siebe-Heinke advertisement for the Heinke Merlin regulator appears in the December 1961 issue of the Royal Navy Diving Magazine.Siebe-Heinke: "The Heinke Merlin Demand Valve", Royal Navy Diving Magazine Vol. 8 No. 3, Inside cover. *1962: In January, Siebe Gorman announces its merger with Heinke to Triton readers.Siebe, Gorman and Company Limited: "Now it's SIEBE HEINKE. Two great names combine to make aqualung equipment better, safer and more comfortable", Triton Vol. 7 No. 1, January/February 1962, p. 16. From May 1962 to April 1963, the company advertises "the new seamless Siebe, Heinke 'dip suit'" in Triton.Siebe Heinke: "More comfort and freedom of movement underwater in the new seamless Siebe, Heinke 'dip suit'", Triton Vol. 7 No. 3, May/June 1962, p. 14 The Siebe-Heinke Dip Suit,Siebe- Heinke Dip Suit which makes its début at the London Boat Show in January 1962, is an economically priced lightweight dipped-latex dry suit with roll-seal waist entry, primarily designed for use by "skin-divers" but also readily adaptable for use by dinghy sailors, fishermen, canoeists and water skiers. The suit appears in Lillywhites underwater catalogues from 1962 to 1964.Lillywhites Ltd. Underwater Catalogue 1962, London: Lillywhites Ltd., p. 8. Lillywhites Ltd. Underwater Catalogue 1963, London: Lillywhites Ltd., p. 2. Lillywhites Ltd. Underwater Catalogue 1964, London: Lillywhites Ltd., p. 2. With effect from December 1962, Collins and Chambers Ltd. of London E14 are appointed sole UK spares distributors and servicing engineers for all Siebe- Heinke aqualung demand valves.Siebe Gorman & Co. Ltd.: "Siebe Gorman wish to announce", Triton Vol. 8 No. 1, p. 36. Collins and Chambers subsequently become stockists of Siebe-Heinke equipment.Collins and Chambers Limited: Aqualung equipment and allied products, London: Collins and Chambers. Retrieved on 20 June 2019. *1963: Siebe-Heinke Blue Book of underwater swimming 1963 published.Siebe-Heinke: Blue Book of underwater swimming 1963, Chessington, Surrey: Siebe, Gorman & Co. Ltd, 1963. Retrieved on 20 June 2019. It comes with an introduction and a catalogue of underwater swimming equipment comprising not only the existing inventories of Siebe Gorman and Heinke but also new products including the "Dip" suit and the "Mercury mouth-held demand valve manufactured in plastic", which was also advertised in Triton from May 1963 to June 1964.Siebe Heinke: "The first all-British two-stage mouth-held aqualung demand valve", Triton Vol. 8 No. 3, May/June 1963, p. 20. *1964: Siebe-Heinke Blue Book of underwater swimming 1964-65 publishedSiebe-Heinke: Blue Book of underwater swimming 1964-65, Chessington, Surrey: Siebe, Gorman & Co. Ltd, 1964 with content broadly resembling the 1963 edition but with an expression of regret that "owing to manufacturing difficulties we can no longer supply complete Dip suits". *1965: Robert Davis dies at home on 29 March 1965 at the age of 94. Siebe Gorman issues two leaflets entitled Aqualung equipment. The firstSiebe Gorman: 1 Aqualung equipment focuses on the company's breathing sets, while the secondSiebe Gorman: 2 Aqualung equipment covers its range of dry underwater swimsuits, foam neoprene wet suits, woollen underclothing, gloves, footwear, weightbelts and weights, underwater knives and books. In the October 1965 issue of Triton, Siebe Gorman places an advertisementSiebe Gorman & Co. Ltd.: ".007. This small percentage of the credit for THUNDERBALL must go to SIEBE GORMAN", Triton Vol. 10 No. 5, September/October 1965, p. 9. alerting readers to the company's contribution to the 1965 James Bond film Thunderball: "A large proportion of the underwater scenes for the film 'Thunderball' were shot in a 150′ × 150′ tank in Pinewood. As the leading British exponents of diving, Siebe Gorman were asked to provide a team of divers whose duties were to ensure safety of the stars and cast of the film, as well as act as an underwater working party". *1966: Triton publishes articleTriton: "Undersea operation - Siebe style", Triton Vol. 11 No. 3, June/July 1966, p. 98-99. about Siebe Gorman's submersible decompression chamber. *1967-8: Siebe Gorman stops using the tradename 'Siebe Heinke'. About now, Siebe plc started as a continuation of Siebe Gorman when Siebe Gorman started to take over other firms, to mean the new conglomerate to distinguish it from Siebe Gorman's original breathing apparatus and diving gear core business. See Siebe plc for more information. *1969: Siebe Gorman issues new 20-page catalogue featuring a diver on the front cover in a "dry frogman's suit" with an integral "SeaCrown" fibreglass helmet.Siebe Gorman (1969) Diving Equipment Catalogue. Retrieved on 17 June 2019 from Vintage Double Hose / VDH Worldwide Manuals and Catalogs Repository. *1971: Using the slogan "Be in the swim with NEPTUNE",Siebe Gorman: "Be in the swim with NEPTUNE. The new two-stage diving regulator from Siebe Gorman", Triton Vol. 16 No. 2 (March/April 1971), p. 66. Siebe Gorman introduces a new single-hose, two-stage diving regulator named "Neptune".Blu Time History: Siebe Gorman Neptune. Retrieved on 17 June 2019.Siebe Gorman: Neptune instruction and maintenance manual. Retrieved on 17 June 2019 from Vintage Double Hose / VDH Worldwide Manuals and Catalogs Repository. *1975: Siebe Gorman moves to Cwmbran in Wales in 1975 and concentrates on firefighter's breathing equipment. *1979: Siebe Gorman & Co Ltd v Barclays Bank Ltd [1979] 2 Lloyd's Rep 142, a well known UK insolvency law case about book debts in debentures. *1995 October: Siebe Gorman still had their premises at Cwmbran. *1998: Siebe plc sold North Safety Products (and Siebe Gorman with it) to Norcross.Siebe confirms sale of North Safety Products business Auto Channel, 6 October 1998 *End of 1998: Norcross closed the plant at Cwmbran and transfers production of breathing apparatus to Dukinfield in Manchester, where they still had capability to make oxygen rebreathers, but did not make or overhaul any there. *End of 1999: Norcross sold what had been Siebe Gorman as a going concern to an Iranian entrepreneur Parvis Moradifor. The company was renamed Air Master Technology Limited (AMtec) from the name of the famous Siebe Gorman breathing apparatus. (Norcross itself was subsequently purchased by Honeywell for its industrial safety products. Therefore, Honeywell's North line of respiratory protective equipment can be traced back to Siebe Gorman & Company Ltd.) ===21st century=== *2000: Air Master Technology relocated to Swindon in Wiltshire. *2001: Air Master Technology ceased trading. *2001: Parvis Moradifor sells the assets and the name Siebe Gorman to a Malaysian concern, who with a factory in Malaysia, still make breathing apparatus and parts for civilian and military use, including an industrial breathing set under the name Siebe Gorman. their name is "Siebe Gorman Sdn. Bhd." * By 2014, the company has relocated to Australia. * According to Companies House, Siebe Gorman & Company was dissolved on 9 April 2019.SIEBE GORMAN & COMPANY LIMITED. Retrieved 12 March 2020. * In August 2017 the Deane Helmet, which had been rescued by John Bevan when Siebe Gorman closed down, was put on display at the Diving Museum in Gosport.Rosemary E Lunn Visit the world’s first diving helmet X-Ray Magazine ==Operations== The Company was notable for developing the "closed" diving helmet of the standard diving dress and associated equipment. As the helmet was sealed to the diving suit, it was watertight, unlike the previous "open" helmet systems. The new equipment was safer and more efficient and revolutionised underwater work from the 1830s. Colonel Charles Pasley, leader of the Royal Navy team that used Siebe's suit on the wreck of suggested the helmet should be detachable from the corselet, giving rise to the typical standard diving dress which revolutionised underwater civil engineering, underwater salvage, commercial diving and naval diving. Standard diving suit equipment was their main manufacturing operation, producing diving helmets in copper and brass. They also made frogman's equipment for the British armed forces during World War 2, and later, sport scuba gear. See makes of rebreather. Siebe Gorman and Co manufactured 12 bolt, 8 bolt, 6 bolt, 3 bolt, 2 bolt, no bolt, flange, and 12 bolt square corselet standard diving helmets. Heinke Ltd in London also made diving gear and had connections with Siebe Gorman. ==Siebe Gorman product list== ===Rebreather equipment=== This is a partial list of some of their rebreather equipment covering military and civilian, diving and non-diving. *Aircrew Rebreather "Stelox" *Aerorlox (mine rescue, liquid oxygen) *Siebe Gorman Novus SCBA *Amphibian Mark I to Mark IV *ATEA Siebe Gorman *Universal Rebreather or CDBA (Clearance Diver Breathing Apparatus) *DSEA Siebe Gorman *FireOX *Fleuss-Davis SCUBA apparatus (see Henry Fleuss) *Individual scrubber *Lungovox (a short-duration industrial oxygen rebreather in a backpack box) *Minox *MRS suit *Oxylithe *P-Party (Mark I, Mark II, and Dutch) *Proto *Proto ten *Proton *Savox *Sladen suit (as used by the British Human torpedo crews) *Salvus A.N.S *Watchkeepersuit ===Other items=== *Air lock diving-bell plant *Gasmasks *Drysuits (with tradename "Frogman" when sold to the public market) *The Bragg-Paul Pulsator medical ventilator ==References== ==External links== *Grace's guide to British Industrial History: Siebe, Gorman and Co. *Unique rebreather tear down by Jan Willem Bech on Therebreathersite *Siebe Gorman archive photographs at Trinity Marine *Siebe Gorman. *Siebe Gorman Diving Helmets Gallery. *Current Siebe Gorman website *Scrapbook of diving history: Siebe Gorman *Classic Dive Books: Robert H. Davis, books on or published by Siebe Gorman & Co. and Henry Siebe. *Siebe-Heinke Dip Dry Suit *Siebe-Heinke Frogman Dry Suits *Siebe-Gorman Diving Suits *Historical Diving Society Category:Companies formerly listed on the London Stock Exchange Category:Defunct manufacturing companies of England Category:Engineering companies of the United Kingdom Category:Former defence companies of the United Kingdom Category:Diving equipment manufacturers Category:Diving engineering Category:Manufacturing companies based in London Category:British companies established in 1819 Category:Manufacturing companies established in 1819 Category:Manufacturing companies disestablished in 1999 Category:Rebreather makers Category:1819 establishments in England Category:1999 disestablishments in England Category:Underwater diving in the United Kingdom Category:United Kingdom in World War II |
The UCF Knights are the athletic teams that represent the University of Central Florida in unincorporated Orange County, Florida near Orlando. The Knights participate in the National Collegiate Athletic Association's (NCAA) Division I (FBS for football) as a member of the Big 12 Conference. Since men's soccer is not sponsored by the Big 12, they play in the Sun Belt Conference. UCF was invited to join the Big 12 Conference on September 10, 2021, and accepted the invitation later that day. The American Athletic Conference announced on June 10, 2022 that UCF had been approved for an early exit of the conference following the 2022-23 season (albeit with an increased buyout cost), permitting them to enter the Big 12 Conference for the 2023-24 season. The "Knights of Pegasus" – as the nickname was originally called – was a submission put forth by students, staff, and faculty in 1970 who wished to replace UCF's unpopular original mascot, the Citronaut, which was a mix between an orange and an astronaut. The Knights were also chosen over "Vincent the Vulture," which was a popular unofficial mascot among students at the time. From 1993 through 2007, the teams were known as the Golden Knights. In 1994, Knightro debuted as the Golden Knights' official athletic mascot. Since 2014, the Citronaut has made a limited return for some "throwback" games in football. UCF sponsors 16 varsity sports: 6 for men (baseball, basketball, football, golf, soccer, and tennis; the minimum number of men's sports required for a Division I school) and 10 for women (basketball, cross country, golf, rowing, soccer, softball, tennis, indoor track & field, outdoor track & field, and volleyball). UCF also used to sponsor a men's wrestling team, but it was discontinued after the 1986 season. The Knights 16 varsity teams have combined to win 89 conference championships and two national championships as of the end of the 2020–21 school year, albeit neither of the national championships were bestowed by the NCAA. The women's volleyball team won in the AIAW Small College Division national title in 1978 and the football team was selected as national champions by the Colley Matrix in 2017. Neither of these titles came in NCAA sanctioned events as the NCAA does not award national championships in FBS Football and did not sponsor women's sports at all before 1982. One Golden Knights athlete, Aurieyall Scott, has won an individual NCAA championship. Scott won the 60 meter dash at the 2013 NCAA Indoor Track and Field Championship. The UCF cheerleading team (which not considered a varsity team) has captured three national titles at the College Cheerleading and Dance Team Nationals. Athletic facilities on the campus include the 45,300-seat FBC Mortgage Stadium, the 9,432–seat Addition Financial Arena, 3,000–seat Venue, John Euliano Park, the UCF Soccer and Track Stadium, and the UCF Softball Complex. ==History== === Conference affiliations === ImageSize = width:850 height:auto barincrement:10 PlotArea = top:10 bottom:50 right:100 left:20 AlignBars = late DateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy Period = from:01/01/1968 till:01/01/2031 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:01/01/1970 Colors = id:Conference value:black legend:Conference id:Conference2 value:yelloworange legend:Conference #Legend = columns:4 left:150 top:24 columnwidth:100 TextData = pos:(20,27) textcolor:black fontsize:M BarData = barset:PM PlotData= width:5 align:left fontsize:S shift:(5,-4) anchor:till barset:PM from: 01/07/1968 till: 30/06/1975 color:Conference text:"Independent" fontsize:8 from: 01/07/1975 till: 30/06/1984 color:Conference text:"Sunshine State" fontsize:8 from: 01/07/1984 till: 30/06/1990 color:Conference text:"Independent" fontsize:8 from: 01/07/1990 till: 30/06/1991 color:Conference text:"American South" fontsize:8 from: 01/07/1991 till: 30/06/1992 color:Conference text:"Sun Belt" fontsize:8 from: 01/07/1992 till: 30/06/2005 color:Conference text:"ASUN" fontsize:8 from: 01/07/2002 till: 30/06/2005 color:Conference2 text:"MAC (FB only)" fontsize:8 from: 01/07/2005 till: 30/06/2013 color:Conference text:"C-USA" fontsize:8 from: 01/07/2013 till: 30/06/2023 color:Conference text:"The American" fontsize:8 from: 01/07/2023 till: 30/06/2030 color:Conference text:"Big 12" fontsize:8 The UCF varsity athletic program was a charter member of the Sunshine State Conference in 1975. The school moved up to Division I in 1984. In its first years in D-I, UCF was a member of the American South Conference, merging into the Sun Belt Conference in 1991. Women's sports in Division I played in the New South Women's Athletic Conference until 1990, when the American South began organizing women's sports. In 1992, UCF joined the Trans America Athletic Conference (TAAC) in all D-I sports except football, which remained independent.Annual standings published in Official NCAA Football Records Book, 1992-1996 editions In 1996, UCF was advanced to I-A (FBS) in football, and initially remained independent in football until becoming a football-only member of the Mid-American Conference in 2001, the same year the TAAC became the Atlantic Sun Conference (which rebranded itself as the ASUN Conference in 2016). UCF joined Conference USA (C-USA) in all sports in 2005. It was announced in 2011 that UCF would join the Big East, the conference changed its name to the American Athletic Conference (AAC) in 2013. UCF started playing in the AAC in 2013. In September 2021, UCF received and accepted a membership offer to the Big 12 Conference. They became members of the Big 12 on July 1, 2023. === Mascot === The university's first mascot was the Citronaut, which was designed by Norman Van Meter, the brother-in-law of FTU's then-president Charles N. Millican. The Citronaut made an official appearance on a university publication, the cover of the 1968–69 student handbook. The sports teams were originally known as the "Knights of the Pegasus" – UCF's first official mascot – beginning with their first intercollegiate competitions in 1970. The moniker was switched to "Golden Knights" in 1993 as a solution to poor merchandise sales. The mascot of the athletic teams is Knightro, a black knight with golden armor. The university has asked to be identified as UCF when being referenced as opposed to Central Florida. Television networks and other media outlets, most notably ESPN, have been slow to adopt this policy. === Facilities === In 2007, UCF made major changes to its athletic program. A new "athletic village" on the north end of campus known as Knights Plaza was developed. It included new sports facilities such as the new UCF Arena (later CFE Arena and now Addition Financial Arena) connected to the existing Venue at UCF and a new 45,000-seat football stadium originally known as Bright House Networks Stadium, later as Spectrum Stadium and the stadium's nickname of Bounce House, and now as FBC Mortgage Stadium, a new softball complex, and the first Division I indoor football practice facility in the state. This made UCF the first school to ever open a new football stadium and basketball arena at the same time, for the 2007–08 season.Convocation Center Update CFE Arena The athletic village also includes the already existing Jay Bergman Field and UCF Soccer and Track Stadium. The area was built in a downtown style with four towers of student housing including approximately 1000 beds, retail and restaurant areas, and a new pedestrian mall connecting the front of the new arena to the student union, known as Memory Mall. To mark the start of the new era, the teams names were reverted to "Knights" from the "Golden Knights" on May 4, 2007. In addition, new logos and uniforms were unveiled for all of UCF's athletic programs. == Sports sponsored == Baseball Basketball Basketball Cross country Football Golf Golf Rowing Soccer Soccer Tennis Softball Tennis Track and field† Volleyball ===Basketball=== ====Men's basketball==== UCF played its first intercollegiate basketball game before the team even had a nickname. In the Division II era, under Torchy Clark, UCF found great success including a DII Final Four appearance. UCF has been a member of Division I since 1985, and has advanced to the NCAA tournament 4 times (94, 96, 04, 05), all under coach Kirk Speraw. UCF competed in the Atlantic Sun Conference (formerly called the Trans America Athletic Conference and now the ASUN Conference) from 1992 until 2005 when all sports joined C-USA, and plays in Addition Financial Arena. UCF made their debut in the C-USA Championship Tournament in the 2006 season, falling to Houston in the second round and closing out the season with the program's first losing record (14–15) since 2000–01. The Knights made a huge turnaround in the 2006–07 season, finishing 2nd in conference play to Memphis with an overall record of 22–9. The UCF Men's Basketball team played its first exhibition game in the 9,400-seat UCF Arena (now Addition Financial Arena), with an 86–78 win over the Saint Leo Lions, on November 3, 2007. Their first regular-season game in the venue was a 63–60 victory over the Nevada on November 11. Their first home C-USA game was against the Tulsa Golden Hurricane on January 11, 2008. The game was won by the Knights in triple overtime. On December 1, 2010, the Knights upset the #16 Florida Gators 57–54 at the new Amway Center in downtown Orlando, giving the Knights their first victory over a top 20 opponent as well as their first victory over the Gators. Following a 10–0 start to the 2010–11 season, the Knights were nationally ranked for the first time in program history.UCF Men's Basketball Ranked For First Time In School History At the time, UCF was one of nine unbeaten teams, and one of only four schools to be ranked in the BCS standings and the AP men's basketball poll.UCF Basketball Notoriety Grows with First National Ranking ====Women's basketball==== UCF first joined the AIAW for women's basketball in 1977–78. To conclude the 1979–80 season, the team won the Division-II Florida State Championship, before falling in their first game of the national tournament. They were promoted to AIAW Division I in its last year of existence, 1981–82, and made it to that year's District I tournament quarterfinals, before joining the NCAA in 1982–83. The women's basketball team made the NCAA Division I tournament in 1996 and 1999, and won the TAAC/Atlantic Sun regular-season title in 1999, 2003 and 2005, before joining C-USA. In 2009, UCF's women's basketball team shocked the C-USA by going 11–5 in conference play after going 2–11 in non-conference games and 10–20 the previous year, and swept through the 2009 Conference USA women's basketball tournament, dominating Southern Miss in overtime to win the championship game, 65–54, and earn its third Division I tournament appearance. ===Baseball=== thumb|175px|right|John Euliano Park,opened February 3, 2001 The baseball team is led by head coach, Terry Rooney who will entered his first season as head coach in 2009. Jay Bergman had been head coach since 1976 but was fired on May 1, 2008, after allegations arose of sexual harassment towards a male equipment coach. Bergman had a large amount of success in this position, leading UCF to eight Atlantic Sun Championships and nine NCAA Regional Appearances, and brought UCF to a national ranking of #8 in 2001. In honor of his long-term success with the Knights, on February 3, 2001, UCF opened and dedicated Jay Bergman Field, which has since been renamed to John Euliano Park. ===Football=== UCF fielded an official varsity football team for the first time in 1979, under head coach Don Jonas. Since then, the Knights have played in six bowl games, won six conference championships, produced 2 All-Americans, and two first-round draft picks. UCF has had some measure of success in football in its short NCAA history. It is the alma mater for NFL stars Brandon Marshall, Daunte Culpepper, Asante Samuel, Leger Douzable, and Bruce Miller among others. While UCF football can be traced back to its days as an NCAA Division III team under Jonas, it quickly moved up to Division II in 1982, and Division I-AA in 1990, finally matching the rest of its sports programs. In 1996, the program made its final ascension into Division I-A, now known as the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). UCF football plays as a member of The American, where it has been a member since the 2013 season. The Knights play their home games at FBC Mortgage Stadium, the team's home field since 2007. The Knights' most prominent historical football rivals are conference foes East Carolina and Tulsa, and former Conference USA rival Marshall. UCF's current main rival is in-state conference foe South Florida. For the beginning of the rivalry's existence, it was an inter-conference contest when South Florida was in the Big East and UCF in C-USA. Both schools are now members of the American Athletic Conference and play on Black Friday each year. Since beginning play in 1979, the Knights have won three conference championships and four conference division titles. UCF won the C-USA East Division in 2005, 2007, 2010 and 2012, winning the conference championship game in 2007 and 2010. The Knights were also champions of The American in 2013. Before ascending to the FBS, UCF was a leading program in Division I-AA in the early 1990s. In 1990, UCF became the first school in history to qualify for the I-AA playoffs in its first season of eligibility. The Knights once again made the postseason in 1993, and were selected as the preseason No. 1 to start the 1994 season. George O'Leary became UCF's head football coach in 2004 and had great success. The 2005 team won the school's first division championship, and earned their first trip to a bowl game, in the Knights first season in C-USA. In 2007, the Knights won their second division championship, and earned their first conference championship. During the 2009 campaign, UCF earned its first victory over a ranked opponent and third bowl appearance under O'Leary's watch. In 2010 earned their first top 25 ranking, second conference championship, and winning their first bowl game. In 2013, UCF went undefeated in conference play to win The American's conference championship in its inaugural season, earning the conference's automatic berth to a BCS game. The fifteenth-ranked Knights upset the sixth-ranked Baylor Bears 52–42 in the 2014 Fiesta Bowl to secure the program's first win a major bowl game, and pull off one of the biggest upsets of the BCS era. UCF finished the 2013 campaign by earning the program's first top-ten ranking, and with quarterback Blake Bortles being selected third overall by the Jacksonville Jaguars in the 2014 NFL Draft. Scott Frost became the head coach in 2016 as O'Leary effectively resigned from the program midway through the season in 2015. UCF defeated #7 Auburn 34–27 in the 2018 Peach Bowl on January 1, 2018, to secure the school's second major bowl victory. Citing the only undefeated season in the FBS, UCF administrators claimed a national championship football season on January 7 (the day before the College Football Playoff National Championship Game). The Colley Matrix, an NCAA recognized selector, selected UCF as the top team in the country on January 9. It was the only selector to do so, as all other recognized selectors chose the winner of the College Football Playoff National Championship, the University of Alabama. The NCAA record book places UCF under the "Final National Poll Leaders" section, but since the beginning of the BCS era in 1998 has reserved the term "National Champions" for winners of the BCS, College Football Playoff, AP Poll, or Coaches Poll. UCF is the only team which actively claims a national championship that was not awarded by one of these polls since the beginning of the BCS era, and the decision to claim the championship has earned the school criticism from national media outlets and has been mocked by fans of traditional powerhouse teams. ===Golf=== The men's golf team was formed in 1979, and has appeared in NCAA Regionals 12 times, and have played in for the NCAA Championship four times. The last time the squad reached the championship was in 2009. The 2010 men's golf team were C-USA champions. The women's golf team was founded in 1982, and has made 9 NCAA Regional appearances, and has played for two NCAA Championship in 1996 and 2018. Bryce Wallor is the head coach for the men's golf team, and Courtney Trimble is the head coach for the women's team. The Knights men's golf team plays its home matches at the Rio Pinar Country Club. The Knights women's golf team plays its home matches at the RedTail Golf Course. The Knight's golf teams practice at the UCF Golf Practice Facility, located near the UCF campus at the Twin Rivers Golf Club in Oviedo. Numerous former Knight golfers have represented the UCF on the PGA and LPGA Tours, including Robert Damron and Cliff Kresge. ===Women's rowing=== The women's rowing team was formed in 1995. They have won 5 consecutive American Athletic Conference (AAC) Rowing championships, and have appeared in 6 NCAA Championships. The team matched their highest placement (18th overall) in their most recent 2019 appearance. This included their highest ever boat placement with the Varsity 4 boat coming in 14th. The team sit with UCONN Women's Basketball and USF Women's Soccer as the only sports in the AAC to win 5 consecutive conference championships. The 2020 season begun briefly with a sweep at the metro cup regatta, but was ended early due to COVID-19. The Coaching team consists of Head Coach Becky Cramer and includes Assistant Coaches Rachel Klunder (Director of Operations), Mari Sundbo, and Montia Rice. ===Soccer=== UCF has produced a number of women's soccer stars. Most notably, Michelle Akers and Kim Wyant. Akers and Wyant were founding players on the United States women's national soccer team from 1985 to 2000. Akers helped them win the FIFA Women's World Cup in 1991 and 1999, and the 1996 Summer Olympics. Her career was so distinguished that Pelé named her among only two female players (along with fellow American Mia Hamm) on the FIFA 100 list of the greatest living soccer players in 2004. The women's program made the final of the first ever official women's intercollegiate soccer championship in 1981, as well as the first NCAA Division I Women's Soccer Championship in 1982, losing the final in each year by the identical score of 1–0 to North Carolina. The men's program has developed midfielder Eric Vasquez, who made his professional soccer debut with the Columbus Crew Major League Soccer. Vasquez later played for Miami FC in the United Soccer Leagues' First Division and the Orlando Sharks of the Major Indoor Soccer League before retiring due to injury. As well, former Knights Goalkeeper Ryan McIntosh initially signed a development deal with D.C. United of MLS. After a year with the D.C. United Reserve team, McIntosh signed with the Atlanta Silverbacks of USL Division One, where he led the team to the league final. The Silverbacks ended up losing to the Seattle Sounders. Both players were a part of the 2004 Central Florida Kraze amateur soccer team that won the Premier Development League's championship by defeating the Boulder Rapids Resevers, 1–0 at the UCF soccer stadium. Former UCF goalkeeper Sean Johnson joined the Chicago Fire of Major League Soccer in 2010. He made his pro debut on August 1 and defeated the LA Galaxy. He was a member of the United States U-20 men's national soccer team which qualified for the 2009 FIFA U-20 World Cup in Egypt. On the women's team, Aline Reis, an All-American in her freshman year in 2008, was selected to the Brazil women's national football team for the first time in 2009, playing in a friendly against a local Brazilian team in July. Former women's goalkeeper Lynzee Lee played for the Buffalo Flash of the W-League. In 2010, both the men's and women's soccer teams advanced to the NCAA Tournament. ===Softball=== The Knights softball program is the youngest team at UCF. It was founded in 2002, and the team officially started competing in the Atlantic Sun Conference in that same year under head coach Renee Luers- Gillispie. Since the program began, the Knights have won two conference tournament champions, and have appeared in the NCAA tournament three times. Renee Luers-Gillispie, who is in her tenth year with the team, has been the programs only head coach. Through the conclusion of the 2010 season, Gillispie has led the Knights to a record of 341–233–1 during her tenure, and she has an overall win–loss record of 593–437–3 during her seventeen seasons as a head coach. The Knights softball team plays its home games at the UCF Softball Complex. ===Tennis=== The men's tennis team was formed in 1970. They reached the NCAA Division II Championship consecutively from 1974 to 1978, including a third-place finish in 1977. They won the A-Sun Championship three times from 2003 to 2005 under Bobby Cashman. The current men's coach is John Roddick, brother and coach for former tennis pro Andy Roddick. The women's tennis team was formed in 1972. They have had 3 NCAA Division 1 Tournament appearances. ===Track and field=== The Knights women's track and field team has won ten total conference championships, eight in their nine years in the Atlantic Sun Conference, and won the 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013 C-USA outdoor title, and the 2011 C-USA indoor title. In 2011, the Knights were nationally ranked for the first time in program history, while at the same time ranking as the top team in the state, rising as high as No. 8 in the polls. The head coach for the track and field program is Caryl Smith Gilbert, and the assistant coaches are Jeff Chakouian, Paul Brown and LaTonya Loche. Gilbert has coached four All- Americans during her tenure at UCF, including two-time All-American Jackie Coward. The Knights track and field teams hold their outdoor home meets at the UCF Soccer and Track Stadium, which is part of Knights Plaza. === Former Sports === ==== Wrestling ==== From 1970–1986, UCF sponsored a men's wrestling program. The team qualified for the NCAA Division II championship in 1979 and 1984, finishing in 26th and 29th respectively; and the Division I championship in 1986, finishing 71st. The team was discontinued after 1986 due to financial reasons. === Championships === Two Knights teams have won national championships, though neither was awarded by the NCAA. Upon joining the Big 12 conference, the Knights became one of three Power Five conference schools without a team NCAA National Championship, along with Kansas State and Virginia Tech. The 1978 women's volleyball team captured UCF's first national team championship, three years before the NCAA began governing women's sports. The team won the AIAW Small College Division championship as Florida Technological University within days of university leadership's vote to change the school's name. In 2017 the UCF Knights football team went undefeated and was selected by the Colley Matrix as its top team. The Colley Matrix is one of more than 40 polls, rankings, and formulas recognized by the NCAA in its list of college football's "national poll leaders" chosen by major selectors."National champions: UCF Knights finish season ranked No. 1 in Colley Matrix" Orlando Sentinel. Retrieved 2018-09-01. Its selections since 1992 are recognized by the NCAA. The extent of NCAA recognition of all major selectors is in the form of acknowledgment in the annual NCAA Football Guide of the unofficial national champions. However, UCF was not selected to play in the College Football Playoff in 2017; all major selectors except for Colley Matrix chose Alabama as the 2017 national champion. Two Knights athletes have won individual national titles as well, one of which came in an NCAA- sanctioned event. The first was when Aurieyall Scott won the 60-meter dash at the 2013 NCAA Women's Indoor Track and Field Championship. The other title came when Trey Hilderbrand won the Men's Singles title in the 2020 ITA Fall Indoor National Championship. ==== NCAA championships ==== * Individual (1) ** Aurieyall Scott – 2013 NCAA Division I Women's Indoor Track and Field: 60-meter dash ==== Non-NCAA championships ==== * Team (2) ** Men (1) *** Football (FBS): 2017 (non-consensus champion, Colley Matrix) ** Women (1) *** Volleyball (AIAW Small College Division): 1978 * Individual (1) ** Trey Hilderbrand – 2020 ITA Indoor National Fall Championship: Men's Singles ==Club sports== The University of Central Florida through the Recreation and Wellness Center and the student government also fields a number of club sports of varying degrees of competitiveness, though most compete only with other teams from the southeastern part of the country. These sports are funded by the university's student government association. The club sports include bass fishing, bowling, running, cycling, fencing, golf, ice hockey, judo, jiu- jitsu, kiteboarding, lacrosse, paintball, racquetball, rugby, sailing, surfing, table tennis, taekwondo, team handball, tennis, triathlon, ultimate frisbee, men's volleyball, water polo, water skiing, wheelchair basketball, and wrestling. ===Ice hockey=== UCF's ice hockey team was founded in 1997 and competes in the Southern Collegiate Hockey Conference in Division II of the American Collegiate Hockey Association. The team plays its home games at the RDV Sportsplex in Maitland, Florida. Since becoming head coach in 1999, Sean Weaver led the Knights to eight consecutive national tournament appearances, and placed 3rd in the 2007–08 and 2010–11 seasons. ===Lacrosse=== UCF's men's lacrosse teams compete in the SouthEastern Lacrosse Conference of the Men's Collegiate Lacrosse Association at the Division I level. The team was founded in 1997 and plays at the university's intramural fields. It is currently coached by Austin Ricci. ===Rugby=== Founded in 1988, UCF's Rugby Club plays in Division I of college rugby in the South Independent Conference against local rivals such as Florida State and South Florida. The Knights are led by Head Coach Jason Granich but has recently been changed to Raoul Besse. The Knights have enjoyed a lot of success over the last couple of years thanks to hard work, coaching, and some of the best conditioning in the league. They are back-to-back national champions in D1-AA and have won a handful of Rugby Sevens tournaments. The trajectory of the 2015 season is looking positive with the Knights qualifying for the National Sevens Championship, ranked number one in the SIRC South Division, and ranked 7th in the entire nation. The Knights have had one of the better college rugby programs in Florida in recent years. In Fall 2011, UCF reached the finals of the Collegiate Rugby Florida Cup.UCF Rugby, Epic final at Gainesville, The Knights finished the 2011–12 season ranked 17th with a record of 12–5, including splitting the season series against No. 6 ranked FSU.Rugby Mag, Final Men's D1-AA College Top 25 of 2011/2012, May 23, 2012, Rugby Mag, Men's D1-AA College Top 25, March 19, 2012, In spring 2013, the Knights won the DI-AA national championship. They defeated Tennessee 31–17 in the round of 16, defeated Clemson 24–20 in the quarterfinals,Rugby Mag, UCF Proud Stepchild of DIAA Final Four, May 1, 2013, http://www.rugbymag.com/index.php/men's-di-college/7908-ucf-proud-stepchild- of-diaa-final-four.html and defeated Dartmouth 45–38 in the semifinals. UCF won the national championship by defeating Lindenwood in the final 27–25, with team captain Gerhard Veit also scoring two tries. UCF repeated in 2014 as D1-AA national champion. They beat South Carolina in the quarterfinals (44-28) and San Diego in the semifinals(43-5). UCF defeated Arizona in the final behind the efforts of MVP Scott Watters. The final score was an impressive 64–13."Central Florida Repeats in DI-AA" , Rugby Mag, May 11, 2014. UCF has also had success in rugby sevens. UCF rugby won the first tournament in Estero in the Fall 2012 Florida Sevens Championship with a 4–0 record, including a 24–5 win over FSU in the final. The Knights went undefeated and beat UNF 36–15 in the final to win the 2012 Florida Cup.Examiner.com, USF Bulls prepare for weekend two of the 2012 Florida Sevens Championship, September 13, 2012Rugby Mag, UCF Takes !st in Series, September 8, 2012, The Knights continued this in the 2015 tournament. The Knights (who were the lowest seed) dominated the top ranked team, Middle Tennessee with the final score 31–7. The Knights would go on to win all there matches, including the championship game against Georgia Tech edging them out 19–12. ==War on I-4 rivalry== UCF's main rival is the University of South Florida Bulls, who are located 98 miles southwest in Tampa. The first meeting between the two schools was a baseball game in 1971, where the South Florida Golden Brahmans beat the Florida Tech Knights of the Pegasus 5–1. The close geographic proximity and the schools being founded around the same time (South Florida in 1956 and Central Florida in 1963) made the schools naturally become rivals. The two schools became conference foes for the first time in 2013, when UCF joined the American Athletic Conference. The rivalry gets its name from Interstate 4, which runs through both Tampa and Orlando. The rivalry was officially recognized by both schools on September 21, 2016, when it was announced that a rivalry series between all 14 sports that both schools sponsor would begin (USF is the only one of the two schools to offer men's cross country, women's sailing, and men's track & field while UCF is the only one of the two schools to offer women's rowing). Each sport is worth six total points, and sports where the teams meet head to head multiple times in the regular season will have the six points divided by the number of games played, meaning the point system typically grants: * 2 points to the winner of each regular season baseball game (3 games per year) * 3 points to the winner of each regular season men's basketball game (2 games per year) * 3 points to the winner of each regular season women's basketball game (2 games per year) * 6 points to the higher finisher at the American Athletic Conference Women's Cross Country Championship * 6 points to the winner of the annual football game * 6 points to the higher finisher at the American Athletic Conference Men's Golf Championship * 6 points to the higher finisher at the American Athletic Conference Women's Golf Championship * 6 points to the winner of the annual regular season men's soccer match (3 points awarded to each side in the event of a draw) * 6 points to the winner of the annual regular season women's soccer match (3 points awarded to each side in the event of a draw) * 2 points to the winner of each regular season softball game (3 games per year) * 6 points to the winner of the annual regular season men's tennis match. * 6 points to the winner of the annual regular season women's tennis match. * 3 points to the higher finisher at the American Athletic Conference Women's Indoor Track & Field Championship * 3 points to the higher finisher at the American Athletic Conference Women's Outdoor Track & Field Championship * 3 points to the winner of each regular season volleyball match (2 matches per year) * In the event of a tie in the overall competition, the athletic program that scores higher in the annual NCAA Graduation Success Rate will be awarded 1 extra point and crowned as the champion for that season. In the unlikely event that this is also tied, the series ends as a tie for that season and the previous winner retains the trophy. Only regular season matches are counted toward War on I-4 point totals for the 10 sports in which the teams compete head to head, meaning if the teams meet in a conference or NCAA tournament that game doesn't count for War on I-4 competition purposes. The winner each year will take possession of a large trophy shaped like an Interstate road sign, which will be displayed on their campus for the following year. One side of the trophy reads "Tampa" and features the USF logo while the other reads "Orlando" and features the UCF logo. The winner of the annual Thanksgiving weekend football clash receives a similarly shaped "War On I-4" trophy. As of 2020, USF leads UCF in the all-time series for football (6–5), men's basketball (23–16), women's basketball (28–13), baseball (75–69), softball (18–12), men's soccer (26–7–4), men's tennis (34–8), women's tennis (19–7) and volleyball (49–39). UCF only leads in women's soccer (11–4–4), but UCF has won all three overall War on I-4 titles since 2016, and led USF in the 2019–2020 edition of the rivalries, but the title was not awarded due to spring sports being canceled by the NCAA because of COVID-19. ==Spirit programs== ===Cheerleading=== The UCF cheerleading squad has captured three national titles at the D1 College Cheerleading and Dance Team Nationals, in 2003, 2007 and 2020. In 2008, the WE Original weekly series Cheerleader U followed the UCF cheerleaders through an entire season. In 2013, the 2003 UCF Cheerleading Team, who won the UCA College Cheerleading Division IA national championship in 2003, was the first team inducted into the UCF Athletics Hall of Fame. ===Marching Knights and KnightMoves=== The Marching Knights were formed after the start of the football program in 1979, and is the largest and most visible student organization at the university. They are known for their high energy performances, unique and contemporary drill designs, and musical selections ranging from jazz, to pop, to classical. Over 300 members perform for fans at each home UCF football game and select away games, as well as any bowl games. The university's coordinated dance team, KnightMoves, is considered to be one of the nation's top college programs, and features 12-18 girls each year. The team performs year round at school and athletic events, such as Spirit Splash, pep rally's, and football and basketball games. KnightMoves has finished in the top-10 at the College Cheerleading and Dance Team Nationals for the past two-years. ===Cheers=== "Black and gold" is a cheer that is very popular at home games, with one part of the student section yelling "Black!", and the other part of the section answering back with their loudest "Gold!" This can go back and forth for several minutes, with both sides competing to be the louder. Another popular cheer at games occurs during the national anthem when students loudly exclaim "Knight" during the line, "Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there." This cheer is controversial within the fanbase, with many fans finding it disrespectful. The University of Central Florida Fight Song is titled 'Charge On'. In 2019, the UCF Cheerleading Team became national champions in the UCA Division 1A Gameday division. ==Athletic facilities== Since 2000, the UCF has invested significant capital and effort in the construction, expansion and improvements of its major sports programs and their facilities. In 2007, UCF opened the new 45,000–seat FBC Mortgage Stadium, and the new 9,000 seat Addition Financial Arena. In 2011, the university renovated the UCF Soccer and Track Stadium, increasing capacity to over 2,000 and adding amenities such as clubhouses and restrooms. In 2011, UCF completed a major renovation of John Euliano Park, expanding it to a total capacity at 4,180. Since 2017, the men's and women's tennis teams are the only teams who play their home games at a facility that isn't owned by the university, instead playing at the USTA National Campus in Lake Nona roughly 20 miles away from campus. The rowing team is the only other team that does not compete on campus, as the UCF Intercollegiate Rowing Center is on Lake Pickett, about eight miles from campus. File:Texas at UCF wide view from endzone.jpg|FBC Mortgage Stadium File:Knights Plaza Wide.jpg|Addition Financial Arena (left) File:JayBergmanField.jpg|John Euliano Park File:UCFTrackSoccerComplex.jpg|UCF Soccer and Track Stadium ==Notable alumni== As a competitor in college athletics, UCF has many notable student athletes, coaches and staff members, such as NFL players Blake Bortles, A. J. Bouye, Daunte Culpepper, Gabe Davis, Richie Grant, Brandon Marshall, Latavius Murray, Matt Prater, Josh Sitton, Asante Samuel, and twin brothers Shaquem and Shaquill Griffin; former NBA guard Jermaine Taylor and current NBA center Tacko Fall; NASCAR driver Aric Almirola; and soccer stars Michelle Akers and Sean Johnson. Currently, more than 50 UCF alumni compete in professional basketball, football, baseball and golf. ==Athletic directors== Athletic director Years Frank Rohter 1968-1974 Jack O'Leary 1976–1981 Bill Peterson 1982–1985 Gene McDowell 1985–1992 Steve Sloan 1993–2002 Steve Orsini 2002–2006 Keith R. Tribble 2006–2011 Todd Stansbury 2012–2015 George O'Leary 2015 Danny White 2015–2021 Terry Mohajir 2021–Present ==See also== *List of college athletic programs in Florida ==References== ==External links== * *Knights Email Category:1970 establishments in Florida |
This is the list of characters appearing in the anime Tamagotchi! and its anime movies. ==Main characters== ===Mametchi=== :Voiced by: Rie Kugimiya (Japanese), Erica Mendez (Tamagotchi Friends webisode dub), Stephanie Sheh (Let's Go! Tamagotchi and Tamagotchi: The Movie's English dub) is the central character of the Tamagotchi! series. He is a member of the Mame family. He was born officially on November 23. He is intelligent, kind-hearted, and easy to get along with. Mametchi is a young inventor who creates helpful inventions for his friends, but they have a chance of exploding. Mametchi is also tone- deaf, and isn't a good painter or singer at all. Almost everyone criticizes his singing except Melodytchi, who enjoys it. His singing would improve later in the anime. Mametchi's best friends are Memetchi and Kuchipatchi. The three have shared such close bonds since childhood. He has make friendly rival with KuroMametchi. He would later develop friendships with Lovelitchi (Lovelin). Himespetchi also has strong feelings for Mametchi that he's unaware of, but he still treats her like a friend. In Tamagotchi!, Mametchi would forgive Lovelitchi for keeping her identity a secret, create Tama-Profies that could store Tama-Hearts inside and give them to Lovelitchi & Melodytchi, and help save Tamagotchi Planet from an egg curse. In Tamagotchi! Yume Kira Dream, Mametchi, Memetchi, & Kuchipatchi depart to Dream Town. Mametchi initially homestayed with an elderly Tamagotchi named Ikaritchi, who initially treated him poorly but eventually changed his ways. After Ikaritchi departed to sell apples, Mametchi homestayed with Pianitchi at Music Cafe. In Tamagotchi! Miracle Friends, Mametchi assists Miraitchi & Clulutchi in retrieving the lost Dreambakutchis. In GO-GO Tamagotchi!, Mametchi reunites will all his friends as a result of the Tamagottsun. In the series finale of the Tamagotchi anime, Mametchi invents the DreamTama Rainbow, a submarine-like vehicle that permits transportation all across Tamagotchi Planet. ===Lovelitchi/Lovelin=== :Voiced by: Kei Shindō (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) , also known as , is Tamagotchi Planet's most famous and youngest celebrity idol. She is born on September 10 and her star sign is Virgo. Usually the main female protagonist of the first series, Lovelitchi is a shy but kind girl who likes to meet new people and make friends. However she can be very nervous at times due to having many fans because of her Lovelin identity. Though Lovelitchi tends to get a lot of courage from her friends to stand up on her own. She also likes to help out others and likes singing, dancing and trying out new outfits. Lovelitchi is the daughter of Lovepapalitchi, who runs a photo shop and Lovemamalitchi, who runs the Tama Cafe on Tama Street, as well as a big sister to her new brother Lovesoratchi. Lovelitchi usually lives a double life as Lovelin to prevent people from knowing her true identity while working on stage. As Lovelin, she is very confident and outgoing and likes her fans. She also acted in various shows and movies done by TAMAX-TV. Also, Lovelin is very good singer, with all of her songs being well known in the entire Tamagotchi Planet. However, it caused a lot of jealousy from some people especially to her past classmates in the previous schools she attended. She usually ended up getting bullied by her own classmates, using her popularity as a tool to get anything they desired. After she transferred to Tamagotchi School, Mametchi accepted her through open arms and treated her as a true tama-friend. After then, Mametchi and his friends knew her secret after she revealed it during his birthday party and decided to protect her double identity. She usually make acquaintances with Mametchi, Memetchi and Kuchipatchi and they appear in some of her shows. Mametchi supports her and have am feelings with her. She became best friends with Melodytchi after seeing her perform on television and both of them became true Tama-Friends. By the end of the first series, she and the rest of the cast were absent after Mametchi, Memetchi and Kuchipatchi moved to Dream Town. She only make appeared once during Tamagotchi! Yume Kira Dream, in episode 10 where she and the other Tamagotchis gave Mametchi a party to celebrate his birthday and welcome him back home. She then reappeared in GO-GO Tamagotchi and encounter with Yumemitchi and Kiraritchi in her Lovelin identity. ===Memetchi=== :Voiced by: Ryōka Yuzuki (Japanese), Stephanie Sheh (Let's Go! Tamagotchi and Tamagotchi: The Movie's English dub) is the oldest sibling of the Meme Family and Imotchi's older sister. She's born on October 10 and her star sign is Libra. She, Mametchi and Kuchipatchi were all childhood friends when they were toddlers and remained best friends up to today. Usually very girly, feminine yet childlike, Memetchi is always obsessed about the curly hair on top of her head; she can get very angry even sensitive when people make fun of it. She can get quite angry at times, but she can be a crybaby when she's been bullied. Memetchi also likes fashion and accessories like Lovelitchi and usually has a rivalry with Makiko since they were young, and often fights with her to find out who has the better curls. But unlike Makiko, she herself matters friendship more than her looks. Memetchi also has a special ability using her curls, on which she use it to sense things. She can also sense her surroundings and assume the correct path by curling it, thought this fails in some situations when her hair curl is damaged, or got wet in the rain. Her curl is also very delicate and she can lose her sense of direction when it got broken. By the first series's epilogue, she, Mametchi and Kuchipatchi had moved to Dream Town to study abroad in order to become the best hairdresser. She stays at the Salon De Dream, one of Dream Town's famous salons and also acts as a Saxophone Player for the Kira Kira Girls. She was then reunited by her old friends in GO-GO Tamagotchi, after the Tamagottsun event. ===Kuchipatchi=== :Voiced by: Asami Yaguchi (Japanese), Evelyn Lantto (Let's Go! Tamagotchi and Tamagotchi: The Movie's English dub) is the oldest sibling of the Kuchi Family and the older brother to both the Chibipatchi twins. He is born on May 18 and his stat sign is Taurus. He, Mametchi and Memetchi were all childhood friends when they were toddlers and remained best friends up to today. He is very dimwitted and usually very carefree but lazy, usually ending is speeches with . He is also shown to be very fond on food and likes to eat a lot of them, usually he cannot stop eating all at once. Kuchipatchi himself has an ability to move his body like rubber and despite his looks he is very flexible, able to morph into a ball or stretch his own body. By the first series's epilogue, he, Mametchi and Memetchi had moved to Dream Town to study abroad in order to become the best cook. She stays at the Dream Hanten, Dream Town's Chinese restaurant and learns how to cook like a pro. He was then reunited by his old friends in GO-GO Tamagotchi, after the Tamagottsun event. ===Telelin=== :Voiced by: Tomoko Kaneda (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) is Lovelitchi's priced cellphone that she received from her parents. She got it after she first became an idol star. However, during the events of Episode 27 when the cast were sent to the past, Telelin came to life after her power is needed to charge Mamemametchi's machine to save the planet and after returning to the present, she became a recurring main character. She has a strange personality and often makes an unexpected remark, which ends up with Lovelitchi/Lovelin scolding her. She also believes in paranormal activity and knows ghosts exist. Usually Lovelitchi carries her inside her bag. ===Melodytchi=== :Voiced by: Yuuko Sanpei (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) is an famous violinist hailing from Melody Land, Melodytchi is Lovelitchi's Tama Friend. She is born on December 29 and her star sign is Capricorn. Melodytchi is a very outgoing girl unlike Lovelitchi and very outgoing, fun loving and confident. She is also like doing activities from her friends, but sometimes gets over-excited. She is also very optimistic and cheers people up when they're down. Melodytchi also works for TAMAX TV and usually performs alongside Lovelin in some of their performances. Her parents, Melomamatchi and Melopapatchi are both famous singers and composers in Melody Land. She is also shown to be fluent in English. Usually she wears a black hat and sometimes takes it off to reveal her two cat-like ears. She usually stays in the Tama-Cafe alongside her Tama Pets Doremitchi and Sopratchi. Even though being away, she usually cares about her parents. Meloditchi is shown that she can't understand love but she likes to make jokes. She also like sweets and usually argues with Kuchipatchi sometimes over a cookie. Meloditchi also owns her priced instrument, the in which she plays it in all of her performances. The violin is given to her by the Queen of Melody land after her first performance and chose her as its owner. She calls her violin My Friend and discovers it has a spirit inside it. By the end of the first series, she and the rest of the cast were absent after Mametchi, Memetchi and Kuchipatchi moved to Dream Town. She then reappeared in GO-GO Tamagotchi and became friends with Pianitchi. ===Moriritchi=== :Voiced by: Chiwa Saitō (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) is one of the owners of the Tamamori Shop and the younger sister of Anemoriritchi, Moriritchi is also one of Lovelitchi's best friends. Her birthday is in September 21 and her star sign is Virgo. First appearing in Episode 71 as a transfer student, Moriritchi is very outgoing girl who is active, bright and cheerful. She is also very good on Tamamori, a type of girly fashion present in Tamagotchi Planet and usually uses it to cheer her friends up. She usually has long, floppy ears, which she ties it into a fluffy cone-shaped hair and decorated with heart decorations. She usually carries her camera, Pashalin onto her ears and she has a good relationship with her. By the end of the first series, she and the rest of the cast were absent after Mametchi, Memetchi and Kuchipatchi moved to Dream Town. She then reappeared in GO-GO Tamagotchi and became friends with Coffretchi and Candy Paku Paku. ===Pashalin=== :Voiced by: Natsuko Kuwatani (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) is Moriritchi's prized digital camera. She is first created in Antique Town by her inventor, Firumutchi before Moriritchi found it, but doesn't work. Due to a freak accident by Mametchi when fixing Pashalin, she accidentally came to life and has been friends with Moriritchi ever since. She has the same personality as Moriritchi and usually copies things that she says, and also likes to ride onto Moriritchi's ears. However Anemoriritchi despises her due to that she has embarrassing photos of her on which she wanted to be deleted. Thought Moriritchi was unaware of her sister's actions to her. ===Spacytchi=== :Voiced by: Yasuyuki Kase (Japanese) is the leader of the , a group composed of him, Akaspetchi and Pipospetchi who originated on another planet to take over Tamagotchi Planet. He is very ambitious, stubborn and selfish yet he hides it from everyone as he behaves nicely to them. Though he desires to conquer the planet, his plans always fail miserably. He also has a short temper to his fellow brothers yet he cares for the both of them. Spacytchi claimed that aliens doesn't exist though he is one. Despite his selfish personality, he also shows a bit of kindness towards others and usually befriends Mametchi and the others in school, though he sometimes very reluctant on carrying out his plans. He has a crush on Himespetchi, however she doesn't usually notice him. He and the others left near the end of the series, and appeared again in the first episode of Yume Kira Dream. It is unknown how he end up in Dream Town. ===Akaspetchi=== :Voiced by: Miho Hino (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) is a member of the Spacy Brothers, a group composed of Spacytchi, Akaspetchi and Pipospetchi who originated on another planet to take over Tamagotchi Planet. He is very smart and mature, also very nice and friendly and nice but as evil as Spacytchi. He usually looks up after him and usually worried about things and panic sometimes. Spacytchi usually gets confused to him as he was always scolded him to stop talking. He usually refers Spacytchi as Aniki and end his speeches in . He also has a crush at Imotchi, and he usually talks to her. He and the others left near the end of the series, and appeared again in the first episode of Yume Kira Dream. It is unknown how he end up in Dream Town. ===Pipospetchi=== is a member of the Spacy Brothers, a group composed of Spacytchi, Akaspetchi and Pipospetchi who originated on another planet to take over Tamagotchi Planet. He is very kind and sweet however he is also the most evil of all the Spacy Brothers. Although this only comes out when the brothers are discussing their plans for world domination and think his plans are very dangerous. He also demonstrate incredibly powerful abilities and can lift heavy objects. He also sneaks away from the other brothers and does the job himself, with sometimes makes all of his plans work. He usually can't talk normally like the others and always speaks similar to a computer. It's also shown that he has a crush on Chamametchi and she is one of the people who can understand what he's saying. He and the others left near the end of the series, and appeared again in the first episode of Yume Kira Dream. It is unknown how he end up in Dream Town. ===Himespetchi=== :Voiced by: Yukana (Japanese) is a female Tamagotchi and the princess of the planet she originated on, similar to the Spacy Brothers. She was born on February 14 and her star sign is Aquarius. Debuting in episode 114, Himespetchi came to Tamagotchi Planet in order to study for 6 months. She usually enjoys cooking and has a romantic personality, usually gushing out her love to Mametchi, and also can take his bad singing. She tries to keep this crush a secret from others, but is not very good at controlling herself when she daydreams about Mametchi. Himespetchi is very friendly and also outgoing girl and always daydreams about Mametchi as a hot guy all the time. She isn't shy like the others except when she's around Mametchi and has a tendency to be in the wrong place at the wrong time especially when he's with others girls which upsets her. Spacytchi has a crush on her as well, but she doesn't take any interest in him. Himespetchi also knew Spacytchi back on their home planet as well when they were little. She is shown to be scared on slugs and snails and usually says and when she's embarrassed. She uses the to predict the future and in order to win Mametchi's heart. She also appears in Yume Kira Dream as she moved from Tamagotchi Town to Dream Town in order to be with Mametchi and also finish her studies. She also acts as the Drummer for the Kira Kira Girls. But by episode 34, her parents ordered her to return to her home planet and by episode 35, she left Tamagotchi Planet completely. She made a comeback in GO- GO Tamagotchi. ==Tamagotchi Town== ===Tamagotchi School=== ; :Voiced by: Nanae Katō (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Kiyotaka Furushima (Japanese.Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Hinako Sasaki (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Akemi Okamura (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Wasabi Mizuta (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Yuko Gibu (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Akiko Kawase (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Junko Takeuchi, Mayumi Yamaguchi (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Akeno Watanabe (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) A young chubby girl who is Orenetchi's older sister. Like Orenetchi, she had a crush on KuroMametchi and is a good cheerleader. She befriends Himespetchi in episode 3 of GO-GO Tamagotchi. ; :Voiced by: Yuuko Sanpei (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) A young boy who is Neenetchi's younger brother. He admires KuroMametchi to the point where he often daydreams of him. He is cheerful and can be mischievous. He is a member of DoriTama Eleven, DoriTama Town's soccer team. ; :Voiced by: Tokuyoshi Kawashima (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Yūko Gibu (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Yūko Gibu (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Yuri Chinen (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Akiko Kawase (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Jun Konno (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Jun Konno (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Kiyotaka Furushima, Daisuke Matsuo (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: AKIKO, Miho Hino (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Katsuyuki Konishi (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Chika Fujimura (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Akiko Kawase (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Yuri Chinen (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Kana Uetake (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Hinako Sasaki (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Akiko Kawase ; :Voiced by: Kana Uetake (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Nami Okamoto (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Nanae Katō (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Nami Okamoto (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Miho Hino & Kana Uetake (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: Taeko Kawata (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ====School Faculty==== ; :Voiced by: Hiroshi Ōtake (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Kurumi Mamiya (Japanese) English: Evelyn Lanto She is the teacher of the Grippatchi's class, which consists of Mametchi, Memetchi, Kuchipatchi, Lovelitchi, Telelin, Melodytchi, Moriritchi, Pashalin, Himespetchi, Spacytchi, Kuromametchi, Gozarutchi, Flowertchi, Makiko, Uwasatchi, Debatchi, Mimitchi, Watawatatchi, Nachuratchi, Ponpontchi, Sunopotchi, Togetchi, Hinotamatchi, Ringotchi, Dorotchi, Yattatchi, Nemutchi, Tomomi, and Kizunatchi. ; :Voiced by: He is the teacher of the Mr. Turtlepedia's class, which consists of Chamametchi, Imotchi, Kikitchi, Akaspetchi, Pipospetchi, Octodogtchi, Gourmetchi, Kumattatchi, Eco-usatchi Triplets, Atsuatsutchi, Kunoitchi, Sabusabutchi, Himetchi, Nonopotchi, Young Mametchi, Young Dorotchi, Bokutchi, Shoototchi, Shigurehimetchi, Kuishinbotchi, and Perotchi. ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: Kiyotaka Furushima (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) Professor Flask is the teacher of the science class, which consists of Chamametchi, Imotchi, Kikitchi, Dorotchi, Kumattatchi, Gourmetchi, Octodogtchi, Kunoitchi, Nonopotchi, and Himetchi. ; :Voiced by: Tokuyoshi Kawashima (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: Suguru Inoue (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ===Parents and Relatives=== ; :Voiced by: Tokuyoshi Kawashima (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: Satomi Kōrogi (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: Konishi Katsuyuki (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Kawase Akiko (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: Jun Konno (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Chika Fujimura (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Aki Kaneda (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: Mariko Kouda (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Rei Shimoda (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: Mai Kadowaki (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: Rumi Shishido (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; and :Voiced by: Satomi Korogi (Doremitchi), Ken Miyake (Sopratchi) Doremitchi and Sopratchi are Melodytchi's twin Tama-Pets, who accompany her during her stay in Tamagotchi Town. Doremitchi is more spoiled and loves to sing and dance while Sopratchi is more of a tomboy who looks after her twin. Both of them like Melodytchi's music on her Melody Violin and Melody Charm, however they despise Mametchi's singing voice due to it causes them to get annoyed. ===Royalty=== ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ===Citizens=== ; :Voiced by: Masami Kikuchi (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: Katsuyuki Konishi (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ===Tama Pet=== ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ;Shurikentchi :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: Mika Kanai (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ==Patchi Forest== is a forest located just outside of Tamagotchi Town. It is home to Kuchipatchi and Nachuratchi. ===Main characters=== ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ==Challenge Town== ==TAMAX-TV and YUMEX-TV== ===TAMAX-TV=== ; :Voiced by: Tokuyoshi Kawashima (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: Nanae Katou (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: Rie Kugimiya (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Yuka Takakura (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: Miyuki Sawashiro (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: ===YUMEX-TV=== ; :Voiced by: Kōichi Sakaguchi (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Mariya Ise (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Natsuko Kuwatani (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Kei Shindou (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Ai Kayano (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Yonai Yuuki (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Masako Jou (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: ==Melody Land== is a musical town located far away from Tamagotchi Town. It is also the hometown of Melodytchi and Pianitchi. ===Royalty=== ; :Voiced by: Mikako Takahashi (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ===Citizens=== ; :Voiced by: Chiemi Chiba (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ==North North Point== is a small village found at the top of Tamagotchi Planet, far from Tamagotchi Town. North North Point is similar the North Pole on Earth. It is the hometown of Nonopotchi, Sunopotchi and Yukipatchi. ===Main characters=== ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: ==Pichi Pichi Island== ==Toko Natsu Island== ==Toko Fuyu Island== ==Ha Island== ===Main characters=== ; :Voiced by: Mariya Ise (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) a young Tama heart collector who is actually the servant of HatoKamitchi, she appeared for the first time in Lovelitchi TamaProfy and she became extremely popular for her cute appearance, she often gets exited when Lovelitchi and Melodytchi getting a new heart, in the last episode of Tamagotchi! first series she evolved to her new from and leaving. ==The Earth== ===Main characters=== ; :Voiced by: Ayana Taketatsu (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ==Dream Town== ===Main characters=== ; :Voiced by: Misato Fukuen (Japanese) Christine Marie Cabanos (Tamagotchi Friends webisode dub) ; :Voiced by: Megumi Toyoguchi (Japanese) Cassandra Lee Morris (Tamagotchi Friends webisode dub) ; :Voiced by: Ikumi Nakagami (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Fumiko Orikasa (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Mamiko Noto (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Emiri Katō (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Chiwa Saitō (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Etsuko Kozakura (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; / :Voiced by: Takahiro Mizushima (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Akeno Watanabe (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Ai Matayoshi (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ===Dream School=== ; :Voiced by: Chiwa Saitō (Japanese) ; :Voiced by: Satomi Kōrogi (Japanese) ; :Voiced by: Kawase Akiko (Japanese) Cristina Vee (Tamagotchi Friends webisode dub) ; :Voiced by: Yuko Gibu (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Mariya Ise (Japanese) ; :Voiced by: Natsuko Kuwatani (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Sanpei Yuko (Japanese) ; :Voiced by: Chiaki Naitou (Japanese) ; :Voiced by: Akemi Okamura (Japanese) ; :Voiced by: Jun Konno (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Kiyotaka Furushima (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Chika Fujimura (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Hinako Sasaki (Japanese) Cristina Vee (Tamagotchi Friends webisode dub) ; :Voiced by: Kei Shindou (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Chiwa Saitō (Japanese) Cristina Vee (Tamagotchi Friends webisode dub) ; :Voiced by: Kei Shindou (Japanese) ; :Voiced by: Chiwa Saitō (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Natsuko Kuwatani (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Chiaki Naitou (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Hinako Sasaki (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Chiaki Naitou (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Chiaki Naitou (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Ikumi Nakagami (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Kuwatani Natsuko (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Ikumi Nakagami (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Hinako Sasaki (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Suguru Inoue (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ===School Faculty=== ; :Voiced by: Tokuyoshi Kawashima (Japanese) ; :Voiced by: Jun Konno (Japanese) He is the teacher of the Mr. Kokubantchi's class, which consists of Mametchi, Memetchi, Kuchipatchi, Himespetchi, Spacytchi, Yumemitchi, Kiraritchi, Pianitchi, Coffretchi, Miraitchi, Clulutchi, Watchlin, Furifuritchi, Hoshigirltchi, Gotchimotchi, Doyatchi, Amakutchi, Karakutchi, Tacttchi, Hanafuwatchi, and Majokkotchi. ; :Voiced by: Yukuna (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) She is the teacher of the Ms. Hakubanko's class, which consists of Tropicatchi, Julietchi, Patitchi, Nandetchi, Smartchi, Crepetchi, Righttchi, Knighttchi, Acchitchi, Yukinkotchi, Amiamitchi, Waltztchi, Harptchi, Monakatch, Chouchotchi, Rinkurutchi, Pekopekotchi, Ameartotchi, and Kurumakitchi. ; :Voiced by: Kiyotaka Furushima (Japanese) Mr. Robomechatchi is the teacher of the mechanical class, which consists of Mametchi, Righttchi, Nandetchi, Hoshigirltchi, and Himespetchi. He is the teacher of the mechanical class at DoriTama School, which includes Mametchi, Himespetchi, Clulutchi, Righttchi, Nandetchi, and Mimitchi. ; :Voiced by: Katsuyuki Konishi (Japanese) Mr. Micchi is the teacher of the dance class, which consists of Yumemitchi, Kiraritchi, Furifuritchi, Knighttchi, and Jurietchi. ; :Voiced by: Yuuki Hayashi (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) Mr. Comb-bowie is the teacher of the hair-dressing class, which consists of Memetchi, Coffretchi, Doyatchi, Yukinkotchi, and Tropicatchi. ; :Voiced by: Kiyotaka Furushima (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) Mr. Grilltchi is the teacher of the cooking class, which consists of Patitchi, Amakutchi, Karakutchi, Crepetchi, and Kuchipatchi. He is the teacher of the cooking class at DoriTama School, which includes Kuchipatchi, Patitchi, Candy Pakupaku, Perotchi, Amakutchi, Karakutchi, Gourmetchi, and Crepetchi. ; :Voiced by: Akemi Okamura (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) Ms. Modetchi is the teacher of the fashion-designing class, which consists of Amiamitchi, Furawatchi, Spacytchi, Akaspetchi, and Pipospetchi. She is the teacher of the fashion-designing class at DoriTama School, which includes Memetchi, Moriritchi, Makiko, Neenetchi, Himespetchi, Kiraritchi, and Clulutchi. ; :Voiced by: Chika Fujimura (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) Ms. Musicatchi is the teacher of the music class, which consists of Tacttchi, Waltztchi, Harptchi, Pianitchi, Smartchi, and Rinkurutchi. ; :Voiced by: Marutentchi Sensei is the teacher of the designing class, which consists of Miraitchi, Clulutchi, Watchlin, Pekopekotchi, Ameartotchi, and Kurumakitchi. ; :Voiced by: Ms. Trimmertchi is the teacher of the Tama Pet-styling class, which consists of Acchitchi, Monakatchi, Chouchoutchi, and Gotchimotchi. ===Parents and Relatives=== ; :Voiced by: Masaki Terasoma (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Natsuko Kuwatani (Japanese) ; :Voiced by: Nobuaki Kanemitsu (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Sanpei Yuko (Japanese) ; :Voiced by: Mariya Ise (Japanese) Cristina Vee (Tamagotchi Friends webisode dub) ; :Voiced by: Rikiya Koyama (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; / :Voiced by: Akemi Okamura (Japanese) ; :Voiced by: Hidenobu Kiuchi (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Yuuko Sanpei (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Akiko Nakagawa (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Suguru Inoue (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: Yūki Tai (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ===Tama Star Circus=== ; :Voiced by: Hidenari Ugaki (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Yasuyuki Kase (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Tokuyoshi Kawashima (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Yuko Gibu (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Suguru Inoue (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ===Citizens=== ; :Voiced by: Yōsuke Akimoto (Japanese) ; :Voiced by: Kawase Akiko (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Kei Shindou (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Jun Konno (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Chiaki Naitou (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Kumiko Takizawa (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Suguru Inoue (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Kenji Nojima (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Jun Konno (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Akeno Watanabe (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Takeharu Ōnishi (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ===Tama Pet=== ; :Voiced by: Hino Miho (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: Chiaki Naitou (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ;Makimotchi :Voiced by: ; :Voiced by: Hinako Sasaki (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: ==TamaGoLand== TamaGoLand is location of Tamagotchi Planet. ; :Voiced by: Yuka Terasaki (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ; :Voiced by: Yurin (Japanese. Currently no English voice.) ==References== ===General=== * http://tamagotch.channel.or.jp/tama_anime/dreamchara/index.html ===Specific=== Tamagotchi! (anime) Category:Tamagotchi |
RBD is a Mexican Latin pop group that gained popularity from Televisa's telenovela Rebelde (2004–06). The group was composed of Anahí, Christian Chávez, Dulce María, Maite Perroni, Alfonso Herrera and Christopher von Uckermann. The group achieved international success from 2004 until their separation in 2009 and sold over 15 million records worldwide, making them one of the best-selling Latin music artists of all time. In November 2004, the group released their debut studio album, Rebelde, to great success. In September 2005, the group released their second album, Nuestro Amor, receiving their first Latin Grammy Award nomination at the 2006 ceremony. In 2006, the group released their third album, Celestial. The album's lead single, "Ser o Parecer", topped the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart for two consecutive weeks. This was their first album to be released simultaneously in all countries. In the same year, the group released their fourth album, and first English-language album titled Rebels. In 2007, the group released their fifth album Empezar Desde Cero, which was nominated at the Latin Grammy Awards. In 2009, the group released their sixth and final album, Para Olvidarte De Mí. RBD officially formed on October 30, 2004, and announced on August 15, 2008, through a press release, that they would disband on March 10, 2009. In September 2020 the band announced they would reunite through a virtual show in December, and their music was released on digital platforms the same month. Only four of the original members returned: Maite Perroni, Anahí, Christopher Von Uckermann and Christian Chavez. Almost three years later on January 19, 2023 they announced all members would get back together for a one-off tour with the exception of Alfonso Herrera. ==History == === 2004–2005: Rebelde and Nuestro Amor === RBD (abbreviation for "ReBelDe" • ) formed on October 30, 2004, which followed the premiere of the Mexican soap opera Rebelde (produced by Pedro Damian and adapted from the original argentinian creation of Chris Morena's "Rebelde Way"). The members were Anahí, Alfonso Herrera, Dulce María, Christopher von Uckermann, Maite Perroni and Christian Chávez. The band released their debut single, "Rebelde", exactly one month before the group officially formed. Their debut album of the same name was released on November 11, 2004, by EMI. All four singles from the album were number-one hits in Mexico. Rebelde sold well in the United States, reaching number 95 on the Billboard 200 and number two on the Latin Albums chart. In July 2005, a live CD/DVD, Tour Generación RBD En Vivo, was released. The CD/DVD documented their tour around Mexico that included 45 sold-out concerts across the country, including sixteen in Mexico City. In Spain, Rebelde spent five weeks on the top of the charts and was certified 3× Platinum for having sold over 240,000 copies. With the success of the telenovela, the group used the hiatus between the first and second season to release their second album Nuestro Amor, on September 22, 2005. This album included twelve songs plus "Una Canción", a live recording, and "Liso, Sensual", a studio version of the song previously performed on their last tour. The album set new record sales in Mexico, selling 127,000 copies on its release day and 160,000 copies in its first week. In the U.S., the album topped the Latin Albums chart for three weeks and peaked at number 88 on the Billboard 200. The first four singles reached number one in Mexico. In the U.S., "Nuestro Amor", "Aún hay algo" and "Este corazón" charted on the Hot Latin Songs chart at numbers six, 24 and 10, respectively. Nuestro Amor was certified 2× Platinum in Spain. In November 2005, a Portuguese version of their debut album was released, titled Rebelde (Edição Brasil). ===2006–2007: Celestial and Rebels === In early 2006, the group went on tour across the United States for the first time, which was recorded and released as a CD/DVD in April 2006, titled Live in Hollywood. It peaked at number six on the Latin Albums chart. Since that year, former singer Lynda Thomas, who had been uncredited with the group since their debut, officially became a recurring contributor for them. The first song credited to her was "No Pares", performed by Dulce María. In May 2006, the group released a Portuguese version of Nuestro Amor, titled Nosso Amor Rebelde, targeted for the Brazilian market. Nosso Amor Rebelde is their second album in Portuguese, released only in Brazil. The album contains Portuguese versions of 11 songs from Nuestro Amor. The album, however, did not have a full week of album sales because of its Friday release. Despite this, it became their first album to peak or chart in the top 20 of the Billboard 200. RBD was nominated for the Latin Grammy Awards in 2006 in the category Best Pop Album by a Group or Duo for Nuestro Amor. They performed a new version of "Tras de mí" at the ceremony. In November 2006, the group released their third album, Celestial, produced and directed by Carlos Lara and Armando Ávila. The album debuted at number 15 on the Billboard 200 with over 137,000 copies sold in the United States in its first week. The album spawned three hit singles, "Ser o Parecer", "Celestial" and "Bésame sin miedo". In Spain, Celestial was certified Platinum. One month later, in December 2006 a Portuguese-language edition of the album was released for the Brazilian market called Celestial (Versão Brasil). This third album in Portuguese was the first to be recorded in Brazil. From their tour in Brazil, the group released a DVD titled Live in Rio (2007). The group were also honored for selling over 2.5 million copies of their albums and DVD's in the country. That same month, the group released their fourth album and first English-language album, Rebels, which debuted at number 40 on the Billboard 200 with 94,000 copies sold in its first week. Rebels was certified Gold in Japan for having sold over 250,000 copies. The group was nominated twice in the category "Latin Pop Album of the Year By a Duo or Group", with Celestial and Live in Hollywood. They also received a nomination for "Top Latin Albums Artist of the Year" and "Latin Tour of the Year" for Tour Generación RBD. The show was held on April 26 in Miami, Florida. They won in all categories they were nominated in. Celestial won the former award.Billboard Latin Music Awards winners === 2008–2009: Empezar Desde Cero and Para Olvidarte De Mí === On March 2, 2007, Chávez revealed he is gay after pictures were discovered of him marrying another man in Canada. In a letter on the group's website, he asked fans for understanding and acceptance. After this, the group worked two side-projects; Sálvame, an organization that helps homeless youth get an education and shelter, and RBD: La Familia, their new sitcom. The group was nominated four times in three categories for the 2007 Billboard Latin Music Awards. In early 2007, the group began to rehearse for their upcoming concert tour called Tour Celestial, which started in Ecuador on April 20, 2007. On May 28, 2007, Donald Trump invited the group to perform three songs at the Miss Universe 2007 finals in Mexico City. They performed a medley of "Wanna Play", "Cariño Mio" and "Money Money" at the event. In June 2007, the group recorded the accompanying music video for their single "Bésame sin miedo" in Transylvania while on tour in Romania where Celestial was released. It was the same year they were chosen to headline a series of Pepsi commercials with The Black Eyed Peas to air in South America and Spanish-speaking countries. On July 19, 2007, the group performed "Bésame sin miedo" at the Premios Juventud 2007 ceremony and won seven awards that night, including "Voice of the Moment" and "Favorite Concert". RBD broke the record for most albums in the top 20 in Brazil, having three different albums in the top 20 for the week ending January 20, 2007. Their single "Tu amor" was nominated for Best International Song in France. In an interview in Mexico, Christopher von Uckermann stated that it has always been an honor to be compared to Menudo and Timbiriche, but mentioned that RBD surpassed those groups by accomplishing much more in only five years, being the only Mexican group to gain worldwide fame. The first worldwide "RBD Day" was held on October 4, 2007. The group celebrated the day with fans in Houston, Texas. During their press conference, they confirmed that their fifth album would be titled Empezar Desde Cero, produced by Carlos Lara and Armando Ávila. The first single from Empezar Desde Cero, "Inalcanzable", debuted in October 2007 and peaked at number two on Mexican charts. Empezar Desde Cero was released on November 20, debuting at number one on the Billboard Latin Albums chart and peaking within the top-ten in a variety of countries such as Brazil (their first album that did not top the charts in that country, peaking at number three) and Mexico. As of November 2008, Empezar Desde Cero had sold over a million copies worldwide. It was voted by Billboard readers as the third best album released in 2007."2007 Billboard Readers Choice". Billboard. Retrieved April 23, 2008. In April 2008, the group performed at a concert in Brazil's capital city. The free concert was held at the city's main park and had 500,000 fans in attendance."RBD se presenta ante casi 500 mil admiradores en Brasil". Esmas. Retrieved April 21, 2008. RBD was said to be the first music act in the history of Slovenia charts to have six different albums in the top ten in the same weekend."RBD impone récord en Eslovenia". Esmas. Retrieved April 23, 2008. In August 2008, the 2008 Latin Grammy nominations were announced; the group was nominated for Best Pop Album By a Duo or Group with Vocals for Empezar Desde Cero. On August 14, 2008, they released a compilation album of their greatest hits titled RBD The Best Of. On August 15, 2008, the group announced through a press release that they would disband in 2009.Comunicado official Retrieved August 12, 2009. The group's manager, Pedro Damián, explained that although there wasn't any fights among the members, it was best that they should disband for the ones who were already planning different solo activities. Herrera and Perroni were occupied with their television projects (the former with the TV series Terminales, and the latter as the protagonist of Cuidado Con El Ángel). Chávez was in the middle of a tour with the musical Avenue Q Mexican stage production, and was planning to build his career as a solo artist, actor and producer. Anahí managed her own clothing store in Mexico City and began an organization to help those who have eating disorders. Dulce María was involved with shooting a film Alguién a visto a Lupita and a variety of projects, such as dubbing a cartoon character in a Mexican film. Later, Uckermann starred in the TV show Kdabra, produced by Fox in Colombia. On November 25, RBD released Best Of (in Brazil: Hits Em Português; in the United States: Greatest Hits), which was a CD/DVD that features their singles and a DVD with music videos as part of their goodbye. A Portuguese version of the album was also released. Para Olvidarte De Mí (2009) was the sixth and final album to be released by the group. The album is preceded by the only single "Para Olvidarte De Mí". On December 2, 2009, the live concert DVD, Tournée do Adeus, recorded in São Paulo was released, containing the group's last show in Brazil. === 2020: Social networks, streaming relaunch and Ser O Parecer Virtual Concert === After years with the music of RBD out of online streaming platforms (after Universal Music bought EMI), in August 2020 the former members announced on their social media that their six studio albums and the Brazilian versions would be available in all streaming services on September 3, 2020. It was also announced that the albums will be available in stores. To celebrate the launch of their music on streaming, the group announced a virtual show that took place on December 26 and reunited 4 of the original members: Anahí, Maite Perroni, Christian Chavez and Christopher von Uckermann. Alfonso Herrera and Dulce Maria did not take part in the reunion, with the latter confirming that she couldn't join because of her pregnancy. A week of snippets on the band's Instagram account teasing a new song followed soon after. On Tuesday, November 17 "Siempre He Estado Aquí" was released simultaneously in all streaming platforms. The group created a TikTok challenge for the song. An animated music video was released on December 3 on the group's YouTube channel. === 2022-present: Soy Rebelde Tour === On December 14, 2022, von Uckermann archived all of his Instagram posts and deleted his profile picture, with no explanation. A day later, Chávez did the same thing, leading fans to speculate things related to the group. That same day, fans noticed Dulce María was beginning to archive posts and found a Brazilian ticket website with a page for RBD. Soon after, Anahí archived all her posts and also removed her profile picture. She was followed by the group's official account, which did the same thing. The next day, Perroni cleansed her own Instagram page, and Dulce María finished the day after. The page T6H Entertainment also took part in this blackout. On December 19, the band's Instagram account posted a video that included a scene from the telenovela Rebelde, intercut with footage of the five members during a dinner at Puente's house from November 20. The end of the video showed a link called "soyrebelde.mundo", where fans could register and included a countdown to January 19, 2023, with the text "Prepare your ties" written above. ==Documentary about the group == In late 2012, Pedro Damián told Televisa that the group would return to the stage in 2013. According to Damián, the project was to do something amazing and interesting, "Let's talk to them. Let's convince them to do something amazing, something interesting." He stated he was determined to revive the group and would be chatting with members and try to convince them to reunite. Following Damián's statements, Dulce María said in an interview with Televisa that it was too early for a comeback; however, she did not rule out the possibility of ever doing a reunion with her former group members. "I do not know about the future," she stated in the interview, "but right now there's no way. Each of us are focused on his or her career. It's still very early. But never say never." Around the same time, in an interview for MTV Brasil, Christian Chávez said it was possible for a reunion in 2014, which was confirmed by Damián. On July 27, 2013, however, there was no official statement from Maite Perroni, Poncho Herrera, Uckermann, Anahí, Dulce of this occurring or a set date. With resistance from some members, Damián decided to develop a documentary about the group in celebration of the sextet's 10 year anniversary. In an interview with Televisa, Damián said he will have something more concrete on the project later in the year, "I have something like 800 hours of recordings ... We are already working." == Members == * Alfonso Herrera – * Anahí – * Christian Chávez – * Christopher von Uckermann – * Dulce María – * Maite Perroni – == Discography == === Spanish discography === ;Studio albums * Rebelde (2004) * Nuestro Amor (2005) * Celestial (2006) * Empezar Desde Cero (2007) * Para Olvidarte De Mí (2009) === Bilingual discography === ;Studio albums * Rebelde (2005) * Nosso Amor Rebelde (2006) * Celestial (2006) * Rebels (2006) == Tours == * Tour Generación RBD (2005) * Nuestro Amor Tour (2006–07) * Celestial Tour (2007–08) * Empezar Desde Cero Tour (2008) * Tour del Adiós (2008) * Soy Rebelde Tour (2023) === 2005: Tour Generación RBD === Tour Generación RBD was the group's first national tour, which had 80 sold-out shows in Mexico. They visited Monterrey three times, which gathered over 150,000 fans. The tour was certified by OCESA as the fourth most rapidly sold-out tour in Mexico, behind The Cure's 2004 Sing to the Deadly Mouse Trap Tour, Britney Spears' 2002 Dream Within a Dream Tour, and Backstreet Boys' 2001 Black & Blue World Tour. The tour began on May 13, 2005, in Toluca, Mexico, and ended on December 18, 2005 in Lima, Peru. RBD's first international concerts took place in Colombia with huge success. They performed first at Medellin in front of a crowd of 30,000; later in Cali, over 50,000 were in attendance, being the group's most attended concert in Colombia, and later in Bogota. === 2006-07: Nuestro Amor Tour === In January 2006, the Nuestro Amor Tour started in the United States, at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum with a crowd of over 68,000 fans - a record-breaking act for a Latin group and a sign of their widespread success. In 2006, 694,655 tickets were sold accounting for North American shows, worth a total of $23,600,000. 749,485 tickets were sold worldwide as they came in as the 14th top-selling act of 2006 worldwide. === 2007–08: Tour Celestial === Tour Celestial is RBD's third tour where they performed in Latin America, the U.S., and Europe. On June 22, 2007, RBD filmed their concert in Madrid, Spain with over 40,000 fans in attendance for their DVD called Tour Celestial 2007: Hecho en España. In early October, it was confirmed by Roptus.com that the rest of the tour would be postponed until further notice. The reason the website gave for these actions was that RBD wants to give their audience a much well-deserved show by performing some songs off their new album, Empezar desde Cero, which was released on November 20, 2007. RBD grossed $5,400,000 on North American shows and a combined total of 293,742 tickets worldwide. === 2008: Empezar Desde Cero World Tour === In February 2008, the Empezar Desde Cero Tour began in Hildalgo, Texas, at the Dodge Arena. In late 2007, their Celestial Tour in the United States was rescheduled to February 2008 and became part of their new tour, Empezar Desde Cero Tour. Timbiriche was their opening act in the United States. The tour took place in Mexico, Brazil, Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, Spain, Slovenia, Serbia, Dominican Republic, Romania, the U.S. and many more countries in South America and Europe. RBD performed in Brazil for over 500,000 people, breaking the record by the Rolling Stones. In September, they did a series of concerts in Slovenia. The first concert was sold-out in 30 minutes, which broke records. Poll Star released the top-100 selling concerts for mid-2008 RBD came in number 49 with 166,839 tickets sold from January 1 to June 30, 2008. Third quarter sales from Pollstar ranked RBD at number 48 out of 100 with 301,015 tickets sold from January 1 to September 30. Pollstar year-end sales from January 1 to December 31, showed that RBD sold 367,346 tickets. RBD pulled in $4.4 million worth of ticket sales in from North American shows. === 2008: Tour del Adiós === The Tour del Adiós was a world tour by Mexican group RBD. The tour was set to visit South America, North America, and Europe, which began on November 1, 2008 and ended on December 21, 2008. On August 14, 2008, the group RBD announced their last tour, named Tour del Adiós (or also Gira Del Adiós). The tour initially included about 20 cities in countries such as Argentina, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Paraguay, Chile and Brazil. In November 2008, the group began the tour in the following cities: La Paz, Buenos Aires, Córdoba and Rosario. In December, RBD concerts were held in Los Angeles, Guayaquil, Quito, Lima, Santiago, Ljubljana, Bucharest, Belgrade and Madrid. The last presentation of Tour del Adiós was on December 21, in Madrid and the final farewell of the phenomenon, RBD. In Brazil, the tour was called "Turnê do Adeus". The first five presentations in the country were held soon after their presentations in Argentina. As in Fortaleza, Porto Alegre, Rio de Janeiro with 30,000 people and more than 25,000 in São Paulo (where they recorded their last live DVD, entitled Tournée do Adeus) and Brasília. === 2023: Soy Rebelde Tour === The Mexican group RBD will start their Soy Rebelde Tour in El Paso, Texas on August 25, 2023, performing 30 shows across the United States. They will end their U.S. leg in October 22, 2023. After an outpouring demand from fans in Colombia, RBD announced two dates in Medellin on November 3rd and 4th at the Estadio Atanasio Girardot. After the two dates were sold out, a third and fourth date were also added. The following two shows will be held in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro in Brazil. They will end the tour in Mexico, including 6 shows at the Foro Sol in Mexico City. == Legacy == RBD was one of the most important phenomenons of Latin pop culture in the 2000s despite their short transition into the music scene. The cultural phenomenon led by the soap opera Rebelde and the pop group, accompanied by advertising strategies from 2004 to 2009, resulted in recognition from a young audience who followed the career of the group, leaving a legacy of six studio albums, two TV series and multiple awards. On March 2, 2007, photos of Chávez marrying a Canadian BJ Murphy were leaked, and the singer spoke about this in a statement, officially coming out. He became the first openly gay Mexican international singer. October 4 was selected as RBD World Day, in honor of the day Rebelde was released in Mexico. == Fundación Sálvame == In February 2006, thousands of RBD fans in Brazil attended an event where the six members signed merchandise and performed some of their songs. After the event concluded, a white van that was thought to contain the group was spotted leaving the area. Due to this, thousands of people ran in excitement and in the commotion, 43 people were injured and three others were killed. Later during their Celestial tour, the group spoke about the incident and stated "It is something that struck us all. No one would tell us what happened until we were on our way back to Mexico, and to know that your fans were killed at your event is a horrible feeling because you think 'Wow, they were there to see me and because of that they’re gone now' it’s such an indescribable feeling and we can’t explain how heartbroken we are". The group later confirmed they had met and spoken with the families of the victims.RBD crea fundación Salvame Retrieved August 12, 2009 The Mexican group RBD launched "Fundación Sálvame" ("Save Me Foundation", named after one of their songs) to help street children, which began on May 1, 2006. The foundation serves Mexico, Brazil, and Spain. == Awards and nominations == == See also == *List of music artists and bands from Mexico *List of number- one Billboard Hot Latin Pop Airplay of 2005 *List of number-one Billboard Hot Latin Pop Airplay of 2006 *List of number-one Billboard Hot Latin Songs of 2006 *List of number-one Billboard Latin Pop Albums from the 2000s *List of number-one Billboard Top Latin Albums of 2005 *List of number-one Billboard Top Latin Albums of 2006 *List of number-one Billboard Top Latin Albums of 2007 *List of Latin songs on the Billboard Hot 100 *List of best-selling albums in Brazil *List of best-selling albums in Mexico *List of number-one albums of 2005 (Mexico) *Top Latin Albums Year-End Chart *Top 100 Mexico == References == == External links == * Category:2004 establishments in Mexico Category:Capitol Records artists Category:EMI Televisa Music artists Category:English-language singers from Mexico Category:Latin pop music groups Category:Teen pop groups Category:Co-ed groups Category:Musical groups disestablished in 2009 Category:Musical groups established in 2004 Category:Musical groups reestablished in 2020 Category:Musical groups from Mexico City Category:Mexican vocal groups Category:Portuguese-language singers of Mexico |
Helena Modjeska Chase Johnson Drea (born Helena Modjeska Chase, September 23, 1900 - December 22, 1986) was an accomplished artist, writer, poet, musician, photographer and horsewoman. She was best known as an illustrator of children's books and for her oil paintings. Many of her books have found a place in the Library of Congress. ==Early life== Helena Modjeska Chase was born in Omaha, Nebraska, on September 23, 1900. Her father Clement Chase was a prominent publisher in Omaha. Her paternal grandfather, Colonel Champion Spaulding Chase, was an attorney and the Mayor of Omaha, Nebraska and Chase County the village of Champion were named after him, Her mother, Lula Belle Edwards Chase, was a socialite in Omaha who descended from five Mayflower ancestors, including among them Governor William Bradford, John Howland and Elizabeth Tilley who came to the New World on the English ship in 1620. Her maternal grandfather, Colonel Edward Eugene Edwards, was a California State senator. She was the forth and youngest child of Champion Clement Chase and Lula Belle (Edwards) Chase. Her father, Clement Chase, was a distinguished newspaper man as Editor of Omaha's "Excelsior" from Omaha, Nebraska and also owned a bookstore Her parents had a delightful home, with opportunities of meeting guests from everywhere, especially artists, writers, actors and dancers because they entertained a great deal. Helena Modjeska Chase was the godchild and was named after the renowned Polish actress Helena Modjeska. The distinguished Polish actress Helena Modjeska, her beloved godmother and namesake, was a renowned Shakespearean actress who specialized in tragic roles whose talent and grace captivated audiences around the world. She was a cherished friend of the great pianist and esteemed President of Poland, Paderewski, with whom she shared a deep and abiding passion for the arts. Today, a priceless relic of this magical era can still be found in the comfort of her home nestled in the breathtaking Catskill Mountains - Paderewski's concert grand piano, an exquisite testament to the enduring power and beauty of music. Mrs. Lula Belle Edwards Chase (Helena's mother), when a girl, lived on a ranch in California adjoining the home of Madame Helena Modjeska, who was the mother of Ralph Modjeska. Her grandfather Col. Champion Spaulding Chase had been mayor of Omaha, Nebraska, USA, and her parents entertained a great deal. The illustrious legacy of her family was further enriched by her grandfather, the distinguished Champion Chase, who brought the magic of Wagnerian Operas to the charming city of Omaha, casting a spell of enchantment and wonder upon all those who were fortunate enough to experience the breathtaking spectacle of this timeless art form. Through his unwavering dedication to the arts and his unyielding passion for excellence, he played a pivotal role in shaping the cultural landscape of his community, and inspiring countless others to follow in his footsteps and pursue their own passions and dreams. ==Schooling== After kindergarten and public school, Miss Helena Chase attended Brownell Hall, an Episcopal Church School for young ladies three miles north of Omaha as well as studied at the Art Institute in Chicago during the summers of 1913 and 1914 in the regular summer school of art that was held there. In November of 1915, at the young age of 14, Miss Helena Chase showed that she had already inherited her mother's gifts of artistic ability. In fact both their artistic triumphs were often displayed at the same time. Her mothers water color work along with her daughter Miss Helena's small statuette in plaster work in bronze effect, called "Day Dreams" which had been moulded by nimble and clever fingers to form book rests and had the image of a little girl with her doll and book. They had both taken arts lessons at the art institute in Chicago. In February of 1916 Helena Chase was studying at the Latin school on the North Side of Chicago. Miss Helena M. Chase took art lessons and dancing lessons at the Chamber's Academy Ballroom also attended at the Mary C. Wheeler School in Providence, Rhode Island, and was elected one of the editors of the Quill, the school magazine in 1916. While there she had also been published as winning in tennis doubles matches. On September 20 1917, Miss Helena Chase at the age of 16, designed a special poster of a crèche for use in raising funds for Unit No.1 of the baby aid work from the American Fund for French Wounded Civilian Relief. This poster was selected at the New York exhibition without the committee knowing it was the work of a 16-year-old girl, and was shown at the Corcoran art gallery in Washington. In the height of summer, in the year of 1965, the remarkable Mrs. Helena Chase Johnson achieved a significant milestone in her lifelong pursuit of education, receiving her coveted Master of Arts Degree in Education from the esteemed Putney Graduate School of Teacher Education, nestled in the serene and picturesque community of Putney, Vermont. As part of her arduous journey to this great accomplishment, she dedicated herself to writing an awe-inspiring thesis on the art of children from all corners of the globe, a remarkable feat that exemplifies her boundless passion and devotion to the field of education. To achieve this, she embarked on a remarkable odyssey, traveling from the idyllic landscapes of Europe all the way to the enchanting lands of India, and then on through the vast and exotic terrain of Africa, and finally through the mystifying countries of the Eastern block. On this world study trip she visited 38 countries, including countries behind the Iron Curtain, she studied methods of teaching Art and Life of Children. Accompanying her on this epic journey was her dear sister, Carmelita Hinton, who was the illustrious founder of the renowned Putney School. Through her unwavering commitment to her studies and her unquenchable thirst for knowledge, Mrs. Helena Chase Johnson cemented her place in the annals of history as a true visionary in the field of education. Her illustrious teaching career boasts a rich tapestry of experience, including guiding students through the creative realm of the Art Department at Putney School and Hickory Ridge School in Vermont, as well as taking on the prestigious role of acting head of the Art Department at Perry- Mansfield Camp nestled in the breathtaking vistas of Steamboat Springs, Colorado. The family was fortunate in that her father owned several banking papers and a 'Weekly Society' paper; the advertisers therein often paid in the form of free lessons, clothing, groceries, hats, dentistry, and other necessities. At the age of 11 Chase studied at the Art Institute of Chicago, followed by the Chicago Girls' Latin School; Mary C. Wheeler School, Providence, Rhode Island; Woodstock, New York, Art Students' League; Colorado Springs Art Center; Parsons Art School, and other establishments. She went to Omaha Public Schools, Brownell Hall, Chicago Girls Latin School, Art Institute of Chicago (Juvenile Dept.), Mary C. Wheeler School in Providence R.I., Chicago Art Institute, and the New York School of Fine and Applied Arts where she graduated in 1923. She married Harry McClure Johnson in 1923 just after graduation and then moved to Winnetka, Illinois. ==Marriage== In the year of 1923, she joined in holy matrimony with the esteemed Harry McClure Johnson, a notable trademark attorney of great renown in both New York and Chicago. He was a graduate of Princeton university. Together, they took up residence in a magnificent mansion of grandeur and elegance, nestled in the charming community of Winnetka, Illinois. And in keeping with their illustrious status, they were attended to by a retinue of dutiful and skilled servants, ensuring that their every need was met with grace and sophistication. ==Death of Husband== Even though their house was in Winnetka near Chicago, Illinois, Mrs. Helena Chase Johnson and her children spent the summer months of 1933 at her home on part of the Henry Cook ranch in Steamboat Springs, Colorado. On March 29, 1932, Helena's husband and father to their 5 children, Harry McClure Johnson, died at the young age of 46 years old in Toronto, Canada. He was at the time of death a patent attorney and member of the law firm Ofield, Mehlhope, Scott & Poole. Helena Chase now Helena Johnson was widowed in 1932 when her husband Harry McCLure Johnson died leaving behind five small children, Helena age 7, McClure age 6, Elizabeth age 5, Sarah Jane age 2 and Priscilla only 4 months old. Following the heartbreaking loss of her beloved husband, she embarked on a courageous journey with her five young children, all of whom were under the tender age of eight. Seeking solace and a fresh start, she made her way to the serene and picturesque community of Steamboat Springs, where she initially shared her artistic talents as a teacher at the Perry Mansfield Camp. In addition to her inspiring work with aspiring artists, she also dedicated herself to the loving care and upbringing of her cherished family, settling into a sprawling 1,000-acre horse ranch that she affectionately named Pine Springs Ranch. This Pine Springs Ranch was 6 miles from Steamboat, Springs, Colorado. This idyllic retreat, perched atop the side of the majestic Mount Werner, was truly a rustic paradise, and it provided the perfect backdrop for her to heal, grow, and thrive alongside her beloved children. Helena had 5 children in 8 years and was widowed at the age of 31 (when Harry Johnson died). After the death of her husband, Harry Johnson, she moved with her five children to Steamboat Springs, Colorado. She purchased a ranch at Steamboat Springs, Colorado (after selling her Winnetka, Illinois mansion) so that her oldest daughter, Mansi, could attend the Perry Mansfield Girls Camp which offered music, dance and theater programs. She taught art at the Perry Mansfield Camp and she raised her 5 children on a 1000-acre horse ranch which they called "Pines Spring Ranch." With a fierce determination and an unwavering love for these majestic creatures, she set out to build her own impressive herd of horses. Her journey began with a daring adventure, as she embarked on a wild horse roundup in the untamed Sand Wash country, spanning the rugged terrain between Utah and Colorado. There, she found a striking black filly, wild and untamed, and she brought her back to her ranch to join her budding herd. Over time, this remarkable filly proved to be a remarkable asset, producing a stunning brood of palomino offspring, each as beautiful and spirited as their fearless mother. Some of these young palomino stallions were sold from the Pine Springs Ranch. By 1935 she had a winter home at La Jolla, California. In 1939, Helena Chase Johnson bought "The Little Hotel by the Sea" (now called the Grande Colonial Hotel) in La Jolla, CA and named it "La Posada". It had seven small rooms for guests. After renovations she owned and operated the hotel for more than 25 years. It was known as the "Smallest hotel in the World with an Elevator" as its elevator held six people and was made of solid mahogany wood. After renovating the hotel, Helena C. Johnson and her 5 children opened the hotel with a grand opening celebration in 1940. They also had their two small Shetland ponies called Peanuts and Pardner help as official greeters in the hotel. These two ponies were considered as part of the family and were included in everything such as parties, birthday celebrations, holidays, and daily evening suppers. In 1945, Mrs. Helena Chase Johnson and her daughters spent the winter in Putney, Vermont and spent the summer at the Pine Spring ranch in Steamboat. In 1944, Mrs. Helena Chase Johnson and her children spent the summer at their Pine Spring ranch in Steamboat Springs after spending the winter in Colorado Springs. The Pine Springs Ranch had the Continental Divide as a backyard. It used to be called Storm Mountain but now it is called Mount Warner and is a famous ski area. When World War II broke out she rented out her farm in Vermont and went into buying and selling property, and wrote a book "Horse Trading in Houses". She started her large herd of horses initially by going on a wild horse roundup in the Sand Wash country between Utah and Colorado and brought back a wild black filly who produced palomino offspring. She loved adventure, was a colorful, courageous and adventure-loving person who took cold weather and hardships in her stride and would rather ski up a mountain than down it. With a fearless spirit and a love for adventure, she took to the wild and rugged terrain on horseback, accompanied by her trusted mustang and Arabian horses. She often had people come horseback riding with them to the top of Storm mountain (as it was called then) where the view was incredible, reaching as far as the eye can see into Wyoming and Utah. Together, they embarked on countless pack trips, venturing high up into the rugged and awe-inspiring peaks of the Continental Divide, exploring the breathtaking expanse of the Mount Zirkel Wilderness area, and venturing deep into the mountains surrounding the charming community of Steamboat Springs, Colorado. Through it all, she reveled in the sheer joy of the journey, embracing the natural beauty of the land and forging an unbreakable bond with her magnificent steeds. On occasion, Mrs. Helena Johnson found it necessary to sell a horse or pony to pay for a bill like the printing bills. She and her children found those kinds of partings very difficult and sad. She sold her Shetland ponies (Peanuts, Pardner and Popcorn) to the youngest son Hannes Von Trapp (of the Trapp family singers) up at Stowe, Vermont. ==Poet and Writer== She was a published author of children's books, poems, and a children's juvenile magazine titled "Adventure Trails". December 15 1962, Helena Chase Johnson had her poems printed in the fifth volume of Poetry "Skylines" which was distributed at local Colorado Springs book stores under the imprint of "The Gateway Press." Her passion for artistic expression extended beyond her individual pursuits, as she found great joy and camaraderie among fellow members of the esteemed Penn Women of Colorado, the Quill Club of Colorado Springs, and the Poetry Fellowship of Colorado Springs, all of which she proudly belonged to. Her undeniable talent for verse and prose alike earned her widespread recognition and acclaim, as her poems graced the pages of countless esteemed papers and magazines. Furthermore, her dedication to the craft of writing extended far beyond mere publication, as she was an active member of several prominent writing organizations. In addition to her adult-focused work, she also made an indelible impact on the world of children's literature, having authored a series of beloved books and founded the delightful children's magazine "Adventure Trails" in the idyllic town of Steamboat Springs, Colorado. By 1946, the unique publishing venture of Adventure Trails had more than 20 books designed for children. The writers and illustrators were children as were the board of editors. Many were pocket sized, and many were in both English and Spanish. Helena C. Johnson was the only adult. Her daughter Mansie was the editor, son McClure was the science editor, daughter Sarah Jane was the business manager, and daughter Priscilla was the general assistant. The publishing house was horse ranch on the Western Slope on Steamboat. "Peanuts," the hero of one of the books was an actual pony that was a favorite of the Johnson children. These books were being sold not only in America but also in Ghent, Belgium, Spain, France, Mexico and New Zealand. They also had subscriptions in Canada, Nairobi, and East Africa. She started the "Adventure Trails Publications" in 1945 at her ranch in Steamboat Springs. Her daughter, Elizabeth (then 19) wrote "The Vengeance of the Vixen" in 1945. Her daughter Priscilla (then 15) wrote and published "How the Eggplant Came to Be" Her daughter Elizabeth's book "The Travels of Chiquita" was printed in 1947. She was known to have published books under the pseudonym Charity Chase as in her book "Peanuts' (And cowboy Jimmy)". An accomplished woman of many talents, she dedicated her time and energy to the arts in a multitude of ways. As a passionate lover of music, she served as an esteemed member of the board for the Colorado Springs Chorale and honed her own musical abilities as an amateur musician, mastering several instruments with grace and finesse, including the illustrious viola. Her exceptional skill on the instrument earned her the distinguished honor of serving as the third solo violist in the acclaimed Bach Brandenburg Concerto with the Putney Chamber Orchestra in Vermont, and she was also a valued member of the Putney Symphony Orchestra, under the esteemed direction of Norwood Hinkle. Helena had a lifelong love for music which began at a tender age, as she first began to tinkle on the ivories of the piano in her childhood. As she matured, she explored the captivating sounds of the cello, honing her craft in California before moving on to new musical horizons. In an impressive display of versatility, she even took up the rhythmic beats of the drums, entertaining the crowds at Hull House in Chicago with her spirited playing. But it was her virtuosity on the banjo that truly shone, as she dazzled audiences as a standout member of the dance band at Mesa School, located near the charming town of Steamboat Springs, Colorado. On January 7, 1968 Helena Chase Johnson Drea was represented as one of the poets belonging to the Annual Anthology of the poetry fellowship of Colorado Springs. She also designed the cover, printed in silver, for the 25th or silver issue of the editorial. On June 1, 1969 Helena Chase Drea won Honorable mention in the annual Nellie Budget Miller Poetry contest awards for her poem "Sha Jehan's Lament" in the serious contest. On March 11, 1972, the poem called "Too Much!" was printed in the Colorado Springs Gazette-Telegraph. On December 23 1972, Helena Chase J. Drea's poem called "Rejoice" from The Child's World was published in the Colorado Springs, Gazette-Telegraph. She is listed in "Who's Who of American Women" and also of "Who's Who of Women in the West." ==Artist Painter== In July of 1933, Mrs. Helena Chase Johnson hand painted a picture of an Indian papoose that she made when she was in Vernal, Utah watching the Indians give a Sun Dance. Her paintings have been exhibited across the US, winning many prizes, and her name has been listed in the "Dictionary of International Biography", "Who's Who in the West" and "Who's Who of American Women", amongst other biographical works. Mrs. Helena Chase Johnson had three oil portraits for the 1944 annual exhibit of the Denver Art Museum. In August of 1949, Doll portraits painted by Helen Chase Johnson of Steamboat Springs, Colorado were on display in the children's department of the Denver public library. These included a painting of an old kid-bodied wax doll which was also in the library. Other portraits are those of a pair of 90 year old twin dolls from a library in Brattleboro, Vermont, and one of a doll in an elegant white costume which was housed in the Pioneer Museum in Colorado Springs. Many paintings done by Mrs. Johnson have been to illustrate stories that had been printed. With an impressive and awe-inspiring artistic prowess, she hosted numerous intimate and captivating one-person art shows, where she showcased her exquisite and intricately detailed portraits and mesmerizing still life studies to the delight of all who attended. Her talent for photography was truly remarkable, as evidenced by the fact that her exceptional enlargements caught the discerning eye of the esteemed Kodak company, who handpicked them for their esteemed displays. She was very active with her painting and writing throughout her life, Helena had a family of five children, 22 grandchildren and many great-grandchildren. Mrs. Drea's portraits and still lifes were showcased in numerous one-man exhibitions and exhibits throughout various locations in the United States. ==2nd Marriage== Mrs. Helena Chase Johnson married for the second time at the Grace Episcopal Church in Colorado Springs on August 1, 1965 after being a widow for 33 years (from 1932 to 1965). She became the bride of Dr. William Francis Drea of Birmingham, Michigan. He was a well-known Colorado Springs Physician. Music on the organ for the wedding was performed by Dr. Julius Baird. She was given in marriage by her son-in-law, Gunther Paetsch. Her daughter, Priscilla Paetsch and the Paetsch children, Phebe Verena, Michaela Modjeska, Brigitte McClure and Johann Sebastian assisted at the reception following the ceremony at "The Pines" on Cheyenne Mountain where Helena lived and the couple would live. Also present were Mrs. Johnson's daughters - Mrs. Mansi Kern and children, Shawn, Thor, Anhara and Tanya of Santa Fe, New Mexico and Mrs. Sarah Jane Shaw, and son Timothy of Bozeman, Montana. Dr. William F. Drea was well known in medical circles and for his research on Tubercle Bacillus. He died in 1983. Mrs. Helena Johnson lived not only in Colorado Springs for many years but also at the "Signal Pine Farm" in Putney, Vermont. Mrs. Drea held memberships in the Quill Club and Poetry Fellowship located in Colorado Springs." A member of the Arabian Horse Association, Chase raised Polish-bred registered Arabian Horses. Over many years she bred and raised Shetland ponies and 2 wild Mustangs from Douglas Mountain, North West Colorado (she learned to ride by herself along with her five children). In later years, after bringing up five children, she joined the Putney Graduate School of Teacher Education's "World Study Trip", and received a Master of Education degree in 1958 from the Putney Graduate School of Teacher Education. During the preceding years, 1956–57, she traveled through 38 countries with a sleeping bag and tent, visiting Europe, the Middle East, Russia and Africa. Winning recognition as an artist and writer, Chase has been a publisher of books for small children, Adventure Trails Publications. These have found a place in the Library of Congress, by request. Her book "The Child's World" appeared in 1971, and she has contributed to the anthologies "Timberlines" (1943–64), "Golden Harvest" (1921–71), "Quadrennium DI Polynesia" (1971), and " Skylines" (1964-79). Many of her poems have been set to music, and she has received a number of honors and awards for her work, of which she declares 'I can't remember most of them'. From "The Child's World" she quotes her own verse: She published children's books, poetry, and magazines, exhibited paintings in public libraries coast to coast, taught at Chutney, Vermont and Hickory Ridge Schools, and raised Mustangs, Palominos, and Arabian Horses on the old Rock Cliff Ranch and in Steamboat Springs, CO. ==Real Estate== She often was an operator in real estate. In 1939, Helena Chase Johnson bought "The Little Hotel by the Sea" (now called the Grande Colonial Hotel) in La Jolla, CA and named it "La Posada". It had seven small rooms for guests. After renovations she owned and operated the hotel for more than 25 years. It was known as the "Smallest hotel in the World with an Elevator" as its elevator held six people and was made of solid mahogany wood.http://hotelcomfortusa.com/state/CA/city/la-jolla/company/little-hotel- by-the-sea/ After renovating the hotel, Helena C. Johnson and her 5 children opened the hotel with a grand opening celebration in 1940. They also had their two small Shetland ponies called Peanuts and Pardner help as official greeters in the hotel. These two ponies were considered as part of the family and were included in everything such as parties, birthday celebrations, holidays, and daily evening suppers. She studied Asiatic dancing, ballroom dancing, taught rhythms at Putney, and could play the piano, viola, banjo, drums. She was interested in painting, writing, traveling, raising horses, real-estate, children's books, reading, art, and music. She was also very interested in her genealogy. She embarked on a world trip for a thesis on Children's Art and had been collecting children's things (dolls, etc.) since a child. Chase had poems published in many papers and magazines. She was also an amateur musician herself playing several instruments, including the viola, on which she was 3rd Solo Violist in the Bach Brandenburg Concerto in the Putney Chamber Orchestra under Norwood Hinkle while living in Vermont. She also played the piano, cello, drums and banjo. She played the piano since she was a child and studied the cello in California. She played the drums in Hull House in Chicago and was a virtuoso banjo player. With a compassionate heart and an unbreakable spirit, she carried within her a profound sense of concern for the state of the world, and a deep-seated empathy for those who were downtrodden and oppressed. She made it her life's mission to champion the cause of those who had been marginalized and overlooked by society, dedicating herself tirelessly to advancing the rights and wellbeing of those in need. With unwavering conviction and an unrelenting determination, she stood as a beacon of hope and a true force for good in the world, leaving an indelible mark on the hearts and minds of all those who were fortunate enough to cross her path. She was a unitarian and a member of Woman's International League for Peace and Freedom. Helena Drea's sister, Carmelita Hinton, was the founder of The Putney School in Putney, Vermont. Chase died at the age of 86 on 22 December 1986 in Santa Fe, New Mexico. When she died she had five children that survived her: Mansi Kern a well=known folk musician in Santa Fe and Tewuque, New Mexico, Dr. Harry McClure Johnson a scientist in Maryland and Washington DC, Elizabeth Stickney a teacher in Hartford, Connecticut, Sarah Jane Shaw who raises Arabian horses in Bozeman, Montana, and Priscilla McClure Paetsch a prominent violinist in Colorado Springs. She also had 22 grandchildren and several great grandchildren ==Ancestry== Helena Modjeska Chase Johnson Drea was a direct descendant of several Mayflower pilgrims. On her mothers side, Lula Belle Edwards Chase was a direct line descendant from five people who came over to America on the ship called the Mayflower, including among them Governor William Bradford, John Howland and Elizabeth Tilley who came to the New World on the English ship in 1620. After surviving the treacherous transatlantic crossing in the Mayflower, William Bradford became Governor and was one of the 41 Pilgrims who signed the Mayflower Compact in 1620 while still aboard the ship. ==References== Category:1900 births Category:1986 deaths Category:20th- century American women artists |
La Légende des siècles (English: The Legend of the Ages) is a collection of poems by Victor Hugo, conceived as an immense depiction of the history and evolution of humanity. Written intermittently between 1855 and 1876 while Hugo worked in exile on numerous other projects, the poems were published in three series in 1859, 1877, and 1883. Bearing witness to the unparalleled poetic talent evident in all Hugo's art, the Légende des Siècles is often considered the only true French epic and, according to Baudelaire's formulation, the only modern epic possible. The dreaming poet contemplates the "wall of the centuries," indistinct and terrible, on which scenes of the past, present and future are drawn, and along which the whole long procession of humanity can be seen. The poems are depictions of these scenes, fleetingly perceived and interspersed with terrifying visions. Hugo sought neither historical accuracy nor exhaustiveness; rather, he concentrated on obscure figures, usually his own inventions, who incarnated and symbolized their eras. As he proclaims in the preface to the first series, "this is history, eavesdropped upon at the door of legend." The poems, by turns lyrical, epic and satirical, form a view of the human experience, seeking less to summarize than to illustrate the history of humanity, and to bear witness to its long journey from the darkness into the light. == Origin == La Légende des siècles was not originally conceived as the vast work it was to become. Its beginning, the original seed, was in a vague project entitled Petites Epopées ("Little Epics"), which features in the notes and jottings of Hugo from 1848, and which gives no indication of so vast an ambition. After Les Châtiments and Les Contemplations, his editor, Hetzel, was perturbed by the submission of La Fin de Satan and Dieu, both of which were nearly complete. Seeing that Hugo was ready to proceed yet further down the metaphysical (or even eschatological) road mapped out by the final Contemplations, Hetzel became anxious at the probability of their failure with the public, and preferred the sound of the Petites Epopées which Hugo had mentioned, feeling they would be more in harmony with the spirit of the times. Even though these "epics" were still no more than sketches, in March 1857 Hetzel wrote to Hugo, rejecting Fin de Satan and Dieu, but accepting with enthusiasm the Petites Epopées. This new commission was nevertheless transformed by the influence of Hugo's latest ideas and most recent works, created with the same dash and fire and in a sort of magma of inspiration: a mixture of poesy, mysticism and philosophy which is characteristic of Hugo's first decade of exile. This inspiration normally led him to write a large number of poems, more or less brief, which would finally be published as components in projects which were constantly shifting and evolving. In this case Hugo integrated the little epics into his poetical system by casting them as the "human" panel in a triptych of which "God" and "Satan" were the wings, with the implication that they were merely sparse fragments stolen from a greater epic: the whole of human experience itself. On 11 September 1857 Hugo signed a contract with Hetzel, reserving the right to alter the project's title. Later, Hetzel pronounced himself willing to publish La Fin de Satan and Dieu; but Hugo, perhaps conscious of the difficulties of completing either to his satisfaction, had by that time thrown himself entirely into the new project. He began by taking the French Revolution as the turning point in human history, intending to use a poem entitled La Révolution as a pivot around which La Pitié Suprême or Le Verso de la page would revolve. More titles were written down, but some were discarded or greatly altered, and the section dealing with the 19th century coalesced as L'Océan — La Révolution — le Verso de la page — la Pitié Suprême — Les Pauvres Gens — L'épopée de l'Âne. Hetzel followed this evolution with alarm, and, fearing that the great philosophical questions would turn these little epics into towering giants, endeavoured to temper Hugo's ardour. After a serious illness in the summer of 1858, Hugo tried to reassure Hetzel by writing in a more straightforwardly narrative vein (e.g. Le Petit Roi de Galice and Zim-Zizimi), and modified his plans—but retained the general ambition, which he declared in a preface. He had hit on the idea of publishing in several instalments, to give himself more time and space within which to work. The title was not decided on until a month after the manuscript's submission. With his gift for phrases, Hugo came up with La Légende des Siècles. Petites Épopées was kept as a subtitle. == First Series == The first series was published in two volumes on 26 September 1859 (see 1859 in poetry) in Brussels. In exile, Hugo dedicated it to his home country: :Livre, qu'un vent t'emporte :En France, où je suis né ! :L'arbre déraciné :Donne sa feuille morte. The framing of the series is resolutely Biblical: opening with Eve (Le sacre de la femme) and closing on La trompette du , the classical world is largely forgotten (the Roman Empire, for which Hugo had little admiration, is represented only by its decadence). Several poems dating from 1857 to 1858 were set aside for a future continuation. === Contents === * Préface * I. D'Ève à Jésus (Le sacre de la femme ; La conscience ; Puissance égale bonté ; Les lions ; Le temple ; Booz endormi ; Dieu invisible au philosophe ; Première rencontre du Christ avec le tombeau) * II. Décadence de Rome (Au lion d'Androclès) * III. L'Islam (L'an neuf de l'Hégire ; Mahomet ; Le cèdre) * IV. Le Cycle Héroïque Chrétien (Le parricide ; Le mariage de Roland ; Aymerillot ; Bivar ; Le jour des rois) * V. Les Chevaliers Errants (La terre a vu jadis ; Le petit roi de Galice ; Eviradnus) * VI. Les Trônes d'Orient (Zim-Zizimi ; 1453 ; Sultan Mourad) * VII. L'Italie — Ratbert * VIII. Seizième siècle — Renaissance. Paganisme (Le Satyre) * IX. La Rose de l'Infante * X. L'Inquisition (Les raisons du Momotombo) * XI. La Chanson des Aventuriers de la Mer * XII. Dix-septième siècle, Les Mercenaires (Le régiment du baron Madruce) * XIII. Maintenant (Après la bataille ; Le crapaud ; Les pauvres gens ; Paroles dans l'épreuve) * XIV. Vingtième siècle (Pleine mer — Plein ciel) * XV. Hors des temps (La trompette du ) == New Series == Work on the second series began immediately after the first, but Hugo was soon busy with Les Misérables and with completing La Fin de Satan and Dieu. In 1862, with the publication of Les Misérables, Hugo reviewed his earlier plan and gathered together the poems already written: L'Âne, Les Sept Merveilles du Monde (a recent one), La Révolution, and La Pitié Suprême. Again, he delayed work for the sake of novels (Les travailleurs de la mer and L'Homme Qui Rit). In 1870, a decisive moment came, when Hugo decided to keep La Révolution for the future collection Les Quatre Vents de l'esprit, and to fuse together La Légende, Dieu and La Fin de Satan, according to the following plan: La Fin de Satan, first book — L'Océan — Elciis — La Vision de Dante — Les Religions (from Dieu) — La Pitié Suprême. Current events in the 1870s, however, saw upheavals in Hugo's life, and he was once more greatly involved in politics. La Nouvelle Série was finally published on 26 February 1877 (see 1877 in poetry), Hugo's sixty-fifth birthday. Most of the contents date from 1859 and 1875–1877, and the events of the 1870s make themselves felt: the Paris Commune, the fall of Napoleon III, and the beginnings of the Third Republic. The collection closes with the formidable Abîme, a vertiginous dialogue between Man, Earth, Sun, and Stars, playing on the numberless steps leading to an infinity behind which stands God, and placing human beings, with all their pettiness, face to face with the Universe. === Contents === thumb|200px|right|Illustration by Victor Hugo (1871) * La vision d'où est sorti ce livre * I. La Terre (La terre – hymne) * II. Suprématie (Supremacy), poem inspired by the third part of the Kena Upanishad * III. Entre géants et dieux (Le géant, aux dieux ; Les temps paniques ; Le titan) * IV. La ville disparue * V. Après les dieux, les rois (I : Inscription ; Cassandre ; Les trois cents ; Le détroit de l'Euripe ; La chanson de Sophocle à Salamine ; Les bannis ; Aide offerte à Majorien ; II : L'hydre ; Le romancero du Cid ; Le roi de Perse ; Les deux mendiants ; Montfaucon ; Les reîtres ; Le comte Félibien) * VI. Entre lions et rois (Quelqu'un met le holà) * VII. Le Cid exilé * VIII. Welf, Castellan d'Osbor * IX. Avertissements et châtiments (Le travail des captifs ; Homo duplex ; Verset du Koran ; L'aigle du casque) * X. Les Sept merveilles du monde * XI. L'Epopée du ver * XII. Le Poëte au ver de terre * XIII. Clarté d'âmes * XIV. Les chutes (Fleuves et poëtes) * XV. Le Cycle pyrénéen (Gaïffer-Jorge, duc d'Aquitaine ; Masferrer ; La paternité) * XVI. La Comète * XVII. Changement d'horizon * XVIII. Le Groupe des Idylles * XIX. Tout le passé et tout l'avenir * XX. Un poëte est un monde * XXI. Le Temps présent (La Vérité, lumière effrayée ; Tout était vision ; Jean Chouan ; Le cimetière d'Eylau ; 1851 — choix entre deux passants ; Écrit en exil ; La colère du bronze ; France et âme ; Dénoncé à celui qui chassa les vendeurs ; Les enterrements civils ; Le prisonnier ; Après les fourches caudines) * XXII. L'Élégie des fléaux * XXIII. Les Petits (Guerre civile ; Petit Paul ; Fonction du l'enfant ; Question sociale) * XXIV. Là-haut * XXV. Les Montagnes (Désintéressement) * XXVI. Le Temple * XXVII. À L'Homme * XXVIII. Abîme == Last Series == The New Series had been advertised with the following message: « Le complément de la Légende des siècles sera prochainement publié, à moins que la fin de l'auteur n'arrive avant la fin du livre. » ("The conclusion to the Legend will be published shortly, provided that it is not preceded by the conclusion to the author.") On 9 June 1883 the fifth and last tome of La Légende des Siècles was published with the subtitle série complémentaire (see 1883 in poetry). Critics who claimed that the "anticlericalism" and "glibness" were evidence of the bitterness of age were mistaken: in fact, Hugo's cerebral edema of June 1878 had already essentially put an end to his work as a writer, and most of the contents dated from long before. It is probable, but not certain, that he had intended to write new poems. For example, La Vision de Dante (written in 1853) was initially intended for Châtiments, and Les Quatre Jours d'Elciis (written in 1857) was bumped forward from both the First and the New Series, the prologue dating from perhaps 1880. This assemblage of poems with little narrative drive, alternating dark and bright visions, gives the impression of a contemplative and intemporal epilogue, very different from what came before. === Contents === * Je ne me sentais plus vivant * I. Les Grandes Lois * II. Voix basses dans les ténèbres * III. Je me penchai * IV. Mansétude des anciens juges * V. L'Échafaud * VI. Inferi * VII. Les quatre jours d'Elciis * VIII. Les paysans au bord de la mer * IX. Les esprits * X. Le Bey outragé * XI. La chanson des doreurs de proues * XII. Ténèbres * XIII. L'Amour * XIV. Rupture avec ce qui amoindrit * XV. Les paroles de mon oncle * XVI. Victorieux ou mort * XVII. Le cercle des tyrans * XVIII. Paroles de Géant * XIX. Quand le Cid * XX. La vision de Dante * XXI. Dieu fait les questions * XXII. Océan * XXIII. Ô Dieu, l'œuvre va plus loin que notre rêve thumb|200px|right|Illustration by Victor Hugo (1850) == Collected edition == In September 1883, several months after the appearance of the Last Series, a "complete" edition was issued in which the three series are mixed together and reorganised according to a more or less chronological plan. No one is entirely sure how close this comes to Hugo's original vision. It is not impossible that Hugo, physically and intellectually enfeebled, and greatly affected by the death of Juliette Drouet, allowed himself to be overly influenced by friends and by the executors of his estate. The rearrangement, which tries to make things easier for the reader by alternating long and short poems, and poems with different moods, has the effect of erasing the internal logic; in particular, the references to current affairs that are found in the New Series are dispersed. Additionally, it introduces bizarreries of chronology: Greek mythology is depicted after Jesus Christ, and El Cid appears before Muhammad. Finally, it often gives the reader the erroneous impression that this final fusion was what Hugo originally intended, as though the original appearance in "series" were a historical accident. Nevertheless, most modern editions adopt this arrangement for the sake of simplicity. === Contents === * Préface * La vision d'où est sorti ce livre * I. La Terre * II. D'Ève à Jésus (Le sacre de la femme ; La conscience ; Puissance égale bonté ; Les lions ; Le temple ; Booz endormi ; Dieu invisible au philosophe ; Première rencontre du Christ avec le tombeau) * III. Suprématie * IV. Entre géants et dieux (Le géant, aux dieux ; Paroles de géant ; Les temps paniques ; Le titan) * V. La ville disparue * VI. Après les dieux, les rois (I : Inscription ; Cassandre ; Les trois cents ; Le détroit de l'Euripe ; La chanson de Sophocle à Salamine ; Les bannis ; Aide offerte à Majorien ; II : L'hydre ; Quand le Cid fut entré ; Le romancero du Cid ; Le roi de Perse ; Les deux mendiants ; Montfaucon ; Les reîtres ; Le comte Félibien) * VII. Entre lions et rois (Quelqu'un met le holà) * VIII. Décadence de Rome (Au lion d'Androclès) * IX. L'Islam (L'an neuf de l'Hégire ; Mahomet ; Le cèdre) * X. Le Cycle Héroïque Chrétien (Le parricide ; Le mariage de Roland ; Aymerillot ; Bivar ; Le jour des rois) * XI. Le Cid exilé * XII. Les Sept merveilles du monde * XIII. L'Epopée du ver * XIV. Le Poëte au ver de terre * XV. Les Chevaliers Errants (La terre a vu jadis ; Le petit roi de Galice ; Eviradnus) * XVI. Les Trônes d'Orient (Zim- Zizimi ; 1453 ; Sultan Mourad ; Le Bey outragé ; La chanson des doreurs de proues) * XVII. Avertissements et châtiments (Le travail des captifs ; Homo duplex ; Verset du Koran ; L'aigle du casque) * XVIII. L'Italie – Ratbert * XIX. Welf, Castellan d'Osbor * XX. Les quatre jours d'Elciis * XXI. Le Cycle pyrénéen (Gaïffer-Jorge, duc d'Aquitaine ; Masferrer ; La paternité) ; * XXII. Seizième siècle — Renaissance Paganisme (Le Satyre) * XXIII. Je me penchai * XXIV. Clarté d'âmes * XXV. Les chutes (Fleuves et poëtes) * XXVI. La Rose de l'Infante * XXVII. L'Inquisition (Les raisons du Momotombo) * XXVIII. La Chanson des Aventuriers de la Mer * XXIX. Mansétude des anciens juges * XXX. L'Échafaud * XXXI. Dix-septième siècle, Les Mercenaires (Le régiment du baron Madruce) * XXXII. Inferi * XXXIII. Le cercle des tyrans * XXXIV. Ténèbres * XXXV. Là-haut * XXXVI. Le Groupe des Idylles * XXXVII. Les paysans au bord de la mer * XXXVIII. Les esprits * XXXIX. L'Amour * XL. Les Montagnes (Désintéressement) * XLI. Océan * XLII. À L'Homme * XLIII. Le Temple * XLIV. Tout le passé et tout l'avenir * XLV. Changement d'horizon * XLVI. La Comète * XLVII. Un poëte est un monde * XLVIII. Le retour de l'Empereur * XLIX. Le Temps présent (La Vérité, lumière effrayée ; Tout était vision ; Jean Chouan ; Après la bataille ; Les paroles de mon oncle ; Le cimetière d'Eylau ; 1851 – choix entre deux passants ; Écrit en exil ; La colère du bronze ; France et âme ; Dénoncé à celui qui chassa les vendeurs ; Les enterrements civils ; Victorieux ou mort ; Le prisonnier ; Après les fourches caudines ; Paroles dans l'épreuve) * L. L'Élégie des fléaux * LI. Voix basses dans les ténèbres * LII. Les pauvres gens ; * LIII. Le crapaud ; * LIV. La vision de Dante ; * LV. Les grandes Lois (+ Je ne me sentais plus vivant ; Dieu fait les questions) * LVI. Rupture avec ce qui amoindrit • LVII. Les Petits (Guerre civile ; Petit Paul ; Fonction du l'enfant ; Question sociale) * LVIII. Vingtième siècle (Pleine mer — Plein ciel) * LIX. Ô Dieu, l'œuvre va plus loin que notre rêve * LX. Hors des temps (La trompette du ) * LXI. Abîme ==References== == External links == *Correspondance de Flaubert, année 1859 *Théophile Gautier, Rapport sur les progrès de la poésie, (partie III, sur Victor Hugo) *Baudelaire, L'Art romantique *Leconte de Lisle, Les Poètes contemporains, III Category:French poems Category:Poetry by Victor Hugo Category:1859 poems Category:1877 poems Category:1883 poems |
The UK Albums Chart is one of many music charts compiled by the Official Charts Company that calculates the best-selling albums of the week in the United Kingdom. Since 2004 the chart has been based on the sales of both physical albums and digital downloads. Since 2015, the album chart has been based on both sales and streaming. This list shows albums that peaked in the Top 10 of the UK Albums Chart during 2018, as well as albums which peaked in 2017 and 2019 but were in the top 10 in 2018. The entry date is when the album appeared in the top 10 for the first time (week ending, as published by the Official Charts Company, which is six days after the chart is announced). One- hundred and fifty-five albums were in the top ten this year. Thirteen albums from 2017 remained in the top 10 for several weeks at the beginning of the year, while 50 Years – Don't Stop by Fleetwood Mac and Unchained Melodies by Roy Orbison with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra were both released in 2018 but did not reach their peak until 2019. Christmas by Michael Bublé was originally released in 2011, launched a new chart run in 2017, reaching a peak on its latest run in 2018 and again in 2019. Dua Lipa by Dua Lipa was the only album from 2017 to reach its peak in 2018. Twelve artists scored multiple entries in the top 10 in 2018. Anne-Marie, Calum Scott, First Aid Kit, The Greatest Showman Cast and XXXTentacion are among the many artists who achieved their first UK charting top 10 album in 2018. Ed Sheeran's Divide returned to the top of the chart for the opening two weeks of the year, totalling twenty weeks at number-one since it was released in March 2017. The first new number- one album of the year was The Greatest Showman: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack by The Greatest Showman cast. Overall, nineteen different albums peaked at number-one in 2018, with nineteen unique artists hitting that position. ==Background== ===Multiple entries=== One-hundred and fifty-five albums charted in the top 10 in 2018, with one-hundred and thirty-nine albums reaching their peak this year (including the re-entries Appetite for Destruction, Christmas, ABBA Gold: Greatest Hits, Mamma Mia! The Movie Soundtrack, Wanted on Voyage, The White Album, X, which charted in previous years but reached peaks on their latest chart run). Twelve artists scored multiple entries in the top 10 in 2018. ===Chart debuts=== Thirty-four artists achieved their first top 10 album in 2018 as a lead artist. The Mamma Mia! film cast had one other entry in their breakthrough year. The following table (collapsed on desktop site) does not include acts who had previously charted as part of a group and secured their first top 10 solo album, or featured appearances on compilations or other artists recordings. Artist Number of top 10s First entry Chart position Other entries The Greatest Showman cast 1 The Greatest Showman: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack 1 -- First Aid Kit 1 Ruins 3 -- Migos 1 Culture II 4 -- Beth Hart 1 Black Coffee 7 -- Mist 1 Diamonds in the Dirt 4 -- Fredo 1 Tables Turn 5 -- 1 A Deeper Cut 6 -- Tory Lanez 1 Memories Don't Die 8 -- Calum Scott 1 Only Human 4 -- XXXTentacion 1 Question Mark 3 -- 1 "I'll Be Your Girl" 8 -- Fickle Friends 1 You Are Someone Else 9 -- Lissie 1 Castles 9 -- Kacey Musgraves 1 Golden Hour 6 -- Cardi B 1 Invasion of Privacy 5 -- Tom Misch 1 Geography 8 -- 1 Evil Spirits 7 -- Anne- Marie 1 Speak Your Mind 3 -- Janelle Monáe 1 Dirty Computer 8 -- Shinedown 1 Attention Attention 8 -- Jon Hopkins 1 Singularity 8 -- Ry Cooder 1 The Prodigal Son 10 -- BTS 1 Love Yourself: Tear 8 -- Courtney Barnett 1 Tell Me How You Really Feel 9 -- Ghost 1 Prequelle 10 -- Kids See Ghosts 1 Kids See Ghosts 7 -- 1 Everything Is Love 5 -- Tom Grennan 1 Lighting Matches 5 -- Mamma Mia! film cast 2 Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again: The Movie Soundtrack 1 Mamma Mia! The Movie Soundtrack (5) Travis Scott 1 Astroworld 3 -- Miles Kane 1 Coup de Grace 8 -- Alice in Chains 1 Rainier Fog 9 -- IDLES 1 Joy as an Act of Resistance 5 -- Pale Waves 1 My Mind Makes Noises 8 -- Bradley Cooper 1 A Star Is Born 1 -- ;Notes Camila Cabello's self-titled album Camila, was her first solo effort and her first top 10 album away from the group Fifth Harmony. She reached the top 10 with her bandmates when 7/27 peaked at number six in June 2016. The group had a second top 10 album in 2017 after Camila had left the lineup. Beth Hart collaborated with Joe Bonamassa on a first top 10 album together, Black Coffee. Bonamassa had reached the top ten with three albums previously, the best performing Driving Towards the Daylight making number two in 2012. Three former members of UB40 - Ali Campbell, Terence Wilson (Astro) and Mickey Virtue - reunited in 2014 under the name UB40 featuring Ali, Astro & Mickey. Their 2018 album A Real Labour of Love was their first to reach the top 10. As a solo artist, Ali had recorded two top 10 albums to date - Big Love (number 6 in 1995) and Running Free (number 9 in 2007). Rick Parfitt was part of the line-up of Status Quo, who had eighteen studio albums that reached the top 10. He achieved a posthumous top 10 album as a solo artist in 2018 with Over and Out. Sting, the long-standing member of The Police, and soloist Shaggy collaborated for the album 44/876, their first entry as a duo. The Carters are husband and wife musicians Jay-Z and Beyoncé who have both achieved almost two decades of album chart success individually, the latter also as a member of the group Destiny's Child. However Everything Is Love marked their chart debut as a combined act. ===Soundtracks=== Soundtrack albums for various films entered the top 10 throughout the year. These included A Star Is Born, Bohemian Rhapsody, The Greatest Showman, Mamma Mia! and Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again. ===Best-selling albums=== The Greatest Showman cast had the best-selling album of the year with The Greatest Showman: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. The album spent 87 weeks in the top 10 (52 this year, including 23 weeks at number one), recorded over 1.6 million combined sales and was certified 5× platinum by the BPI. Staying at Tamara's by George Ezra came in second place. Ed Sheeran's ÷, Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again: The Movie Soundtrack from the Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again Cast and Scorpion by Drake made up the top five. Albums by Post Malone, Bradley Cooper & Lady Gaga, Michael Bublé, Dua Lipa and Eminem were also in the top ten best- selling albums of the year. ==Top-ten albums== ;Key Symbol Meaning ‡ Album peaked in 2016 or 2017 but still in chart in 2018. ♦ Album released in 2017 or 2018 but peaked in 2019. (#) Year-end top ten album position and rank Entered The date that the album first appeared in the chart. Peak Highest position that the song reached in the UK Albums Chart. Entered (week ending) Weeks in top 10 Single Artist Peak Peak reached (week ending) Weeks at peak Albums in 2016 29 Glory Days ‡ Little Mix 1 5 Albums in 2017 44 Human ‡ Rag'n'Bone Man 1 2 7 Gang Signs & Prayer ‡ Stormzy 1 1 88 ÷ ‡ (#3) Ed Sheeran 1 20 28 Dua Lipa (#9) Dua Lipa 3 2 19 Beautiful Trauma ‡ Pink 1 1 11 Together Again ‡ Michael Ball & Alfie Boe 1 1 21 The Thrill of It All ‡ Sam Smith 1 2 8 A Love So Beautiful ‡ Roy Orbison with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra 2 1 5 Reputation ‡ Taylor Swift 1 1 3 Diamonds ‡ Elton John 5 1 8 The Architect ‡ Paloma Faith 1 1 6 Christmas ♦ Michael Bublé 5 1 10 Revival ‡ Eminem 1 1 Albums in 2018 88 The Greatest Showman (#1) The Greatest Showman cast 1 28 6 Camila Camila Cabello 2 1 1 Mania Fall Out Boy 2 1 2 Ruins First Aid Kit 3 1 1 The Time Is Now Craig David 2 1 1 Culture II Migos 4 1 1 Black Coffee Beth Hart and Joe Bonamassa 7 1 4 Man of the Woods Justin Timberlake 2 1 1 Walk Between Worlds Simple Minds 4 1 1 Technology Don Broco 5 1 1 Beautiful People Will Ruin Your Life 3 1 1 Diamond in the Dirt Mist 4 1 1 Tables Turn Fredo 5 1 1 Always Ascending Franz Ferdinand 6 1 1 A Deeper Cut 6 1 2 × Ed Sheeran 10 2 3 A Real Labour of Love UB40 featuring Ali Campbell, Astro & Mickey 2 1 1 Love Is a Basic Need Embrace 5 1 1 Memories Don't Die Tory Lanez 8 1 1 All Nerve 9 1 2 Only Human Calum Scott 4 1 1 Firepower Judas Priest 5 1 1 Violence Editors 6 1 1 Both Sides of the Sky Jimi Hendrix 8 1 6 ? XXXTentacion 3 1 1 In Your Own Sweet Time 5 1 1 I'll Be Your Girl 8 1 1 You Are Someone Else Fickle Friends 9 1 65 Staying at Tamara's (#2) George Ezra 1 1 1 Over and Out Rick Parfitt 4 1 1 Boarding House Reach Jack White 5 1 2 Kidz Bop Summer '18 Kidz Bop Kids 8 2 1 Castles Lissie 9 1 3 My Dear Melancholy (EP) 3 1 1 Combat Sports 4 1 1 Golden Hour Kacey Musgraves 6 1 1 Wanted on Voyage George Ezra 10 1 4 Golden Kylie Minogue 1 1 1 America 30 Seconds to Mars 4 1 1 St. Jude: Re:Wired Courteeners 5 1 3 Invasion of Privacy Cardi B 5 1 1 Geography Tom Misch 8 1 1 The Deconstruction Eels 10 1 1 Resistance Is Futile Manic Street Preachers 2 1 1 Evil Spirits 7 1 2 KOD J. Cole 2 1 1 Accidentally on Purpose 3 1 1 Crop Circle Nines 5 1 1 Family Tree Black Stone Cherry 7 1 1 44/876 Sting & Shaggy 9 1 15 Beerbongs & Bentleys (#6) Post Malone 1 1 7 Speak Your Mind Anne-Marie 3 1 1 Cool Like You Blossoms 4 1 1 Dirty Computer Janelle Monáe 8 1 1 Be More Kind Frank Turner 3 1 1 Heaven Before All Hell Breaks Loose Plan B 5 1 1 Attention Attention Shinedown 8 1 1 Singularity Jon Hopkins 9 1 3 Tranquility Base Hotel & Casino Arctic Monkeys 1 1 1 Voicenotes Charlie Puth 4 1 1 The Prodigal Son Ry Cooder 10 1 1 Electric Light James Bay 2 1 1 And Justice for None Five Finger Death Punch 7 1 1 Love Yourself: Tear BTS 8 1 1 Tell Me How You Really Feel Courtney Barnett 9 1 3 Wildness Snow Patrol 2 1 2 Shawn Mendes Shawn Mendes 3 1 1 MTV Unplugged: Live at Roundhouse, London Biffy Clyro 4 1 1 Love Is Dead Chvrches 7 1 2 ye Kanye West 2 1 1 Noonday Dream Ben Howard 4 1 1 As Long as I Have You Roger Daltrey 8 1 1 Prequelle Ghost 10 1 1 Lost & Found Jorja Smith 3 1 3 The Beach Boys with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra 4 2 1 Kids See Ghosts Kids See Ghosts 7 1 1 No Shame Lily Allen 8 1 1 Youngblood 5 Seconds of Summer 3 1 2 Everything Is Love 5 1 1 Call the Comet Johnny Marr 7 1 2 Pray for the Wicked Panic! at the Disco 2 1 3 Cruising with Jane McDonald Jane McDonald 6 1 12 Scorpion (#5) Drake 1 3 4 High as Hope Florence + the Machine 2 1 1 The Now Now Gorillaz 5 1 1 Appetite for Destruction Guns N' Roses 6 1 2 Palo Santo Years & Years 3 1 1 Lighting Matches Tom Grennan 5 1 1 Night & Day: Day Edition 2 1 17 Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again: The Movie Soundtrack (#4) Mamma Mia! film cast 1 5 2 Beautiful Life Rick Astley 6 1 6 Mamma Mia! The Movie Soundtrack Mamma Mia! film cast 5 2 3 ABBA Gold: Greatest Hits ABBA 6 1 1 Vicious Halestorm 8 1 2 Astroworld Travis Scott 3 1 1 Living in Extraordinary Times James 6 1 1 Rituals Deaf Havana 8 1 2 Queen Nicki Minaj 5 1 1 Coup de Grace Miles Kane 8 1 1 Where No One Stands Alone Elvis Presley 9 1 9 Sweetener Ariana Grande 1 1 1 B. Inspired Bugzy Malone 6 1 1 Under My Skin Gabrielle 7 1 1 Acts of Fear and Love Slaves 8 1 1 Marauder Interpol 6 1 1 Rainier Fog Alice in Chains 9 1 8 Kamikaze (#10) Eminem 1 4 1 Joy as an Act of Resistance IDLES 5 1 1 Runaway Passenger 6 1 1 Let’s Go Sunshine 9 1 1 Bloom Troye Sivan 10 1 1 Egypt Station Paul McCartney 3 1 1 Gold T. Rex 8 1 1 In the Blue Light Paul Simon 10 1 2 True Meanings Paul Weller 2 1 1 My Mind Makes Noises Pale Waves 8 1 1 7 David Guetta 9 1 1 For Ever Jungle 10 1 1 Chris Christine and the Queens 3 1 1 Living the Dream Slash featuring Myles Kennedy and the Conspirators 4 1 1 The Blue Hour Suede 5 1 1 Bridges Josh Groban 6 1 1 Redemption Joe Bonamassa 7 1 5 Blood Red Roses Rod Stewart 1 1 3 Dancing Queen Cher 2 1 1 Tha Carter V Lil Wayne 5 1 1 Gold Chas & Dave 8 1 1 It's About Time Nile Rodgers & Chic 10 1 23 A Star is Born (#7) Lady Gaga & Bradley Cooper 1 2 2 Trench Twenty One Pilots 2 1 1 VI You Me at Six 6 1 13 Always in Between Jess Glynne 1 1 1 Piano Odyssey Rick Wakeman 7 1 1 Natural Rebel Richard Ashcroft 4 1 45 Bohemian Rhapsody: The Original Soundtrack Queen 3 5 1 Evolution Disturbed 7 1 8 Sì Andrea Bocelli 1 1 1 Jubilee Road Tom Odell 5 1 10 The Platinum Collection Queen 5 1 1 No Tourists 1 1 1 Walls Barbra Streisand 6 1 1 The Bootleg Series Vol. 14: More Blood, More Tracks Bob Dylan 9 1 1 Simulation Theory Muse 1 1 5 You Know I Know Olly Murs 2 1 1 The Beatles: 50th Anniversary Edition 4 1 1 In Harmony Aled Jones & Russell Watson 8 1 1 Origins Imagine Dragons 9 1 6 Love (#8) Michael Bublé 1 1 1 Delta Mumford & Sons 2 1 3 LM5 Little Mix 3 1 1 Thank You & Goodnight Boyzone 6 1 1 The Last King of Pop Paul Heaton 10 1 8 Odyssey Take That 1 1 1 Rise Up Cliff Richard 4 1 6 Unchained Melodies ♦ Roy Orbison with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra 3 1 1 As Time Goes By Alfie Boe 10 1 2 A Brief Inquiry into Online Relationships 1 1 1 True Love Ways Buddy Holly with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra 10 1 2 Carpenters with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra 8 1 1 Springsteen on Broadway Bruce Springsteen 6 1 8 50 Years – Don't Stop ♦ Fleetwood Mac 5 1 ==Entries by artist== The following table shows artists who have achieved two or more top 10 entries in 2018, including albums that reached their peak in 2017. The figures only include main artists, with featured artists and appearances on compilation albums not counted individually for each artist. The total number of weeks an artist spent in the top ten in 2018 is also shown. Entries Artist Country of origin Weeks Albums 5 Royal Philharmonic Orchestra 11 A Love So Beautiful. The Beach Boys with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, Carpenters with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, True Love Ways, Unchained Melodies 2 Cher 14 Dancing Queen, Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again: The Movie Soundtrack Ed Sheeran 38 ÷, X Eminem 14 Kamikaze, Revival George Ezra 28 Staying at Tamara's, Wanted on Voyage Joe Bonamassa 2 Black Coffee, Redemption Mamma Mia! film cast / 14 Mamma Mia! The Movie Soundtrack, Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again: The Movie Soundtrack Little Mix 6 Glory Days, LM5 Michael Bublé 9 Christmas, Love Paul McCartney 2 The Beatles: 50th Anniversary Edition, Egypt Station Queen 10 Bohemian Rhapsody: The Original Soundtrack, The Platinum Collection Slash 2 Appetite for Destruction, Living the Dream ==Notes== * Glory Days re-entered the top 10 at number 10 on 18 January 2018 (week ending) for 2 weeks. * Human re-entered the top 10 at number 4 on 1 March 2018 (week ending) for 4 weeks. * Gang Signs & Prayer re-entered the top 10 at number 10 on 1 March 2018 (week ending) for 2 weeks. * ÷ re-entered the top 10 at number 7 on 6 September 2018 (week ending), at number 9 on 20 September 2018 (week ending) and at number 10 on 24 January 2019 (week ending). * Dua Lipa re-entered the top 10 at number 10 on 25 January 2018 (week ending) for 4 weeks, at number 3 on 1 March 2018 (week ending) for 7 weeks, at number 8 on 26 April 2018 (week ending) for 5 weeks and at number 9 on 24 January 2019 (week ending). * Beautiful Trauma re- entered the top 10 at number 9 on 15 February 2018 (week ending) for 5 weeks. * The Thrill of It All re-entered the top 10 at number 6 on 8 March 2018 (week ending) for 3 weeks, at number 10 on 5 April 2018 (week ending) for 2 weeks and at number 10 on 26 April 2018 (week ending). * Reputation re-entered the top 10 at number 8 on 11 January 2018 (week ending) for 3 weeks. * Diamonds re-entered the top 10 at number 10 on 11 January 2018 (week ending). * Christmas originally peaked at number 1 on 26 November 2011 (week ending) upon its initial release. It re-entered the top 10 at number 10 on 23 December 2017 (week ending), rising to number 8 on 4 January 2018 (week ending). It re- entered the top 10 again later in the year at number 7 on 13 December 2018 (week ending), peaking at number 5 on its current run on 3 January 2019 (week ending). * × originally peaked at number 1 on 5 July 2014 (week ending) upon its initial release. It re-entered the top 10 at number 10 on 8 March 2018 (week ending) and at number 10 on 29 March 2018 (week ending). * Question Mark re-entered the top 10 at number 9 on 28 June 2018 (week ending) for 2 weeks, at number 10 on 19 July 2018 (week ending) and at number 10 on 2 August 2018 (week ending). * Staying at Tamara's re-entered the top 10 at number 6 on 11 October 2018 (week ending) for 5 weeks and at number 9 on 6 December 2018 (week ending) for 7 weeks. * Wanted on Voyage originally peaked at number-one upon its initial release in 2014. * Beerbongs & Bentleys re-entered the top 10 at number 10 on 6 September 2018 (week ending). * Speak Your Mind re-entered the top 10 at number 10 on 28 June 2018 (week ending) for 2 weeks. * High as Hope re-entered the top 10 at number 10 on 9 August 2018 (week ending). * Night & Day was released in two parts, titled Night Edition and Day Edition. Night Edition peaked at number-one in 2017, with Day Edition reaching number 2 this year. The Official Charts website marks this as a re-entry but they were actually separate releases. * Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again: The Movie Soundtrack re-entered the top 10 at number 9 on 10 January 2019 (week ending) for 3 weeks. * Mamma Mia! The Movie Soundtrack was ineligible for the Official Album Chart when it was first released in 2008 to support the film Mamma Mia!, but it did top the Official Soundtrack Chart for fifteen consecutive weeks that year. * Gold: Greatest Hits originally peaked at number-one upon its initial release in 1992. It re-entered the top 10 due to the film Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again. * Always In Between re-entered the top 10 at number 7 on 10 January 2019 (week ending) for 5 weeks and at number 10 on 21 February 2019 (week ending) and at number 7 on 7 March 2019 (week ending) for 2 weeks. * Bohemian Rhapsody re-entered the top 10 at number 5 on 29 November 2018 (week ending) for 4 weeks, at number 9 on 3 January 2019 (week ending) for 26 weeks and at number 7 on 18 July 2019 (week ending) for 4 weeks (as of 8 August 2019, week ending). * The Platinum Collection originally peaked outside the top 10 at number 63 upon its initial release in 2000. It charted in the top 10 for the first time in 2002, peaking at number 2. It re-entered the top 10 at number 10 on 17 January 2019 (week ending) and the same position on 31 January 2019 (week ending) for 2 weeks. It re-entered again at number 9 on 21 February 2019 (week ending) for 4 weeks. * You Know I Know re-entered the top 10 at number 10 on 27 December 2018 (week ending) for 3 weeks. * The Beatles originally peaked at number-one upon its initial release in 1968. * LM5 re- entered the top 10 at number 10 on 20 December 2018 (week ending). * A Brief Enquiry into Online Relationships re-entered the top 10 at number 10 on 7 March 2019 (week ending). * Figure includes an album with the Mamma Mia! film cast. * Figure includes album that peaked in 2017. * Figure includes an album with the group The Beatles. * Figure includes an album with the group Guns N' Roses. ==See also== *2018 in British music *List of UK Albums Chart number ones of the 2010s ==References== General * Specific ==External links== *2018 album chart archive at the Official Charts Company (click on relevant week) United Kingdom top 10 albums Top 10 albums 2018 |
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (; English: ;'Marcus Aurelius' . Dictionary.com. 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 AD and a Stoic philosopher. He was the last of the rulers known, noncontemporaneously, as the Five Good Emperors and the last emperor of the Pax Romana, an age of relative peace, calmness, and stability for the Roman Empire lasting from 27 BC to 180 AD. He served as Roman consul in 140, 145, and 161. Marcus Aurelius was born during the reign of Hadrian to the emperor's nephew, the praetor Marcus Annius Verus, and the heiress Domitia Calvilla. His father died when he was three, and he was raised by his mother and paternal grandfather. After Hadrian's adoptive son, Aelius Caesar, died in 138, the emperor adopted Marcus's uncle Antoninus Pius as his new heir. In turn, Antoninus adopted Marcus and Lucius, the son of Aelius. Hadrian died that year, and Antoninus became emperor. Now heir to the throne, Marcus studied Greek and Latin under tutors such as Herodes Atticus and Marcus Cornelius Fronto. He married Antoninus' daughter Faustina in 145. After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus Aurelius acceded to the throne alongside his adoptive brother, who reigned under the name Lucius Verus. Under his rule the Roman Empire witnessed heavy military conflict. In the East, the Romans fought successfully with a revitalized Parthian Empire and the rebel Kingdom of Armenia. Marcus defeated the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Sarmatian Iazyges in the Marcomannic Wars; however, these and other Germanic peoples began to represent a troubling reality for the Empire. He modified the silver purity of the Roman currency, the denarius. The persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire appears to have increased during his reign, but his involvement in this is unlikely since there is no record of early Christians in the 2nd century calling him a persecutor, and Tertullian even called Marcus a "protector of Christians". The Antonine Plague broke out in 165 or 166 and devastated the population of the Roman Empire, causing the deaths of five to ten million people. Lucius Verus may have died from the plague in 169. Unlike some of his predecessors, Marcus chose not to adopt an heir. His children included Lucilla, who married Lucius, and Commodus, whose succession after Marcus has been a subject of debate among both contemporary and modern historians. The Column and Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius still stand in Rome, where they were erected in celebration of his military victories. Meditations, the writings of "the philosopher" – as contemporary biographers called Marcus – are a significant source of the modern understanding of ancient Stoic philosophy. These writings have been praised by fellow writers, philosophers, monarchs, and politicians centuries after his death. ==Sources== The major sources depicting the life and rule of Marcus Aurelius are patchy and frequently unreliable. The most important group of sources, the biographies contained in the Historia Augusta, claimed to be written by a group of authors at the turn of the 4th century AD, but it is believed they were in fact written by a single author (referred to here as 'the biographer') from about AD 395.Rohrbacher, p. 5. The later biographies and the biographies of subordinate emperors and usurpers are unreliable, but the earlier biographies, derived primarily from now-lost earlier sources (Marius Maximus or Ignotus), are much more accurate.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 229–230. The thesis of single authorship was first proposed in H. Dessau's 'Über Zeit und Persönlichkeit der Scriptores Historiae Augustae (in German), Hermes 24 (1889), pp. 337ff. For Marcus's life and rule, the biographies of Hadrian, Antoninus, Marcus, and Lucius are largely reliable, but those of Aelius Verus and Avidius Cassius are not.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 230. On the HA Verus, see Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', pp. 65–74. A body of correspondence between Marcus's tutor Fronto and various Antonine officials survives in a series of patchy manuscripts, covering the period from c. 138 to 166.Fleury, P. 2012. "Marcus Aurelius’ Letters." In A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. Edited by M. van Ackeren, 62–76. Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell.Freisenbruch, A. 2007. "Back to Fronto: Doctor and Patient in His Correspondence with an Emperor." In Ancient Letters: Classical and Late Antique Epistolography. Edited by R. Morello and A. D. Morrison, 235–256. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Marcus's own Meditations offer a window on his inner life, but are largely undateable and make few specific references to worldly affairs.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 227. The main narrative source for the period is Cassius Dio, a Greek senator from Bithynian Nicaea who wrote a history of Rome from its founding to 229 in eighty books. Dio is vital for the military history of the period, but his senatorial prejudices and strong opposition to imperial expansion obscure his perspective.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 228–229, 253. Some other literary sources provide specific details: the writings of the physician Galen on the habits of the Antonine elite, the orations of Aelius Aristides on the temper of the times, and the constitutions preserved in the Digest and Codex Justinianeus on Marcus' legal work.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 227–228. Inscriptions and coin finds supplement the literary sources.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 228. ==Early life== ===Name=== Marcus was born in Rome on 26 April 121. His birth name is sometimes given as Marcus Annius Verus,Magill, p. 693. but sources assign this name to him upon his father's death and unofficial adoption by his grandfather, upon his coming of age.Cassius Dio, Book 69,21.1. "Marcus Annius Verus [...] This Marcus Annius, earlier named Catilius, was a grandson of Annius Verus [...] He preferred Verus on account of his kinship and his age and because he was already giving indication of exceptional strength of character. This led Hadrian to apply to the young man the name Verissimus, thus playing upon the meaning of the Latin word."Historia Augusta, Marcus Antoninus I.9–10. "At the beginning of his life Marcus Antoninus was named Catilius Severus after his mother's grand-father. After the death of his real father, however, Hadrian called him Annius Verissimus, and, after he assumed the toga virilis, Annius Verus."Van Ackeren, p. 139.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 33. He may have been known as "Marcus Annius Catilius Severus",McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 24. at birth or some point in his youth, or "Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus". Upon his adoption by Antoninus as heir to the throne, he was known as "Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar" and, upon his ascension, he was "Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus" until his death;Van Ackeren, p. 78. Epiphanius of Salamis, in his chronology of the Roman emperors included in his On Weights and Measures, calls him Marcus Aurelius Verus.Dean, p. 32. ===Family origins=== Marcus' paternal family was of Roman Italo-Hispanic origins. His father was Marcus Annius Verus (III). The gens Annia was of Italic origins (with legendary claims of descendance from Numa Pompilius) and a branch of it, the Annii Veri, moved to Ucubi, a small town south east of Córdoba in Iberian Baetica.Sánchez, p. 165.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 29; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 14. This branch rose to prominence in Rome in the late 1st century AD. Marcus's great-grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (I) was a senator and (according to the Historia Augusta) ex-praetor; his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II) was made patrician in 73–74.HA Marcus i. 2, 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 28; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, p. 14. Through his grandmother Rupilia Faustina, Marcus was a member of the Nerva- Antonine dynasty; the emperor Trajan's sororal niece Salonia Matidia was the step-mother of Rupilia and her step-sister, Hadrian's wife Sabina.Giacosa, p. 8.Levick, pp. 161, 163. Marcus's mother, Domitia Lucilla Minor (also known as Domitia Calvilla), was the daughter of the Roman patrician P. Calvisius Tullus and inherited a great fortune (described at length in one of Pliny's letters) from her parents and grandparents. Her inheritance included large brickworks on the outskirts of Rome – a profitable enterprise in an era when the city was experiencing a construction boom – and the Horti Domitia Calvillae (or Lucillae), a villa on the Caelian hill of Rome.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 29, citing Pliny, Epistulae 8.18.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 30. Marcus himself was born and raised in the Horti and referred to the Caelian hill as 'My Caelian'.Ad Marcum Caesarem ii. 8.2 (= Haines 1.142), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. The adoptive family of Marcus was of Roman Italo- Gallic origins: the gens Aurelia, into which Marcus was adopted at the age of 17, was a Sabine gens; Antoninus Pius, his adoptive father, came from the Aurelii Fulvi, a branch of the Aurelii based in Roman Gaul. ===Childhood=== Marcus's sister, Annia Cornificia Faustina, was probably born in 122 or 123.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 31, 44. His father probably died in 124, when Marcus was three years old during his praetorship.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. Though he can hardly have known his father, Marcus wrote in his Meditations that he had learned 'modesty and manliness' from his memories of his father and the man's posthumous reputation.Meditations 1.1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 31. His mother Lucilla did not remarry and, following prevailing aristocratic customs, probably did not spend much time with her son. Instead, Marcus was in the care of 'nurses',HA Marcus ii. 1 and Meditations v. 4, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 32. and was raised after his father's death by his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II), who had always retained the legal authority of patria potestas over his son and grandson. Technically this was not an adoption, the creation of a new and different patria potestas. Lucius Catilius Severus, described as Marcus's maternal great-grandfather, also participated in his upbringing; he was probably the elder Domitia Lucilla's stepfather. Marcus was raised in his parents' home on the Caelian Hill, an upscale area with few public buildings but many aristocratic villas. Marcus's grandfather owned a palace beside the Lateran, where he would spend much of his childhood.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 31–32. Marcus thanks his grandfather for teaching him 'good character and avoidance of bad temper'.Meditations i. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 35. He was less fond of the mistress his grandfather took and lived with after the death of his wife Rupilia.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 35. Marcus was grateful that he did not have to live with her longer than he did.Meditations i. 17.2; Farquharson, 1.102; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 23; cf. Meditations i. 17.11; Farquharson, 1.103. From a young age, Marcus displayed enthusiasm for wrestling and boxing. He trained in wrestling as a youth and into his teenage years, learned to fight in armour and joined the Salii, an order of priests dedicated to the god Mars that were responsible for the sacred shields, called Ancilia, and possibly for heralding war season's beginning and end. Marcus was educated at home, in line with contemporary aristocratic trends;McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, 20–21. he thanks Catilius Severus for encouraging him to avoid public schools.Meditations 1.4; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 20. One of his teachers, Diognetus, a painting master, proved particularly influential; he seems to have introduced Marcus Aurelius to the philosophic way of life.HA Marcus ii. 2, iv. 9; Meditations i. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 37; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, pp. 21–22. In April 132, at the behest of Diognetus, Marcus took up the dress and habits of the philosopher: he studied while wearing a rough Greek cloak, and would sleep on the ground until his mother convinced him to sleep on a bed.HA Marcus ii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 38; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 21. A new set of tutors – the Homeric scholar Alexander of Cotiaeum along with Trosius Aper and Tuticius Proculus, teachers of LatinBirley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 40, citing Aristides, Oratio 32 K; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 21. – took over Marcus's education in about 132 or 133.HA Marcus ii. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 40, 270 n.27. Marcus thanks Alexander for his training in literary styling.Meditations i. 10; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 40; McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor, p. 22. Alexander's influence – an emphasis on matter over style and careful wording, with the occasional Homeric quotation – has been detected in Marcus' Meditations.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 40, 270 n.28, citing A.S.L. Farquharson, The Meditations of Marcus Antoninus (Oxford, 1944) ii. 453. ===Succession to Hadrian=== In late 136, Hadrian almost died from a hemorrhage. Convalescent in his villa at Tivoli, he selected Lucius Ceionius Commodus, Marcus's intended father-in-law, as his successor and adopted son,Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 41–42. according to the biographer 'against the wishes of everyone'.HA Hadrian xiii. 10, qtd. in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 42. While his motives are not certain, it would appear that his goal was to eventually place the then-too-young Marcus on the throne.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 42. Van Ackeren, 142. On the succession to Hadrian, see also: T.D. Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', Journal of Roman Studies 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79; J. VanderLeest, 'Hadrian, Lucius Verus, and the Arco di Portogallo', Phoenix 49:4 (1995): pp. 319–330. As part of his adoption, Commodus took the name, Lucius Aelius Caesar. His health was so poor that, during a ceremony to mark his becoming heir to the throne, he was too weak to lift a large shield on his own.HA Aelius vi. 2–3 After a brief stationing on the Danube frontier, Aelius returned to Rome to make an address to the Senate on the first day of 138. However, the night before the scheduled speech, he grew ill and died of a hemorrhage later in the day.HA Hadrian xxiii. 15–16; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 45; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', 148. On 24 January 138, Hadrian selected Aurelius Antoninus, the husband of Marcus's aunt Faustina the Elder, as his new successor.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 46. Date: Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 148. As part of Hadrian's terms, Antoninus, in turn, adopted Marcus and Lucius Commodus, the son of Lucius Aelius.Weigel, Richard D. 'Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138–161)'. Roman Emperors. Marcus became M. Aelius Aurelius Verus, and Lucius became L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus. At Hadrian's request, Antoninus' daughter Faustina was betrothed to Lucius.Dio 69.21.1; HA Hadrian xxiv. 1; HA Aelius vi. 9; HA Antoninus Pius iv. 6–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 48–49. Marcus reportedly greeted the news that Hadrian had become his adoptive grandfather with sadness, instead of joy. Only with reluctance did he move from his mother's house on the Caelian to Hadrian's private home.HA Marcus v. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 49. At some time in 138, Hadrian requested in the Senate that Marcus be exempt from the law barring him from becoming quaestor before his twenty-fourth birthday. The Senate complied, and Marcus served under Antoninus, the consul for 139.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 49–50. Marcus's adoption diverted him from the typical career path of his class. If not for his adoption, he probably would have become triumvir monetalis, a highly regarded post involving token administration of the state mint; after that, he could have served as tribune with a legion, becoming the legion's nominal second-in-command. Marcus probably would have opted for travel and further education instead. As it was, Marcus was set apart from his fellow citizens. Nonetheless, his biographer attests that his character remained unaffected: 'He still showed the same respect to his relations as he had when he was an ordinary citizen, and he was as thrifty and careful of his possessions as he had been when he lived in a private household'.HA Marcus v. 6–8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 50. After a series of suicide attempts, all thwarted by Antoninus, Hadrian left for Baiae, a seaside resort on the Campanian coast. His condition did not improve, and he abandoned the diet prescribed by his doctors, indulging himself in food and drink. He sent for Antoninus, who was at his side when he died on 10 July 138.Dio 69.22.4; HA Hadrian xxv. 5–6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 50–51. Hadrian's suicide attempts: Dio, lxix. 22.1–4; HA Hadrian xxiv. 8–13. His remains were buried quietly at Puteoli.HA Hadrian xxv. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 53. The succession to Antoninus was peaceful and stable: Antoninus kept Hadrian's nominees in office and appeased the senate, respecting its privileges and commuting the death sentences of men charged in Hadrian's last days.HA Antoninus Pius v. 3, vi. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 55–56; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 151. For his dutiful behaviour, Antoninus was asked to accept the name 'Pius'.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 55; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 151. ===Heir to Antoninus Pius (138–145)=== Immediately after Hadrian's death, Antoninus approached Marcus and requested that his marriage arrangements be amended: Marcus's betrothal to Ceionia Fabia would be annulled, and he would be betrothed to Faustina, Antoninus' daughter, instead. Faustina's betrothal to Ceionia's brother Lucius Commodus would also have to be annulled. Marcus consented to Antoninus's proposal.HA Marcus vi. 2; Verus ii. 3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 53–54. He was made consul for 140 with Antoninus as his colleague, and was appointed as a seviri, one of the knights' six commanders, at the order's annual parade on 15 July 139. As the heir apparent, Marcus became princeps iuventutis, head of the equestrian order. He now took the name Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar.Dio 71.35.5; HA Marcus vi. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 56. Marcus would later caution himself against taking the name too seriously: 'See that you do not turn into a Caesar; do not be dipped into the purple dye – for that can happen'.Meditations vi. 30, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 57; cf. Marcus Aurelius, p. 270 n.9, with notes on the translation. At the senate's request, Marcus joined all the priestly colleges (pontifices, augures, quindecimviri sacris faciundis, septemviri epulonum, etc.);HA Marcus vi. 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 57. direct evidence for membership, however, is available only for the Arval Brethren.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 57, 272 n.10, citing Codex Inscriptionum Latinarum 6.32, 6.379, cf. Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 360. Antoninus demanded that Marcus reside in the House of Tiberius, the imperial palace on the Palatine, and take up the habits of his new station, the aulicum fastigium or 'pomp of the court', against Marcus' objections. Marcus would struggle to reconcile the life of the court with his philosophic yearnings. He told himself it was an attainable goal – 'Where life is possible, then it is possible to live the right life; life is possible in a palace, so it is possible to live the right life in a palace'Meditations 5.16, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 57. – but he found it difficult nonetheless. He would criticize himself in the Meditations for 'abusing court life' in front of company.Meditations 8.9, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 57. As quaestor, Marcus would have had little real administrative work to do. He would read imperial letters to the senate when Antoninus was absent and would do secretarial work for the senators.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 57–58. But he felt drowned in paperwork and complained to his tutor, Marcus Cornelius Fronto: 'I am so out of breath from dictating nearly thirty letters'.Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 7, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 90. He was being 'fitted for ruling the state', in the words of his biographer.HA Marcus vi. 5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 58. He was required to make a speech to the assembled senators as well, making oratorical training essential for the job.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. On 1 January 145, Marcus was made consul a second time. Fronto urged him in a letter to have plenty of sleep 'so that you may come into the Senate with a good colour and read your speech with a strong voice'.Ad Marcum Caesarem v. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. Marcus had complained of an illness in an earlier letter: 'As far as my strength is concerned, I am beginning to get it back; and there is no trace of the pain in my chest. But that ulcer [...] I am having treatment and taking care not to do anything that interferes with it'.Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. Never particularly healthy or strong, Marcus was praised by Cassius Dio, writing of his later years, for behaving dutifully in spite of his various illnesses.Dio 71.36.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 89. In April 145, Marcus married Faustina, legally his sister, as had been planned since 138.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 90–91. Little is specifically known of the ceremony, but the biographer calls it 'noteworthy'.HA Antoninus Pius x. 2, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 91. Coins were issued with the heads of the couple, and Antoninus, as Pontifex Maximus, would have officiated. Marcus makes no apparent reference to the marriage in his surviving letters, and only sparing references to Faustina.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 91. ===Fronto and further education=== After taking the toga virilis in 136, Marcus probably began his training in oratory.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 61. He had three tutors in Greek (Aninus Macer, Caninius Celer, and Herodes Atticus) and one in Latin (Marcus Cornelius Fronto). The latter two were the most esteemed orators of their time,HA Marcus iii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 62. but probably did not become his tutors until his adoption by Antoninus in 138. The preponderance of Greek tutors indicates the importance of the Greek language to the aristocracy of Rome.HA Marcus ii. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 62. This was the age of the Second Sophistic, a renaissance in Greek letters. Although educated in Rome, in his Meditations Marcus would write his inmost thoughts in Greek.Alan Cameron, review of Anthony Birley's Marcus Aurelius, Classical Review 17:3 (1967): p. 347. Atticus was controversial: an enormously rich Athenian (probably the richest man in the eastern half of the empire), he was quick to anger and resented by his fellow Athenians for his patronizing manner.Vita Sophistae 2.1.14; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 63–64. Atticus was an inveterate opponent of Stoicism and philosophic pretensions.Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae 9.2.1–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 64–65. He thought the Stoics' desire for apatheia was foolish: they would live a 'sluggish, enervated life', he said.Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae 19.12, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 65. In spite of the influence of Atticus, Marcus would later become a Stoic. He would not mention Herodes at all in his Meditations, in spite of the fact that they would come into contact many times over the following decades.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 65. Fronto was highly esteemed: in the self-consciously antiquarian world of Latin letters,Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 67–68, citing Champlin, Fronto and Antonine Rome, esp. chs. 3 and 4. he was thought of as second only to Cicero, perhaps even an alternative to him.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 65–67. He did not care much for Atticus, though Marcus was eventually to put the pair on speaking terms. Fronto exercised a complete mastery of Latin, capable of tracing expressions through the literature, producing obscure synonyms, and challenging minor improprieties in word choice. A significant amount of the correspondence between Fronto and Marcus has survived.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 69. The pair were very close, using intimate language such as 'Farewell my Fronto, wherever you are, my most sweet love and delight. How is it between you and me? I love you and you are not here' in their correspondence.Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 6 (= Haines 1.80ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 76. Marcus spent time with Fronto's wife and daughter, both named Cratia, and they enjoyed light conversation.Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 6 (= Haines 1.80ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 76–77. He wrote Fronto a letter on his birthday, claiming to love him as he loved himself, and calling on the gods to ensure that every word he learnt of literature, he would learn 'from the lips of Fronto'.Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 10–11 (= Haines 1.50ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 73. His prayers for Fronto's health were more than conventional, because Fronto was frequently ill; at times, he seems to be an almost constant invalid, always sufferingBirley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 73. – about one-quarter of the surviving letters deal with the man's sicknesses.Champlin, 'Chronology of Fronto', p. 138. Marcus asks that Fronto's pain be inflicted on himself, 'of my own accord with every kind of discomfort'.Ad Marcum Caesarem v. 74 ( =Haines 2.52ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 73. Fronto never became Marcus's full-time teacher and continued his career as an advocate. One notorious case brought him into conflict with Atticus.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 77. On the date, see Champlin, 'Chronology of Fronto', p. 142, who (with Bowersock, Greek Sophists in the Roman Empire (1964), 93ff) argues for a date in the 150s; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 78–79, 273 n.17 (with Ameling, Herodes Atticus (1983), 1.61ff, 2.30ff) argues for 140. Marcus pleaded with Fronto, first with 'advice', then as a 'favour', not to attack Atticus; he had already asked Atticus to refrain from making the first blows.Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 2 (= Haines 1.58ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 77–78. Fronto replied that he was surprised to discover Marcus counted Atticus as a friend (perhaps Atticus was not yet Marcus' tutor), and allowed that Marcus might be correct,Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 3 (= Haines 1.62ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 78. but nonetheless affirmed his intent to win the case by any means necessary: '[T]he charges are frightful and must be spoken of as frightful. Those in particular that refer to the beating and robbing I will describe so that they savour of gall and bile. If I happen to call him an uneducated little Greek it will not mean war to the death'.Ad Marcum Caesarem iii. 3 (= Haines 1.62ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 79. The outcome of the trial is unknown.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 80. By the age of twenty-five (between April 146 and April 147), Marcus had grown disaffected with his studies in jurisprudence, and showed some signs of general malaise. His master, he writes to Fronto, was an unpleasant blowhard, and had made 'a hit at' him: 'It is easy to sit yawning next to a judge, he says, but to be a judge is noble work'.Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 13 (= Haines 1.214ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 93. Marcus had grown tired of his exercises, of taking positions in imaginary debates. When he criticized the insincerity of conventional language, Fronto took to defend it.Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 3.1 (= Haines 1.2ff); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 94. In any case, Marcus' formal education was now over. He had kept his teachers on good terms, following them devotedly. It 'affected his health adversely', his biographer writes, to have devoted so much effort to his studies. It was the only thing the biographer could find fault with in Marcus's entire boyhood.HA Marcus iii. 5–8, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 94. Fronto had warned Marcus against the study of philosophy early on: "It is better never to have touched the teaching of philosophy [...] than to have tasted it superficially, with the edge of the lips, as the saying is".Ad Marcum Caesarem iv. 3, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 69. He disdained philosophy and philosophers and looked down on Marcus's sessions with Apollonius of Chalcedon and others in this circle. Fronto put an uncharitable interpretation of Marcus's 'conversion to philosophy': 'In the fashion of the young, tired of boring work', Marcus had turned to philosophy to escape the constant exercises of oratorical training.De Eloquentia iv. 5 (= Haines 2.74), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 95. Alan Cameron, in his review of Birley's biography (The Classical Review 17:3 (1967): p. 347), suggests a reference to chapter 11 of Arthur Darby Nock's Conversion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933, rept. 1961): 'Conversion to Philosophy'. Marcus kept in close touch with Fronto, but would ignore Fronto's scruples.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 94, 105. Apollonius may have introduced Marcus to Stoic philosophy, but Quintus Junius Rusticus would have the strongest influence on the boy.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 95; Champlin, Fronto, p. 120. He was the man Fronto recognized as having 'wooed Marcus away' from oratory.Ad Antoninum Imperatorem i.2.2 (= Haines 2.36), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 95. He was older than Fronto and twenty years older than Marcus. As the grandson of Arulenus Rusticus, one of the martyrs to the tyranny of Domitian (r. 81–96), he was heir to the tradition of 'Stoic Opposition' to the 'bad emperors' of the 1st century;Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 94–95, 101. the true successor of Seneca (as opposed to Fronto, the false one).Champlin, Fronto, p. 120. Marcus thanks Rusticus for teaching him 'not to be led astray into enthusiasm for rhetoric, for writing on speculative themes, for discoursing on moralizing texts.... To avoid oratory, poetry, and 'fine writing''.Meditations i.7, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 94–95. Philostratus describes how even when Marcus was an old man, in the latter part of his reign, he studied under Sextus of Chaeronea: > The Emperor Marcus was an eager disciple of Sextus the Boeotian philosopher, > being often in his company and frequenting his house. Lucius, who had just > come to Rome, asked the Emperor, whom he met on his way, where he was going > to and on what errand, and Marcus answered, ' it is good even for an old man > to learn; I am now on my way to Sextus the philosopher to learn what I do > not yet know.' And Lucius, raising his hand to heaven, said, ' O Zeus, the > king of the Romans in his old age takes up his tablets and goes to > school.'Philostratus, Vitae sophistorum ii. 9 (557); cf. Suda, Markos ===Births and deaths=== On 30 November 147, Faustina gave birth to a girl named Domitia Faustina. She was the first of at least thirteen children (including two sets of twins) that Faustina would bear over the next twenty- three years. The next day, 1 December, Antoninus gave Marcus the tribunician power and the imperium – authority over the armies and provinces of the emperor. As tribune, he had the right to bring one measure before the senate after the four Antoninus could introduce. His tribunician powers would be renewed with Antoninus's on 10 December 147.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 103. The first mention of Domitia in Marcus's letters reveals her as a sickly infant. 'Caesar to Fronto. If the gods are willing we seem to have a hope of recovery. The diarrhea has stopped, the little attacks of fever have been driven away. But the emaciation is still extreme and there is still quite a bit of coughing'. He and Faustina, Marcus wrote, had been 'pretty occupied' with the girl's care.Ad Marcum Caesarem 4.11 (= Haines 1.202ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 105. Domitia would die in 151.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 247 F.1. In 149, Faustina gave birth again, to twin sons. Contemporary coinage commemorates the event, with crossed cornucopiae beneath portrait busts of the two small boys, and the legend temporum felicitas, 'the happiness of the times'. They did not survive long. Before the end of the year, another family coin was issued: it shows only a tiny girl, Domitia Faustina, and one boy baby. Then another: the girl alone. The infants were buried in the Mausoleum of Hadrian, where their epitaphs survive. They were called Titus Aurelius Antoninus and Tiberius Aelius Aurelius.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 206–207. Marcus steadied himself: 'One man prays: 'How I may not lose my little child', but you must pray: 'How I may not be afraid to lose him'.Meditations ix.40, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 207. He quoted from the Iliad what he called the "briefest and most familiar saying [...] enough to dispel sorrow and fear":Meditations x.34, tr. Farquharson, pp. 78, 224. > leaves, the wind scatters some on the face of the ground; like unto them are > the children of men. – Iliad vi.146 Another daughter was born on 7 March 150, Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla. At some time between 155 and 161, probably soon after 155, Marcus's mother Domitia Lucilla died.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 107. Faustina probably had another daughter in 151, but the child, Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina, might not have been born until 153.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 107–108. Another son, Tiberius Aelius Antoninus, was born in 152. A coin issue celebrates fecunditati Augustae, 'to Augusta's fertility', depicting two girls and an infant. The boy did not survive long, as evidenced by coins from 156, only depicting the two girls. He might have died in 152, the same year as Marcus's sister Cornificia.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108. By 28 March 158, when Marcus replied, another of his children was dead. Marcus thanked the temple synod, 'even though this turned out otherwise'. The child's name is unknown.Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas pertinentes 4.1399, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. In 159 and 160, Faustina gave birth to daughters: Fadilla and Cornificia, named respectively after Faustina's and Marcus's dead sisters.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. ===Antoninus Pius's last years=== Lucius started his political career as a quaestor in 153. He was consul in 154,Reed, p. 194. and was consul again with Marcus in 161.Lendering, Jona. 'Marcus Aurelius' . Livius.org. Lucius had no other titles, except that of 'son of Augustus'. Lucius had a markedly different personality from Marcus: he enjoyed sports of all kinds, but especially hunting and wrestling; he took obvious pleasure in the circus games and gladiatorial fights.HA Verus 2.9–11; 3.4–7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108. He did not marry until 164.HA Verus 2.9–11; 3.4–7; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', 68; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 108. In 156, Antoninus turned 70. He found it difficult to keep himself upright without stays. He started nibbling on dry bread to give him the strength to stay awake through his morning receptions. As Antoninus aged, Marcus would take on more administrative duties, more still when he became the praetorian prefect (an office that was as much secretarial as military) when Marcus Gavius Maximus died in 156 or 157.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 112. In 160, Marcus and Lucius were designated joint consuls for the following year. Antoninus may have already been ill. Two days before his death, the biographer reports, Antoninus was at his ancestral estate at Lorium, in Etruria,Bowman, 156; Victor, 15:7 about 19 kilometres (12 mi) from Rome.Victor, 15:7 He ate Alpine cheese at dinner quite greedily. In the night he vomited; he had a fever the next day. The day after that, 7 March 161,Dio 71.33.4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. he summoned the imperial council, and passed the state and his daughter to Marcus. The emperor gave the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered when the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password – 'aequanimitas' (equanimity).Bury, p. 532. He then turned over, as if going to sleep, and died.HA Antoninus Pius 12.4–8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 114. His death closed out the longest reign since Augustus, surpassing Tiberius by a couple of months.Bowman, p. 156. ==Emperor== ===Accession of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus (161)=== After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus was effectively sole ruler of the Empire. The formalities of the position would follow. The Senate would soon grant him the name Augustus and the title imperator, and he would soon be formally elected as pontifex maximus, chief priest of the official cults. Marcus made some show of resistance: the biographer writes that he was 'compelled' to take imperial power.HA Marcus vii. 5, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116. This may have been a genuine horror imperii, 'fear of imperial power'. Marcus, with his preference for the philosophic life, found the imperial office unappealing. His training as a Stoic however, had made the choice clear to him that it was his duty.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116. Birley takes the phrase horror imperii from HA Pert. xiii. 1 and xv. 8. Although Marcus showed no personal affection for Hadrian (significantly, he does not thank him in the first book of his Meditations), he presumably believed it his duty to enact the man's succession plans.Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 156. Thus, although the Senate planned to confirm Marcus alone, he refused to take office unless Lucius received equal powers.HA Verus iii.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 156. The Senate accepted, granting Lucius the imperium, the tribunician power, and the title Augustus.HA Verus iv.1; Marcus vii.5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 116. Marcus became, in official titulature, Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; Lucius, forgoing his name Commodus and taking Marcus's family name Verus, became Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 116–117. It was the first time that Rome was ruled by two emperors. In spite of their nominal equality, Marcus held more auctoritas, or 'authority', than Lucius. He had been consul once more than Lucius, he had shared in Antoninus's rule, and he alone was pontifex maximus. It would have been clear to the public which emperor was the more senior. As the biographer wrote: "Verus obeyed Marcus [...] as a lieutenant obeys a proconsul or a governor obeys the emperor".HA Verus iv.2, tr. Magie, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 117, 278 n.4. Immediately after their Senate confirmation, the emperors proceeded to the Castra Praetoria, the camp of the Praetorian Guard. Lucius addressed the assembled troops, which then acclaimed the pair as imperatores. Then, like every new emperor since Claudius, Lucius promised the troops a special donativum.HA Marcus vii. 9; Verus iv.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 117–118. This donative, however, was twice the size of those past: 20,000 sesterces (5,000 denarii) per capita, with more to officers. In return for this bounty, equivalent to several years' pay, the troops swore an oath to protect the emperors.HA Marcus vii. 9; Verus iv.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 117–118. 'twice the size': Duncan-Jones, p. 109. The ceremony was perhaps not entirely necessary, given that Marcus's accession had been peaceful and unopposed, but it was good insurance against later military troubles.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118. Upon his accession he also devalued the Roman currency. He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 83.5% to 79% – the silver weight dropping from to .'Roman Currency of the Principate'. Tulane.edu. Archived 10 February 2001. Antoninus's funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer, 'elaborate'.HA Marcus vii. 10, tr. Magie, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 118, 278 n.6. If his funeral followed those of his predecessors, his body would have been cremated on a pyre at the Campus Martius, and his spirit would have been seen as ascending to the gods' home in the heavens. Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification. In contrast to their behaviour during Antoninus's campaign to deify Hadrian, the Senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A flamen, or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Divus Antoninus. Antoninus's remains were laid to rest in Hadrian's mausoleum, beside the remains of Marcus's children and of Hadrian himself.HA Marcus vii. 10–11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118. The temple he had dedicated to his wife, Diva Faustina, became the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. It survives as the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda. In accordance with his will, Antoninus's fortune passed on to Faustina.HA Antoninus Pius xii.8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 118–119. (Marcus had little need of his wife's fortune. Indeed, at his accession, Marcus transferred part of his mother's estate to his nephew, Ummius Quadratus.HA Marcus vii. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119.) Faustina was three months pregnant at her husband's accession. During the pregnancy she dreamed of giving birth to two serpents, one fiercer than the other.HA Comm. i.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. On 31 August, she gave birth at Lanuvium to twins: T. Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus.HA Comm. i.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. Aside from the fact that the twins shared Caligula's birthday, the omens were favorable, and the astrologers drew positive horoscopes for the children.HA Commodus. i.4, x.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. The births were celebrated on the imperial coinage.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 155ff.; 949ff. ===Early rule=== Soon after the emperor's accession, Marcus's eleven-year-old daughter, Annia Lucilla, was betrothed to Lucius (in spite of the fact that he was, formally, her uncle).HA Marcus vii. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118. At the ceremonies commemorating the event, new provisions were made for the support of poor children, along the lines of earlier imperial foundations.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 118, citing Werner Eck, Die Organization Italiens (1979), pp. 146ff. Marcus and Lucius proved popular with the people of Rome, who strongly approved of their civiliter ("lacking pomp") behaviour. The emperors permitted free speech, evidenced by the fact that the comedy writer Marullus was able to criticize them without suffering retribution. As the biographer wrote, "No one missed the lenient ways of Pius".HA Marcus viii. 1, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 157. Marcus replaced a number of the empire's major officials. The ab epistulis Sextus Caecilius Crescens Volusianus, in charge of the imperial correspondence, was replaced with Titus Varius Clemens. Clemens was from the frontier province of Pannonia and had served in the war in Mauretania. Recently, he had served as procurator of five provinces. He was a man suited for a time of military crisis.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 122–123, citing H.G. Pfalum, Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III (Paris, 1960–61); Supplément (Paris, 1982), nos. 142; 156; Eric Birley, Roman Britain and the Roman Army (1953), pp. 142ff., 151ff. Lucius Volusius Maecianus, Marcus's former tutor, had been prefectural governor of Egypt at Marcus's accession. Maecianus was recalled, made senator, and appointed prefect of the treasury (aerarium Saturni). He was made consul soon after.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123, citing H.G. Pfalum, Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III (Paris, 1960–61); Supplément (Paris, 1982), no. 141. Fronto's son-in-law, Gaius Aufidius Victorinus, was appointed governor of Germania Superior.HA Marcus viii. 8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123, citing W. Eck, Die Satthalter der germ. Provinzen (1985), pp. 65ff. Fronto returned to his Roman townhouse at dawn on 28 March, having left his home in Cirta as soon as news of his pupils' accession reached him. He sent a note to the imperial freedman Charilas, asking if he could call on the emperors. Fronto would later explain that he had not dared to write the emperors directly.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120, citing Ad Verum Imperatorem i.3.2 (= Haines 1.298ff). The tutor was immensely proud of his students. Reflecting on the speech he had written on taking his consulship in 143, when he had praised the young Marcus, Fronto was ebullient: "There was then an outstanding natural ability in you; there is now perfected excellence. There was then a crop of growing corn; there is now a ripe, gathered harvest. What I was hoping for then, I have now. The hope has become a reality".Ad Antoninum Imperatorem iv.2.3 (= Haines 1.302ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 119. Fronto called on Marcus alone; neither thought to invite Lucius.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. Lucius was less esteemed by Fronto than his brother, as his interests were on a lower level. Lucius asked Fronto to adjudicate in a dispute he and his friend Calpurnius were having on the relative merits of two actors.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120, citing Ad Verum Imperatorem i.1 (= Haines 1.305). Marcus told Fronto of his reading – Coelius and a little Cicero – and his family. His daughters were in Rome with their great-great-aunt Matidia; Marcus thought the evening air of the country was too cold for them. He asked Fronto for 'some particularly eloquent reading matter, something of your own, or Cato, or Cicero, or Sallust or Gracchus – or some poet, for I need distraction, especially in this kind of way, by reading something that will uplift and diffuse my pressing anxieties.'Ad Antoninum Imperatorem iv.1 (= Haines 1.300ff), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. Marcus's early reign proceeded smoothly; he was able to give himself wholly to philosophy and the pursuit of popular affection.HA Marcus viii. 3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. Soon, however, he would find he had many anxieties. It would mean the end of the felicitas temporum ('happy times') that the coinage of 161 had proclaimed.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 841; 845. In either autumn 161 or spring 162, the Tiber overflowed its banks, flooding much of Rome. It drowned many animals, leaving the city in famine. Marcus and Lucius gave the crisis their personal attention.HA Marcus viii. 4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 120. In other times of famine, the emperors are said to have provided for the Italian communities out of the Roman granaries.HA Marcus xi. 3, cited in Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 278 n.16. Fronto's letters continued through Marcus's early reign. Fronto felt that, because of Marcus's prominence and public duties, lessons were more important now than they had ever been before. He believed Marcus was 'beginning to feel the wish to be eloquent once more, in spite of having for a time lost interest in eloquence'.Ad Antoninum Imperatorem 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.35), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 128. Fronto would again remind his pupil of the tension between his role and his philosophic pretensions: 'Suppose, Caesar, that you can attain to the wisdom of Cleanthes and Zeno, yet, against your will, not the philosopher's woolen cape'.De eloquentia 1.12 (= Haines 2.63–65), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 128. The early days of Marcus's reign were the happiest of Fronto's life: Marcus was beloved by the people of Rome, an excellent emperor, a fond pupil, and perhaps most importantly, as eloquent as could be wished.Ad Antoninum Imperatorem 1.2.2 (= Haines 2.35); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 127–128. Marcus had displayed rhetorical skill in his speech to the senate after an earthquake at Cyzicus. It had conveyed the drama of the disaster, and the Senate had been awed: "Not more suddenly or violently was the city stirred by the earthquake than the minds of your hearers by your speech". Fronto was hugely pleased.Ad Antoninum Imperatorem 1.2.4 (= Haines 2.41–43), tr. Haines; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 128. ===War with Parthia (161–166)=== On his deathbed, Antoninus spoke of nothing but the state and the foreign kings who had wronged him.HA Antoninus Pius xii.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 114, 121. One of those kings, Vologases IV of Parthia, made his move in late summer or early autumn 161.Event: HA Marcus viii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. Date: Jaap-Jan Flinterman, 'The Date of Lucian's Visit to Abonuteichos,' Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 119 (1997): p. 281. Vologases entered the Kingdom of Armenia (then a Roman client state), expelled its king and installed his own – Pacorus, an Arsacid like himself.HA Marcus viii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. The governor of Cappadocia, the frontline in all Armenian conflicts, was Marcus Sedatius Severianus, a Gaul with much experience in military matters.Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 121. Convinced by the prophet Alexander of Abonoteichus that he could defeat the Parthians easily and win glory for himself,Lucian, Alexander 27; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 121–122. On Alexander, see: Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), pp. 241–250. Severianus led a legion (perhaps the IX HispanaBirley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 278 n.19.) into Armenia, but was trapped by the great Parthian general Chosrhoes at Elegeia, a town just beyond the Cappadocian frontiers, high up past the headwaters of the Euphrates. After Severianus made some unsuccessful efforts to engage Chosrhoes, he committed suicide, and his legion was massacred. The campaign had lasted only three days.Dio 71.2.1; Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 21, 24, 25; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 121–122. There was threat of war on other frontiers as well – in Britain, and in Raetia and Upper Germany, where the Chatti of the Taunus mountains had recently crossed over the limes.HA Marcus viii. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 122. Marcus was unprepared. Antoninus seems to have given him no military experience; the biographer writes that Marcus spent the whole of Antoninus's twenty-three-year reign at his emperor's side and not in the provinces, where most previous emperors had spent their early careers.HA Antoninus Pius vii.11; Marcus vii.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 103–104, 122. More bad news arrived: the Syrian governor's army had been defeated by the Parthians, and retreated in disarray.HA Marcus viii. 6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. Reinforcements were dispatched for the Parthian frontier. P. Julius Geminius Marcianus, an African senator commanding X Gemina at Vindobona (Vienna), left for Cappadocia with detachments from the Danubian legions.Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 8.7050–51; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. Three full legions were also sent east: I Minervia from Bonn in Upper Germany,Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1097–98; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. II Adiutrix from Aquincum,Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 1091; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. and V Macedonica from Troesmis.Incriptiones Latinae Selectae 2311; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. The northern frontiers were strategically weakened; frontier governors were told to avoid conflict wherever possible.HA Marcus xii. 13; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. M. Annius Libo, Marcus's first cousin, was sent to replace the Syrian governor. His first consulship was in 161, so he was probably in his early thirties,L'Année Épigraphique 1972.657 ; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 125. and as a patrician, he lacked military experience. Marcus had chosen a reliable man rather than a talented one.HA Verus 9.2; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 125. Marcus took a four-day public holiday at Alsium, a resort town on the coast of Etruria. He was too anxious to relax. Writing to Fronto, he declared that he would not speak about his holiday.De Feriis Alsiensibus 1 (= Haines 2.3); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 126. Fronto replied: 'What? Do I not know that you went to Alsium with the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking, and complete leisure for four whole days?'De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.1 (= Haines 2.5), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 126. He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Antoninus had enjoyed exercise in the palaestra, fishing, and comedy),De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.4 (= Haines 2.9); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 126–127. going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening – Marcus had apparently been spending most of his evenings on judicial matters instead of at leisure.De Feriis Alsiensibus 3.6–12 (= Haines 2.11–19); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 126–127. Marcus could not take Fronto's advice. 'I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off', he wrote back.De Feriis Alsiensibus 4, tr. Haines 2.19; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. Marcus Aurelius put on Fronto's voice to chastise himself: ''Much good has my advice done you', you will say!' He had rested, and would rest often, but 'this devotion to duty! Who knows better than you how demanding it is!'De Feriis Alsiensibus 4 (= Haines 2.19), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. Fronto sent Marcus a selection of reading material,De bello Parthico x. (= Haines 2.31), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. and, to settle his unease over the course of the Parthian war, a long and considered letter, full of historical references. In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is labeled De bello Parthico (On the Parthian War). There had been reverses in Rome's past, Fronto writes,De bello Parthico i–ii. (= Haines 2.21–23). but in the end, Romans had always prevailed over their enemies: 'Always and everywhere [Mars] has changed our troubles into successes and our terrors into triumphs'.De bello Parthico i. (= Haines 2.21), qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 127. Over the winter of 161–162, news that a rebellion was brewing in Syria arrived and it was decided that Lucius should direct the Parthian war in person. He was stronger and healthier than Marcus, the argument went, and thus more suited to military activity.Dio, lxxi. 1.3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 123. Lucius's biographer suggests ulterior motives: to restrain Lucius's debaucheries, to make him thrifty, to reform his morals by the terror of war, and to realize that he was an emperor.HA Verus v. 8; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 123, 125. Whatever the case, the senate gave its assent, and, in the summer of 162, Lucius left. Marcus would remain in Rome, as the city 'demanded the presence of an emperor'.HA Marcus viii. 9, tr. Magie; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 123–126. On Lucius's voyage, see: HA Verus vi. 7–9; HA Marcus viii. 10–11; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 125–126. Lucius spent most of the campaign in Antioch, though he wintered at Laodicea and summered at Daphne, a resort just outside Antioch.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. Critics declaimed Lucius's luxurious lifestyle,HA Verus iv.4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. saying that he had taken to gambling, would 'dice the whole night through',HA Verus iv. 6, tr. Magie; cf. v. 7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. and enjoyed the company of actors.HA Verus viii. 7, viii. 10–11; Fronto, Principia Historiae 17 (= Haines 2.217); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129. Libo died early in the war; perhaps Lucius had murdered him.HA Verus ix. 2; Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 3.199 ; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 130–131. In the middle of the war, perhaps in autumn 163 or early 164, Lucius made a trip to Ephesus to be married to Marcus's daughter Lucilla.HA Verus vii. 7; Marcus ix. 4; Barnes, 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus', p. 72; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163; cf. also Barnes, 'Legislation against the Christians', p. 39; 'Some Persons in the Historia Augusta', p. 142, citing the Vita Abercii 44ff. Marcus moved up the date; perhaps he had already heard of Lucius's mistress Panthea.HA Verus 7.10; Lucian, Imagines 3; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. Cf. Lucian, Imagines, Pro Imaginibus, passim. Lucilla's thirteenth birthday was in March 163; whatever the date of her marriage, she was not yet fifteen.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163. Lucilla was accompanied by her mother Faustina and Lucius's uncle (his father's half-brother) M. Vettulenus Civica Barbarus,HA Verus vii. 7; Marcus ix. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. who was made comes Augusti, 'companion of the emperors'. Marcus may have wanted Civica to watch over Lucius, the job Libo had failed at.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131, citing Année Épigraphique 1958.15. Marcus may have planned to accompany them all the way to Smyrna (the biographer says he told the senate he would), but this did not happen.HA Verus 7.7; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. He only accompanied the group as far as Brundisium, where they boarded a ship for the east.HA Marcus ix. 4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. He returned to Rome immediately thereafter, and sent out special instructions to his proconsuls not to give the group any official reception.HA Marcus ix. 5–6; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131. The Armenian capital Artaxata was captured in 163.HA Marcus ix. 1; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. At the end of the year, Lucius took the title Armeniacus, despite having never seen combat; Marcus declined to accept the title until the following year.HA Marcus ix. 1; HA Verus vii. 1–2; Ad Verum Imperatorem 2.3 (= Haines 2.133); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. When Lucius was hailed as imperator again, however, Marcus did not hesitate to take the Imperator II with him.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 129; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 233ff. Occupied Armenia was reconstructed on Roman terms. In 164, a new capital, Kaine Polis ('New City'), replaced Artaxata.Dio, lxxi.3.1; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162; Millar, Near East, p. 113. A new king was installed: a Roman senator of consular rank and Arsacid descent, Gaius Julius Sohaemus. He may not even have been crowned in Armenia; the ceremony may have taken place in Antioch, or even Ephesus.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 280 n. 42; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. Sohaemus was hailed on the imperial coinage of 164 under the legend : Lucius sat on a throne with his staff while Sohaemus stood before him, saluting the emperor.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 131; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 261ff.; 300 ff. In 163, the Parthians intervened in Osroene, a Roman client in upper Mesopotamia centred on Edessa, and installed their own king on its throne.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, pp. 130, 279 n. 38; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169; Millar, Near East, p. 112. In response, Roman forces were moved downstream, to cross the Euphrates at a more southerly point.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. Before the end of 163, however, Roman forces had moved north to occupy Dausara and Nicephorium on the northern, Parthian bank.Fronto, Ad Verum Imperatorem ii.1.3 (= Haines 2.133); Astarita, 41; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130; 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 162. Soon after the conquest of the north bank of the Euphrates, other Roman forces moved on Osroene from Armenia, taking Anthemusia, a town southwest of Edessa.Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 1098; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 130. In 165, Roman forces moved on Mesopotamia. Edessa was re-occupied, and Mannus, the king deposed by the Parthians, was re-installed.Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing Prosopographia Imperii Romani2 M 169. The Parthians retreated to Nisibis, but this too was besieged and captured. The Parthian army dispersed in the Tigris.Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 15, 19; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163. A second force, under Avidius Cassius and the III Gallica, moved down the Euphrates, and fought a major battle at Dura.Lucian, Historia Quomodo Conscribenda 20, 28; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing Syme, Roman Papers, 5.689ff. By the end of the year, Cassius's army had reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia: Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris and Ctesiphon on the left. Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace set to flame. The citizens of Seleucia, still largely Greek (the city had been commissioned and settled as a capital of the Seleucid Empire, one of Alexander the Great's successor kingdoms), opened its gates to the invaders. The city was sacked nonetheless, leaving a black mark on Lucius's reputation. Excuses were sought, or invented: the official version had it that the Seleucids broke faith first.HA Verus 8.3–4; Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', 163. Birley cites R.H. McDowell, Coins from Seleucia on the Tigris (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1935), pp. 124ff., on the date. Cassius's army, although suffering from a shortage of supplies and the effects of a plague contracted in Seleucia, made it back to Roman territory safely.Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164. Lucius took the title Parthicus Maximus, and he and Marcus were hailed as imperatores again, earning the title 'imp. III'.Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 384 ff., 1248 ff., 1271 ff. Cassius's army returned to the field in 166, crossing over the Tigris into Media. Lucius took the title 'Medicus',Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing P. Kneissl, Die Siegestitulatur der römischen Kaiser. Untersuchungen zu den Siegerbeinamen des 1. und 2. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1969), pp. 99 ff. and the emperors were again hailed as imperatores, becoming 'imp. IV' in imperial titulature. Marcus took the Parthicus Maximus now, after another tactful delay.Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164, citing H. Mattingly, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum IV: Antoninus Pius to Commodus (London, 1940), Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, nos. 401ff. On 12 October of that year, Marcus proclaimed two of his sons, Annius and Commodus, as his heirs.Adams, p. 94. ===War with Germanic tribes (166–180)=== During the early 160s, Fronto's son-in-law Victorinus was stationed as a legate in Germany. He was there with his wife and children (another child had stayed with Fronto and his wife in Rome).Dio 72.11.3–4; Ad amicos 1.12 (= Haines 2.173); Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 132. The condition on the northern frontier looked grave. A frontier post had been destroyed, and it looked like all the peoples of central and northern Europe were in turmoil. There was corruption among the officers: Victorinus had to ask for the resignation of a legionary legate who was taking bribes.Dio, lxxii. 11.3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 132, citing De nepote amisso ii (= Haines 2.222); Ad Verum Imperatorem ii. 9–10 (= Haines 2.232ff.). Experienced governors had been replaced by friends and relatives of the imperial family. Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus, a distant relative of Hadrian, was in Upper Pannonia, succeeding the experienced Marcus Nonius Macrinus. Lower Pannonia was under the obscure Tiberius Haterius Saturnius. Marcus Servilius Fabianus Maximus was shuffled from Lower Moesia to Upper Moesia when Marcus Iallius Bassus had joined Lucius in Antioch. Lower Moesia was filled by Pontius Laelianus's son. The Dacias were still divided in three, governed by a praetorian senator and two procurators. The peace could not hold long; Lower Pannonia did not even have a legion.Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 133, citing Geza Alföldy, Konsulat und Senatorenstand (1977), Moesia Inferior: pp. 232ff.; Moesia Superior: pp. 234ff.; Pannonia Superior: pp. 236ff.; Dacia: pp. 245ff.; Pannonia Inferior: p. 251. Starting in the 160s, Germanic tribes, and other nomadic people launched raids along the northern border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube. This new impetus westwards was probably due to attacks from tribes further east. A first invasion by the Chatti in the province of Germania Superior was repulsed in 162.McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, pp. 323–324. Far more dangerous was the invasion of 166, when the Marcomanni of Bohemia, clients of the Roman Empire since AD 19, crossed the Danube together with the Lombards and other Germanic tribes.Le Bohec, p. 56. Soon thereafter, the Iranian Sarmatian Iazyges attacked between the Danube and the Theiss rivers.Grant, The Antonines: The Roman Empire in Transition, p. 29. The Costoboci, coming from the Carpathian area, invaded Moesia, Macedonia, and Greece. After a long struggle, Marcus managed to push back the invaders. Numerous members of Germanic tribes settled in frontier regions like Dacia, Pannonia, Germany, and Italy itself. This was not a new thing, but this time the numbers of settlers required the creation of two new frontier provinces on the left shore of the Danube, Sarmatia and Marcomannia, including today's Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. Some Germanic tribes who settled in Ravenna revolted and managed to seize possession of the city. For this reason, Marcus decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there.Dio, lxxii.11.4–5; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 253. ===Legal and administrative work=== Like many emperors, Marcus spent most of his time addressing matters of law such as petitions and hearing disputes,Fergus Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World, 31 BC – AD 337 (London: Duckworth, 1977), 6 and passim. See also: idem. 'Emperors at Work', Journal of Roman Studies 57:1/2 (1967): 9–19. but unlike many of his predecessors, he was already proficient in imperial administration when he assumed power.'Thinkers At War – Marcus Aurelius'. Military History Monthly, published 2014. (This is the conclusion of Iain King's biography of Marcus Aurelius.) 'Pius, one of longest-serving emperors, became infirm in his last years, so Marcus Aurelius gradually assumed the imperial duties. By the time he succeeded in AD 161, he was already well-practised in public administration.' He took great care in the theory and practice of legislation. Professional jurists called him "an emperor most skilled in the law"Codex Justinianeus 7.2.6, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, 133. and "a most prudent and conscientiously just emperor".Digest 31.67.10, qtd. and tr. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 133. He showed marked interest in three areas of the law: the manumission of slaves, the guardianship of orphans and minors, and the choice of city councillors (decuriones).Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 133. Marcus showed a great deal of respect to the Roman Senate and routinely asked them for permission to spend money even though he did not need to do so as the absolute ruler of the Empire.Irvine, pp. 57–58. In one speech, Marcus himself reminded the Senate that the imperial palace where he lived was not truly his possession but theirs.Dio, lxxii.33 In 168, he revalued the denarius, increasing the silver purity from 79% to 82% – the actual silver weight increasing from . However, two years later he reverted to the previous values because of the military crises facing the empire. ====Trade with Han China and outbreak of plague==== A possible contact with Han China occurred in 166 when a Roman traveller visited the Han court, claiming to be an ambassador representing a certain Andun (Chinese: 安 敦), ruler of Daqin, who can be identified either with Marcus or his predecessor Antoninus.Pulleyblank, Leslie and Gardiner, pp. 71–79.Yü, pp. 460–461.De Crespigny, p. 600. In addition to Republican-era Roman glasswares found at Guangzhou along the South China Sea,An, 83. Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus and perhaps even Marcus have been found at Óc Eo, Vietnam, then part of the Kingdom of Funan near the Chinese province of Jiaozhi (in northern Vietnam). This may have been the port city of Kattigara, described by Ptolemy (c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and lying beyond the Golden Chersonese (i.e. Malay Peninsula).Young, pp. 29–30.For further information on Óc Eo, see Osborne, Milton. The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, 2006, revised edition, first published in 2000. pp. 24–25. . Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to Aurelian have been found in Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an), although the far greater amount of Roman coins in India suggests the Roman maritime trade for purchasing Chinese silk was centred there, not in China or even the overland Silk Road running through Persia.Ball, p. 154. The Antonine Plague started in Mesopotamia in 165 or 166 at the end of Lucius's campaign against the Parthians. It may have continued into the reign of Commodus. Galen, who was in Rome when the plague spread to the city in 166,Haas, pp. 1093–1098. mentioned that "fever, diarrhoea, and inflammation of the pharynx, along with dry or pustular eruptions of the skin after nine days" were among the symptoms.Murphy, Verity. 'Past pandemics that ravaged Europe'. BBC News, 7 November 2005. It is believed that the plague was smallpox. In the view of historian Rafe de Crespigny, the plagues afflicting the Eastern Han empire of China during the reigns of Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168) and Emperor Ling of Han (r. 168–189), which struck in 151, 161, 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185, were perhaps connected to the plague in Rome.De Crespigny, p. 514. Raoul McLaughlin writes that the travel of Roman subjects to the Han Chinese court in 166 may have started a new era of Roman–Far East trade. However, it was also a "harbinger of something much more ominous". According to McLaughlin, the disease caused "irreparable" damage to the Roman maritime trade in the Indian Ocean as proven by the archaeological record spanning from Egypt to India, as well as significantly decreased Roman commercial activity in Southeast Asia.McLaughlin, pp. 59–60. ===Death and succession (180)=== Marcus Aurelius died at the age of 58 on 17 March 180Dio 72.33. of unknown causes in his military quarters either in the city of Vindobona (province of Pannonia Superior, today Vienna) or near of Sirmium (province of Pannonia Inferior, modern Sremska Mitrovica). He was immediately deified and his ashes were returned to Rome, where they rested in Hadrian's mausoleum (modern Castel Sant'Angelo) until the Visigoth sack of the city in 410. His campaigns against Germans and Sarmatians were also commemorated by a column and a temple built in Rome.Kleiner, p. 230. Some scholars consider his death to be the end of the Pax Romana.Merrony, p. 85. Marcus was succeeded by his son Commodus, whom he had named Caesar in 166 and with whom he had jointly ruled since 177.Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', pp. 186–191. Biological sons of the emperor, if there were any, were considered heirs;Kemezis, p. 45. however, it was only the second time that a "non-adoptive" son had succeeded his father, the only other having been a century earlier when Vespasian was succeeded by his son Titus. Historians have criticized the succession to Commodus, citing Commodus's erratic behaviour and lack of political and military acumen. At the end of his history of Marcus's reign, Cassius Dio wrote an encomium to the emperor, and described the transition to Commodus in his own lifetime with sorrow:Tr. Cary, ad loc. > [Marcus] did not meet with the good fortune that he deserved, for he was not > strong in body and was involved in a multitude of troubles throughout > practically his entire reign. But for my part, I admire him all the more for > this very reason, that amid unusual and extraordinary difficulties he both > survived himself and preserved the empire. Just one thing prevented him from > being completely happy, namely, that after rearing and educating his son in > the best possible way he was vastly disappointed in him. This matter must be > our next topic; for our history now descends from a kingdom of gold to one > of iron and rust, as affairs did for the Romans of that day. :–Dio lxxi. > 36.3–4 Dio adds that from Marcus's first days as counsellor to Antoninus to his final days as emperor of Rome, "he remained the same [person] and did not change in the least."Dio lxxii. 36, 72.34 Michael Grant, in The Climax of Rome, writes of Commodus: > The youth turned out to be very erratic, or at least so anti-traditional > that disaster was inevitable. But whether or not Marcus ought to have known > this to be so, the rejections of his son's claims in favour of someone else > would almost certainly have involved one of the civil wars which were to > proliferate so disastrously around future successions.Grant, The Climax Of > Rome, p. 15. ==Attitude towards Christians== In the first two centuries of the Christian era, it was local Roman officials who were largely responsible for the persecution of Christians. In the second century, the emperors treated Christianity as a local problem to be dealt with by their subordinates.Barnes, 'Legislation against the Christians'. The number and severity of persecutions of Christians in various locations of the empire seemingly increased during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. The extent to which the emperor himself directed, encouraged, or was aware of these persecutions is unclear and much debated by historians.McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, p. 295. The early Christian apologist Justin Martyr includes within his First Apology (written between AD 140 and 150) a letter from Marcus Aurelius to the Roman Senate (prior to his reign) describing a battlefield incident in which Marcus believed Christian prayer had saved his army from thirst when "water poured from heaven" after which, "immediately we recognized the presence of God." Marcus goes on to request the Senate desist from earlier courses of Christian persecution by Rome.The First Apology of Justin Martyr, Chapter LXVIII However, this letter was one of three from Roman emperors included by Justin, two of which (including the Aurelius letter) are regarded as spurious.Shea, William H. 'Justin Martyr’s Sunday Worship Statement: A Forged Appendix'. Journal of the Adventist Theological Society, 2001. ==Marriage and issue== Marcus and his cousin-wife Faustina had at least 14 children during their 30-year marriage,Stephens, p. 31. including two sets of twins. One son and four daughters outlived their father.Ackermann, Schroeder, Terry, Lo Upshur and Whitters, p. 39. Their children included: * Domitia Faustina (147–151)McLynn, Marcus Aurelius: A Life, p. 92. * Titus Aelius Antoninus (149)Lendering, Jona. 'Antoninus and Aelius'. Livius.org.Levick, p. 171. * Titus Aelius Aurelius (149) * Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla (150),–182Lendering, Jona. 'Lucilla'. Livius.org. married her father's co- ruler Lucius Verus, then Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus, had issue from both marriages * Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina (born 151), married Gnaeus Claudius Severus, had a son * Tiberius Aelius Antoninus (born 152, died before 156) * Unknown child (died before 158) * Annia Aurelia Fadilla (born 159), married Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus, had issue * Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (born 160), married Marcus Petronius Sura Mamertinus, had a son * Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (161–165), elder twin brother of Commodus * Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus (Commodus) (161–192),Gagarin, p. 37. twin brother of Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus, later emperor,Benario, Herbert W. 'Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161–180)'. Roman Emperors. married Bruttia Crispina, no issue * Marcus Annius Verus Caesar (162–169)Adams, p. 104. * Hadrianus * Vibia Aurelia Sabina (170 – died before 217),Levick, p. 160. married Lucius Antistius Burrus, no issue ==Writings== While on campaign between 170 and 180, Marcus wrote his Meditations in Greek as a source for his own guidance and self- improvement. The original title of this work, if it had one, is unknown. 'Meditations' – as well as other titles including 'To Himself' – were adopted later. He had a logical mind, and his notes were representative of Stoic philosophy and spirituality. Meditations is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty. George Long's English translation of Meditations was included in Volume 2 of the Harvard Classics. According to Hays, the book was a favourite of Christina of Sweden, Frederick the Great, John Stuart Mill, Matthew Arnold, and Goethe, and is admired by modern figures such as Wen Jiabao and Bill Clinton.Hays, p. xlix. It has been considered by many commentators to be one of the greatest works of philosophy.Collins, p. 58. It is not known how widely Marcus's writings were circulated after his death. There are stray references in the ancient literature to the popularity of his precepts, and Julian the Apostate was well aware of his reputation as a philosopher, though he does not specifically mention Meditations.Stertz, p. 434, citing Themistius, Oratio 6.81; HA Cassius 3.5; Victor, De Caesaribus 16.9. It survived in the scholarly traditions of the Eastern Church, and the first surviving quotes of the book, as well as the first known reference of it by name ('Marcus's writings to himself') are from Arethas of Caesarea in the 10th century and in the Byzantine Suda (perhaps inserted by Arethas himself). It was first published in 1558 in Zurich by Wilhelm Xylander (né Holzmann), from a manuscript reportedly lost shortly afterwards.Hays, pp. xlviii–xlix. The oldest surviving complete manuscript copy is in the Vatican library and dates to the 14th century.Hadot, p. 22. ==Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius== The Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome is the only Roman equestrian statue which has survived into the modern period.Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius. This may be due to it being wrongly identified during the Middle Ages as a depiction of the Christian emperor Constantine the Great, and spared the destruction which statues of pagan figures suffered. Crafted of bronze in , it stands and is now located in the Capitoline Museums of Rome. The emperor's hand is outstretched in an act of clemency offered to a bested enemy, while his weary facial expression due to the stress of leading Rome into nearly constant battles perhaps represents a break with the classical tradition of sculpture.Kleiner, p. 193. ==Column of Marcus Aurelius== Marcus's victory column, established in Rome either in his last few years of life or after his reign and completed in 193, was built to commemorate his victory over the Sarmatians and Germanic tribes in 176. A spiral of carved reliefs wraps around the column, showing scenes from his military campaigns. A statue of Marcus had stood atop the column but disappeared during the Middle Ages. It was replaced with a statue of Saint Paul in 1589 by Pope Sixtus V.'Column of Marcus Aurelius: Overall view, of base and column' . University of Notre Dame, Hesburgh Library. Accessed 24 November 2018. The column of Marcus and the column of Trajan are often compared by scholars given how they are both Doric in style, had a pedestal at the base, had sculpted friezes depicting their respective military victories, and a statue on top. ==Legacy and reputation== Marcus acquired the reputation of a philosopher king within his lifetime, and the title would remain after his death; both Dio and the biographer call him "the philosopher".HA Marcus i. 1, xxvii. 7; Dio lxxi. 1.1; James Francis, Subversive Virtue: Asceticism and Authority in the Second-Century Pagan World (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995), 21 n. 1.Mark, Joshua. 'Marcus Aurelius: Plato's Philosopher King'. World History Encyclopedia. 8 May 2018. Christians such as Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, and Eusebius also gave him the title.Francis, p. 21 n.1, citing Justin, 1 Apologia 1; Athenagoras, Leg. 1; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 4.26.9–11. The latter went so far as to call him "more philanthropic and philosophic" than Antoninus and Hadrian, and set him against the persecuting emperors Domitian and Nero to make the contrast bolder.Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 4.26.9–11, qtd. and tr. Francis, 21 n. 1. The historian Herodian wrote: > Alone of the emperors, he gave proof of his learning not by mere words or > knowledge of philosophical doctrines but by his blameless character and > temperate way of life.Herodian, Ab Excessu Divi Marci i.2.4, tr. Echols. Iain King explains that Marcus's legacy was tragic: > [The emperor's] Stoic philosophy – which is about self-restraint, duty, and > respect for others – was so abjectly abandoned by the imperial line he > anointed on his death.Thinkers at War. == In popular culture == * Dilip Kumar played a fictionalized version of Marcus Aurelius in the 1958 Hindi movie Yahudi * In the 1964 epic drama The Fall of The Roman Empire, Alec Guinness portrays Marcus Aurelius. The film is noteworthy for using quotes from Meditations * In Twin Peaks, the final episode of season 2 (1991), "Beyond Life and Death", in the bank vault Marcus Aurelius is quoted (praising Audrey's civil disobedience): "Waste no time arguing what a good man should be. Be one." * In the 2000 film Gladiator, Richard Harris portrays Marcus Aurelius as a mentor to the main character * In the 2017 docu-drama miniseries Roman Empire, John Bach portrays Marcus Aurelius ==See also== * List of Roman emperors ==Notes== ==Citations== All citations to the Historia Augusta are to individual biographies, and are marked with a HA. Citations to the works of Fronto are cross-referenced to C.R. Haines's Loeb edition. ==Bibliography== ===Ancient=== * Aristides, Aelius. Orationes (in Latin). :Trapp, Michael B. Orations. 1: Orationes 1–2. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2017. . * Victor, Aurelius. De Caesaribus (in Latin). :Bird, H.W. De Caesaribus. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1994. . * Dio, Cassius. Roman History (in Greek). :Cary, Earnest, trans. Roman History. 9 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1914–27. . Online at LacusCurtius. * Digest (in Latin). :Scott, S.P., trans. The Digest or Pandects in The Civil Law. 17 vols. Cincinnati: Central Trust Company, 1932. . Online at the Constitution Society. * Epiphanius of Salamis. On Weights and Measures (in Latin). :Dean, James Elmer, ed. Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures – The Syriac Version. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1935. . * Fronto, Marcus Cornelius. The Correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto: With Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Lucius Verus, Antoninus Pius, and Various Friends (in Latin). :Haines, Charles Reginald, trans. The Correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto: With Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Lucius Verus, Antoninus Pius, and Various Friends. 2 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1920. . Online at the Internet Archive: Vol. 1, 2. * Gellius, Aulus. Noctes Atticae (Attic Nights). :Rolfe, J.C., trans. The Attic nights of Aulus Gellius. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1927–28. (Vol. 1), (Vol. 2), (Vol. 3). Vols. 1 and 2 online at LacusCurtius. * Herodian. Ab Excessu Divi Marci (History of the Roman Empire from the Death of Marcus Aurelius, in Latin). :Echols, Edward C., trans. Herodian of Antioch's History of the Roman empire: From the death of Marcus Aurelius to the accession of Gordian III. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1961. . Online at Tertullian and Livius. * Lucian. :Fowler, F.G.; Fowler, H.W., trans. The works of Lucian of Samosata. Oxford: Clarendon P., 1949. . :Alexander (in Latin). Translation online at Tertullian. :Translations (from Latin) of Historia Quomodo Conscribenda (The Way to Write History), Imagines (A Portrait–Study), and Pro Imaginibus (Defence of the 'Portrait–Study) online at Sacred Texts, based on the Gutenberg e-text. * Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Meditations. :Farquharson, A.S.L., trans. Meditations. New York: Knopf, 1946, rept. 1992. . * Scriptores Historiae Augustae (Authors of the Historia Augusta). Historia Augusta (Augustan History). :Magie, David, trans. Historia Augusta. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1921–32. Online at LacusCurtius. :Magie, David; Birley, Anthony R. Lives of the later Caesars. London: The Folio Society, 2005. . * Themistius. Orationes (in Latin). :Penella, Robert J. The private orations of Themistius. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000. . ===Modern=== * Ackermann, Marsha E.; Schroeder, Michael J.; Terry, Jancie J.; Lo Upshur, Jiu-Hwa; Whitters, Mark F. Encyclopedia of World History, Ackerman-Schroeder-Terry-Hwa Lo, 2008: Encyclopedia of World History. New York: Facts on File, 2008. . * Adams, Geoff W. Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2013. . * An, Jiayao. 'When Glass Was Treasured in China'. Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, 79–94. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols Publishers, 2002. . * Astarita, Maria L. Avidio Cassio (in Italian). Rome: Edizione di Storia e Letteratura, 1983. . * Ball, Warwick. Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire, 2nd edition. London: Routledge, 2016. . * Barnes, Timothy D. 'Hadrian and Lucius Verus'. Journal of Roman Studies 57:1–2 (1967): 65–79. . . * Barnes, Timothy D. 'Legislation against the Christians'. Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 58 (1968): 32–50. . . * Barnes, Timothy D. 'Some Persons in the Historia Augusta', Phoenix 26:2 (1972): 140–182. . . * Birley, Anthony R. Marcus Aurelius: a biography. London: Routledge, 1966, rev. 1987. . * Birley, Anthony R. 'Hadrian to the Antonines'. In The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 11, The High Empire, AD 70–192, edited by Alan Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Dominic Rathbone, 132–194. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. . * Bowman, John L. A Reference Guide to Stoicism. Bloomington, IN: Author House, 2014. . * Bury, John Bagnell. The Student's Roman Empire: A History of the Roman Empire from Its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (27 B.C.–180 A.D.). New York: Harper, 1893. . * Champlin, Edward. 'The Chronology of Fronto'. Journal of Roman Studies 64 (1974): 136–159. . . * Champlin, Edward. Fronto and Antonine Rome. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980. . * Collins, Desmond. Background to Archaeology: Britain in its European Setting. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Archive, 1973. . * De Crespigny, Rafe. A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Boston: Brill, 2007. . * Duncan-Jones, Richard. Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. . * 'Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius'. Musei Capitolini. * Gagarin, Michael. The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Greece and Rome. Volume 7, Temples – Zoology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. . * Giacosa, Giorgio. Women of the Caesars: their lives and portraits on coins. Translated from Italian by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta, 1977. . * Gilliam, J. F. 'The Plague under Marcus Aurelius'. American Journal of Philology 82.3 (1961): 225–251. . . * Gnecchi, Francesco. I medaglioni Romani, 3 Vols, Milan, 1912. . * Grant, Michael. The Antonines: the Roman Empire in transition. London: Routledge, 2016. . * Grant, Michael. The Climax Of Rome. London: Orion, 2011. . * Haas, Charles. The Antonine plague (in French). Bulletin de l'Académie Nationale de Médecine. Académie nationale de médecine. 190 (2006): 1093–1098. . * Hadot, Pierre. The inner citadel: the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998. . * Hays, Gregory. Meditations. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003. . * * Irvine, William B. A Guide to the Good Life: The Ancient Art of Stoic Joy. Oxford University Press, 2009. . * Kemezis, Adam M. Greek Narratives of the Roman Empire under the Severans: Cassius Dio, Philostratus and Herodian. Cambridge University Press, 2014. . * Kleiner, Fred S. Gardner's art through the ages. Volume II: the western perspective. Mason, OH: Cengage Learning, 2008. . * Le Bohec, Yann. The Imperial Roman Army. Routledge, 2013. . * Levick, Barbara M. Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014. . * Magill, Frank N. Dictionary of World Biography. London: Routledge, 2003. . * Mattingly, Harold; Sydenham, Edward A. The Roman imperial coinage. Vol. III, Antoninus Pius to Commodus. London: Spink & Son, 1930. . * Mellor, Ronald, review of Edward Champlin's Fronto and Antonine Rome, American Journal of Philology 103:4 (1982). * Merrony, Mark. The Plight of Rome in the Fifth Century AD. London: Routledge, 2017. . * McLaughlin, Raoul. Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India, and China. London & New York: Continuum, 2010. . * McLynn, Frank. Marcus Aurelius: A Life. New York: Da Capo Press, 2009. . * McLynn, Frank. Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor. London: Bodley Head, 2009. . * Millar, Fergus. The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. . * Pulleyblank, Edwin G.; Leslie, D. D.; Gardiner, K. H. J. 'The Roman Empire as Known to Han China'. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 1999. 119 (1). . . * Reed, J. Eugene. The Lives of the Roman Emperors and Their Associates from Julius Cæsar (B.C. 100) to Agustulus (A.D. 476). Philadelphia, PA: Gebbie & Company, 1883. * Robertson, D. How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius . New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019. * Rohrbacher, David. The Play of Allusion in the Historia Augusta. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2016. . * Sánchez, Jorge Pisa. Breve historia de Hispania: La fascinante historia de Hispania, desde Viriato hasta el esplendor con los emperadores Trajano y Adriano. Los protagonistas, la cultura, la religión y el desarrollo económico y social de una de las provincias más ricas del Imperio romano [Brief history of Hispania: the fascinating history of Hispania, from Viriato to the splendor with the Emperors Trajan and Hadrian. The protagonists, culture, religion, and the economic and social development of one of the richest provinces of the Roman Empire]. (in Spanish) Ediciones Nowtilus S.L., 2010. . * Stephens, William O. Marcus Aurelius: A Guide for the Perplexed. London: Continuum, 2012. . * Stertz, Stephen A. 'Marcus Aurelius as Ideal Emperor in Late-Antique Greek Thought'. The Classical World 70:7 (1977): 433–439. . . * Syme, Ronald. 'The Ummidii'. Historia 17:1 (1968): 72–105. . * Van Ackeren, Marcel. A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. New York: Malden, MA : Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. . . * Young, Gary K. Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC – AD 305. London: Routledge, 2003. . * Yü, Ying-shih. 'Han Foreign Relations', in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220, 377–462. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. . ==External links== * * * * * * * Marcus Aurelius at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Category:121 births Category:180 deaths Category:2nd-century philosophers Category:2nd-century Roman emperors Category:Aelii Category:Ancient Roman adoptees Category:Annii Category:Augurs of the Roman Empire Marcus Category:Burials at the Castel Sant'Angelo Category:Deified Roman emperors Category:Glycon cult Category:Hellenistic writers Category:Imperial Roman consuls Category:Moneyers of ancient Rome Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty Category:Philosophers of law Category:Philosophers of mind Category:Philosophers of Roman Italy Category:Philosophy writers Category:Political philosophers Category:Roman philhellenes Category:Roman-era Stoic philosophers Category:Social philosophers Category:Stoic philosophers Category:Stoicism Category:Greek- language writers Category:Roman pharaohs |
In logic, philosophy, and theoretical computer science, dynamic logic is an extension of modal logic capable of encoding properties of computer programs. A simple example of a statement in dynamic logic is :\text{The ground is dry} \to [\text{It rains}] \text{The ground is wet}, which states that if the ground is currently dry and it rains, then afterwards the ground will be wet. The syntax of dynamic logic contains a language of propositions (like "the ground is dry") and a language of actions (like "it rains"). The core modal constructs are [a]p, which states that after performing action a the proposition p should hold, and \langle a \rangle p, which states that after performing action a it is possible that p holds. The action language supports operations a\mathbin{;}b (doing one action followed by another), a \cup b (doing one action or another), and iteration a{*} (doing one action zero or more times). The proposition language supports Boolean operations (and, or, and not). The action logic is expressive enough to encode programs. For an arbitrary program P, precondition \varphi, and postcondition \varphi', the dynamic logic statement \varphi \to [P] \varphi' encodes the correctness of the program, making dynamic logic more general than Hoare logic. Beyond its use in formal verification of programs, dynamic logic has been applied to describe complex behaviors arising in linguistics, philosophy, AI, and other fields. ==Language== Modal logic is characterized by the modal operators \Box p (box p) asserting that p\,\\! is necessarily the case, and \Diamond p (diamond p) asserting that p\,\\! is possibly the case. Dynamic logic extends this by associating to every action a\,\\! the modal operators [a]\,\\! and \langle a \rangle\,\\!, thereby making it a multimodal logic. The meaning of [a]p\,\\! is that after performing action a\,\\! it is necessarily the case that p\,\\! holds, that is, a\,\\! must bring about p\,\\!. The meaning of \langle a \rangle p\,\\! is that after performing a\,\\! it is possible that p\,\\! holds, that is, a\,\\! might bring about p\,\\!. These operators dual to each other, which means they are related by [a]p \leftrightarrow eg \langle a \rangle eg p\,\\! and \langle a \rangle p \leftrightarrow eg[a] eg p\,\\!, analogously to the relationship between the universal (\forall\,\\!) and existential (\exists\,\\!) quantifiers. Dynamic logic permits compound actions built up from smaller actions. While the basic control operators of any programming language could be used for this purpose, Kleene's regular expression operators are a good match to modal logic. Given actions a\,\\! and b\,\\!, the compound action a \cup b\,\\!, choice, also written a+b\,\\! or a|b\,\\!, is performed by performing one of a\,\\! or b\,\\!. The compound action a\mathbin{;}b\,\\!, sequence, is performed by performing first a\,\\! and then b\,\\!. The compound action a{*}\,\\!, iteration, is performed by performing a\,\\! zero or more times, sequentially. The constant action 0\,\\! or BLOCK does nothing and does not terminate, whereas the constant action 1\,\\! or SKIP or NOP, definable as 0{*}\,\\!, does nothing but does terminate. ==Axioms== These operators can be axiomatized in dynamic logic as follows, taking as already given a suitable axiomatization of modal logic including such axioms for modal operators as the above- mentioned axiom [a]p \leftrightarrow eg \langle a \rangle eg p\,\\! and the two inference rules modus ponens (\vdash p and \vdash p \to q implies \vdash q\,) and necessitation (\vdash p implies \vdash [a]p\,). A1. [0]p\,\\! A2. [1]p \leftrightarrow p\,\\! A3. [a \cup b]p \leftrightarrow [a]p \land [b]p\,\\! A4. [a\mathbin{;}b]p \leftrightarrow [a][b]p\,\\! A5. [a*]p \leftrightarrow p \land [a][a*]p\,\\! A6. p \land [a*](p \to [a]p) \to [a*]p\,\\! Axiom A1 makes the empty promise that when BLOCK terminates, p\,\\! will hold, even if p\,\\! is the proposition false. (Thus BLOCK abstracts the essence of the action of hell freezing over.) A2 says that NOP acts as the identity function on propositions, that is, it transforms p\,\\! into itself. A3 says that if doing one of a\,\\! or b\,\\! must bring about p\,\\!, then a\,\\! must bring about p\,\\! and likewise for b\,\\!, and conversely. A4 says that if doing a\,\\! and then b\,\\! must bring about p\,\\!, then a\,\\! must bring about a situation in which b\,\\! must bring about p\,\\!. A5 is the evident result of applying A2, A3 and A4 to the equation a{*} = 1 \cup a\mathbin{;}a{*}\,\\! of Kleene algebra. A6 asserts that if p\,\\! holds now, and no matter how often we perform a\,\\! it remains the case that the truth of p\,\\! after that performance entails its truth after one more performance of a\,\\!, then p\,\\! must remain true no matter how often we perform a\,\\!. A6 is recognizable as mathematical induction with the action n := n+1 of incrementing n generalized to arbitrary actions a\,\\!. ==Derivations== The modal logic axiom [a]p \leftrightarrow eg\langle a \rangle eg p\,\\! permits the derivation of the following six theorems corresponding to the above: T1. eg \langle 0 \rangle p\,\\! T2. \langle 1 \rangle p \leftrightarrow p\,\\! T3. \langle a \cup b \rangle p \leftrightarrow \langle a \rangle p \lor \langle b \rangle p\,\\! T4. \langle a\mathbin{;}b \rangle p \leftrightarrow \langle a \rangle \langle b \rangle p\,\\! T5. \langle a* \rangle p \leftrightarrow p \lor \langle a \rangle \langle a* \rangle p\,\\! T6. \langle a* \rangle p \to p \lor \langle a* \rangle ( eg p \land \langle a \rangle p)\,\\! T1 asserts the impossibility of bringing anything about by performing BLOCK. T2 notes again that NOP changes nothing, bearing in mind that NOP is both deterministic and terminating whence [1]\,\\! and \langle 1 \rangle\,\\! have the same force. T3 says that if the choice of a\,\\! or b\,\\! could bring about p\,\\!, then either a\,\\! or b\,\\! alone could bring about p\,\\!. T4 is just like A4. T5 is explained as for A5. T6 asserts that if it is possible to bring about p\,\\! by performing a\,\\! sufficiently often, then either p\,\\! is true now or it is possible to perform a\,\\! repeatedly to bring about a situation where p\,\\! is (still) false but one more performance of a\,\\! could bring about p\,\\!. Box and diamond are entirely symmetric with regard to which one takes as primitive. An alternative axiomatization would have been to take the theorems T1–T6 as axioms, from which we could then have derived A1–A6 as theorems. The difference between implication and inference is the same in dynamic logic as in any other logic: whereas the implication p \to q\,\\! asserts that if p\,\\! is true then so is q\,\\!, the inference p \vdash q\,\\! asserts that if p\,\\! is valid then so is q\,\\!. However the dynamic nature of dynamic logic moves this distinction out of the realm of abstract axiomatics into the common-sense experience of situations in flux. The inference rule p \vdash [a]p\,\\!, for example, is sound because its premise asserts that p\,\\! holds at all times, whence no matter where a\,\\! might take us, p\,\\! will be true there. The implication p \to [a]p\,\\! is not valid, however, because the truth of p\,\\! at the present moment is no guarantee of its truth after performing a\,\\!. For example, p \to [a]p\,\\! will be true in any situation where p\,\\! is false, or in any situation where [a]p\,\\! is true, but the assertion (x = 1) \to [x := x+1](x = 1)\,\\! is false in any situation where x\,\\! has value 1, and therefore is not valid. ==Derived rules of inference== As for modal logic, the inference rules modus ponens and necessitation suffice also for dynamic logic as the only primitive rules it needs, as noted above. However, as usual in logic, many more rules can be derived from these with the help of the axioms. An example instance of such a derived rule in dynamic logic is that if kicking a broken TV once can't possibly fix it, then repeatedly kicking it can't possibly fix it either. Writing k\,\\! for the action of kicking the TV, and b\,\\! for the proposition that the TV is broken, dynamic logic expresses this inference as b \to [k]b \vdash b \to [k*]b\,\\!, having as premise b \to [k]b\,\\! and as conclusion b \to [k*]b\,\\!. The meaning of [k]b\,\\! is that it is guaranteed that after kicking the TV, it is broken. Hence the premise b \to [k]b\,\\! means that if the TV is broken, then after kicking it once it will still be broken. k{*}\,\\! denotes the action of kicking the TV zero or more times. Hence the conclusion b \to [k*]b\,\\! means that if the TV is broken, then after kicking it zero or more times it will still be broken. For if not, then after the second-to-last kick the TV would be in a state where kicking it once more would fix it, which the premise claims can never happen under any circumstances. The inference b \to [k]b \vdash b \to [k*]b\,\\! is sound. However the implication (b \to [k]b) \to (b \to [k*]b)\,\\! is not valid because we can easily find situations in which b \to [k]b\,\\! holds but b \to [k*]b\,\\! does not. In any such counterexample situation, b\,\\! must hold but [k*]b\,\\! must be false, while [k]b\,\\! however must be true. But this could happen in any situation where the TV is broken but can be revived with two kicks. The implication fails (is not valid) because it only requires that b \to [k]b\,\\! hold now, whereas the inference succeeds (is sound) because it requires that b \to [k]b\,\\! hold in all situations, not just the present one. An example of a valid implication is the proposition (x \ge 3) \to [x := x+1](x \ge 4)\,\\!. This says that if x\,\\! is greater or equal to 3, then after incrementing x\,\\!, x\,\\! must be greater or equal to 4. In the case of deterministic actions a\,\\! that are guaranteed to terminate, such as x := x+1\,\\!, must and might have the same force, that is, [a]\,\\! and \langle a \rangle\,\\! have the same meaning. Hence the above proposition is equivalent to (x \ge 3) \to \langle x := x+1 \rangle (x \ge 4)\,\\! asserting that if x\,\\! is greater or equal to 3 then after performing x := x+1\,\\!, x\,\\! might be greater or equal to 4. ==Assignment== The general form of an assignment statement is x := e\,\\! where x\,\\! is a variable and e\,\\! is an expression built from constants and variables with whatever operations are provided by the language, such as addition and multiplication. The Hoare axiom for assignment is not given as a single axiom but rather as an axiom schema. A7. [x:=e] \Phi(x) \leftrightarrow \Phi(e)\,\\! This is a schema in the sense that \Phi(x)\,\\! can be instantiated with any formula \Phi\,\\! containing zero or more instances of a variable x\,\\!. The meaning of \Phi(e)\,\\! is \Phi\,\\! with those occurrences of x\,\\! that occur free in \Phi\,\\!, i.e. not bound by some quantifier as in \forall x\,\\!, replaced by e\,\\!. For example, we may instantiate A7 with [x:=e](x=y^2) \leftrightarrow e=y^2\,\\!, or with [x:=e](b=c+x) \leftrightarrow b=c+e\,\\!. Such an axiom schema allows infinitely many axioms having a common form to be written as a finite expression connoting that form. The instance [x:=x+1](x \ge 4) \leftrightarrow x+1 \ge 4\,\\! of A7 allows us to calculate mechanically that the example [x:=x+1]x \ge 4\,\\! encountered a few paragraphs ago is equivalent to x+1 \ge 4\,\\!, which in turn is equivalent to x \ge 3\,\\! by elementary algebra. An example illustrating assignment in combination with *\,\\! is the proposition \langle (x:=x+1)*\rangle x=7\,\\!. This asserts that it is possible, by incrementing x\,\\! sufficiently often, to make x\,\\! equal to 7. This of course is not always true, e.g. if x\,\\! is 8 to begin with, or 6.5, whence this proposition is not a theorem of dynamic logic. If x\,\\! is of type integer however, then this proposition is true if and only if x\,\\! is at most 7 to begin with, that is, it is just a roundabout way of saying x \le 7\,\\!. Mathematical induction can be obtained as the instance of A6 in which the proposition p\,\\! is instantiated as \Phi(n)\,\\!, the action a\,\\! as n:=n+1\,\\!, and n\,\\! as 0\,\\!. The first two of these three instantiations are straightforward, converting A6 to (\Phi(n) \land [(n:=n+1)*](\Phi(n) \to [n:=n+1] \Phi(n))) \to [(n:=n+1)*] \Phi(n)\,\\!. However, the ostensibly simple substitution of 0\,\\! for n\,\\! is not so simple as it brings out the so-called referential opacity of modal logic in the case when a modality can interfere with a substitution. When we substituted \Phi(n)\,\\! for p\,\\!, we were thinking of the proposition symbol p\,\\! as a rigid designator with respect to the modality [n:=n+1]\,\\!, meaning that it is the same proposition after incrementing n\,\\! as before, even though incrementing n\,\\! may impact its truth. Likewise, the action a\,\\! is still the same action after incrementing n\,\\!, even though incrementing n\,\\! will result in its executing in a different environment. However, n\,\\! itself is not a rigid designator with respect to the modality [n:=n+1]\,\\!; if it denotes 3 before incrementing n\,\\!, it denotes 4 after. So we can't just substitute 0\,\\! for n\,\\! everywhere in A6. One way of dealing with the opacity of modalities is to eliminate them. To this end, expand [(n:=n+1)*] \Phi(n)\,\\! as the infinite conjunction [(n:=n+1)^0] \Phi(n) \land [(n:=n+1)^1] \Phi(n) \land [(n:=n+1)^2] \Phi(n) \land \ldots\,\\!, that is, the conjunction over all i\,\\! of [(n:=n+1)^i] \Phi(n)\,\\!. Now apply A4 to turn [(n:=n+1)^i] \Phi(n)\,\\! into [n:=n+1][n:=n+1]\ldots \Phi(n)\,\\!, having i\,\\! modalities. Then apply Hoare's axiom i\,\\! times to this to produce \Phi(n+i)\,\\!, then simplify this infinite conjunction to \forall i \Phi(n+i)\,\\!. This whole reduction should be applied to both instances of [(n:=n+1)*]\,\\! in A6, yielding (\Phi(n) \land \forall i (\Phi(n+i) \to [n:=n+1] \Phi(n+i))) \to \forall i \Phi(n+i)\,\\!. The remaining modality can now be eliminated with one more use of Hoare's axiom to give (\Phi(n) \land \forall i (\Phi(n+i) \to \Phi(n+i+1))) \to \forall i \Phi (n+i)\,\\!. With the opaque modalities now out of the way, we can safely substitute 0\,\\! for n\,\\! in the usual manner of first-order logic to obtain Peano's celebrated axiom (\Phi(0) \land \forall i (\Phi(i) \to \Phi(i+1))) \to \forall i \Phi(i)\,\\!, namely mathematical induction. One subtlety we glossed over here is that \forall i\,\\! should be understood as ranging over the natural numbers, where i\,\\! is the superscript in the expansion of a{*}\,\\! as the union of a^i\,\\! over all natural numbers i\,\\!. The importance of keeping this typing information straight becomes apparent if n\,\\! had been of type integer, or even real, for any of which A6 is perfectly valid as an axiom. As a case in point, if n\,\\! is a real variable and \Phi(n)\,\\! is the predicate n\,\\! is a natural number, then axiom A6 after the first two substitutions, that is, (\Phi(n) \land \forall i (\Phi(n+i) \to \Phi(n+i+1))) \to \forall i \Phi(n+i)\,\\!, is just as valid, that is, true in every state regardless of the value of n\,\\! in that state, as when n\,\\! is of type natural number. If in a given state n\,\\! is a natural number, then the antecedent of the main implication of A6 holds, but then n+i\,\\! is also a natural number so the consequent also holds. If n\,\\! is not a natural number, then the antecedent is false and so A6 remains true regardless of the truth of the consequent. We could strengthen A6 to an equivalence p \land [a*](p \to [a]p) \leftrightarrow [a*]p\,\\! without impacting any of this, the other direction being provable from A5, from which we see that if the antecedent of A6 does happen to be false somewhere, then the consequent must be false. ==Test== Dynamic logic associates to every proposition p\,\\! an action p?\,\\! called a test. When p\,\\! holds, the test p?\,\\! acts as a NOP, changing nothing while allowing the action to move on. When p\,\\! is false, p?\,\\! acts as BLOCK. Tests can be axiomatized as follows. A8. [p?]q \leftrightarrow (p \to q)\,\\! The corresponding theorem for \langle p? \rangle\,\\! is: T8. \langle p? \rangle q \leftrightarrow p \land q\,\\! The construct if p then a else b is realized in dynamic logic as (p?\mathbin{;}a) \cup ( eg p?\mathbin{;}b)\,\\!. This action expresses a guarded choice: if p\,\\! holds then p?\mathbin{;}a\,\\! is equivalent to a\,\\!, whereas eg p?\mathbin{;}b\,\\! is equivalent to BLOCK, and a \cup 0\,\\! is equivalent to a\,\\!. Hence when p\,\\! is true the performer of the action can only take the left branch, and when p\,\\! is false the right. The construct while p do a is realized as ({p?\mathbin{;}a)*}\mathbin{;} eg p?\,\\!. This performs p?\mathbin{;}a\,\\! zero or more times and then performs eg p?\,\\!. As long as p\,\\! remains true, the eg p?\,\\! at the end blocks the performer from terminating the iteration prematurely, but as soon as it becomes false, further iterations of the body p\,\\! are blocked and the performer then has no choice but to exit via the test eg p?\,\\!. ==Quantification as random assignment== The random-assignment statement x\mathbin{:=}{?}\,\\! denotes the nondeterministic action of setting x\,\\! to an arbitrary value. [x\mathbin{:=}{?}]p\,\\! then says that p\,\\! holds no matter what you set x\,\\! to, while \langle x\mathbin{:=}{?} \rangle p\,\\! says that it is possible to set x\,\\! to a value that makes p\,\\! true. [x\mathbin{:=}{?}]\,\\! thus has the same meaning as the universal quantifier \forall x\,\\!, while \langle x\mathbin{:=}{?} \rangle\,\\! similarly corresponds to the existential quantifier \exists x\,\\!. That is, first-order logic can be understood as the dynamic logic of programs of the form x:=?\,\\!. Dijkstra claimed to show the impossibility of a program that sets the value of variable x to an arbitrary positive integer. However, in dynamic logic with assignment and the * operator, x can be set to an arbitrary positive integer with the dynamic logic program (x\mathbin{:=}0)\mathbin{;} (x:= x+ 1){*}. Hence we must either reject Dijkstra's argument or hold that the * operator is not effective. ==Possible-world semantics== Modal logic is most commonly interpreted in terms of possible world semantics or Kripke structures. This semantics carries over naturally to dynamic logic by interpreting worlds as states of a computer in the application to program verification, or states of our environment in applications to linguistics, AI, etc. One role for possible world semantics is to formalize the intuitive notions of truth and validity, which in turn permit the notions of soundness and completeness to be defined for axiom systems. An inference rule is sound when validity of its premises implies validity of its conclusion. An axiom system is sound when all its axioms are valid and its inference rules are sound. An axiom system is complete when every valid formula is derivable as a theorem of that system. These concepts apply to all systems of logic including dynamic logic. ==Propositional dynamic logic (PDL)== Ordinary or first-order logic has two types of terms, respectively assertions and data. As can be seen from the examples above, dynamic logic adds a third type of term denoting actions. The dynamic logic assertion [x:=x+1](x \ge 4)\,\\! contains all three types: x\,\\!, x+1\,\\!, and 4\,\\! are data, x:=x+1\,\\! is an action, and x \ge 4\,\\! and [x:=x+1](x \ge 4)\,\\! are assertions. Propositional logic is derived from first-order logic by omitting data terms and reasons only about abstract propositions, which may be simple propositional variables or atoms or compound propositions built with such logical connectives as and, or, and not. Propositional dynamic logic, or PDL, was derived from dynamic logic in 1977 by Michael J. Fischer and Richard Ladner. PDL blends the ideas behind propositional logic and dynamic logic by adding actions while omitting data; hence the terms of PDL are actions and propositions. The TV example above is expressed in PDL whereas the next example involving x:=x+1\,\\! is in first- order dynamic logic. PDL is to (first-order) dynamic logic as propositional logic is to first-order logic. Fischer and Ladner showed in their 1977 paper that PDL satisfiability was of computational complexity at most nondeterministic exponential time, and at least deterministic exponential time in the worst case. This gap was closed in 1978 by Vaughan Pratt who showed that PDL was decidable in deterministic exponential time. In 1977, Krister Segerberg proposed a complete axiomatization of PDL, namely any complete axiomatization of modal logic K together with axioms A1–A6 as given above. Completeness proofs for Segerberg's axioms were found by Gabbay (unpublished note), Parikh (1978), Pratt (1979), and Kozen and Parikh (1981). ==History== Dynamic logic was developed by Vaughan Pratt in 1974 in notes for a class on program verification as an approach to assigning meaning to Hoare logic by expressing the Hoare formula p \\{ a \\} q\,\\! as p \to [a]q\,\\!. The approach was later published in 1976 as a logical system in its own right. The system parallels Andrzej Salwicki's system of algorithmic logic and Edsger Dijkstra's notion of weakest-precondition predicate transformer \operatorname{wp}(a,p)\,\\!, with [a]p\,\\! corresponding to Dijkstra's \operatorname{wlp}(a,p)\,\\!, weakest liberal precondition. Those logics however made no connection with either modal logic, Kripke semantics, regular expressions, or the calculus of binary relations. Dynamic logic therefore can be viewed as a refinement of algorithmic logic and predicate transformers that connects them up to the axiomatics and Kripke semantics of modal logic as well as to the calculi of binary relations and regular expressions. ==The concurrency challenge== Hoare logic, algorithmic logic, weakest preconditions, and dynamic logic are all well suited to discourse and reasoning about sequential behavior. Extending these logics to concurrent behavior however has proved problematic. There are various approaches but all of them lack the elegance of the sequential case. In contrast Amir Pnueli's 1977 system of temporal logic, another variant of modal logic sharing many common features with dynamic logic, differs from all of the above-mentioned logics by being what Pnueli has characterized as an "endogenous" logic, the others being "exogenous" logics. By this Pnueli meant that temporal logic assertions are interpreted within a universal behavioral framework in which a single global situation changes with the passage of time, whereas the assertions of the other logics are made externally to the multiple actions about which they speak. The advantage of the endogenous approach is that it makes no fundamental assumptions about what causes what as the environment changes with time. Instead a temporal logic formula can talk about two unrelated parts of a system, which because they are unrelated tacitly evolve in parallel. In effect ordinary logical conjunction of temporal assertions is the concurrent composition operator of temporal logic. The simplicity of this approach to concurrency has resulted in temporal logic being the modal logic of choice for reasoning about concurrent systems with its aspects of synchronization, interference, independence, deadlock, livelock, fairness, etc. == See also == * Hoare logic * Kleene algebra * Temporal logic * Temporal logic in finite- state verification * Temporal logic of actions * Modal μ-calculus == Further reading == * David Harel, Dexter Kozen, and Jerzy Tiuryn, "Dynamic Logic". MIT Press, 2000 (450 pp). * Nicolas Troquard and Philippe Balbiani, "Propositional Dynamic Logic." Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, 2007. == Footnotes == ==References== * Vaughan Pratt, "Semantical Considerations on Floyd-Hoare Logic", Proc. 17th Annual IEEE Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science, 1976, 109-121. * David Harel, "Dynamic Logic", In D. Gabbay and F. Guenthner, editors, Handbook of Philosophical Logic, volume II: Extensions of Classical Logic, chapter 10, pages 497-604. Reidel, Dordrecht, 1984. * David Harel, Dexter Kozen, and Jerzy Tiuryn, "Dynamic Logic", In D. Gabbay and F. Guenthner, editors, Handbook of Philosophical Logic, volume 4: pages 99-217. Kluwer, 2nd edition, 2002. ==External links== * Semantical Considerations on Floyd-Hoare Logic (original paper on dynamic logic) * Chapter 6 : Logic and Action at Logic In Action site * Lecture Notes on Dynamic Logic by André Platzer Category:Modal logic Category:Logic in computer science Category:Non- classical logic |
The House of Loreius Tiburtinus (more correctly the House of Octavius Quartio after its true owner) is renowned for well-preserved art, mainly in wall- paintings as well as its large gardens. It is in the Roman city of Pompeii and with the rest of Pompeii was preserved by the volcanic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in or after October 79 AD. == Location== Its Pompeian street address is II, 2, 2-5 and it is located on the Via dell'Abbondanza (or street of abundance), one of the most prosperous streets in Pompeii, and conveniently situated for both the palaestra and the amphitheatre. The section of Via dell'Abbondanza it occupied was closed off to cart traffic in ancient times. == Name == The naming of this houseTronchin, Francesca C. "An Eclectic Locus Artis: the Casa Di Octavius Quartio At Pompeii." Diss. Boston Univ., 2006 was wrongly derived from electoral graffiti etched in the outer façade, some saying "Vote for Loreius" and others "Vote for Tiburtinus." In fact, the last known owner of the house was a man named Octavius Quartio, whose bronze seal was found inside the house during excavation.Nappo, Salvatore. Pompeii: Guide to the Lost City. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1988. 32-33, 41-45, 50-51. Some historians choose to refer to this house as the House of Octavius Quartio. == Excavation == The House of Loreius Tiburtinus (Octavius Quartio) was discovered and excavated between the years 1916 and 1921 by Vittorio Spinazzola, Pompeii superintendent between 1911-1923. Further archaeological campaigns were conducted in 1933 and 1935 under the supervision of Amedeo Maiuri. The last excavation in 1971 was supervised by Alfonso De Francisci. == History == The two original structures combined to form this palatial residence were originally built during the Samnite Period around the 3rd century BCE. The domus covered an entire insula before the earthquake of 62 AD and had two atriums and two entrances. After the earthquake, part of the house (II 2, 4) was sold to another owner and was made independent. It is thought the arcaded terrace (loggia) and the large garden were completed at this time as well extending the area to about 1,800 square meters. Art historian John R. Clarke has suggested the expanded garden space may have been used for commercial purposes, "like that of its neighbor two blocks to the east, the Praedia of Julia Felix, citing Wilhelmina Jashemski. == Layout and Decoration == thumb|left|400px|Floorplan of Pompeii II 2,2 House of Octavius Quartio based on Spinazzola plan produced in 1916-1921 The exterior walls of the complex are composed of opus incertum (stone rubble embedded in concrete) with ashlar piers, except for the easternmost corner, which was constructed with opus vittatum mixtum (a combination of brick and stone blocks). The main entrance, is flanked by two shops, the Caupona of Astylus and Pardalus (II 2,1), with remains of a food serving counter and stairs to an upper floor, and the Caupona of Athictus. This shop had only a sales counter of wood that left an imprint below the plastered east wall. It is thought these shop spaces were once part of the house but were eventually separated from the main structure and either rented or sold as both shops had doorways to the atrium of the main House at II 2,2. The Athictus shop also had a doorway leading into Room 3 (blue). The inside of the house is fairly uniform in its organization, and matches the standard of much of the Roman architecture at the time. Unfortunately some of the house's original integrity was compromised before the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in the earthquake of 62 AD and Allied bombing raids in 1943 during WWII. thumb|left|250px|Impluvium later converted to fountain with plants The fauces (entrance) at II 2,2 opens into a rectangular atrium with an impluvium in the center. This basin collected rainwater through a hole in the roof to be used by the patrons of the house. It was later repurposed into a fountain surrounded by a bed of plants. This portion of the residence suffered extensive damage from exposure to the elements after its excavation in 1916 as well as Allied bomb damage in 1943. At the rear of the atrium, the home's tablinum (g) has been replaced with a small columned pseudo-peristyle. The columns are painted red at the base and white above. Though faded, the walls still bear evidence of painting in the Fourth style with black panels separated by yellow columns above a red dado. On the east wall is the extremely faded remains of a panel painting but it's so damaged the subject can no longer be perceived. Patronage relationships began to evolve during the late Republic. More and more patronage extended over entire communities whether on the basis of political decree, benefaction by an individual who becomes the communities' patron, or by the community formally adopting a patron. This may account for the elimination of a formal tablinum. A number of the rooms adjoining the atrium are also in poor repair: Room 3 (blue) has only a small piece of stucco left of its decoration. It contains what Spinazzola described as a kiln (muffola) for the baking and glazing of small vases/pots. It is in this room that the seal ring of D. Octavius Quartio was found. Room 4 (blue), partially destroyed in the 1943 bombing, retains no decoration at all. It is thought to have been a triclinium. Likewise, all that remains of Room 5 (blue) are bare walls. It's doorway to what is thought to be a latrine 6 (blue) is still extant, though. Room 7 (blue), also without decoration, is accessed through Room 5 (blue). Room "a", with a yellow middle zone with black dado, once contained a panel painting of Europa and the Bull, two medallions with one particularly fine portrait thought to be the owner's daughter, and painted imitation windows as documented by a 1930 photograph. These were all destroyed by concussion in one of the 1943 bombing raids. thumb|200px|Ala "b" with floating soldiers Ala "b", a relatively large room decorated in the Fourth Style with red panels on a dark blue ground with floating soldier figures, survived, though it has faded severely from exposure. Room "c", thought to have been another triclinium with yellow panels bordered in red was also damaged and faded due to exposure after excavation. thumb|left|200px|Fourth style painting on south wall of oecus "d" A small oecus "d" also decorated in the Fourth Style depicting architectural structures and landscapes in roundels on a white ground has survived. Room "e" has managed to retain fragments of its black and white floor mosaics and a panel picture of a hunting scene framed with garlands on a yellow ground. These two rooms are thought to have been painted by a workshop located on the Via di Castricio. Room "f" on the west side of the pseudo-peristyle is an oecus decorated in the Fourth Style with white ground panels bordered in cinnabar red above a black dado with Egyptian and cultic motifs. Among figures portrayed include Bacchus with his thyrsus and a priest of Isis with a sistrum, possibly depicting the owner. Beneath it is the inscription "Amisusius Loreius Tiburtinus." This is in addition to the election slogans referring to Tiburtinus found on the outer facade of the house. thumb|200px|Fourth style frescoes with Egyptian motifs in oecus "f" A biga (two-horse chariot) tops one of the painted architectural structures. There are also roundels depicting maenads and satyrs. Paintings of Diana bathing to the south and Actaeon attacked by his hunting dogs to the north suggest the room was used as a sacellum to scholars conducting the damage diagnosis of the site for the Piano della Conoscenza-Grande Progetto Pompei Project in 2016. Finnish scholar, Ilkka Kuivalainen, agrees, stating the presence of Bacchus clearly indicates cultic purposes. But, site curators do not think the room was used for religious purposes. They state on site signage: "What at first sight appear to be stringent references to the goddess Isis and her cult are none other than proof of the exotic taste, a completely secular one, with an exclusively ornamental nature, which characterized the new ruling class that was being formed in the early decades of the empire." This room was also bomb damaged then partially restored from stucco fragments. The paintings have been attributed to the Vetii workshop. Room "h", a spacious triclinium, still retains much of its frescoes, although fragmentary. Two panels of images are painted continuously around the room. The more narrow lower panel depicts scenes of Achilles and the Iliad interspersed with simulated marble panels including Thetis giving weapons forged by Hephaestus to Achilles, Patroclus, dressed in the armor of Achilles, fighting from a wheeled vehicle, the funeral of Patroclus, a boxing match as part of the games held in honor of Patroclus, and Automedon readying the chariot for Achilles. At the far east end, is the iconic scene of Achilles dragging Hector's body behind his chariot followed by images of Priam led by Hermes taking a wagon out of Troy and entering the Greek camp and a kneeling King Priam pleading with Achilles for the body of Hector. The wider upper panel portrays scenes from the myth of Heracles involving Telamon and Laomedon. Telamon, father of the Greek hero Ajax the Great, was one of the Argonauts and friend of Heracles who assisted him on his expeditions against the Amazons and his assault on Troy. Laomedon was the king of Troy at the time and father of Podarces, later renamed Priam. When Heracles besieged Troy, Telamon was the first to breach the wall and enter the city (first panel painting - Telamon approaching King Laomedon). Heracles slew Laomedon (next panel) and awarded Laomedon's daughter to Telamon as a war prize (third panel - the wedding of Telamon and Hesione). ===Gardens=== The house is particularly well known for its extensive gardens and outdoor ornamentation, including two perpendicular euripi, water channels named after the strait of Euripus between Euboea and the main Greek peninsula. These channels with fountains were the centerpiece for many frescoes and statuettes. The source of water for these extensive water features was provided by a lattice of lead piping supplied by a castellum plumbeum, a lead-lined reservoir on the northwest corner of the insula, part of a fairly complex water pressure system which functioned with the local water towers. Around 27 BCE, Pompeii was connected to the new Aqua Augusta aqueduct that ran from Sante Lucia di Serino to Misenum. Water flowed into the castellum divisorium, a distribution station on the highest point of the city near the Vesuvian gate. Due to significant height differences which caused undesirable pressure variations in the water system, a series of water towers were constructed to regulate pressures in different districts within the city. Of these, 14 have been excavated and tower 6 was found on the corner of II, 2,1 at the intersection of the Via dell'Abbondanza and the Vicolo di Octavius Quartio. thumb|Reproduction of statue of the muse Erato or Mnemosyne along the upper euripus The upper euripus (i), running east to west, was lined with six plinths thought to support statues of the muses. However, only one of Polyhymnia and one of Mnemosyne have been recovered and are presently in the archaeological museum in Naples. A reproduction of Mnemosyne can now be seen on site, however. Other sculptures recovered from the upper euripus include a head of a young Dionysus, a lion consuming a deer, a sphinx, another lion, a female theater mask, a hunting hound attacking a fawn, and an infant Hercules strangling a snake. thumb|left|Hunt scene on north wall of upper euripus The north wall of the upper euripus was painted with a hunting scene of large felines including a leopard and antelope. At the west end of the water channel are faded frescoes of Diana bathing and Actaeon being attacked by his own hunting hounds that flank the doorway to room (f), the space some scholars think served as a sacellum. At the east end of the upper euripus, a summer biclinium (k) is constructed with two masonry couches on either side of a water feature. An aedicula is centered on the back wall flanked by a fresco of Narcissus admiring his reflection in a pool and the suicide of Pyramus and Thisbe. Telamon in the form of a kneeling satyr is now placed within the aedicula based on a suggestion by original site excavator Spinazzola but today there is no evidence of piping for its use as a fountain base. A sculpture of a river god was also found in this location. A particularly significant find on one of the couches of the summer biclinium was the only known artist's signature in Pompeii: "Lucius pinxit" or "Painted by Lucius." thumb|upright|left|Tetrastyled temple at the intersection of upper and lower euripus The lower euripus runs north to south and bisects an expansive garden of fruit trees, other shady flora and acanthus (l) planted in pergolated ordered rows. At its point of intersection with the upper euripus stands a tetrastyled temple embellished with polychrome stucco decoration. Its base is a fountain with spigots arranged in a semicircle with a vertical jet at the center. The shorter north end of the lower euripus terminates in a columned nymphaeum with stepped fountain. A marble sculpture of Cupid holding up a theater mask was found above the fountain steps in 1920. An early photograph shows the walls of the nymphaeum frescoed with a nude Diana at her bath on the left and Actaeon on the right, with a landscape on the side wall. These paintings are barely perceptible now due to exposure. Just below the midway point of the lower euripus is a pool with a square fountain structure in its center with four sets of marble steps on each side to produce cascades of water from the central jet back. Twelve plinths may have once held decorative statues. It was once covered by a pergola suspended by four columns that has since been removed. Near the southern end of the lower euripus is a small four-columned pavilion embellished with a stucco relief depicting swans, acanthus leaves and flowers on a red background. The lower euripus ends in a third pool. Near the wall at the south end, a statue of Hermaphroditus was recovered. The back garden gate is across from entrance 7 of the palaestra with natatio (swimming pool) southwest of the amphitheater. ==Gallery== File:Diana bathing at west end of euripus House of Octavius Quartio Pompeii courtesy of Buzz Ferebee geometry adjusted.jpg|Diana bathing at west end of euripus File:Acteon in the House of Octavius Quartio Pompeii.jpg|Actaeon attacked by his hunting hounds File:Closeup of Actaeon's hounds House of D Octavius Quartio.jpg|Closeup of Actaeon's hounds File:I08 185 Haus des Octavius Quartio, Narziss.jpg|Fresco of Narcissus in the summer biclinium File:I08 184 Pyramus und Thisbe.jpg|Pyramus and Thisbe, committing suicide File:Jardín Octavius Quartio 17.jpg|Aedicula column capital in the summer biclinium File:Jardín Octavius Quartio 22.jpg|Replanted flora in the garden File:Jardín Octavius Quartio 41.jpg|Stucco work on small pavilion at the south end of lower euripus File:Jardín Octavius Quartio 42.jpg|Stepped fountain near midway point of lower euripus File:Jardín Octavius Quartio 07.jpg|Cupid with a theater mask found in nymphaeum File:Casa di Ottavio Quartione, Pompeya, Italia, 2016 12.jpg|Roundel with heads of satyrs in room f File:Casa de Octavius Quartio 01.jpg|Frescoed triclinium with scenes of Heracles, Achilles and Troy File:Casa de Octavius Quartio 03.jpg| (L-R) Telamon and Laomedon, Heracles battling Laomedon, King of Troy, and Hesione and Telamon File:Casa del Efebo 26.jpg|Possible sacellum (f) with floating figure of priest of Isis File:Fresco Octavius Quartio 01.jpg|Room (e) with hunt scene panel File:Casa di Ottavio Quartione, Pompeya, Italia, 2016 09.jpg|Closeup of panel painting with hunt scene File:Marble statue of Hermaphroditus. House of Loreius Tiburtinus. Pompeii2.JPG|Statue of Hermaphroditus found near the south wall ==References== ==External links== *4K tour of the House of Octavius Quartio *House of Octavius Quartio animated reconstruction and sculpture found there (video) *House of Octavius Quartio virtual reconstruction (video) *Castellum Divisorium at Pompeii by Stephen Ressler, P.E., Ph.D. Category:Ancient Roman paintings Category:Ancient Roman erotic art L |
John Campbell McTiernan Jr. (born January 8, 1951) is an American filmmaker. He is best known for his action films, including Predator (1987), Die Hard (1988), and The Hunt for Red October (1990). His later well-known films include the action-comedy-fantasy film Last Action Hero (1993), the action film sequel Die Hard with a Vengeance (1995), the heist-film remake The Thomas Crown Affair (1999), and The 13th Warrior (1999). His last completed feature film was the mystery-thriller Basic, released in 2003. He pleaded guilty to perjury and lying to an FBI investigator in regard to his hiring of the private investigator Anthony Pellicano in late 2000 to illegally wiretap the phone calls of two people, one of whom was Charles Roven, a co-producer of his action film remake Rollerball (2002). He was incarcerated in federal prison from April 2013 to February 2014. During his imprisonment, he filed for bankruptcy amidst foreclosure proceedings for his large ranch residence. ==Early life and education== McTiernan was born in Albany, New York, the son of Myra and John Campbell McTiernan Sr., a lawyer and actor. He attended the Juilliard School before graduating with a Master of Fine Arts from the AFI Conservatory in 1975. ==Career== ===Early career=== In 1986, he wrote and directed his first feature film, Nomads, starring Pierce Brosnan (Brosnan's first lead role in a film). It was not well received by critics, receiving only one positive review out of eight according to the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times rated it 1.5 stars out of four and said that even if viewers cared about the characters, the film is too confusing to understand. Variety wrote, "Nomads avoids the more obvious ripped-guts devices in favor of dramatic visual scares. [...] In fact, everything seems to come naturally in a tale that even has the supernatural ring true." Walter Goodman of The New York Times called the Innuat "as menacing as the chorus from West Side Story". In his memoir, Total Recall, Arnold Schwarzenegger said he was so impressed by the film's tense atmosphere made with a low budget that he hired McTiernan to direct Predator. The budget for sci-fi Predator was around $15m. It opened as #1 at the U.S. box office with a gross of $12m on just its opening weekend, and went on to gross nearly $100m overall. In 1987, its domestic grosses were second only to Beverly Hills Cop II. Initial critical reaction to Predator was negative, with criticism focusing on the thin plot. Metacritic, which assigns a score out of 100 to reviews, rates the film with an average score of 45 based on 15 reviews, with the review opinions summarized as "mixed". Elvis Mitchell of The New York Times described it as "grisly and dull, with few surprises". Dean Lamanna wrote in Cinefantastique that "the militarized monster movie tires under its own derivative weight." Variety wrote that the film was a "slightly above- average actioner that tries to compensate for tissue-thin plot with ever-more- grisly death sequences and impressive special effects." However, in subsequent years critics' attitudes toward the film warmed, and it has appeared on "best of" lists. The review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes reports that 78% of 40 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review. Made on a $28m budget, Die Hard went on to gross over $140m theatrically worldwide. It is considered one of the greatest action films. The film's success spawned a Die Hard franchise, which so far has included four sequels, video games, and a comic book. It received very high ratings from critics. English film critic Mark Kermode expressed admiration for the film, calling it an exciting setup of "Cowboys and Indians in The Towering Inferno". The film has been included in various top-ten lists of best Christmas movies, including Empire (rating it #1), Entertainment Weekly (rating it #4), Forbes (rating it #1), The Guardian (rating it #8), and San Francisco Gate (rating it #1). However, not every critic praised it. Roger Ebert gave it a mere two stars out of four and criticized the stupidity of the deputy police chief character Dwayne T. Robinson (played by Paul Gleason), saying that "all by himself he successfully undermines the last half of the movie". ====1990–1995==== The Hunt for Red October also received positive reviews from critics. Nick Schager, for Slant Magazine, called the film "a thrilling edge-of-your-seat trifle that has admirably withstood the test of time". Ebert called it "a skillful, efficient film that involves us in the clever and deceptive game being played", while Gene Siskel commented on the film's technical achievement and Baldwin's convincing portrayal of the character Jack Ryan. McTiernan directed Medicine Man (1992), about a medical researcher in a rainforest, starring Sean Connery. Medicine Man was poorly received. Roger Ebert gave it one-and-a-half stars, saying that although the film had "some beautiful moments", it never really came together and had "a cornball conclusion". Entertainment Weekly said the story was "built around some very tired devices" and especially criticized the performance of the female lead. In 1993, he directed and co-produced Last Action Hero, an action-comedy vehicle for Arnold Schwarzenegger. The film received mixed to negative reviews from critics. Entertainment Weekly said it was "a stupid, generic slab of action bombast that keeps reminding us it's a stupid, generic slab of action bombast" and called it "a lead balloon of a movie". Variety called it a "a joyless, soulless machine of a movie, an $80 million-plus mishmash". Vincent Canby likened the film to "a two-hour Saturday Night Live sketch" and called it "something of a mess, but a frequently enjoyable one". Roger Ebert gave the film 2.5 stars out of 4, writing that despite some entertaining moments Last Action Hero more often "plays more like a bright idea than like a movie that was thought through". In 1995, McTiernan rebounded with Die Hard with a Vengeance, the third installment of the Die Hard film series. It was highly successful garnering $366m in box office receipts and becoming the highest-grossing film of the year, although the film had mixed reviews by critics. Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly said that while "McTiernan stages individual sequences with great finesse... they don't add up to a taut, dread-ridden whole." James Berardinelli said the explosions and fights were "filmed with consummate skill, and are thrilling in their own right." Desson Howe of The Washington Post said "the best thing about the movie is the relationship between McClane and Zeus", saying that Samuel L. Jackson was "almost as good as he was in Pulp Fiction". Ebert gave the film a positive review, praising the action sequences and the performances of Willis, Jackson, and Jeremy Irons, concluding: "Die Hard with a Vengeance is basically a wind-up action toy, cleverly made, and delivered with high energy. It delivers just what it advertises, with a vengeance." Empire magazine's Ian Nathan gave the film a 3/5-star review stating that "Die Hard With A Vengeance is better than Die Hard 2, but not as good as the peerless original. Though it's breathless fun, the film runs out of steam in the last act. And Jeremy Irons' villain isn't fit to tie Alan Rickman's shoelaces." ===Later career=== From 1995 to 1997, McTiernan was a producer for several smaller projects, including at least three films that were not major releases The Right to Remain Silent (a made-for-television film), Amanda, and Quicksilver Highway (a made-for-television film). He directed The 13th Warrior (1999), a loose retelling of the tale of Beowulf starring Antonio Banderas, Diane Venora and Omar Sharif that was adapted from the novel Eaters of the Dead by Michael Crichton. The film did poorly at the box office, with a total loss estimated at $70–130 million. It received generally mixed-to-poor reviews. Roger Ebert gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying that it "lumber[s] from one expensive set-piece to the next without taking the time to tell a story that might make us care." Conversely, James Berardinelli gave it three stars out of four, calling it "a solid offering" that "delivers an exhilarating 100 minutes". The outcome disappointed Sharif so much that he temporarily retired from film acting, saying "After my small role in The 13th Warrior, I said to myself, 'Let us stop this nonsense, these meal tickets that we do because it pays well. Sharif said it was "terrifying to have to do the dialogue from bad scripts, to face a director who does not know what he is doing, in a film so bad that it is not even worth exploring." The Thomas Crown Affair, directed by McTiernan a heist-film remake starring Pierce Brosnan and Rene Russo, which opened to solid reviews and strong box office results, was released later the same year. McTiernan then directed the 2002 film Rollerball, a science fiction remake starring Chris Klein, Jean Reno, and LL Cool J. Rollerball was heavily panned by critics. Time Out's Trevor Johnson described it as "a checklist shaped by a 15-year-old mallrat: thrashing metal track, skateboards, motorbikes, cracked heads and Rebecca Romijn with her top off", and Ebert called it "an incoherent mess, a jumble of footage in search of plot, meaning, rhythm and sense". The film was a box-office flop, earning a worldwide total of $26m compared to a production budget of $70m. In 2014, the Los Angeles Times listed the film as one of the most expensive box office flops of all time. , his most recent feature film project was the 2003 thriller Basic with John Travolta and Samuel L. Jackson. Reviews for Basic were mostly negative. Roger Ebert gave it one star out of four, saying it was "not a film that could be understood" and that "If I were to see it again and again, I might be able to extract an underlying logic from it, but the problem is, when a movie's not worth seeing twice, it had better get the job done the first time through." Leonard Maltin's Movie Guide gave it two stars out of four and said the film "keeps adding layers of confusion so that it becomes less interesting as it goes along! The final 'twist' seems to negate the entire story, like a bad shaggy-dog joke." His career was derailed in 2006 because of legal problems which saw McTiernan spend time in prison. As a result of his conviction, The Hollywood Reporter called McTiernan one of Hollywood's most "despised" people. His short film, The Red Dot, was released by Ubisoft to advertise the 2017 video game Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon Wildlands. It was the first of several action-oriented shorts to support the video game. The Red Dot was his first film project in 14 years. ==Personal life== ===Criminal charges, felony conviction, and incarceration=== On April 3, 2006, McTiernan was charged in federal court with making a false statement to an FBI investigator in February 2006 about his hiring of the private investigator Anthony Pellicano to illegally wiretap Charles Roven, the producer of his film Rollerball, around August 2000. McTiernan had been in a disagreement with Roven about what type of film Rollerball should be, and had hired Pellicano to investigate Roven's intentions and actions. He had asked Pellicano to try to find instances where Roven made negative remarks about the studio executives or said things to others that were inconsistent with what he said to the studio. McTiernan was arraigned and pleaded guilty on April 17, 2006, as part of an initial plea bargain agreement to cooperate with prosecutors in exchange for lenient treatment. Prosecutors said they then became convinced that he was continuing to lie to them, and that he had also hired Pellicano to wiretap someone else, prompting them to seek a prison sentence. McTiernan then hired new counsel and tried to withdraw his guilty plea, saying that his prior counsel had not conducted a proper discovery in the case and had not presented him with the available defense approach of suppressing as evidence the conversation with him that Pellicano had recorded on August 17, 2000. However, this bid was denied by the Federal District Judge, Dale S. Fischer, who immediately proceeded to sentence him to four months in prison and $100,000 in fines. The judge characterized McTiernan as someone who thought he was "above the law", had shown no remorse, and "lived a privileged life and simply wants to continue that". He was ordered to surrender for incarceration by January 15, 2008, but was allowed to remain out of prison on bail pending an appeal to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals. In October 2008, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals vacated McTiernan's four- month sentence and ruled that Judge Fischer had erred and he was entitled to a hearing as to whether his plea could be withdrawn. The prosecution (and the judge) then agreed to allow McTiernan to withdraw his plea rather than proceed with such a hearing, and his plea was withdrawn on February 24, 2009. With the case reopened, the prosecution was no longer bound by the prior plea agreement, and filed additional charges against McTiernan; he faced another two counts of lying to the FBI (one for claiming he had hired Pellicano only in connection with his divorce proceedings and another for denying he had ever discussed wiretapping with Pellicano) and one count of committing perjury during the previous court proceedings by denying he had been coached by his attorney on what to say during his previous guilty plea hearing (a denial that he later stated in a declaration was false). After some adverse rulings on his attempted defense arguments, and facing the possibility of a prison sentence of more than five years from the various charges, McTiernan eventually entered another guilty plea (on all three counts) in a second plea bargain in 2010, conditioned on his plan to appeal the earlier rulings against his defense approach, and Judge Fischer sentenced him to one year in prison, three years of supervised probation, and a fine of $100,000. The judge said that the increased length of the prison sentence was related to the additional, more serious charge of perjury before her court, that McTiernan's crimes were more than just a momentary lapse of judgment, that he still did not seem to have really accepted responsibility for his actions, and that she would have issued an even more lengthy prison sentence if the prosecution had not recommended less. McTiernan was then released on bail pending an appeal of the adverse rulings. On August 20, 2012, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the district court judgment, but allowed McTiernan to address the U.S. Supreme Court regarding his attempt to suppress the recorded conversation before being required to report to prison. His defense tried to argue that Pellicano had made the recording for an unlawful purpose and that this made it inadmissible, but the district and appeals courts disagreed with that interpretation of the rules of evidence. On January 14, 2013, the Supreme Court declined to hear the case. McTiernan surrendered to federal prison on April 3, 2013, to serve a stated 12-month sentence in the Federal Prison Camp, Yankton, in Yankton, South Dakota, a minimum-security former college campus holding about 800 male inmates, most of whom were white-collar criminals. His Bureau of Prisons registration number was 43029-112. Although the Yankton facility was rated by Forbes magazine as one of "America's 10 cushiest prisons", McTiernan's wife Gail stated that he had found it hard to adapt, having lost ; she also claimed that he was suffering from depression, and was "disintegrating" emotionally. While in prison, McTiernan managed to write a possible sequel for The Thomas Crown Affair, with the working title Thomas Crown and the Missing Lioness." His supporters created a "Free John McTiernan" campaign page on Facebook, including expressions of support from Samuel L. Jackson, Alec Baldwin and Brad Bird. He was released from prison on February 25, 2014, after 328 days of incarceration, to serve the remainder of his 12-month prison sentence under house arrest at his ranch home in Wyoming until April 3, 2014. ===Invasion of privacy civil suit=== On July 3, 2006, McTiernan's former wife, film producer Donna Dubrow, filed suit against him for invasion of privacy and other claims arising from her belief that he hired Pellicano to wiretap her telephone during their divorce negotiations. The lawsuit continued over time, and was still pending as of October 2015. ===Debts and bankruptcy=== In October 2013, while in prison, McTiernan filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy amidst foreclosure proceedings for his ranch residence in central Wyoming (valued at $8–10M), struggles to pay his past legal bills and IRS tax debts, and ongoing expensive disputes including the lawsuit by his ex-wife, a $5M claim against him of liability in a 2011 automobile accident, and his ongoing effort to reverse his felony conviction. The bank holding the mortgage on the ranch said the filing was a bad-faith tactic only intended to stall the foreclosure proceedings, and requested the presiding judge to convert the case to a chapter 7 bankruptcy under the terms of which he would lose control of the bankruptcy case and have a trustee appointed to manage his assets, which would result in the liquidation of his assets rather than giving McTiernan the opportunity to attempt to reorganize his debt himself. McTiernan's lawyers countered by saying that his potential for generating additional future income from new projects could enable him to eventually repay his debts, so a rapid liquidation of assets would be unnecessary and unjustified. In the bankruptcy proceedings, he identified two likely future film projects with Hannibal Pictures, with working titles Red Squad and Warbirds, with large budgets and significant likely future income and planned to star major well-known actors. On December 8, 2015, a judge ruled against McTiernan agreeing with his creditors that his assets should be liquidated. It was reported that his ranch was likely to be sold and that an administrator would take over the management of his future film royalty payments. ==Filmography== Director Year Title Director Producer 1986 Nomads 1987 Predator 1988 Die Hard 1990 The Hunt for Red October 1992 Medicine Man 1993 Last Action Hero 1995 Die Hard with a Vengeance 1999 The Thomas Crown Affair 1999 The 13th Warrior 2002 Rollerball 2003 Basic Producer * The Right to Remain Silent (1996) (TV movie) * Amanda (1996) Executive producer * Flight of the Intruder (1991) * Quicksilver Highway (1997) (TV movie) ==Awards and nominations== Year Nominated work Award Results 1988 Predator Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation 1989 Die Hard Hochi Film Award for Best Foreign Language Film (in Japan) 1990 Die Hard Blue Ribbon Award for Best Foreign Language Film (in Japan) 1990 Die Hard Kinema Junpo Award for Best Foreign Language Film (in Japan) 1994 Last Action Hero Saturn Award for Best Director 1994 Last Action Hero Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Director 1994 Last Action Hero Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Picture 1994 Last Action Hero Stinkers Bad Movie Award for Worst Picture 2003 Rollerball Stinkers Bad Movie Award for Worst Director 2003 Rollerball Stinkers Bad Movie Award for Worst Remake Special awards Year Ceremony Award Results 1997 American Film Institute Franklin J. Schaffner Award ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * *Finke, Nikki, "Film Director Accused of Lying to FBI in Pellicano Scandal" Deadline Hollywood (LA Weekly), Penske Media Corporation, April 3, 2006. *"Filmmaker Says He Lied in FBI Probe" The Los Angeles Times, April 18, 2006. *"Links Between Pellicano, Director Come Into Focus" The Los Angeles Times, April 5, 2006. Category:1951 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century American screenwriters Category:21st-century American criminals Category:AFI Conservatory alumni Category:Film directors from New York (state) Category:Film producers from New York (state) Category:American perjurers Category:Juilliard School alumni Category:Businesspeople from Albany, New York Category:Action film directors Category:Science fiction film directors Category:American prisoners and detainees Category:American people of Irish descent Category:People convicted of making false statements |
The Executive Council of the State of New Hampshire (commonly known as the Governor's Council) is the executive body of the U.S. state of New Hampshire. The Executive Council advises the Governor on all matters and provides a check on the governor's power. While the governor retains the right to veto legislation passed by the New Hampshire General Court, and commands the New Hampshire National Guard, the council has veto power over pardons, contracts with a value greater than $10,000, and nominations. The Executive Council Chambers have been located in the New Hampshire State House since the chambers were added to the capitol in 1909. == Construction == The Executive Council is made up of five councilors elected for two-year terms by their respective districts. The General Court divides the state into five districts by population, as needed for the public good, with each district containing approximately 275,500 residents. The governor has the sole power and authority to convene meetings of the council at his or her discretion. The council does not have the power or authority to convene itself. The governor with, or a majority of, the council "may and shall, from time to time hold a council, for ordering and directing the affairs of the state, according to the laws of the land." (Part II. Art. 62 of the N.H. Constitution) Members of the council may be impeached by the house, and tried by the senate for bribery, corruption, malpractice, or maladministration. (Part II. Art 63) The constitution provides for the governor and council to be compensated for their services, from time to time, by such grants as the general courts shall think reasonable. (Part II. Art. 58) Each councilor is provided a salary of $12,354 (FY 2006). The councilor for District 1 receives a $5,800 stipend in lieu of expenses while the other districts' councilors receive $4,000. === Districts === As of 2023, the state is divided into five districts: *District 1 – all of Carroll county, plus the towns and city of Alton, Belmont, Center Harbor, Gilford, Gilmanton, Laconia, Meredith, New Hampton, Sanbornton, and Tilton in Belknap County, the township, towns and city of Atkinson and Gilmanton Academy Grant, Bean's Grant, Bean's Purchase, Berlin, Cambridge, Chandler's Purchase, Clarksville, Colebrook, Columbia, Crawford's Purchase, Cutt's Grant, Dalton, Dix's Grant, Dixville, Dummer, Errol, Erving's Location, Gorham, Green's Grant, Hadley's Purchase, Jefferson, Kilkenny, Lancaster, Low and Burbank's Grant, Martin's Location, Milan, Millsfield, Northumberland, Odell, Pinkham's Grant, Pittsburg, Randolph, Sargent's Purchase, Second College Grant, Shelburne, Stark, Stewartstown, Stratford, Success, Thompson and Meserve's Purchase, Wentworth Location, and Whitefield in Coös County, the towns and township of Alexandria, Bridgewater, Bristol, Hebron, Livermore, and Waterville Valley in Grafton County, towns and city of Danbury, Franklin, Hill, and Northfield in Merrimack County, and the towns and cities of Dover, Durham, Farmington, Madbury, Middleton, Milton, New Durham, Rochester, Rollinsford, and Somersworth in Strafford County. *District 2 – in Cheshire County, the towns and city of Alstead, Chesterfield, Dublin, Gilsum, Harrisville, Hinsdale, Keene, Marlborough, Marlow, Nelson, Roxbury, Sullivan, Surry, Walpole, Westmoreland, and Winchester; in Coös County, the town of Carroll; in Grafton County, the towns and city of Ashland, Bath, Benton, Bethlehem, Campton, Canaan, Dorchester, Easton, Ellsworth, Enfield, Franconia, Grafton, Groton, Hanover, Haverhill, Holderness, Landaff, Lincoln, Lisbon, Littleton, Lyman, Lyme, Monroe, Orange, Orford, Piermont, Plymouth, Rumney, Sugar Hill, Thornton, Warren, Wentworth, and Woodstock; in Hillsborough County, the towns of Hancock, Peterborough, and Sharon; in Merrimack County, the towns and city of Andover, Boscawen, Bow, Bradford, Canterbury, Concord, Henniker, Hopkinton, Newbury, New London, Salisbury, Sutton, Warner, Webster, and Wilmot; and in Sullivan County, the towns and city of Acworth, Charlestown, Claremont, Cornish, Croydon, Grantham, Langdon, Newport, Plainfield, Springfield, Sunapee, and Unity. *District 3 – in Rockingham County, the towns and city of Atkinson, Brentwood, Chester, Danville, Derry, East Kingston, Epping, Exeter, Fremont, Greenland, Hampstead, Hampton, Hampton Falls, Kensington, Kingston, New Castle, Newfields, Newington, Newmarket, Newton, North Hampton, Plaistow, Portsmouth, Raymond, Rye, Salem, Sandown, Seabrook, South Hampton, Stratham, and Windham; and in Hillsborough County, the town of Pelham. *District 4 – in Belknap County, the town of Barnstead; in Hillsborough County, the towns and city of Bedford, Goffstown, and Manchester; in Merrimack County, the towns of Allenstown, Chichester, Epsom, Hooksett, Loudon, Pembroke, and Pittsfield; in Rockingham County, the towns of Auburn, Candia, Deerfield, Londonderry, Northwood, and Nottingham; and in Strafford County, the towns of Barrington, Lee and Strafford. *District 5 – in Cheshire County, the towns of Fitzwilliam, Jaffrey, Richmond, Rindge, Stoddard, Swanzey, and Troy; in Merrimack County, the town of Dunbarton; in Hillsborough County, the towns and city of Amherst, Antrim, Bennington, Brookline, Deering, Francestown, Greenfield, Greenville, Hillsborough, Hollis, Hudson, Litchfield, Lyndeborough, Mason, Merrimack, Milford, Mont Vernon, Nashua, New Boston, New Ipswich, Temple, Weare, Wilton, and Windsor; and in Sullivan County, the towns of Goshen, Lempster, and Washington. ===Members=== New Hampshire Executive Council 2023–2025 term District Name Party 1 Joseph Kenney Republican 2 Cinde Warmington Democratic 3 Janet Stevens Republican 4 Ted Gatsas Republican 5 Dave Wheeler Republican == Powers == The Governor and Council, together, have the authority and responsibility over the administration of the affairs of the state as defined in the New Hampshire Constitution, the New Hampshire Revised Statutes Annotated, and the advisory opinions of the New Hampshire Supreme Court and the New Hampshire Attorney General. The General Court has also designated specific powers to the governor and council in RSA Chapter 4. Other powers of the council derive from the NH Constitution: *The governor and council approve the spending of a significant portion of the state's budget. *The governor and council serve as the watchdogs of the state treasury to ensure state departments and agencies do not spend more than they were allowed to, or use the money for unauthorized purposes. (Part II. Art. 56) *The governor and council approve state departments and agencies' receipt and expenditures of funds and gifts, budgetary transfers within a department, and all contracts with a value of $10,000 or more. *The governor and council nominates and appoints all "judicial officers, the attorney general, and all officers of the navy, and general and field officers of the militia." (Part II. Art. 46) *The governor and council "have a negative on each other, both in the nominations and appointments," which shall be signed by the governor and council. (Part II. Art. 47) *The power of pardoning offenses "shall be in the governor, by and with the advice of council," except for persons convicted of offenses before the senate by impeachment of the house or persons whose offenses have yet been adjudicated. (Part II. Art. 52) *When a majority of the council and the attorney general reasonably believes "the governor is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office by reason of physical or mental incapacity, but the governor is unwilling or unable to transmit his written declaration to such effect...," the attorney general shall petition the NH Supreme Court, which will make such determination by a preponderance of the evidence. (Part II Art. 49-a) *The governor with advice of council has "the full power and authority, in the recess of the general court, to prorogue the same from time to time, not exceeding ninety days, in any one recess of said court; and during the sessions of said court, to adjourn or prorogue it to any time the two houses may desire, and to call it together sooner than the time to which it may be adjourned, or prorogued, if the welfare of the state should require the same." (Part II. Art. 50) == History == ===Colonial era=== The Executive Council had its beginnings in 1679, when King Charles II issued a 3,438 word commission, on September 18. The Royal Commission separated the territory of New Hampshire from Massachusetts and directed that a new government be organized in the Province of New Hampshire. A president and a nine-member council (representing the four towns of Portsmouth, Dover, Hampton and Exeter) were appointed by the king from the 4,000 settlers of the seacoast area and were required to assume office by January 21, 1680. Appointees to the council and president were all Puritans, some with long associations with the Boston government and several had served in the Puritan legislature in Boston. Some of the designated council members were so firmly opposed to the new government that they considered refusing their appointed positions. When an ultimatum was presented that less desirable men would replace them, they all relented and took the oath of office on January 21, 1680. John Cutt, a wealthy Portsmouth merchant, was appointed the first president (later called Governor) of New Hampshire. The first official act of the President and Council was to create a legislative body, then called an Assembly, to raise taxes and establish public conduct laws. The president and council obtained listings of property owners in the four towns and posted those freeholders (voters) in each town, to elect representatives to the assembly, which was convened on March 16, 1680. The first assembly, of which the council was the upper branch, was quick to express its opposition to the directives of the royal command. They promptly enacted a law that New Hampshire's property owners' titles, as granted by the Massachusetts Bay Colony over the years, would continue as valid, contrary to the ruling of the King. The legislators also joined with the president and his council in voting an apology to the Bay State for having been torn from their jurisdiction. They also expressed special appreciation for the favors they received through the 38-year affiliation. At that time, the council's primary responsibility was to report on the activities of the president to the King, especially if he strayed from the crown's dictates. ===Post-colonial Council=== On January 5, 1776, the founding fathers of the state created New Hampshire's first constitution, which eliminated the position of governor, but kept the concept of a council due to its former status as a check on the power of authoritarian rule, a recurring theme during the Revolution and afterwards with the creation of the Articles of Confederation, an ethos that made the founding fathers change selection of councilors from appointed to elected positions In the second and current Constitution, first written in 1784, a head executive was renewed, but given the title "President" rather than Governor to avoid the connotations of the royal governorship during the colonial period. (The title was changed to "Governor" by 1792.) However, the council, while being unable to act on its own, was now given the right to veto the head of state by a 3–2 vote. The only time the council was in danger of being eliminated was in 1850, when the future U.S. President Franklin Pierce suggested its removal during that year's Constitutional Convention, with the voters of New Hampshire disagreeing with him by a more than two to one margin (27,910 to 11,299). In 1933, Executive Council meetings were opened to the public. In 2006, Democrats gained two council seats, giving them a 3–2 edge. This was part of a massive Democratic landslide in which the party won control of both chambers of the New Hampshire General Court, the re-election of John Lynch as governor, and both of the state's seats in the federal U.S. House of Representatives. In 2010, Republicans claimed all five council seats as part of a national electoral wave that locally saw Republicans taking control of both the New Hampshire Senate and the New Hampshire House of Representatives. In the 2012 elections, Democrats won three seats on the council."3 Dems, 2 Republicans Elected to Executive Council". Windham Patch, November 7, 2012. During the 2014 elections, Republicans regained the District 5 seat and held three out of five seats on the council. This three of five majority for Republicans continued after the 2016 election. District 3 councilor Chris Sununu was elected governor of New Hampshire in 2016. ===Members=== ==See also== *Massachusetts Governor's Council == References == *Executive Council of New Hampshire *Streaming Video of The Executive Council of New Hampshire Meetings *Governor's Operating Budget (FY 2006 -2007) – NH Dept. of Admin. Services (PDF) *New Hampshire Constitution from WikiSource *New Hampshire Constitution (state website) ==External links== *Official website *NH Secretary of State – Governor and Executive Council Agendas and Minutes Category:Governor of New Hampshire Category:State executive councils of the United States |
Sun Hung Kai Properties Limited (SHKP; ) is a listed corporation and the largest property developer in Hong Kong as of 2019. The company is controlled by the Kwok family trust, largely the Kwok brothers. The Kwok family trust was set up by Kwok Tak-seng, who co-founded the company. ==History== ===Early years=== The group was one of many non-British owned companies that overtook the British trading companies or 'hongs' that dominated the financial order in Hong Kong prior to 1997. The predecessor of the group, Sun Hung Kai Enterprises Co., Ltd. (), was founded in 1963 by Kwok Tak-seng, together with Fung King-hey and Lee Shau Kee. The current legal person of the holding company of the group, Sun Hung Kai Properties Limited, was incorporated on 14 July 1972 and was listed on the Hong Kong stock exchanges on 23 August 1972. In 1973, SHKP acquired Hong Yip Service Company Limited. In 1977, SHKP moved its head office to Connaught Centre, Central (now known as Jardine House). In 1978, SHKP established Kai Shing Management Services Limited (啟勝管理服務), a property manager. In 1978, SHKP put on sale the first multi-block residential estate, Tsuen Wan Centre (first phase). Also in 1978, SHKP became one of the 33 constituent stocks listed on the Hang Seng Index. In 1979, SHKP established Sun Hung Kai Properties Insurance Limited, which was a provider of general insurance. === 1980s and 1990s === In 1981, SHKP acquired an interest in Kowloon Motor Bus, a public transport provider. The corporation moved its headquarters to Sun Hung Kai Centre, on an area of newly reclaimed land in Wan Chai, in 1982. In 1991, SHKP acquired Wilson Parking. In 1992, SHKP finished the construction of Central Plaza in Wan Chai, the tallest building in Asia at the time of completion. In the same year the company diversified into mobile telephony with the establishment of SmarTone, now one of Hong Kong's dominant mobile providers. This subsidiary was listed in Hong Kong in 1996. In 1993, SHKP acquired World Trade Centre, Causeway Bay. From the mid-1990s the company undertook property development related to the new airport railway, including sites at the Airport Express Hong Kong Station. In 1998, Route 3 (Country Park Section) opened. In 1999, Shanghai Central Plaza commercial building was completed. ===21st century=== In 2000, SHKP won tender for Kowloon Station Development Packages 5, 6 & 7 – now the International Commerce Centre (ICC) complex. The complex was finished in 2010. The main building became the tallest building in Hong Kong at the time of completion. On 17 March 2000, SUNeVision Holdings Limited, a subsidiary of SHKP, was listed on the Growth Enterprise Market of the Stock Exchange of Hong Kong. In 2001, SHKP established the residential leasing division Signature Homes. In 2002, SHKP set up SHKP – Kwok's Foundation to provide financial support to financially disadvantaged but academically outstanding students, enabling them to pursue university education or to participate in overseas exchange programs. In 2003, the first phases of YOHO Town in Yuen Long went on sale. The same year, the company signed a land-use transfer agreement with Shanghai Lujiazui Finance and Trade Zone Development Company for Shanghai IFC project. In 2005, SHKP opened APM, Hong Kong's first late-night retail centre. In 2005, SHKP acquired Seiyu (Sha Tin) Company Limited. In 2009, Ma Wan Park Noah's Ark opened, the first Christian theme park in Hong Kong. In 2013, SHKP acquired a commercial site with 7.6 million square feet of gross floor area in the Shanghai Xujiahui district. In 2015, SHKP became Title and Charity Sponsor of the first Hong Kong Cyclothon. In 2016, SHKP donated land in Yuen Long to Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui for the construction of an integrated service centre. In 2019, SHKP won the tender for the commercial site atop the West Kowloon high-speed rail terminus. SHKP's bid of more than HK$42 billion won the 60,000 square metre site, which could be used for office, shopping and hotel developments. The Kwoks family invested HK$9.4 billion (US$1.2 billion) for a 25% stake in the office towers. === Corruption probe === SHK Executive Director Thomas Chan was arrested by the Independent Commission Against Corruption (ICAC) on 19 March along with eight people linked to the company on the afternoon of 29 March 2012. Co-chairmen Thomas and Raymond Kwok and five others were arrested by the ICAC as part of an extensive corruption probe. Rafael Hui, former chief secretary, was also taken in for questioning. They were later released on bail. The probe caused a 15 per cent fall in the company's share price.Wong, Kelvin – Bloomberg News (30 March 2012). Sun Hung Kai Loses $5.8 Billion on Billionaire Kwoks' Arrest. San Francisco Chronicle. In December 2014, the jury convicted Thomas Kwok and Rafael Hui of the bribery, and Hui was convicted of four more charges relating to misconduct in public office. The jury acquitted Raymond Kwok of all changes."Former chief secretary Rafael Hui found guilty." RTHK English News. 19 December 2014. Retrieved 19 December 2014.Lee Yimou; Ko, Lizzie (19 December 2014). "Hong Kong former official, property tycoon guilty in graft case." Reuters. Retrieved 19 December 2014. == Governance == Its head office is in the Sun Hung Kai Centre in Wan Chai. === List of chairmen === # Kwok Tak-seng (1972–1990); founder # Walter Kwok (1990–2008); oldest son of Kwok Tak-seng # Kwong Siu-hing (2008–2011); wife of Kwok Tak-seng # Raymond Kwok and Thomas Kwok (2011–2014); joint chairmen, younger sons of Kwok Tak- seng # Raymond Kwok (2014– ); youngest son of Kwok Tak-seng ==Business development== ===Projects=== In 1996, SHKP was the lead developer which had bid the sum of HK$5.5 billion to acquire the rights to develop Hong Kong's second-tallest building, the International Finance Centre. The MTR Corporation was a partner in the venture. Sun Hung Kai Properties, owns 47.5 per cent of the development, Henderson Land Development, whose chairman Lee Shau Kee sits on the SHKP board, took a 32.5 per cent stake in the project. SHKP also built the International Commerce Centre, the tallest building in Hong Kong. ===Internal sale opacity=== In 2005, the developer was criticised for the lack of transparency in its public sale of residential properties to speculators and end-users. The company was accused of the practice of "internal sales" of uncompleted units, the absence of sale price-lists, and also for hyping sales for flats in its The Arch development in West Kowloon by announcing inflated prices (per square metre) achieved. A buyer apparently paid HK$168 million, or HK$31,300 per square foot, for a penthouse. Sweeteners were allegedly given (discounts given to the same purchaser on other units bought), but were excluded from the calculation. This allowed SHK to raise prices of the next batch of 500 units by 5–10 percent. But SHKP has denied the allegations. ===Sibling fallout=== On 18 February 2008, SHKP announced that Walter Kwok, chairman and Chief Executive, would take a "temporary leave of absence for personal reasons with immediate effect". Walter Kwok announced that he would take a "personal holiday", handing over his duties to his two younger brothers.Press Release:Leave of absence of Chairman and Chief Executive Sun Hung Kai Properties, 18 February 2008 The suddenness of his departure caused a huge stir in Hong Kong. The Standard reported that the elder Kwok was removed from his position by his mother, who is the controlling shareholder of the company, to protect the family interests. The journal revealed that Walter's mistress of 4 years has been wielding increasing power in the business, and causing friction with his brothers.Staff reporter, "Lover feud splits Kwok brothers" , The Standard, 19 February 2008 SHKP's announcement left the financial markets hungry for more disclosure, causing its stock price to decline against the general market the following day. Corporate communications issued a second statement insisting that the business would not be affected and that Walter would resume his functions after his leave of 2 to 3 months. Walter's mistress, named by the press as Ida Tong Kam-Hing (唐錦馨), had apparently introduced property transactions valued at HK$4 billion to the Group or to the Kwoks' private investment vehicles. Company spokesmen stated that no person named Ida Tong was employed by the Group."Walter will return, says SHK" (新地﹕郭炳湘將重返公司", Ming Pao, 20 February 2008Staff reporter, "My ex-wife fell for a Kwok" , The Standard, 20 February 2008 On 29 February, tycoon and fellow board member Lee Shau Kee confirmed that Mrs Kwok forced the leave of absence upon Walter over Ida Tong during the last board meeting. On 16 May 2008, Walter filed a writ with the High Court which claimed that Walter reached an agreement with his mother and two brothers in February that he would return to his duties if certain conditions were met. Walter alleged that his two brothers violated the agreement by attempting to remove him despite having fulfilled the pre-defined criteria, including procuring at least two medical opinions showing he is fit to return. Walter secured a last-minute injunction to delay the vote, to allow more time for discussions.Benjamin Scent, Katherine Ng & Stephanie Tong, "Sensational accusations fly as SHKP chairman takes his fight to court" , The Standard, 16 May 2008 On the sidelines of the dispute to remove Walter as chairman and CEO, Walter and his brothers claim the other(s) made major management decisions unwisely and without consultation.Benjamin Scent, "Fallout over Chan appointment" , The Standard, 16 May 2008Katherine Ng, "ICC rents caught in Kwok feud" , The Standard, 21 May 2008 == Financing and assets == SHKP was publicly listed in 1972 and is one of the largest property companies in Hong Kong. It develops residential and commercial projects for sale and investment. It employs more than 38,000 people and its services include land acquisition, architecture, construction, engineering and property management. It achieved a revenue of HK$85,302 million in the financial year 2018/19, with a profit attributable to shareholders of HK$44,912 million. The majority of its revenues and operating profit were derived from property sales and rental. ===Land bank=== As of 30 June 2019, the Group had a land bank in Hong Kong of 58.0 million square feet in terms of attributable gross floor area, consisting of 32.9 million square feet of completed investment properties and 25.1 million square feet of properties under development. As of 30 June 2019, the Group held a land bank of 65.4 million square feet in terms of attributable gross floor area on the mainland, including 50.6 million square feet of properties under development and 14.8 million square feet of completed properties. ===Credit ratings=== The Group has always attained the highest credit ratings among Hong Kong developers. Moody's gave the Group an A1 rating and Standard & Poor's gave the Group an A+ rating. == Real estate development projects == === Hong Kong (residential) === thumb|The Leighton Hill thumb|Larvotto thumb|The Arch thumb|Royal Peninsula thumb|Oscar by the Sea thumb|Pristine Villa === Hong Kong (commercial) === ==== ICC ==== The International Commerce Centre (ICC) in West Kowloon is the tallest building in Hong Kong, standing at 490m with 118 storeys. The development was also chosen as one of the world's top 125 most important works of architecture by Architectural Record in commemoration of the magazine's 125th anniversary. The tower opened in 2011. While most of the building is leased out as office spaces – ICC provides 2.5 million square feet of office space – the building also houses the Sky100 Hong Kong Observation Deck on the 100th floor as well as restaurants on the 101st floor, with the former providing a 360-degree view over the Victoria Harbour at 393 metres above the sea level. The Ritz-Carlton hotel occupies the building's 102nd to 118th floor. The world's highest swimming pool is located on the top floor as part of the hotel. The building also has LED lights on its facades for a light show, which has set a Guinness World Record for the "largest light and sound show on a single building". The show occurs twice a night, and can be viewed along both sides of the Victoria Harbour. The SHKP Vertical Run for Charity has been an annual event hosted by SHKP at ICC since 2012. ==== IFC ==== The International Finance Centre is an integrated commercial development, which includes the currently second tallest building in Hong Kong, only next to ICC. Situated above the Hong Kong MTR station, the project was developed and owned by IFC Development, a consortium with SHKP as one of the members. The IFC project was completed in September 2006, providing a gross floor area of over 4 million square feet in total. It consists of two office towers – One IFC and Two IFC – the Four Seasons Hotel Hong Kong, and the IFC mall. Notable occupants of the development include the Hong Kong Monetary Authority, which purchased 14 floors in Two IFC in 2001. The ifc mall in the IFC development has 4 floors of luxury retail shops and restaurants. It is also where Hong Kong's first Apple retail store is located. ==== Millennium City ==== Millennium City is a multi-tower development project built along the Kwun Tong Road. By 2016, Phases 1–3, 5 and 6 have been completed. Millennium City 1, the first to be completed and the largest of the Millennium City cluster, comprises a twin pair of 30-storey towers. The two towers combined provide a total of 1,230,000 square feet of commercial space. ==== New Town Plaza ==== New Town Plaza is an SHKP development located in Sha Tin, Hong Kong. The development project was completed in three phases (Phase 1: 9-storey shopping mall; Phase 2: Royal Park Hotel; Phase 3: private housing and a 3-storey shopping mall). New Town Plaza was the largest development of its kind in New Territories at its time of completion in the 1980s. Royal Park Hotel is connected to the metro station and New Town Plaza mall via a covered walkway and is close to local attractions such as Che Kung Temple, Sha Tin Racecourse and the Hong Kong Heritage Museum. Royal Park Hotel hosted Olympians competing in equestrian programmes during the Beijing 2008 Summer Olympic Games. ==== apm ==== Opened in March 2005, apm is one of the largest shopping malls targeted at a younger generation of consumers. The name APM is an amalgamation of AM and PM, reflecting how the shops in the mall operate with extended hours, allowing consumers to shop even at hours when most others shops are closed. APM has a lot of retail shops, restaurants and entertainment options, most of the open at least until midnight. In tune with the theme of being young and trendy, APM houses retail brands that are typically tailored for a younger audience. A cinema, game zone and a karaoke bar are some of the other amenities that visitors can find in the mall. ==== Airport Freight Forwarding Centre ==== ==== Transitional housing project - United Court ==== SHKP announced that it will lease three plots of land to non-governmental organizations for 8 years for a nominal sum of HK$1. The donation will yield around 2,000 social housing units for low-income families waiting for public housing. The company will team up with the Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui Welfare Council for the biggest project called United Court. When completed in 2022, United Court would provide homes for 1,600 families and ultimately benefit 5,000 families. ==Other businesses== The company also has complimentary operations in the following property-related fields: * Hotels * Property management * Telecommunications * Information technology * Infrastructure and other businesses It was once reported in a local newspaper that the company and Cheung Kong (Holdings) are together increasingly dominant in the development of new private homes, accounting for 70% of the market in 2010, up from around half of that in 2003. This concentration, with much of the rest of the market occupied by other very large firms, is attributed to the government's policy of auctioning land inexpensively large blocks, squeezing out small and mid-sized firms, according to the Consumer Council. Nevertheless, clarification was later made in the letters to editors column in the same newspaper that Sun Hung Kai Properties' overall share of primary residential sales in terms of attributable value from January to July 2010 has been approximately 20% – a figure that has been largely stable over the last few years. ===Construction and project management=== The subsidiary of SHKP, Sanfield (Management) Limited is the major construction project management company for the corporation's real estate development. Established in 1974, the company headquarter is located at Sun Hung Kai Centre. The company mainly provides construction service to SHKP to build private residential buildings, commercial office towers and comprehensive development. In 2020, it had about 3000 employees. Sanfield provides a wide range of related services to SHKP and third parties, including landscaping, provision of electrical- and fire- prevention systems as well as leasing of construction plant and machinery. Through an associate and its wholly-owned subsidiaries, the company also supplies ready-mix concrete and precast concrete components to SHKP and external parties. The company is also an accredited corporation for provide construction safety training and engineering training by Hong Kong Labour Department and The Hong Kong Institution of Engineers. Its major projects include: thumb|International Commerce Centre under construction in 2005. thumb|International Commerce Centre, tallest building in Hong Kong since 2010. * Sun Hung Kai Centre (1981) * Two International Finance Centre (2003) * The Arch (2006) * The Cullinan (2009年) * International Commerce Centre (2010) * Millennium City (1998-2022) * YOHO Series Development (2004-2023) * Sai Sha Road Expansion Project (2023) ===Property management=== Hong Yip Service Company Limited and Kai Shing Management Services Limited are two of the main property management firms own by SHKP based in Hong Kong. ==References== ==External links== * Sun Hung Kai Properties * Category:Land developers of Hong Kong Category:Real estate companies established in 1963 Category:1963 establishments in Hong Kong Category:Companies in the Hang Seng Index Category:Companies listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange Category:Family- owned companies of Hong Kong |
John Major formed the second Major ministry following the 1992 general election after being invited by Queen Elizabeth II to begin a new administration. His government fell into minority status on 13 December 1996. ==Formation== The change of leader from Margaret Thatcher to John Major saw a dramatic turnaround in Tory support, with the double-digit lead in the opinion polls for the Labour Party being replaced by a narrow Conservative one by the turn of 1991. Although a general election did not have to be held until June 1992, Labour leader Neil Kinnock kept pressurising Major to hold an election during 1991, but Major resisted the calls and there was no election that year. The recession which began in the autumn of 1990 deepened during 1991, with unemployment standing at nearly 2.5 million by December 1991, compared to 1.6 million just 18 months earlier. Despite this, Tory support in the opinion polls remained relatively strong, with any Labour lead now being by the narrowest of margins, although Labour still made some gains at the expense of the Tories in local elections, and seized the Monmouth seat from the Tories in a by-election. Major finally called an election for 9 April 1992 which ended the first Major ministry. In a surprise to most pollsters, Major won the election, which led to the formation of the Second Major Ministry and a fourth consecutive Conservative term in office. There was widespread media and public debate as to whether the Labour Party could ever win a general election again, as they had failed to do so in 1992, despite the Conservative government having been in power for over a decade and presiding over a recession for the second time. At the same time, there was much private debate (made public many years later in the memoirs of senior figures including John Major himself) within the Conservative government as to whether a fifth successive general election victory was a realistic possibility. The new term of parliament saw Major gain a new opponent in John Smith, who succeeded Neil Kinnock as Labour leader. However, the months which followed the 1992 general election saw a series of events which went a long way towards deciding the outcome of the next general election long before it was even on the political horizon. ==Fate== On Wednesday 16 September 1992, the pound sterling crashed out of the European Exchange Rate Mechanism after Chancellor of the Exchequer Norman Lamont had invested heavily in trying to keep it there, adjusting interest rates four times in one day as a desperate measure, an event which became known as Black Wednesday, leaving the Conservative government's reputation for economic excellence in tatters. Labour was soon ascendant in the opinion polls, and next few years brought a string of heavy defeats for the Conservatives in local council elections and parliamentary by-elections, with both Labour and the Liberal Democrats benefiting at their expense. Internal Conservative Party feuding on Europe and the government defeat on the Maastricht Treaty further dented the government's popularity, as did coal mine closures announced in late 1992, and a series of scandals involving MPs. The end of the recession was declared in April 1993 after nearly three years, and unemployment – which had peaked at nearly 3,000,000 people by the end of 1992 – quickly began to fall. It had fallen below 2,500,000 within two years of the recession's end, and by the end of 1996 it was below the 2,000,000 mark. Freed from the European Exchange Rate Mechanism, the British economy outperformed the rest of the continent for the first time in a generation. However, the strong economic recovery failed to make much difference to the dismal Conservative performance in the opinion polls. Labour leader John Smith died of a sudden heart attack in May 1994 and was succeeded by Tony Blair, who continued the modernisation process of the party which began under Smith's predecessor Neil Kinnock, by branding the party as: "New Labour", and by the end of that year the opinion polls were showing Labour support as high as 60% – putting them more than 30 points ahead of the Conservatives. With the Conservative government remaining divided on Europe and much more, John Major, in an attempt to silence his critics and opponents, announced his resignation as party leader – but not as Prime Minister – in June 1995, triggering a leadership election. He was opposed by John Redwood, the Secretary of State for Wales, and Major won the leadership election without much difficulty. The Conservative majority of 21 seats was gradually eroded by a string of by- election defeats as well as the defection of one MP to Labour, and by the turn of 1997 the Conservatives were without a majority in the House of Commons. Major left it until the last possible moment before calling a general election, finally holding it on Thursday, 1 May 1997. He pinned his hopes of election success on a six-week campaign exposing New Labour's policies to scrutiny, as well as pointing towards a booming economy and falling unemployment. However, as the Conservatives had denied responsibility for the recession at the turn of the decade, few voters were willing to give them credit for the economic recovery, and Labour returned to power after eighteen years in opposition, with a 179-seat majority that saw several powerful Conservative figures (most notably Michael Portillo, widely tipped to be the next Leader of the Conservative Party) lose their seats and the loss of all Conservative seats in Wales and Scotland; the Conservatives subsequently suffered their worst general election result of the twentieth century and their place in government was taken by Labour, led by Tony Blair, after four successive parliamentary terms of Conservative Party rule. The Conservatives did not return to government until 2010, and did not win a parliamentary majority until 2015, having had to form a coalition with the Liberal Democrats in order to form their first government under David Cameron. ==Cabinet== ===April 1992 to May 1993=== First Cabinet of Second Major ministry Portfolio Minister Term Cabinet ministers Prime Minister First Lord of the Treasury Minister for the Civil Service The Rt Hon. John Major MP 1990–97 Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain The Rt Hon. The Lord Mackay of Clashfern 1987–97 Chancellor of the Exchequer The Rt Hon. Norman Lamont MP 1990–93 Foreign Secretary The Rt Hon. Douglas Hurd MP 1989–95 Home Secretary The Rt Hon. Kenneth Clarke MP 1992–93 Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food The Rt Hon. John Gummer MP 1989–93 Secretary of State for Defence The Rt Hon. Malcolm Rifkind MP 1992–95 Secretary of State for Education The Rt Hon. John Patten MP 1992–94 Secretary of State for Employment The Rt Hon. Gillian Shephard MP 1992–93 Secretary of State for National Heritage The Rt Hon. David Mellor MP 1992–92 Secretary of State for National Heritage The Rt Hon. Peter Brooke MP 1992–94 Secretary of State for the Environment The Rt Hon. Michael Howard MP 1992–93 Secretary of State for Health The Rt Hon. Virginia Bottomley MP 1992–95 Secretary of State for Northern Ireland The Rt Hon. Sir Patrick Mayhew MP 1992–97 Leader of the House of Commons Lord President of the Council The Rt Hon. Tony Newton MP 1992–97 Leader of the House of Lords Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal The Rt Hon. The Lord Wakeham 1992–94 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster The Rt Hon. William Waldegrave MP 1992–94 Secretary of State for Social Security The Rt Hon. Peter Lilley MP 1992–97 Secretary of State for Scotland The Rt Hon. Ian Lang MP 1990–95 Secretary of State for Trade and Industry President of the Board of Trade The Rt Hon. Michael Heseltine MP 1992–95 Secretary of State for Transport The Rt Hon. John MacGregor MP 1992–94 Chief Secretary to the Treasury The Rt Hon. Michael Portillo MP 1992–94 Secretary of State for Wales The Rt Hon. David Hunt MP 1990–93 Also attending cabinet meetings Chairman of the Conservative Party The Rt Hon. Norman Fowler MP 1992–94 Chief Whip Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury The Rt Hon. Richard Ryder MP 1990–95 ====Changes==== *On 24 September 1992 David Mellor resigns as Secretary of State for National Heritage following tabloid reporting of an affair with actress Antonia de Sancha. He was replaced by Peter Brooke. ===May 1993 to July 1994=== Second Cabinet of Second Major ministry Portfolio Minister Term Cabinet ministers Prime Minister First Lord of the Treasury Minister for the Civil Service The Rt Hon. John Major MP 1990–97 Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain The Rt Hon. The Lord Mackay of Clashfern 1987–97 Chancellor of the Exchequer The Rt Hon. Kenneth Clarke MP 1993–97 Foreign Secretary The Rt Hon. Douglas Hurd MP 1989–95 Home Secretary The Rt Hon. Michael Howard MP 1993–97 Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food The Rt Hon. Gillian Shephard MP 1993–94 Secretary of State for Defence The Rt Hon. Malcolm Rifkind MP 1992–95 Secretary of State for Education The Rt Hon. John Patten MP 1992–94 Secretary of State for Employment The Rt Hon. David Hunt MP 1993–94 Secretary of State for National Heritage The Rt Hon. Peter Brooke MP 1992–94 Secretary of State for the Environment The Rt Hon. John Gummer MP 1993–97 Secretary of State for Health The Rt Hon. Virginia Bottomley MP 1992–95 Secretary of State for Northern Ireland The Rt Hon. Sir Patrick Mayhew MP 1992–97 Leader of the House of Commons Lord President of the Council The Rt Hon. Tony Newton MP 1992–97 Leader of the House of Lords Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal The Rt Hon. The Lord Wakeham 1992–94 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster The Rt Hon. William Waldegrave MP 1992–94 Secretary of State for Social Security The Rt Hon. Peter Lilley MP 1992–97 Secretary of State for Scotland The Rt Hon. Ian Lang MP 1990–95 Secretary of State for Trade and Industry President of the Board of Trade The Rt Hon. Michael Heseltine MP 1992–95 Secretary of State for Transport The Rt Hon. John MacGregor MP 1992–94 Chief Secretary to the Treasury The Rt Hon. Michael Portillo MP 1992–94 Secretary of State for Wales The Rt Hon. John Redwood MP 1993–95 Also attending cabinet meetings Chairman of the Conservative Party The Rt Hon. Norman Fowler MP 1992–94 Chief Whip Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury The Rt Hon. Richard Ryder MP 1990–95 ===July 1994 to July 1995=== Third Cabinet of Second Major ministry Portfolio Minister Term Cabinet ministers Prime Minister First Lord of the Treasury Minister for the Civil Service The Rt Hon. John Major MP 1990–97 Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain The Rt Hon. The Lord Mackay of Clashfern 1987–97 Chancellor of the Exchequer The Rt Hon. Kenneth Clarke MP 1993–97 Foreign Secretary The Rt Hon. Douglas Hurd MP 1989–95 Home Secretary The Rt Hon. Michael Howard MP 1993–97 Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food The Rt Hon. William Waldegrave MP 1994–95 Secretary of State for Defence The Rt Hon. Malcolm Rifkind MP 1992–95 Secretary of State for Education The Rt Hon. Gillian Shephard MP 1994–95 Secretary of State for Employment The Rt Hon. Michael Portillo MP 1994–95 Secretary of State for National Heritage The Rt Hon. Stephen Dorrell MP 1994–95 Secretary of State for the Environment The Rt Hon. John Gummer MP 1993–97 Secretary of State for Health The Rt Hon. Virginia Bottomley MP 1992–95 Secretary of State for Northern Ireland The Rt Hon. Sir Patrick Mayhew MP 1992–97 Leader of the House of Commons Lord President of the Council The Rt Hon. Tony Newton MP 1992–97 Leader of the House of Lords Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal The Rt Hon. Viscount Cranborne 1994–97 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster The Rt Hon. David Hunt MP 1994–95 Secretary of State for Social Security The Rt Hon. Peter Lilley MP 1992–97 Secretary of State for Scotland The Rt Hon. Ian Lang MP 1990–95 Secretary of State for Trade and Industry President of the Board of Trade The Rt Hon. Michael Heseltine MP 1992–95 Secretary of State for Transport The Rt Hon. Brian Mawhinney MP 1994–95 Chief Secretary to the Treasury The Rt Hon. Jonathan Aitken MP 1994–95 Secretary of State for Wales The Rt Hon. John Redwood MP 1993–95 Minister without portfolio Chairman of the Conservative Party The Rt Hon. Jeremy Hanley MP 1994–95 Also attending cabinet meetings Chief Whip Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury The Rt Hon. Richard Ryder MP 1990–95 ===July 1995 to May 1997=== Fourth Cabinet of Second Major ministry Portfolio Minister Term Cabinet ministers Prime Minister First Lord of the Treasury Minister for the Civil Service The Rt Hon. John Major MP 1990–97 Deputy Prime Minister First Secretary of State The Rt Hon. Michael Heseltine 1995–97 Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain The Rt Hon. The Lord Mackay of Clashfern 1987–97 Chancellor of the Exchequer The Rt Hon. Kenneth Clarke MP 1993–97 Foreign Secretary The Rt Hon. Malcolm Rifkind MP 1995–97 Home Secretary The Rt Hon. Michael Howard MP 1993–97 Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food The Rt Hon. Douglas Hogg MP 1995–97 Secretary of State for Defence The Rt Hon. Michael Portillo MP 1995–97 Secretary of State for Education and Employment The Rt Hon. Gillian Shephard MP 1995–97 Secretary of State for National Heritage The Rt Hon. Virginia Bottomley MP 1995–97 Secretary of State for the Environment The Rt Hon. John Gummer MP 1993–97 Secretary of State for Health The Rt Hon. Stephen Dorrell MP 1995–97 Secretary of State for Northern Ireland The Rt Hon. Sir Patrick Mayhew MP 1992–97 Leader of the House of Commons Lord President of the Council The Rt Hon. Tony Newton MP 1992–97 Leader of the House of Lords Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal The Rt Hon. Viscount Cranborne 1994–97 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster The Rt Hon. Roger Freeman MP 1995–97 Secretary of State for Social Security The Rt Hon. Peter Lilley MP 1992–97 Secretary of State for Scotland The Rt Hon. Michael Forsyth MP 1995–97 Secretary of State for Trade and Industry President of the Board of Trade The Rt Hon. Ian Lang MP 1995–97 Secretary of State for Transport The Rt Hon. Sir George Young MP 1995–97 Chief Secretary to the Treasury The Rt Hon. William Waldegrave MP 1995–97 Secretary of State for Wales The Rt Hon. William Hague MP 1995–97 Minister without portfolio Chairman of the Conservative Party The Rt Hon. Brian Mawhinney MP 1995–97 Also attending cabinet meetings Chief Whip Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury The Rt Hon. Alastair Goodlad MP 1995–97 ==List of ministers== Members of the Cabinet are in bold face. Office Name Date Notes Prime Minister First Lord of the Treasury Minister for the Civil Service John Major Continued in office – 1 May 1997 Deputy Prime Minister First Secretary of State Michael Heseltine 20 July 1995 Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain The Lord Mackay of Clashfern Continued in office Leader of the House of Commons Lord President of the Council Tony Newton 10 April 1992 Leader of the House of Lords Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal The Lord Wakeham 11 April 1992 Leader of the House of Lords Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal Viscount Cranborne 20 July 1994 Chancellor of the Exchequer Norman Lamont 28 November 1990 Chancellor of the Exchequer Kenneth Clarke 27 May 1993 Chief Secretary to the Treasury Michael Portillo 10 April 1992 Chief Secretary to the Treasury Jonathan Aitken 20 July 1994 Chief Secretary to the Treasury The Hon. William Waldegrave 5 July 1995 Minister of State for Treasury Sir John Cope 14 April 1992 – 20 July 1994 also Paymaster-General Minister of State for Treasury Anthony Nelson 20 July 1994 – 6 July 1995 Minister of State for Treasury David Heathcoat-Amory 20 July 1994 – 20 July 1996 also Paymaster-General Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury Government Chief Whip Richard Ryder 28 November 1990 Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury Government Chief Whip Alastair Goodlad 5 July 1995 Financial Secretary to the Treasury Stephen Dorrell 14 April 1992 Financial Secretary to the Treasury Sir George Young 20 July 1994 Financial Secretary to the Treasury Michael Jack 5 July 1995 Economic Secretary to the Treasury Anthony Nelson 14 April 1992 Economic Secretary to the Treasury Angela Knight 6 July 1995 Exchequer Secretary to the Treasury Phillip Oppenheim 23 June 1996 Lords of the Treasury Greg Knight Continued in office – 27 May 1993 Lords of the Treasury Irvine Patnick Continued in office – 20 July 1994 Lords of the Treasury Nicholas Baker 3 December 1990 – 20 July 1994 Lords of the Treasury Tim Wood 14 April 1992 – 5 July 1995 Lords of the Treasury Tim Boswell 14 April 1992 – 11 December 1992 Lords of the Treasury Timothy Kirkhope 11 December 1992 – 5 July 1995 Lords of the Treasury Andrew MacKay 27 May 1993 – 17 October 1995 Lords of the Treasury Derek Conway 20 July 1994 – 23 July 1996 Lords of the Treasury Andrew Mitchell 20 July 1994 – 5 July 1995 Lords of the Treasury Bowen Wells 5 July 1995 – 1 May 1997 Lords of the Treasury Simon Burns 5 July 1995 – 23 July 1996 Lords of the Treasury David Willetts 5 July 1995 – 28 November 1995 Lords of the Treasury Michael Bates 17 October 1995 – 11 December 1996 Lords of the Treasury Liam Fox 28 November 1995 – 23 July 1996 Lords of the Treasury Patrick McLoughlin 23 July 1996 – 1 May 1997 Lords of the Treasury Roger Knapman 23 July 1996 – 1 May 1997 Lords of the Treasury Richard Ottaway 23 July 1996 – 1 May 1997 Lords of the Treasury Gyles Brandreth 11 December 1996 – 1 May 1997 Assistant Whips Timothy Kirkhope 25 July 1990 - 15 December 1992 Assistant Whips David Davis 3 December 1990 - 28 May 1993 Assistant Whips Andrew MacKay 15 April 1992 - 7 June 1993 Assistant Whips Robert Hughes 15 April 1992 - 20 July 1994 Assistant Whips James Arbuthnot 15 April 1992 - 20 July 1994 Assistant Whips Andrew Mitchell 15 December 1992 -20 July 1994 Assistant Whips Michael Brown 7 June 1993 - 9 May 1994 Assistant Whips Derek Conway 7 June 1993 - 20 July 1994 Assistant Whips Bowen Wells 9 May 1994 - 7 July 1995 Assistant Whips Simon Burns 20 July 1994 - 7 July 1995 Assistant Whips David Willetts 20 July 1994 - 7 July 1995 Assistant Whips Michael Bates 20 July 1994 - 17 October 1995 Assistant Whips Liam Fox 20 July 1994 - 29 November 1995 Assistant Whips Patrick McLoughlin 7 July 1995 - 23 July 1996 Assistant Whips Roger Knapman 7 July 1995 - 23 July 1996 Assistant Whips Gary Streeter 7 July 1995 - 3 June 1996 Assistant Whips Richard Ottaway 17 October 1995 - 23 July 1996 Assistant Whips Giles Brandreth 29 November 1995 - 12 December 1996 Assistant Whips Seb Coe 6 June 1996 - 2 May 1997 Assistant Whips Anthony Coombs 23 July 1996 - 2 May 1997 Assistant Whips Jacqui Lait 23 July 1996 - 2 May 1997 Assistant Whips Peter Ainsworth 23 July 1996 - 2 May 1997 Assistant Whips Matthew Carrington 12 December 1996 - 2 May 1997 Foreign Secretary Douglas Hurd 26 October 1989 Foreign Secretary Malcolm Rifkind 5 July 1995 Minister of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs The Baroness Chalker of Wallasey Continued in office – 1 May 1997 also Minister of Overseas Development; created Baroness Chalker of Wallasey 24 April 1992 Minister of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs Tristan Garel-Jones Continued in office – 27 May 1993 Minister of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs The Hon. Douglas Hogg Continued in office – 5 July 1995 Minister of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs Alastair Goodlad 15 April 1992 – 5 July 1995 Minister of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs David Heathcoat- Amory 27 May 1993 – 20 July 1994 Minister of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs David Davis 20 July 1994 – 1 May 1997 Minister of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs Jeremy Hanley 5 July 1995 – 1 May 1997 Minister of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs Sir Nicholas Bonsor 5 July 1995 – 1 May 1997 Under-Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs The Hon. Mark Lennox-Boyd Continued in office - 20 July 1994 Under- Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs Tony Baldry 20 July 1994 - 5 July 1995 Under-Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs Liam Fox 23 July 1996 Minister for Overseas Development Lynda Chalker Continued in office also Minister of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs; created Baroness Chalker of Wallasey 24 April 1992 Home Secretary Kenneth Clarke 11 April 1992 Home Secretary Michael Howard 27 May 1993 Minister of State for Home Affairs The Earl Ferrers Continued in office – 20 July 1994 Minister of State for Home Affairs Michael Jack 14 April 1992 – 27 May 1993 Minister of State for Home Affairs Peter Lloyd 14 April 1992 – 20 July 1994 Minister of State for Home Affairs David Maclean 27 May 1993 – 1 May 1997 Minister of State for Home Affairs Michael Forsyth 20 July 1994 – 5 July 1995 Minister of State for Home Affairs The Baroness Blatch 20 July 1994 – 1 May 1997 Minister of State for Home Affairs Ann Widdecombe 5 July 1995 – 1 May 1997 Under-Secretary of State for Home Affairs Charles Wardle 15 April 1992 – 20 July 1994 Under-Secretary of State for Home Affairs Nicholas Baker 20 July 1994 – 17 October 1995 Under-Secretary of State for Home Affairs Timothy Kirkhope 17 October 1995 – 1 May 1997 Under-Secretary of State for Home Affairs The Hon. Tom Sackville 28 November 1995 – 1 May 1997 Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food John Gummer Continued in office Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Gillian Shephard 24 May 1993 Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food The Hon. William Waldegrave 20 July 1994 Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food The Hon. Douglas Hogg 5 July 1995 Minister of State for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food David Curry 14 April 1992 – 27 May 1993 Minister of State for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Michael Jack 27 May 1993 – 5 July 1995 Minister of State for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Tony Baldry 5 July 1995 – 1 May 1997 Under-Secretary of State for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food The Hon. Nicholas Soames 14 April 1992 – 20 July 1994 Under-Secretary of State for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food The Earl Howe 14 April 1992 – 5 July 1995 Under-Secretary of State for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Angela Browning 20 July 1994 – 1 May 1997 Under-Secretary of State for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Tim Boswell 5 July 1995 – 1 May 1997 Secretary of State for Defence Malcolm Rifkind 15 April 1992 Secretary of State for Defence Michael Portillo 5 July 1995 Minister of State for the Armed Forces The Hon. Archie Hamilton Continued in office Minister of State for the Armed Forces Jeremy Hanley 27 May 1993 Minister of State for the Armed Forces The Hon. Nicholas Soames 20 July 1994 Minister of State for Defence Procurement Jonathan Aitken 14 April 1992 Minister of State for Defence Procurement Roger Freeman 20 July 1994 Minister of State for Defence Procurement James Arbuthnot 6 July 1995 Under-Secretary of State for Defence Viscount Cranborne 22 April 1992 – 20 July 1994 Under-Secretary of State for Defence The Lord Henley 20 July 1994 – 6 July 1995 Under-Secretary of State for Defence The Earl Howe 6 July 1995 – 2 May 1997 Secretary of State for Education John Patten 10 April 1992 Secretary of State for Education Gillian Shephard 20 July 1994 Secretary of State for Education and Employment after 5 July 1995 Minister of State, Education The Baroness Blatch 14 April 1992 – 20 July 1994 Minister of State, Education Eric Forth 20 July 1994 – 2 May 1997 Minister of State, Education and Employment after 5 July 1995 Minister of State, Education and Employment The Lord Henley 6 July 1995 – 2 May 1997 Under-Secretary of State, Education Eric Forth 14 April 1992 – 20 July 1994 Under-Secretary of State, Education Nigel Forman 14 April 1992 – 11 December 1992 Under-Secretary of State, Education Tim Boswell 19 December 1992 – 6 July 1995 Under-Secretary of State, Education Robin Squire 27 May 1993 – 2 May 1997 Under-Secretary of State, Education and Employment after 5 July 1995 Under-Secretary of State, Education and Employment James Paice 7 July 1995 – 2 May 1997 Under-Secretary of State, Education and Employment Cheryl Gillan 6 July 1995 – 2 May 1997 Secretary of State for Employment Gillian Shephard 12 April 1992 Secretary of State for Employment David Hunt 27 May 1993 Secretary of State for Employment Michael Portillo 20 July 1994 Merged with the Office of Education 5 July 1995 Minister of State, Employment Michael Forsyth 14 April 1992 – 20 July 1994 Minister of State, Employment Ann Widdecombe 20 July 1994 – 5 July 1995 Under-Secretary of State, Employment The Viscount Ullswater Continued in office – 16 September 1993 Under- Secretary of State, Employment Patrick McLoughlin 14 April 1992 – 27 May 1993 Under-Secretary of State, Employment Ann Widdecombe 27 May 1993 – 20 July 1994 Under-Secretary of State, Employment The Lord Henley 16 September 1993 – 20 July 1994 Under-Secretary of State, Employment James Paice 20 July 1994 – 5 July 1995 Under-Secretary of State, Employment Phillip Oppenheim 20 July 1994 – 5 July 1995 Minister of State, Energy Timothy Eggar 15 April 1992 – 20 July 1994 under Office of Trade and Industry; became Minister of State, Energy and Industry 20 July 1994 Secretary of State for the Environment Michael Howard 11 April 1992 Secretary of State for the Environment John Gummer 27 May 1993 Minister of State for Local Government John Redwood 15 April 1992 Minister of State for Local Government David Curry 27 May 1993 Minister of State for Housing Sir George Young 28 November 1990 Minister of State for Housing The Viscount Ullswater 20 July 1994 Post renamed Minister of State for Construction 6 July 1995 Minister of State for Construction Robert Jones 6 July 1995 Minister of State for Environment and Countryside David Maclean 14 April 1992 Minister of State for Environment and Countryside Tim Yeo 27 May 1993 Minister of State for Environment and Countryside Robert Atkins 7 January 1994 Minister of State for Environment and Countryside The Earl Ferrers 6 July 1995 Under-Secretary of State, Environment Tony Baldry 28 November 1990 – 20 July 1994 Under-Secretary of State, Environment The Lord Strathclyde 15 April 1992 – 16 September 1993 Under-Secretary of State, Environment Robin Squire 15 April 1992 – 27 May 1993 Under-Secretary of State, Environment The Baroness Denton 16 September 1993 – 11 January 1994 Under-Secretary of State, Environment The Earl of Arran 11 January 1994 – 20 July 1994 Under-Secretary of State, Environment Sir Paul Beresford 20 July 1994 – 2 May 1997 Under-Secretary of State, Environment Robert Jones 20 July 1994 – 6 July 1995 Under-Secretary of State, Environment James Clappison 6 July 1995 – 2 May 1997 Secretary of State for Health Virginia Bottomley 10 April 1992 Secretary of State for Health Stephen Dorrell 5 July 1995 Minister of State, Health Brian Mawhinney 14 April 1992 Minister of State, Health Gerry Malone 20 July 1994 Under-Secretary of State, Health and Social Security The Hon. Tom Sackville 14 April 1992 – 29 November 1995 Under- Secretary of State, Health and Social Security The Baroness Cumberlege 14 April 1992 – 2 May 1997 Under-Secretary of State, Health and Social Security Tim Yeo 15 April 1992 – 27 May 1993 Under-Secretary of State, Health and Social Security John Bowis 27 May 1993 – 23 July 1996 Under-Secretary of State, Health and Social Security John Horam 29 November 1995 – 2 May 1997 Under-Secretary of State, Health and Social Security Simon Burns 23 July 1996 – 2 May 1997 Secretary of State for Social Security Peter Lilley 10 April 1992 Minister of State, Social Security Nicholas Scott Continued in office – 20 July 1994 Minister of State, Social Security William Hague 20 July 1994 – 5 July 1995 Minister of State, Social Security The Lord MacKay of Ardbrecknish 20 July 1994 – 2 May 1997 Minister of State, Social Security Alistair Burt 6 July 1995 – 2 May 1997 Under-Secretary of State, Social Security The Lord Henley Continued in office - 16 September 1993 Under- Secretary of State, Social Security Ann Widdecombe 30 November 1990 – 27 May 1993 Under-Secretary of State, Social Security Alistair Burt 14 April 1992 – 6 July 1995 Under-Secretary of State, Social Security William Hague 27 May 1993 – 20 July 1994 Under-Secretary of State, Social Security The Viscount Astor 16 September 1993 – 20 July 1994 Under-Secretary of State, Social Security James Arbuthnot 20 July 1994 – 6 July 1995 Under-Secretary of State, Social Security Roger Evans 20 July 1994 – 2 May 1997 Under-Secretary of State, Social Security Andrew Mitchell 6 July 1995 – 2 May 1997 Under- Secretary of State, Social Security Oliver Heald 6 July 1995 – 2 May 1997 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster The Hon. William Waldegrave 11 April 1992 also Minister for the Public Service Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster David Hunt 20 July 1994 also Minister for the Public Service Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster Roger Freeman 5 July 1995 also Minister for the Public Service Parliamentary Secretary for the Public Service Robert V. Jackson 15 April 1992 Parliamentary Secretary for the Public Service David Davis 27 May 1993 Parliamentary Secretary for the Public Service Robert Hughes 20 July 1994 Parliamentary Secretary for the Public Service John Horam 6 March 1995 Parliamentary Secretary for the Public Service David Willetts 28 November 1995 Parliamentary Secretary for the Public Service vacant 20 July 1996 Parliamentary Secretary for the Public Service Michael Bates 16 December 1996 Secretary of State for National Heritage David Mellor 11 April 1992 Secretary of State for National Heritage Peter Brooke 25 September 1992 Secretary of State for National Heritage Stephen Dorrell 20 July 1994 Secretary of State for National Heritage Virginia Bottomley 5 July 1995 Minister of State, National Heritage Iain Sproat 6 July 1995 Under-Secretary of State, National Heritage Robert Key 14 April 1992 – 27 May 1993 Under- Secretary of State, National Heritage Iain Sproat 27 May 1993 – 6 July 1995 Under-Secretary of State, National Heritage The Viscount Astor 20 July 1994 – 6 July 1995 Under-Secretary of State, National Heritage The Lord Inglewood 6 July 1995 – 2 May 1997 Secretary of State for Northern Ireland Sir Patrick Mayhew 10 April 1992 Minister of State, Northern Ireland Robert Atkins 14 April 1992 – 11 January 1994 Minister of State, Northern Ireland Michael Mates 15 April 1992 – 24 June 1993 Minister of State, Northern Ireland Sir John Wheeler 25 June 1993 – 2 May 1997 Minister of State, Northern Ireland Michael Ancram 11 January 1994 – 2 May 1997 Under-Secretary of State, Northern Ireland Jeremy Hanley 3 December 1990 – 27 May 1993 Under-Secretary of State, Northern Ireland The Earl of Arran 22 April 1992 – 11 January 1994 Under-Secretary of State, Northern Ireland Michael Ancram 27 May 1993 – 5 January 1994 Under-Secretary of State, Northern Ireland The Baroness Denton 20 July 1994 – 2 May 1997 Under-Secretary of State, Northern Ireland Tim Smith 6 January 1994 – 20 October 1994 Under-Secretary of State, Northern Ireland Malcolm Moss 25 October 1994 – 2 May 1997 Paymaster General Sir John Cope 14 April 1992 also Minister of State, Treasury Paymaster General David Heathcoat-Amory 20 July 1994 also Minister of State, Treasury Paymaster General David Willetts 20 July 1996 Paymaster General Michael Bates 16 December 1996 Minister without Portfolio Jeremy Hanley 20 July 1994 – 5 July 1995 Minister without Portfolio Brian Mawhinney 5 July 1995 – 2 May 1997 Secretary of State for Scotland Ian Lang 28 November 1990 Secretary of State for Scotland Michael Forsyth 5 July 1995 Minister of State for Scotland The Lord Fraser of Carmyllie 14 April 1992 – 6 July 1995 Minister of State for Scotland The Lord James Douglas-Hamilton 6 July 1995 – 2 May 1997 Under- Secretary of State for Scotland The Lord James Douglas-Hamilton Continued in office – 6 July 1995 Under-Secretary of State for Scotland Allan Stewart 28 November 1990 – 8 February 1995 Under-Secretary of State for Scotland Sir Hector Monro 14 April 1992 – 6 July 1995 Under-Secretary of State for Scotland George Kynoch 8 February 1995 – 2 May 1997 Under-Secretary of State for Scotland The Earl of Lindsay 6 July 1995 – 2 May 1997 Under-Secretary of State for Scotland Raymond Robertson 6 July 1995 – 2 May 1997 Minister for Consumer Affairs The Earl Ferrers 20 July 1994 Under Office of Trade and Industry; office abolished 6 July 1995 Minister for Trade Richard Needham (The Earl of Kilmorey) 14 April 1992 Minister for Trade Anthony Nelson 6 July 1995 Secretary of State for Trade and Industry Michael Heseltine 10 April 1992 Secretary of State for Trade and Industry Ian Lang 5 July 1995 Minister for Industry Tim Sainsbury 15 April 1992 - 20 July 1994 Minister of State for Trade and Industry The Lord Strathclyde 11 January 1994 – 20 July 1994 Minister of State for Trade and Industry The Lord Fraser of Carmyllie 6 July 1995 – 2 May 1997 Minister of State, Energy and Industry Timothy Eggar 20 July 1994 Minister of State, Energy and Industry Greg Knight 23 July 1996 Under-Secretary of State for Trade and Industry Edward Leigh Continued in office – 27 May 1993 Under-Secretary of State for Trade and Industry Neil Hamilton 14 April 1992 – 25 October 1994 Under-Secretary of State for Trade and Industry The Baroness Denton 14 April 1992 – 16 September 1993 Under- Secretary of State for Trade and Industry Jonathan Evans 27 October 1994 – 29 November 1995 Under-Secretary of State for Trade and Industry Patrick McLoughlin 27 May 1993 – 20 July 1994 Under-Secretary of State for Trade and Industry The Lord Strathclyde 16 September 1993 – 11 January 1994 Under- Secretary of State for Trade and Industry Charles Wardle 20 July 1994 – 11 February 1995 Under-Secretary of State for Trade and Industry Ian Taylor 20 July 1994 – 2 May 1997 Under-Secretary of State for Trade and Industry Richard Page 14 February 1995 – 2 May 1997 Under-Secretary of State for Trade and Industry Phillip Oppenheim 7 July 1995 – 2 May 1997 Under- Secretary of State for Trade and Industry John Mark Taylor 29 November 1995 – 2 May 1997 Secretary of State for Transport John MacGregor 10 April 1992 Secretary of State for Transport Brian Mawhinney 20 July 1994 Secretary of State for Transport Sir George Young 5 July 1995 Minister for Public Transport Roger Freeman 28 November 1990 – 20 July 1994 Minister for Railways and Roads The Earl of Caithness 14 April 1992 – 11 January 1994 Minister for Railways and Roads John Watts 20 July 1994 – 2 May 1997 Under- Secretary of State for Transport Kenneth Carlisle 14 April 1992 – 27 May 1993 Under-Secretary of State for Transport Steven Norris 14 April 1992 – 23 July 1996 Under-Secretary of State for Transport Robert Key 27 May 1993 – 20 July 1994 Under-Secretary of State for Transport The Lord MacKay of Ardbrecknish 11 January 1994 – 20 July 1994 Under-Secretary of State for Transport The Viscount Goschen 20 July 1994 – 2 May 1997 Under-Secretary of State for Transport John Bowis 23 July 1996 – 2 May 1997 Secretary of State for Wales David Hunt Continued in office Secretary of State for Wales John Redwood 27 May 1993 Secretary of State for Wales David Hunt 26 June 1995 (Acting) Secretary of State for Wales William Hague 5 July 1995 Minister of State for Wales Wyn Roberts Continued in office – 20 July 1994 Under-Secretary of State for Wales Nicholas Bennett 3 December 1990 – 14 April 1992 Under- Secretary of State for Wales Gwilym Jones 14 April 1992 – 2 May 1997 Under- Secretary of State for Wales Rod Richards 20 July 1994 – 2 June 1996 Under- Secretary of State for Wales Jonathan Evans 2 June 1996 – 2 May 1997 Attorney General Sir Patrick Mayhew Continued in office Attorney General Sir Nicholas Lyell 9 April 1992 Solicitor General Sir Derek Spencer 15 April 1992 Lord Advocate The Lord Rodger of Earlsferry 15 April 1992 Lord Advocate The Lord Mackay of Drumadoon 7 November 1995 Solicitor General for Scotland Thomas Dawson 15 April 1992 Not an MP Solicitor General for Scotland Donald Mackay 4 May 1995 Not an MP Solicitor General for Scotland Paul Cullen 7 November 1995 Not an MP Treasurer of the Household David Heathcoat-Amory 15 April 1992 Treasurer of the Household Greg Knight 7 June 1993 Treasurer of the Household Andrew MacKay 23 July 1996 Comptroller of the Household David Lightbown 28 November 1990 Comptroller of the Household Timothy Wood 7 July 1995 Vice-Chamberlain of the Household Sydney Chapman 15 April 1992 Vice- Chamberlain of the Household Timothy Kirkhope 7 July 1995 Vice-Chamberlain of the Household Andrew MacKay 18 October 1995 Vice-Chamberlain of the Household Derek Conway 23 July 1996 Captain of the Gentlemen-at-Arms The Lord Hesketh 2 May 1991 Captain of the Gentlemen-at-Arms The Viscount Ullswater 16 September 1993 Captain of the Gentlemen-at-Arms The Lord Strathclyde 20 July 1994 Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard The Earl of Strathmore 30 December 1991 Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard The Earl of Arran 20 July 1994 Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard The Lord Inglewood January 1995 Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard The Lord Chesham 8 July 1995 Lords-in-Waiting The Lord Cavendish of Furness Continued in office – 22 April 1993 Lords-in-Waiting The Viscount Astor Continued in office – 16 September 1993 Lords-in-Waiting The Viscount Long Continued in office – 2 May 1997 Lords-in-Waiting The Viscount St Davids 22 April 1992 – 20 July 1994 Lords- in-Waiting The Viscount Goschen 22 April 1992 – 20 July 1994 Lords-in- Waiting The Baroness Trumpington 22 April 1992 – 2 May 1997 Lords-in-Waiting The Lord MacKay of Ardbrecknish 15 October 1993 – 11 January 1994 Lords-in- Waiting The Lord Annaly 18 March 1994 – 20 July 1994 Lords-in-Waiting The Lord Lucas of Crudwell 21 July 1994 – 2 May 1997 Lords-in-Waiting The Baroness Miller of Hendon 21 July 1994 – 2 May 1997 Lords-in-Waiting The Lord Inglewood 21 July 1994 – January 1995 Lords-in-Waiting The Earl of Lindsay 12 January 1995 – 6 July 1995 Lords-in-Waiting The Earl of Courtown 8 July 1995 – 2 May 1997 ==References== ==Further reading== * ==External links== * * Category:British ministries Government Category:1990s in the United Kingdom Category:1992 establishments in the United Kingdom Category:1997 disestablishments in the United Kingdom Ministry 2 Category:Ministries of Elizabeth II Category:Cabinets established in 1992 Category:Cabinets disestablished in 1997 |
Rugby union in South Africa is a highly popular team sport, along with cricket and soccer, and is widely played all over the country. The national team is among the strongest in the world and has been ranked in at least the top seven of the World Rugby Rankings since its inception in 2003. The country hosted and won the 1995 Rugby World Cup, and won again in 2007 and 2019. As with much else in South Africa, the organisation and playing of rugby has been entangled with politics, and racial politics in particular. ==History== When Canon George Ogilvie became headmaster of Diocesan College in Cape Town in 1861, he introduced the game of Winchester College football. This version of football, which included handling of the ball, is seen as the beginnings of rugby in South Africa. Soon, the young gentlemen of Cape Town joined in and the first match in South Africa took place between the "Officers of the Army" and the "Gentlemen of the Civil Service" at Green Point in Cape Town on 23 August 1862 and ended as a 0–0 draw. The local press reported a series of football matches between scratch sides "Town v Suburbs" or "Home v Colonial-born". Around 1875, rugby began to be played in the Cape colony; the same year the first rugby (as opposed to Winchester football) club, Hamilton, was formed in Sea Point, Cape Town.Hamilton Sea Point RFC Former England international William Henry Milton arrived in Cape Town in 1878. He joined the Villagers club and started playing and preaching rugby. By the end of that year Cape Town had all but abandoned the Winchester game in favour of rugby. British colonists helped spread the game through the Eastern Cape, Natal and along the gold and diamond routes to Kimberley and Johannesburg. British troops would also play a key role in spreading the game throughout the country. Rugby union was introduced to South Africa by British colonists, including miners from rugby union stronghold Cornwall Rugby union in Cornwall (before 1900), and began to be played in the Cape colony around 1875. In 1883, the Stellenbosch club was formed in the predominantly Boer farming district outside Cape Town and rugby was enthusiastically adopted by the young Boer farmers. As British and Boer migrated to the interior they helped spread the game from the Cape colony through the Eastern Cape, and Natal, and along the gold and diamond routes to Kimberley and Johannesburg. The game was strong enough in the Western Cape for the Western Province Rugby Football Union to be formed that same year; Griqualand West followed in 1886; Eastern Province in 1888; Transvaal in 1889 and in 1889 the South African Rugby Board was founded. Kimberley was the founding city of the South Africa Rugby Football Board in 1889. In 1889 the first nationwide tournament was held at Kimberley, with the Western Province (rugby team) prevailing over Griqualand West, Eastern Province and Transvaal. thumb|right|British Isles v Cape Colony, the first match of the British Isles tour of South Africa in 1891 The first-ever tour of the British Isles by a team from Southern Africa (drawing on players from the then independent republics of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State, and the British colonies of the Cape and Natal) took place in 1891, with the trip financially underwritten by (the British arch imperialist) Cecil Rhodes of the Cape and (the resolutely Boer) President Kruger of the Transvaal Republic. Seven years later Britain was at war with the Boer republics, and during the Boer war British troops would play a key role in entrenching the game throughout the country, and games amongst the Boer population in prisoner of war camps popularised the game further. thumb|left|The Pretoria RFC team of 1905 From the early years the game had been enthusiastically and passionately adopted by coloured and black populations in the Cape colony, and the Eastern Cape in particular, but rugby organisation (under the South Africa Coloured Rugby Board formed in 1896) and teams were kept segregated with discrimination against black and coloured players and little government funding. Even before the 1948 elections in South Africa in which the apartheid government came to power and legislated systematically along racial lines, foreign sporting teams going to South Africa had felt it necessary to exclude non-white players. New Zealand rugby teams in particular had done this, and the exclusion of George Nēpia and Jimmy Mill from the 1928 All Blacks tour, and the dropping of "Ranji" Wilson from the New Zealand Army team nine years before that, had attracted little comment at the time. From 1960, international criticism of apartheid in particular grew in the wake of "The Wind of Change" speech by the British Prime Minister, Macmillan, and the Sharpeville massacre near Johannesburg in South Africa. From then onward, the Springboks, perceived as prominent representatives of apartheid South Africa, were increasingly isolated internationally. Coming shortly after the Soweto riots as it did, the 1976 All Blacks tour of South Africa attracted international condemnation and 28 countries boycotted the 1976 Summer Olympics in protest. The next year, in 1977, the Commonwealth signed the Gleneagles Agreement, which discouraged any sporting contact with South Africa. A planned 1979 Springbok tour of France was stopped by the French government, which announced that it was inappropriate for South African teams to tour France, and after the 1981 Springbok tour of New Zealand went ahead in defiance of the Gleneagles Agreement, South Africa was banned by the International Rugby Board from international competition until such time as apartheid ended. From 1990 to 1994 the legal apparatus of apartheid was abolished, and in 1992 the Springboks were readmitted to international rugby. On 23 March 1992 the non- racial South African Rugby Union and the South African Rugby Board were merged to form the South African Rugby Football Union. The unified body changed its name in 2005 to the current South African Rugby Union. SA Rugby celebrated 100 years of test rugby in 2006 and unveiled a new logo at a function at ABSA Stadium in Durban. Celebrations continued later in the year, with two tests against England at Twickenham. ==Present== According to World Rugby, South Africa has 434,219 registered players broken down into: 157,980 pre-teen males; 121,879 teen males; 143,722 senior males (total male players 423,581); 1,653 pre-teen females; 5,504 teen females; 3,481 senior females (total female players 10,638). However, this is an old report. There are 4,074 referees. ==Governing body== From 1990 to 1991 the legal apparatus of apartheid was abolished, and in 1992 the Springboks were readmitted to international rugby. On 23 March 1992 the non-racial South African Rugby Union and the South African Rugby Board (the government-approved white-only governing body) were merged to form the South African Rugby Football Union. The unified body changed its name in 2005 to the current South African Rugby Union. ==National team== The national team are known as the Springboks. The jersey is a dark myrtle green with a gold collar and a logo of a leaping springbuck and a protea. The "Springbok" nickname and logo dates from the 1906/7 tour of Britain. The logo was not restricted to the white team alone though, the first coloured national team used the springbok in 1939 and the first black team in 1950. ==National sevens team== South Africa also occupies an important place in the sevens version of the sport. The country hosts one of the 10 events in the annual Sevens World Series. From 2001 through 2010, it was held at Outeniqua Park in George, a community along the Garden Route in the Western Cape. Starting in 2011, the tournament moved to the Eastern Cape and the much larger Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium in Port Elizabeth, and moved again in 2015 to Cape Town and Cape Town Stadium. The Cape Town Sevens has since become one of the biggest annual events on the South African sporting calendar, attracting numerous local and international visitors over the course of the weekend on which it is held. South Africa's national team, known as Springbok Sevens, and also nicknamed "Blitzbokke", have become one of the sport's top national sides, as evidenced by their victory in the 2008–09 IRB Sevens World Series and recently in both 2016–2017 and 2017–18. Cape Town is scheduled to host the 2022 Rugby World Cup Sevens. ==Domestic competitions== ===Men's competitions=== ====Super Rugby==== Super Rugby is an international provincial competition featuring teams from New Zealand, Australia and South Africa. The competition, governed by SANZAAR, was formed in 1996 as Super 12 after the game turned professional, and became Super 14 in 2006 with the addition of the new franchises Western Force in Australia and Cheetahs in South Africa. With the addition in 2011 of the Melbourne Rebels, a new Australian franchise, the competition rebranded itself as Super Rugby. It now features five teams from each of the three countries. In 2016, Super Rugby will add three new teams. The Kings, representing the Eastern Cape, will receive a permanent place in the competition, and new teams based in Argentina and Japan will also join, bringing the competition to 18 teams. In the (old) Super 12 and Super 14 format, each team played each other team once in a round robin followed by a knockout finals series featuring the top four finishers. Starting in 2011, the teams were divided into Australian, New Zealand, and South African conferences; each team playing the other teams in its conference, home and away, and four teams from each of the other conferences once. The finals format also changed dramatically. The winner of each conference receives a finals berth, with the top two conference winners earning a first-round bye. The other conference winner is joined in the first round by the three non- conference winners with the best overall records without regard to affiliation. These four teams are then paired into knockout matches, with the winners advancing to a semi-final against one of the top two teams. The semi- final winners then advance to the final, hosted by the top surviving seed. When the competition expands in 2016, it will reorganise into two regional groups, each with two conferences. The Australasian Group will consist of all Australian and New Zealand teams, split into Australian and New Zealand Conferences. The African Group will consist of the six South African teams, plus the Argentine and Japanese teams, and in turn will be divided into Africa 1 and Africa 2 Conferences. The finals series will expand to eight teams in a pure knockout format. The top team from each conference will automatically qualify for the finals series and receive the top four seeds, with three additional Australasian teams and one extra team from the African Group qualifying based on table points during the regular season. As in the current format, each finals match will be hosted by the higher seed. The predecessor to professional Super Rugby was the Super 10, a tournament featuring ten teams from Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Tonga and Western Samoa, which ran for three years from 1993 to 1995. The South African Super Rugby teams are as follows: *Bulls *Lions *Sharks *Stormers The Super 10 was won in 1993 by Transvaal but the Super Rugby competition was not won by a South African team until 2007, when South Africa provided the two finalists, the Bulls and the Sharks. The Bulls scored a last-second win over the Sharks in the final. The Bulls went on to win the last two titles under the Super 14 format, handing the Chiefs of New Zealand a record 61–17 thrashing in the 2009 final and defeating the Stormers in the 2010 final. ====United Rugby Championship==== Following a reorganisation of Super Rugby after its 2017 season, two of South Africa's six Super Rugby franchises, the Cheetahs and Southern Kings, were axed. During the months preceding the announcement of Super Rugby contraction, the SARU had entered into discussions with Celtic Rugby Limited, the company that operates the European competition then known as Pro12, regarding the potential addition of the two axed Super Rugby sides to the league. Shortly before the league began its 2017–18 season, the Cheetahs and Kings were immediately admitted into the competition, which renamed itself Pro14 to reflect its new number of teams, and later expanded and renamed the United Rugby Championship. The South African teams now play alongside four each from Ireland and Wales, and two each from Italy and Scotland. The South African United Rugby Championship teams include: * Cheetahs * Southern Kings ====Currie Cup==== The Currie Cup tournament has been the premier domestic rugby union in South Africa since its first edition in 1892. Since then, the number of teams participating in the competition varied in different seasons, with the Currie Cup trophy being awarded to the champions of the top tier. Other trophies, such as the Percy Frames Trophy, the W.V. Simkins Trophy and the South African Cup (currently awarded to the winners of the First Division), were also on offer. ====Other competitions==== Between 1983 and 1994, teams also competed in a knockout cup competition called the Lion Cup. There was no competition in 1995, as South African rugby adjusted to the advent of professional rugby, but in 1996, a new competition – the Bankfin Nite Series – was launched. That lasted for two seasons before being replaced by the Vodacom Cup. The Vodacom Cup was held between 1998 and 2015 and included teams from Argentina, Namibia, Kenya and the South African Limpopo province in addition to the fourteen South African provincial sides. The Vodacom Cup was discontinued in 2015 and replaced for 2016 with a one-off expanded Currie Cup before its permanent replacement, the Rugby Challenge, launched in 2017. The Challenge now includes only South African sides, plus the Namibian team that had sporadically featured in the Vodacom Cup. Since 2008, the Varsity Cup is an annual tournament held between the top university club sides in South Africa. In 2011, a second tier known as the Varsity Shield was added to the schedule. Non-university club sides can also compete for national honours; they compete in the annual Gold Cup competition, which was launched in 2013. It was preceded by a similar competition called the National Club Championships. There are also several youth competitions; all the provincial sides compete annually in the Under-21 and Under-19 Provincial Championships. The premier schools competition is known as the Craven Week (there are two editions of this competition – an Under-18 competition for high schools and an Under-13 competition for primary schools), and the other national youth weeks are the Under-18 Academy Week, the Under-16 Grant Khomo Week and the Under-18 LSEN Week for Learners with Special Educational Needs. ===Women's competitions=== * Women's Premier Division * Women's First Division ==International competitions== ===Rugby World Cup=== South Africa did not take part in the first two World Cups, held in 1987 and 1991, as they were still under an international boycott due to apartheid. South Africa however did play an important role in the first World Cup; despite knowing that they would not be able to participate, the delegates voted in favor and provided the swing vote for the World Cup. Since then South Africa have won the World Cup three times, in 1995 in their first appearance when they also hosted the event, and again in 2007 and 2019. The 1995 tournament concluded with then President Nelson Mandela (at the time described as the world's most famous former political prisoner), wearing a Springbok jersey and matching baseball cap, presenting the trophy to the South Africa's captain François Pienaar (a young Afrikaner). Given the political history of South Africa, the moment is seen as one of the most emotional in the sport's history and symbolic of reconciliation and the birth of a new, free South Africa as a "rainbow nation". In 2007 the Springboks repeated their 1995 feat winning the 2007 World Cup by defeating England at Stade de France. In the 2011 World Cup, the Boks only managed to reach the quarter-final stage where they were beaten by Australia. South Africa won the Rugby World Cup for a third time in 2019, once again defeating England, 32–12 in the final in Yokohama. Upon winning for a third time, they have tied New Zealand for the most Rugby World Cup wins. ===Tri Nations and The Rugby Championship=== The Tri Nations was an annual competition involving New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa. Previously this involved each country playing one home and one away game against both other countries. From 2006 the competition was expanded with each nation playing both the other nations three times (except in Rugby World Cup years). Since 's strong performances in the 2007 World Cup a number of commentators believed they should join the Tri-Nations. This was firstly proposed for the 2008 tournament, then for 2010, but eventually this prospect came much closer to reality after the 2009 Tri Nations tournament, when SANZAR (South Africa, New Zealand and Australian Rugby) extended an official invitation to the Unión Argentina de Rugby (UAR), to join a new revised Four Nations tournament in 2012. This long-anticipated move was generally met with great approval from all parties involved. The invitation was however subject to certain conditions, like the guaranteed availability of the top Puma players, most of whom play highly paid professional club rugby in Europe at present. With Argentina's entry ultimately confirmed, the Tri Nations was renamed The Rugby Championship. The involvement of the Pumas caused the competition to revert to a pure home-and-away series. The Freedom Cup (against New Zealand) and the Mandela Challenge Plate (against Australia) are competed for as part of The Rugby Championship. ===Africa Cup=== The Africa Cup is an annual competition involving ten African nations. South Africa sent its top amateurs to this competition up until 2007. ==References== ==Further reading== *Bath, Richard (ed.) The Complete Book of Rugby (Seven Oaks Ltd, 1997 ) *Richards, Huw A Game for Hooligans: The History of Rugby Union (Mainstream Publishing, Edinburgh, 2007, ) ==External links== *SA Rugby Homepage *South African rugby union news from Planet Rugby *IRB pages for South Africa *100 years of South African rugby: Part one *100 years of South African rugby: Part two *100 years of South African rugby (part three) – IRB |
The idea that a common Judaeo-Christian ethics or Judeo-Christian values underpins American politics, law and morals has been part of the "American civil religion" since the 1940s. In recent years, the phrase has been associated with American conservatism, but the concept—though not always the exact phrase—has frequently featured in the rhetoric of leaders across the political spectrum, including that of Franklin D. Roosevelt and Lyndon B. Johnson. ==Ethical value system== The current American use of "Judeo- Christian" — to refer to a value system common to Jews and Christians — first appeared in print in a book review by the English writer George Orwell in 1939, with the phrase "the Judaeo-Christian scheme of morals."Mark Silk (1984), Notes on the Judeo-Christian Tradition in America, American Quarterly 36(1), 66 Orwell's usage of the term followed at least a decade of efforts by Jewish and Christian leaders, through such groups as the U.S. National Conference of Christians and Jews (founded in 1927), to emphasize common ground. The term continued to gain currency in the 1940s. In part, it was a way of countering antisemitism with the idea that the foundation of morals and law in the United States was a shared one between Jews and Christians.Mark Silk (1984), Notes on the Judeo-Christian Tradition in America, American Quarterly 36(1), 65-85Sarna, 2004, p.266 ===Franklin D. Roosevelt=== The first inaugural address of Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR), in 1933, the famous speech in which FDR declared that "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself", had numerous religious references, which was widely commented upon at the time. Although it did not use the term "Judeo-Christian", it has come to be seen by scholars as in tune with the emerging view of a Judeo-Christian tradition. Historian Mary Stuckey emphasizes "Roosevelt's use of the shared values grounded in the Judeo-Christian tradition" as a way to unify the American nation, and justify his own role as its chief policymaker. In the speech, FDR attacked the bankers and promised a reform in an echo of the gospels: "The money changers have fled from their high seats in the temple of our civilization. We may now restore that temple to the ancient truths. The measure of the restoration lies in the extent to which we apply social values more noble than mere monetary profit."See Roosevelt, "'Only Thing We Have to Fear Is Fear Itself': FDR's First Inaugural Address" Houck and Nocasian, examining the flood of responses to the First Inaugural, and commenting on this passage, argue: > The nation's overwhelmingly Judeo-Christian response to the address thus had > both textual and extratextual warrants. For those inclined to see the Divine > Hand of Providence at work, Roosevelt's miraculous escape [from > assassination] in Miami was a sign—perhaps The Sign—that God had sent > another Washington or Lincoln at the appointed hour. ... Many others could > not resist the subject position that Roosevelt ... had cultivated throughout > the address—that of savior. After all, it was Christ who had expelled the > moneychangers from the Temple. ... [Many listeners saw] a composite sign > that their new president had a godly mandate to lead.Davis W. Houck and > Mihaela Nocasian. "FDR's First Inaugural Address: Text, Context, and > Reception." Rhetoric & Public Affairs 5#4 (2003): 649-678, quote p 669. Gary Scott Smith stresses that Roosevelt believed his welfare programs were "wholly in accord with the social teachings of Christianity." He saw the achievement of social justice through government action as morally superior to the old laissez-faire approach. He proclaimed, "The thing we are seeking is justice," as guided by the precept of "Do unto your neighbor as you would be done by." Roosevelt saw the moral issue as religiosity versus anti-religion. According to Smith, "He pleaded with Protestants, Catholics, and Jews to transcend their sectarian creeds and 'unite in good works' whenever they could 'find common cause.'"Smith, Faith and the Presidency p 194. Atalia Omer and Jason A. Springs point to Roosevelt's 1939 State of the Union address, which called upon Americans to "defend, not their homes alone, but the tenets of faith and humanity on with which their churches, their governments and their very civilization are founded." They state that, "This familiar rhetoric invoked a conception of the sanctity of the United States' Judeo-Christian values as a basis for war." Timothy Wyatt notes that in the coming of World War II Roosevelt's isolationist opponents said he was calling for a "holy war." Wyatt says: > Often in his Fireside Chats or speeches to the houses of Congress, FDR > argued for the entrance of America into the war by using both blatant and > subtle religious rhetoric. Roosevelt portrayed the conflict in the light of > good versus evil, the religious against the irreligious. In doing so, he > pitted the Christian ideals of democracy against the atheism of National > Socialism.Timothy Wyatt, "America's Holy War: FDR, Civil Religion, and the > Prelude to War" Memphis Theological Seminary Journal (2012) v. 50 online . ===Lyndon Johnson=== Biographer Randall B. Woods has argued that President Lyndon B. Johnson effectively used appeals to the Judeo-Christian ethical tradition to garner support for the civil rights law of 1965. Woods writes that Johnson undermined the Southern filibuster against the bill: > LBJ wrapped white America in a moral straight jacket. How could individuals > who fervently, continuously, and overwhelmingly identified themselves with a > merciful and just God continue to condone racial discrimination, police > brutality, and segregation? Where in the Judeo-Christian ethic was there > justification for killing young girls in a church in Alabama, denying an > equal education to black children, barring fathers and mothers from > competing for jobs that would feed and clothe their families? Was Jim Crow > to be America's response to "Godless Communism"?Randall B. Woods, "The > Politics of Idealism: Lyndon Johnson, Civil Rights, and Vietnam." Diplomatic > History 31#1 (2007): 1-18, quote p 5; The same text appears in Woods, > Prisoners of Hope: Lyndon B. Johnson, the Great Society, and the Limits of > Liberalism (2016) p 89. Woods went on to assess the role of Judeo-Christian ethics among the nation's political elite: > Johnson's decision to define civil rights as a moral issue, and to wield the > nation's self-professed Judeo-Christian ethic as a sword in its behalf, > constituted something of a watershed in twentieth-century political history. > All presidents were fond of invoking the deity, and some conservatives like > Dwight Eisenhower had flirted with employing Judeo-Christian teachings to > justify their actions, but modern-day liberals, both politicians and the > intellectuals who challenged and nourished them, had shunned spiritual > witness. Most liberal intellectuals were secular humanists. Academics in > particular had historically been deeply distrustful of organized religion, > which they identified with small-mindedness, bigotry, and anti- > intellectualism. Like his role model, FDR, Johnson equated liberal values > with religious values, insisting freedom and social justice served the ends > of both god and man. And he was not loath to say so.Woods, Prisoners of Hope > p 90. Woods notes that Johnson's religiosity ran deep: "At 15 he joined the Disciples of Christ, or Christian, church and would forever believe that it was the duty of the rich to care for the poor, the strong to assist the weak, and the educated to speak for the inarticulate."Woods, "The Politics of Idealism" p 3. ==History== ===1930s and 1940s=== Promoting the concept of the United States as a Judeo-Christian nation first became a political program in the 1940s, in response to the growth of anti-Semitism in America. The rise of Nazi anti-semitism in the 1930s led concerned Protestants, Catholics, and Jews to take steps to increase understanding and tolerance.Sarna, Jonathan. American Judaism, A History (Yale University Press, 2004. p. 266) In this effort, precursors of the National Conference of Christians and Jews created teams consisting of a priest, a rabbi, and a minister, to run programs across the country, and fashion a more pluralistic America, no longer defined as a Christian land, but "one nurtured by three ennobling traditions: Protestantism, Catholicism and Judaism. ... The phrase 'Judeo-Christian' entered the contemporary lexicon as the standard liberal term for the idea that Western values rest on a religious consensus that included Jews."Sarna, p. 267 In the 1930s, "In the face of worldwide antisemitic efforts to stigmatize and destroy Judaism, influential Christians and Jews in America labored to uphold it, pushing Judaism from the margins of American religious life towards its very center."Sarna, p.267 During World War II, Jewish chaplains worked with Catholic priests and Protestant ministers to promote goodwill, addressing servicemen who, "in many cases had never seen, much less heard a Rabbi speak before." At funerals for the unknown soldier, rabbis stood alongside the other chaplains and recited prayers in Hebrew. In a much publicized wartime tragedy, the sinking of the , the ship's multi-faith chaplains gave up their lifebelts to evacuating seamen and stood together "arm in arm in prayer" as the ship went down. A 1948 postage stamp commemorated their heroism with the words: "interfaith in action." ===1950s, 1960s, and 1970s=== In December 1952 President Dwight Eisenhower, speaking extemporaneously a month before his inauguration, said, in what may be the first direct public reference by a U.S. president to the Judeo-Christian concept: > [The Founding Fathers said] 'we hold that all men are endowed by their > Creator ... ' In other words, our form of government has no sense unless it > is founded in a deeply felt religious faith, and I don't care what it is. > With us of course it is the Judeo-Christian concept, but it must be a > religion with all men created equal.Patrick Henry, "'And I Don't Care What > It Is': The Tradition-History of a Civil Religion Proof-Text," Journal of > the American Academy of Religion, (1981), 49#1 pp 35-47 in JSTOR By the 1950s, many conservatives emphasized the Judeo-Christian roots of their values.Clinton Rossiter, Conservatism in America (1968) p. 268 In 1958, economist Elgin Groseclose claimed that it was ideas "drawn from Judeo- Christian Scriptures that have made possible the economic strength and industrial power of this country."A. G. Heinsohn G. Jr., ed. Anthology of Conservative Writing in the United States, 1932-1960 (Regnery Publishing, Inc., 1962) p. 256. Senator Barry Goldwater noted that conservatives "believed the communist projection of man as a producing, consuming animal to be used and discarded was antithetical to all the Judeo-Christian understandings which are the foundations upon which the Republic stands."Barry Morris Goldwater. With No Apologies (1979) Belief in the superiority of Western Judeo-Christian traditions led conservatives to downplay the aspirations of the Third World to free themselves from colonial rule.By the 1990s "Judeo-Christian" terminology was now mostly found among conservatives. Douglas Hartmann, et al., "One (Multicultural) Nation Under God? Changing Uses and Meanings of the Term "Judeo-Christian" in the American Media," Journal of Media & Religion, 2005, Vol. 4 Issue 4, pp. 207-234 The emergence of the "Christian right" as a political force and part of the conservative coalition dates from the 1970s. According to Cambridge University historian Andrew Preston, the emergence of "conservative ecumenism." bringing together Catholics, Mormons, and conservative Protestants into the religious right coalition, was facilitated "by the rise of a Judeo-Christian ethic." These groups "began to mobilize together on cultural-political issues such as abortion and the proposed Equal Rights Amendment for women." As Wilcox and Robinson conclude: > The Christian Right is an attempt to restore Judeo-Christian values to a > country that is in deep moral decline. ... [They] believe that society > suffers from the lack of a firm basis of Judeo-Christian values and they > seek to write laws that embody those values.Clyde Wilcox and Carin Robinson, > Onward Christian Soldiers?: The Religious Right in American Politics (2010) > p. 13 ===1980s and 1990s=== By the 1980s and 1990s, favorable references to "Judeo- Christian values" were common, and the term was used by conservative Christians.Douglas Hartmann, Xuefeng Zhang, and William Wischstadt. "One (Multicultural) Nation Under God? Changing Uses and Meanings of the Term" Judeo-Christian" in the American Media." Journal of Media and Religion 4.4 (2005): 207-234. President Ronald Reagan frequently emphasized Judeo-Christian values as necessary ingredients in the fight against Communism. He argued that the Bible contains "all the answers to the problems that face us."John Kenneth White, Still Seeing Red: How the Cold War Shapes the New American Politics (1998) p 138 Reagan disapproved of the growth of secularism and emphasized the need to take the idea of sin seriously. Tom Freiling, a Christian publisher and head of a conservative PAC, stated in his 2003 book, Reagan's God and Country, that "Reagan's core religious beliefs were always steeped in traditional Judeo-Christian heritage." Religion—and the Judeo-Christian concept—was a major theme in Reagan's rhetoric by 1980. President Bill Clinton during his 1992 presidential campaign, likewise emphasized the role of religion in society, and in his personal life, having made references to the Judeo-Christian tradition. The term became especially significant in American politics, and, promoting "Judeo-Christian values" in the culture wars, usage surged in the 1990s.Douglas Hartmann, Xuefeng Zhang, William Wischstadt (2005). One (Multicultural) Nation Under God? Changing Uses and Meanings of the Term "Judeo-Christian" in the American Media. Journal of Media and Religion 4(4), 207-234 James Dobson, a prominent evangelical Christian, said the Judeo-Christian tradition includes the right to display numerous historical documents in Kentucky schools, after they were banned by a federal judge in May 2000 because they were "conveying a very specific governmental endorsement of religion".Dobson Phd., James C.. One Nation Under God http://www2.focusonthefamily.com/docstudy/newsletters/A000000365.cfm September 2000 ===Since 9/11=== According to Hartmann et al., usage shifted between 2001 and 2005, with the mainstream media using the term less, in order to characterize America as multicultural. The study finds the term is now most likely to be used by liberals in connection with discussions of Muslim and Islamic inclusion in America, and renewed debate about the separation of church and state. In 2012, the book Kosher Jesus by Orthodox rabbi Shmuley Boteach was published. In it, Boteach concludes by writing, as to Judeo- Christian values, that "the hyphen between Jewish and Christian values is Jesus himself." ==In U.S. law== In the case of Marsh v. Chambers, 463 U.S. 783 (1983), the Supreme Court of the United States held that a state legislature could constitutionally have a paid chaplain to conduct legislative prayers "in the Judeo-Christian tradition." In Simpson v. Chesterfield County Board of Supervisors, the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals held that the Supreme Court's holding in the Marsh case meant that the "Chesterfield County could constitutionally exclude Cynthia Simpson, a Wiccan priestess, from leading its legislative prayers, because her faith was not 'in the Judeo-Christian tradition.'" Chesterfield County's board included Jewish, Christian, and Muslim clergy in its invited list. Several legal disputes, especially in Alabama, have challenged the public display of the Ten Commandments. See: * Glassroth v. Moore for Alabama * Green v. Haskell County Board of Commissioners, for Oklahoma * McCreary County v. American Civil Liberties Union, for Kentucky * Pleasant Grove City v. Summum, for Utah * Stone v. Graham for Kentucky * Van Orden v. Perry for Texas ==Responses== Some theologians warn against the uncritical use of "Judeo-Christian" entirely, arguing that it can license mischief, such as opposition to secular humanismMartin E. Marty (1986), A Judeo-Christian Looks at the Judeo-Christian Tradition , in The Christian Century, October 5, 1986 with scant regard to modern Jewish, Catholic, or Christian traditions, including the liberal strains of different faiths, such as Reform Judaism and liberal Protestant Christianity. Two notable books addressed the relations between contemporary Judaism and Christianity. Abba Hillel Silver's Where Judaism Differs and Leo Baeck's Judaism and Christianity were both motivated by an impulse to clarify Judaism's distinctiveness "in a world where the term Judeo-Christian had obscured critical differences between the two faiths."Sarna, p281 Reacting against the blurring of theological distinctions, Rabbi Eliezer Berkovits wrote that "Judaism is Judaism because it rejects Christianity, and Christianity is Christianity because it rejects Judaism."Disputation and Dialogue: Readings in the Jewish Christian Encounter, Ed. F. E. Talmage, Ktav, 1975, p. 291. Theologian and author Arthur A. Cohen, in The Myth of the Judeo- Christian Tradition, questioned the theological validity of the Judeo- Christian concept and suggested that it was essentially an invention of American politics, while Jacob Neusner, in Jews and Christians: The Myth of a Common Tradition, writes, "The two faiths stand for different people talking about different things to different people."Jacob Neusner (1990), Jews and Christians: The Myth of a Common Tradition. New York and London: Trinity Press International and SCM Press. p. 28 Law professor Stephen M. Feldman, looking at the period before 1950, chiefly in Europe, sees the concept of a Judeo- Christian tradition as supersessionism, which he characterizes as "dangerous Christian dogma (at least from a Jewish perspective)", and as a "myth" which "insidiously obscures the real and significant differences between Judaism and Christianity."Stephen M. Feldman (1998), Please Don't Wish Me a Merry Christmas: A Critical History of the Separation of Church and State ==Abrahamic religion== Advocates of the term "Abrahamic religion" since the second half of the 20th century have proposed an inclusivism that widens the "Judeo-Christian" concept to include Islam as well. The rationale for the term "Abrahamic" is that Islam, like Judaism and Christianity, traces its origins to the figure of Abraham, whom Islam regards as a prophet. Advocates of this umbrella term consider it the "exploration of something positive" in the sense of a "spiritual bond" between Jews, Christians, and Muslims. ==Australia== Australian historian Tony Taylor points out that Australia has borrowed the "Judeo-Christian" theme from American conservative discourse.Tony Taylor, "Neoconservative Progressivism, Knowledgeable Ignorance and the Origins of the Next History War", History Australia 10#2 (2013), pp.227–240 at pp.232–35. Jim Berryman, another Australian historian, argues that from the 1890s to the present, rhetoric upholding Australia's traditional attachment to Western civilisation emphasizes three themes: the core British heritage; Australia's Judeo-Christian belief system; and the rational principles of the Enlightenment. These themes have been expressed mostly on the Australian center-right political spectrum, and most prominently among conservative- leaning commentators.Jim Berryman, "Civilisation: A Concept and its Uses in Australian Public Discourse." Australian Journal of Politics & History 61.4 (2015): 591-605. ==See also== * American civil religion * Abraham Accords *Abrahamic religions ==References== ==Further reading== * Coe, Kevin, and Sarah Chenoweth. "The Evolution of Christian America: Christianity in Presidential Discourse, 1981–2013." International Journal of Communication 9:753-73 (2015) online * Cohen, Arthur A. The Myth of the Judeo-Christian Tradition. Harper & Row, New York, 1970. * Gelernter, David. Americanism: The Fourth Great Western Religion. Doubleday. 2007; * Hartmann, Douglas, Xuefeng Zhang, and William Wischstadt. "One (Multicultural) Nation Under God? Changing Uses and Meanings of the Term 'Judeo-Christian' in the American Media." Journal of Media and Religion 4.4 (2005): 207–234. * Lillback, Peter A.George Washington's Sacred Fire. (Providence Forum Press,2006. ) * Merino, Stephen M. "Religious diversity in a "Christian nation": The effects of theological exclusivity and interreligious contact on the acceptance of religious diversity." Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 49.2 (2010): 231-246. * Moore, Deborah Dash. "Jewish GIs and the Creation of the Judeo-Christian Tradition," Religion and American Culture: A Journal of Interpretation, Vol. 8, No. 1 (Winter, 1998), pp. 31–53 in JSTOR * Novak, Michael. On Two Wings: Humble Faith and Common Sense at the American Founding. Encounter Books, 2002. * Preston, Andrew. "A Judeo-Christian Foreign Policy," in Preston, Sword of the Spirit, Shield of Faith: Religion in American War and Diplomacy (2012) pp 559–74. * Schultz, Kevin M. Tri-Faith America: How Catholics and Jews held postwar America to its Protestant promise (Oxford University Press, 2011). * Shaban, Fuad. For Zion's sake: the Judeo-Christian tradition in American culture (Pluto Press, 2005). online * Silk, Mark. "Notes on the Judeo- Christian tradition in America," American Quarterly, (1984) 36:65–85, the standard history of the term in JSTOR * Wall, Wendy L. Inventing the "American Way": The politics of consensus from the New Deal to the Civil rights movement". Oxford University Press, 2008. Category:American culture Category:Judeo-Christian topics |
This is a bibliography of works on the military history of the United States. ==Surveys== * Allison, William T. Jeffrey G. Grey, Janet G. Valentine. American Military History: A Survey from Colonial Times to the Present (2nd ed. 2012) 416pp * * * * Anderson, Fred, ed. The Oxford Companion to American Military History (2000) * * Black, Jeremy. Fighting for America: The Struggle for Mastery in North America, 1519-1871 (2011) * Boyne, Walter J. Beyond the Wild Blue: A History of the U.S. Air Force, 1947–2007 (2007) excerpt and text search, popular * Chambers, ed. John Whiteclay. The Oxford Guide to American Military History (1999) * Futrell, Robert Frank. Ideas, Concepts, Doctrine: A History of Basic Thinking in the United States Air Force (2 vol. 1979) * Doughty, Robert. American Military History and the Evolution of Western Warfare, (1996) * * Hearn, Chester G. Air Force: An Illustrated History: The U.S. Air Force from 1910 to the 21st Century (2008), popular excerpt and text search * Howarth, Stephen. To Shining Sea: A History of the United States Navy, 1775–1998 (1999) excerpt and text search; a standard history * Huston, James A. The Sinews of War: Army Logistics, 1775-1953 (1966), U.S. Army; 755pp * Love, Robert W. History of the U.S. Navy, 1775–1941 (1992) and History of the U.S. Navy, 1942–1991 (1992) vol 1 excerpt and text search; vol 2 excerpt and text search; a standard history * Matloff, Maurice, ed. American Military History (1996) full text online; standard textbook used in ROTC; Now replaced by Richard Stewart 2010 * Millett, Allan R., and Peter Maslowski, and William B. Feis. For the common defense: a military history of the United States of America (3rd ed. 2013) * Millett, Allan R. Semper Fidelis. A History of the United States Marine Corps (1991) * * Muehlbauer, Matthew S., and David J. Ulbrich. Ways of War: American Military History from the Colonial Era to the Twenty-First Century (Routledge, 2013), 536pp; university textbook; online review * Stewart, Richard W. American military history (2 vol 2010) * * * Weigley, Russell Frank. History of the United States army (1967) * Weigley, Russell Frank. The American Way of War: A History of United States Military Strategy and Policy, (1977) excerpt and text search * ===Historiography=== * Ferris, John. "Coming in from the cold war: The historiography of American intelligence, 1945–1990." Diplomatic History 19.1 (1995): 87-115. * * Grimsley, Mark. "The American military history master narrative: Three textbooks on the American military experience," Journal of Military History (2015) 79#3 pp 782–802; review of Allison, Millett, and Muehlbauer textbooks * * * Millett, Allan R. "The Korean War: A 50‐year critical historiography." Journal of Strategic Studies 24.1 (2001): 188-224 online. * Romero, Federico. "Cold War historiography at the crossroads." Cold War History 14.4 (2014): 685-703. ===Atlases=== * * Esposito, Vincent J. West Point Atlas of American Wars. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1959. * Esposito, Vincent J. The West Point Atlas of American Wars: 1900-1918 (1997), covers entire war, not just US role * Griess, Thomas E. Atlas for the Second World War: Europe and the Mediterranean (2002) * Griess, Thomas E. West Point Atlas for the Second World War: Asia and the Pacific (2002) * Griess, Thomas E. West Point Atlas for the American Civil War (2002) * Griess, Thomas E. The West Point Atlas for Modern Warfare (2011) * Griess, Thomas E. West Point Atlas for the Great War: Strategies and Tactics of the First World War (2003) * Murray, Stuart. Atlas of American Military History (2005) ==Pre 1775== * Anderson, Fred. The War That Made America: A Short History of the French and Indian War (2006) excerpt and text search * Grenier, John. The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier, 1607–1814 (Cambridge University Press, 2005). * * * Starkey, A. European and Native American Warfare, 1675–1815 (University of Oklahoma Press, 1998) * Steele, Ian. Warpaths: Invasions of North America (Oxford University Press, 1994). * Tucker, Spencer C., James Arnold, and Roberta Wiener eds. The Encyclopedia of North American Colonial Conflicts to 1775: A Political, Social, and Military History (2008) excerpt and text search ==1775–1800== * Alden, John R. A History of the American Revolution (1989), general survey; strong on military () * Black, Jeremy. America as a Military Power: From the American Revolution to the Civil War (2002) online edition * Carp, E. Wayne. "Early American Military History: A Review of Recent Work", Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 94 (1986), pp. 259–84. * Fremont-Barnes, Gregory, and Richard A. Ryerson, eds. The Encyclopedia of the American Revolutionary War: A Political, Social, and Military History (ABC-CLIO, 2006) 5 volume paper and online editions; 1000 entries by 150 experts, covering all topics * Higginbotham, Don. The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763–1789 (1971, 1983). an analytical history of the war online via ACLS Humanities E-Book. * Lancaster, Bruce. The American Revolution (American Heritage Library) () (1985), heavily illustrated * Maass, John R. Defending a New Nation, 1783-1811 . Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History, 2013. * McCullough, David (2005). 1776. New York, New York: Simon & Schuster. () * Middlekauff, Robert. The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789 (2nd ed 2007) online edition ==1800–1860== * Bauer K. Jack. The Mexican War, 1846–1848. (1974), good on military action. * Black, Jeremy. America as a Military Power: From the American Revolution to the Civil War (2002) online edition * Crawford, Mark et al. eds. Encyclopedia of the Mexican War (1999) () * Frazier, Donald S. ed. The U.S. and Mexico at War, (1998), 584; an encyclopedia with 600 articles by 200 scholars * Heidler, Donald & Jeanne T. Heidler (eds) Encyclopedia of the War of 1812 (2nd ed 2004) 636pp; most comprehensive guide to this war; 500 entries by 70 scholars from several countries * Heidler, David S. and Heidler, Jeanne T. The War of 1812. (2002). 217 pp. short survey * Heidler, David S. and Heidler, Jeanne T. The Mexican War. (2005). 225 pp. basic survey, with some key primary sources * Herrera, Ricardo A. For Liberty and the Republic: The American Citizen as Soldier, 1775-1861 (New York University Press, 2015) online review * Hickey, Donald R. Don't Give Up the Ship! Myths of the War of 1812. (2006) * Hickey, Donald R. The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict. (1990), standard scholarly history * Johnson, Timothy D. Winfield Scott: The Quest for Military Glory (1998) * McCaffrey, James M. Army of Manifest Destiny: The American Soldier in the Mexican War, 1846–1848 (1994)excerpt and text search * Quimby, Robert S., The US Army in the War of 1812: an operational and command study (1997) online version * Roosevelt, Theodore. The Naval War of 1812 (1882) full text online, by the future president * Smith, Justin H. The War with Mexico 2 vol (1919); Pulitzer Prize; 2:233-52; online vol 1; online vol 2 Pulitzer Prize winner. * Winders, Richard Price. Mr. Polk's Army (1997) excerpt and text search, focus on the soldiers ==Civil War== * Beringer, Richard E., Archer Jones, and Herman Hattaway. The Elements of Confederate Defeat: Nationalism, War Aims, and Religion (1988) * Carter, Alice E. and Richard Jensen. The Civil War on the Web: A Guide to the Very Best Sites (2nd ed. 2003) excerpt and text search * Catton, Bruce. Centennial History of the Civil War (3 vols. 1961–65); Catton has many very well written books on the war * Current, Richard N., et al. eds. Encyclopedia of the Confederacy (1993) (4 Volume set; also 1 vol abridged version) * Donald, David et al. The Civil War and Reconstruction (2001); 700 pages * Faust, Patricia L., ed. Historical Times Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Civil War (1986) () 2000 short entries * Fellman, Michael et al. This Terrible War: The Civil War and its Aftermath (2nd ed. 2007), 544 pages * Heidler, David Stephen, ed. Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History (2002), 1600 entries in 2700 pages in 5 vol or 1-vol editions * McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (1988), 900 pages; excerpt and text search; also complete online edition, Pulitzer Prize; comprehensive history * Nevins, Allan. Ordeal of the Union, an 8-volume set (1947–1971). the most detailed political, economic and military narrative; by Pulitzer Prize winner **vol 1. Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847–1852; 2. A House Dividing, 1852–1857; 3. Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857–1859; 4. Prologue to Civil War, 1859–1861; 5. The Improvised War, 1861–1862; 6. War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863; 7. The Organized War, 1863–1864; 8. The Organized War to Victory, 1864–1865 * Rhodes, James Ford. History of the Civil War, 1861–1865 (1918), old, accurate survey; won Pulitzer prize * Shannon, Fred. The Organization and Administration of the Union Army 1861–1865 (2 vol 1928) vol 1 excerpt and text search; vol 2 excerpt and text search * Symonds, Craig L. and William J. Clipson. A Battlefield Atlas of the Civil War (1993) schematic maps that are easy to understand ==1865–1917== * Abrahamson, James L. America Arms for a New Century: The Making of a Great Military Power (1981), examines reformers and modernizers * Coffman, Edward M. The Old Army: A Portrait of the American Army in Peacetime, 1784–1898 (1986). * Cosmas, Graham A. An Army for Empire: The United States Army and the Spanish–American War (1971), looks at organization, not combat * Holmes, James R. Theodore Roosevelt and World Order: Police Power in International Relations. (2006). * Roosevelt, Theodore The Naval War of 1812 (1900) systematic study of the US Navy's role in the War of 1812 * Trask, David F. The War with Spain in 1898 (1996), 654pp excerpt and text search, the most detailed scholarly coverage * Utley, Robert M. Frontier Regulars; the United States Army and the Indian, 1866–1891 (1973) ==World War I== * Chambers, John W., II. To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America (1987) * Clark, J. P. Preparing for War: The Emergence of the Modern U.S. Army, 1815–1917 (Harvard UP, 2017) 336 pp. * Coffman, Edward M. The War to End All Wars: The American Military Experience in World War I (1998), a standard history * Faulkner, Richard S. Pershing's Crusaders: The American Soldier in World War I (U Press of Kansas, 2017). xiv, 758 pp * Freidel, Frank. Over There (1964), well illustrated history by scholar * Hurley, Alfred F. Billy Mitchell, Crusader for Air Power (1975) * Morrow, John H. Jr. A Yankee Ace in the RAF. The World War I Letters of Captain Boart Rogers (1996), Editor, . * Kennedy, David M. Over Here: The First World War and American Society (1982) * Koistinen, Paul. Mobilizing for Modern War: The Political Economy of American Warfare, 1865–1919 (2004) * Smythe, Donald. Pershing: General of the Armies (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1986) * Vandiver, Frank E. Black Jack: The Life and Times of John J. Pershing – Volume II (Texas A&M; University Press, Third printing, 1977) * Venzon, Anne ed. The United States in the First World War: An Encyclopedia (1995) * Weigley, Russell Frank. History of the United States army (1967) * Woodward, David R. The American Army and the First World War (Cambridge University Press, 2014). 484 pp. online review ==Interwar== * Coffman, Edward M. The Regulars: The American Army, 1898–1941 (2007) excerpt and text search * Koistinen, Paul A. C. Planning War, Pursuing Peace: The Political Economy of American Warfare, 1920–1939 (1998) excerpt and text search ==World War II== * Ambrose, Stephen. The Supreme Commander: The War Years of Dwight D. Eisenhower (1999) excerpt and text search * James, D. Clayton. The Years of Macarthur 1941–1945 (1975), vol 2. of standard scholarly biography * Koistinen, Paul A. C. Arsenal of World War II: the political economy of American warfare, 1940–1945? (2004) * Larrabee, Eric. Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and Their War (2004), chapters on all the key American war leaders excerpt and text search * Morison, Two-Ocean War: A Short History of the United States Navy in the Second World War (2007) * Perret, Geoffrey. There's a War to Be Won: The United States Army in World War II (1997) * Perret, Geoffrey. Winged Victory: The Army Air Forces in World War II (1997) * Pogue, Forrest. George C. Marshall: Ordeal and Hope, 1939–1942 (1999); George C. Marshall: Organizer of Victory, 1943–1945 (1999); standard scholarly biography * Potter, E. B. Nimitz. (1976). * Sherrod, Robert Lee. History of Marine Corps Aviation in World War II (1987) * Spector, Ronald. Eagle Against the Sun: The American War With Japan (1985) * Weigley, Russell. Eisenhower's Lieutenants: The Campaigns of France and Germany, 1944–45 (1990) * Weinberg, Gerhard L. A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (1994). Global history of the war; strong on diplomacy of FDR and other main leaders ==Cold War== * Atkins, Stephen E. Historical Encyclopedia of Atomic Energy. (2000). 491 pp. * Bacevich, Andrew J., ed. The Long War: A New History of U.S. National Security Policy Since World War II (2007) excerpt and text search * Bundy, McGeorge. Danger and Survival: Choices About the Bomb in the First Fifty Years (1988). * Friedman, Norman. The Fifty Year War: Conflict and Strategy in the Cold War. (2000) excerpt and text search * Gaddis, John Lewis. Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy (1982) online edition; also excerpt and text search * Goldfischer, David. The Best Defense: Policy Alternatives for U.S. Nuclear Security from the 1950s to the 1990s. (1993). 283 pp. * Isenberg, Michael T. Shield of the Republic: The United States Navy in an Era of Cold War and Violent Peace 1945–1962 (1993) * Lewis, Adrian R. The American Culture of War: The History of U.S. Military Force from World War II to Operation Iraqi Freedom (2006) excerpt and text search * Williamson, Samuel R., Jr. and Reardon, Steven L. The Origins of U.S. Nuclear Strategy, 1945–1953. (1993). 224 pp. ===Korea and Vietnam=== * Anderson, David L. Columbia Guide to the Vietnam War (2004). * Brune, Lester H. ed. The Korean War: Handbook of the Literature and Research (1996) online edition * Herring, George C. America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950–1975 (4th ed 2001), most widely used short history. * Kutler, Stanley ed. Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War (1996). essays by experts * * Schulzinger, Robert D. Time for War: The United States and Vietnam, 1941–1975. (1997) online edition * Tucker, Spencer. ed. Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War (1998) 3 vol. reference set; also one- volume abridgement (2001). * Tucker, Spencer. Vietnam. (1999) 226pp. online edition * Tucker, Spencer, ed. Encyclopedia of the Korean War (2002) * The Pentagon Papers (Gravel ed. 5 vol 1971); combination of narrative and secret documents compiled by Pentagon. excerpts ==See also == * Bibliography of the American Civil War * Bibliography of the American Revolutionary War * Bibliography of Canadian military history * Bibliography of works on the United States military and LGBT+ topics ==External links== *American War and Military Operations Casualties: Lists and Statistics, by Nese F. DeBruyne, Senior Research Librarian, Congressional Research Service. *Instances of Use of United States Forces Abroad, 1798–2017, by Barbara Salazar Torreon, Senior Research Librarian, Congressional Research Service. *U.S. Periods of War and Dates of Recent Conflicts, by Barbara Salazar Torreon, Senior Research Librarian, Congressional Research Service. *List of small wars and small operations * United States military history |
The War on I-4 is a college rivalry between the University of Central Florida Knights and University of South Florida Bulls. The rivalry is best known for its college football matchup which originated in a series of football games played from 2005 to 2008 and now takes place on Thanksgiving weekend, the de facto "rivalry weekend" for FBS football. In 2013, when UCF joined the American Athletic Conference, the schools began competing annually in all sports. In 2016, the schools officially adopted the "War on I-4" as an official competition series. Each year, the team with the most wins across all sports receives a gold trophy styled after an Interstate 4 (I-4) road sign with the logos of each school. The winner of the annual football game also receives a similar trophy. As of April 24, 2023, South Florida holds the all- time series lead for seven of the ten sports in which the schools meet head- to-head: baseball (84–81), men's basketball (27–19), women's basketball (32–17), men's soccer (), men's tennis (36–13), women's tennis (20–11) and volleyball (49–45); but UCF disputes the all time records in baseball, women's basketball, men's soccer, and volleyball, claiming the Bulls' records in these sports are 81–80, 29–14, , and 47–44, respectively. The only sports where UCF leads the all time head-to-head series are women's soccer (), softball (23–19), and football (8–6). UCF leads the all time trophy series 6–0. The Knights have also lead overall since both schools joined the American Athletic Conference with a record in conference games against the Bulls across all sports, whereas the all-time total across all sports is in favor of the Bulls. The Knights lead all time in conference tournament matches and the teams are tied in conference championship games (though USF has actually won five conference championships head-to-head against the Knights; the tie denotes that their 2017 women's soccer title was won on penalty kicks). The Bulls are 6–4 against UCF in NCAA tournament games, making the overall postseason total in favor of the Bulls. ==Names== Starting when the schools first met on the gridiron in 2005, some writers dubbed the rivalry the "War on I-4". When the series resumed in 2013, administrators from both schools named it the "I-4 Corridor Clash". Both names refer to Interstate 4, an interstate highway that runs through both Orlando and Tampa. In 2016, when the schools announced the official competition, they formally adopted the "War on I-4" name. The name "War on I-4" had previously been used for an arena football rivalry between the Tampa Bay Storm and Orlando Predators from 1992 to 2016. The Storm and Predators were located in the same metropolitan areas as USF and UCF respectively and were two of the most successful franchises in the league, with the Storm winning five Arena Bowls and the Predators winning two. The name became available when the Predators folded following the 2016 season. ==Series history== ===Beginning=== Founded in 1956 and 1963, respectively, the University of South Florida and the University of Central Florida are located away from each other in Tampa and Orlando, which combined make up the fourth- largest media market in the United States. The short distance between the schools, combined with their athletic programs concurrent establishment and rise to NCAA Division I helped create a natural rivalry between the two, which only became stronger when both became members of the American Athletic Conference in 2013. The first meeting between the then-Florida Technological University Knights of the Pegasus (UCF) and the University of South Florida Golden Brahmans that both schools agree happened (USF claims the schools played two baseball games in 1971 that UCF doesn't recognize) was a 1972 men's basketball game in Tampa. The Golden Brahmans won this game, 115–96. Since that game, USF and UCF have begun series against each other in eight or nine other sports, depending on which schools' records are used. ===Official War on I-4 rivalry=== On September 21, 2016, the morning of the first meeting of the season between the Bulls and Knights with a volleyball game set to take place in Orlando that evening, both athletic departments announced the official recognition of the “War on I-4” rivalry series. The schools compete each school year in 14 sports for bragging rights, with each sports team's record counting equally toward a final tally for each program. === Trophy === thumb|The UCF/Orlando side of the football trophy thumb|The overall War on I-4 trophy The winner of each the football competition and the overall competition each year takes possession of a large trophy shaped like the iconic I-4 road sign, which will be displayed on their campus for the following year. Each trophy is similar but has a few key differences. The all-sports trophy has the War on I-4 logo on it and features the score of each season's overall competition. It is also significantly larger than the football trophy. The football trophy is dual-sided, with one side of the trophy reading "Tampa" and featuring USF's logo while the other reads "Orlando" and features UCF's logo. The football trophy also has a large base, which is detachable. Including the base, the football trophy measures tall and weighs . The score of each game is featured on the base. Unlike the Vince Lombardi Trophy or Larry O'Brien Trophy, which are permanently awarded to the victor every year, both the football and overall War on I-4 trophies are traveling trophies which are kept by the winner until the other team wins it. === Future === With UCF set to leave the American Athletic Conference for the Big 12 Conference beginning in the 2023–24 school year, it is unclear whether the rivalry series will continue in the current format. It is likely that football in particular will be on hiatus until at least 2028, because that is the next year when both teams have openings in their non-conference schedules. However, USF and UCF will probably continue playing in most if not all other sports, albeit with fewer meetings than they currently have; and the trophy series may be discontinued or put on hold, especially considering the schools will no longer be guaranteed to meet in golf, cross country, or track and field. ==Point system== Since September 21, 2016, when the rivalry series was officially established, USF and UCF have scored their competitions in the 14 sports represented at both universities (South Florida is the only one of the two schools to sponsor men's cross country, women's sailing, and men's track & field while UCF is the only one of the two schools to sponsor women's rowing). Each sport is worth 6 total points, meaning the point system typically grants: * 1 point to the winner of each regular season baseball game (6 games per year) * 3 points to the winner of each regular season men's basketball game (2 games per year) * 3 points to the winner of each regular season women's basketball game (2 games per year) * 6 points to the higher finisher at the American Athletic Conference Women's Cross Country Championship * 6 points to the winner of the annual football game * 6 points to the higher finisher at the American Athletic Conference Men's Golf Championship * 6 points to the higher finisher at the American Athletic Conference Women's Golf Championship * 6 points to the winner the each regular season men's soccer match (3 points awarded to each side in the event of a draw) * 6 points to the winner of the annual regular season women's soccer match (3 points awarded to each side in the event of a draw) * 2 points to the winner of each regular season softball game (3 games per year) * 6 points to the winner of the annual regular season men's tennis match. * 6 points to the winner of the annual regular season women's tennis match. * 3 points to the higher finisher at the American Athletic Conference Women's Indoor Track & Field Championship * 3 points to the higher finisher at the American Athletic Conference Women's Outdoor Track & Field Championship * 3 points to the winner of each regular season volleyball match (2 matches per year) * In the event of a tie in the overall competition, the athletic program that scores higher in the annual NCAA Graduation Success Rate will be awarded 1 extra point and crowned as the champion for that season. In the unlikely event that this is also tied, the series ends as a tie for that season and the previous winner retains the trophy. In some years the scoring is slightly different. For example, USF and UCF only met once in women's basketball for the 2016–2017 season, so that game was worth all 6 points. In all, there are 84 available points with 43 points required to clinch the title. As mentioned above, only regular season matches are counted toward War on I-4 point totals for the 10 sports in which the teams compete head-to-head, meaning if the Bulls and Knights meet in a conference or NCAA tournament that game doesn't count for War on I-4 competition purposes. == Trophy series results == UCF clinched the first academic year's overall title with an AAC women's golf championship on April 18, 2017. The 2016–17 competition ended on May 20 with a 3–2 Knights victory in a baseball game, making the final point total 51 points to 33 points for UCF. On April 17, 2018, the Knights clinched the overall title for the second consecutive year, again in the AAC women's golf championship. UCF finished second in the event, while USF finished ninth. The series concluded on May 13 with UCF placing higher than USF in the 2018 American Athletic Conference outdoor track and field competition and led to a final series score of 49–35 for UCF. UCF clinched the overall title for the third straight year on April 7, 2019, with a 5–0 victory in baseball, the earliest clinch in the competition's history. The series concluded on May 12 with UCF placing higher than USF in the American Athletic Conference women's outdoor track and field competition, making the final score 70–14 in favor of the Knights, the largest margin of victory in the competition's history. The 2019–20 edition ended in March due to spring sports being canceled because of the COVID-19 pandemic. UCF led the series 36–9 at the time of the cancellation and was awarded the victory for the season, even though the schedule was not complete and UCF did not meet the point thresholds for winning in a normal season. This marked UCF's fourth-consecutive win in the War on I-4. The pandemic also caused the point system to slightly change for the 2020–21 edition of the rivalry. The AAC Women's Indoor Track & Field Championship was canceled, so the higher finisher at the AAC Women's Outdoor Track & Field Championship received 6 points instead of 3. Men's tennis and men's soccer both met twice in the regular season instead of once, so each of these matches counted for 3 points toward the victor's total rather than the usual 6. In addition there were four softball games and eight baseball games instead of the usual three of each, so each game was worth 1.5 and 0.75 points respectively rather than 2. UCF clinched the overall competition for the fourth time on April 17, 2021, with a 5–4 baseball win in Orlando. The point series ended on May 16 when UCF finished one place above USF in the women's outdoor track and field championship, making the total score 59.25–24.75, but the last meeting of the season between the two schools took place on May 30 when USF beat UCF in the 2021 American Athletic Conference baseball tournament championship game, though this did not add to USF's point total as it was a postseason meeting. For the 2021–22 season, most of the sports reverted back to their usual schedules, with the exception of men's soccer staying at two games per year and baseball changing to six games per year. On April 16, 2022, UCF officially clinched the series for the 2021–22 season, securing the 43 points needed after defeating USF 4–0 in women's tennis. The final score for the season was 58–26. During 2022–23, the final season with both teams in the American Athletic Conference, UCF started out with scoring 24 of the first 30 points (only losing the Men’s Soccer game) to take an early commanding 24-6 lead, but USF would rally to score 14 of the next 17 points (only being outranked in the Women’s AAC Indoor Track & Field Championship) to cut the UCF lead to a closer 27-20 before UCF scored 36 of the last 37 points (losing only one Men’s Baseball game) to win in a 63-21 blowout, officially clinching after finishing higher than USF in the AAC women's golf championship on April 19, 2023. ===Overall results table=== Season Baseball Men’s Basketball Women’s Basketball Women’s Cross Country Football Men's Golf Women’s Golf Men’s Soccer Women’s Soccer Softball Men’s Tennis Women’s Tennis Women’s Track & Field Volleyball Winner Score 2013-14 1 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 UCF 59–25 2 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 0 0 2 2 3 (2) 2 (3) 3 (2) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 3 (2) 1 (6) 1 (6) 2 (3) 2 (3) 2014-15 3 1 2 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 UCF 46–38 UCF wins 3 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 2 0 0 2 2 6 (1) 2 (3) 2 (3) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 3 (2) 1 (6) 1 (6) 2 (3) 2 (3) 2015-16 3 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 53–31 UCF wins 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 2 2 6 (1) 2 (3) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 3 (2) 1 (6) 1 (6) 2 (3) 2 (3) 2016-17 4 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0.5 1 0 1 0 0 UCF 51–33 UCF wins 2 2 1 1 0 0 1 0 0.5 2 1 0 2 2 6 (1) 2 (3) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 3 (2) 1 (6) 1 (6) 2 (3) 2 (3) 2017-18 2 0 2 0 0 1 0 1 0.5 2 1 0 0 0 UCF 49–35 UCF wins 1 2 0 1 1 0 1 0 0.5 1 0 1 2 2 3 (2) 2 (3) 2 (3) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 3 (2) 1 (6) 1 (6) 2 (3) 2 (3) 2018-19 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 UCF 70–14 UCF wins 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 (2) 2 (3) 2 (3) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 3 (2) 1 (6) 1 (6) 2 (3) 2 (3) 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 UCF 36–9 UCF wins 0 1 2 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 2 3 (2) 2 (3) 2 (3) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 3 (2) 1 (6) 1 (6) 2 (3) 2 (3) 2020-21 3 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 UCF UCF wins 5 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 3 2 1 1 2 8 (0.75) 2 (3) 2 (3) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 2 (3) 1 (6) 4 (1.5) 2 (3) 1 (6) 1 (6) 2 (3) 2021-22 2 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 UCF 58–26 UCF wins 4 1 2 1 1 0 1 1 0 3 0 1 2 2 6 (1) 2 (3) 2 (3) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 2 (3) 1 (6) 3 (2) 1 (6) 1 (6) 2 (3) 2 (3) 2022-23 3 2 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 UCF 63–21 UCF wins 3 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 3 1 1 2 2 6 (1) 2 (3) 2 (3) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 1 (6) 3 (2) 1 (6) 1 (6) 2 (3) 2 (3) 2023-24 0 0 0 No meetings No meetings No meetings No meetings No meetings 0 0 0 0 No meetings 0 Upcoming UCF wins 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 TBD TBD TBD 1 (6) TBD TBD TBD TBD ==Football== ===History=== ====Early plans==== Discussions about scheduling a game between the Knights and Bulls began shortly after South Florida fielded its first NCAA Division I-AA team in 1997. Supporters suggested such a rivalry could help generate interest and revenue for both burgeoning teams. The prospect became more serious when the Bulls entered Division I-A in 2001 and was very popular among fans, but as it would be a non-conference series, difficulties arose. UCF had overbooked its future schedules and would have to break commitments. Meanwhile, South Florida officials worried that their young program stood to take in less revenue from a home-and-away series against UCF than it would with an additional home game on the schedule. Serious planning for a series did not commence until 2003. ====First games (2005–2008)==== By 2003, serious discussions resumed as both schools had joined conferences – South Florida joined Conference USA (C-USA) in 2001, while UCF joined the Mid- American Conference (MAC) in 2002. That year, the schools' athletics directors met and agreed to schedule games for the 2005 and 2006 seasons. Subsequently, South Florida joined the Big East, an Automatic Qualifying conference, in 2005, while UCF joined C-USA the same year. The Bulls won both games, which both drew crowds over 45,000. The series was extended for 2007 and 2008 as part of an agreement with C-USA that the Bulls play a member of the conference annually for five years. South Florida won these games as well, with a 64–12 blowout in 2007 and 31–24 overtime thriller in 2008. South Florida declined to schedule further games in the series, indicating it wished to pursue more competitive and high-profile opponents. During the series hiatus South Florida would go on to play opponents such as Florida, Florida State, Miami, Clemson, and Notre Dame; beating all except for Florida at least once. The two schools discussed scheduling more games over the next several years, including a failed proposal by South Florida to play at the Citrus Bowl in 2011. In addition, a possible head-to-head matchup at the 2009 St. Petersburg Bowl failed to materialize. Bowl and city officials decided against pitting the two nearby schools, as they preferred at least one distant team so that more out of town fans would book hotel rooms in the area. UCF instead faced Rutgers in the game. ====Renewed series (2013–present)==== UCF was admitted to join USF in the Big East Conference in 2011 and was set to begin playing there in the 2013–2014 school year. Conference realignment turned the Big East into the American Athletic Conference prior to the fall 2013 season. For the first time, both schools were part of the same conference, and the rivalry resumed as a regular conference match beginning with the 2013 season. Since 2013, the games have been scheduled for Thanksgiving weekend. In 2015, the game was played on Thanksgiving night, and in 2016, the game was played on the Saturday of that week,which will happen again for the 2022 meeting. However, in most years it has been scheduled for Black Friday, the day after Thanksgiving. The 2022 football game was the last game scheduled between the teams because UCF left the American for the Big 12 Conference starting in 2023. As of now, no future games have been scheduled. ===Game results=== Since 2005, the Bulls and Knights have played fourteen times. The Knights lead the series, 8-6. The game has been played in two cities and three stadiums: Raymond James Stadium in Tampa, Florida, and Camping World Stadium and FBC Mortgage Stadium in Orlando, Florida. UCF holds a 8–2 series lead in conference games against USF.Bold dates indicate conference games Italic dates indicate games that count toward the trophy series ==Men's Basketball== The two schools began competing against one another in men's basketball during the 1971–72 season and have met 48 times to date. The Bulls currently hold a 27–19 edge over the Knights, however two Knights' victories were vacated due to NCAA sanctions, and UCF holds a 14–7 series lead since both teams joined the American Athletic Conference. USF and UCF are both tied for the longest win streaks in the series with the Bulls having won nine consecutive games against their rival from 1994 to 2007, while the Knights won nine straight from 2016 to 2020. The schools met in the postseason for the first time when they played in the first round of the 2022 American Athletic Conference tournament, which UCF won 60–58; they were scheduled to face each other in the first round of the 2020 edition before it was canceled less than an hour before tip-off due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Bold dates indicate conference games Italic dates indicate games that count toward the trophy series A 2022 American Athletic Conference tournament – First round == Women's Basketball == USF and UCF claim two different women's basketball records, due to when they declare the first meeting occurred. According to USF, they lead the women's basketball series 32–17, with the first meeting occurring on January 20, 1973, with a 41–30 Bulls win in Tampa. According to UCF, the first meeting occurred on January 12, 1978, with USF winning 81–70 in Tampa, resulting in a 29–14 USF lead in the series. South Florida has won two of the three times the schools met in the American Athletic Conference tournament (the 2018 semifinal and the 2021 championship game, with UCF winning in the 2022 championship game). The Bulls hold a 12–8 lead in conference play. In 2021, the Bulls and Knights were in first and second place in the conference respectively going into the final two games of the regular season, both of which were War on I-4 matchups. UCF needed to win both games to clinch the title, while USF only needed to win one. The Bulls beat the Knights in Tampa in the first game to win the conference championship. The Bulls beat the Knights again nine days later in the AAC Tournament championship game. They met again in the championship game the following season, where the Knights came away victorious. The Bulls also won the 2023 regular season AAC title in a win at UCF on February 15. Bold dates indicate conference games Italic dates indicate games that count toward the trophy series A 2018 American Athletic Conference tournament – Semifinal B 2021 American Athletic Conference tournament – Championship game C 2022 American Athletic Conference tournament – Championship game == Baseball == The schools claim two different baseball records due to when they declare the first meeting occurred. According to USF, they lead the baseball series 84–81, with the first meeting occurring on March 13, 1971, with the Bulls winning 5–1 in Tampa. However, according to UCF the first meeting was FTU's 6–3 victory over USF on April 12, 1973 in Orlando, making the series a 81–80 USF lead. UCF has a 23–20 lead in the series since both teams have played in the same conference. It is by far the most-played sport between the two teams, with 165 (or 161 according to UCF) meetings. The two teams have played four times in the NCAA tournament (all of which coming in Regional play), splitting the games 2–2. Each team has won once head-to-head in the American Athletic Conference baseball tournament, with the Knights winning in the 2017 quarterfinal and the Bulls winning in the 2021 championship game. Bold dates indicate conference games Italic dates indicate games that count toward the trophy series A 1993 NCAA tournament – Regional second round B 1997 NCAA tournament – Regional first round C 2002 NCAA tournament – Regional first round C 2002 NCAA tournament – Regional second round E 2017 American Athletic Conference tournament – Quarterfinal F 2021 American Athletic Conference tournament – Championship game ==Men's Soccer== USF and UCF claim different records in men's soccer, due to when they declare the first meeting occurred. USF claims the first meeting occurred in 1974 with USF winning 2–1, giving the Bulls a lead. According to UCF the first meeting occurred in 1975 with USF winning 4–1, giving the Bulls a lead. The sides have met in the NCAA tournament twice with each team winning one of those meetings. USF won the only meeting in the American Athletic Conference tournament and leads the series 8–5 for conference games as a whole. Bold dates indicate conference games Italic dates indicate games that count toward the trophy series A 2010 NCAA tournament – Regional first round B 2011 NCAA tournament – Regional second round C 2016 American Athletic Conference tournament – Semifinal == Women's Soccer == The first women's soccer meeting between the teams occurred in 1998 with USF winning 4–0 in Tampa. UCF currently leads the series , the best record of any of their teams against the Bulls. The schools have met in the American Athletic Conference tournament four times, with South Florida leading those matches . In the two tournament games that ended in ties, each side advanced on penalty kicks one of those times. The series is tied in conference games between the schools. Bold dates indicate conference games Italic dates indicate games that count toward the trophy series A 2013 American Athletic Conference tournament – Semifinal B 2015 American Athletic Conference tournament – Semifinal C 2017 American Athletic Conference tournament – Championship game D 2019 American Athletic Conference tournament – Semifinal == Softball == Softball was first played between the Bulls and then-Golden Knights on April 16, 2003, in a doubleheader in Tampa. USF won both games 9–0 and 5–4 respectively. The two schools have played each other in the NCAA tournament four times with USF holding a 3–1 lead while UCF won all three American Athletic Conference tournament meeting between the schools. Sara Nevins of USF threw the only no hitter in the series in the first game of a doubleheader on April 12, 2014, the first game where USF and UCF were in the same conference. USF and UCF are tied 19–19. UCF has a 17–10 lead since both teams joined the American. Bold dates indicate conference games Italic dates indicate games that count toward the trophy series †No Hitter A 2005 NCAA tournament – Regional first round B 2005 NCAA tournament – Regional second round C 2008 NCAA tournament – Regional first round D 2012 NCAA tournament – Regional first round E 2015 American Athletic Conference tournament – Semifinal F 2021 American Athletic Conference tournament – Semifinal G 2022 American Athletic Conference tournament – Championship game == Men's Tennis == The first men's tennis match took place on February 10, 1978, with South Florida winning 5–4. Men's tennis is the Bulls most successful sport against UCF, with a 35–11 all-time series lead. The teams have met four times in the American Athletic Conference Men's Tennis tournament, with one meeting coming in the quarterfinal and three coming in the championship game. USF is 3–1 against UCF in these four meetings, and 2–1 in the championship games. The Bulls also lead the series 8–7 when playing the Knights in conference games. Bold dates indicate conference games Italic dates indicate games that count toward the trophy series A 2017 American Athletic Conference tournament – Championship game B 2019 American Athletic Conference tournament – Championship game C 2021 American Athletic Conference tournament – Championship game D 2022 American Athletic Conference tournament – Quarterfinal E 2023 American Athletic Conference tournament – Quarterfinal == Women's Tennis == The women's tennis teams first played on February 23, 1994, with USF sweeping the Knights 9–0 in Tampa. UCF didn't win a game against South Florida until the ninth time the schools met. South Florida holds the all-time lead 20–11, but UCF has won three of the four times the schools met in the American Athletic Conference Women's Tennis Tournament, including the 2019 championship game. UCF leads the series 8–5 in conference games. Bold dates indicate conference games Italic dates indicate games that count toward the trophy series A 2015 American Athletic Conference tournament – First round B 2019 American Athletic Conference tournament – Championship game C 2021 American Athletic Conference tournament – Quarterfinal D 2022 American Athletic Conference tournament – Quarterfinal == Volleyball == USF and UCF disagree on their volleyball record, with the Bulls saying that they won the first meeting 2–1 in 1974 and UCF saying the first meeting was in 1976 with USF winning 2–0. According to USF, they lead the all-time series 49–45 while UCF claims that the Bulls lead 47–44. The Knights have never lost to USF as members of the American Athletic Conference with a 20–0 record in conference games against their rival. Bold dates indicate conference games Italic dates indicate games that count toward the trophy series ==Postseason results== USF and UCF have met head-to-head 33 times in the postseason, with 23 meetings in conference tournaments (including nine conference championship games) and 10 in NCAA tournaments. The Bulls have a overall postseason record against the Knights including a record of 6–4 in NCAA tournaments. The record in conference tournament games is in favor of UCF. The Bulls have a better postseason head-to-head record in women's basketball (2–1; all in conference tournaments), men's soccer (2–1; 1–1 in NCAA tournaments and 1–0 in conference tournaments), women's soccer (; all in conference tournaments), and men's tennis (3–2; all in conference tournaments). UCF leads in men's basketball (1–0; in a conference tournament), softball (4–3; though USF leads 3–1 in NCAA tournaments and UCF leads 3–0 in conference tournaments), and women's tennis (3–1; all in conference tournaments). They are tied in baseball (3–3; including 2–2 in NCAA tournaments and 1–1 in conference tournaments). In conference championship games specifically, USF leads , with championship game wins in baseball (2021), women's basketball (2021), and men's tennis (2017 and 2019), while UCF has beaten USF head-to-head for a conference title in women's basketball (2022), softball (2022), men's tennis (2021), and women's tennis (2019). The draw came in the 2017 women's soccer title game, which USF won 5–3 on penalty kicks (games that go to penalty kicks are officially listed as ties in NCAA records). ==References== ==External links== * Category:College sports rivalries in the United States Category:South Florida Bulls Category:UCF Knights Category:1972 establishments in Florida Category:Sports rivalries in Florida |
David Foster has been credited with composing, producing, arranging, performing, programming numerous singles and albums. ==Albums== ===Studio albums=== List of albums Year Title Song Composer Label 1972 Skylark (as Skylark) "Brother Eddie" Capitol "What Would I Do Without You" "A Long Way to Go" "Suites for My Lady" "I'll Have to Go Away" "The Writing's on the Wall" "Twenty-Six Years" "I'm in Love Again" "Wildflower" "Shall I Fail" 1974 2 (as Skylark) "You Remind Me of a Friend" "Love's a River Flowing" "It's a Wonder" "Wingless Bird" "Wildflower" "If That's The Way You Want It" "Foster Frees" "The Love Affair Is Over" "One More Mountain to Climb" 1975 Attitudes (as Attitudes) "Ain't Love Enough" Dark Horse "Street Scene" "A Moment" "You And I Are So In Love" "Squank" "Lend A Hand" "Chump Chance Romeo" "First Ballad" "Honey Don't Leave L.A." "In The Flow Of Love" 1977 Good News (as Attitudes) "Being Here with You" "Drink My Water" "Sweet Summer Music" "Let's Talk Turkey" "Foster's Frees" "Turning in Space" "Change" "In a Stranger's Arms" "Manual Dexterity" "Promise Me the Moon" "Good News" 1980 Airplay (as Airplay) "Stranded" RCA "Cryin' All Night" "It Will Be Alright" "Nothin' You Can Do About It" "Should We Carry On" "Leave Me Alone" "Sweet Body" "Bix" "She Waits For Me" "After The Love Is Gone" 1983 The Best of Me "Whatever We Imagine" Sound Design "Our Romance" "Chaka" "Heart Strings" "The Dancer" "The Best Of Me" "Mornin'" "Love, Look What You've Done To Me" "Love At Second Sight" "Night Music" 1986 David Foster "Love Theme From St. Elmo's Fire (Instrumental)" Atlantic "Theme From The Color Purple (Mailbox / Proud Theme)" "Flight Of The Snowbirds" "All That My Heart Can Hold" "The Best Of Me" "Tapdance" "Who's Gonna Love You Tonight" "Elizabeth" "Playing With Fire" "Sajé" 1988 The Symphony Sessions (with Vancouver Symphony Orchestra) "Piano Concerto In G" "The Ballet" "Time Passing" "Conscience" "Firedance" "Winter Games" "Water Fountain (Love Theme From "Secret Of My Success")" "Just Out Of Reach" "Morning To Morning" "We Were So Close" 1990 River of Love "River Of Love" "Walk Away" "This Must Be Love" "Is There A Chance" "Freedom" "Grown-Up Christmas List" "You're The Voice" "Living For The Moment" "All I Ever Needed" "One Step Closer" "Inside You" 1991 Rechordings "Love, Look What You've Done To Me" "You're The Inspiration" "After The Love Has Gone" "The Glory Of Love" "Who's Holding Donna Now?" "Voices That Care" "Man In Motion (St. Elmo's Fire)" "Freedom" "Hard To Say I'm Sorry" "Movie Montage" 1993 The Christmas Album David Foster - "Carol Of The Bells (Instrumental)" Interscope/Atlantic Wynonna - "Blue Christmas" BeBe And CeCe Winans - "The First Noel" Johnny Mathis - "It's The Most Wonderful Time Of The Year" Natalie Cole - "Grown-Up Christmas List" Michael Crawford - "O Holy Night" Vanessa Williams - "Go Tell It On The Mountain / Mary Had A Baby" Peabo Bryson And Roberta Flack - "I'll Be Home For Christmas" Tom Jones - "Mary's Boy Child" Celine Dion - "The Christmas Song (Chestnuts Roasting On An Open Fire)" Tammy Wynette - "Away In A Manger" David Foster And Friends - "White Christmas" 1994 Love Lights the World "Jelinda's Theme" 143/Atlantic "Forever Linda" "JEBBAS" "Listen To The Children" "Small Hands Reach Out" "The Colour Of My Love" "Live Each Day (Ben's Song)" "Ice Dance" "I'm Only Here For A While" "Allegro" "Love Lights The World" 2020 Eleven Words "Everlasting" Decca "Love" "Eternity" "Victorious" "Elegant" "Nobility" "Wonderment" "Orbiting" "Romance" "Dreams" "Serenity" 2022 Christmas Songs (as David Foster and Katharine McPhee) "Jingle Bell Rock" Loma Vista "Rudolph The Red-Nosed Reindeer" "My Grown-Up Christmas List" "Blue Christmas" "Santa Claus Is Coming To Town" "I'll Be Home For Christmas" "The Christmas Song" ===Live albums=== List of albums Year Title Label 2008 Hit Man: David Foster & Friends 143 Records, Reprise 2011 Hit Man Returns: David Foster & Friends Reprise 2019 An Intimate Evening Decca ===Compilation albums=== List of albums Year Title Label 1989 Time Passing Atlantic 1992 A Touch of David Foster 1998 Selecciones Latinas peermusic 2002 The Best of Me: A Collection of David Foster's Greatest Works 143, Atlantic 2010 The Magic of David Foster & Friends 143, Atlantic 2012 The Best of Celine Dion & David Foster Columbia 2015 The Many Sides of David Foster Universal Music ===Video works=== List of videos Year Title Detail Format Label 1985 Love Theme from St Elmo's Fire (Official Music Video) unreleased 1986 The Best Of Me (Official Music Video) with Olivia Newton-John Tears Are Not Enough (Documentary) TV Program (CBC, 1985) VHS, LD VAP 1987 The Symphony Sessions with Vancouver Symphony Orchestra Atlantic Video The Real Stuff (Documentary) with Snowbirds, TV Program (CBC, 1987) unreleased Rendez-Vous (Official Music Video) Victory TV ad for Beer (Coors) 1988 And When She Danced (Official Music Video) 1991 Voices that Care (Documentary) A David Foster Christmas Card TV Program (CBC, 1989) VHS, LD Victor 1992 The Bodyguard (cast as Conductor) Movie Stream, DVD, Blu-ray Warner David Foster's Twilight Orchestra TV Program (RCTI, 1992) unreleased 1993 David Foster's Christmas Album TV Program (NBC, 1993) 1994 JT Super Producers ’94 (Concert in Japan) TV Program (NTV, 1994) 2002 The Concert For World Children's Day TV Program (ABC, 2002) DVD McDonald's 2005 The Princes of Malibu TV Program (FOX, 2005) Stream, DVD GRB Studios 2006 Under The Desert Sky with Andrea Bocelli, TV Program (PBS, 2006) DVD Decca 2008 Hit Man: David Foster & Friends TV Program (PBS, 2008) DVD, Blu-ray 143 Records, Reprise I Will Be There with You TV ad for First Class (JAL) unreleased 2009 My Christmas with Andrea Bocelli, TV Program (PBS, 2009) DVD Universal 2011 Hit Man Returns: David Foster & Friends TV Program (PBS, 2011) DVD, Blu-ray Reprise Concerto: One Night in Central Park with Andrea Bocelli, TV Program (PBS, 2011) Decca, Universal Dream With Me In Concert with Jackie Evancho, TV Program (PBS, 2011) Syco Music, Columbia 2015 Asia's Got Talent (cast as Judge) TV Program (AXN Asia) unreleased 2016 Emin: Live From Russia with David Foster with Emin, TV Program (PBS, 2016) 2017 Asia's Got Talent (cast as Judge) TV Program (AXN Asia) 2018 Kenny Loggins And Friends: Live On Soundstage with Kenny Loggins, TV Program (WTTW, 2016) DVD, Blu-ray, CD BMG 2019 Asia's Got Talent (cast as Judge) TV Program (AXN Asia) unreleased An Intimate Evening with David Foster TV Program (PBS, 2019) CD Decca David Foster: Off the Record (Documentary) Stream ==Singles== Year Title Peak chart positions Peak chart positions Peak chart positions Peak chart positions Album Canada Top Singles (RPM) Title Canadian Digital Song Sales U.S. Billboard Hot 100 U.S. Billboard Adult Contemporary Album 1983 "The Best of Me" — — — — The Best of Me 1984 "Night Music" — — — — 1985 "Love Theme From St. Elmo's Fire (Instrumental)" 7 — 15 3 St. Elmo's Fire: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack 1986 "The Best of Me" (with Olivia Newton-John) 17 — 80 6 David Foster "Who's Gonna Love You Tonight" 75 — — 38 1987 "Rendez-Vous (vocal version)" (with Red Army Choir) — — — — single only 1988 "Winter Games" 21 — 85 28 The Symphony Sessions "And When She Danced (Love Theme From Stealing Home)" (with Marilyn Martin) 73 — — — Stealing Home 1990 "Grown-Up Christmas List" (featuring Natalie Cole) — — — — River of Love 1991 "River of Love" 71 — — — 1994 "Love Lights The World" — — — — Love Lights the World 2001 "O Canada 2001" (with The Vancouver Symphony and Lara Fabian) — 3 — — single only 2003 "Teko's Theme" (featuring Nita Whitaker) — — — — ==Production credits== ===Songs=== Foster has been credited with composing (only for first released version, not include cover version except performed or produced by Foster himself), producing, arranging, performing on the following songs: (not include sampling) Year Artist Song Album Composer Producer Arranger Keyboards 1970 Judy Singh "Up and Down" A Time For Love "Forever Waits Beyond" 1972 David Foster "Listen To Daddy" Unselfconsciously Canadian 1974 Ringo Starr "Call Me" Goodnight Vienna Eddie Reeves "Lingo Song" single only 1975 Tommy Bolin "The Grind" Teaser "Homeward Strut" "Dreamer" George Harrison "You" Extra Texture (Read All About It) "The Answer's at the End" "This Guitar (Can't Keep from Crying)" "World of Stone" "A Bit More of You" "Can't Stop Thinking About You" "Grey Cloudy Lies" "His Name Is Legs (Ladies and Gentlemen)" Nigel Olsson "Something Lacking In Me" Nigel Olsson "Don't Break A Heart" "Tides" "Only One Woman" "Get It Up For Love" "Songs I Sing" "When You Close Your Eyes" "Girl, We've Got To Keep On" "A Girl Like You" "Something To Believe In" "Just Another Lie" "Can't You See" Shawne Jackson "Get Out Of The Kitchen" Shawne Jackson "The Greatest Love" Erik Tagg "Tell-Tale Eyes" Smilin' Memories "Never Had The Feelin'" "Hang On" Bobby Womack "Superstar" I Don't Know What The World Is Coming To "Interlude #2" Lynyrd Skynyrd "Whiskey Rock-a-Roller" Nuthin' Fancy Keith Moon "Move Over Ms. L" Two Sides Of The Moon 1976 George Harrison "Woman Don't You Cry for Me" Thirty Three & 1/3 "Learning How to Love You" Brian And Brenda Russell "Please Pardon Me" Word Called Love "Word Called Love" "Labour Of Love" "You'll Never Rock Alone" "Livin' With You" "Tell Me When The Whistle Blows" "Highly Prized Possession" "Gonna Do My Best To Love You" "Backstreet Lovin" "Stranger's Houses" "A Player In The Band" Barry De Vorzon "Jelinda's Theme" Nadia's Theme (The Young And The Restless) "Winter Song" "This Masquerade" "The Dancer" "All By Myself" "Shadows" "Midnight" Steve Marriott "Star In My Life" Marriott "Are You Lonely For Me Baby" "You Don't Know Me" "Late Night Lady" "Early Evening Light" Les Dudek "What a Sacrifice" Les Dudek Michel Polnareff "Lipstick" Lipstick: Original Soundtrack "The Rapist" "Ballet" Ned Doheny "Get It Up for Love" Hard Candy "If You Should Fall" "Each Time You Pray" "A Love of Your Own" "I’ve Got Your Number" "On the Swingshift" "Sing to Me" "Valentine (I Was Wrong About You)" Wendy Waldman "West Coast Blues" The Main Refrain "Goodbye Summerwind" "Back By Fall" Alphonso Johnson "Love's the Way I Feel 'Bout Cha" Yesterday's Dreams Cate Bros. "Start All Over Again" In One Eye And Out The Other "In One Eye And Out The Other" "Travelin' Man" "Give It All To You" "Let's Just Let It Be" "Where Can We Go" Erick Nelson "Flow River Flow" Flow River Flow "Soldiers Of The Cross" "Prelude" "The Gift" "Sunlight" "Movin' On" "Beside You" "One Last Night" "Prodigal's Return" Guthrie Thomas "Fifty-Five" Lies And Alibis "Good Days Are Rollin' In" "For A While" "Yesterdays and Tomorrows" "Ramblin' Cocaine Blues" The Bottom Line "That's The Way To Go" Crazy Dancin "Gonna Do My Best To Love You" Jaye P.Morgan "I Fall In Love Everyday" Jaye P.Morgan "Keepin' It To Myself" "Here Is Where Your Love Belongs" "Closet Man" "It's Been So Long" "Let's Get Together" "Can't Hide Love" "You're All I Need To Get By" "It All Goes Round" Peter Foldy "Roxanne" single only "Funny" 1977 Ringo Starr "Sneaking Sally Through the Alley" Ringo The 4th "Simple Love Song" Diana Ross "Baby It's Me" Baby It's Me Rod Stewart "(If Loving You Is Wrong) I Don't Want To Be Right" Foot Loose & Fancy Free The Keane Brothers "Help! Help!" Keane Brothers "The Ugly One" "Goodbye Summer" "God Loves Little Girls" "I Wanna Get Back On The Floor And Boogie" "Keep On Rollin'" "Sherry" "Come On Home Country Boy" "Amy (Show The World You're There)" "Goodbye Momma And Poppa" Danny Peck "Halo Of Fire" Heart And Soul "Looking So Hard" "The Smoke Is Rising" "Dream Girl" "Brother Of Mine" "This Could Be A Real Nice Place" "I Do" "Take Your Baby Home" "That's The Way It Is" "Where Is My Heart" Lisa Dal Bello "Look at Me (Millions of People)" Lisa Dal Bello "(Don't Want to) Stand in Your Way" "My Mind's Made Up" "Snow White" "Touch Me" "Talk It Over (Even Though My Body's Cold)" "Stay with Me" "Day Dream" "Milk & Honey" "Everything Money Can Buy" Doonesbury's Jimmy Thudpucker "You Can't Fight It" Doonesbury's Jimmy Thudpucker And The Walden West Rhythm Section Greatest Hits (The composer was credited as a fictitious character. Foster probably composed most of the songs) "Take Your Life" "I Don't Know My Love" "Stop" "Indian Brown" "Where Can I Go" "I Do Believe" "Fretman Sam" "Ginny's Song" "So Long / Overture '73" Kenny Loggins "Daddy's Back" Celebrate Me Home Lee Ritenour "Isn't She Lovely" Captain Fingers "Space Glide" Harvey Mason "Till You Take My Love" Funk In A Mason Jar "Freedom Either Way" Becky Hobbs "Everyday" Everyday "Love Enough" "All That I Am" Jaisún "I Fall In Love Everyday" Jaisún "You're All I Need To Get By" "Keepin' It To Myself" "Closet Man" Takao Kisugi "Tsurenai Yuhgure" Zigzag "Amai Shokutaku" "Yaketa Natsu" "Zigzag" "Naga Ame" "Amai Taikutsu" "Uraburete" Sonny and Cher "You're Not Right For Me" single only Cheech and Chong "Bloat On" "Just Say "Right On" (The Bloaters' Creed)" 1978 Alice Cooper "From the Inside" From The Inside "Wish I Were Born in Beverly Hills" "The Quiet Room" "Nurse Rozetta" "Millie and Billie" "Serious" "How You Gonna See Me Now" "For Veronica's Sake" "Jackknife Johnny" "Inmates (We’re All Crazy)" Daryl Hall & John Oates "It's a Laugh" Along The Red Ledge "Melody for a Memory" "The Last Time" "I Don't Wanna Lose You" "Have I Been Away Too Long" "Alley Katz" "Don't Blame It on Love" "Serious Music" "Pleasure Beach" "August Day" Bill Champlin "What Good Is Love" Single "I Don't Want You Anymore" "We Both Tried" "Yo Mama" "Fly With Me" "Love Is Forever" "Careless" "Elayne" "Keys To The Kingdom" Barbra Streisand "Love Breakdown" Songbird Carole Bayer Sager "It's the Falling in Love" ...Too "You're Interesting" "I Don't Wanna Dance No More" Paul Anka "I'm By Myself Again" Listen To Your Heart "Don't Ever Say Goodbye" Nigel Olsson "Rainy Day" Nigel Olsson (second self-titled) "You Know I'll Always Love You" "Say Goodbye To Hollywood" "Part Of The Chosen Few" "Please Don't Tease" "All It Takes" "Living In A Fantasy" "Right Or Wrong" "Cassey Blue" "Au Revoir" Bob Weir "Bombs Away" Heaven Help The Fool "Easy to Slip" "Salt Lake City" "Shade of Grey" "Heaven Help the Fool" "This Time Forever" "I'll Be Doggone" "Wrong Way Feelin'" Cory Wells "Waiting For You" Touch Me "You're My Day" "Everything's Right For Love" "Midnight Lady (Hiding In The Shadows)" "Starlight" "Throw A Little Bit Of Love My Way" "I Know You're Willin' Darlin'" "Change Of Heart" "Lady Put The Light Out" The Brothers Johnson "So Won't You Stay" Blam! "Blam!" Lee Ritenour "Morning Glory" The Captain's Journey "Matchmakers" Cheryl Lynn "Got to Be Real" Cheryl Lynn The McCrarys "You" Loving Is Living "Thinking About You" "Don't Wear Yourself Out" "Loving Is Living" "Here's That Feeling" "You Are The Key" Hodges, James and Smith "You Can't Hide Love" What Have You Done For Love? "Here Is Where Your Love Belongs" "Seems So Long" Angelo "Midnight Prowl" Midnight Prowl "Changing Man" "The Desert" "We're Over" "As I See You Now" Reneé Armand "Love On A Shoestring" In Time "(We're) Dancing In The Dark" "House Up On THe Hill" "Indian Brown" "In Time" "Suite For 3 Poems (Living In The City / Signs / Ashes Like Us)" "High Wind Blowin'" "Beggarman" "The Bitter Taste Of Wild Things" Donna Summer "Last Dance" Thank God It's Friday: Original Soundtrack Olivia Newton-John "Talk to Me" Totally Hot Flora Purim "Five-Four" Everyday, Everynight The Manhattan Transfer "Who, What, When, Where, Why" Pastiche Mary MacGregor "If You Ever Believed" In Your Eyes "Don't Let Me Be Lonely Tonight" "Seashells On The Windows, Candles And A Magic Stone" "I've Never Been To Me" Country Joe McDonald "Coyote" Rock And Roll Music From The Planet Earth "Rock And Roll Again" "Southern Cross" "Get It Together" Paul Jabara "Didn't The Time Go Fast" Keeping Time "Pleasure Island" "Something's Missing (In My Life)" Stephen Bishop "Losing Myself in You" Bish "Looking for the Right One" Maxine Nightingale "You Got To Me" Love Lines "Lead Me On" Seals and Crofts "Midnight Blue" Takin' It Easy Steven Tetsch "Face In The Crowd" West Coast Confidential "Blood And Sand" 1979 Earth, Wind & Fire "In the Stone" I Am "After the Love Has Gone" "Let Your Feelings Show" "Wait" "Rock That!" "You and I" Michael Jackson "Girlfriend" Off the Wall "It's the Falling in Love" Barbra Streisand "Splish Splash" Wet Paul Anka "Headlines" Headlines "Never Get To Know You" "Learning To Love Again" Daryl Hall & John Oates "The Woman Comes and Goes" X-Static "Wait for Me" "Portable Radio" "All You Want Is Heaven" "Who Said the World Was Fair" "Running from Paradise" "Number One" "Bebop/Drop" "Hallofon" "Intravino" The Emotions "What's the Name of Your Love" Come Into Our World "On & On" "The Movie" Dolly Parton "Star Of The Show" Great Balls Of Fire "Almost In Love" The Manhattan Transfer "Nothin' You Can Do About It" Extensions Debby Boone "Meet Me on the Dance Floor" Debby Boone Lee Ritenour "Feel the Night" Feel The Night "Market Place" "Wicked Wine" "You Make Me Feel Like Dancing" Harvey Mason "I'd Still Be There" Groovin' You "The Race" "We Can" "Never Give You Up" "Say It Again" Deniece Williams "Are You Thinking?" When Love Comes Calling "I've Got the Next Dance" "Touch Me Again" "When Love Comes Calling" "God Knows" "Why Can't We Fall in Love?" Nigel Olsson "A Little Bit Of Soap" Nigel "You Know I'll Always Love You" "Dancin' Shoes" "Part Of The Chosen Few" "Say Goodbye To Hollywood" "All It Takes" "Thinking Of You" "Living In A Fantasy" "Cassey Blue / Au Revoir" Cheryl Lynn "In Love" In Love The Keane Brothers "Is Love Not Enough" Taking Off "One Thing On My Mind" Sandy Contella "Don't Ever Say Goodbye" Between Two Hearts "Strangers" "You Bring Out The Best In Me" You Know How To Hurt A Guy" "Seasons" Steve Kipner "Knock The Walls Down" Knock The Walls Down "Lovemaker" "School Of Broken Hearts" "Love Is Its Own Reward" Highway "(If I) Breakdown" Highway 1 Ned Doheny "To Prove My Love" Prone "Thinking With My Heart" "Guess Who's Looking For Love Again" "The Devil In You" Year Artist Song Album Composer Producer Arranger Keyboards 1980 Boz Scaggs "Jojo" Middle Man "Breakdown Dead Ahead" "Simone" "You Can Have Me Anytime" "Middle Man" "Angel You" "Isn't It Time" "You Got Some Imagination" "Look What You've Done to Me" Urban Cowboy: Original Soundtrack Earth, Wind & Fire "Let Me Talk" Faces "You" "Song in My Heart" "And Love Goes On" "In Time" "Faces" Average White Band "Our Time Has Come" Shine "For You, For Love" "Let´s Go ´Round Again" "Whatcha' Gonna Do For Me" "Into The Night" "Catch Me (Before I Have To Testify)" "Help Is On The Way" "If Love Only Lasts For One Night" "Shine" "Into The Night (Reprise)" "Kiss Me" Volume VIII "Love Won't Get In The Way" "Love Gives, Love Takes Away" "Growing Pains" Peter Allen "One Step Over the Borderline" Bi-Coastal "Fly Away" "Bi-Coastal" "I Don't Go Shopping" "Hit in the Heart" "I Could Really Show You Around" "Somebody's Angel" "Simon" "Pass this Time" "When this Love Affair is Over" Aretha Franklin "Come to Me" Aretha "What a Fool Believes" "I Can't Turn You Loose" Elton John "Give Me The Love" 21 At 33 George Benson "Love X Love" Give Me The Night "Midnight Love Affair" Al Jarreau "Gimme What You Got" This Time "Love Is Real" "(A Rhyme) This Time" Tavares "We Both Tried" Supercharged "Why Can't We Fall In Love" "I Don't Want You Anymore" Ray Kennedy "It Never Crossed My Mind" Ray Kennedy "Isn't It Time?" "Just For The Moment" "Can't Seem To Find The Time" "My Everlasting Love" "You Oughta Know By Now" "Sail On Sailor" "Starlight" "Let Me Sing You A Love Letter" Teri DeSario "Caught" Caught "Standin' On The Edge" "I've Got A Secret" "I Hate You" England Dan Seals "Love Me Like the Last Time" Stones "Holdin' Out For Love" Bruce Roberts "S'Good Enuf" Cool Fool Nielsen/Pearson "Don't Let Me Go" Nielsen/Pearson "Love Me Tonight" "It Could Be Trouble" "Givin' Your Love To Me" Heat "It's Up To You" Heat "This Love That We've Found" "Don't You Walk Away" Mariya Takeuchi "Sweetest Music" Miss M "Every Night" "Morning Glory" "Secret Love" "Heart to Heart" Ryo Okumoto "Crystal Highway" Makin' Rock "L.A. Express" "Original View Plus" Mel Carter "I Don't Want To Get Over You" single only "You Changed My Life Again" Black Rose "Never Should've Started" Black Rose 1981 Quincy Jones "Just Once" The Dude Aretha Franklin "Love All the Hurt Away" Love All The Hurt Away "Living in the Streets" The Tubes "Talk to Ya Later" The Completion Backward Principle "Sushi Girl" "Amnesia" "Mr. Hate" "Attack of the 50 Foot Woman" "Think About Me" "A Matter of Pride" "Don't Want to Wait Anymore" "Power Tools" "Let's Make Some Noise" The Manhattan Transfer "The Boy from New York City" Mecca for Moderns "Spies in the Night" "Smile Again" Lee Ritenour "Mr. Briefcase" Rit "(Just) Tell Me Pretty Lies" "No Sympathy" "Is It You?" "Good Question" The Pointer Sisters "We're Gonna Make It" Black & White Bill Champlin "Runaway" Runaway "One Way Ticket" "Sara" "Tonight Tonight" "Runaway Reprise" "Take It Uptown" "Satisfaction" "Stop Knockin' on My Door" "Gotta Get Back to Love" "Without You" "The Fool Is All Alone" Chaka Khan "And the Melody Still Lingers On (Night in Tunisia)" What Cha' Gonna Do For Me Carole Bayer Sager "Tell Her" Sometimes Late At Night "Easy To Love Again" "Stronger Than Before" Al Jarreau "My Old Friend" Breakin' Away "Our Love" "Breakin' Away" Earth, Wind & Fire "Evolution Orange" Raise! Herb Alpert "I Get It From You" Magic Man Patti Austin "Do You Love Me" Every Home Should Have One "Baby, Come to Me" "The Genie" Glen Campbell "Any Which Way You Can" It's The World Gone Crazy Little Feat "China White" Hoy-Hoy! Bobby King "A Fool And His Love" Bobby King "If You Don't Wan't My Love" Dwayne Ford "Lovin' And Losin' You" Needless Freaking "Am I Ever Gonna Find Your Love" "Stranger In Paradise" "The Hurricane" "Midnight Ride" "The Best Will Survive" Sneaker "Jaymes" Sneaker Engelbert Humperdinck "Don't You Love Me Anymore?" Don't You Love Me Anymore? "Heart Don't Fail Me Now" 1982 Chicago "What You're Missing" Chicago 16 "Waiting for You to Decide" "Bad Advice" "Chains" "Hard to Say I'm Sorry" / "Get Away" "Follow Me" "Sonny Think Twice" "What Can I Say" "Rescue You" "Love Me Tomorrow" Michael Jackson "The Girl Is Mine" Thriller Neil Diamond "Heartlight" Heartlight "I'm Alive" "I'm Guilty" Dionne Warwick "For You" Friends In Love "Can't Hide Love" "A Love So Right" Dionne Warwick and Johnny Mathis "Friends in Love" "Got You Where I Want You" Donna Summer "Livin' in America" Donna Summer "Love Is Just A Breath Away" Kenny Loggins "Heart to Heart" High Adventure "If It's Not What You're Looking For" Herbie Hancock "Paradise" Lite Me Up Leon Ware "Slippin' Away" Leon Ware Jimmy Webb "God's Gift" Angel Heart "His World" "Nasty Love" Anne Bertucci "Substitution" I'm Number One "Room No.3" "So Selfish" "No No No" "Don'tcha Dare Love Me" Lee Ritenour "Voices" Rit/2 Harvey Mason "Someday We'll All Be Free" Stone Mason David Roberts "Anywhere You Run To" All Dressed Up 1983 Olivia Newton-John "Twist of Fate" Two of a Kind: Original Soundtrack "Take a Chance" "Shaking You" "(Livin' in) Desperate Times" Steve Kipner "Catch 22 (2 Steps Forward, 3 Steps Back)" Boz Scaggs "The Perfect One" Chicago "Prima Donna" David Foster "Night Music" Kenny Rogers "We've Got Tonight" We've Got Tonight "All My Life" James Ingram "Whatever We Imagine" It's Your Night "How Do You Keep the Music Playing?" Lionel Richie "The Only One" Can't Slow Down Paul Anka "Second Chance" Walk a Fine Line "Hold Me 'Til The Mornin' Comes" "Darlin', Darlin'" "Take Me In Your Arms" "This Is The First Time" "Gimme The Word" "Golden Boy" Brenda Russell "It's Something" Two Eyes Al Jarreau "Mornin'" Jarreau "Save Me" Sheena Easton "Almost Over You" Best Kept Secret Stevie Nicks "Nightbird" The Wild Heart Jennifer Holliday "I Am Love" Feel My Soul The Tubes "She's a Beauty" Outside Inside "No Not Again" "Out of the Business" "The Monkey Time" "Glass House" "Wild Women of Wongo" "Tip of My Tongue" "Fantastic Delusion" "Drums" "Theme Park" "Outside Lookin' Inside" Peter Allen "Just Another Make- Out Song" Not The Boy Next Door "Not the Boy Next Door" "You and Me" "Once Before I Go" Earth, Wind & Fire "Could It Be Right" Electric Universe "Spirit Of A New World" Barry Manilow "Put a Quarter in the Jukebox" Greatest Hits Vol. II Country Joe McDonald "Power Plant Blues" Childs Play Juice Newton "Til I Loved You" Dirty Looks Ney Matogrosso "10 Anos (Pout Pourri)" ...Pois É "Ate O Fim" 1984 Chicago "Stay the Night" Chicago 17 "We Can Stop the Hurtin'" "Hard Habit to Break" "Only You" "Remember the Feeling" "Along Comes a Woman" "You're the Inspiration" "Please Hold On" "Once in a Lifetime" Kenny Rogers "What About Me?" What About Me? "The Night Goes On" "Somebody Took My Love" "Crazy" Fee Waybill "You're Still Laughing" Read My Lips "Nobody's Perfect" "Who Loves You Baby" "I Don't Even Know Your Name (Passion Play)" "Who Said Life Would Be Pretty" "Thrill Of The Kill" "Saved My Life" "Caribbean Sunsets" "Star Of The Show" "I Could've Been Somebody" Chaka Khan "Through the Fire" I Feel For You Kenny Loggins "I'm Free (Heaven Helps The Man)" Footloose: Original Soundtrack Neil Diamond "Sleep With Me Tonight" Primitive "Crazy" Al Jarreau "After All" High Crime Air Supply "I Can Wait Forever" Ghostbusters: Original Soundtrack Naoko Kawai "If You Want Me" Daydream Coast "Second Nature" "I Love It" "As Long As We're Dreaming" Naoko Kawai and David Foster "Live Inside Your Love" Randy Newman "The Natural" The Natural: Original Soundtrack Jack Wagner "Lady of My Heart" All I Need 1985 John Parr "St. Elmo's Fire (Man In Motion)" St.Elmo's Fire: Original Soundtrack Billy Squier "Shake Down" Elefante "Young And Innocent" Jon Anderson "This Time It Was Really Right" Fee Waybill "Saved My Life" Vikki Moss "If I Turn You Away" David Foster "Love Theme From St. Elmo's Fire (Instrumental)" "Georgetown" "Love Theme From St. Elmo's Fire (For Just A Moment)" David Foster (as Airplay) "Stressed Out (Close To The Edge)" Barbra Streisand "Somewhere" The Broadway Album Northern Lights "Tears Are Not Enough" We Are the World Chicago "Good For Nothing" Dionne Warwick and Elton John, Gladys Knight, Stevie Wonder "That's What Friends Are For" Friends Dionne Warwick "Love at Second Sight" Kenny Rogers "The Best of Me" The Heart of the Matter Kenny Loggins "I'll Be There" Vox Humana "Forever" "At Last" "Loraine" DeBarge "Who's Holding Donna Now" Rhythm of the Night Hermanos "Cantaré, Cantarás (I Will Sing, You Will Sing)" single only Jack Wagner "Too Young" Lighting Up The Night Paul Hyde And The Payolas "Stuck In The Rain" Here's The World For Ya "You're The Only Love" "It Won't Be You" "Cruel Hearted Lovers" "It Must Be Love" "Little Boys" "All That I Want" "Here's The World" "Rhythm Slaves" "Never Leave This Place" Bill Withers "Oh Yeah!" Watching You, Watching Me Naoko Kawai and Steve Lukather "Finding Each Other" 9 1/2 1986 Chicago "Niagara Falls" Chicago 18 "Forever" "If She Would Have Been Faithful..." "25 or 6 to 4" "Will You Still Love Me?" "Over and Over" "It's Alright" "Free Flight" "Nothin's Gonna Stop Us Now" "I Believe" "One More Day" Peter Cetera "Glory of Love" Solitude/Solitaire Neil Diamond "The Man You Need" Headed For The Future "It Should Have Been Me" "Me Beside You" Anne Murray "Now and Forever (You and Me)" Something To Talk About Gordon Lightfoot "Anything for Love" East Of Midnight Lou Rawls "Stop Me From Starting This Feeling" Love All Your Blues Away "Learn To Love Again" Patti La Belle "On My Own" Winner In You "Sleep With Me Tonight" El DeBarge "When Love Has Gone Away" El DeBarge "Love Always" Lee Ritenour "If I'm Dreamin' (Don't Wake Me)" Earth Run Jermaine Jackson "Lonely Won't Leave Me Alone" Precious Moments Glenn Jones "Love Will Show Us How" Take It From Me Janice Regan "Tough Luck" single only 1987 Night Ranger "The Secret Of My Success" The Secret Of My Success: Original Soundtrack Danny Peck And Nancy Shanks "I Burn For You" Roger Daltrey "The Price Of Love" Restless Heart "Don't Ask The Reason Why" David Foster "Gazebo" "Water Fountain" "3 Themes" Dionne Warwick and Jeffrey Osborne "Love Power" Reservations For Two Gladys Knight & The Pips "Love Is Fire (Love Is Ice)" All Our Love "Overnight Success" Siedah Garrett "Everchanging Times" Baby Boom: Original Soundtrack (unreleased) Tim Feehan "Read Between The Lines" Tim Feehan Pauli Carman and Karyn White "We Never Called It Love" It's Time 1988 Marilyn Martin and David Foster "And When She Danced (Love Theme From Stealing Home)" Stealing Home: Original Soundtrack The Nylons "Poison Ivy" David Foster "Stealing Home" "Home Movies" "Stealing Home (Reprise)" "Katie's Theme" Neil Diamond "The Best Years of Our Lives" The Best Years Of Our Lives "Hard Times for Lovers" "This Time" "Everything's Gonna Be Fine" "Hooked on the Memory of You" "Take Care of Me" "Baby Can I Hold You" "Carmelita's Eyes" "Courtin' Disaster" "If I Couldn't See You Again" "Long Hard Climb" Seiko Matsuda "Blue" Citron "Marrakech" "Every Little Hurt" "You Can't Find Me" "Daite..." "We Never Get To It" "Zoku Akai Sweet Pea" "No.1" "Shigatu Ha Kaze No Tabibito" "Ringosyu No Hibi" Art Garfunkel "This Is the Moment" Lefty "So Much in Love" Julio Iglesias "Love Is on Our Side Again" Non Stop "My Love" Santa Fé "Cancion Sentimental" El Camino George Hawkins Jr. "No Tomorrow" Fresh Horses: Original Soundtrack (unreleased) Mari Hamada "Sailing On" Love Never Turns Against 1989 David Foster "Carol Of The Bells" A David Foster Christmas Card (VHS) Natalie Cole "Christmas Medley" Kenny Loggins "On Christmas Morning" "Rudolph The Red Nosed Reindeer" "Santa Claus Is Coming To Town" "Celebrate Me Home" Natalie Cole "Grown Up Christmas List" "Christmas Cometh A Carolling" David Foster "The Joy Of Christmas Past" David Foster and His Family "Why Can't Christmas Last Longer Than A Day (Theme Song)" Paul McCartney "We Got Married" Flowers In The Dirt Paul Anka "Stay With Me" Somebody Loves You Aretha Franklin "Come To Me" Through The Storm June Pointer "How Long (Don't Make Me Wait)" June Pointer Larry Carlton "On Solid Ground" On Solid Ground Celine Dion and Warren Wiebe "Listen To Me" Listen To Me: Original Soundtrack (unreleased) Christopher Max "I Burn For You" More Than Physical Year Artist Song Album Composer Producer Arranger Keyboards 1990 Celine Dion "Love By Another Name" Unison "I'm Loving Every Moment With You" "I Feel Too Much" "If We Could Start Over" "Have a Heart" Peter Cetera "No Explanation" Pretty Woman: Original Soundtrack Mary Lu Zahalan "Letting Go" Zahalan Myriam Hernández "Sabía" Dos Gilbert O'Sullivan "At The Very Mention Of Your Name" (new arranging) single only (US) / The Very Best Of Gilbert O'Sullivan (2012) 1991 Various Artists "Voices That Care" Voices That Care Natalie Cole "Mona Lisa" Unforgettable... with Love "Lush Life" "That Sunday That Summer" "Avalon" "Too Young" "Almost Like Being in Love" "Unforgettable" Barbra Streisand "I Know Him So Well" Just For The Record... Kenny Loggins "The Real Thing" Leap Of Faith "I Would Do Anything" Linda Ronstadt "Dreams To Dream (Finale Version)" An American Tail: Fievel Goes West: Original Soundtrack Meryl Streep "Gartan Mother's Lullaby" For Our Children Robin McAuley "Teach Me How To Dream" If Looks Could Kill: Original Soundtrack Bill Ross "Michael Corben's Adventure" Stephen Bishop "All I Want" All I Want For Christmas: Original Soundtrack Aretha Franklin and Michael McDonald "Ever Changing Times" What You See Is What You Sweat Yukiko Ito "Insincere" Good Times, Bad Times "Could’a Fooled Me" Chicago "Explain It to My Heart" Twenty 1 1992 Whitney Houston "I Will Always Love You" The Bodyguard: Original Soundtrack "I Have Nothing" "Run to You" Kenny G and Aaron Neville "Even If My Heart Would Break" Michael Bolton "Since I Fell for You" Timeless: The Classics "To Love Somebody" "You Send Me" "Yesterday" "Bring It On Home to Me" "White Christmas" Peter Cetera "Even a Fool Can See" World Falling Down "The Last Place God Made" Shanice "Saving Forever for You" Beverly Hills, 90210: Original Soundtrack Miki Howard "Shining Through" Femme Fatale "New Fire from An Old Flame" Sheena Easton "A Dream Worth Keeping" FernGully: The Last Rainforest: Original Soundtrack Carl Anderson "If Not For Love" Fantasy Hotel Kenny G "By the Time This Night Is Over" Breathless Michael W.Smith "Somewhere Somehow" Change Your World Rachelle Ferrell "Could've Fooled Me" Rachelle Ferrell Alan Silvestri "The Grotto Song" FernGully:The Last Rainforest (Original Score And Sounds Of The Rainforest) (NOT Original Soundtrack) Ukulele "黃絲帶" Yellow Ribbon "流星" "等待是一生最初蒼老" "飄裊" Morry Stearns "In The Quiet Night" Power In Our Hands 1993 Barbra Streisand "Some Enchanted Evening" Back to Broadway "Everybody Says Don't" "The Music of the Night" "Speak Low" "I Have a Love/One Hand, One Heart" "I've Never Been in Love Before" "Luck Be a Lady" "The Man I Love" Celine Dion "The Power of Love" The Colour of My Love "The Colour of My Love" Celine Dion and Clive Griffin "When I Fall in Love" Sleepless in Seattle: Original Soundtrack Frank Sinatra and Barbra Streisand "I've Got a Crush on You" Duets Roch Voisine "I'll Always Be There" I'll Always Be There Michael Bolton "Completely" The One Thing "In The Arms Of Love" Miki Howard "What a Little Moonlight Can Do" Miki Sings Billie (A Tribute To Billie Holiday) "I'm a Fool to Want You" "My Man" "Solitude" "'Tain't Nobody's Bizness If I Do" Color Me Badd "Wildflower" Time And Chance "Close To Heaven" "Let's Start With Forever" Dolly Parton and James Ingram "The Day I Fall In Love" Beethoven's 2nd: Original Soundtrack Lisa Fischer "Colors Of Love" Made In America: Original Soundtrack Carman "The River" The Standard "Serve The Lord" The Absolute Best Jay Graydon "After The Love Is Gone" Airplay For The Planet "When You Look In My Eyes" Taylor Dayne "Send Me a Lover" Soul Dancing 1994 Kenny Rogers "I Remember You" Timepiece "But Beautiful" "When I Fall in Love" "Love Is Here to Stay" "The Nearness of You" "My Funny Valentine" "Love Is Just Around the Corner" "Where or When" "My Romance" "In the Wee Small Hours of the Morning" "I Get Along Without You Very Well" "You Are So Beautiful" Peabo Bryson "Why Goodbye" Through The Fire "Through the Fire" "By the Time This Night Is Over" "You Can Have Me Anytime" BeBe & CeCe Winans "Don't Let Me Walk This Road Alone" Relationships "These What Abouts" Julio Iglesias "When You Tell Me That You Love Me" Crazy Anne Murray "Now and Forever (You and Me)" The Best... So Far "Over You" All-4-One "Oh Girl" All-4-One "I Swear" Chris Walker "Teach Me How To Dream" One Life To Live: Original Soundtrack Warren Wiebe "Goodbye" Babyface and Lisa Stansfield "Dream Away" The Pagemaster: Original Soundtrack Take 6 "You Can Never Ask Too Much (Of Love)" Join the Band Gerald Levert "I'd Give Anything" Groove On Myriam Hernández "Por Siempre Juntos" Myriam Hernández IV Sally Yeh and James Ingram "I Believe in Love" You Are Free (Sally Yeh's album) 1995 The Corrs "Erin Shore" (Traditional Intro) (Instrumental) Forgiven, Not Forgotten "Forgiven, Not Forgotten" "Heaven Knows" "Along with the Girls" (Instrumental) "Someday" "Runaway" "The Right Time" "The Minstrel Boy" (Instrumental) "Toss the Feathers" (instrumental) "Love to Love You" "Secret Life" "Carraroe Jig" (Instrumental) "Closer" "Leave Me Alone" "Erin Shore" (Instrumental) Michael Jackson "Childhood" HIStory "Smile" "Earth Song" Madonna "You'll See" Something To Remember "One More Chance" Sheena Easton "You've Learned to Live without Me" My Cherie "Crazy Love" Quincy Jones "Moody's Mood for Love" Q's Jook Joint U.N.V. "So In Love With You" Universal Nubian Voices All-4-One "I Can Love You Like That" And The Music Speaks Rod Stewart "So Far Away" Tapestry Revisited Celine Dion "(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman" "To Love You More" Single in Japan Bonnie Tyler "Bridge over Troubled Water" Free Spirit Wendy Moten "Your Love Is All I Know" Time For Change "All That My Heart Can Hold" Bruce Roberts "When Love Goes" Intimacy Curtis Stigers "This Time" Time Was Jordan Hill "Remember Me This Way" Casper: Original Soundtrack Anita Baker and James Ingram "When You Love Someone" Forget Paris: Original Soundtrack 1996 Celine Dion "Because You Loved Me" Falling Into You "All by Myself" "I Love You" "The Power of the Dream" Jordan Hill "What Am I Doing Here" Rhythm Of The Games (1996 Olympic Games Album) "For The Love Of You" Jordan Hill "How Many Times" "Slip Away" "Got To Be Real" "I Just Had To Hear Your Voice" "Ride" "Too Much Heaven" "Never Should Have Let You Go" "Until The End Of Time" "Remember Me This Way" Toni Braxton "Un-Break My Heart" Secrets Celine Dion "Brahms' Lullaby" For Our Children Too Cher "A Dream Is A Wish Your Heart Makes" Babyface "If" Faith Hill "Over The Rainbow" Toni Braxton "Brown Baby" Natalie Cole "Both Sides Now" David Foster and Friends "Love Lights The World" Barbra Streisand and Bryan Adams "I Finally Found Someone" The Mirror Has Two Faces: Original Soundtrack Barbra Streisand "All Of My Life" Natalie Cole "Stardust" Stardust "When I Fall in Love" "To Whom It May Concern" "This Morning It Was Summer" Vanessa Williams "Where Do We Go from Here" Greatest Hits: The First Ten Years Whitney Houston "I Believe In You And Me (Single Version)" The Preacher's Wife: Original Soundtrack Paul Anka and Anthea Anka and Barry Gibb "Yo Te Amo (Do I Love You)" Amigos Paul Anka and Celine Dion "Mejor Decir Adios (It's Hard To Say Goodbye)" Lionel Richie "Climbing" Louder Than Words Michael Bolton "White Christmas" This Is The Time - The Christmas Album Beth Hart Band "Spiders in My Bed" Immortal "Hold Me Through the Night" "Summer Is Gone" Bruce Roberts and Donna Summer "Whenever There Is Love" Daylight: Original Soundtrack Kevin Sharp "Nobody Knows" Measure Of A Man Scorpions "When You Came Into My Life" (New version) Pure Instinct (uncredited) Tony Smith "I Will" A Touch Of China "Moon On Your Face" "Farewell Kisses" "Lone Rain, Lonely Heart" "Silly" "The One Who Loves" "Understanding" "Love Declaration" "Stolen Heart" "Straight From My Heart" "Portion Of Love" "Butterfly Dreams" 1997 Celine Dion "Why Oh Why" Let's Talk About Love "When I Need You" "To Love You More" "Let's Talk About Love" Celine Dion and Barbra Streisand "Tell Him" Celine Dion and Luciano Pavarotti "I Hate You Then I Love You" The Corrs "When He's Not Around" Talk On Corners "I Never Loved You Anyway" "Don't Say You Love Me" "Intimacy" "No Good for Me" David Foster and The Boys Choir Of Harlem "Jesu, Joy Of Man's Desiring" Angelica Bee Gees "I Surrender" Still Waters "I Could Not Love You More" David Foster "Water Fountain" Songs Without Words Samantha Cole "Without You" Samantha Cole "You Light Up My Life" "I'm Right Here" Gary Barlow "So Help Me Girl" Open Road "I Fall So Deep" Patti La Belle "You Are My Solid Ground" Flame "Does He Love You" En Vouge "Too Gone, Too Long" EV3 Jon B. "Tu Amor" Cool Relax Kenny G "You Send Me" Greatest Hits Kenny Loggins "The Unimaginable Life" The Unimaginable Life Richard Marx "Talk To Ya Later" Flesh And Bone 1998 LeAnn Rimes "Looking Through Your Eyes" Quest for Camelot: Original Soundtrack Steve Perry "I Stand Alone" "United We Stand" Celine Dion "The Prayer" The Corrs "On My Father`s Wings" The Corrs And Bryan White "Looking Through Your Eyes" Gary Oldman "Ruber" Bryan White "I Stand All Alone" Eric Idle And Don Rickles "If I Didn't Have You" David Foster "Looking Through Your Eyes (Instrumental)" Andrea Bocelli "The Prayer" Monica "Inside" The Boy Is Mine "Right Here Waiting" "For You I Will" Brandy "Have You Ever?" Never Say Never "One Voice" "(Everything I Do) I Do It for You" Whitney Houston "I Learned from the Best" My Love Is Your Love Bette Midler "My One True Friend" Bathhouse Betty Paul Anka and Celine Dion "It's Hard To Say Goodbye" A Body Of Work Paul Anka and Tevin Campbell "One Kiss" Paul Anka and Anthea Anka "Do I Love You" Paul Anka and Patty LaBelle "You Are My Destiny" Paul Anka and Peter Cetera "Hold Me 'Til The Morning Comes" Celine Dion "O Holy Night" These Are Special Times "Blue Christmas" "Ave Maria" "Adeste Fideles (O Come All Ye Faithful)" "The Christmas Song (Chestnuts Roasting on an Open Fire)" "Brahms' Lullaby" "These Are the Special Times" Celine Dion and Andrea Bocelli "The Prayer" Lionel Richie "I Hear Your Voice" Time "The Closest Thing to Heaven" Olivia Newton- John "I Honestly Love You" Back with a Heart Deborah Cox "One Day You Will" One Wish Nicole Renée "How Many Times" Nicole Renée Dru Hill "What Do I Do With The Love" Enter The Dru Jennifer Love Hewitt "How Do I Deal" I Still Know What You Did Last Summer: Original Soundtrack Kevin Sharp "I'm Trying" Love Is "What Other Man" "Her Heart Is Only Human" Ricky Jones "Still In Love" Ricky Jones 1999 Celine Dion "The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face" All The Way... A Decade Of Song "Then You Look at Me" "Live (for the One I Love)" Celine Dion and Frank Sinatra "All the Way" Faith Hill "Let Me Let Go" Music From And Inspired By The Motion Picture Message In A Bottle (NOT Original Soundtrack) Nine Sky Wonder "Somewhere In The Middle" Anna Nordell "I'll Still Love You Then" Laura Pausini "One More Time" Mariah Carey "After Tonight" Rainbow Barbra Stereisand and Vince Gill "If You Ever Leave Me" A Love Like Ours Barbra Stereisand "If I Didn't Love You" Quincy Jones "If This Time Is The Last Time" From Q with Love Enrique Iglesias and Whitney Houston "Could I Have This Kiss Forever" Enrique Lace "Angel" Lace "I Cry Real Tears" "Swept Away" Gloria Estefan and NSYNC "Music of My Heart" Music of the Heart: Original Soundtrack Natalie Cole "Snowfall on the Sahara" Snowfalls On The Sahara "With My Eyes Wide Open I'm Dreaming" Smokey Robinson "Love Love Again" Intimate Kenny G "What A Wonderful World" Classics In The Key Of G Diana Krall "Why Should I Care" (hidden track) When I Look in Your Eyes All-4-One "I Will Be Right Here" On And On Tevin Campbell "Everything You Are" Tevin Campbell Shola Ama "This Time Next Year" In Return Year Artist Song Album Composer Producer Arranger Keyboards 2000 Toni Braxton "Spanish Guitar" The Heat "I'm Still Breathing" Plus One "God Is in This Place" The Promise "The Promise" "Last Flight Out" "My Friend" Donna Summer "The Power of One" Pokémon The Movie 2000: Original Soundtrack Denisse Lara "One" Garou "Que L'amour Est Violent" Seul "L'adieu" Trisha Yearwood "For Only You" Sex and the City: Music from the HBO Series 2001 Josh Groban "Alla Luce del Sole" Josh Groban "Gira con me questa notte" "You're Still You" "Aléjate" "Vincent (Starry, Starry Night)" "Un Amore per Sempre" "Home to Stay" Josh Groban and The Corrs "Canto Alla Vita" Josh Groban and Lili Haydn "Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring" Josh Groban and Charlotte Church "The Prayer" Eden's Crush "Love This Way" Popstars "Promise Me" Carole King "It Could Have Been Anyone" Love Makes The World Celine Dion "God Bless America" God Bless America Mariah Carey "There for Me" Never Too Far / Hero Medley (Single: B-side) Lara Fabian "For Always" A.I. Artificial Intelligence: Original Soundtrack Lara Fabian and Josh Groban "For Always (Duet)" Nicole Kidman and Ewan McGregor "Come What May" Moulin Rouge!: Original Soundtrack Nita Whitaker "Heaven Holds The Ones I Love" One Voice Edwin McCain "I Don't Know How I Got By" The Family Man: Original Soundtrack Barbra Streisand "I'll Be Home For Christmas" Christmas Memories "Grown-Up Christmas List" Andrea Bocelli "Mille Lune Mille Onde" Cieli Di Toscana "Chiara" Radioactive "Grace" Ceremony Of Innocence 2002 LeAnn Rimes "Light the Fire Within" Salt Lake 2002 Official Music Of The Games Barbra Streisand and Josh Groban "All I Know of Love" Duets David Foster "World Children's Day Anthem (Prelude)" "The Concert For World Children's Day" (DVD) David Foster and Friends "Aren't They All Our Children" Nita Whitaker "God Bless The Heartaches" The Rising Place: Original Soundtrack Filippa Giordano "Il Rosso Amore" Il Rosso Amore 2003 Michael Bublé "Fever" Michael Bublé "Moondance" "Kissing a Fool" "For Once in My Life" "How Can You Mend a Broken Heart" "Summer Wind" "You'll Never Find Another Love like Mine" "Crazy Little Thing Called Love" "Put Your Head on My Shoulder" "Sway" "The Way You Look Tonight" "Come Fly with Me" "That's All" "Let It Snow! Let It Snow! Let It Snow!" Let It Snow! "The Christmas Song" "Grown Up Christmas List" "I'll Be Home for Christmas" "White Christmas" Josh Groban "Oceano" Closer "My Confession" "Si Volvieras a Mi" "When You Say You Love Me" "All'improvviso Amore" "Broken Vow" "Caruso" "Hymne à l'amour" "You Raise Me Up" Josh Groban and Joshua Bell "Mi Mancherai (Il Postino)" Aretha Franklin "Falling Out Of Love" So Damn Happy Kristy Starling "Broken" Kristy Starling "To Where You Are" Donnie McClurkin and Yolanda Adams "The Prayer" ...Again 2004 Celine Dion "Miracle" Miracle "Brahms' Lullaby" "If I Could" "Sleep Tight" "What a Wonderful World" "My Precious One" "A Mother's Prayer" "The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face" "Baby Close Your Eyes" "Come to Me" "Le loup, la biche et le chevalier (une chanson douce)" "Beautiful Boy" "In Some Small Way" Renee Olstead "Summertime" Renee Olstead "Taking A Chance On Love" "Is You Is Or Is You Ain't My Baby" "Someone To Watch Over Me" "Breaking Up Is Hard To Do" "A Love That Will Last" "Meet Me, Midnight" "Sunday Kind Of Love" "On A Slow Boat To China" "What A Difference A Day Makes" "Midnight At The Oasis" "Sentimental Journey" William Joseph "Within" Within "Eternal" "Stella's Theme" "Butterflies And Hurricanes" "Ave Maria" "Kashmir" "Homeward Bound" "Piano Fantasy" "Se Si Perde Un Amore" "Dust In The Wind" "Grace" Diana DeGarmo "Go on and Cry" Blue Skies Josh Groban and Tanja Tzarovska "Remember Me" Troy: Original Soundtrack Spin Gallery "Grace" Standing Tall 2005 Michael Bublé "Feeling Good" It's Time "A Foggy Day (In London Town)" "You Don't Know Me" "Home" "Can't Buy Me Love" "Save the Last Dance for Me" "Try a Little Tenderness" "How Sweet It Is" "I've Got You Under My Skin" "You and I" Michael Bublé and Nelly Furtado "Quando, Quando, Quando" Michael Bublé and Chris Botti "Song for You" Eric Benét "Hurricane" Hurricane "Man Enough to Cry" "India" "The Last Time" "In the End" Destiny's Child "Stand Up for Love" #1's Dolly Parton "Imagine" Those Were The Days Ricardo Montaner "Vida Eterna" Todo Y Nada LaToya London "State of My Heart" Love and Life Earth, Wind & Fire "Gather Round" Sounds Of The Season: The NBC Holiday Collection (2005) 2006 Andrea Bocelli "Amapola" Amore "Besame Mucho" "Solamente Una Vez" "Pero te Extraño" "L'Appuntamento (Sentado à Beira do Caminho)" "Cuando Me Enamoro (Quando m'innamoro)" "Can't Help Falling in Love" "Because We Believe" "Ama Credi e Vai (Because We Believe)" Andrea Bocelli and Veronica Berti "Les Feuilles Mortes (Autumn Leaves)" Andrea Bocelli and Kenny G "Mi Manchi" Andrea Bocelli and Christina Aguilera "Somos Novios (It's Impossible)" Andrea Bocelli and Mario Reyes "Jurame" Andrea Bocelli and Stevie Wonder "Canzoni Stonate" Josh Groban "Un Dia Llegara" Awake "L'ultima Notte" "In Her Eyes" "Un Giorno Per Noi (Romeo E Giulietta)" Bianca Ryan "Pray for a Better Day" Bianca Ryan Katharine McPhee "Somewhere Over The Rainbow" single only Jay Graydon "You Can Count On Me" Past To Present - The 70s "You're My Day" "Should We Carry On" "Secret Love" "Throw A Little Bit Of Love My Way" "Love Flows" "Ted's Theme" 2007 Michael Bublé "The Best Is Yet to Come" Call Me Irresponsible "It Had Better Be Tonight (Meglio Stasera)" "Me and Mrs. Jones" "I'm Your Man" "Lost" "Call Me Irresponsible" "I've Got the World on a String" "Always on My Mind" "That's Life" "Dream" Michael Bublé and Boyz II Men "Comin' Home Baby" Michael Bublé and Ivan Lins "Wonderful Tonight" Peter Cincotti "Angel Town" East of Angel Town "Goodbye Philadelphia" "Be Careful" "Cinderella Beautiful" "Make It Out Alive" "December Boys" "U B U" "Another Falling Star" "Broken Children" "Man On A Mission" "Always Watching You" "Witch's Brew" "The Country Life" Josh Groban "Silent Night" Noël "I'll Be Home for Christmas" "Ave Maria" "Thankful" "The Christmas Song" "What Child Is This?" "Petit Papa Noël" "It Came Upon a Midnight Clear" "Panis angelicus" Josh Groban and Andy McKee "Little Drummer Boy" Josh Groban and Brian McKnight "Angels We Have Heard on High" Josh Groban and Faith Hill "The First Noel" Josh Groban and the Mormon Tabernacle Choir "O Come All Ye Faithful" Chris Botti and Andrea Bocelli "Italia" Italia Olivia Newton-John and Jon Secada "Every Time It Snows" Christmas Wish Band From TV "You Can't Always Get What You Want" House M.D.: Original Soundtrack 2008 Seal "A Change Is Gonna Come" Soul "I Can't Stand the Rain" "It's a Man's Man's Man's World" "Here I Am (Come and Take Me)" "I've Been Loving You Too Long" "It's Alright" "If You Don't Know Me by Now" "Knock on Wood" "I'm Still in Love with You" "Free" "Stand by Me" "People Get Ready" William Joseph "Standing The Storm" Beyond "Beyond" "Leningrad" "Heroes" "Once Upon Love" "Kashmir" "Sweet Remembrance Of You" "Apasionada" "Return With Honor" "Cinema Paradiso" "Asturias" "A Mother's Heart" Andrea Bocelli and Jane Zhang "One World, One Dream" unreleased Clay Aiken "Lover All Alone" A Thousand Different Ways Brian McKnight and Josh Groban "Angels We Have Heard on High" I'll Be Home For Christmas Katharine McPhee "I Will Be There With You" unreleased 2009 will.i.am and David Foster, Bono, Mary J. Blige, Faith Hill, Seal "America's Song" unreleased Olivia Newton-John and David Foster "Hope Is Always Here" Katherine Jenkins "Till There Was You" Believe "Bring Me to Life" "Angel" "Fear of Falling" "Parla Più Piano – Love Theme From The Godfather" "La Vie En Rose" "Who Wants to Live Forever" "Se Si Perde Un Amore" Katherine Jenkins and Andrea Bocelli "I Believe" Katherine Jenkins and André Rieu "Ancora Non Sai" Katherine Jenkins and Cody Carey "No Woman, No Cry" Katherine Jenkins and Chris Botti "La Califfa" Renee Olstead "Midnight Man" Skylark "Lover Man" "Stars Fell On Alabama" "My Baby Just Cares For Me" "When I Fall In Love" "Thanks For The Boogie Ride" "Hold Me Now" "Skylark" "Midnight In Austin Texas" "Hit The Road Jack" "You've Changed" "Ain't We Got Fun" "Nothing But The Blame" Michael Bublé "Cry Me a River" Crazy Love "All of Me" "Georgia on My Mind" "All I Do Is Dream of You" "Heartache Tonight" "At This Moment" Michael Bublé and Ron Sexsmith "Whatever It Takes" Whitney Houston "I Didn't Know My Own Strength" I Look To You Andrea Bocelli "White Christmas/Bianco Natale" My Christmas "Angels We Have Heard On High" "Santa Claus Is Coming to Town" "Adeste Fideles" "O Tannenbaum" "Silent Night" "Cantique De Noel" "Caro Gesù Bambino" Andrea Bocelli and Natalie Cole "The Christmas Song" Andrea Bocelli and The Mormon Tabernacle Choir "The Lord's Prayer" Andrea Bocelli and Mary J. Blige "What Child Is This?" Andrea Bocelli and The Muppets "Jingle Bells" Andrea Bocelli and Reba McEntire "Blue Christmas" Andrea Bocelli and Katherine Jenkins "I Believe" Lindsay Ell "Good Mother" Alone Year Artist Song Album Composer Producer Arranger Keyboards 2010 Charice "In This Song" Charice "Note to God" Seal "If I'm Any Closer" Seal 6: Commitment "Weight of My Mistakes" "Silence" "Best of Me" "All for Love" "I Know What You Did" "The Way I Lie" "Secret" "You Get Me" "Letting Go" "Big Time" Toni Braxton "Woman" Pulse 2011 Jackie Evancho "When You Wish Upon a Star" Dream With Me "Nella Fantasia" "Nessun Dorma" "Angel" "O mio babbino caro" "All I Ask of You" "Ombra mai fu" "Lovers" "Imaginer" "The Lord's Prayer" "To Believe" "Dream With Me" Jackie Evancho and Susan Boyle "A Mother's Prayer" Jackie Evancho and Barbra Streisand "Somewhere" Seal "Let's Stay Together" Soul 2 "Back Stabbers" "I'll Be Around" "Love Won't Let Me Wait" Tony Bennett and Jackie Evancho "When You Wish Upon A Star" Duets II Michael Bublé "It's Beginning to Look a Lot Like Christmas" Christmas "Santa Claus Is Comin' to Town" "A Holly Jolly Christmas" "Silent Night" "I'll Be Home for Christmas" "Ave Maria" Michael Bublé and The Puppini Sisters "Jingle Bells" Michael Bublé and Shania Twain "White Christmas" Shania Twain "Today Is Your Day" single only 2012 Keith Harkin "The End Of The Innocence" Keith Harkin "Daisy Fields" "Have I Told You Lately That I Love You" "Everybody's Talkin'" "Nothing But You & I" "Here Comes The Sun" "Tears Of Hercules" "Orange Moon" "Take It Away Boys" "Don't Forget About Me" "Rosa" "The Heart Of Saturday Night" Chris Botti and Andrea Bocelli "Per Te (For You)" Impressions Chris Botti and David Foster "Summertime" Chris Botti "Contigo En La Distancia" Celine Dion and Elvis Presley "If I Can Dream" The Best of Celine Dion & David Foster Rod Stewart "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas" Merry Christmas, Baby "Santa Claus Is Coming to Town" "White Christmas" "Blue Christmas" "When You Wish upon a Star" "Silent Night" Rod Stewart and Michael Bublé "Winter Wonderland" Rod Stewart and CeeLo Green and Trombone Shorty "Merry Christmas, Baby" Rod Stewart and Dave Koz "Let It Snow! Let It Snow! Let It Snow!" Rod Stewart and Ella Fitzgerald and Chris Botti "What Are You Doing New Year's Eve?" Rod Stewart and Trombone Shorty "Red- Suited Super Man" Rod Stewart and Mary J. Blige "We Three Kings" 2013 Andrea Bocelli "Perfidia" Passione "Roma Nun Fa' La Stupida Stasera" "Champagne" "Anema e core" "Era già tutto previsto" "Tristeza" "Sara' Settembre (September Morn)" "Love In Portofino" "Garota De Ipanema" "Malafemmena" "Love Me Tender" Andrea Bocelli and Jennifer Lopez "Quizás, Quizás, Quizás" Andrea Bocelli and Édith Piaf "La Vie en rose" Andrea Bocelli and Nelly Furtado "Corcovado - Quiet Nights Of Quiet Stars" Mary J. Blige "Little Drummer Boy" A Mary Christmas "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas" "My Favorite Things" "This Christmas" "The Christmas Song" "Rudolph, The Red-Nosed Reindeer" "Mary, Did You Know" "Petit Papa Noel" Mary J. Blige and Barbra Streisand and Chris Botti "When You Wish Upon a Star" Mary J. Blige and Jessie J "Do You Hear What I Hear?" Mary J. Blige and The Clark Sisters "The First Noel" Mary J. Blige and Marc Anthony "Noche De Paz (Silent Night)" Natalie Cole and Andrea Bocelli "Bésame Mucho" En Español David Garrett and David Foster "Chopin - Nocturne" Music 2014 Bryan Adams "Any Time at All" Tracks Of My Years "She Knows Me" "I Can't Stop Loving You" "Lay Lady Lay" "Down on the Corner" "Never My Love" "Sunny" "The Tracks of My Tears" "God Only Knows" Ruben Studdard "I Can't Make You Love Me" Unconditional Love "Hello Again" "They Long To Be (Close To You)" "Meant to Be" Mina and Seal "You Get Me" Caramella 2015 Brenna Whitaker "Black And Gold" Brenna Whitaker "Misty Blue" "It's A Good Day" "You Don't Own Me" "My Heart Cries For You" "When I'm Gone" "I Can't Hear A Word You Say" "It's Not Easy Bein' Green" "Anyone Who Had A Heart" "A House Is Not A Home" Ne-Yo "Friend Like Me" (from Aladdin) We Love Disney Jessie J "Part of Your World" (from The Little Mermaid) Jason Derulo "Can You Feel the Love Tonight/Nants Ingonyama" (from The Lion King) Gwen Stefani "Rainbow Connection" (from The Muppet Movie) Ariana Grande "Zero to Hero" (from Hercules) Jhené Aiko "In a World of My Own / Very Good Advice" (from Alice in Wonderland) Tori Kelly "Colors of the Wind" (from Pocahontas) Charles Perry "Ev'rybody Wants to Be a Cat" (from The Aristocats) Jessie Ware "A Dream Is a Wish Your Heart Makes" (from Cinderella ) Rascal Flatts & Lucy Hale "Let It Go" (from Frozen) We Love Disney Artists "It's a Small World" Andrea Bocelli "Maria" (from West Side Story) Cinema "La chanson de Lara" (from Doctor Zhivago) "Moon River" (from Breakfast at Tiffany's) "Be My Love" (from The Toast of New Orleans) "The Music of the Night" (from The Phantom of the Opera) "Por una cabeza" (from Scent of a Woman) "Sorridi amore vai" (from Life Is Beautiful) "Mi mancherai" (from Il Postino) "Brucia la Terra" (from The Godfather) "Nelle tue mani (Now We Are Free)" (from Gladiator) Andrea Bocelli and Ariana Grande "E più ti penso" (from Once Upon a Time in America and Malèna) Andrea Bocelli and Veronica Berti "Cheek to Cheek" (from Top Hat) Diana Krall "California Dreamin'" Wallflower "Desperado" "Superstar" "If I Take You Home Tonight" "I Can't Tell You Why" "Sorry Seems to Be the Hardest Word" "Operator (That's Not the Way It Feels)" "I'm Not in Love" "Don't Dream It's Over" Diana Krall and Michael Bublé "Alone Again (Naturally)" Diana Krall and Blake Mills "Wallflower" Diana Krall and Bryan Adams "Feels Like Home" Van Ness Wu and Melanie C and Anggun Cipta Sasmi "Let's Groove" unreleased 2016 Jordan Smith "Over the Rainbow" Something Beautiful "You Are So Beautiful" "Angel" "Amazing Grace" "Have Yourself A Merry Little Christmas" 'Tis The Season "It Came Upon A Midnight Clear" "My Grown-Up Christmas List" "You’re A Mean One, Mr. Grinch" "Silent Night" "What Child Is This?" "I’ll Be Home For Christmas" "Santa Claus Is Coming To Town" "Rockin’ Around The Christmas Tree" "The Christmas Song" Jordan Smith and The Mormon Tabernacle Choir "O Holy Night" Jordan Smith and Maria Aleida "Ave Maria" Yuna "All I Do" Chapters 2017 Carla Bruni "Enjoy the Silence" French Touch "Jimmy Jazz" "Love Letters" "Miss You" "The Winner Takes It All" "Highway to Hell" "Perfect Day" "Stand by Your Man" "Please Don't Kiss Me" "Moon River" Carla Bruni and Willie Nelson "Crazy" 2018 Michael Bublé "When I Fall in Love" Love "I Only Have Eyes for You" "Love You Anymore" "My Funny Valentine" "Such a Night" "Forever Now" "Unforgettable" "When You're Smiling" "Where or When" Michael Bublé and Cécile McLorin Salvant "La Vie en rose" Michael Bublé and Loren Allred "Help Me Make It Through the Night" Jessie J "Santa Claus Is Comin' to Town" This Christmas Day "Silent Night" Disturbed "Uninvited Guest" Evolution Barbra Streisand "Better Angels" Walls Year Artist Song Album Composer Producer Arranger Keyboards 2022 Bryan Adams "On A Night Like Tonight" Pretty Woman - The Musical Year Album Artist Producer Arranger Keyboards 1971 High Grass Crosstown Bus 1974 The Rocky Horror Show: Original Soundtrack Various Artists Waiting For A Song Denny Doherty 1975 Lazy Afternoon Barbra Streisand John R.Cash Johnny Cash Kim Carnes Kim Carnes Cate Bros. Cate Brothers Rude Awakening Bruce Miller The Hungry Years a.k.a. Overnight Success Neil Sedaka The Dream Weaver Gary Wright In My Own Way Michael Bruce Burnin' Thing Mac Davis I Guthrie Thomas Hard To Be Friends The Cats Living Together Fire and Rain Life Is Short, But It's Wide Maxine Sellers Duce Of Hearts Chris Ducey Paradise / Don't Let It Mess Your Mind Ted Neeley 1976 A Night on the Town Rod Stewart Slow Down World Donovan A Circle Filled With Love The Sons of Champlin Lisa Hartman Lisa Hartman Time Is On My Side Tracy Nelson Tom Thumb The Dreamer Michael Dinner Pictures and Rhymes Jim Weatherly Motion Geoff Muldaur Classical Country Snuff Garrett's Texas Opera Company 1977 Here You Come Again Dolly Parton The Music Man Paul Anka Superman Barbra Streisand The Light Of Smiles Gary Wright Mr. Lucky Fools Gold Introducing Sparks Sparks Bruce Roberts Bruce Roberts Southern Nights Glen Campbell Together O.C.Smith The Original Disco Duck Rick Dees & His Cast Of Idiots First In Line Randy Sharp Figli Delle Stelle Alan Sorrenti 5･4･3･2･1･0 Flying Kitty Band Rock'n Rose Alain Chamfort 1978 Heartbreaker Dolly Parton The Wiz: Original Soundtrack Various Artists Miss Gladys Knight Gladys Knight Miracles The Miracles At The Third Stroke Russ Ballard Thistles Bim The 1st Cuba Gooding Album Cuba Gooding The Truth About Us The Hudson Brothers Feitiço Ney Matogrosso Your Place Or Mine The Hues Corporation Mannequin Marc Jordan Flower Flower Who Is She... Madelaine 1979 Part Of The Game Pablo Cruise Thanks I'll Eat It Here Lowell George 1980 He Who Rides the Tiger Bernie Taupin 1981 Hot Baby Ami Ozaki Air Kiss Claudia Claudia U•S•J Char 1982 Dreamgirls: Original Broadway Cast Album Various Artists I'm Your Girl Friend Dara Sedaka Dreamwalkin' Eric Tagg 1983 Rock Rolls On Michael Bruce Cool Hand Anne Bertucci 1984 1100 Bel Air Place Julio Iglesias Once Upon a Christmas Kenny Rogers and Dolly Parton Lilás Djavan I Won't Break Your Heart Hiromi Iwasaki 1994 A Very Reggae Christmas Kofi Permiso De Volar Alejandro Lerner 1997 EVE: Original Soundtrack David Foster 1998 Civil War: The Nashville Sessions Various Artists 1999 One Shade Of Love Martin 2001 Celtic Crossroads - The Uncharted Path Doug Cameron La Taberna Del Buda Café Quijano 2003 Teko's Theme David Foster and Nita Whitaker 2004 Audrey Audrey De Montigny ¡Qué Grande Es Esto Del Amor! Café Quijano 2008 David Cavazos David Cavazos 2013 Cody Karey Cody Karey 2022 Higher Michael Bublé ==References== Foster, David |
East Village is a housing development in Stratford, East London that was designed and constructed as the Olympic Village of the 2012 Summer Olympics and has been converted for use as a new residential district, complete with independent shops, bars and restaurants. The area was formerly contaminated waste land and industrial buildings to the north of Stratford town centre. ==History== ===Planning and construction=== thumb|Olympic Village during construction, September 2010|300px As part of the regeneration programme within the bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics, the Olympic Village design to house the athletes was based on reusing the buildings after the games as a new residential district for Stratford. The basis for the residential plan was taken from the SCDC regeneration plan for the area as a consequence of the creation of the London-Paris high speed link. The spoil from the tunnel which went underground at Stratford created the platform on which Westfield Shopping Centre and the Olympic Village was created. Through a competitive bidding process, the then Labour British government chose a proposal by Lend Lease which covered financing and construction of both the Olympic Village and part of the London Olympics Media Centre. This would both provide accommodation for 22,500 athletes and team officials, 16,000 as Olympic and 6,500 as Paralympic built to Life Time Home standards to support the Paralympic residents and future residents with impairments or other physical challenges:afterwards provide a mix of low cost and private residential housing, within a community that would comprise offices, shops, schools and a health centre. Cilantro Engineering were appointed to work as part of a collaborative team to deliver Design and Build MEP Installations for the main contractor, Lend Lease. Lend Lease engaged a team of: architects Fletcher Priest; structural engineers Arup; and urban planning/landscape architecture firm West 8 and Vogt Landscape. They were briefed to design a village-garden type district to fit in with the wider urban park vision of the Olympic Park legacy, emulating the classical Victorian architecture layout of Maida Vale and other parts of Victorian west London. On a site, the plan provided for 14 residential plots, each made up of 5 to 7 blocks, built around communal squares and courtyards, with water features accentuating the closeness of the River Lea. Each of the 69 blocks is of between 8 and 12 storeys high, nominally laid out: Street level of mostly three-storey townhouses, with front doors on street level to create an "active frontage". These are supplemented by a mix of single to three-storey shops and offices. Floor 3 and above in the centre of the complex are communal raised gardens, which hide carparks beneath. At and above this level are a mix of low cost and private residential apartments, ranging from studio to five bedroom. Each apartment provides generous floor spacing, and each includes its own balcony that is big enough for a table and chairs. The whole Olympic Park site was proposed to be secured under a Compulsory Purchase Order (CPO) by the London Development Agency. In late 2005, a row broke out between then Mayor of London Ken Livingstone and Newham Council/Westfield Group over the use of the legal instrument. The site for the Olympic Village was to be located next to the £4Bn development of Stratford City, but access difficulties meant that the Olympic Park CPO extended onto the site for Stratford City. In November 2005, an agreement was made whereby the CPO over the Westfield site was removed, subject to agreed access provisions to the Olympic Village. In light of the 2008 financial crisis, Lend Lease found difficulties in raising funds on the commercial markets for the construction of the village, the single largest project in the 2012 Summer Olympics scheme.London 2012 Games village deal seen by year-end Reuters Accessed 8 October 2008 The government via the Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA) hence agreed to underwrite a greater part of the required sum, and a scale-back of the project scale by 25%, on the proviso that athletes competing in non-London based events would be housed locally to their competition, that three of the plots would be deferred until the post-Games period, plots 5,6 & 8\. This did not solve the challenge of providing Games time bed numbers. A Games design plan was created which introduced temporary walls within the legacy design so create more bed spaces: thus a 2-bed space, single bedroom apartment became 4; a four-bed apartment, 2 bedrooms became 6 and six bed apartment became 8 mainly by dividing the open plan lounge, dining and kitchen areas. Everything was retrofitted back to the original concept after the Games. Only the town houses over three levels were not subject to this Games time modification but still increased bed spaces from legacy 6 to 8 by use of the separate lounge.DLondon 2012 Olympic village funding to be settled by end of 2008 following reduction in scale Associated Press Released 11 July 2008 Following the athletes' experiences in Beijing 2008, and in particular through comments concerning athletes' welfare by International Olympic Committee President Jacques Rogge, this compromise was to be reconsidered whilst pressure built for the finance deal to be resolved.2012 Games will be under budget BBC News Accessed 31 August 2008 Up until this point, the proposed site had been a mix of former industrial buildings and contaminated waste land. The proposed site for the village provided two living camp sites for Irish Travellers, one on Clays Lane, Newham, and a second on Waterden Crescent, Hackney. The final part of the Olympic CPO covering the village site, secured in December 2006, was unsuccessfully challenged by the travellers in the High Court in May 2007. Towards the end of demolition/site clearance, on 12 November 2007 a fire broke out in an old industrial warehouse on Waterden Road, Hackney Wick, on the western edge of the proposed Olympic village site. With flames of in height engulfing the building and sending clouds of acrid black smoke over the city centre, it took 75 firefighters from the London Fire Brigade to bring the fire under control. ===Olympic and Paralympic village === During the summer of 2012, the first use for the blocks was as the Olympic Village for the 2012 Summer Olympics. Taking the original design, the architects added temporary partitioning to create "hotel" style apartments catering for: 3,300 apartments: each to have a TV, internet access, and a private courtyard; and 17,320 beds (this is around 17,000 for athletes ~ 10903 (total number of them) and rest for officials during the Games): providing each athlete with floor space. In addition, the developers added two temporary buildings: a food hall, which was open 24 hours a day, capable of catering for 5,500 athletes at a time; and an entertainment hall of , providing Video games for the athletes use and a communal rest space, plus a non-alcoholic bar. The village also included a plaza, where athletes were able to meet with friends and family. During the games There is a full list of the buildings and the athletes that stayed in them during the 2012 Olympics, and plaques in all East Village building foyers mark which countries stayed there. For example, the British team stayed in Calla House, Kotata House and Tayberry House; Greece in Hopground House; Spain in Carina House; Ukraine in Emperor House; Japan in Applegate House; Armenia, Peru and Slovenia in Calico House; Belgium, Cape Verde and Kyrgyzstan in Frye House; Costa Rica And Yemen in Galena House; And the Netherlands in Heinieken House. ===After the Games=== After the conclusion of the games, the Olympic housing was adapted to create a new residential quarter to be known as East Village. The new construction created 2,818 new homes, including 1,379 affordable homes and houses, for sale and rent. The wider community is planned with wide vistas filled with gardens, parks and communal areas, within which are to be housed a school, a health clinic and shops. Having sold the affordable homes to Triathlon Homes in 2009 for £268 million, a competitive tender was issued in 2008 for ODA's interests in the remaining 1,439 private homes, along with six adjacent future development plots with the potential for a further 2,000 new homes, and long-term management of East Village. The ODA received three bids: a joint-venture between Jamie Ritblat's Delancey and Qatari Diar; Hutchison Whampoa; and Wellcome Trust, who bid to take over all the Olympic park. In August 2011, the ODA announced an agreement with Delancey/Qatari Diar, who paid £557 million for the East Village site, representing an estimated £275 million loss to the ODA and hence the British taxpayer. Culture Secretary Jeremy Hunt commented that the ODA never expected to recoup building costs: "It was an entirely empty site, it didn't have any infrastructure, roads or parks. There was always going to be a public sector contribution to help put those in." Temporary partitions installed during the games are being removed to create a range of one to five-bed homes, ranging from apartments to townhouses. The hotel style designed rooms were converted to include kitchens. 1,439 private homes are let on a rental basis, instead of being sold, with the ownership remaining with Delancey/Qatari Diar and managed by Get Living London. This created the first UK private sector residential fund of over 1,000 homes to be owned and directly managed as an investment. In addition, the developers created new parklands and additional transport links. A health centre for residents of East Village and the surrounding areas has also been constructed. Independent retailers have been brought in to East Village, which is now a neighbourhood in its own right. The developers also added Chobham Academy, a new education campus with 1,800 places for students aged 3–19. During the Olympics, the school building was used as the main base for organising and managing teams. Rebuilt after the games, it opened in September 2013 as Chobham Academy, home to an education campus, comprising nursery, primary and secondary schools; an adult learning facility; and a community arts complex. In July 2015 Chobham Academy was rated 'Outstanding' by OFSTED. ==Transport== East Village is located at Stratford International station with fast services to central London (in 5–6 minutes) via High Speed One, on Southeastern trains, but not Eurostar, whose trains do not stop at Stratford International station. The Docklands Light Railway gives direct access to much of the east of London, and is one stop from Stratford station, which itself gives access to the Great Eastern Main Line (services operated by Greater Anglia and TfL Rail), c2c services (weekends only), the North London line (services operated by London Overground) and the London Underground Jubilee and Central lines. London Bus routes 97, 108, 308 and 339 and night route N205 serve East Village. Also, route D8 stops nearby at Stratford International and routes 58, 69 and 158 stops nearby on Leyton High Road along with route 97. Generally, walking distance from Big Ben is about .Google Maps At the time of the Olympics Stratford and Stratford International Stations were located in Travelcard Zone 3London: The Olympic Park - TripAdvisor During the Olympics, for every competition day there an all-zones free travel day card.Tube, DLR and London Overground | Transport for London As of January 2016 Stratford station and Stratford International station have been moved to Zone 2/3. ==Sustainability== Residential accommodation was designed to achieve Code for Sustainable Homes Level 4 on 8 September 2012. Plot N25, car park for Stratford International Station achieved CEEQUAL Excellent on 8 September 2012. Permanent and temporary timber used was externally verified and audited and the project achieved Full Project FSC certification (2009: TT-PRO-002826) on 31 January 2012. In construction the project achieved three Gold awards from the Considerate Constructors Scheme in 2010, 2011 and 2012, project registration references: 32454,36861 and 46760. ==See also== *Venues of the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics *London 2012 Olympic Legacy ==References== Cilantro Engineering ==External links== *Official website *Olympic Village @ London 2012 *East Village London, Get Living Category:Redevelopment projects in London Category:Stratford, London Category:2012 Summer Olympics Category:Residential buildings completed in 2012 Category:Buildings and structures in the London Borough of Newham Category:Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park Category:Housing estates in London Category:Areas of London Category:Privately owned public spaces Category:Olympic Villages |
thumb|200px|Károly Vécsey Count Károly Vécsey de Hernádvécse et Hajnácskő (November 24, 1803 - October 6, 1849) was a honvéd general in the Hungarian Army. He was executed for his part in the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, and is considered one of the 13 Martyrs of Arad. ==Ancestry== thumb|240px|Vécsey family coat of arms thumb|240px|His father, General August von Vécsey The Vécsey family originated from Ugocsa and Abaúj counties, tracing its ancestry there back to the 15th century. The family took the name of the village of its first known ancestors at Hernádvécse, Abaúj. Balázs Szőllősi de Vécse born in 1470. The family's wealth grew immensely when Sándor Vécsey married Mária Csápy de Polyánka around 1517, whose family had Hungarian royal ties. On November 21, 1692 Lipót László Vécsey married and forged two branches of the family; the Gömör and Várad branches, which lasted through the 19th century. The family thrived in this time and created a long tradition of military service. Along the Gömör line, Siegbert Vécsey, Károly's grandfather, was born in 1789, and was eventually appointed to the Military Order of Maria Theresa and became a lieutenant-general in the Imperial army. His son, Count Ágoston Vécsey was a cavalry commander and also admitted into the Order of Maria Theresa, and was the last commander of the Viennese Hungarian Noble Guard before it was disbanded. His wife, Károly Vécsey's mother, Amalia Colson died in 1826. From this marriage the following children were born: *Mária (1805–1875) *Károly *Angelika (1808–1885) *Ede (1810–1856), Imperial and royal chamberlain. In 1848 he was commander of the 2nd Imperial infantry. In July, he fought against Serbian rebels. He retired a lieutenant colonel and died in Dresden. He was married to the Countess Mary Blankenstein. *Jenő (1811–1866) Imperial and royal chamberlain, Captain in the Imperial Hussars. *Sándor (1812–1855) Jak Hódmezõvásárhely parish priest and abbot *Ágoston (1813–1879) imperial and royal chamberlain *Karolina (1817–1898) *Emília (1818–1819) *Amália (1820–1892) *Jozefina (1821–1861) *Adolf (1824–?) *Felícia (1826–1883) Karoly Vécsey married his wife Carolina Duffaud on August 15, 1849. She gave birth to a stillborn child soon after. Vécsey's confession at Arad began as follows: "My name is Count Károly Vécsey, I was born in Pest, Hungary, I am forty-two years old, Catholic, married, no children." However, birth records at Budapest make no mention of him during this time. This confession also contradicted his enrolment form at the Military Engineering Academy of Vienna which stated: "Vécsey, Károly. Born 24 Nov 1803 in Russland zu Retsniow." It was therefore refuted that he was born in Pest.Vécsey Lengyelországban született Merényi-Metzger Gábor, Polonia Węgierska ==Life== ===Early life=== There is little known about his childhood. Although it is known that he spent his summers at the family estate, Vécsey Castle at Solt, with his uncle, József Vécsey, in Gömör County. He spoke little Hungarian at first since both his parents had other primary languages. Vécsey therefore likely did not fully identify as Hungarian at this time. However this probably did not last long, growing up in a Hungarian dynasty. He followed the family tradition of choosing a military career and soon enrolled at the Empire's most prestigious military academy. ===Military career=== In 1820 he enlisted as a cadet in the 4th Imperial Dragoons. In 1821 he was promoted to lieutenant and was transferred to the 5th Hussars. By 1845 he was a major in the 5th Hussars. He served as the commander of the King of Hanover's Imperial Hussar Regiment in the mid 1840s under Colonel Ernő Kiss, both of whom were also future martyred along with Vécsey. The regiment became one of the most distinguished in the Imperial Army and had the largest number of officers later join the rebellion. In the spring of 1848 the regiment was stationed in Nagybecskerek (today: Zrenjanin, Serbia).Gyula Kedves: A szabadságharc hadserege – I. A lovasság, Budapest, 1992, ==Hungarian Revolution== ===Campaign against the Serbs=== At the onset of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, there was a large campaign to the south against the Serbians. The Austrians had promised the Serbians, along with other ethnic groups, various rewards if they fought against the Hungarian revolution. Vécsey did not particularly distinguish himself in this campaign, but, as Sebő Vukovics recalled, was "without notable actions, but sufficiently fulfilled his duty". As a result of his success he was promoted to colonel on October 12, 1848. Ernő Kiss then took command of his former regiment and he took command of an army brigade. On December 15 he became a division commander and was promoted to major general on December 12. The 2nd Hussars were then commanded by Major Gusztáv Pikéthy as temporary regimental commander.Gábor Bona: Tábornokok és törzstisztek a szabadságharcban 1848–49, Zrínyi Katonai Kiadó, Budapest, 1983, , 230. o. At the beginning of January 1849, the government decided to withdraw forces from Bačka (Bácska) and Banat to concentrate strength closer to Debrecen, the provisional Hungarian capital at Tisza. There was a morale crisis as the soldiers were unsure of their ability to face imperial soldiers rather than Serb rebels. The Verbász Bácska Corps officers held a meeting led by Count Sándor Esterházy stated that the Emperor would not likely break his oath and have Imperial soldiers fight against each other. The situation threatened to break up the corps through a coup until Vécsey, Colonel János Lenkey and József Baudisz took action. As a result of Esterházy Maj and about forty officers left, but the majority of the troops remained in the Hungarian army convoy. The military crisis was only overcome by the fact that the revolution depended on the solidarity of the army. Lajos Kossuth wrote cordial letters Vécsey to thank the courageous action of the officers to the official government gazette. ===Second battle of Szolnok=== After the departure of Esterhazy on January 17 he took over the command of the corps for the Backa evacuation and joined up with the main army. Elements of the army's strength had been left at Szeged, thus the half-strength battalion arrived on February 12 at Torokszentmiklos, where it was stationed for the next two weeks. The standing army under the command of John Damjanich also sent substantial reinforcements to Major General Bem in the Transylvania theatre. Henryk Dembiński, the newly appointed commander-in-chief of all forces, organized a counter-attack using the two main divisions, aimed at the Szolnok bridgehead while diverting Windisch-Gratz's attention elsewhere. Dembiński planned to destroy any strategic holdings including a chapel, but the orders did not follow through, leading to the battled for the bridgehead on March 2. Vécsey's division attacked Szolnok, diverting Leopold Karger Maj's brigade while Damjanich's Division crossed the Tisza, onto the Imperial side. However, due to a delay in the attack the encirclement failed completely. The commanders reconvened and planned for another assault to take the bridgehead. The second battle for the bridge occurred on the 5th and resulted in a decisive Hungarian victory. For his role in the Szolnok victory he received the Hungarian Order of Military Merit III class.Hermann Róbert: Az 1848–1849-es szabadságharc nagy csatái, Zrínyi Kiadó, 2004, , Dupla adag pálinka és a hősiesség. A szolnoki ütközet, 1949. március 5., 185–190. o. After this battle Vecsey was made a general, causing General Damjanich to complain. The complaint turned into a serious quarrel between the two generals and they refused to cooperate. The dispute almost resulted in sedition and reflected the shortcomings of Hungarian higher command. While Vecsey was popular among the soldiers, Damjanich had had no rivals before Vecsey's promotion. Lajos Kossuth Tiszafüred reported to the Chamber of Deputies on March 9 of the outcome: " General Vécsey nobly resigned his authority … and given total command to Damjanich. " Vécsey handed his two divisions over and formed a corps under the command of Damjanich in which Vecsey would serve as his second in command.Nemeskürty István: 1848–49. "Kik érted haltak szent világszabadság", Debrecen, 1977, , 284. o. ===Siege of Arad=== thumb|240px|Bust of Vecsey at the Budapest museum On April 7, 1849 he was appointed to command the Sun Corps at the Siege of Arad castle. Initially the new position was not a fitting one, as he had little technical knowledge for siege tactics as a cavalry commander. However he eventually was able to implement his exceptional organizational skills better than his predecessors and improve the situation. The defenses were reorganized and the siege guns were well kept, with an influx of supplies from Temesvár. He also managed to slow the efforts of Major General Johann Berger to blockade the Maros river canal into the fort. However, by March 25, Berger had blocked it off, negating any further supplies reaching the fort. The castle's fate was ultimately decided by this, as it was only a matter of time before the defenses would fall. With supplies being exhausted by mid-July negotiations for a surrender began. However, despite this setback, eventually the siege was relieved and the Imperial troops were defeated. The Imperial troops retreated, bypassing Vecsey's command, who sent Lieutenant Colonel Francis with a brigade to block the retreat. Commander Bem, however, cancelled this order and called the brigade back, arguing that he had authority over the unit. A disagreement followed and Vecsey claimed on April 23 that his authority and command as a general had been unjustly violated. Lugosról wrote a letter to the Government explaining the situation. In a strongly worded letter, Sandor Petofi Bem expressed his beliefs that was published in a newspaper in Cluj. Although the government resolved the case, Vecsey demanded the military courts examine Bem's statements for accuracy. The situation was rescued by Kossuth, who organized a compromise in which both commanders maintained their respective commands and Vecsey was awarded a second Hungarian Order of Military Merit award. The Hungarian leadership was critical of Vecsey in their opinion, believing him to be temperamental and misusing of his military talent. Nicholas Perczel Kossuth wrote in a letter that during the siege of Arad, Vécsey was " very much shooting out uselessly". However, his subordinates, both officers and soldiers, spoke very highly of him; both of his strategic knowledge and of his treatment of the men. He was particularly popular among the enlisted men, as he did his best to make sure they were equally equipped and provided for as the top officers. He also took great measures to allow for the religious practices of his men. Despite this popularity, on June 24 the Council of Ministers decided that Richard Guyon would take over command of the corps, although the officers stood beside Vecsey to prevent his replacement. ===Siege and Battle of Temesvár=== thumb|240px|Relief of Vecsey at the Keceli Military Museum After General Bem's successful campaign in Transylvania, Banat was responsible for the occupation and reconstruction of the region. The campaign began in April, the first objective being the occupation of Temesvár, but it became apparent that the 9000 soldiers and 213 guns would not be enough, and so the attack was halted and resulted in a prolonged siege. Bem handed over command to Banat who then reorganized the troops. On May 12, Vecsey's troops reengaged in the theater and defeated an Imperial force near Freidorf castle. Around this point, Vecsey and his some 4400 men lacked any ability to move further due to lack of munitions and positioning. Vecsey performed well given the circumstances, but was now once again in a dire situation while under siege, with supply cut off from fresh Imperial reinforcements. The defenders could not break the blockade or drive off any detachments, and when the water supply was cut off, capitulation again became a serious option to be considered. Henryk Dembiński, the Hungarian Supreme Commander, pressed through Temesvár aiming to relieve Arad by force, but was pushed back by Imperial and Russian troops. The force retired to link up with the majority of the forces at Arad where the guns had already withdrawn to.Hermann Róbert: A szabadságharc hadtörténete, Budapest, 2001, , 304–305. o. On August 9, 1849 the Battle of Temesvár occurred when Bem led some 4000 troops against the Imperial corps of Richard Guyon IV. Vecsey sallied forth from Arad during the engagement and joined the battle. Compared to other Hungarian units, Vecsey's unit had few casualties. Ultimately, although both sides had taken heavy losses, the effect on the smaller Hungarian force was larger and thus they were forced to withdraw from the field. ===Surrender at Nagyvárad=== After the Battle of Temesvár, the retreating Hungarian army was split into two elements, one under Vécsey headed towards Lugos with the other element headed towards Karánsebes. Bem planned on heading to the Transylvanian mountain ranges to continue the fight and reunite the remaining Hungarian forces. After linking up with Görgey's unit, Vecsey again took a detachment of some 8000 men to cross the Maros River. Once again, the Hungarian army was split in two. General Bem parted with Vecsey with the farewell words of "All right, you go general; I must say the Austrians will hang you anyway!" After Vecsey 's army crossed the Maros River near Tótvárad, he attacked an Imperial Brigade, where his army suffered heavy losses at the hands of Austrian cavalry. The Hungarian army had already been battered and depleted of supply and could not perform well against the fresh Imperial and Russian troops. The only aim for the army and Vécsey was to surrender to the Russians first and hope to attain more favorable terms than surrendering to the Austrians. On August 19, the Hungarian commanders sent messages to the Russians with details of negotiating the surrender. Vecsey then marched straight to Nagyvárad where he surrendered and had his soldiers lay down their weapons. Lieutenant General Nikolai Leontyin Pavlovich, the Russian adjutant, noted "a small Hungarian cavalry regiment arrived in Nagyvárad [and] laid down their weapons in our presence. The scene was sad… when they learned that Görgey’s army had fled to the mountains to ... avoid an encounter with the Austrians. This resulted in the Nagyvárad surrender".Leontyin Pavlovics Nyikolaj bárónak az 1849. évi magyarországi hadjárat idején vezetett naplója (fordította: Rosonczy Ildikó), in: Katona Tamás (szerk.): A magyarországi hadjárat, 1849. Orosz szemtanúk a magyar szabadságharcról, Budapest, 1988, , 329. o. The Sun Corps infantry laid down their arms before the Russians on August 21 at Nagyvárad. Vecsey was placed into custody and a few days later brought to Arad and placed into Austrian custody. ==Trial and execution== During the successful period of the Hungarian revolution, the Austrians sought the help of the Russian army. This was seen as a major blow to Imperial prestige worldwide and when it became apparent the revolution would fail, the Hungarians believed they had beaten the Austrians and only lost to the outnumbering Russian army. However, once the war was over, the humiliated Austrians had their opportunity to take revenge on the defeated Hungarians. A crackdown with harsh terms and conditions soon followed on the Hungarian troops. Nicholas I of Russia advised Franz Joseph to be lenient on the vanquished Hungarians for political reasons and to ease reconciliation. However, the decision for harsh punishment prevailed in a desire to discourage any more resistance.Bona Gábor: A megtorlás és a magyar katonai emigráció, in: Bona Gábor (szerk.): A szabadságharc katonai története, Zrínyi Kiadó, 1998, , 272–287. o. Vecsey's trial began September 3, 1849 in a military court at Arad. He was accused, along with many others, of being a ringleader of an insurgency. In his defense, Vecsey stated that "the Hungarian army was no insurgent army" stating that it was the army of a legitimate government and therefore the captured soldiers were entitled to proper military treatment. He further supported this claim by stating that the Emperor had approved the Hungarian Constitution, and had therefore endorsed the nation.Gáspár András honvéd vezérőrnagy visszaemlékezéseiből, idézi: Hermann Róbert: I. Ferenc József és a megtorlás, Budapest, 2009, , 138. o. Vecsey had no supporters, whereas some officers had Imperial connections that were able to spare their lives. Count Grünne, an influential member of the privy council did everything in his power to make sure Vecsey and the other martyrs received punishment to the greatest extent, as his father had demanded that the rebels be treated as criminals. Vecsey was court-martialed and sentenced to death by hanging on September 21, 1849. Vecsey read often while in prison. He had no family besides his wife, whom he wrote a farewell letter for the night before his death. The sentence was carried out October 6, 1849. The execution of the martyrs became a national heroic tale of Hungary, creating many legends. It is difficult to discern truth and myth from the stories of the martyrs. It is said that when Vecsey was stepping up to the gallows, he stopped to kiss the hand of his personal enemy John Damjanich. The story was accounted in an eyewitness testimony of the monk Eustic Sulyánszky, confessor of the Martyrs of Arad. A witness at Arad recalled: "Vecsey was the last one. He said nothing, he just silently watched all of his comrades die first. At the moment when Vécsey was about to hang, there was a great noise from the people. Vecsey’s straightened up and he stared with great interest at the crowd, as if expecting a miracle would arise...But then he too was dead." ==Legacy== thumb|240px|Statue at Vecsey Castle Park As in accordance with the Imperial court, Vecsey's body, along with the others, was buried in an unmarked grave at Arad. Despite this, Franz Bott succeeded in bribing the executioner to allow most of the bodies to be moved. Vecsey's remains were moved by a widow of an Arad lawyer, Catherine Urbányi Andrásné Hegyessy, who delivered it to his wife Carolina. It was moved to the Arad public cemetery at night where it was hidden in the Rosa family crypt. A year later it was transferred to a separate vault where it rested until 1916, when it was taken to the Arad Cultural Museum crypt. Then in 1974 it was moved for the last time to a tomb monument at the place of execution in commemoration. ==References== Category:1803 births Category:1849 deaths Karoly Category:The 13 Martyrs of Arad Category:People from Lipsko County Category:Executed Polish people Category:Executed Hungarian people Category:Executed people from Masovian Voivodeship |
Svetlana Alexandrovna AlexievichHer name is also transliterated as Aleksievich or Aleksiyevich. Svyatlana Alaksandrawna Aleksiyevich ; ; . (born 31 May 1948) is a Belarusian investigative journalist, essayist and oral historian who writes in Russian. She was awarded the 2015 Nobel Prize in Literature "for her polyphonic writings, a monument to suffering and courage in our time".Blissett, Chelly. "Author Svetlana Aleksievich nominated for 2014 Nobel Prize ". Yekaterinburg News. 28 January 2014. Retrieved 28 January 2014.Svetlana Alexievich wins Nobel Literature prize , BBC News (8 October 2015). She is the first writer from Belarus to receive the award. == Background == Born in the west Ukrainian town of Stanislav (Ivano-Frankivsk since 1962) to a Belarusian father and a Ukrainian mother, Svetlana Alexievich grew up in Belarus. After graduating from high school she worked as a reporter in several local newspapers. In 1972 she graduated from Belarusian State University and became a correspondent for the literary magazine Nyoman in Minsk (1976).Brief biography of Svetlana Alexievich (Russian) , from Who is who in Belarus thumb|Alexievich as artist in residence at Bavarian Villa Waldberta in the 1990s In a 2015 interview, she mentioned early influences: "I explored the world through people like Hanna Krall and Ryszard Kapuściński." During her career in journalism, Alexievich specialized in crafting narratives based on witness testimonies. In the process, she wrote artfully constructed oral histories of several dramatic events in Soviet history: the Second World War, Afghan War, dissolution of the Soviet Union, and the Chernobyl disaster. In 1989 Alexievich's book Zinky Boys, about the fallen soldiers who had returned in zinc coffins from the Soviet-Afghan War of 1979 – 1985, was the subject of controversy, and she was accused of "defamation" and "desecration of the soldiers' honor". Alexievich was tried a number of times between 1992 and 1996. After political persecution by the Lukashenko administration,Biography of Aleksievich at Lannan Foundation website she left Belarus in 2000. The International Cities of Refuge Network offered her sanctuary, and during the following decade she lived in Paris, Gothenburg and Berlin. In 2011, Alexievich moved back to Minsk. == Influences and legacy == Alexievich's books trace the emotional history of the Soviet and post-Soviet individual through carefully constructed collages of interviews. According to Russian writer and critic Dmitry Bykov, her books owe much to the ideas of Belarusian writer Ales Adamovich, who felt that the best way to describe the horrors of the 20th century was not by creating fiction but through recording the testimonies of witnesses. Belarusian poet Uladzimir Nyaklyayew called Adamovich "her literary godfather". He also named the documentary novel I'm From Fire Village () by Ales Adamovich, Janka Bryl and Uladzimir Kalesnik, about the villages burned by the German troops during the occupation of Belarus, as the main single book that has influenced Alexievich's attitude to literature. Original quote: "Калі ўся руская літаратура выйшла, як сцвярджаў Дастаеўскі, з «Шыняля» Гогаля, то ўся творчасць Алексіевіч – з дакументальнай кнігі Алеся Адамовіча, Янкі Брыля і Уладзіміра Калесніка «Я з вогненнай вёскі». Адамовіч — яе літаратурны хросны". Rough translation: "If the entire Russian literature came, as Dostoyevsky stated, from the Gogol's Overcoat, then the entire writings of Alexievich came from the documentary book of Ales Adamovich, Yanka Bryl and Uladzimir Kalesnik I'm from the flamy village. Adamovich is her literary godfather". Alexievich has confirmed the influence of Adamovich and Belarusian writer Vasil Bykaŭ, among others. She regards Varlam Shalamov as the best writer of the 20th century. Her most notable works in English translation include a collection of first-hand accounts from the war in Afghanistan (Zinky Boys: Soviet Voices from a Forgotten War) and an oral history of the Chernobyl disaster (Chernobyl Prayer / Voices from Chernobyl). Alexievich describes the theme of her works this way: == Works == Her first book, War's Unwomanly Face, came out in 1985. It was repeatedly reprinted and sold more than two million copies. The book was finished in 1983 and published (in short edition) in Oktyabr, a Soviet monthly literary magazine, in February 1984.С. Алексиевич. У войны — не женское лицо. Октябрь, 1984(2). (S. Alexievich. War's Unwomanly Face. Oktyabr, 1984(2).) In 1985, the book was published by several publishers, and the number of printed copies reached 2,000,000 in the next five years. Quote: "Первая книга — «У войны не женское лицо» — была готова в 1983 и пролежала в издательстве два года. Автора обвиняли в пацифизме, натурализме и развенчании героического образа советской женщины. «Перестройка» дала благотворный толчок." This novel is made up of monologues of women in the war speaking about the aspects of World War II that had never been related before. Another book, The Last Witnesses: the Book of Unchildlike Stories, describes personal memories of children during wartime. The war seen through women's and children's eyes revealed a new world of feelings. In 1992, Alexievich published "Boys in Zinc". The course of the Soviet-Afghan War (1979-1989) is told through emotive personal testimony from unnamed participants of the war; from nurses to commissioned officers and pilots, mothers and widows. Each provides an excerpt of the Soviet-Afghan War which was disguised in the face of criticism first as political support, then intervention, and finally humanitarian aid to the Afghan people. Alexievich writes at the beginning of the book: Alexievich was not embedded with the Red Army due to her reputation in the Soviet Union; instead, she travelled to Kabul on her own prerogative during the war and gathered many accounts from veterans returning from Afghanistan. In "Boys in Zinc", Alexievich calls herself 'a historian of the untraceable' and 'strive[s] desperately (from book to book) to do one thing - reduce history to the human being.'Alexievich, "Boys in Zinc" p.18 She brings brutally honest accounts of the war to lay at the feet of the Soviet people but claims no heroism for herself: 'I went [to watch them assemble pieces of boys blown up by an anti-tank mine] and there was nothing heroic about it because I fainted there. Perhaps it was from the heat, perhaps from the shock. I want to be honest.'Alexievich, "Boys in Zinc", p. 20 The monologues which make up the book are honest (if edited for clarity) reproductions of the oral histories Alexievich collected, including those who perhaps did not understand her purpose: 'What's your book for? Who's it for? None of us who came back from there will like it anyway. How can you possibly tell people how it was? The dead camels and dead men lying in a single pool of blood, with their blood mingled together. Who wants that?'Alexievich, "Boys in Zinc" p.30 Alexievich was brought to trial in Minsk between 1992 and 1996, accused of distorting and falsifying the testimony of Afghan veterans and their mothers who were 'offended [...] that their boys were portrayed exclusively as soulless killer-robots, pillagers, drug addicts and rapists...' Griegoriev. "Vecherny Minsk", 2 June 1992. The trial, while apparently defending the honour of the army and veterans, is widely seen as an attempt to preserve old ideology in post-communist Belarus. The Belarus League for Human Rights claims that in the early 1990s, multiple cases were directed against democratically inclined intelligentsia with politically motivated verdicts.The Belarus League for Human Rights cited in the Epilogue of "Boys in Zinc" In 1993, she published Enchanted by Death, a book about attempted and completed suicides due to the downfall of the Soviet Union. Many people felt inseparable from the Communist ideology and unable to accept the new order surely and the newly interpreted history. Her books were not published by Belarusian state- owned publishing houses after 1993, while private publishers in Belarus have only published two of her books: Chernobyl Prayer in 1999 and Second-hand Time in 2013, both translated into Belarusian. As a result, Alexievich has been better known in the rest of world than in Belarus. Quote: "Но она известно гораздо больше за пределами Белоруссии, чем в Белоруссии. Она уважаемый европейский писатель". She has been described as the first journalist to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature.Svetlana Alexievich wins Nobel Literature prize , by BBC She herself rejects the notion that she is a journalist, and, in fact, Alexievich's chosen genre is sometimes called "documentary literature": an artistic rendering of real events, with a degree of poetic license. In her own words: On 26 October 2019, Alexievich was elected chairman of the Belarusian PEN Center. ==Political activism== During the 2020 Belarusian protests Alexievich became a member of the Coordination Council of Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya, the leader of the Belarusian democratic movement and main opposition candidate against Lukashenko. On 20 August, Alexander Konyuk, the Prosecutor-General of Belarus, initiated criminal proceedings against the members of the Coordination Council under Article 361 of the Belarusian Criminal Code, on the grounds of attempting to seize state power and harming national security. On 26 August, Alexievich was questioned by Belarusian authorities about her involvement in the council. On 9 September 2020, Alexievich alerted the press that "men in black masks" were trying to enter her apartment in central Minsk. "I have no friends and companions left in the Coordinating Council. All are in prison or have been forcibly sent into exile," she wrote in a statement. "First they kidnapped the country; now it's the turn of the best among us. But hundreds more will replace those who have been torn from our ranks. It is not the Coordinating Council that has rebelled. It is the country." Diplomats from Lithuania, Poland, the Czech Republic, Romania, Slovakia, and Sweden began to keep a round-the-clock watch on Alexievich's home to prevent her abduction by security services. On 28 September 2020, Alexievich left Belarus for Germany, promising to return depending on political conditions in Belarus. Prior to her departure, she was the last member of the Coordination Council who was not in exile or under arrest. In August 2021, her book The Last Witnesses was excluded from the school curriculum in Belarus and her name was removed from the curriculum. It was assumed that the exclusion was made for her political activity. In her first public statement, after she was announced the Nobel Prize in 2015, Alexievich condemned Russia's annexation of Crimea in 2014. Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, she commented that "providing a territory for an aggressor country is nothing but complicity in a crime" in relation to Belarusian involvement in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. == Awards and honours == Alexievich has received many awards, including: * Saint Euphrosyne of Polotsk Medal (Медаль имени Святой Евфросиньи Полоцкой) * 1984 Order of the Badge of Honour (USSR)Сергей Чупринин: Русская литература сегодня: Зарубежье. М.: Время, 2008 г. * 1984 Nikolay Ostrovskiy literary award of the Union of Soviet Writers * 1984 Oktyabr Magazine Prize * 1985 Литературная премия имени Константина Федина of the Union of Soviet Writers * 1986 Lenin Komsomol Prize — for the book «У войны не женское лицо» * 1987 Literaturnaya Gazeta Prize *1996 Tucholsky-Preis (Swedish PEN) * 1997 Премия имени Андрея Синявского of Novaya Gazeta — «За творческое поведение и благородство в литературе» * 1997 Prize * 1997 (Russia) * 1997 Andrei Sinyavsky Prize * 1998 Leipzig Book Award for European Understanding * 1998 Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung-Preis * 1999 Herder Prize * 2005 National Book Critics Circle Award, Voices from Chernobyl * 2007 Oxfam Novib/PEN Award * 2011 Ryszard Kapuściński Award (Poland) * 2011 Angelus Award (Poland) * 2013 Peace Prize of the German Book Trade * 2013 Prix Médicis essai, La Fin de l'homme rouge ou le temps du désenchantement (for her book Secondhand Time) * 2014 Officer of the Order of the Arts and Letters (France) * 2015 Nobel Prize in Literature * 2017 Arthur Ross Book Award Bronze Medal given by the Council on Foreign Relations for her book Secondhand Time * 2017 Golden Plate Award from the American Academy of Achievement. * 2018 Belarusian Democratic Republic 100th Jubilee MedalМэдаль да 100-годзьдзя БНР уручаны С. Шушкевічу, С. Алексіевіч, Ул. Арлову, Р. Гарэцкаму, С. Антончыку [BDR 100th Jubilee Medal Awarded to S. Shushkevich, S. Alexievich, Ul. Arlou, R. Haretski, S. Antonchyk] - Official website of the Rada BNR, 16 June 2019.Алексіевіч, Антончык, Арлоў, Гарэцкі, Шушкевіч узнагароджаныя мэдалём «100 гадоў БНР» [Alexievich, Antonchyk, Arlou, Haretski, Shushkevich Awarded with the BDR Centenary Medal] - Radio Svaboda, 18 June 2019. * 2020: Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought by the European Parliament (one of the named representatives of the democratic opposition in Belarus) * 2021 Sonning Prize *2021 Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (Commander's Cross) Alexievich is a member of the advisory committee of the Lettre Ulysses Award. She will give the inaugural Anna Politkovskaya Memorial Lecture at the British Library on 9 October 2019. The lecture is an international platform to amplify the voices of women journalists and human rights defenders working in war and conflict zones. == Publications == * У войны не женское лицо (U voyny ne zhenskoe litso, War Does Not Have a Woman's Face), Minsk: Mastatskaya litaratura, 1985. **(English) The Unwomanly Face of War, (extracts), from Always a Woman: Stories by Soviet Women Writers, Raduga Publishers, 1987. **(English) War's Unwomanly Face, Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1988, . **(Belarusian) У вайны не жаночае аблічча. Minsk: Mast. lit., 1991. . **(Belarusian) У вайны не жаночы твар. Minsk: Mast. lit., 2019. Translated by Valiancin Akudovič. . **(Hungarian) A háború nem asszonyi dolog. Zrínyi Katonai Kiadó, 1988. . **(Finnish) Sodalla ei ole naisen kasvoja. Helsinki: Progress: SN-kirjat, 1988. Translated by Robert Kolomainen. . New edition: Keltainen kirjasto. Tammi, 2017. . **(English) The Unwomanly Face of War: An Oral History of Women in World War II, Random House, 2017, . **(German) Der Krieg hat kein weibliches Gesicht. Henschel, Berlin 1987, . **(German) New, expanded edition; übersetzt von Ganna-Maria Braungardt. Hanser Berlin, München 2013, . **(Korean) 전쟁은 여자의 얼굴을 하지 않았다 문학동네, Seoul, South Korea 2015, . **(Portuguese) A Guerra não Tem Rosto de Mulher. Elsinore, 2016. . **(Georgian) ომს არ აქვს ქალის სახე. თბილისი: ინტელექტი, 2017. . **(Turkish) Kadın Yok Savaşın Yüzünde. Kafka Yayınevi, 2016. Translated by Günay Çetao Kızılırmak. . **(Hungarian) Nők a tűzvonalban. New, expanded edition. Helikon, 2016. . **(Catalan) La guerra no té cara de dona. Raig Verd, 2018. Translated by Miquel Cabal Guarro. **(Ukrainian) У війни не жіноче обличчя. Kharkiv: Vivat, 2016. Translated by Volodymyr Rafeyenko. * Последние свидетели: сто недетских колыбельных (Poslednie svideteli: sto nedetskikh kolybelnykh, The Last Witnesses: A Hundred of Unchildlike Lullabies), Moscow: Molodaya Gvardiya, 1985 **(Russian) Последние свидетели: сто недетских колыбельных. Moscow, Palmira, 2004, . **(English) Last Witnesses: An Oral History of the Children of World War II. Random House, 2019 , translated by Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky. **(German) Die letzten Zeugen. Kinder im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Neues Leben, Berlin 1989; neu: Aufbau, Berlin 2005, . (Originaltitel: Poslednyje swedeteli). Neubearbeitung und Aktualisierung 2008. Aus dem Russischen von Ganna-Maria Braungardt. Berlin: Hanser-Berlin 2014, **(Portuguese) As Últimas Testemunhas: Cem histórias sem infância. Elsinore, 2017. . **(Hungarian) Utolsó tanúk: gyermekként a második világháborúban. Európa, 2017. . **(Turkish) Son tanıklar - Çocukluğa Aykırı Yüz Öykü. Kafka Yayınevi, 2019. Translated by Aslı Takanay. . **(Georgian) უკანასკნელი მოწმეები. თბილისი: არტანუჯი, 2018. . **(Catalan) Últims testimonis. Un solo de veus infantils. Raig Verd, 2016. Translated by Marta Rebón. * Цинковые мальчики (Tsinkovye malchiki, Boys in Zinc), Moscow: Molodaya Gvardiya, 1991. **(English, US) Zinky Boys: Soviet Voices from the Afghanistan War. W W Norton 1992 (), translated by Julia and Robin Whitby. **(English, UK) Boys in Zinc. Penguin Modern Classics 2016 , translated by Andrew Bromfield. **(German) Zinkjungen. Afghanistan und die Folgen. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 1992, .spiegel.de 1992: Auszug **(German) New, expanded edition; Hanser Berlin, München 2014, . **(Hungarian) Fiúk cinkkoporsóban. Európa, 1999. . **(Portuguese) Rapazes de Zinco: A geração soviética caída na guerra do Afeganistão. Elsinore, 2017. . **(Turkish) Çinko Çocuklar. Kafka Yayınevi, 2018. Translated by Serdar Arıkan & Fatma Arıkan. . **(Catalan) Els nois de zinc. Raig Verd, 2016. Translated by Marta Rebón. * Зачарованные смертью (Zacharovannye Smertyu, Enchanted by Death) (Belarusian: 1993, Russian: 1994) **(German) Im Banne des Todes. Geschichten russischer Selbstmörder. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main, 1994, ). **(German) Seht mal, wie ihr lebt. Russische Schicksale nach dem Umbruch. Berlin (Aufbau, Berlin 1999, . ** (Japanese) '死に魅入られた人びと : ソ連崩壊と自殺者の記錄 / Svetlana Aleksievich & Taeko Matsumoto. Shi ni miirareta hitobito : Soren hōkai to jisatsusha no kiroku'. Tóquio: Gunzōsha, 2005. ** (French) Ensorcelés par la mort." Paris: Plon, 1995. * Чернобыльская молитва (Chernobylskaya molitva, Chernobyl Prayer), Moscow: Ostozhye, 1997. . **(English, US) Voices from Chernobyl: The Oral History of a Nuclear Disaster. Dalkey Archive Press 2005 (), translated by Keith Gessen. **(English, UK) Chernobyl Prayer: A Chronicle of the Future. Penguin Modern Classics 2016 (), translated by Anna Gunin and Arch Tait. New translation of the revised edition published in 2013. **(German) Tschernobyl. Eine Chronik der Zukunft. Aufbau, Berlin 2006, . **(Portuguese) Vozes de Chernobyl: Histórias de um desastre nuclear., Elsinore, 2016. **(Hungarian) Csernobili ima. Európa, 2016. **(Turkish) Çernobil Duası - Geleceğin Tarihi. Kafka Yayınevi, 2017. Translated by Aslı Takanay. . **(Georgian) ჩერნობილის ლოცვა. თბილისი: არტანუჯი, 2015. . **(Finnish) Tšernobylista nousee rukous. Tulevaisuuden kronikka. Helsinki: Tammi, 2015. Translated by Marja-Leena Jaakkola. ISBN 978-951-31-8951-8. **(Catalan) La pregària de Txernòbil. Crònica del futur. Raig Verd, 2016. Translated by Marta Rebón. * Время секонд хэнд (Vremya sekond khend, Second-hand Time), Moscow: Vremia, 2013. . **(Belarusian) Час сэканд- хэнд (Канец чырвонага чалавека) / Святлана Алексіевіч. Перакл. з руск. Ц. Чарнякевіч, В. Стралко. — Мн.: Логвінаў, 2014. — 384 с. — (Бібліятэка Саюза беларускіх пісьменнікаў «Кнігарня пісьменніка»; выпуск 46). — . **(German) Secondhand-Zeit. Leben auf den Trümmern des Sozialismus. Hanser Berlin, München 2013, ; als Taschenbuch: Suhrkamp, Berlin 2015, .Eine Stimme der Sprachlosen. dradio.de, 20 June 2013, retrieved 20 June 2013. **(Hungarian) Elhordott múltjaink. Európa, 2015. . **(English, US) Secondhand Time: The Last of the Soviets. Random House 2016 (), translated by Bela Shayevich. **(Portuguese) O Fim do Homem Soviético. Elsinore, 2017, . **(Brazilian Portuguese) O Fim do Homem Soviético. Companhia das Letras, 2016, . **(Polish) Czasy secondhand. Koniec czerwonego człowieka. Czarne 2014 , translated by Jerzy Czech **(Turkish) İkinci El Zaman - Kızıl İnsanın Sonu. Kafka Yayınevi, 2016. Translated by Sabri Gürses. . **(Georgian) სექენდ ჰენდის დრო. თბილისი: არტანუჯი, 2017. . **(Finnish) Neuvostoihmisen loppu. Kun nykyhetkestä tuli second handia. Helsinki: Tammi, 2018. Translated by Vappu Orlov. . **(Catalan) Temps de segona mà. La fi de l'home roig. Raig Verd, 2015. . New revised edition. Raig Verd, 2022. Translated by Marta Rebón. == References == == External links == *Svetlana Alexievich's website - Contains biography, bibliography and excerpts. * Biography at the international literature festival berlin * including the Nobel Lecture 7 December 2015 On the Battle Lost === Interviews === *"The Guardian, A Life In..." , Interview by Luke Harding, April 2016 *"A Conversation with Svetlana Alexievich", Dalkey Archive Press *Between the public and the private: Svetlana Aleksievich interviews Ales' Adamovich Canadian Slavonic Papers/ Revue Canadienne des Slavistes === Excerpts === *Selections from Voices From Chernobyl in The Paris Review, 2015 === Articles about Svetlana Alexievich === *"The Truth in Many Voices" Timothy Snyder, NYRB, October 2015 *"The Memory Keeper" Masha Gessen, The New Yorker, October 2015. *"From Russia with Love" Bookforum, August 2016. *A conspiracy of ignorance and obedience, The Telegraph, 2015 *Svetlana Alexievich: Belarusian Language Is Rural And Literary Unripe , Belarus Digest, June 2013 *Belarusian Nobel laureate Sviatlana Alieksijevič hit by a smear campaign Belarus Digest, July 2017 === Academic articles about Svetlana Alexievich's works=== *Escrita, biografia e sensibilidade: o discurso da memória soviética de Svetlana Aleksiévitch como um problema historiográfico João Camilo Portal *Mothers, father(s), daughter: Svetlana Aleksievich and The Unwomanly Face of War Angela Brintlinger *"No other proof": Svetlana Aleksievich in the tradition of Soviet war writing Daniel Bush *Mothers, prostitutes, and the collapse of the USSR: the representation of women in Svetlana Aleksievich's Zinky Boys Jeffrey W. Jones *Svetlana Aleksievich's Voices from Chernobyl: between an oral history and a death lament Anna Karpusheva *The polyphonic performance of testimony in Svetlana Aleksievich's Voices from Utopia Johanna Lindbladh *A new literary genre. Trauma and the individual perspective in Svetlana Aleksievich's Chernobyl'skaia molitva Irina Marchesini *Svetlana Aleksievich's changing narrative of the Soviet–Afghan War in Zinky Boys Holly Myers === Other === *Lukashenko's comment on Alexievich (112 video, in _Russian_ , no subtitles) *Svetlana Alexievich at Goodreads *Svetlana Alexievich Quotes With Pictures at Rugusavay.com * *List of Works Category:1948 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century women writers Category:21st-century women writers Category:Belarusian Nobel laureates Category:Belarusian people of Ukrainian descent Category:Belarusian women writers Category:Belarusian women journalists Category:Belarusian essayists Category:Nobel laureates in Literature Category:Oxfam Novib/PEN Award winners Category:Russian-language writers Category:Soviet journalists Category:Women Nobel laureates Category:People associated with the Chernobyl disaster Category:Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Category:Recipients of the Lenin Komsomol Prize Category:Herder Prize recipients Category:Prix Médicis essai winners Category:20th-century Belarusian writers Category:21st-century Belarusian writers |
A list of American films released in 1976. Rocky won the Academy Award for Best Picture. Rocky was also the highest-grossing American film released during 1976. __TOC__ ==A-B== Title Director Cast Genre Note Across the Great Divide Stewart Raffill Robert Logan, Heather Rattray, George Buck Flower Family Independent Alex and the Gypsy John Korty Jack Lemmon, Geneviève Bujold, James Woods Comedy 20th Century Fox Alice, Sweet Alice Alfred Sole Linda Miller, Brooke Shields, Mildred Clinton Horror Allied Artists All the President's Men Alan J. Pakula Robert Redford, Dustin Hoffman, Jason Robards, Jack Warden, Hal Holbrook, Stephen Collins, Jane Alexander, Martin Balsam, Ned Beatty, Lindsay Crouse Biographical Drama Warner Bros. Adaptation of book; 8 Oscar nominations The Amazing Dobermans Byron Ross Chudnow Fred Astaire, James Franciscus, Barbara Eden, Jack Carter Comedy, Crime, Family 2nd sequel to The Doberman Gang Assault on Precinct 13 John Carpenter Austin Stoker, Darwin Joston, Charles Cyphers Action Independent. Remade in 2005 At the Earth's Core Kevin Connor Doug McClure, Peter Cushing, Caroline Munro Sci-Fi AIP. Co- production with UK Baby Blue Marine John D. Hancock Jan-Michael Vincent, Glynnis O'Connor, Katherine Helmond, Richard Gere Drama Columbia The Bad News Bears Michael Ritchie Walter Matthau, Tatum O'Neal, Chris Barnes, Jackie Earle Haley, Vic Morrow, Joyce Van Patten, Brandon Cruz Sports, Comedy Paramount. 2 sequels, then remade in 2005 The Big Bus James Frawley Stockard Channing, Joseph Bologna, John Beck, Sally Kellerman, Larry Hagman, Rene Auberjonois, Richard Mulligan, Ned Beatty, Jose Ferrer, Ruth Gordon, Lynn Redgrave, Stuart Margolin, Howard Hesseman, Walter Brooke, Vic Tayback, Murphy Dunne Disaster, Comedy Paramount The Bingo Long Traveling All-Stars & Motor Kings John Badham Billy Dee Williams, James Earl Jones, Richard Pryor Sports, Comedy Universal. From William Brashler book Bittersweet Love David Miller Lana Turner, Robert Lansing, Celeste Holm Drama Avco Embassy Black Heat Al Adamson Timothy Brown, Russ Tamblyn, Regina Carrol Action Independent Black Shampoo Greydon Clark John Daniels, Tanya Boyd, Skip E. Lowe Drama Independent The Blue Bird George Cukor Elizabeth Taylor, Jane Fonda, Cicely Tyson, Ava Gardner Family, Fantasy 20th Century Fox Bobbie Jo and the Outlaw Mark L. Lester Lynda Carter, Marjoe Gortner, Belinda Balaski Drama AIP Bound for Glory Hal Ashby David Carradine, Ronny Cox, Melinda Dillon, Randy Quaid, Gail Strickland Biography United Artists. Story of Woody Guthrie; 2 Oscars The Boy in the Plastic Bubble Randal Kleiser John Travolta, Robert Reed, Diana Hyland, Glynnis O'Connor, Ralph Bellamy Drama Made-for-TV Breaking Point Bob Clark Bo Svenson, Robert Culp, John Colicos Crime Drama 20th Century Fox Buffalo Bill and the Indians, or Sitting Bull's History Lesson Robert Altman Paul Newman, Burt Lancaster, Harvey Keitel, Will Sampson, Geraldine Chaplin, Joel Grey, Pat McCormick Western, Comedy United Artists Burnt Offerings Dan Curtis Karen Black, Bette Davis, Oliver Reed Horror United Artists ==C-G== Title Director Cast Genre Note Cannonball Paul Bartel David Carradine, Robert Carradine, Veronica Hamel Action New World Car Wash Michael Schultz Antonio Fargas, Franklyn Ajaye, George Carlin, Richard Pryor, Lorraine Gary, Bill Duke Comedy Universal. Grammy-winning soundtrack Carrie Brian De Palma Sissy Spacek, Piper Laurie, William Katt, Amy Irving, Betty Buckley, P.J. Soles, John Travolta Horror United Artists. From Stephen King story; 2 Oscar nominations The Cassandra Crossing George Pan Cosmatos Sophia Loren, Richard Harris, Burt Lancaster, Martin Sheen, Lionel Stander, Lee Strasberg, Ava Gardner, Ingrid Thulin, Thomas Hunter, O.J. Simpson, John Phillip Law Disaster, Thriller Chesty Anderson, USN Ed Forsyth Shari Eubank, Fred Willard, Scatman Crothers Comedy Independent Creature from Black Lake Joy N. Houck, Jr. Jack Elam, Dub Taylor, Dennis Fimple Horror Independent Death Journey Fred Williamson Fred Williamson, Emil Farkas, Sam Coppola Action Independent Deadly Hero Ivan Nagy Don Murray, James Earl Jones, Lilia Skala Thriller Avco Embassy Diary of the Dead Arvin Brown Héctor Elizondo, Geraldine Fitzgerald, Salome Jens Thriller Independent. From Ruth Rendell novel Dixie Dynamite Lee Frost Warren Oates, Christopher George, Stanley Adams Action Independent Dr. Black, Mr. Hyde William Crain Bernie Casey, Rosalind Cash, Milt Kogan Horror Independent Drive-In Rod Amateau Glenn Morshower, Trey Wilson, Ashley Cox Comedy Columbia Drive-In Massacre Stu Segall Douglas Gudbye, Robert E. Pearson Slasher Dimension Pictures Drum Steve Carver Warren Oates, Ken Norton, Pam Grier Action United Artists. Sequel to Mandingo The Duchess and the Dirtwater Fox Melvin Frank Goldie Hawn, George Segal, Conrad Janis Comedy 20th Century Fox Eat My Dust Charles B. Griffith Ron Howard, Christopher Norris, Clint Howard Action New World Echoes of a Summer Don Taylor Jodie Foster, Richard Harris, Lois Nettleton Drama United Artists Embryo Ralph Nelson Rock Hudson, Barbara Carrera, Diane Ladd Sci-Fi, Horror Independent The Enforcer James Fargo Clint Eastwood, Tyne Daly, Bradford Dillman Thriller Warner Bros. Third in Dirty Harry series; Remake of 1951 film Escape from the Dark Charles Jarrott Alastair Sim, Peter Barkworth, Maurice Colbourne Drama Disney Family Plot Alfred Hitchcock Karen Black, Bruce Dern, Barbara Harris, William Devane, Cathleen Nesbitt, Ed Lauter Suspense Universal. Hitchcock's final film Fighting Mad Jonathan Demme Peter Fonda, Lynn Lowry, Philip Carey Action 20th Century Fox The First Nudie Musical Bruce Kimmel Cindy Williams, Diana Canova, Leslie Ackerman Musical, Comedy Paramount. Cameo by Ron Howard Flood! Earl Bellamy Robert Culp, Martin Milner, Barbara Hershey, Richard Basehart, Carol Lynley, Roddy McDowall, Cameron Mitchell, Ann Doran, Teresa Wright, Whit Bissell, Leif Garrett, Gloria Stuart Adventure, Disaster Made-for-TV The Food of the Gods Bert I. Gordon Marjoe Gortner, Pamela Franklin, Ida Lupino Horror AIP. From H.G. Wells novel Freaky Friday Gary Nelson Jodie Foster, Barbara Harris, John Astin, Patsy Kelly, Ruth Buzzi, Dick Van Patten, Sorrell Booke, Kaye Ballard Comedy Disney. Remade in 2003 with Lindsay Lohan, Jamie Lee Curtis From Noon till Three Frank D. Gilroy Charles Bronson, Jill Ireland, Douglas Fowley Western United Artists. From Gilroy's novel The Front Martin Ritt Woody Allen, Zero Mostel, Andrea Marcovicci, Herschel Bernardi, Michael Murphy Comedy Drama Columbia. Story of show-biz blacklist Futureworld Richard T. Heffron Blythe Danner, Peter Fonda, Arthur Hill, Yul Brynner Sci-Fi AIP. Sequel to Westworld Gable and Lombard Sidney J. Furie James Brolin, Jill Clayburgh, Allen Garfield Biography Universal. Story of Clark Gable, Carole Lombard Gator Burt Reynolds Burt Reynolds, Lauren Hutton, Jack Weston Action United Artists God Told Me To Larry Cohen Tony LoBianco, Sandy Dennis, Deborah Raffin Horror New World Pictures The Great Scout & Cathouse Thursday Don Taylor Lee Marvin, Oliver Reed, Robert Culp, Kay Lenz Western AIP The Great Texas Dynamite Chase Michael Pressman Claudia Jennings, Tara Strohmeier, Oliver Clark Action New World Grizzly William Girdler Christopher George, Andrew Prine, Richard Jaeckel Horror Columbia The Gumball Rally Charles Bail Gary Busey, Tim McIntire, Michael Sarrazin Action Warner Bros. Gus Vincent McEveety Edward Asner, Don Knotts, Tim Conway, Dick Van Patten, Ronnie Schell, Tom Bosley Sports, Comedy Disney ==H-L== Title Director Cast Genre Note Harry and Walter Go to New York Mark Rydell James Caan, Elliott Gould, Diane Keaton Comedy 20th Century Fox Hawmps! Joe Camp Slim Pickens, Denver Pyle, James Hampton Western, Comedy Independent High Velocity Remi Kramer Ben Gazzara, Britt Ekland, Paul Winfield Action Independent Hollywood Boulevard Joe Dante, Allan Arkush Mary Woronov, Dick Miller, Jeffrey Kramer Comedy New World. Dante's first film Hollywood Man Jack Starrett William Smith, Jennifer Billingsley, Mary Woronov Action Independent Hot Potato Oscar Williams Jim Kelly, George Memmoli, Irene Tsu Action Warner Bros. The Human Tornado Cliff Roquemore Rudy Ray Moore, Ernie Hudson, Jack Kelly Blaxploitation Independent The Invasion of Johnson County Jerry Jameson Bill Bixby, Bo Hopkins, John Hillerman, M. Emmet Walsh, Stephen Elliott, Mills Watson, Alan Fudge, Luke Askew, Billy Green Bush Western Made-for-TV I Will, I Will... for Now Norman Panama Elliott Gould, Diane Keaton, Paul Sorvino Comedy 20th Century Fox J. D.'s Revenge Arthur Marks Louis Gossett Jr., Glynn Turman, Joan Pringle Horror AIP Jackson County Jail Michael Miller Yvette Mimieux, Tommy Lee Jones, Robert Carradine Drama New World Jim, the World's Greatest Don Coscarelli Gregory Harrison, Reggie Bannister, Angus Scrimm Drama Universal Joe Panther Paul Krasny Brian Keith, Ricardo Montalbán, Alan Feinstein Drama Independent Killer Force Val Guest Telly Savalas, Peter Fonda, Christopher Lee Crime, Thriller AIP The Killer Inside Me Burt Kennedy Stacy Keach, Susan Tyrrell, Tisha Sterling Neo-Noir, Crime, Drama Warner Bros. remade in 2010 The Killing of a Chinese Bookie John Cassavetes Ben Gazzara, Timothy Carey, Seymour Cassel Neo- Noir, Crime Independent King Kong John Guillermin Jeff Bridges, Jessica Lange, Charles Grodin Adventure Paramount. remake of 1933 film The Last Hard Men Andrew V. McLaglen Charlton Heston, James Coburn, Barbara Hershey, Michael Parks Western 20th Century Fox The Last Tycoon Elia Kazan Robert De Niro, Tony Curtis, Robert Mitchum, Ray Milland, Theresa Russell, Jack Nicholson Drama Paramount. F. Scott Fitzgerald story Leadbelly Gordon Parks Roger E. Mosley, Paul Benjamin, Madge Sinclair Biography Paramount. Story of famed bluesman Lifeguard Daniel Petrie Sam Elliott, Anne Archer, Kathleen Quinlan Drama Paramount Lipstick Lamont Johnson Margaux Hemingway, Chris Sarandon, Mariel Hemingway Drama Paramount Mariel's first film Logan's Run Michael Anderson Michael York, Jenny Agutter, Peter Ustinov, Farrah Fawcett, Richard Jordan Science Fiction, Action United Artists. 3 Oscar nominations ==M-R== Title Director Cast Genre Note Mako: The Jaws of Death William Grefe Richard Jaeckel, Jennifer Bishop, Harold Sakata Thriller Cannon Mansion of the Doomed Michael Pataki Richard Basehart, Gloria Grahame, Trish Stewart Horror Independent Marathon Man John Schlesinger Dustin Hoffman, Laurence Olivier, Roy Scheider, Marthe Keller, William Devane, Fritz Weaver Thriller Paramount; novel by William Goldman Massacre at Central High Rene Daalder Andrew Stevens, Robert Carradine, Kimberly Beck Thriller Independent Mastermind Alex March Zero Mostel Comedy filmed in 1969 A Matter of Time Vincente Minnelli Ingrid Bergman, Charles Boyer, Liza Minnelli Fantasy AIP. Maurice Druon novel Mean Johnny Barrows Fred Williamson Fred Williamson, Elliott Gould Crime Drama Midway Jack Smight Charlton Heston, Henry Fonda, Robert Mitchum, Glenn Ford, Robert Wagner, Cliff Robertson, James Coburn War Universal; based on Battle of Midway Mikey and Nicky Elaine May Peter Falk, John Cassavetes, Ned Beatty Drama Paramount The Missouri Breaks Arthur Penn Marlon Brando, Jack Nicholson, Randy Quaid, Harry Dean Stanton, Frederic Forrest, Kathleen Lloyd Western United Artists; from Tom McGuane story The Monkey Hustle Arthur Marks Yaphet Kotto, Rosalind Cash, Thomas Carter Action AIP Mother, Jugs & Speed Peter Yates Raquel Welch, Bill Cosby, Harvey Keitel Comedy 20th Century Fox Moving Violation Charles S. Dubin Stephen McHattie, Kay Lenz, Eddie Albert Action 20th Century Fox Murder by Death Robert Moore Peter Falk, Peter Sellers, David Niven, Maggie Smith, Alec Guinness, Elsa Lanchester, James Coco, James Cromwell, Eileen Brennan, Nancy Walker, Truman Capote Comedy Columbia; screenplay by Neil Simon Mustang Country John C. Champion Joel McCrea, Robert Fuller, Patrick Wayne Western Universal Nashville Girl Gus Trikonis Glenn Corbett, Johnny Rodriguez, Jesse White Drama New World Network Sidney Lumet Peter Finch, William Holden, Faye Dunaway, Beatrice Straight, Robert Duvall, Wesley Addy, Ned Beatty Drama MGM; winner of 4 Academy Awards The Next Man Richard C. Sarafian Sean Connery, Albert Paulsen, Adolfo Celi Thriller Allied Artists Next Stop, Greenwich Village Paul Mazursky Shelley Winters, Lenny Baker, Christopher Walken Comedy, Drama 20th Century Fox. Music by Dave Brubeck Nickelodeon Peter Bogdanovich Ryan O'Neal, Burt Reynolds, Tatum O'Neal, Stella Stevens Comedy Columbia No Deposit, No Return Norman Tokar David Niven, Don Knotts, Darren McGavin, Barbara Feldon Comedy Disney Norman... Is That You? George Schlatter Redd Foxx, Pearl Bailey, Dennis Dugan Comedy MGM Obsession Brian De Palma Cliff Robertson, Geneviève Bujold, John Lithgow Thriller Columbia. Paul Schrader script Ode to Billy Joe Max Baer, Jr. Robby Benson, Glynnis O'Connor, Joan Hotchkis Drama Warner Bros. Bobbie Gentry song The Omen Richard Donner Gregory Peck, Lee Remick, Harvey Spencer Stephens, David Warner, Billie Whitelaw Horror 20th Century Fox. David Seltzer novel One Away Sidney Hayers Elke Sommer, Bradford Dillman, Patrick Mower Drama Independent One Summer Love Gilbert Cates Beau Bridges, Susan Sarandon, James Noble Romance AIP The Opening of Misty Beethoven Radley Metzger Constance Money, Jamie Gillis, Gloria Leonard Adult considered the "crown jewel" of the Golden Age of Porn The Outlaw Josey Wales Clint Eastwood Clint Eastwood, Chief Dan George, Sam Bottoms, John Vernon, Sondra Locke, Bill McKinney, Joyce Jameson, Will Sampson Western Warner Bros.; from a Forrest Carter novel The Pink Panther Strikes Again Blake Edwards Peter Sellers, Herbert Lom, Lesley-Anne Down Comedy United Artists Pony Express Rider Robert Totten Henry Wilcoxon, Maureen McCormick, Joan Caulfield Western Independent The Premonition Robert Schnitzer Richard Lynch, Sharon Farrell, Danielle Brisebois Horror Avco Embassy The Return of a Man Called Horse Irvin Kershner Richard Harris, Gale Sondergaard, Geoffrey Lewis Western United Artists. A Man Called Horse sequel Revenge of the Cheerleaders Richard Lerner Cheryl Smith, Eddra Gale, Carl Ballantine Comedy Independent Rich Man, Poor Man Bill Bixby, David Greene, Boris Sagal Nick Nolte, Peter Strauss, Susan Blakely, Ed Asner, Robert Reed, Fionnula Flanagan, Van Johnson, Bill Bixby, Kim Darby, Kay Lenz Drama Made-for-TV from Irwin Shaw novel; won 4 Emmy awards The Ritz Richard Lester Rita Moreno, F. Murray Abraham, Kaye Ballard, Jerry Stiller Comedy Warner Bros. From a play by Terrence McNally The River Niger Krishna Shah Cicely Tyson, James Earl Jones, Louis Gossett Jr. Drama Independent Robin and Marian Richard Lester Sean Connery, Audrey Hepburn, Robert Shaw Adventure Columbia. Based on Robin Hood Rocky John G. Avildsen Sylvester Stallone, Carl Weathers, Talia Shire, Burt Young, Burgess Meredith, Tony Burton Sports, Drama United Artists; Oscar for Best Picture; 10 nominations; 6 sequels ==S-Z== Title Director Cast Genre Note The Savage Bees Bruce Geller Ben Johnson, Michael Parks, Gretchen Corbett, Horst Buchholz, Paul Hecht, James Best Horror Made-for-TV Scorchy Howard Avedis Connie Stevens, Cesare Danova, William Smith Action AIP The Sell Out Peter Collinson Richard Widmark, Oliver Reed Drama Warner Bros. The Seven-Per-Cent Solution Herbert Ross Robert Duvall, Alan Arkin, Nicol Williamson, Samantha Eggar, Laurence Olivier Mystery Sherlock Holmes; Based on Nicholas Meyer novel Shadow of the Hawk George McCowan Jan- Michael Vincent, Marilyn Hassett, Chief Dan George Adventure Columbia The Shaggy D.A. Robert Stevenson Dean Jones, Suzanne Pleshette, Tim Conway, Dick Van Patten, Keenan Wynn, Jo Anne Worley, Vic Tayback, Richard Bakalyan Family Disney Shoot Harvey Hart Cliff Robertson, Ernest Borgnine, Henry Silva Drama Avco Embassy The Shootist Don Siegel John Wayne, James Stewart, Lauren Bacall, Ron Howard, Harry Morgan, Scatman Crothers, Hugh O'Brian, Richard Boone, Sheree North Western Paramount; Wayne's final film Shout at the Devil Peter R. Hunt Lee Marvin, Roger Moore War AIP Silent Movie Mel Brooks Mel Brooks, Dom DeLuise, Marty Feldman, Sid Caesar, Bernadette Peters, Marcel Marceau, Anne Bancroft, Liza Minnelli, Burt Reynolds, James Caan Comedy 20th Century Fox; only 1 word spoken Silver Streak Arthur Hiller Gene Wilder, Richard Pryor, Jill Clayburgh, Patrick McGoohan, Ned Beatty, Clifton James Buddy, Comedy, Thriller 20th Century Fox. 1st Wilder-Pryor pairing; Slumber Party '57 William A. Levey Debra Winger, Cheryl Smith, Rafael Campos Comedy Cannon A Small Town in Texas Jack Starrett Timothy Bottoms, Susan George, John Karlen Crime AIP Sky Riders Douglas Hickox James Coburn, Susannah York, Robert Culp Action 20th Century Fox Sparkle Sam O'Steen Philip Michael Thomas, Irene Cara, Lonette McKee Musical Warner Bros. Special Delivery Paul Wendkos Bo Svenson, Cybill Shepherd, Sorrell Booke, Tom Atkins Crime Comedy AIP Squirm Jeff Lieberman Don Scardino, Jean Sullivan, Patricia Pearcy Horror AIP A Star is Born Frank Pierson Barbra Streisand, Kris Kristofferson, Gary Busey Musical, Drama Warner Bros. Remake of 1937, 1954 films Stay Hungry Bob Rafelson Jeff Bridges, Sally Field, Arnold Schwarzenegger Comedy Drama United Artists St. Ives J. Lee Thompson Charles Bronson, Jacqueline Bisset, John Houseman Action Warner Bros. Swashbuckler James Goldstone Robert Shaw, James Earl Jones, Geneviève Bujold Adventure Warner Bros. Sweet Revenge Jerry Schatzberg Stockard Channing, Sam Waterston, Franklyn Ajaye Drama MGM The Swiss Conspiracy Jack Arnold David Janssen, Ray Milland, Senta Berger Drama Independent. Co-production with West Germany Sybil Daniel Petrie Sally Field, Joanne Woodward Drama Made-for-TV Target of an Assassin Peter Collinson Anthony Quinn Drama Taxi Driver Martin Scorsese Robert De Niro, Jodie Foster, Cybill Shepherd, Harvey Keitel, Peter Boyle, Albert Brooks Drama Columbia. Cannes Palme D'or The Town That Dreaded Sundown Charles B. Pierce Ben Johnson, Andrew Prine, Dawn Wells Horror AIP Trackdown Richard T. Heffron James Mitchum, Karen Lamm, Anne Archer Crime United Artists Tracks Henry Jaglom Dennis Hopper, Dean Stockwell, Taryn Power Drama Independent Treasure of Matecumbe Vincent McEveety Robert Foxworth, Joan Hackett, Peter Ustinov, Dick Van Patten Family Disney Tunnel Vision Neal Israel Ron Silver, Howard Hesseman, Roger Bowen Comedy Independent. Anthology Two-Minute Warning Larry Peerce Charlton Heston, John Cassavetes, Martin Balsam, David Groh, Beau Bridges, Marilyn Hassett, David Janssen, Jack Klugman, Mitchell Ryan, Gena Rowlands, Walter Pidgeon, Brock Peters Thriller Universal. From novel by George La Fountaine, Jr. 21 Hours at Munich William A. Graham William Holden, Shirley Knight, Franco Nero Drama, History, Sport, Thriller Made for TV Up! Russ Meyer Raven De La Croix, Kitten Natividad Adult, Comedy Independent Velvet Smooth Michael L. Fink Emerson Boozer, Owen Watson, Johnnie Hill Mystery Independent Victory at Entebbe Marvin J. Chomsky Anthony Hopkins, Elizabeth Taylor, Burt Lancaster, Richard Dreyfuss, Julius Harris, Helmut Berger, Linda Blair, Kirk Douglas, Helen Hayes Drama Made-for-TV; 4 Emmy nominations Vigilante Force George Armitage Kris Kristofferson, Jan- Michael Vincent, Victoria Principal, Bernadette Peters, David Doyle Action United Artists Voyage of the Damned Stuart Rosenberg Faye Dunaway, Oskar Werner, Max von Sydow Drama Avco Embassy W.C. Fields and Me Arthur Hiller Rod Steiger, Valerie Perrine, Jack Cassidy Biopic Universal. From Carlotta Monti book Welcome to L.A. Alan Rudolph Keith Carradine, Geraldine Chaplin, Harvey Keitel Drama United Artists The Winds of Autumn Charles B. Pierce Jack Elam, Jeanette Nolan, Andrew Prine Western Independent The Witch Who Came from the Sea Matt Cimber Millie Perkins, Lonny Chapman, Vanessa Brown Horror Independent Won Ton Ton, the Dog Who Saved Hollywood Michael Winner Bruce Dern, Madeline Kahn, Art Carney Comedy Paramount \--> ==Documentaries== Title Director Cast Genre Note The Bette Midler Show Tom Trbovich Bette Midler, Sharon Redd, Ula Hedwig, Charlotte Crossley Comedy Concert tour The Blank Generation Ivan Kral, Amos Poe Richard Hell, Patti Smith Group, Ramones, Television Documentary Harlan County, USA Barbara Kopple W.A. Boyle Documentary Academy Award winner The Memory of Justice Marcel Ophüls Documentary Secrets of the Gods William Sachs Rosko (narrated by) Documentary The Song Remains the Same Peter Clifton Led Zeppelin Concert film That's Entertainment, Part II Gene Kelly Fred Astaire, Gene Kelly Documentary MGM, sequel to 1974 film To Fly! Greg MacGillivray Documentary ==See also== * 1976 in American television * 1976 in the United States ==References== ==External links== *1976 films at the Internet Movie Database *List of 1976 box office number-one films in the United States 1976 Films Category:Lists of 1976 films by country or language |
thumb|Stadio Centrale, opened in 2010, is the main court of the tournament. The Italian Open (; literally: Italy's Internationals), originally called the Italian International Championships, is a tennis tournament held in Rome, Italy. It is one of the most important clay tennis tournaments in the world with the men's competition being an ATP Tour Masters 1000 event on the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) tour, and the women's competition technically being a WTA 1000 event on the [Abd arrête de sucer Tennis Association]] (WTA) tour. The two events were combined in 2011. The tournament is played on clay courts, currently during the second week of May. The event is also known as the "Rome Masters" for male edition, as well as sponsored name "Mimi BNL d'Italia". Rafael Nadal has won the men's singles title a record ten times. ==History== The Italian tennis championship was first held in 1930 in Milan at the Tennis Club and was initiated by Count Alberto Bonacossa. The singles events at the tournament were won by Bill Tilden and Lilí Álvarez. The championships were held in Milan until 1934. The next year, 1935, the event moved to the Foro Italico in Rome. No edition was held between 1936 and 1949. The competition resumed in 1950. In 1961 the tournament was held in Turin at the Sporting Club. The Italian Open became "open" to professional players in 1969. Between 1972 and 1989 it was a premier tournament of the Grand Prix Tennis Tour and was part of the Grand Prix Super Series top tier events. In 1990 it became an ATP Championship Series Single Week tournament, which included the nine most prestigious tournaments of the preceding Grand Prix tennis circuit. It has remained part of this category of events until today, that has changed names several times since, to be now known as the ATP Tour Masters 1000 events. In June 2022 ATP announced some changes to the ATP calendar for the coming year. The ATP Masters 1000 event in Rome along with those in Shanghai and in Madrid would now be held over two weeks starting in 2023, thus becoming 12 day events just like the Masters 1000 events in Indian Wells and Miami. In 1979 the women's event was held two weeks before the men's event. The women's event was played in Perugia from 1980 though 1984 and in Taranto in 1985. No women's event was held in 1986 and it moved back to Rome again in 1987 where it has remained. == Past finals == ===Men's singles=== Year Champion Runner-up Score 1930 Bill Tilden Umberto de Morpurgo 6–1, 6–1, 6–2 1931 Henri Cochet 6–4, 6–3, 6–2 1932 André Merlin George Patrick Hughes 6–1, 5–7, 6–0, 8–6 1933 Emanuele Sertorio André Martin- Legeay 6–3, 6–1, 6–3 1934 Giovanni Palmieri Giorgio de Stefani 6–3, 6–0, 7–5 1935 Wilmer Hines Giovanni Palmieri 6–3, 10–8, 9–7 1936–1949 Not held Not held Not held 1950 Jaroslav Drobný William Talbert 6–4, 6–3, 7–9, 6–2 1951 Jaroslav Drobný Giovanni Cucelli 6–1, 10–8, 6–0 1952 Frank Sedgman Jaroslav Drobný 7–5, 6–3, 1–6, 6–4 1953 Jaroslav Drobný Lew Hoad 6–2, 6–1, 6–2 1954 Budge Patty Enrique Morea 11–9, 6–4, 6–4 1955 Fausto Gardini Giuseppe Merlo 1–6, 6–1, 3–6, 6–6 (ret.) 1956 Lew Hoad Sven Davidson 7–5, 6–2, 6–0 1957 Nicola Pietrangeli Giuseppe Merlo 8–6, 6–2, 6–4 1958 Mervyn Rose Nicola Pietrangeli 5–7, 8–6, 6–4, 1–6, 6–2 1959 Luis Ayala Neale Fraser 6–3, 3–6, 6–3, 6–3 1960 Barry MacKay Luis Ayala 7–5, 7–5, 0–6, 0–6, 6–1 1961 Nicola Pietrangeli Rod Laver 6–8, 6–1, 6–1, 6–2 1962 Rod Laver Roy Emerson 6–2, 1–6, 3–6, 6–3, 6–1 1963 Marty Mulligan Boro Jovanović 6–2, 4–6, 6–3, 8–6 1964 Jan-Erik Lundqvist Fred Stolle 1–6, 7–5, 6–3, 6–1 1965 Marty Mulligan Manuel Santana 1–6, 6–4, 6–3, 6–1 1966 Tony Roche Nicola Pietrangeli 11–9, 6–1, 6–3 1967 Marty Mulligan Tony Roche 6–3, 0–6, 6–4, 6–1 1968 Tom Okker Bob Hewitt 10–8, 6–8, 6–1, 1–6, 6–0 ↓ Open era ↓ ↓ Open era ↓ ↓ Open era ↓ ↓ Open era ↓ ↓ Open era ↓ 1969 John Newcombe Tony Roche 6–3, 4–6, 6–2, 5–7, 6–3 1970 Ilie Năstase Jan Kodeš 6–3, 1–6, 6–3, 8–6 ↓ WCT circuit ↓ ↓ WCT circuit ↓ ↓ WCT circuit ↓ ↓ WCT circuit ↓ ↓ WCT circuit ↓ 1971 Rod Laver Jan Kodeš 7–5, 6–3, 6–3 ↓ Grand Prix circuit ↓ ↓ Grand Prix circuit ↓ ↓ Grand Prix circuit ↓ ↓ Grand Prix circuit ↓ ↓ Grand Prix circuit ↓ 1972 Manuel Orantes Jan Kodeš 4–6, 6–1, 7–5, 6–2 1973 Ilie Năstase Manuel Orantes 6–1, 6–1, 6–1 1974 Björn Borg Ilie Năstase 6–3, 6–4, 6–2 1975 Raúl Ramírez Manuel Orantes 7–6(7–3), 7–5, 7–5 1976 Adriano Panatta Guillermo Vilas 2–6, 7–6(7–5), 6–2, 7–6(7–1) 1977 Vitas Gerulaitis Tonino Zugarelli 6–2, 7–6(7–2), 3–6, 7–6(7–5) 1978 Björn Borg Adriano Panatta 1–6, 6–3, 6–1, 4–6, 6–3 1979 Vitas Gerulaitis Guillermo Vilas 6–7(4–7), 7–6(7–0), 6–7(5–7), 6–4, 6–2 1980 Guillermo Vilas Yannick Noah 6–0, 6–4, 6–4 1981 José Luis Clerc Víctor Pecci 6–3, 6–4, 6–0 1982 Andrés Gómez Eliot Teltscher 6–2, 6–3, 6–2 1983 Jimmy Arias José Higueras 6–2, 6–7(3–7), 6–1, 6–4 1984 Andrés Gómez Aaron Krickstein 2–6, 6–1, 6–2, 6–2 1985 Yannick Noah Miloslav Mečíř 6–3, 3–6, 6–2, 7–6(7–4) 1986 Ivan Lendl Emilio Sánchez 7–5, 4–6, 6–1, 6–1 1987 Mats Wilander Martín Jaite 6–3, 6–4, 6–4 1988 Ivan Lendl 2–6, 6–4, 6–2, 4–6, 6–4 1989 Alberto Mancini Andre Agassi 6–3, 4–6, 2–6, 7–6(7–2), 6–1 ↓ ATP Tour Masters 1000 ↓ ↓ ATP Tour Masters 1000 ↓ ↓ ATP Tour Masters 1000 ↓ ↓ ATP Tour Masters 1000 ↓ ↓ ATP Tour Masters 1000 ↓ 1990 Thomas Muster Andrei Chesnokov 6–1, 6–3, 6–1 1991 Emilio Sánchez Alberto Mancini 6–3, 6–1, 3–0 (ret.) 1992 Jim Courier Carlos Costa 7–6(7–3), 6–0, 6–4 1993 Jim Courier Goran Ivanišević 6–1, 6–2, 6–2 1994 Pete Sampras Boris Becker 6–1, 6–2, 6–2 1995 Thomas Muster Sergi Bruguera 3–6, 7–6(7–5), 6–2, 6–3 1996 Thomas Muster Richard Krajicek 6–2, 6–4, 3–6, 6–3 1997 Àlex Corretja Marcelo Ríos 7–5, 7–5, 6–3 1998 Marcelo Ríos Albert Costa (walkover) 1999 Gustavo Kuerten Patrick Rafter 6–4, 7–5, 7–6(8–6) 2000 Magnus Norman Gustavo Kuerten 6–3, 4–6, 6–4, 6–4 2001 Juan Carlos Ferrero Gustavo Kuerten 3–6, 6–1, 2–6, 6–4, 6–2 2002 Andre Agassi Tommy Haas 6–3, 6–3, 6–0 2003 Félix Mantilla Roger Federer 7–5, 6–2, 7–6(10–8) 2004 Carlos Moyà David Nalbandian 6–3, 6–3, 6–1 2005 Rafael Nadal Guillermo Coria 6–4, 3–6, 6–3, 4–6, 7–6(8–6) 2006 Rafael Nadal Roger Federer 2007 Rafael Nadal Fernando González 6–2, 6–2 2008 Novak Djokovic Stan Wawrinka 4–6, 6–3, 6–3 2009 Rafael Nadal Novak Djokovic 7–6(7–2), 6–2 2010 Rafael Nadal David Ferrer 7–5, 6–2 2011 Novak Djokovic Rafael Nadal 6–4, 6–4 2012 Rafael Nadal Novak Djokovic 7–5, 6–3 2013 Rafael Nadal Roger Federer 6–1, 6–3 2014 Novak Djokovic Rafael Nadal 4–6, 6–3, 6–3 2015 Novak Djokovic Roger Federer 6–4, 6–3 2016 Andy Murray Novak Djokovic 6–3, 6–3 2017 Alexander Zverev Novak Djokovic 6–4, 6–3 2018 Rafael Nadal Alexander Zverev 6–1, 1–6, 6–3 2019 Rafael Nadal Novak Djokovic 6–0, 4–6, 6–1 2020 Novak Djokovic Diego Schwartzman 7–5, 6–3 2021 Rafael Nadal Novak Djokovic 7–5, 1–6, 6–3 2022 Novak Djokovic Stefanos Tsitsipas 6–0, 7–6(7–5) 2023 Daniil Medvedev Holger Rune 7–5, 7–5 ===Women's singles=== Year Champion Runner-up Score 1930 Lilí Álvarez Lucia Valerio 3–6, 8–6, 6–0 1931 Lucia Valerio Dorothy Andrus 2–6, 6–2, 6–2 1932 Ida Adamoff Lucia Valerio 6–4, 7–5 1933 Elizabeth Ryan Ida Adamoff 6–1, 6–1 1934 Helen Jacobs Lucia Valerio 6–3, 6–0 1935 Hilde Krahwinkel Sperling Lucia Valerio 6–4, 6–1 1936–1949 Not held Not held Not held 1950 Annelies Ullstein-Bossi Joan Curry 6–4, 6–4 1951 Doris Hart Shirley Fry 6–3, 8–6 1952 Susan Partridge Pat Harrison 6–3, 7–5 1953 Doris Hart Maureen Connolly 4–6, 9–7, 6–3 1954 Maureen Connolly Patricia Ward 6–3, 6–0 1955 Patricia Ward Erika Vollmer 6–4, 6–3 1956 Althea Gibson Zsuzsa Körmöczy 6–3, 7–5 1957 Shirley Bloomer Dorothy Head Knode 1–6, 9–7, 6–2 1958 Maria Bueno Lorraine Coghlan 3–6, 6–3, 6–3 1959 Christine Truman Sandra Reynolds 6–0, 6–1 1960 Zsuzsa Körmöczy Ann Haydon 6–4, 4–6, 6–1 1961 Maria Bueno Lesley Turner 6–4, 6–4 1962 Margaret Smith Maria Bueno 8–6, 5–7, 6–4 1963 Margaret Smith Lesley Turner 6–3, 6–4 1964 Margaret Smith Lesley Turner 6–1, 6–1 1965 Maria Bueno Nancy Richey 6–1, 1–6, 6–3 1966 Ann Haydon-Jones Annette Van Zyl 8–6, 6–1 1967 Lesley Turner Maria Bueno 6–3, 6–3 1968 Lesley Turner Bowrey Margaret Smith Court 2–6, 6–2, 6–3 ↓ Open era ↓ ↓ Open era ↓ ↓ Open era ↓ ↓ Open era ↓ ↓ Open era ↓ 1969 Julie Heldman Kerry Melville 7–5, 6–3 1970 Billie Jean King Julie Heldman 6–1, 6–3 1971 Virginia Wade Helga Niessen Masthoff 6–4, 6–4 1972 Linda Tuero Olga Morozova 6–4, 6–3 1973 Evonne Goolagong Chris Evert 7–6(8–6), 6–0 1974 Chris Evert Martina Navratilova 6–3, 6–3 1975 Chris Evert Martina Navratilova 6–1, 6–0 1976 Mima Jaušovec Lesley Hunt 6–1, 6–3 1977 Janet Newberry Renáta Tomanová 6–3, 7–6(7–5) 1978 Regina Maršíková Virginia Ruzici 7–5, 7–5 1979 Tracy Austin Sylvia Hanika 6–4, 1–6, 6–3 1980 Chris Evert Lloyd Virginia Ruzici 5–7, 6–2, 6–2 1981 Chris Evert Lloyd Virginia Ruzici 6–1, 6–2 1982 Chris Evert Lloyd Hana Mandlíková 6–0, 6–2 1983 Andrea Temesvári Bonnie Gadusek 6–1, 6–0 1984 Manuela Maleeva Chris Evert Lloyd 6–3, 6–3 1985 Raffaella Reggi Vicki Nelson- Dunbar 6–4, 6–4 1986 Not held Not held Not held 1987 Steffi Graf Gabriela Sabatini 7–5, 4–6, 6–0 1988 Gabriela Sabatini Helen Kelesi 6–1, 6–7(4–7), 6–1 1989 Gabriela Sabatini Arantxa Sánchez Vicario 6–2, 5–7, 6–4 1990 Monica Seles Martina Navratilova 6–1, 6–1 1991 Gabriela Sabatini Monica Seles 6–3, 6–2 1992 Gabriela Sabatini Monica Seles 7–5, 6–4 1993 Conchita Martínez Gabriela Sabatini 7–5, 6–1 1994 Conchita Martínez Martina Navratilova 7–6(7–5), 6–4 1995 Conchita Martínez 6–3, 6–1 1996 Conchita Martínez Martina Hingis 6–2, 6–3 1997 Mary Pierce Conchita Martínez 6–4, 6–0 1998 Martina Hingis Venus Williams 6–3, 2–6, 6–3 1999 Venus Williams Mary Pierce 6–4, 6–2 2000 Monica Seles Amélie Mauresmo 6–2, 7–6(7–4) 2001 Jelena Dokić Amélie Mauresmo 7–6(7–3), 6–1 2002 Serena Williams Justine Henin 7–6(8–6), 6–4 2003 Kim Clijsters Amélie Mauresmo 3–6, 7–6(7–3), 6–0 2004 Amélie Mauresmo Jennifer Capriati 2005 Amélie Mauresmo Patty Schnyder 2–6, 6–3, 6–4 2006 Martina Hingis Dinara Safina 6–2, 7–5 2007 Jelena Janković Svetlana Kuznetsova 7–5, 6–1 2008 Jelena Janković Alizé Cornet 6–2, 6–2 2009 Dinara Safina Svetlana Kuznetsova 6–3, 6–2 2010 Jelena Janković 7–6(7–5), 7–5 2011 Maria Sharapova Samantha Stosur 6–2, 6–4 2012 Maria Sharapova Li Na 4–6, 6–4, 7–6(7–5) 2013 Serena Williams Victoria Azarenka 6–1, 6–3 2014 Serena Williams Sara Errani 6–3, 6–0 2015 Maria Sharapova Carla Suárez Navarro 4–6, 7–5, 6–1 2016 Serena Williams Madison Keys 7–6(7–5), 6–3 2017 Elina Svitolina Simona Halep 4–6, 7–5, 6–1 2018 Elina Svitolina Simona Halep 6–0, 6–4 2019 Karolína Plíšková Johanna Konta 6–3, 6–4 2020 Simona Halep Karolína Plíšková 6–0, 2–1 ret. 2021 Iga Świątek Karolína Plíšková 6–0, 6–0 2022 Iga Świątek Ons Jabeur 6–2, 6–2 2023 Elena Rybakina Anhelina Kalinina 6–4, 1–0 ret. ===Men's doubles=== Year Champions Runners-up Score 1930 Wilbur Coen Bill Tilden Umberto de Morpurgo Placido Gaslini 6–0, 6–3, 6–3 1931 Alberto del Bono Pat Hughes Henri Cochet André Merlin 3–6, 8–6, 4–6, 6–4, 6–3 1932 Giorgio de Stefani Pat Hughes J. Bonte André Merlin 6–2, 6–2, 6–4 1933 Jean Lesueur André Martin-Legeay Giovanni Palmieri Emanuele Sertorio 6–2, 6–4, 6–2 1934 1935 Jack Crawford Vivian McGrath Jean Borotra Jacques Brugnon 4–6, 4–6, 6–4, 6–2, 6–2 1936–1949 Not held Not held Not held 1950 Bill Talbert Tony Trabert Budge Patty Bill Sidwell 6–3, 6–1, 4–6 (ret.) 1951 Jaroslav Drobný Frank Sedgman Giovanni Cucelli Marcello Del Bello 6–2, 7–9, 6–1, 6–3 1952 Jaroslav Drobný Frank Sedgman Giovanni Cucelli Marcello Del Bello 3–6, 7–5, 3–6, 6–3, 6–2 1953 Lew Hoad Ken Rosewall Jaroslav Drobný Budge Patty 6–2, 6–4, 6–2 1954 Jaroslav Drobný Enrique Morea Tony Trabert Vic Seixas 6–4, 0–6, 3–6, 6–3, 6–4 1955 Art Larsen Enrique Morea Nicola Pietrangeli Orlando Sirola 6–1, 6–4, 4–6, 7–5 1956 Jaroslav Drobný Lew Hoad Nicola Pietrangeli Orlando Sirola 11–9, 6–2, 6–3 1957 Neale Fraser Lew Hoad Nicola Pietrangeli Orlando Sirola 6–1, 6–8, 6–0, 6–2 1958 Antal Jancsó Kurt Nielsen Luis Ayala Don Candy 8–10, 6–3, 6–2, 1–6, 9–7 1959 Roy Emerson Neale Fraser Nicola Pietrangeli Orlando Sirola 8–6, 6–4, 6–4 1960 Title shared: Nicola Pietrangeli Orlando Sirola vs. Roy Emerson Neale Fraser 3–6, 7–5, 2–6, 11–11 (abandoned) 1961 Roy Emerson Neale Fraser Nicola Pietrangeli Orlando Sirola 6–2, 6–4, 11–9 1962 Roy Emerson Neale Fraser Ken Fletcher John Newcombe 6–2, 6–4, 11–9 1963 Bob Hewitt Neale Fraser Nicola Pietrangeli Orlando Sirola 6–3, 6–3, 6–1 1964 Bob Hewitt Neale Fraser Tony Roche John Newcombe 7–5, 6–3, 3–6, 7–5 1965 Title shared: Tony Roche John Newcombe vs. Ronald Barnes Thomaz Koch 1966 Roy Emerson Fred Stolle Nicola Pietrangeli Cliff Drysdale 6–4, 12–10, 6–3 1967 Bob Hewitt Frew McMillan Bill Bowrey Owen Davidson 6–3, 2–6, 6–3, 9–7 1968 Tom Okker Marty Riessen Allan Stone 6–3, 6–4, 6–2 ↓ Open era ↓ ↓ Open era ↓ ↓ Open era ↓ ↓ Open era ↓ ↓ Open era ↓ 1969 Title shared: Tom Okker Marty Riessen vs. John Newcombe Tony Roche 4–6, 6–1 (abandoned) 1970 Ilie Năstase Ion Țiriac William Bowrey Owen Davidson 0–6, 10–8, 6–3, 6–8, 6–1 ↓ WCT circuit ↓ ↓ WCT circuit ↓ ↓ WCT circuit ↓ ↓ WCT circuit ↓ ↓ WCT circuit ↓ 1971 John Newcombe Tony Roche Andrés Gimeno Roger Taylor 6–4, 6–4 ↓ Grand Prix circuit ↓ ↓ Grand Prix circuit ↓ ↓ Grand Prix circuit ↓ ↓ Grand Prix circuit ↓ ↓ Grand Prix circuit ↓ 1972 Ilie Năstase Ion Țiriac Lew Hoad Frew McMillan 3–6, 3–6, 6–4, 6–3, 5–3 (ret.) 1973 John Newcombe Tom Okker Ross Case Geoff Masters 6–2, 6–3, 6–4 1974 Brian Gottfried Raúl Ramírez Juan Gisbert Ilie Năstase 6–3, 6–2, 6–3 1975 Brian Gottfried Raúl Ramírez Jimmy Connors Ilie Năstase 6–4, 7–6, 2–6, 6–1 1976 Brian Gottfried Raúl Ramírez Geoff Masters John Newcombe 7–6, 5–7, 6–3, 3–6, 6–3 1977 Brian Gottfried Raúl Ramírez Fred McNair Sherwood Stewart 6–7, 7–6, 7–5 1978 Víctor Pecci Belus Prajoux Jan Kodeš Tomáš Šmíd 6–7, 7–6, 6–1 1979 Peter Fleming Tomáš Šmíd José Luis Clerc Ilie Năstase 4–6, 6–1, 7–5 1980 Mark Edmondson Kim Warwick Balázs Taróczy Eliot Teltscher 7–6, 7–6 1981 Hans Gildemeister Andrés Gómez Bruce Manson Tomáš Šmíd 7–5, 6–2 1982 Heinz Günthardt Balázs Taróczy Wojtek Fibak John Fitzgerald 6–4, 4–6, 6–3 1983 Francisco González Víctor Pecci Jan Gunnarsson Mike Leach 6–4, 6–2 1984 Ken Flach Robert Seguso John Alexander Mike Leach 3–6, 6–3, 6–4 1985 Anders Järryd Mats Wilander Ken Flach Robert Seguso 4–6, 6–3, 6–2 1986 Guy Forget Yannick Noah Mark Edmondson Sherwood Stewart 7–6, 6–2 1987 Guy Forget Yannick Noah Miloslav Mečíř Tomáš Šmíd 6–2, 6–7, 6–3 1988 Jorge Lozano Todd Witsken Anders Järryd Tomáš Šmíd 6–3, 6–3 1989 Jim Courier Pete Sampras Danilo Marcelino Mauro Menezes 6–4, 6–3 ↓ ATP Tour Masters 1000 ↓ ↓ ATP Tour Masters 1000 ↓ ↓ ATP Tour Masters 1000 ↓ ↓ ATP Tour Masters 1000 ↓ ↓ ATP Tour Masters 1000 ↓ 1990 Sergio Casal Emilio Sánchez Jim Courier Martin Davis 7–6, 7–5 1991 Omar Camporese Goran Ivanišević Luke Jensen Laurie Warder 6–2, 6–3 1992 Jakob Hlasek Marc Rosset Wayne Ferreira Mark Kratzmann 6–4, 3–6, 6–1 1993 Jacco Eltingh Paul Haarhuis Wayne Ferreira Mark Kratzmann 6–4, 7–6 1994 Yevgeny Kafelnikov David Rikl Wayne Ferreira Javier Sánchez 6–1, 7–5 1995 Cyril Suk Daniel Vacek Jan Apell Jonas Björkman 6–3, 6–4 1996 Byron Black Grant Connell Libor Pimek Byron Talbot 6–2, 6–3 1997 Mark Knowles Daniel Nestor Byron Black Alex O'Brien 6–3, 4–6, 7–5 1998 Mahesh Bhupathi Leander Paes Ellis Ferreira Rick Leach 6–4, 4–6, 7–6 1999 Ellis Ferreira Rick Leach David Adams John-Laffnie de Jager 6–7, 6–1, 6–2 2000 Martin Damm Dominik Hrbatý Wayne Ferreira Yevgeny Kafelnikov 6–4, 4–6, 6–3 2001 Wayne Ferreira Yevgeny Kafelnikov Daniel Nestor Sandon Stolle 6–4, 7–6(7–6) 2002 Martin Damm Cyril Suk Wayne Black Kevin Ullyett 7–5, 7–5 2003 Wayne Arthurs Paul Hanley Michaël Llodra Fabrice Santoro 7–5, 7–6(7–5) 2004 Mahesh Bhupathi Max Mirnyi Wayne Arthurs Paul Hanley 1–6, 6–4, 7–6(7–1) 2005 Michaël Llodra Fabrice Santoro Bob Bryan Mike Bryan 7–5, 6–4 2006 Mark Knowles Daniel Nestor Jonathan Erlich Andy Ram 4–6, 6–4, [10–6] 2007 Fabrice Santoro Nenad Zimonjić Bob Bryan Mike Bryan 6–4, 6–7(4–7), [10–7] 2008 Bob Bryan Mike Bryan Daniel Nestor Nenad Zimonjić 3–6, 6–4, [10–8] 2009 Daniel Nestor Nenad Zimonjić Bob Bryan Mike Bryan 7–6(7–5), 6–3 2010 Bob Bryan Mike Bryan John Isner Sam Querrey 6–2, 6–3 2011 John Isner Sam Querrey Mardy Fish Andy Roddick (walkover) 2012 Marcel Granollers Marc López Łukasz Kubot Janko Tipsarević 6–3, 6–2 2013 Bob Bryan Mike Bryan Mahesh Bhupathi Rohan Bopanna 6–2, 6–3 2014 Daniel Nestor Nenad Zimonjić Robin Haase Feliciano López 6–4, 7–6(7–2) 2015 Pablo Cuevas David Marrero Marcel Granollers Marc López 6–4, 7–5 2016 Bob Bryan Mike Bryan Vasek Pospisil Jack Sock 2–6, 6–3, [10–7] 2017 Pierre-Hugues Herbert Nicolas Mahut Ivan Dodig Marcel Granollers 4–6, 6–4, [10–3] 2018 Juan Sebastián Cabal Robert Farah Pablo Carreño Busta João Sousa 3–6, 6–4, [10–4] 2019 Robert Farah Raven Klaasen Michael Venus 6–1, 6–3 2020 Marcel Granollers Horacio Zeballos Jérémy Chardy Fabrice Martin 6–4, 5–7, [10–8] 2021 Nikola Mektić Mate Pavić Rajeev Ram Joe Salisbury 6–4, 7–6(7–4) 2022 Nikola Mektić Mate Pavić John Isner Diego Schwartzman 6–2, 6–7(6–8), [12–10] 2023 Hugo Nys Jan Zieliński Robin Haase Botic van de Zandschulp 7–5, 6–1 ===Women's doubles=== Year Champions Runners- up Score 1930 Lilí Álvarez Lucia Valerio Leila-Claude Anet Arlette Neufeld 7–5, 7–5 1931 Anna Luzzatti Rosetta Gagliardi Prouse Lucia Valerio Dorothy Andrus 6–3, 1–6, 6–3 1932 Colette Rosambert Lolette Payot Lucia Valerio Dorothy Andrus Burke 7–5, 6–3 1933 Ida Adamoff Dorothy Andrus Burke Elizabeth Ryan Lucia Valerio 6–3, 1–6, 6–4 1934 Helen Jacobs Elizabeth Ryan Ida Adamoff Dorothy Andrus 7–5, 9–7 1935 Evelyn Dearman Nancy Lyle Cilly Aussem Elizabeth Ryan 6–2, 6–4 1936–1949 Not held Not held Not held 1950 Jean Quertier Jean Bridger Walker-Smith Elizabeth Clements Hilton Katherine Tuckey 1–6, 6–3, 6–2 1951 Shirley Fry Doris Hart Louise Brough Thelma Coyne Long 6–1, 7–5 1952 Nell Hall Hopman Thelma Coyne Long Nicla Migliori Vittoria Tonolli 6–2, 6–8, 6–3 1953 Maureen Connolly Julia Sampson Shirley Fry Doris Hart 6–8, 6–4, 6–4 1954 Elaine Watson Patricia Ward Nelly Adamson Landry Ginette Jucker Bucaille 3–6, 6–3, 6–4 1955 Christiane Mercelis Patricia Ward Fay Muller Beryl Penrose 6–4, 10–8 1956 Thelma Coyne Long Mary Bevis Hawton Darlene Hard Angela Buxton 6–4, 6–8, 9–7 1957 Thelma Coyne Long Mary Bevis Hawton Rosa Reyes Yola Ramírez 6–1, 6–1 1958 Shirley Bloomer Christine Truman Thelma Coyne Long Mary Bevis Hawton 6–3, 6–2 1959 Rosa Reyes Yola Ramírez Maria Bueno Janet Hopps 4–6, 6–4, 6–4 1960 Margaret Hellyer Yola Ramírez Shirley Bloomer Brasher Ann Haydon 6–4, 6–4 1961 Jan Lehane Lesley Turner Margaret Smith Mary Carter Reitano 2–6, 6–1, 6–1 1962 Maria Bueno Darlene Hard Silvana Lazzarino Lea Pericoli 6–4, 6–4 1963 Margaret Smith Robyn Ebbern Silvana Lazzarino Lea Pericoli 6–2, 6–3 1964 Margaret Smith Lesley Turner Silvana Lazzarino Lea Pericoli 6–1, 6–2 1965 Madonna Schacht Annette Van Zyl Silvana Lazzarino Lea Pericoli 2–6, 6–2, 12–10 1966 Norma Baylon Annette Van Zyl Ann Haydon-Jones Elizabeth Starkie 6–3, 1–6, 6–2 1967 Rosemary Casals Lesley Turner Silvana Lazzarino Lea Pericoli 7–5, 7–5 1968 Margaret Smith Court Virginia Wade Annette Van Zyl du Plooy Patricia Walkden 6–2, 7–5 ↓ Open era ↓ ↓ Open era ↓ ↓ Open era ↓ ↓ Open era ↓ ↓ Open era ↓ 1969 Françoise Dürr Ann Haydon-Jones Rosemary Casals Billie Jean King 6–3, 3–6, 6–3 1970 Rosemary Casals Billie Jean King Françoise Dürr Virginia Wade 6–2, 3–6, 9–7 1971 Helga Niessen Masthoff Virginia Wade Lesley Turner Bowrey Helen Gourlay 5–7, 6–2, 6–2 1972 Lesley Hunt Olga Morozova Gail Sherriff Chanfreau Rosalba Vido 6–3, 6–4 1973 Olga Morozova Virginia Wade Martina Navratilova Renáta Tomanová 3–6, 6–2, 7–5 1974 Chris Evert Olga Morozova Helga Niessen Masthoff Heide Orth (walkover) 1975 Chris Evert Martina Navratilova Sue Barker Glynis Coles 6–1, 6–2 1976 Linky Boshoff Ilana Kloss Virginia Ruzici Mariana Simionescu 6–1, 6–2 1977 Brigitte Cuypers Marise Kruger Bunny Bruning Sharon Walsh 3–6, 7–5, 6–2 1978 Mima Jaušovec Virginia Ruzici Florența Mihai Betsy Nagelsen 6–2, 2–6, 7–6 1979 Betty Stöve Renáta Tomanová Evonne Goolagong Cawley Kerry Melville Reid 6–3, 6–4 1980 Hana Mandlíková Renáta Tomanová Ivanna Madruga Adriana Villagrán 6–4, 6–4 1981 Candy Reynolds Paula Smith Chris Evert Lloyd Virginia Ruzici 7–5, 6–1 1982 Kathleen Horvath Yvonne Vermaak Billie Jean King Ilana Kloss 2–6, 6–4, 7–6 1983 Virginia Ruzici Virginia Wade Ivanna Madruga Catherine Tanvier 6–3, 2–6, 6–1 1984 Iva Budařová Helena Suková Kathleen Horvath Virginia Ruzici 7–6(7–5), 1–6, 6–4 1985 Sandra Cecchini Raffaella Reggi Patrizia Murgo Barbara Romanò 1–6, 6–4, 6–3 1986 Not held Not held Not held 1987 Martina Navratilova Gabriela Sabatini Claudia Kohde-Kilsch Helena Suková 6–4, 6–1 1988 Jana Novotná Catherine Suire Jenny Byrne Janine Thompson 6–3, 4–6, 7–5 1989 Elizabeth Smylie Janine Thompson Manon Bollegraf Mercedes Paz 6–4, 6–3 1990 Helen Kelesi Monica Seles Laura Garrone Laura Golarsa 6–3, 6–4 1991 Jennifer Capriati Monica Seles Nicole Bradtke Elna Reinach 7–5, 6–2 1992 Monica Seles Helena Suková Katerina Maleeva Barbara Rittner 6–1, 6–2 1993 Jana Novotná Arantxa Sánchez Vicario Mary Joe Fernández Zina Garrison-Jackson 6–4, 6–2 1994 Gigi Fernández Natasha Zvereva Gabriela Sabatini Brenda Schultz-McCarthy 6–1, 6–3 1995 Gigi Fernández Natasha Zvereva Conchita Martínez Patricia Tarabini 4–6, 7–6(7–3), 6–4 1996 Irina Spîrlea Gigi Fernández Martina Hingis 6–4, 3–6, 6–3 1997 Nicole Arendt Manon Bollegraf Conchita Martínez Patricia Tarabini 6–2, 6–4 1998 Virginia Ruano Pascual Paola Suárez Amanda Coetzer Arantxa Sánchez Vicario 7–6(7–1), 6–4 1999 Martina Hingis Anna Kournikova Alexandra Fusai Nathalie Tauziat 6–2, 6–2 2000 Lisa Raymond Rennae Stubbs Arantxa Sánchez Vicario Magüi Serna 6–3, 4–6, 6–2 2001 Cara Black Elena Likhovtseva Paola Suárez Patricia Tarabini 6–1, 6–1 2002 Virginia Ruano Pascual Paola Suárez Conchita Martínez Patricia Tarabini 6–3, 6–4 2003 Svetlana Kuznetsova Martina Navratilova Jelena Dokić Nadia Petrova 6–4, 5–7, 6–2 2004 Nadia Petrova Meghann Shaughnessy Virginia Ruano Pascual Paola Suárez 2–6, 6–3, 6–3 2005 Cara Black Liezel Huber Maria Kirilenko Anabel Medina Garrigues 6–0, 4–6, 6–1 2006 Daniela Hantuchová Ai Sugiyama Květa Peschke Francesca Schiavone 3–6, 6–3, 6–1 2007 Nathalie Dechy Mara Santangelo Tathiana Garbin Roberta Vinci 6–4, 6–1 2008 Chan Yung-jan Chuang Chia-jung Iveta Benešová Janette Husárová 7–6(7–5), 6–3 2009 Hsieh Su-wei Peng Shuai Daniela Hantuchová Ai Sugiyama 7–5, 7–6(7–5) 2010 Gisela Dulko Flavia Pennetta Nuria Llagostera Vives 6–4, 6–2 2011 Peng Shuai Zheng Jie Vania King Yaroslava Shvedova 6–2, 6–3 2012 Sara Errani Roberta Vinci Ekaterina Makarova Elena Vesnina 6–2, 7–5 2013 Hsieh Su-wei Peng Shuai Sara Errani Roberta Vinci 4–6, 6–3, [10–8] 2014 Květa Peschke Katarina Srebotnik Sara Errani Roberta Vinci 4–0, ret. 2015 Tímea Babos Kristina Mladenovic Martina Hingis Sania Mirza 6–4, 6–3 2016 Martina Hingis Sania Mirza Ekaterina Makarova Elena Vesnina 2017 Martina Hingis Chan Yung-jan Ekaterina Makarova Elena Vesnina 7–5, 7–6(7–4) 2018 Ashleigh Barty Demi Schuurs Andrea Sestini Hlaváčková Barbora Strýcová 6–3, 6–4 2019 Victoria Azarenka Ashleigh Barty Anna-Lena Grönefeld Demi Schuurs 4–6, 6–0, [10–3] 2020 Hsieh Su-wei Barbora Strýcová Anna-Lena Friedsam Raluca Olaru 6–2, 6–2 2021 Sharon Fichman Giuliana Olmos Kristina Mladenovic Markéta Vondroušová 4–6, 7–5, [10–5] 2022 Veronika Kudermetova Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova Gabriela Dabrowski Giuliana Olmos 1–6, 6–4, [10–7] 2023 Storm Hunter Elise Mertens Coco Gauff Jessica Pegula 6–4, 6–4 ==Records== Source: The Tennis Base ===Men's singles=== Most titles Rafael Nadal 10 Most finals Rafael Nadal 12 Most finals Novak Djokovic 12 Most consecutive titles Rafael Nadal 3 Most consecutive finals Rafael Nadal 6 Most matches played Rafael Nadal 77 Most matches won Rafael Nadal 69 Most consecutive matches won Rafael Nadal 17 Most editions played Nicola Pietrangeli 22 Best winning % Rod Laver 93.75% Best winning % Björn Borg 93.75% Youngest champion Björn Borg 17y, 11m, 2d (1974) Oldest champion Bill Tilden 38y, 2m, 18d (1930) ===Women's singles=== Most titles Chris Evert 5 Most finals Chris Evert 7 Most runner-ups Lucia Valerio 4 Most runner-ups / Martina Navratilova 4 Most consecutive titles Conchita Martínez 4 Most consecutive finals Conchita Martínez 5 Most consecutive runner-ups Lucia Valerio 2 Most consecutive runner-ups Lesley Turner 2 Most consecutive runner-ups Martina Navratilova 2 Most consecutive runner-ups Virginia Ruzici 2 Most consecutive runner-ups Monica Seles 2 Most consecutive runner-ups Amélie Mauresmo 2 Most consecutive runner-ups Simona Halep 2 Most consecutive runner-ups Karolína Plíšková 2 Most matches played Conchita Martínez 53 Most matches played Serena Williams 53 Most matches won Conchita Martínez 44 Most matches won Serena Williams 44 Most consecutive matches won (during unbroken years of play) Conchita Martínez 24 Most editions played Lea Pericoli 20 Best winning % (minimum of 20 matches played) Chris Evert (36-3) 92.31% Best winning % (minimum of 20 matches played) Margaret Court (24-2) 92.31% Undefeated at this tournament (minimum of 1 title) Doris Hart (7-0) (1951, 1953) Undefeated at this tournament (minimum of 1 title) Althea Gibson (5-0) (1956) Undefeated at this tournament (minimum of 1 title) Tracy Austin (5-0) (1979) Undefeated at this tournament (minimum of 1 title) Lilí Álvarez (4-0) (1930) Undefeated at this tournament (minimum of 1 title) Helen Jacobs (4-0) (1934) Undefeated at this tournament (minimum of 1 title) Hilde Krahwinkel Sperling (4-0) (1935) Longest final: Shortest fully played final: ===Women's doubles=== Individual Individual Team Team Most titles Virginia Wade 4 Thelma Coyne Long Mary Hawton 2 Most titles Virginia Wade 4 Paola Suárez Virginia Ruano Pascual 2 Most titles Virginia Wade 4 Hsieh Su-wei Peng Shuai 2 Most finals Thelma Coyne Long 5 Silvana Lazzarino Lea Pericoli 5 Most finals Silvana Lazzarino 5 Silvana Lazzarino Lea Pericoli 5 Most finals Lea Pericoli 5 Silvana Lazzarino Lea Pericoli 5 Most finals Virginia Wade 5 Silvana Lazzarino Lea Pericoli 5 Most finals Virginia Ruzici 5 Silvana Lazzarino Lea Pericoli 5 Most finals Martina Hingis 5 Silvana Lazzarino Lea Pericoli 5 Most runner-ups Silvana Lazzarino 5 Silvana Lazzarino Lea Pericoli 5 Most runner-ups Lea Pericoli 5 Silvana Lazzarino Lea Pericoli 5 Most consecutive titles Olga Morozova 3 Thelma Coyne Long Mary Hawton 2 Most consecutive titles / Monica Seles 3 Gigi Fernández Natasha Zvereva 2 Most consecutive finals Silvana Lazzarino 4 Silvana Lazzarino Lea Pericoli 4 Most consecutive finals Lea Pericoli 4 Silvana Lazzarino Lea Pericoli 4 Most consecutive runner-ups Silvana Lazzarino 4 Silvana Lazzarino Lea Pericoli 4 Most consecutive runner-ups Lea Pericoli 4 Silvana Lazzarino Lea Pericoli 4 Longest final: Shortest fully played finals: ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== *Official website *ATP tournament profile *Official live video website *Stadium Journey article Category:Tennis tournaments in Italy Category:Clay court tennis tournaments Category:WTA 1000 tournaments Category:Sports competitions in Rome Category:Recurring sporting events established in 1930 Category:ATP Tour Masters 1000 |
Electronics is a scientific and engineering discipline that studies and applies the principles of physics to design, create, and operate devices that manipulate electrons and other charged particles. Electronics is a subfield of electrical engineering, but it differs from it in that it focuses on using active devices such as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits to control and amplify the flow of electric current and to convert it from one form to another, such as from alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) or from analog to digital. Electronics also encompasses the fields of microelectronics, nanoelectronics, optoelectronics, and quantum electronics, which deal with the fabrication and application of electronic devices at microscopic, nanoscopic, optical, and quantum scales. Electronics have a profound impact on various aspects of modern society and culture, such as communication, entertainment, education, health care, industry, and security. The main driving force behind the advancement of electronics is the semiconductor industry, which produces the basic materials and components for electronic devices and circuits. The semiconductor industry is one of the largest and most profitable sectors in the global economy, with annual revenues exceeding $481 billion in 2018. The electronics industry also encompasses other sectors that rely on electronic devices and systems, such as e-commerce, which generated over $29 trillion in online sales in 2017. ==History and development== Electronics has hugely influenced the development of modern society. The identification of the electron in 1897, along with the subsequent invention of the vacuum tube which could amplify and rectify small electrical signals, inaugurated the field of electronics and the electron age. Practical applications started with the invention of the diode by Ambrose Fleming and the triode by Lee De Forest in the early 1900s, which made the detection of small electrical voltages such as radio signals from a radio antenna possible with a non-mechanical device. Vacuum tubes (thermionic valves) were the first active electronic components which controlled current flow by influencing the flow of individual electrons, They were responsible for the electronics revolution of the first half of the twentieth century, They enabled the construction of equipment that used current amplification and rectification to give us radio, television, radar, long-distance telephony and much more. The early growth of electronics was rapid, and by the 1920s, commercial radio broadcasting and communications were becoming widespread and electronic amplifiers were being used in such diverse applications as long- distance telephony and the music recording industry. The next big technological step took several decades to appear, when the first working point-contact transistor was invented by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain at Bell Labs in 1947. However, vacuum tubes played a leading role in the field of microwave and high power transmission as well as television receivers until the middle of the 1980s. Since then, solid-state devices have all but completely taken over. Vacuum tubes are still used in some specialist applications such as high power RF amplifiers, cathode ray tubes, specialist audio equipment, guitar amplifiers and some microwave devices. In April 1955, the IBM 608 was the first IBM product to use transistor circuits without any vacuum tubes and is believed to be the first all-transistorized calculator to be manufactured for the commercial market. The 608 contained more than 3,000 germanium transistors. Thomas J. Watson Jr. ordered all future IBM products to use transistors in their design. From that time on transistors were almost exclusively used for computer logic and peripherals. However, early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, which limited them to a number of specialised applications. The MOSFET (MOS transistor) was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959. The MOSFET was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses. Its advantages include high scalability, affordability, low power consumption, and high density. It revolutionized the electronics industry, becoming the most widely used electronic device in the world. The MOSFET is the basic element in most modern electronic equipment. As the complexity of circuits grew, problems arose. One problem was the size of the circuit. A complex circuit like a computer was dependent on speed. If the components were large, the wires interconnecting them must be long. The electric signals took time to go through the circuit, thus slowing the computer. The invention of the integrated circuit by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce solved this problem by making all the components and the chip out of the same block (monolith) of semiconductor material. The circuits could be made smaller, and the manufacturing process could be automated. This led to the idea of integrating all components on a single-crystal silicon wafer, which led to small-scale integration (SSI) in the early 1960s, and then medium-scale integration (MSI) in the late 1960s, followed by VLSI. In 2008, billion-transistor processors became commercially available. ==Subfields== * Analog electronics * Audio electronics * Bioelectronics * Circuit design * Digital electronics * Embedded systems * Integrated circuits * Microelectronics * Nanoelectronics * Optoelectronics * Power electronics * Semiconductor devices * Telecommunications == Devices and components == thumb|Various electronic components. An electronic component is any component in an electronic system either active or passive. Components are connected together, usually by being soldered to a printed circuit board (PCB), to create an electronic circuit with a particular function. Components may be packaged singly, or in more complex groups as integrated circuits. Passive electronic components are capacitors, inductors, resistors, whilst active components are such as semiconductor devices; transistors and thyristors, which control current flow at electron level. == Types of circuits == Electronic circuit functions can be divided into two function groups: analog and digital. A particular device may consist of circuitry that has either or a mix of the two types. Analog circuits are becoming less common, as many of their functions are being digitized. === Analog circuits === right|thumb|Hitachi J100 adjustable frequency drive chassis Most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a continuous range of voltage or current as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits. The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a 'circuit' can be defined as anything from a single component, to systems containing thousands of components. Analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, operational amplifiers and oscillators. One rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog – these days analog circuitry may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve performance. This type of circuit is usually called "mixed signal" rather than analog or digital. Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation. An example is the comparator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit. Similarly, an overdriven transistor amplifier can take on the characteristics of a controlled switch having essentially two levels of output. In fact, many digital circuits are actually implemented as variations of analog circuits similar to this example – after all, all aspects of the real physical world are essentially analog, so digital effects are only realized by constraining analog behaviour. === Digital circuits === Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels. Digital circuits are the most common physical representation of Boolean algebra and are the basis of all digital computers. To most engineers, the terms "digital circuit", "digital system" and "logic" are interchangeable in the context of digital circuits. Most digital circuits use a binary system with two voltage levels labelled "0" and "1". Often logic "0" will be a lower voltage and referred to as "Low" while logic "1" is referred to as "High". However, some systems use the reverse definition ("0" is "High") or are current based. Quite often the logic designer may reverse these definitions from one circuit to the next as they see fit to facilitate their design. The definition of the levels as "0" or "1" is arbitrary. Ternary (with three states) logic has been studied, and some prototype computers made. Mass-produced binary systems have caused lower significance for using ternary logic.. Computers, electronic clocks, and programmable logic controllers (used to control industrial processes) are constructed of digital circuits. Digital signal processors, which measure, filter or compress continuous real-world analog signals, are another example. Transistors such as MOSFET are used to control binary states. * Logic gates * Adders * Flip-flops * Counters * Registers * Multiplexers * Schmitt triggers Highly integrated devices: * Memory chip * Microprocessors * Microcontrollers * Application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) * Digital signal processor (DSP) * Field-programmable gate array (FPGA) * Field-programmable analog array (FPAA) * System on chip (SOC) == Design == Electronic systems design deals with the multi-disciplinary design issues of complex electronic devices and systems, such as mobile phones and computers. The subject covers a broad spectrum, from the design and development of an electronic system (new product development) to assuring its proper function, service life and disposal. Electronic systems design is therefore the process of defining and developing complex electronic devices to satisfy specified requirements of the user. Due to the complex nature of electronics theory, laboratory experimentation is an important part of the development of electronic devices. These experiments are used to test or verify the engineer's design and detect errors. Historically, electronics labs have consisted of electronics devices and equipment located in a physical space, although in more recent years the trend has been towards electronics lab simulation software, such as CircuitLogix, Multisim, and PSpice. === Computer-aided design === Today's electronics engineers have the ability to design circuits using premanufactured building blocks such as power supplies, semiconductors (i.e. semiconductor devices, such as transistors), and integrated circuits. Electronic design automation software programs include schematic capture programs and printed circuit board design programs. Popular names in the EDA software world are NI Multisim, Cadence (ORCAD), EAGLE PCB and Schematic, Mentor (PADS PCB and LOGIC Schematic), Altium (Protel), LabCentre Electronics (Proteus), gEDA, KiCad and many others. == Negative qualities == === Thermal management === Heat generated by electronic circuitry must be dissipated to prevent immediate failure and improve long term reliability. Heat dissipation is mostly achieved by passive conduction/convection. Means to achieve greater dissipation include heat sinks and fans for air cooling, and other forms of computer cooling such as water cooling. These techniques use convection, conduction, and radiation of heat energy. === Noise === Electronic noise is definedIEEE Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics Terms as unwanted disturbances superposed on a useful signal that tend to obscure its information content. Noise is not the same as signal distortion caused by a circuit. Noise is associated with all electronic circuits. Noise may be electromagnetically or thermally generated, which can be decreased by lowering the operating temperature of the circuit. Other types of noise, such as shot noise cannot be removed as they are due to limitations in physical properties. == Packaging methods == Many different methods of connecting components have been used over the years. For instance, early electronics often used point to point wiring with components attached to wooden breadboards to construct circuits. Cordwood construction and wire wrap were other methods used. Most modern day electronics now use printed circuit boards made of materials such as FR4, or the cheaper (and less hard-wearing) Synthetic Resin Bonded Paper (SRBP, also known as Paxoline/Paxolin (trade marks) and FR2) – characterised by its brown colour. Health and environmental concerns associated with electronics assembly have gained increased attention in recent years, especially for products destined to go to European markets. Electrical components are generally mounted in the following ways: * Through- hole (sometimes referred to as 'Pin-Through-Hole') * Surface mount * Chassis mount * Rack mount * LGA/BGA/PGA socket == Industry == The electronics industry consists of various sectors. The central driving force behind the entire electronics industry is the semiconductor industry sector, which has annual sales of over as of 2018. The largest industry sector is e-commerce, which generated over in 2017. The most widely manufactured electronic device is the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), with an estimated 13sextillion MOSFETs having been manufactured between 1960 and 2018. In the 1960s, U.S. manufacturers were unable to compete with Japanese companies such as Sony and Hitachi who could produce high-quality goods at lower prices. By the 1980s, however, U.S. manufacturers became the world leaders in semiconductor development and assembly. However, during the 1990s and subsequently, the industry shifted overwhelmingly to East Asia (a process begun with the initial movement of microchip mass-production there in the 1970s), as plentiful, cheap labor, and increasing technological sophistication, became widely available there.Shih, Willy (Harvard Business School): "Congress Is Giving Billions To The U.S. Semiconductor Industry. Will It Ease Chip Shortages?" transcript, August 3, 2022, Forbes, retrieved September 12, 2022Lewis, James Andrew: "Strengthening a Transnational Semiconductor Industry," June 2, 2022, Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), retrieved September 12, 2022 Over three decades, the United States' global share of semiconductor manufacturing capacity fell, from 37% in 1990, to 12% in 2022. America's pre-eminent semiconductor manufacturer, Intel Corporation, fell far behind its subcontractor Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC) in manufacturing technology. By that time, Taiwan had become the world's leading source of advanced semiconductors—followed by South Korea, the United States, Japan, Singapore, and China. Important semiconductor industry facilities (which often are subsidiaries of a leading producer based elsewhere) also exist in Europe (notably the Netherlands), Southeast Asia, South America, and Israel. == See also == * Index of electronics articles * Outline of electronics * Atomtronics * Audio engineering * Avionics * Biodegradable electronics * Broadcast engineering * Computer engineering * Electronics engineering * Electronics engineering technology * Fuzzy electronics * Marine electronics * Photonics * Robotics == References == == Further reading == * The Art of Electronics, by Paul Horowitz and Winfield Hill, == External links == * * Navy 1998 Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series (NEETS) * DOE 1998 Electrical Science, Fundamentals Handbook, 4 vols. ** Vol. 1, Basic Electrical Theory, Basic DC Theory ** Vol. 2, DC Circuits, Batteries, Generators, Motors ** Vol. 3, Basic AC Theory, Basic AC Reactive Components, Basic AC Power, Basic AC Generators ** Vol. 4, AC Motors, Transformers, Test Instruments & Measuring Devices, Electrical Distribution Systems |
Zachary Tyler "Zach" Donohue (born January 8, 1991) is an American former ice dancer. With Madison Hubbell, he is a two-time 2022 Winter Olympics medalist, a four-time World medalist, the 2018 Grand Prix Final champion, the 2014 Four Continents champion, and a three-time U.S. national champion (2018–2019, 2021). With Piper Gilles, Donohue won three medals on the ISU Junior Grand Prix series from 2008 to 2009. == Personal life == Donohue was born on January 8, 1991, in Hartford, Connecticut, and was raised in Madison, Connecticut. He was home-schooled through high school. Donohue and Hubbell were romantically involved in the early years of their partnership, but ultimately they opted to focus on their competitive career. On June 11, 2022, Donohue and Australian ice dancer Chantelle Kerry became engaged. They were married in Sydney, Australia, on September 18, 2022. == Early career == Donohue began learning to skate in 2001. In the 2005–2006 season, he competed with Sara Bailey. The following season, he skated with Kaylyn Patitucci. Having placed fifth on the novice level at the Eastern Sectional Championships, they did not advance to the 2007 U.S. Championships. Donohue placed fifth in the junior category with Lili Lamar at the 2008 Eastern Sectional Championships. Their result was insufficient to advance to the 2008 U.S. Championships. === Partnership with Gilles === thumb|left|upright|Gilles and Donohue at the 2010 World Junior Championships Donohue teamed up with Piper Gilles ahead of the 2008–2009 season. Making their international debut, they won gold at the 2008–09 ISU Junior Grand Prix event in Ostrava, Czech Republic. They took silver at their second assignment, in Cape Town, South Africa. Their results qualified them for the 2008–09 Junior Grand Prix Final in South Korea, but they withdrew before the competition due to an injury to Gilles. They won the junior bronze medal at the 2009 and 2010 U.S. Championships. Gilles/Donohue were selected to compete for the United States at the 2010 World Junior Championships and placed ninth out of 34 teams. They announced their split in May 2010. Reflecting on the end of the partnership years later, Gilles said that she and Donohue were "very similar – very emotional and driven – but it didn't work for us. And we tried, we tried so hard to make it work, and again, it just wasn't the right partnership for either of us." === Partnership with Aronow === Donohue teamed up with Alissandra Aronow in 2010. They trained in Canton, Michigan, under the coaching team of Igor Shpilband and Marina Zueva, and competed in the senior ranks. They ended their partnership shortly after the 2011 U.S. Championships. ==Hubbell and Donohue== === 2011–2012 season === thumb|right|upright|Hubbell and Donohue at the 2011 Skate America On May 12, 2011, U.S. Figure Skating announced Donohue's new partnership with Madison Hubbell. The two decided to train at the Detroit Skating Club under the guidance of the coaching team of Pasquale Camerlengo, Anjelika Krylova, and Natalia Annenko-Deller. Hubbell/Donohue made their international debut at the 2011 Nebelhorn Trophy, winning the gold medal. After taking bronze at the 2012 U.S. Championships, they were selected to compete at two ISU Championships; they placed fifth at the 2012 Four Continents in Colorado Springs, Colorado, and tenth at the 2012 World Championships in Nice, France. === 2012–2013 season === Hubbell/Donohue took bronze at the 2012 Finlandia Trophy and competed at two Grand Prix events. They placed fifth at the 2012 Skate Canada International and fourth at the 2012 Trophée Éric Bompard (second in the free dance). After finishing fourth at the 2013 U.S. Championships, they were not selected for any ISU Championships. === 2013–2014 season: Four Continents gold === After sustaining a concussion in June 2013, Hubbell spent six weeks recuperating. She attributed the injury to a "lack of focus, as painful as that is to admit. I finished twizzles, I did my 3-turn, and I fell off my heel." Hubbell/Donohue won gold at the 2013 Nebelhorn Trophy, placed fourth at the 2013 Skate America, and won their first Grand Prix medal, bronze, at the 2013 Skate Canada International. After placing fourth at the 2014 U.S. Championships, they were assigned to the 2014 Four Continents Championships and finished ahead of Piper Gilles / Paul Poirier to take the gold medal. Hubbell/Donohue were first alternates for the 2014 World Championships but did not take the slot made available when Meryl Davis / Charlie White withdrew; Hubbell had sustained a torn labrum in her left hip and underwent surgery in March 2014. === 2014–2015 season === Hubbell/Donohue won bronze at both of their Grand Prix events, the 2014 Skate Canada International and 2014 Trophée Éric Bompard, and then took bronze at the 2015 U.S. Championships. They placed tenth at the 2015 World Championships in Shanghai, China. On April 13, 2015, Hubbell/Donohue announced that they had started training with Marie-France Dubreuil and Patrice Lauzon at the Centre Gadbois in Montreal. === 2015–2016 season === In November 2015, Hubbell/Donohue won their first Grand Prix title, taking gold at the 2015 Trophée Éric Bompard in Bordeaux as a result of their first place in the short dance, ahead of Canada's Piper Gilles / Paul Poirier. The second day of competition was canceled due to the November 2015 Paris attacks. After winning bronze at the 2015 NHK Trophy, the two qualified to their first Grand Prix Final, where they finished sixth. Hubbell/Donohue took the bronze medal at the 2016 U.S. Championships. They placed fourth at the 2016 Four Continents Championships in Taipei and sixth at the 2016 World Championships in Boston. === 2016–2017 season === Ranked third in both segments at the 2017 U.S. Championships, Hubbell/Donohue remained national bronze medalists for a third consecutive year. In February, they placed fourth in the short dance, sixth in the free, and fourth overall at the 2017 Four Continents Championships in Gangneung, South Korea. In March, Hubbell/Donohue won a small bronze medal for their short dance at the 2017 World Championships in Helsinki, Finland. They dropped to 9th overall after placing 10th in the free dance. === 2017–2018 season: World silver === Hubbell/Donohue began their season with gold at the 2017 CS U.S. International Classic. After taking bronze at the 2017 Skate Canada International and silver at the 2017 NHK Trophy, they qualified to their third consecutive Grand Prix Final. They finished fourth at the event in Nagoya, Japan. At the 2018 U.S. Championships, Hubbell/Donohue placed second behind Maia and Alex Shibutani in the short dance and then second to Madison Chock / Evan Bates in the free dance. They won their first national title by a margin of 0.19 over the Shibutanis and 0.52 over Chock/Bates. All of the ice dancing medalists were named to the U.S. Olympic team. Hubbell/Donohue were not selected for the team event but competed in the individual ice dancing event. In the short dance, they placed third, behind training mates Tessa Virtue / Scott Moir and Gabriella Papadakis / Guillaume Cizeron, and 0.02 points ahead of the Shibutanis. In the free dance, Donohue put both hands down in the middle of a sliding move, which constituted a technical fall. As a result, they finished fifth in the free dance and fourth overall, 4.90 points behind the bronze medalists, the Shibutanis. In March, Hubbell/Donohue won silver at the 2018 World Championships in Milan, having placed second in both segments. === 2018–2019 season: World bronze === Beginning the season again with a win at the U.S. Classic, Hubbell and Donohue were assigned to consecutive Grand Prix events, the 2018 Skate America and 2018 Skate Canada International. They won gold at both events, becoming the first team to qualify for the Grand Prix Final. After victory at Skate Canada International, Hubbell observed, "we wanted to challenge ourselves to become champions in difficult situations, and we knew that it was going to be really challenging to do two Grand Prix back to back at the beginning of the season." At the Grand Prix Final, they placed first in both programs and won the title. At the 2019 U.S. Championships, facing a returning Chock/Bates, they won their second straight national title. They next competed at the 2019 Four Continents Championships, placing first in the rhythm dance with a new personal best. In the free dance, they unexpectedly dropped to fourth place following multiple errors, including receiving only a base level on their stationary lift after it was deemed non-stationary. As a result, they finished off the podium behind Chock/Bates, Kaitlyn Weaver / Andrew Poje, and Gilles/Poirier. Hubbell commented after, "certainly we would rather it happens here than the Worlds." Hubbell/Donohue placed fourth in the rhythm dance at the 2019 World Championships, but overtook Alexandra Stepanova / Ivan Bukin in the free dance to place third overall, winning the bronze. Hubbell called it "our strongest performance this season", saying that their "goal was to do our best performance and the rest we can't control, and that was really what we have achieved." They next were part of the gold medal- winning Team USA at the 2019 World Team Trophy, concluding their season. === 2019–2020 season: Four Continents bronze === For the musical-themed rhythm dance, Hubbell/Donohue chose to skate a Marilyn Monroe program, a longtime goal of Hubbell's. Hubbell/Donohue were again assigned to the same consecutive events for the Grand Prix. They became two-time Skate America champions with a total of 209.55 points after placing first with a personal best of 84.97 points in the rhythm dance and second in the free dance with a score of 124.58, 0.08 points behind the free dance score of silver medalists Stepanova/Bukin. Donohue was suffering from bronchitis at the time of the event and commented that he hoped to have "two working lungs" by their next competition the following week. At 2019 Skate Canada International the following week, they narrowly led after the rhythm dance, 0.63 points ahead of Gilles/Poirier. They placed second in the free dance, and took the silver medal, in what was considered a significant upset loss. Qualifying to the Grand Prix Final, Hubbell/Donohue placed second in the rhythm dance. Third in the free dance after having revised nine of the program elements in the interim since Skate Canada International, they won the bronze medal overall. Entering the 2020 U.S. Championships seeking to win a third consecutive title, they placed second in the rhythm dance, with Donohue slightly losing balance at one point in the Finnstep pattern and their lift being graded at only a level 3. They finished second in the free dance as well, struggling after they came out of their dance spin facing the wrong direction, prompting Hubbell to comment that it was "probably one of the hardest performances, not enjoyable." They won the silver medal behind Chock/Bates. Returning to the Four Continents Championships after the disappointment of the previous year, Hubbell/Donohue won the rhythm dance again, albeit by a margin of only 0.03 over Chock/Bates, and 2.03 points ahead of Gilles/Poirier in third. In the free dance, both made errors in their twizzle sequence, and they dropped to third place, winning the bronze medal. Hubbell admitted afterward that "our free dance has been a rocky one for us this season." They were assigned to compete at the World Championships in Montreal, but these were canceled as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. === 2020–2021 season: World silver === Hubbell and Donohue recruited former training partner and double-Olympic champion Scott Moir as one of their choreographers for the new season, planning to regain momentum lost in the previous year, which they attributed in part to losing confidence in their programs after their loss at Skate Canada. With the ISU assigning the Grand Prix based mainly on training location to minimize international travel, Hubbell/Donohue were nevertheless assigned to the 2020 Skate America in Las Vegas and crossed the border to compete. They won the event for the third consecutive year. Hubbell/Donohue returned to the United States again for the 2021 U.S. Championships, also held in Las Vegas. They placed second in the rhythm dance, 0.44 points behind Chock/Bates, who had not competed at Skate America due to injury. They won the free dance, skating cleanly, while Chock/Bates had a twizzle error and took their third national title. They were named to the American team for the 2021 World Championships in Stockholm. The World Championships were held in a bubble without an audience, and Hubbell/Donohue's training partners and four-time World champions Papadakis/Cizeron declined to attend due to illness and lack of training time, leading to a very contested podium. Hubbell/Donohue placed second in the rhythm dance, two points behind Sinitsina/Katsalapov of Russia and narrowly ahead of Chock/Bates. They were third in the free dance, behind Sinitsina/Katsalapov and Canada's Gilles/Poirier, but remained in second overall by 0.36 points over Gilles/Poirier and won their second silver medal. Their placement combined with Chock/Bates' fourth qualified three berths for American ice dance teams at the 2022 Winter Olympics. === 2021–2022 season: Olympic silver and bronze and World silver === Hubbell/Donohue announced heading into the 2021–22 season that it would be their last before retiring. They won the 2021 U.S. Classic as their opening assignment, which for that season was not part of the Challenger series. On the Grand Prix, Hubbell/Donohue began at 2021 Skate America, competing against primary domestic rivals Chock/Bates. They won both segments of the competition to take the gold medal, their fourth consecutive at the event and prevailing over Chock/Bates by 1.31 points. Donohue remarked afterward on his "overwhelming gratitude, being our last Skate America and four consecutive wins for us, it means quite a lot, especially to be able to have a live audience" following the pandemic restrictions in the preceding year and a half. They were initially assigned to the 2021 Cup of China as their second Grand Prix, but following its cancellation, they were reassigned to the 2021 Gran Premio d'Italia. With training partners Papadakis/Cizeron also assigned to the event, Hubbell/Donohue were the presumptive silver medalists, and finished second in both segments of the competition despite a late-program flub on their free dance choreographic lift. Hubbell joked afterward, "we made a mistake at the end, but sometimes you jump in the air, and you hit your partner in the crotch." Their results qualified them to the Grand Prix Final, but it was subsequently canceled due to restrictions prompted by the Omicron variant. Seeking to defend their title at the 2022 U.S. Championships, Hubbell/Donohue placed second in the rhythm dance due to errors, ending up 2.55 points behind Chock/Bates. They went on to win the free dance but remained in second place overall. Hubbell said, "we wanted to end our career here at the U.S. Championships with a performance that felt present, and we're both very satisfied with how we skated. I think stepping off the ice; we knew we were content with what we put out there." They were subsequently named to the American Olympic team. Hubbell/Donohue began the 2022 Winter Olympics as the American entries in the rhythm dance segment of the Olympic team event. They scored a new personal best of 86.56 to win the segment, securing ten points for the American team and notably prevailing over reigning World champions Sinitsina/Katsalapov of the ROC. Donohue, pleased with the results, said that "opening up our Olympics this way is really an honor." Team USA won the silver medal, Hubbell and Donohue's first Olympic medal. In the ice dance event, they finished in third place in the rhythm dance with another new personal best score of 87.13. Third in the free dance, despite a deduction for an extended lift, they won the bronze medal. Hubbell and Donohue concluded their competitive careers at the 2022 World Championships, held in Montpellier. They finished second in the rhythm dance with a personal best score of 89.72, 3.01 points behind training mates Papadakis/Cizeron. In the free dance they set another personal best (132.67) as well as a personal best for total score (222.39), winning their third World silver medal. With Papadakis/Cizeron taking the gold medal and Chock/Bates the bronze, the entire podium consisted of skaters from the Ice Academy of Montreal. Hubbell said, "we knew that we wanted to skate our best for each other for our last moment, and we found peace in that. We're just very happy." == Programs == === With Hubbell === Season Short dance Free dance Exhibition 2021–2022 * Nasty * Rope Burn * Rhythm Nation * Drowning *Once I Was Loved 2020–2021 Burlesque * Express * A Guy Who Takes His Time * Tough Lover * Hallelujah * Pray Gently to the Night * Hallelujah * Jealous 2019–2020 * My Heart Belongs to Daddy * Let's Be Bad A Star Is Born: * Shallow * Alibi * New Girl \---- * Oats in the Water 2018–2019 * Alevare * Tangata del Alba Romeo and Juliet * Introduction to Romeo * Kissing You (instrumental) * Kissing You * Hallelujah \---- * Make Me Feel 2017–2018 * Le serpent * Cuando calienta el sol * Sambando (Los Ritmos Calientes) * Across the Sky (instrumental) * Caught Out in the Rain * Across the Sky (instrumental) * Caught Out in the Rain \---- * Make Me Feel \---- * The Blower's Daughter \---- * Believer 2016–2017 * Feeling Good * hip hop medley "Love" medley: * I Wanna Dance with Somebody * Can't Help Falling in Love * Earned It * Stand by Me \---- * Believer \---- * Qué has hecho con mi vida \---- * Slip 2015–2016 * Hallelujah * Hallelujah March * Adagio for Tron * Slip \---- * You Can Leave Your Hat On * I Put a Spell on You 2014–2015 * Fiesta flamenca * España cañí The Great Gatsby: * Young and Beautiful * Back to Black * A Little Party Never Killed Nobody * Down the Road * Happy \---- * Lay Me Down 2013–2014 * Mr. Pinstripe Suit * Maddest kind of love * Diga Diga Doo * Nocturne Into Bohemian Rhapsody * Bang Bang \---- * Hide and Seek * Whatcha Say 2012–2013 Titanic: * Waltz * John Ryan's Polka * Farrucas * Un Amor * Malagueña * A Thousand Years 2011–2012 * Latin medley * I Put a Spell on You * Make You Feel My Love === With Gilles === Season Original dance Free dance 2009–2010 * Thank God I'm a Country Boy * Take Me Home, Country Roads * The Devil Went Down to Georgia \---- * Flamenco medley Alfred Hitchcock movies: * The Man Who Knew Too Much * Vertigo Suite * North by Northwest Overture 2008–2009 * Go Daddy-O * Flat Foot Floogie * Sing, Sing, Sing * Magalenha * Bésame Mucho * Pontero en Libertad == Competitive highlights == GP: Grand Prix; CS: Challenger Series; JGP: Junior Grand Prix === With Hubbell === International Event 11–12 12–13 13–14 14–15 15–16 16–17 17–18 18–19 19–20 20–21 21–22 Olympics 4th 3rd Worlds 10th 10th 6th 9th 2nd 3rd C 2nd 2nd Four Continents 5th 1st 4th 4th 4th 3rd Final 6th 5th 4th 1st 3rd C Cup of China C France 4th 3rd 1st 2nd Italy 2nd NHK Trophy 3rd 2nd Skate America 6th 4th 2nd 1st 1st 1st 1st Skate Canada 5th 3rd 3rd 3rd 1st 2nd U.S. Classic 1st 1st 1st 1st Golden Spin 1st Finlandia 3rd WD 2nd Nebelhorn Trophy 1st 1st U.S. Classic 1st National U.S. Champ. 3rd 4th 4th 3rd 3rd 3rd 1st 1st 2nd 1st 2nd Midwestern Sect. 1st ISP Points Chall. 1st Team events Olympics 2nd T 1st P World Team Trophy 1st T 3rd P TBD = Assigned; WD = Withdrew; C = Event cancelled T = Team result; P = Personal result. Medals awarded for team result only. === With Aronow === National National Event 10-11 U.S. Champ. 11th Midwestern Sec. 2nd Levels: N = Novice; J = Junior Levels: N = Novice; J = Junior === With Gilles === International International International Event 08–09 09–10 Junior Worlds 9th Germany 3rd Hungary 4th South Africa 2nd Czech Republic 1st National National National U.S. Champ. 3rd J 3rd J Midwestern Sec. 2nd J J = Junior level; WD = Withdrew J = Junior level; WD = Withdrew J = Junior level; WD = Withdrew === With Lamar === National National Event 07–08 Eastern Sec. 5th J Levels: N = Novice; J = Junior Levels: N = Novice; J = Junior === With Patitucci === National National Event 06–07 Eastern Sec. 5th N Levels: N = Novice; J = Junior Levels: N = Novice; J = Junior == Detailed results == Small medals for short and free programs awarded only at ISU Championships. === With Hubbell === 2021–22 season 2021–22 season 2021–22 season 2021–22 season 2021–22 season Date Event RD FD Total March 21–27, 2022 2022 World Championships 2 89.72 2 132.67 2 222.39 February 12–14, 2022 2022 Winter Olympics 3 87.13 3 130.89 3 218.02 February 4–7, 2022 2022 Winter Olympics – Team event 1 86.56 — 2T January 3–9, 2022 2022 U.S. Championships 2 89.39 1 136.20 2 225.59 November 5–7, 2021 2021 Gran Premio d'Italia 2 84.79 2 123.11 2 207.90 October 22–24, 2021 2021 Skate America 1 83.58 1 125.96 1 209.54 September 15–18, 2021 2021 U.S. Classic 1 84.06 1 123.24 1 207.30 2020–21 season 2020–21 season 2020–21 season 2020–21 season 2020–21 season Date Event RD FD Total March 22–28, 2021 2021 World Championships 2 86.05 3 128.66 2 214.71 January 11–21, 2021 2021 U.S. Championships 2 89.66 1 134.90 1 224.56 October 23–24, 2020 2020 Skate America 1 85.30 1 126.09 1 211.39 2019–20 season 2019–20 season 2019–20 season 2019–20 season 2019–20 season Date Event RD FD Total February 4–9, 2020 2020 Four Continents Championships 1 85.95 3 122.77 3 208.72 January 20–26, 2020 2020 U.S. Championships 2 86.31 2 130.88 2 217.19 December 4–8, 2019 2019–20 Grand Prix Final 2 82.72 3 125.21 3 207.93 October 25–27, 2019 2019 Skate Canada International 1 83.21 2 123.10 2 206.31 October 18–20, 2019 2019 Skate America 1 84.97 2 124.58 1 209.55 2018–19 season 2018–19 season 2018–19 season 2018–19 season 2018–19 season Date Event RD FD Total April 11–14, 2019 2019 World Team Trophy 3 82.86 3 127.11 1T/3P 209.97 March 18–24, 2019 2019 World Championships 4 83.09 3 127.31 3 210.40 February 7–10, 2019 2019 Four Continents Championships 1 81.95 4 119.71 4 201.66 January 19–27, 2019 2019 U.S. Championships 1 84.56 1 131.32 1 215.88 December 6–9, 2018 2018–19 Grand Prix Final 1 80.53 1 124.82 1 205.35 October 26–28, 2018 2018 Skate Canada International 1 80.49 2 120.27 1 200.76 October 19–21, 2018 2018 Skate America 1 78.43 1 122.39 1 200.82 September 12–16, 2018 2018 CS U.S. Classic 1 79.11 1 118.31 1 197.42 2017–18 season 2017–18 season 2017–18 season 2017–18 season 2017–18 season Date Event SD FD Total March 21–24, 2018 2018 World Championships 2 80.42 2 116.22 2 196.64 February 19–20, 2018 2018 Winter Olympics 3 77.75 5 109.94 4 187.69 January 5–7, 2018 2018 U.S. Championships 2 79.10 2 118.02 1 197.12 December 7–10, 2017 2017–18 Grand Prix Final 4 74.81 4 112.59 4 187.40 November 10–12, 2017 2017 NHK Trophy 2 76.31 2 112.04 2 188.35 October 27–29, 2017 2017 Skate Canada International 3 76.08 2 113.35 3 189.43 September 13–17, 2017 2017 CS U.S. Classic 1 71.15 1 107.65 1 178.80 2016–17 season 2016–17 season 2016–17 season 2016–17 season 2016–17 season Date Event SD FD Total March 29 – April 2, 2017 2017 World Championships 3 76.53 10 101.17 9 177.70 February 15–19, 2017 2017 Four Continents Championships 4 73.79 6 107.03 4 180.82 January 14–22, 2017 2017 U.S. Championships 3 79.72 3 111.70 3 191.42 December 8–11, 2016 2016–17 Grand Prix Final 5 72.47 6 107.12 5 179.59 November 10–13, 2016 2016 Trophée de France 3 66.77 2 107.81 2 174.58 October 21–23, 2016 2016 Skate America 3 68.78 2 106.99 2 175.77 October 6–10, 2016 2016 CS Finlandia Trophy 2 65.31 2 100.45 2 165.76 September 14–18, 2016 2016 CS U.S. Classic 1 64.82 1 102.08 1 166.90 2015–16 season 2015–16 season 2015–16 season 2015–16 season 2015–16 season Date Event SD FD Total March 28 – April 3, 2016 2016 World Championships 7 68.44 6 108.37 6 176.81 February 16–21, 2016 2016 Four Continents Championships 3 69.36 3 102.93 4 172.29 January 15–24, 2016 2016 U.S. Championships 3 71.10 3 107.71 3 178.81 December 10–13, 2015 2015–16 Grand Prix Final 5 66.21 6 96.99 6 163.20 November 26–29, 2015 2015 NHK Trophy 2 66.57 3 100.92 3 167.49 November 13–15, 2015 2015 Trophée Éric Bompard 1 64.45 — 1 September 16–20, 2015 2015 CS U.S. Classic 1 61.08 1 92.54 1 153.62 2014–15 season 2014–15 season 2014–15 season 2014–15 season 2014–15 season Date Event SD FD Total March 23–29, 2015 2015 World Championships 11 61.43 10 95.13 10 156.56 January 18–25, 2015 2015 U.S. Championships 3 65.43 3 99.31 3 164.74 December 4–6, 2014 2014 CS Golden Spin 2 66.40 1 100.34 1 166.74 November 21–23, 2014 2014 Trophée Éric Bompard 3 60.19 3 91.92 3 152.11 October 31– November 2, 2014 2014 Skate Canada International 3 59.29 3 88.94 3 148.23 2013–14 season 2013–14 season 2013–14 season 2013–14 season 2013–14 season Date Event SD FD Total January 20–25, 2014 2014 Four Continents Championships 2 61.05 1 97.20 1 158.25 January 5–12, 2014 2014 U.S. Championships 4 66.69 4 101.58 4 168.27 October 24–27, 2013 2013 Skate Canada International 3 60.92 3 92.28 3 153.20 October 18–20, 2013 2013 Skate America 4 60.71 4 92.27 4 152.98 September 26–28, 2013 2013 Nebelhorn Trophy 2 56.53 1 90.58 1 147.11 2012–13 season 2012–13 season 2012–13 season 2012–13 season 2012–13 season Date Event SD FD Total January 20–27, 2013 2013 U.S. Championships 4 67.75 4 100.11 4 167.86 November 15–18, 2012 2012 Trophée Éric Bompard 4 56.54 2 88.69 4 145.23 October 26–28, 2012 2012 Skate Canada International 4 54.84 6 80.32 5 135.16 October 4–7, 2012 2012 Finlandia Trophy 3 58.44 3 91.86 3 150.30 2011–12 season 2011–12 season 2011–12 season 2011–12 season 2011–12 season Date Event SD FD Total March 26 – April 1, 2012 2012 World Championships 8 59.56 10 84.39 10 143.95 February 7–12, 2012 2012 Four Continents Championships 5 49.93 5 79.27 5 129.20 January 22–29, 2012 2012 U.S. Championships 3 57.56 3 94.04 3 151.60 October 21–23, 2011 2011 Skate America 6 49.71 3 81.33 6 131.04 September 21–24, 2011 2011 Nebelhorn Trophy 2 54.82 1 84.19 1 139.01 == References == == External links == * * * * * Category:1991 births Category:Living people Category:American male ice dancers Category:Figure skaters at the 2018 Winter Olympics Category:Figure skaters at the 2022 Winter Olympics Category:Medalists at the 2022 Winter Olympics Category:Olympic silver medalists for the United States in figure skating Category:Olympic bronze medalists for the United States in figure skating Category:World Figure Skating Championships medalists Category:Four Continents Figure Skating Championships medalists Category:Sportspeople from Hartford, Connecticut |
Pastiglia , an Italian term meaning "pastework", is low relief decoration, normally modelled in gesso or white lead, applied to build up a surface that may then be gilded or painted, or left plain. The technique was used in a variety of ways in Italy during the Renaissance. The term is mostly found in English applied to gilded work on picture frames or small pieces of furniture such as wooden caskets and cassoni, and also on areas of panel paintings,National Gallery glossary ; the term is sometimes italicized in English, and sometimes not, though in "white lead pastiglia" more often not. but there is some divergence as to the meaning of the term between these specialisms. On frames and furniture the technique is in origin a cheaper imitation of woodcarving, metalwork or ivory carving techniques. Within paintings, the technique gives areas with a three-dimensional effect, usually those representing inanimate objects, such as foliage decoration on architectural surrounds, halos and details of dress, rather than parts of figures. In white lead pastiglia on caskets, the subject matter is usually classical, with a special emphasis on stories from Ancient Roman history. ==White lead pastiglia== In reference to work on picture frames and paintings moulded and gilded gesso is still commonly described as pastiglia,For example: Cohen, 183, here and by the National Gallery but in recent decades writers on furniture and the decorative arts tend to distinguish between this and "true" pastiglia, or white lead pastigliaDe Winter and Manni led the new distinction. Campbell's contributors for "Cassone" and "Pastiglia" use different definitions, the latter saying (p.194) "Cassone" decoration, described from the late 19th century onwards as pastiglia, is in fact gilt gesso. Pastiglia would be too small and fragile for a large cassone". which is defined as being made from white lead powder, made by combining powdered lead and vinegar in an anaerobic environment, bound with egg white. White lead bound with oil or egg yolk was also the most common pigment for white paint. White lead pastiglia is very delicate and used for small areas only, but can produce very fine detail. It was mainly used on small caskets and boxes. Sections were typically pre- moulded, doubtless from metal matrices to judge from the crisp detail,John Fleming and Hugh Honour, Dictionary of the Decorative Arts, s.v. "Pastiglia". and glued on when hard. This was usually left unpainted, when it looked like carved ivory, which had been widely used to decorate boxes in Italy, by the Embriachi and others, but was by now less used, partly because it was too rare and expensive. The wood from which the main box was made was normally alder. It seems the term pastiglia for this only dates to the 17th century, after the technique had largely fallen from use. A scented variant called pasta di muschio ("musk paste") mixed musk perfume with the white lead, and was thought to be "aphrodisiacal", and so used for caskets given at a marriage,Metropolitan Museum casket ; they seem to say the casket is made with both gesso and white lead paste. and also other objects such as inkwells and frames for hand mirrors.Thornton, 109 White lead pastiglia was a north Italian speciality, produced between about 1450 and 1550. Six workshops were identified by Patrick M. De Winter, although their location remains uncertain; the Workshop of the Love and Moral Themes, whose products seem the most numerous, was possibly at Ferrara,Campbell, 194, citing Manni where the painter Cosimo Tura began his career gilding caskets.Thornton, 109 Venice is also thought to have produced them. Other workshops identified by De Winter include the "Workshop of the main Berlin casket" and "Workshop of the Cleveland Casket".Sotheby's; the Cleveland Casket The subjects were typically classical, drawn from both mythology and Ancient Roman history (especially the early period covered by Livy), but biblical ones are also found. Compositions can often be shown to be borrowed from another medium, such as prints or bronze plaquettes,Bull, 39; see for example the British Museum page on their box illustrated here, where one element is copied from a bronze; Campbell, 194 and sections from the same mould can be found repeated, and used on more than one piece. The Victoria and Albert Museum has an armorial casket which is the only example that can be fairly closely dated, using the career of its owner, Cardinal Bernardo Clesio, as it must date to between his elevation as cardinal in 1530 and his resignation as Prince-bishop of Trent in 1538. De Winter catalogued 115 white lead pastiglia caskets, only ten of which were over 20 cm high or deep. Another of this relatively large type was sold at auction in 2010.Sotheby's London, 7 December 2010, Sale L10233, Lot 31, sold for £163,250 inc. premium, Sale catalogue online. This price was exceptional; compare this lot at Christie's in 2006 Despite usually having locks, their thin alderwood frame meant that the caskets were probably too fragile to be used for really valuable items like jewellery, and they are thought to have been used for a variety of small objects including cosmetics and collections of seals, coins and the like. In 2002, the Lowe Art Museum at the University of Miami in Coral Gables, Florida held an exhibition of Pastiglia Boxes: Hidden Treasures of the Italian Renaissance from the collection of the Galleria Nazionale d'arte antica in Rome, and an 80-page exhibition catalogue was published in English and Italian.See further reading ==Gesso pastiglia== Gesso pastiglia is mostly found in Italy in the 14th to 16th centuries, where pastiglia on larger pieces of furniture such as cassoni, and on picture frames, was more likely to be gilded gesso than true white lead pastiglia. Both panel paintings and gilded frames had a thin flat layer of gesso as part of their preparation, to which the pastiglia decoration was added. On furniture and frames the gesso seems sometimes to have been carved from a thicker flat surface in a subtractive technique, and sometimes built up in an additive one, for smaller and larger areas respectively. Another additive technique was to simple pipe the gesso from a bag through a nozzle, like icing a cake, to give long round lines, often used as the tendrils in foliage designs.Penny, Nicholas, A Closer Look: Frames, 80, 2011, Yale University Press, , ; Penny avoids the term "pastiglia" in discussing picture frames, talking of piped and "press-cast" gesso. It was then always gilded or painted, usually the former. The technique was very widely used in painted panels while gold-ground paintings remained the norm for altarpieces, along with a range of other techniques for decorating plain gilded surfaces such as stamping, engraving or scratching lines, and stippling, punching or pricking dots. In Gothic architectural frames for polyptychs, pastiglia is very commonly used to decorate small flat areas such as spandrels and behind scalloped edges. The technique is described at the end of the technical handbook by Cennino Cennini, whose own paintings made use of it, although he does not use the term himself.von Imhoff, 142 With the decline of the gold-ground style it became rarer within paintings, as opposed to frames, but was sometimes used for highlights, or a particular purpose. A famous portrait by Sandro Botticelli, who trained as a goldsmith, Portrait of a Man with a Medal of Cosimo the Elder (Uffizi, c. 1474), has the medal the subject is holding executed in gilded pastiglia, which apparently is an impression moulded from the original matrix for the metal medals, some of which survive.Cohen, 113. The medal is not reversed, so was either from the matrix, or made by using a new matrix cast from a medal. Pisanello frequently used the technique; his The Vision of Saint Eustace (National Gallery, probably about 1540) shows a very fancily dressed courtier on a horse, and has pastiglia highlights on medallions on the horse harness, and the gold mounts on his hunting horn and his spurs, all gilded and representing pieces of goldsmith work.Syson and Gordon, 158 Such highlights are seen on other paintings by Pisanello, who was the leading medalist of his day, and familiar with modelling and casting techniques. Similar pastiglia medallions on horse- harness are found in the fresco Saint George and the Princess (Verona), and the Apparition of the Virgin to Saints Anthony Abbot and George (National Gallery).Syson and Gordon, 22 & 140 In his gold-ground Madonna of the Quail (Verona, attributed), the pastiglia is on the halos and borders of the Virgin's dress at neck and cuff, her crown, and in foliage decoration to the gold "sky", all typical locations in earlier religious paintings. A generation after Pisanello, the conservative Carlo Crivelli continued to use pastiglia highlights in his panels,Cohen, 113 and it is used in Vincenzo Foppa's Adoration of the Kings (National Gallery) at the end of the century, in the crowns and gifts of the Three Kings.Dunkerton and Plazzotta The technique is rarer in fresco, but there are extensive areas of patterns in the cycle of the life of Queen Theodelinda in Monza Cathedral by the Zavattari family around 1440, no doubt using normal fresco plaster.Syson and Gordon, 58, discusses and illustrates the cycle, without mentioning the pastiglia; Monza Duomo museum It was perhaps more common in decorating secular palaces than churches, but the vast majority of Gothic palace decorations are now lost. In England, it was used in the Painted Chamber of Westminster Palace as well as the much- damaged Westminster Retable painted panel,Všetečková and in Early Netherlandish painting used in works such as the Seilern Triptych attributed to Robert Campin, where the gold skies have elaborate patterns of foliage, with a different design on each panel.Courtauld , The Seilern Triptych By about 1500, and with the advent of painting on more flexible canvas, which would not be a suitable support for pastiglia, use in painting disappears, but it continued on picture frames, where Renaissance gesso pastiglia generally consisted of vegetal motifs. During the 16th century cassoni and some frames became more massive, and woodcarving replaced pastiglia.Osborne, 125-126 ===Cassoni=== Gesso pastiglia was very widely used on cassoni from the inception of the form in the 14th century. Early decoration tended to be repeated motifs derived from textile designs. Early cassoni were mostly either entirely painted or entirely decorated in gilded pastiglia, but by the 15th century painted panels were inset in elaborate pastiglia surrounds of mouldings - many of the paintings have now been detached and hang in museums. The subjects used for decorating cassoni in either medium had considerable overlap with those on white lead pastiglia caskets, with a heavy bias towards mythology. The paintings were typically by specialized workshops, of less quality than the leading local masters, but in the 15th century, many important painters sometimes produced them. Vasari complained that by his day artists looked down on this work, and by then more massive and elaborately carved walnut cassoni were in fashion.Campbell, 205-207; Bull, 38-39; Osborne, 125-126 The Victoria and Albert Museum has a Florentine example of a class of "coffrets" intermediate between caskets and cassoni, which is known by the motto Onesta e bella on its top, and would have been an engagement present from the future husband to his bride, formally presented to her by a representative from his family at her house, filled with small presents from the bridegroom's family. Smaller white lead pastiglia caskets were probably also used on such occasions.Ajmar-Wollheim, Marta; Dennis, Flora, At home in Renaissance Italy, 127, 2006, Victoria and Albert Museum, , Made in about 1400, it is only 23 cm high and 61.5 cm wide and decorated with gilded pastiglia scenes made from gesso dura of courtly hunting and jousting on a painted blue field; these were apparently hand-modelled, not cast. ==Plaquettes in bookbinding== Although the term pastiglia is not typically used to describe them, it is appropriate to mention "plaquette" bookbindings here. These are luxury leather bindings which incorporate, normally at the centre of the front cover, small inset plaquettes or roundels with designs in relief, which may be painted in colour. They appear towards the end of the 15th century, probably in Florence or Padua,Diehl, 83 says Florence; Hobson, 13 says Padua and were at first used for special presentation volumes. Initially the designs were taken from antique carved gems. It was the famous, and rich, French bibliophile Jean Grolier who was apparently the first to use them systematically for his own books, while he was based in Milan as Treasurer for the French occupation; probably he began to commission them in 1510. He was also the first to use original designs, several of which showed scenes from Livy; altogether 25 Italian plaquette bindings for Grolier survive.Hobson, 13-21 Some just use stamped leather, but for others the material used is variously described as "a sort of gesso mixed with varnish",Diehl, 83 or just "gesso",Marks, 40 but these plaquettes can have extremely fine detail. What may have been Grolier's first such binding has a plaquette with 11 human figures and an architectural setting in a scene about two inches (50 mm) wide, showing Marcus Curtius leaping into the hole, the same subject as on the British Museum casket illustrated at the start of the article.BL G 9026, De Medicina, by Aulus Cornelius Celsus; British Library Bindings database , with good images. Marks, 40 and Hobson, 18 both illustrate the cover. File:MNAC DSCF7643-7687 15.JPG|On the frame of a Romanesque Catalan altarpiece File:Pisanello_018.jpg|The Vision of Saint Eustace, Pisanello, with pastiglia on the metal parts of the horse trapping File:01 - Authari, King of the Lombards, sends ambassadors to Childebert, King of the Franks, to ask the hand of his sister Ingarde.jpg|Pastiglia patterning in the gilded "sky" of this fresco by the Zavattari brothers (Theodelinda Chapel, Monza). File:Campin Enterrament instrumentsPassio.jpg|Detail of the Seilern Triptych, Robert Campin, c. 1425 ==Notes== ==References== *Bull, Malcolm, The Mirror of the Gods, How Renaissance Artists Rediscovered the Pagan Gods, Oxford UP, 2005, *Campbell, Gordon, The Grove Encyclopedia of Decorative Arts, Volume 1, s.v. Cassone and Pastiglia, Oxford University Press US, 2006, , *Cohen, Beth, in Cohen, Beth and Lansing-Maish, Susan, The Colors of Clay: Special Techniques in Athenian Vases, 2008, Getty Publications, , , Google books *Diehl, Edith, Bookbinding, its background and technique, Volume 1, 1980, Courier Dover Publications, , , google books *Dunkerton, Jill & Plazzotta, Carol, "Vincenzo Foppa's Adoration of the Kings", National Gallery Technical Bulletin, Volume 22, 2001 *Hobson, Anthony, Renaissance book collecting: Jean Grolier and Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, their books and bindings, 1999, Cambridge University Press, , , google books *Marks, P. J. M., Beautiful Bookbindings, A Thousand Years of the Bookbinder's Art, 2011, British Library, *Osborne, Harold (ed), The Oxford Companion to the Decorative Arts, s.v. Cassone, 1975, OUP, *Syson, Luke & Gordon, Dillian, "Pisanello, Painter to the Renaissance Court", 2001, National Gallery Company, London, *Thornton, Peter, Schatzkästchen und Kabinettschrank. Möbel für Sammler (review of Berlin exhibition), Journal of the History of Collections, 1991 3(1) *Všetečková, Zuzana, "Plastic Elements in Wall Paintings of the 12th-14th Centuries ", Technologia artis (online journal) *von Imhoff, Hans-Christoph, Review of Seeing through Paintings: Physical Examination in Art Historical Studies by Andrea Kirsh and Rustin S. Levenson, Studies in Conservation, 2002, Vol. 47, No. 2 ==Further reading== * De Winter, P. M., "A little-known creation of Renaissance decorative arts: the white lead pastiglia box", Saggi e Memorie di Storia dell'Arte 14, 1984, pp. 7–42 * Hildburgh, W. L. "On some Italian Renaissance caskets with Pastiglia decorations", The Antiquaries Journal, vol. XXVI, July–October 1946 * Manni, Graziano, Mobili in Emilia, Modena, 1986 * Zaccagnini, Marisa, Pastiglia Boxes: Hidden Treasures of the Italian Renaissance, 2002, Lowe Art Museum, Miami, , Category:Painting materials Category:Painting techniques Category:Furniture Category:Italian words and phrases Category:Picture framing |
Sherlock Jr. is a 1924 American silent comedy film directed by and starring Buster Keaton and written by Clyde Bruckman, Jean Havez, and Joseph A. Mitchell. It features Kathryn McGuire, Joe Keaton, and Ward Crane. In 1991, Sherlock Jr. was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". In 2000, the American Film Institute, as part of its AFI 100 Years... series, ranked the film #62 in its list of the funniest films of all time (AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs). ==Plot== thumb|left|thumbtime=2|Sherlock, Jr. Buster is a movie theater projectionist and janitor. When the cinema is empty, he reads a book on How to be a Detective. He is in love with a beautiful loveable girl. However, he has a rival, the "local sheik". Neither has much money. He finds a dollar note in the garbage he swept up in the lobby. He takes it and adds it to the $2 he has. A girl comes and says that she lost a dollar. He gives it back. But then a sad old woman also says that she lost a dollar, so he gives that also, leaving himself with $1. A man comes and searches the garbage and finds a wallet full of money. The projectionist buys a $1 box of chocolates, all he can afford, and changes the price to $4 before giving it to her at her house. He later gives her a ring. The sheik comes into the house and steals the girl's father's pocket watch and pawns it for $4. With the money, he buys a $3 box of chocolates for the girl. When the father notices that his watch is missing, the sheik slips the pawn ticket into the projectionist's pocket unnoticed. The projectionist, studying to be a detective, offers to solve the crime, but when the pawn ticket is found in his pocket, he is banished from the girl's home. However, when the sheik leaves, he walks closely behind him and shadows every movement. The girl takes the pawn ticket to the pawnbroker and asks him to describe who pawned it. He points to the sheik outside. While showing a film (advertised in the lobby as "Hearts and Pearls") about the theft of a pearl necklace, the projectionist falls asleep and dreams that he enters the movie as a detective, Sherlock Jr. The other actors are replaced by the projectionist's "real" acquaintances. The dream begins with the theft being committed by the villain with the aid of the butler. The girl's father calls for the world's greatest detective, and Sherlock Jr. arrives. Fearing that they will be caught, the villain and the butler attempt to kill Sherlock through several traps, poison, and an elaborate pool game with an exploding 13 ball. When these fail, the villain and butler try to escape. Sherlock Jr. tracks them down to a warehouse but is outnumbered by the gang to which the villain was selling the necklace. During the confrontation, Sherlock discovers that they have kidnapped the girl. With the help of his assistant, Gillette, Sherlock Jr. manages to save the girl, and after a car chase, manages to defeat the gang. When he awakens, the girl shows up to tell him that she and her father learned the identity of the real thief after she went to the pawn shop to see who actually pawned the pocket watch. As a reconciliation scene happens to be playing on the screen, the projectionist mimics the actor's romantic behavior. ==Cast== * Buster Keaton as Projectionist / Sherlock Jr. – A poor, young projectionist who wants to marry The Girl. He has an interest in being a detective and when he falls asleep, he dreams of being Sherlock Jr., the world's greatest detective. * Kathryn McGuire as The Girl – The daughter of a fairly wealthy man, whom the Projectionist is in love with. In the dream, she must be saved by Sherlock Jr. * Joe Keaton as The Girl's Father – A man who is wealthier than most. He does not want his daughter marrying a thief. In the dream, he is a very rich man. * Erwin Connelly as The Hired Man / The Butler – A hired man of the girl's father. In the dream, he is a co- conspirator in the theft of the necklace. * Ward Crane as The Local Sheik / The Villain – A poor scoundrel that has his eyes for the girl. He steals the pocket watch, and in the dream, he is the villain who steals the necklace. * Ford West as Theatre Manager / Gillette, Sherlock's assistant – The projectionist's boss in the real world. In the dream, he is the assistant. (uncredited) * Jane Connelly as The Mother (uncredited) * George Davis as Conspirator (uncredited) * Doris Deane as Girl Who Loses Dollar Outside Cinema (uncredited) * Christine Francis as Candy Store Girl (uncredited) * Betsy Ann Hisle as Little Girl (uncredited) * Kewpie Morgan as Conspirator (uncredited) * Steve Murphy as Conspirator (uncredited) * John Patrick as Conspirator (uncredited) ==Production== Originally titled The Misfit, production began in January 1924 in Los Angeles. Keaton later said that his character walking onto the screen and into a film was "the reason for making the whole picture ... Just that one situation." After previously casting her in Three Ages, Keaton cast Marion Harlan as the lead actress, but she became sick and was replaced by up-and-coming Keystone Studios actress Kathryn McGuire, who had previously starred in The Silent Call and was a WAMPAS Baby Star of 1923. Keaton initially hired Roscoe "Fatty" Arbuckle as his co-director for the film. Keaton had been discovered by Arbuckle, whose career was at a standstill after being accused of raping Virginia Rappe in 1921. During the scandal and court case, Arbuckle had lost his mansion and cars and was in debt for $750,000. Keaton wanted to help his old friend and hired Arbuckle under the pseudonym "William Goodrich". It is believed that the idea for the film was a tribute to Oscar Heinrich, the forensic scientist involved in the rape trial against Arbuckle. Filming began well and Arbuckle was happy to be back on set, but after Keaton corrected a mistake that Arbuckle had made, his attitude changed dramatically. Arbuckle became angry and abusive on set, yelling at actors and according to Keaton becoming "flushed and mad ... [the scandal] just changed his disposition." In his autobiography, Keaton claimed that Arbuckle was difficult to work with and he arranged for him to direct The Red Mill instead so that Keaton could complete the film alone. The Red Mill did not begin production until 1927. Arbuckle's second wife Doris Deane later claimed that Arbuckle had directed the entire film and had come up with all of the ideas for the film. The production included one of Keaton's most famous on-set accidents. In a scene where Keaton grabs a water spout while walking on a moving boxcar train, the water unexpectedly flooded down on Keaton much harder than anticipated, throwing him to the ground. The back of Keaton's neck slammed against a steel rail on the ground and caused him to black out. The pain was so intense that Keaton had to stop shooting later that day and he had "blinding headaches" for weeks afterwards, but continued working, having a well-known high threshold for physical pain. It was not until 1935 that a doctor spotted a callus over a fracture in Keaton's top vertebra in an X-ray. The doctor informed Keaton that he had broken his neck during the accident nine years earlier and not realized it. Keaton famously always performed his own stunts, and this was not the only accident on set. In another scene, the motorcycle Keaton was riding skidded and smashed into two cameras, knocking over Eddie Cline and throwing Keaton onto a nearby car. Sherlock Jr. was also Keaton's most complicated film for special optical effects and in-camera tricks. The film's most famous trick shot involves Keaton jumping into a small suitcase and disappearing. Keaton later said that it was an old vaudeville trick that his father had invented, and he later performed it on the Ed Sullivan Show in 1957, but never publicly revealed how he did it. The trick was accomplished with a trap door behind the suitcase and an actor lying horizontally with long clothes hiding his absent bottom torso, which then allowed the actor to smoothly fall forward and walk as though he had always been standing vertically. Keaton later said that they "spent an awful lot of time getting those scenes". Filming took four months, while typically it took Keaton two months to finish a feature film. The editing was also difficult and took longer than a typical Keaton film. Keaton later told film historian Kevin Brownlow "every cameraman in the business went to see that picture more than once trying to figure out how the hell we did some of that."Wakeman, John (1987). World Film Directors, Volume 1. New York, New York: The H. W. Wilson Company. . p. 526. Keaton depicted an early example of a film within a film in the dream sequence. Keaton's character leaves the projection room and goes down into the theater, then walks into the film being screened on the stage. Keaton later explained that this stunt was achieved through the use of lighting: "We built a stage with a big black cut-out screen. Then we built the front-row seats and orchestra pit. ... We lit the stage so it looked like a motion picture being projected on to a screen". Keaton's character is kicked out of the film a few times but finally manages to stay in, and is then depicted in a series of different scenes including a park, a lake, and a desert, through a series of cuts. This was unique at the time because there was a continuity to the scenes and this strategy had rarely been used by filmmakers before. Keaton and his cameraman were able to do this by using surveyor's instruments to position Keaton and the camera at exactly the right distances and positions to support the illusion of continuity. ==Reception== ===Release and critical response=== Keaton first previewed the film in Long Beach, California. Although audience members gasped at some of the special effects, there were very few laughs, and Keaton began re-editing the film to make it funnier. However, the second preview screening was more disappointing than the first, and Keaton continued cutting the film down to a very short 5-reel film. Producer Joseph Schenck wanted Keaton to add another 1,000 feet of film (approximately 11 minutes), but Keaton refused. The film was retitled Sherlock Jr. and released on April 21, 1924. It made $448,337, slightly less than Three Ages. Keaton considered the film "alright [but] not one of the big ones", possibly due to the fact that it was his first real failure after a then 25-year career on stage and screen. Adding to the film's mediocre box office, Sherlock Jr. received mixed critical reviews. It received good reviews from The New York Times, which called it "one of the best screen tricks ever incorporated in a comedy",The New York Times. Film review, May 26, 1924. and Photoplay, which called it "rare and refreshing". Other positive notices came from The Los Angeles Times, The Washington Post and The Atlanta Constitution.The Los Angeles Times. Film review, April 28, 1924.The Washington Post. Film review, May 12, 1924.The Atlanta Constitution. Film review, April 27, 1924. Negative reviews included Picture Play, which wrote that it was devoid of "ingenuity and originality". Variety wrote it was as funny as "a hospital operating room". Edmund Wilson of The New Republic criticized Keaton's performance for not having enough character development and the film for having too much "machinery and stunts". ===Legacy=== Dwight Macdonald, in his book On Movies, notes the sophistication of the premise: "the second half of Sherlock Junior cuts free across magical territory. By a great stroke of invention, the lovesick Buster is a movie projectionist, so that the medium becomes the artist’s material, an advanced approach Buster had never heard of ... He falls asleep in the projection booth, dreaming about his girl and his frustrated love. His doppelganger extracts itself from his sleeping body ... and walks down the aisle of the darkened theatre to climb up on the stage and into the society-crook melodrama being projected on the screen ... There's no explanation for this or any other lapsus naturalis in this 1924 film which makes later efforts by Dalí, Buñuel and Cocteau look pedestrian and a bit timid. They felt obliged to clarify matters by a symbolistic apparatus. Keaton never rose—or sunk—to that." In 2005, Time named Sherlock Jr. as one of the All-Time 100 Movies. The magazine stated "The impeccable comedian directs himself in an impeccable silent comedy ... Is this, as some critics have argued, an example of primitive American surrealism? Sure. But let's not get fancy about it. It is more significantly, a great example of American minimalism—simple objects and movement manipulated in casually complex ways to generate a steadily rising gale of laughter. The whole thing is only 45 minutes long, not a second of which is wasted. In an age when most comedies are all windup and no punch, this is the most treasurable of virtues." Film critic Dennis Schwartz wrote that Sherlock Jr. is "one of Buster's superior silent comedies that's noted for his usual deadpan humor, frolicsome slapstick, the number of very funny sight gags, the many innovative technical accomplishments and that he did his own stunts (including the dangerous one where he was hanging off a ladder connected to a huge water basin as the water poured out and washed him onto the railroad track, fracturing his neck nearly to the point of breaking it. Keaton suffered from severe migraines for years after making this movie)."Schwartz, Dennis. Ozus' World Movie Reviews, film review, November 20, 2006. Last accessed: February 21, 2008. David Thomson, in The New Biographical Dictionary of Film, refers to the film as Keaton's "masterpiece" and "the most philosophically eloquent of silent comedies". Rotten Tomatoes reports a 94% approval from 17 critics, with an average rating of 9.7/10. In 2012, it was ranked number 61 in a list of the best-edited films of all time as selected by the members of the Motion Picture Editors Guild.The 75 Best Edited Films. Last accessed: January 5, 2013. It was a major influence on Woody Allen's 1985 film The Purple Rose of Cairo. In the 2012 Sight & Sound polls, it was ranked the 59th-greatest film ever made in the critics' poll. In 2015, Sherlock Jr. ranked 44th on BBC's "100 Greatest American Films" list, voted on by film critics from around the world. Forty minutes into the film, Buster jams on the brakes of the car he is driving, causing the chassis to stop and the body to keep going. This gag was reused in the 1987 James Bond film The Living Daylights. On January 1, 2020, the film entered into the public domain in the United States. On January 5, 2023, Richard Brody included it on his list of "Thirty-four Movies That Celebrate the Movies". ===Accolades=== In 1991, Sherlock Jr. was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". The film was ranked 62nd on the American Film Institute's list AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs (2000). ==See also== * Buster Keaton filmography * List of United States comedy films * List of films featuring fictional films ==References== ;Bibliography * * ==External links== * * * * * * Sherlock Jr. at the International Buster Keaton Society Category:1924 films Category:1924 comedy films Category:Silent American comedy films Category:American silent feature films Category:American black-and-white films Category:Films directed by Buster Keaton Category:Films set in a movie theatre Category:Metro Pictures films Category:United States National Film Registry films Category:Films produced by Joseph M. Schenck Category:Surviving American silent films Category:1920s American films Category:Articles containing video clips |
In mathematics, Macdonald polynomials Pλ(x; t,q) are a family of orthogonal symmetric polynomials in several variables, introduced by Macdonald in 1987. He later introduced a non-symmetric generalization in 1995. Macdonald originally associated his polynomials with weights λ of finite root systems and used just one variable t, but later realized that it is more natural to associate them with affine root systems rather than finite root systems, in which case the variable t can be replaced by several different variables t=(t1,...,tk), one for each of the k orbits of roots in the affine root system. The Macdonald polynomials are polynomials in n variables x=(x1,...,xn), where n is the rank of the affine root system. They generalize many other families of orthogonal polynomials, such as Jack polynomials and Hall–Littlewood polynomials and Askey–Wilson polynomials, which in turn include most of the named 1-variable orthogonal polynomials as special cases. Koornwinder polynomials are Macdonald polynomials of certain non-reduced root systems. They have deep relationships with affine Hecke algebras and Hilbert schemes, which were used to prove several conjectures made by Macdonald about them. ==Definition== First fix some notation: *R is a finite root system in a real vector space V. *R+ is a choice of positive roots, to which corresponds a positive Weyl chamber. *W is the Weyl group of R. *Q is the root lattice of R (the lattice spanned by the roots). *P is the weight lattice of R (containing Q). * An ordering on the weights: \mu \le \lambda if and only if \lambda-\mu is a nonnegative linear combination of simple roots. *P+ is the set of dominant weights: the elements of P in the positive Weyl chamber. *ρ is the Weyl vector: half the sum of the positive roots; this is a special element of P+ in the interior of the positive Weyl chamber. *F is a field of characteristic 0, usually the rational numbers. *A = F(P) is the group algebra of P, with a basis of elements written eλ for λ ∈ P. * If f = eλ, then f means e−λ, and this is extended by linearity to the whole group algebra. *mμ = Σλ ∈ Wμeλ is an orbit sum; these elements form a basis for the subalgebra AW of elements fixed by W. *(a;q)_\infty = \prod_{r\ge0}(1-aq^r), the infinite q-Pochhammer symbol. *\Delta= \prod_{\alpha\in R} {(e^\alpha; q)_\infty \over (te^\alpha; q)_\infty}. *\langle f,g\rangle=(\text{constant term of }f \overline g \Delta)/|W| is the inner product of two elements of A, at least when t is a positive integer power of q. The Macdonald polynomials Pλ for λ ∈ P+ are uniquely defined by the following two conditions: :P_\lambda=\sum_{\mu\le \lambda}u_{\lambda\mu}m_\mu where uλμ is a rational function of q and t with uλλ = 1; : Pλ and Pμ are orthogonal if λ < μ. In other words, the Macdonald polynomials are obtained by orthogonalizing the obvious basis for AW. The existence of polynomials with these properties is easy to show (for any inner product). A key property of the Macdonald polynomials is that they are orthogonal: 〈Pλ, Pμ〉 = 0 whenever λ ≠ μ. This is not a trivial consequence of the definition because P+ is not totally ordered, and so has plenty of elements that are incomparable. Thus one must check that the corresponding polynomials are still orthogonal. The orthogonality can be proved by showing that the Macdonald polynomials are eigenvectors for an algebra of commuting self-adjoint operators with 1-dimensional eigenspaces, and using the fact that eigenspaces for different eigenvalues must be orthogonal. In the case of non-simply-laced root systems (B, C, F, G), the parameter t can be chosen to vary with the length of the root, giving a three- parameter family of Macdonald polynomials. One can also extend the definition to the nonreduced root system BC, in which case one obtains a six-parameter family (one t for each orbit of roots, plus q) known as Koornwinder polynomials. It is sometimes better to regard Macdonald polynomials as depending on a possibly non-reduced affine root system. In this case, there is one parameter t associated to each orbit of roots in the affine root system, plus one parameter q. The number of orbits of roots can vary from 1 to 5. ==Examples== *If q = t the Macdonald polynomials become the Weyl characters of the representations of the compact group of the root system, or the Schur functions in the case of root systems of type A. *If q = 0 the Macdonald polynomials become the (rescaled) zonal spherical functions for a semisimple p-adic group, or the Hall–Littlewood polynomials when the root system has type A. *If t=1 the Macdonald polynomials become the sums over W orbits, which are the monomial symmetric functions when the root system has type A. *If we put t = qα and let q tend to 1 the Macdonald polynomials become Jack polynomials when the root system is of type A, and Heckman–Opdam polynomials for more general root systems. *For the affine root system A1, the Macdonald polynomials are the Rogers polynomials. *For the non-reduced rank 1 affine root system of type (C, C1), the Macdonald polynomials are the Askey–Wilson polynomials, which in turn include as special cases most of the named families of orthogonal polynomials in 1 variable. *For the non-reduced affine root system of type (C, Cn), the Macdonald polynomials are the Koornwinder polynomials. ==The Macdonald constant term conjecture== If t = qk for some positive integer k, then the norm of the Macdonald polynomials is given by :\langle P_\lambda, P_\lambda\rangle = \prod_{\alpha\in R, \alpha>0} \prod_{0 This was conjectured by Macdonald (1982) as a generalization of the Dyson conjecture, and proved for all (reduced) root systems by Cherednik (1995) using properties of double affine Hecke algebras. The conjecture had previously been proved case-by-case for all roots systems except those of type En by several authors. There are two other conjectures which together with the norm conjecture are collectively referred to as the Macdonald conjectures in this context: in addition to the formula for the norm, Macdonald conjectured a formula for the value of Pλ at the point tρ, and a symmetry :\frac{P_\lambda(\dots,q^{\mu_i}t^{\rho_i},\dots)}{P_\lambda(t^\rho)} = \frac{P_\mu(\dots,q^{\lambda_i}t^{\rho_i},\dots)}{P_\mu(t^\rho)}. Again, these were proved for general reduced root systems by , using double affine Hecke algebras, with the extension to the BC case following shortly thereafter via work of van Diejen, Noumi, and Sahi. ==The Macdonald positivity conjecture== In the case of roots systems of type An−1 the Macdonald polynomials are simply symmetric polynomials in n variables with coefficients that are rational functions of q and t. A certain transformed version \widetilde{H}_\mu of the Macdonald polynomials (see Combinatorial formula below) form an orthogonal basis of the space of symmetric functions over \mathbb{Q}(q,t), and therefore can be expressed in terms of Schur functions s_\lambda. The coefficients Kλμ(q,t) of these relations are called Kostka-Macdonald coefficients or qt- Kostka coefficients. Macdonald conjectured that the Kostka-Macdonald coefficients were polynomials in q and t with non-negative integer coefficients. These conjectures are now proved; the hardest and final step was proving the positivity, which was done by Mark Haiman (2001), by proving the n! conjecture. It is still a central open problem in algebraic combinatorics to find a combinatorial formula for the qt-Kostka coefficients. ==n! conjecture== The n! conjecture of Adriano Garsia and Mark Haiman states that for each partition μ of n the space :D_\mu =C[\partial x,\partial y]\,\Delta_\mu spanned by all higher partial derivatives of :\Delta_\mu = \det (x_i^{p_j}y_i^{q_j})_{1\le i,j,\le n} has dimension n!, where (pj, qj) run through the n elements of the diagram of the partition μ, regarded as a subset of the pairs of non-negative integers. For example, if μ is the partition 3 = 2 + 1 of n = 3 then the pairs (pj, qj) are (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), and the space Dμ is spanned by :\Delta_\mu=x_1y_2+x_2y_3+x_3y_1-x_2y_1-x_3y_2-x_1y_3 :y_2-y_3 :y_3-y_1 :x_3-x_2 :x_1-x_3 :1 which has dimension 6 = 3!. Haiman's proof of the Macdonald positivity conjecture and the n! conjecture involved showing that the isospectral Hilbert scheme of n points in a plane was Cohen- Macaulay (and even Gorenstein). Earlier results of Haiman and Garsia had already shown that this implied the n! conjecture, and that the n! conjecture implied that the Kostka-Macdonald coefficients were graded character multiplicities for the modules Dμ. This immediately implies the Macdonald positivity conjecture because character multiplicities have to be non-negative integers. Ian Grojnowski and Mark Haiman found another proof of the Macdonald positivity conjecture by proving a positivity conjecture for LLT polynomials. ==Combinatorial formula for the Macdonald polynomials== In 2005, J. Haglund, M. Haiman and N. Loehr gave the first proof of a combinatorial interpretation of the Macdonald polynomials. In 1988, I.G. Macdonald gave the second proof of a combinatorial interpretation of the Macdonald polynomials (equations (4.11) and (5.13)). Macdonald’s formula is different to that in Haglund, Haiman, and Loehr's work, with many fewer terms (this formula is proved also in Macdonald's seminal work, Ch. VI (7.13)). While very useful for computation and interesting in its own right, their combinatorial formulas do not immediately imply positivity of the Kostka-Macdonald coefficients K_{\lambda \mu}(q,t), as the give the decomposition of the Macdonald polynomials into monomial symmetric functions rather than into Schur functions. Written in the transformed Macdonald polynomials \widetilde{H}_\mu rather than the usual P_\lambda, they are :\widetilde{H}_\mu(x;q,t) = \sum_{\sigma:\mu \to \Z_+} q^{inv(\sigma)}t^{maj(\sigma)} x^{\sigma} where σ is a filling of the Young diagram of shape μ, inv and maj are certain combinatorial statistics (functions) defined on the filling σ. This formula expresses the Macdonald polynomials in infinitely many variables. To obtain the polynomials in n variables, simply restrict the formula to fillings that only use the integers 1, 2, ..., n. The term xσ should be interpreted as x_1^{\sigma_1} x_2^{\sigma_2} \cdots where σi is the number of boxes in the filling of μ with content i. thumb|This depicts the arm and the leg of a square of a Young diagram. The arm is the number of squares to its right, and the leg is the number of squares above it. The transformed Macdonald polynomials \widetilde{H}_\mu(x;q,t) in the formula above are related to the classical Macdonald polynomials P_{\lambda} via a sequence of transformations. First, the integral form of the Macdonald polynomials, denoted J_\lambda(x;q,t), is a re-scaling of P_\lambda(x;q,t) that clears the denominators of the coefficients: :J_\lambda(x;q,t)=\prod_{s\in D(\lambda)}(1-q^{a(s)}t^{1+l(s)})\cdot P_\lambda(x;q,t) where D(\lambda) is the collection of squares in the Young diagram of \lambda, and a(s) and l(s) denote the arm and leg of the square s, as shown in the figure. Note: The figure at right uses French notation for tableau, which is flipped vertically from the English notation used on the Wikipedia page for Young diagrams. French notation is more commonly used in the study of Macdonald polynomials. The transformed Macdonald polynomials \widetilde{H}_\mu(x;q,t) can then be defined in terms of the J_\mu's. We have :\widetilde{H}_\mu(x;q,t)=t^{-n(\mu)}J_\mu\left[\frac{X}{1-t^{-1}};q,t^{-1}\right] where :n(\mu)=\sum_{i}\mu_i\cdot (i-1). The bracket notation above denotes plethystic substitution. This formula can be used to prove Knop and Sahi's formula for the Jack polynomials. ==Non-symmetric Macdonald polynomials== In 1995, Macdonald introduced a non-symmetric analogue of the symmetric Macdonald polynomials, and the symmetric Macdonald polynomials can easily be recovered from the non-symmetric counterpart. In his original definition, he shows that the non-symmetric Macdonald polynomials are a unique family of polynomials orthogonal to a certain inner product, as well as satisfying a triangularity property when expanded in the monomial basis. In 2007, Haglund, Haiman and Loehr gave a combinatorial formula for the non-symmetric Macdonald polynomials. The non-symmetric Macdonald polynomials specialize to Demazure characters by taking q=t=0, and to key polynomials when q=t=∞. ===Combinatorial formulae based on the exclusion process=== In 2018, S. Corteel, O. Mandelshtam, and L. Williams used the exclusion process to give a direct combinatorial characterization of both symmetric and nonsymmetric Macdonald polynomials. Their results differ from the earlier work of Haglund in part because they give a formula directly for the Macdonald polynomials rather than a transformation thereof. They develop the concept of a multiline queue, which is a matrix containing balls or empty cells together with a mapping between balls and their neighbors and a combinatorial labeling mechanism. The nonsymmetric Macdonald polynomial then satisfies: :E_{\lambda}(\textbf{x};q,t)=\sum_Q \mathrm{wt}(Q) where the sum is over all L\times n multiline queues of type \lambda and \mathrm{wt} is a weighting function mapping those queues to specific polynomials. The symmetric Macdonald polynomial satisfies: :P_{\lambda}(\textbf{x};q,t)=\sum_{\mu}E_{\mu}(x_1,...,x_n;q,t)=\sum_{\mu}\sum_Q \mathrm{wt}(Q) where the outer sum is over all distinct compositions \mu which are permutations of \lambda, and the inner sum is as before. ==References== ==Bibliography== * * *Mark Haiman Combinatorics, symmetric functions, and Hilbert schemes Current Developments in Mathematics 2002, no. 1 (2002), 39-111\. * Haiman, Mark Notes on Macdonald polynomials and the geometry of Hilbert schemes. Symmetric functions 2001: surveys of developments and perspectives, 1-64, NATO Sci. Ser. II Math. Phys. Chem., 74, Kluwer Acad. Publ., Dordrecht, 2002. * * * *Macdonald, I. G. Symmetric functions and Hall polynomials. Second edition. Oxford Mathematical Monographs. Oxford Science Publications. The Clarendon Press, Oxford University Press, New York, 1995. x+475 pp. *Macdonald, I. G. Symmetric functions and orthogonal polynomials. Dean Jacqueline B. Lewis Memorial Lectures presented at Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ. University Lecture Series, 12. American Mathematical Society, Providence, RI, 1998. xvi+53 pp. *Macdonald, I. G. Affine Hecke algebras and orthogonal polynomials. Séminaire Bourbaki 797 (1995). * * ==External links== *Mike Zabrocki's page about Macdonald polynomials. *Some of Haiman's papers about Macdonald polynomials. Category:Algebraic combinatorics Category:Algebraic geometry Category:Orthogonal polynomials |
Lancaster Arts at Lancaster University (LA) is Lancaster University's public arts organisation. The organisation presents performances, for the public, staff and students, through its campus venues the Nuffield Theatre, Lancaster Concerts Series and the Peter Scott Gallery. ==Aims and Ethos== Lancaster Arts at Lancaster University serves as the university's arts provider, with its venues and events open to the general public, students and staff. It programmes a wide range of concerts, theatre, visual arts, dance and spoken word events and exhibitions via an autumn and spring programme. The Nuffield Theatre and the Peter Scott Gallery have historically brought artists to perform that align with the teaching of academic courses within the Lancaster Institute for the Contemporary Arts. Lancaster Arts serves as part of the university's 2020 Strategy to engage locally and internationally with issues and debates of the day and future. Lancaster Arts is an Arts Council England 'National Portfolio Organisation' (NPO) and as such is committed to supporting cultural and artistic engagement through its programme of contemporary theatre, dance, visual art and music. Lancaster Arts states that its mission: :"is to support the many colours of art in the 21st Century and to foster social, cultural, educational and economic impact within this context, as an organization based in the North of England." Lancaster Arts shares its venues and supports work with other University departments and societies. The organisation facilitates the presentation of external commercial and community based events and student groups who wish to use the Great Hall Complex and its facilities. ===Supported artists=== In 2015 Lancaster Arts (then Live at LICA) launched its 2015–17 Associate Artists Programme. These associates receive assistance which includes; commissions, residencies, presentations, advocacy and specialist support. Artists receive a bespoke package based on a set of mutually and collaborative projects. The three Associate Artists are currently: * Andy Smith * imitating the dog * Quarantine ===Commissions=== Lancaster Arts has a history of commissioning new artistic work, and is supported to do this as an Arts Council England 'National Portfolio Organisation'; it has commissioned a significant amount of new work which tours nationally and internationally. ====Theatre commissions==== The Nuffield Theatre, Lancaster has commissioned numerous contemporary performances and plays. Examples include the 2010 outdoor performance entitled "Jack Scout" which took place in Silverdale, Lancashire. In 2014 the organisation commissioned and produced the theatrical show 'Sea Breeze' exploring the history of Morecambe Winter Gardens. The performance went on to become Alfred Hickling's (The Guardian's theatre critic) top pick for 2014. ====Music commissions==== The organisation also commissions new music. Examples include a work by Canadian composer, Nicole Lizée, for British Percussionist, Joby Burgess: Pioneers of Percussion, a new piece of music by Graham Fitkin for Ockham's Razor's aerial production entitled "Not Until We Are Lost" and Retorica's Live at LICA-commissioned piece by Sergei Prokofiev's great- grandson Gabriel Prokofiev in 2014. ====Art commissions==== In 2011 the organisation commissioned a new film and photographic work by Mel Brimfield entitled "This is Performance Art: Part Two – Experimental Theatre and Cabaret" The Exhibition was accompanied by a new book with a foreword by the then Director Matt Fenton. In 2014, the organisation commissioned a large- format video installation by British artists Iain Forsyth and Jane Pollard entitled Jumpers (What must I do to be saved). ==History== Lancaster Arts as its constituent parts have existed for nearly 50 years. ===Pre-unification=== Prior to their merger in 2007 the Lancaster International Concert Series, Peter Scott Gallery, and Nuffield Theatre were operated separately. Historically these were overseen by academic departments as the public arts were established concurrently with the setting up of academic departments in the arts, all of which rested on a foundation of performance and practice in the relevant disciplines. The public arts provision and the departmental curricula were therefore able to support and reinforce each other. ====Nuffield Theatre==== The theatre opened in the 1968–69 academic year with one of the first performances being Jonson's Bartholomew Fair. The theatre was funded in part by a donation of £80,000 from the Nuffield Foundation. Professor Tom E Lawrenson, first head of department for French in 1964, played a significant role in establishing the theatre as a place of practical experimentation – Integral to the theatres original concept was its flexibility which allowed for a life-size replica of a 17th-century Parisian public theatre to be built with original specifications. The Nuffield's designed featured flexible flooring and seating, no windows and a griddled ceiling to allow for this kind of research into theatre history, as well making it perfect for contemporary experimental theatre and for training students in a range of technical skills. The project architects, Shepheard and Epstein drew on theatre designer Stephen Joseph for inspiration. At its opening the theatre was one of the largest black box theatres in the UK. The Department of Theatre Studies grew out of the founding Department of English in 1972, and its founding head was Kenneth Parrott, who was also director of the Nuffield Theatre Studio. The Nuffield's 'public' performances began as the Nuffield Theatre Club and it developed a reputation for experimental theatre and dance. The Nuffield was granted its public performance licence in 1992. ====Lancaster Concert Series==== Since the opening of The Great Hall at Lancaster University in 1969, there have been regular concerts on campus. Lancaster University's international subscription series of concerts was initially directed by Sir John Manduell from 1969 to 1971 with Professor Denis McCaldin taking over as Director of Music in 1971 leading to the creation of Lancaster Concerts. Professor McCaldin also helped set up the university's new music department which was established in 1968 and appointed its first organist Ian Hare in 1974; Hare served as Organist for 35 years retiring in 2015. The inaugural concert on the Great Hall organ was in March 1979. A copy of student newspaper SCAN from 2 December 1974 reviews a concert on the 10th anniversary of the university stating: :"Because music has played a significant part in the life of the University, and particularly because the Thursday concerts have made an important contribution to better relations between the University and the local community and have established Bailrigg as in of the leading musical centers of the North, it was appropriate to mark the University's 10th Anniversary with an orchestral Concert..." The concert series brought international professional artists to Lancaster including; Paul Lewis and BBC Philharmonic. The vast majority of concerts were held in the Great Hall but also occasionally the Nuffield Theatre. Professor Denis McCaldin retired as Director of Music in 2001, having overseen 1000 concerts, to fill the ceremonial position of President of Lancaster Concerts; a position previously held by Sir Arthur Bliss, Paul Tortelier and Dame Janet Baker but which no longer exists. He was replaced as head of the concert series by Tim Williams who ran the concerts until 2013, eventually becoming associate director of Live at LICA. Professor McCaldin retired as Head of Music in 2005, and in 2012 the Music Department was laid down. ====Peter Scott Gallery==== The Peter Scott Gallery opened in the Michaelmas term of 1975 under the name Scott Gallery on the top floor of the new Pendle College building. The gallery was funded by Peter F Scott, CBE, and the Scott family trust. The Scott Gallery was renamed the Peter Scott Gallery in 1988, when it moved up to the Great Hall complex and took over a space originally designed as an outdoor performance area that formed part of the Jack Hylton Music Rooms. It was refurbished and enlarged in 1993. The Irene Manton Room is on the ground floor and above it is a room dedicated to the John Chamberlain Collection. ===Public Arts=== Over time the Concerts, Gallery, and Theatre became more distinct from their related departmental areas and with the merger of theatre, art and music into the Lancaster Institute for the Contemporary Arts in 2005 the decision was made in 2007 to merge the Concert, Gallery and Theatre into a single organisation overseen by one director. This merger was termed The Public Arts with Matt Fenton, former director of the Nuffield, overseeing this unification which was completed in 2009. Public Arts was not used explicitly as a brand although it was referenced in A University in its region – building the economy, enriching lives which was a brochure published by the university in 2009. Printed material was produced under Public Arts but under the header 'Peter Scott Gallery, Lancaster Nuffield Theatre, Lancaster International Concert Series'. In October 2010 the administrative amalgamation became public under the name Live at LICA (Lancaster Institute for the Contemporary Arts) which would refer to all three organisations. ===Live at LICA=== Live at LICA launched in 2010 with Matt Fenton, former director of the Nuffield as director, and Tim Williams, former director of the concerts as associate director. Live at LICA developed a reputation for supporting emerging contemporary work across the fields of Visual arts, Performance art and Art music. The merger of the three organisations allowed for more interdisciplinary work and the Peter Scott Gallery at this time shifted its focus towards more Contemporary art, talks and Performance art. Live at LICA continued to work closely with Lancaster Institute for the Contemporary Arts to supplement the academic courses with artist talks, performances for students and partnerships. Tim Williams continued to oversee the concert series until his departure in 2013 where he was succeed as associate director by Fiona Sinclair, formerly of Lancashire Sinfonietta, who continued the tradition of managing the concerts. In 2013 Jamie Eastman, previously Curator of Performance at Arnolfini, replaced Matt Fenton as Live at LICA's second director. ===Lancaster Arts at Lancaster University=== In August 2015 Live at LICA was rebranded to 'Lancaster Arts at Lancaster University' to avoid confusion with the department of LICA, then director Jamie Eastman stated that: :"This new name and logo communicates who we are, where we are and what we’re offering." ==Venues== ===Great Hall Complex=== The university used proceeds from its first Appeal (1964–71) to fund the public arts. These were centred on the Great Hall complex, which was designed to include the Great and Minor Halls, the Jack Hylton Music Rooms, the Nuffield Theatre Studio and adjoining workshop, and the Fine Arts Studios. ====The Great Hall==== The Great Hall is a flexible flat-floored space designed for good acoustics. It contains a small Harrison and Harrison pipe organ, completed in 1979, and is the location for the Lancaster International Concert Series, which commenced in 1969. It was also the place where the renowned popular concerts were staged in the 1980s, these were organised by Barry Lucas working with the JCR (Junior Common Room). ====The Jack Hylton Rooms==== The Jack Hylton Music Rooms, a purpose-built theatre production workshop, rehearsal spaces, and a Life Drawing Studio. The Jack Hylton Music Rooms were named after the entertainer Jack Hylton. A special memorial concert was held by Hylton's son, Jack Hylton Junior, entitled "The Stars Shine for Jack". The proceeds were donated towards the building of the new Music Department at Lancaster University in his honour. When it was opened in 1965, it was hoped that the rooms would make Lancaster into the music centre of the North West. ====The Nuffield Theatre==== The Nuffield theatre opened in the 1968–69 academic year. Shepheard and Epstein were the project architects, and they drew on the expertise of the well-known theatre designer, Stephen Joseph, for the Nuffield Theatre Studio before his untimely death. The Nuffield Theatre is one of three theatre's in Lancaster and is the professional 'black-box' studio theatre. One notable feature about the stage is that it be configurated up to a width of 25 metres or with seating up to 220. ===The Peter Scott Gallery=== Immediately to the south of the Great Hall is the Peter Scott Gallery, The gallery was funded by Peter F Scott, CBE, and the Scott family trust, and originally located in Pendle College under the name Scott Gallery. It was refurbished and enlarged in 1993 and features The Irene Manton Room on the ground floor and above it is a room dedicated to the John Chambers Collection. The main space of the Gallery is a versatile flat floor space used for film screenings, workshops, talks, events, Performance art and displaying collections. The Gallery hosts the Omnia degree show for Lancaster Institute for the Contemporary Arts fine art students. ===The LICA Building=== The Lancaster Institute for the Contemporary Arts building is a timber-framed building, offering a range of flexible performance and workshop spaces to support teaching and research in Art, Design, Film Studies, Music and Theatre Studies. It was the first UK higher education project to be awarded a BREEAM outstanding rating. ===The Storey=== In 2016 Lancaster Arts at Lancaster University held a number of events in The Storey loosely under the brand of Lancaster Arts at the Storey. This included convention titled 'The Storey: 21st Century Art Centre?' which was presented by Lancaster Arts in partnership with Creative Exchange. The Storey was the hub for the Festival of Questions hosting numerous exhibitions, performances and the Day of Questions One and Two. ==Notable works== ===Performers=== Notable theatre and dance organisions who have performed at Lancaster Arts: *Forced Entertainment 1994 Hidden J, 1995 Speak Bitterness, 1998 Dirty Work , 1999 Disco Relax, 2002 The Travels, 2005 Exquisite Pain, 2008 Spectacular, 2011 Tomorrow's Parties, 2012 The Coming Storm, 2016 The Notebook – Part of Festival of Questions *Nigel Charnock 1995 Hell Bent *Akrim Khan 2002 Kaash *The Cholmondeleys 1997 Flesh & Blood *John Hegley 1999 Out of Luton, 2002 The Sketch Books *Hofesh Shechter 2007 deGENERATION: Cult, Fragments & Uprising *Gob Squad 2008 Kitchen, 2014 Western Society, 2017 We Are Gob Squad & So Are You, 2017 War and Peace *Carol Ann Duffy 2010 in partnership with Lancaster Litfest *The Featherstonehaughs 2011 Edits & Draw on the Sketchbooks of Egon Sheiele *Candoco 2009 Still and The Perfect Human, 2011 Renditions, 2013 Artist's Summer Lab, 2013 Turning 20, 2014 Playing Another *Phoenix Dance Theatre 2015 Mixed Programme 2015 *Goat Island (performance group) 2005 When will the September roses bloom? Last night was only a comedy, 2006 Goat Island Summer Workshop, 2008, The Lastmaker, Lancaster Arts has a strong relationship with Ockham's Razor Theatre Company. The Nuffield hosted their show The Arc in 2008, The Mill was performed in the Great Hall in 2010 and in November 2011 Not Until We Are Lost was performed at Lancaster Castle and the LICA building – this showing was in partnership with Lancaster Castle and the Lancaster Light Up Lancaster festival. The music for Not Until We Are Lost was commissioned by Lancaster Arts and they hosted an Ockham's Razor Summer School 2011 in the Nuffield. ===Musicians=== A huge range of musicians have performed in The Great Hall and Nuffield Theatre ====Concert series==== Lancaster International Concert Series is the main provider of classical music in north Lancashire and Cumbria. Notable performers include: *Manchester Camerata 1998, 2008 *Jean-Guihen Queyras 1998, 1999 *Lindsay String Quartet 1999 *Malcolm Martineau 1999 *BBC Philharmonic 1999, 2007, 2011 *Noriko Ogawa 2003 *Hungarian National Philharmonic 2003 *Psappha New Music Ensemble 2005 *Polish National Radio Symphony Orchestra 2007 *Sinfonia ViVA 2008 *Gabriela Montero 2013, 2015 with Manchester Camerata Martin Roscoe was musician-in-residence 1999 to 2000. ====Gigs==== From 1971 and 1984 the Great Hall, and the Nuffield Theatre, hosted a number of music gigs. Many of these were organised by Barry Lucas working with the JCR (Junior Common Room). Acts included: *Joy Division 19 June 1979: Nuffield Theatre with John Cooper-Clarke *Pink Floyd *Black Sabbath *Ozzy Osbourne *Bob Marley *Tina Turner *Madness *Status Quo *T Rex *Slade *The Smiths *Elvis Costello *The Who *Paul McCartney *The Undertones Lancaster Arts made efforts to revive this with their 2015 Music Week where they turned the Nuffield into a music venue featuring Hope & Social and Beardyman. ===Collections=== thumb|Barbara Hepworth's Dual Form, bronze, 1965, of which one is on permanent display at the University of Lancaster as part of the Peter Scott Gallery Collections The Peter Scott Gallery holds significant collections of art and antique objects including a significant collection of Chinese and Japanese Art, as well as a collection of 20th-century art which includes work by artists from the St Ives School, Sir Terry Frost, Wilhelmina Barns-Graham, Barbara Hepworth and William Scott. Among other British artists whose work is represented are Norman Adams, Patrick Caulfield, Elisabeth Frink, Kenneth Martin and Winifred Nicholson. Recent acquisitions have included works by Andy Goldsworthy, Peter Howson and Albert Irvin. The university collection also includes prints by significant European artists such as Dürer, Miró, Ernst, Mondrian and Vasarely, and the Lancaster University Special Collections holds a collection of artists books and an archive of pop-up books. The collection also includes a number of antiquities, many of which are on permanent display in the John Chambers Ceramics Room of The Peter Scott Gallery. The collection includes Roman, Greek and Egyptian vessels in ceramic and glass. Examples of items from the collection include a Roman stylus, an Egyptian papyrus fragment from a Book of the Dead. The Peter Scott Gallery also houses one of the most significant collections of Pilkington's Tile and Pottery Company in the UK. ===Exhibitions=== In 2011 Franko B exhibited Someone to Love in the Peter Scott Gallery including commissioned work. In 2013 Iain Forsyth and Jane Pollard exhibited the newly commissioned Jumpers (what must I do to be saved). Wu Chi-Tsung was presented in the gallery and at The Storey as part of the national Recalibrate programme in 2014 the world included Crystal City, cyanotypes from the Wrinkled Textures series and several examples of still life video works. Other notable exhibitions that premiered new work were by Mel Brimfield in 2012 (This is Performance Art – Part Two: Experimental Theatre and Cabaret)and 2014 (Testing Media: Mel Brimfield); and Paul Mcdevitt in 2015 (Hunker Down). ===Festivals=== ====Curate the Campus==== Due to exams and limited space, the public programme reduced in summer term and became Curate the Campus by 2012 an initiative to distribute art throughout campus. Curate the Campus ran in 2012 and 2013 before being refined and becoming OPEN. ====OPEN==== OPEN is a yearly festival in which the Peter Scott Gallery becomes a social space open throughout the day. Open has traditionally been centred around a theme, 2016 being Environment|Education. OPEN is a public space for trying new things and talking about ideas across artforms. ====Festival of Questions==== In 2016 Lancaster Arts launched the Festival of Questions an event designed to explore how art can engage with politics. The festival included artistic exhibitions from Sarah Vanhee and Tania El Khoury, performances from Season Butler and Proto-type theater, a lecture at The Dukes by Owen Jones and a performance of Shostakovich's Violin Concerto No 1 by Chetham's Symphony Orchestra. The festival culminated in two 'days of questions' in which panels of artists, academics, and commentators discussed 'pressing questions of the day' speakers included: David Kynaston, Melissa Benn, Colin Grant, David Goodhart, Dr Simon Mabon, Cat Smith MP, Professor John Urry and Caroline Criado Perez. ==Directors== *Director: Jocelyn Cunningham (2016–Present) *Interim Director: Fiona Sinclair & Richard Smith (2016) *Director: Jamie Eastman (2013–16) *Interim Director: Richard Smith (Curator of Peter Scott Gallery) (2013) *Director: Matt Fenton (2010–13) *Director (Nuffield Theatre): Matt Fenton (2003–10) *Director (Lancaster International Concert Series): Tim Williams (2001–13) *Director (Nuffield Theatre): Adrian Harris (1995–2003) *Director (Nuffield Theatre): Baz Kershaw (1985–95) *Director (Nuffield Theatre): Kenneth Parrott (1972–85) *Director/Professor of Music (Lancaster Concerts): Denis McCaldin (1971–2001) *Director (Lancaster Concerts): Sir John Manduell (1969–71) == References == == External links == * * Category:Lancaster University Category:Museums in Lancaster, Lancashire Category:Biographical museums in Lancashire Category:Buildings and structures of Lancaster University Category:Art museums and galleries in Lancashire Category:Buildings and structures in Lancaster, Lancashire Category:Education in Lancaster |
thumb|Instrumentation controls the operation of process columns Instrumentation is used to monitor and control the process plant in the oil, gas and petrochemical industries. Instrumentation ensures that the plant operates within defined parameters to produce materials of consistent quality and within the required specifications. It also ensures that the plant is operated safely and acts to correct out of tolerance operation and to automatically shut down the plant to prevent hazardous conditions from occurring. Instrumentation comprises sensor elements, signal transmitters, controllers, indicators and alarms, actuated valves, logic circuits and operator interfaces. An outline of key instrumentation is shown on Process Flow Diagrams (PFD) which indicate the principal equipment and the flow of fluids in the plant. Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&ID;) provide details of all the equipment (vessels, pumps, etc), piping and instrumentation on the plant in a symbolic and diagrammatic form. == The elements of instrumentation == Instrumentation includes sensing devices to measure process parameters such as pressure, temperature, liquid level, flow, velocity, composition, density, weight; and mechanical and electrical parameters such as vibration, position, power, current and voltage. * The measured value of a parameter is displayed and recorded locally and/or in a control room. If the measured variable exceeds pre-defined limits an alarm warns the operating personnel of a potential problem. Automatic executive action is taken by the instrumentation to close or open shutdown valves and dampers, or to trip (stop) pumps and compressors, to move the plant to a safe condition. * Correct operation of the petrochemical process plant is achieved through the action of control loops. These automatically maintain and control the pressure, temperature, liquid level and flowrate of fluid in vessels and piping. Control loops compare the measured value of a parameter on the plant, eg. pressure, with a pre-determined set point. A difference between the measured variable and the set point generates a signal which modulates the position of a control valve (the final element) to maintain the measured variable at the set point. * Valves are actuated by an electric motor, hydraulic fluid or air. For air- operated control valves, electrical signals from the control system are converted to an air pressure for the valve actuator in a current/pneumatic I/P converter. Upon loss of pneumatic or hydraulic pressure valves may fail to an open (FO) or fail to a closed (FC) position. * Some instrumentation is self actuating. For example, pressure regulators maintain a constant pre-set pressure, and rupture discs and pressure safety valves open at pre-set pressures.American Petroleum Institute, Recommended Practice API RP 520 Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure-Relieving Devices in Refineries * Instrumentation includes facilities for operating personnel to intervene in the plant either locally or from a control room. Personnel can open or close valves, change set points, start and stop pumps or compressors, and over-ride shutdown functions (in specific controlled circumstances such as during start-up). ==Temperature instrumentation== thumb|Heat exchanger instrumentationOil, gas and petrochemical processes are undertaken at specific temperatures. *Measurement of temperature of fluids in the petrochemical industry is undertaken by temperature elements (TE). These can be Thermocouples or Platinum Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs). The latter are used for their good temperature response. Local temperature indicators (TI) are located on the inlet and outlet streams of heat exchangers to monitor the performance of the exchanger.P&IDS; NW Hutton 1988 * In industrial applications gaseous or liquid fluids may be heated or cooled. This duty is undertaken in a heat exchanger, whereby the fluid is heated or cooled by heat transfer with a second fluid such as water, glycol, hot oil or another process fluid (the heating or cooling medium). Temperature control is used to maintain the desired temperature of the first fluid. A temperature sensor transmitter (TT) is located in the first fluid at its outlet from the heat exchanger. This measured temperature is fed to the temperature controller (TIC) where it is compared to the desired set point temperature. The output of the controller, which is related to the difference between the measured variable and the set point, is fed to a control valve (TCV) in the second fluid to adjust the flow of the heating or cooling medium. In the case of a fluid being cooled, if the temperature of the fluid rises the temperature controller acts to open the TCV increasing the flow of the cooling medium which increases the heat transfer and reduces the temperature of the first fluid. Conversely if the temperature falls the controller acts to close the TCV which reduces the heat transfer increasing the temperature of the first fluid. In the case of heating medium with the falling temperature of the first fluid the controller would act to open the TCV to increase the flow of heating medium thereby raising the temperature of the first fluid. The controller (TIC) may also generate high (TAH) and low temperature (TAL) alarms to warn operating personnel of a potential problem. * Fin fan coolers use air to cool gases and liquids. The temperature of fluid is controlled (TIC) by opening or closing dampers on the cooler or adjusting the speed of the fan or the pitch angle of the fan blades thereby increasing or decreasing the flow of air. * Temperature monitoring and control instrumentation is used in fired heaters and furnaces to adjust the fuel flow valve (FCV) to maintain a desired thermal output. Waste heat recovery units (WHRU) are used to extract heat from the flow of hot exhaust gases from a gas turbine to heat a fluid (heating medium). Instrumentation includes controllers to maintain a desired temperature of the heating medium by closing or opening dampers in the exhaust gas flow. * Low temperature alarms (TSL) are used where cold fluids could be routed to pipework which is not suitable for cold service. Instrumentation may include an initial alarm (TAL) and then a shutdown action (TSLL) to close a shutdown valve (XV). * Temperature sensors (TE) are used to indicate that plant flares have been unintentionally extinguished (BAL), perhaps due to insufficient flowrate of gases to maintain a flame. ==Pressure instrumentation== thumb|307x307px|Diagram of the pressure instrumentation on a process vesselOil, gas and petrochemical processes are undertaken at specific operating pressures. *Pressure is measured by pressure sensors (PE) which send pressure (PT) signals to pressure controllers (PIC). Pressure vessels and tanks are fitted with local pressure indicators (PI). * In the petrochemical industry pressure is controlled by maintaining a constant pressure in the upper gas space of a vessel. A pressure controller (PIC) adjusts the setting on a pressure control valve (PCV) that feeds gas forward to the next stage of the process. A rising pressure in the vessel results in the PCV opening to feed more gas forward. If the pressure continues to rise some controllers then act to open a second PCV that feeds excess gas to the flare system. The pressure transmitter is configured to provide warning alarms (PAL and PAH) if the pressure exceeds set high and low limits. If these limits are exceeded (PALL and PAHH) an automatic shutdown of the system is initiated which includes closure of the inlet valves of the vessel. The pressure sensor (PT) that initiates a shutdown is a separate instrument loop from the PT associated with the pressure control loop to mitigate common mode failures and to ensure greater reliability of the shutdown function. * The operation of hydrocyclones is controlled by pressure instrumentation that maintains fixed differential pressures between the inlet and the oil and water outlets. * Turbo-expanders are controlled by maintaining the inlet pressure (PIC) at a constant value by controlling the angle of the expander inlet vanes. A split range pressure controller may also modulate a Joule-Thomson valve across the turbo-expander. * Pressure in blanketed tanks is maintained by self actuating pressure control valves (PCVs). As liquid is withdrawn from the tank the pressure in the gas space falls. The blanket gas supply valve opens to maintain the pressure. As the tank fills with liquid the pressure rises and a vent gas valve open to vent gas to atmosphere or a vent system. * Rupture (bursting) discs (PSE) and pressure relief or pressure safety valves (PSV) are important pressure control devices. Both are self-actuating and are designed to open at a preset pressure to provide an essential safety function on the petrochemical plant. == Flow instrumentation == thumb|Diagram of a flow control instrumentation loop The throughput of a petrochemical plant is measured and controlled by flow instrumentation. * Flow measuring devices devices (FE) include vortex, positive displacement (PD), differential pressure (DP), coriolis, ultrasonic, and rotameters. thumb|Compressor control * The flow through compressors, see schematic, is controlled by measuring the flow (FT) through the machine at the suction and controlling the speed (SC) of the prime mover (electric motor or gas turbine) that is driving the compressor. Anti-surge control ensures a minimum flow of fluid through the compressor. The flow (FT) at the discharge and measurements of the suction and discharge pressures (PT) and temperatures (TT) of the fluid flowing through the compressor are measured. The anti-surge controller (FIC) modulates a control valve (FCV) which recycles cooled gas from downstream of the compressor after-cooler back to the suction of the compressor. Low flow alarms (FAL) provide a warning indication to operating personnel. thumb|Schematic of pump minimum flow protection arrangement * Large process pumps are provided with minimum flow protection. This comprises measurement of flow (FE) at the pump discharge, this measurement is an input to a flow controller (FIC) whose set point is the minimum flow required through the pump(see diagram). As the flow reduces to the minimum flow value the controller acts to open a flow control valve (FCV) to recycle fluid from the discharge back to the suction of the pump. * Flow metering (FIQ) is required where custody transfer of fluids takes place, such as an outgoing pipeline or at a tanker loading station. Accurate measurement of the flow is essential and parameters such as liquid density are measured. * Flare and vent systems are purged to prevent air ingress and the formation of potentially explosive mixtures.American Petroleum Institute, Recommended Practice RP 521 Guide for Pressure-Relieving and Depressuring Systems The flowrate of purge gas is set by rotameter (FIC) or fixed orifice plate (FO). A low flow alarm (FAL) warns operating personnel that the purge flow has reduced significantly. * Pipelines are monitored by measuring the flowrate of fluid at each end, a discrepancy (FDA) may indicate a leak in the pipeline. ==Level instrumentation== thumb|Diagram of the level instrumentation on a process vessel The level measurement of liquids in pressure vessels and tanks in the petrochemical industry is undertaken by differential pressure level meters, radar, magnetostrictive, nucleonic, magnetic float and pneumatic bubbler instruments. * Level instrumentation determines the height of liquids by measuring the position of a gas/liquid or liquid/liquid interface within the vessel or tank. Such interfaces include oil/gas, oil/water, condensate/water, glycol/condensate, etc. Local indication (LI) includes sight glasses which show the liquid level directly through a vertical glass tube attached to the vessel/tank. * Phase interfaces are maintained at a constant level by level transmitters (LT) transmitting a signal to a level controller (LIC) which compares the measured value with the desired set point. The difference is sent as a signal to a level control valve (LCV) on the liquid outlet from the vessel. As the level rises the controller acts to open the valve to draw off liquid to reduce the level. Similarly as the levels fall the controller acts to close the LCV to reduce outflow of fluid. * Some vessels store liquid until it is pumped out. The controller (LIC) acts to start and stop the pump within a specified band. For example, start the pump when the level rises to 0.6m, stop the pump when the level falls to 0.4m. * High and low level alarms (LAH and LAL) warn operating personnel that levels are outside predefined limits. Further deviation (LAHH and LALL) initiates a shutdown either to close emergency shutdown valves (ESDV) on the inlet to the vessel or on the liquid outlet lines. As with high and low pressure instrumentation the shutdown function comprises an independent measurement loop to prevent a common mode failure. Loss of liquid level in the vessel may lead to gas blowby where high pressure gas flows to the downstream vessel through the liquid outlet line. The structural integrity of the downstream vessel can be compromised. In addition high liquid level in the vessel may lead to carryover of liquid into the gas outlet may damage downstream equipment such as gas compressors. * High liquid level in a flare drum can lead to undesirable carryover of liquid to the flare. A high-high liquid level (LSHH) in the flare drum initiates a plant shutdown. * One of the problems with a significant number of technologies is that they are installed through a nozzle and are exposed to products. This can create several problems, especially when retrofitting new equipment to vessels that have already been stress relieved, as it may not be possible to fit the instrument at the location required. Also, as the measuring element is exposed to the contents within the vessel, it may either attack or coat the instrument causing it to fail in service. One of the most reliable methods for measuring level is using a Nuclear gauge, as it is installed outside the vessel and doesn't normally require a nozzle for bulk level measurement. The measuring element is installed outside the process and can be maintained in normal operation without taking a shutdown. Shutdown is only required for an accurate calibration. ==Analyser instrumentation== A wide range of analysis instruments are used in the oil, gas and petrochemical industries. * Chromatography – to measure the quality of product or reactants * Density (oil) – for custody metering of liquids * Dewpoint (water dewpoint and hydrocarbon dewpoint) to check the efficiency of dehydration or dewpoint control plant * Electrical conductivity – to measure the effectiveness of potable water reverse osmosis plant * Oil-in-water – prior to discharge of water into the environment * pH of reactants and products * Sulphur content – to check the efficiency of gas sweetening plant Most instruments function continuously and provide a log of data and trends. Some analyser instruments are configured to alarm (AAH) if a measurement reaches a critical level. == Other instrumentation == *Major pumps and compressors are provided with vibration sensors (VT) to give operating personnel a warning (VA) of potential mechanical problems with the machine. * Rupture discs (PSE) and pressure safety valves (PSV) are self-actuated and provide no immediate indication that they have ruptured or lifted. Instrumentation such as pressure alarms (PXA) or movement alarms (PZA) may be fitted to indicate that they have operated. * Corrosion coupons and corrosion probes provide a local indication of corrosion rates of fluids flowing in piping. thumb|Pig launcher * Pipeline pig launchers and receivers are provided with a pig signaller (XA) to indicate that a pig has been launched or has arrived. * Packaged items of equipment (compressors, diesel engines, electricity generators, etc) are fitted with local vendor supplied instrumentation. When equipment malfunctions a multivariable signal (UA) is sent to the control room. * The fire and gas detection system comprises local sensors to detect the presence of gas, smoke or fire. These initiate alarms in the control room. Simultaneous detection of multiple sensors initiates action to start firewater pumps and close fire dampers in enclosed spaces. * The petrochemical plant may have several levels of shutdown. A unit shutdown (USD) entails shutdown of one limited unit with the rest of the plant remaining in operation. A production shutdown (PSD) entails shutdown of the entire process plant. An emergency shutdown (ESD) entails complete shutdown of the plant. * Older plant may have local control loops which operate pneumatic (3 – 15 psia) final element actuators. Sensors may also transmit electrical signals (4 – 20mA). Conversion between pneumatic and electrical signals is undertaken by P/I and I/P converters. Control of modern plant is based on a Distributed Control Systems using Fieldbus digital protocols. ==See also== *Petrochemical *Instrument and control engineering *Process flow diagram *Piping and instrumentation diagram *Petroleum *Control engineering *Petroleum products ==References== Category:Petroleum products Category:Applied and interdisciplinary physics Category:Process engineering Category:Measuring instruments Category:Control engineering Category:Industrial automation |
Television series whose first-run broadcasts were on multiple networks, which are listed in chronological order after each show name. ==A== * Aawitan Kita (RPN, GMA, ABC) * Adventures of the Gummi Bears (NBC, ABC, Syndication) * Adyenda (ZOE TV, GMA, QTV, GMA News TV) * Agila (RPN, ABS-CBN) * Airwolf (CBS, USA) * Aladdin (Disney Channel, Syndication, CBS) * Alfred Hitchcock Presents (CBS, NBC) * Alisto (GMA, GMA News TV) * All Rise (CBS, OWN) * All My Children (ABC, TOLN via Hulu) * The Alvin Show (CBS, NBC as Alvin and the Chipmunks (1983), Nickelodeon as Alvin and the Chipmunks (2015)) * American Bandstand (WPVI-TV, ABC, Syndication, USA) * American Dad! (FOX, TBS) * America's Most Wanted (FOX, Lifetime) * America's Next Top Model (UPN, The CW, VH1) * American Idol (FOX, ABC) * Ang Dating Daan (IBC, RPN, RJTV, PTV, SBN, UNTV) * Ang Iglesia ni Cristo (MBS, PTV, RPN, IBC, BBC, City2, ABS-CBN, Net 25, GEM TV, INC TV) * Ang Manok ni San Pedro (RPN, IBC) * Ang Tamang Daan (SBN, Net 25, INC TV) * Animaniacs (FOX, The WB, Hulu) * Anna Luna (ABS-CBN, RPN) * Archer (FX, FXX) * Are You Afraid of the Dark? (YTV, Family Channel) * Arrested Development (FOX, Netflix) * Art Is Kool (GMA, ABC) * The Arthur Murray Party (ABC, DuMont, CBS, NBC) * Asenso Pinoy (ABC, IBC, NBN, PTV, Studio 23, S+A, A2Z) * At Your Service (GMA, QTV as At Your Service-Star Power) * Ating Alamin (MBS, PTV, IBC, ABC, NBN) ==B== * Babylon 5 (PTEN, TNT) * Bachelor Father (CBS, NBC, ABC) * Batibot (RPN, PTV, ABS-CBN, GMA, TV5) * BattleBots (Comedy Central, ABC, Science, Discovery) * Battle of the Brains (RPN, PTV) * Baywatch (NBC, Syndication) * Beat the Clock (CBS, ABC, Syndication, PAX) * Beetlejuice (ABC, FOX) * The Berenstain Bears (CBS, PBS) * The Betty White Show (KLAC-TV, NBC) * Between Brothers (FOX, UPN) * Big Brother: After Dark (Showtime 2, TVGN/Pop, Slice) * Big Brother (Channel 4, Channel 5) * Big Hero 6: The Series (Disney XD, Disney Channel) * Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventures (CBS, FOX) * Billboard Music Awards (FOX, ABC, NBC) * The Bionic Woman (ABC, NBC) * Bitag (ABC, IBC, TV5, PTV) * Bitag Live (UNTV, AksyonTV, PTV) * Biyaheng Langit (RPN, IBC, PTV, RJTV) * Black Mirror (Channel 4, Netflix) * Blockbusters (ITV, Sky1, BBC Two, Challenge) * Bob the Builder (Nickelodeon, PBS) * Breaking the Magician's Code: Magic's Biggest Secrets Finally Revealed (FOX, MyNetwork TV) * Brooklyn Nine-Nine (FOX, NBC) * Brotherly Love (NBC, The WB) * Buffy the Vampire Slayer (The WB, UPN) * Business and Beyond (GMA News TV, PTV, IBC) * Buzz Lightyear of Star Command (UPN, ABC) ==C== * Cafeteria Aroma (ABS-CBN, RPN, GMA) * Camp Candy (NBC, Syndication) * Card Sharks (NBC, CBS, Syndication, ABC) * Celebrity Big Brother (Channel 4 / E4, BBC One, Channel 5, 5Star) * Celebrity Deathmatch (MTV, MTV2) * Celebrity Family Feud (NBC, ABC) * Charles in Charge (CBS, Syndication) * The Chase (GSN, ABC) * Chicks to Chicks (IBC, ABS-CBN as Chika Chika Chicks) * Chikiting Patrol (ABS-CBN, IBC, GMA, ABC) * The Chris Gethard Show (MNN, Fusion, TruTV) * Cobra Kai (YouTube Red/YouTube Premium, Netflix) * Coke Studio Philippines (TV5, ABS-CBN) * Coney Reyes on Camera (RPN, ABS-CBN) * Clueless (ABC, UPN) * Cold Justice (TNT, Oxygen) * Cougar Town (ABC, TBS) * Columbo (NBC, ABC) * The Critic (ABC, FOX) * Community (NBC, Yahoo! View) ==D== * Damages (FX, Audience Network) * Damayan (ABS-CBN, GTV, MBS, PTV as Damayan Ngayon, NBN) * Dancing with the Stars (ABC, Disney Plus) * Danger Mouse (Thames, CBBC) * The Danny Thomas Show (ABC, CBS) * Darkwing Duck (Disney Channel, Syndication, ABC) * The Dating Game (ABC, Syndication) * Davis Rules (ABC, CBS) * Dayaw (ANC, PTV) * The Days and Nights of Molly Dodd (NBC, Lifetime) * Days of Our Lives (NBC, Peacock) * The Detective Starring Robert Taylor (ABC, NBC) * Diff'rent Strokes (NBC, ABC) * Diyos at Bayan (ZOE TV, Light TV, RPN, NBN, GMA, QTV, GMA News TV, A2Z) * Doctor Who Confidential (BBC Three, BBC One, BBC Two Wales, BBC HD, BBC America, CBBC) * Doraemon (NTV, TV Asahi) * Double Dare (Nickelodeon, Syndication) * Doug (Nickelodeon, ABC) * Down You Go (DuMont, CBS, ABC, NBC) * DuckTales (2017) (Disney XD, Disney Channel) * The Dude Perfect Show (CMT, Nickelodeon) ==E== * Eat Bulaga! (RPN, ABS-CBN, GMA) * The Edge of Night (CBS, ABC) * Eggheads (BBC One, BBC Two, Channel 5) * The Ernie Kovacs Show (NBC, CBS, DuMont, ABC) * Ethel and Albert (NBC, CBS, ABC) * Everybody Hates Chris (UPN, The CW) * The Expanse (Syfy, Amazon Prime Video) * Expedition Wild (Nat Geo Wild, ABC, The CW) ==F== * Family Double Dare (FOX, Nickelodeon) * Family Feud (ABC, Syndication, CBS) * Family Feud (ABC, GMA, ABS-CBN) * Family Kuarta o Kahon (ABS-CBN, BBC, City2, RPN) * Family Matters (ABC, CBS) * Family TV Mass (IBC, GMA, 5 Plus, One Sports) * Father Dowling Mysteries (NBC, ABC) * Father Knows Best (CBS, NBC) * Fear Factor (NBC, MTV) * Final Space (TBS, Adult Swim) * Finders Keepers (Nickelodeon, Syndication) * For Your Love (NBC, The WB) * Flashpoint (CBS, Ion) * For Kids Only (ABS-CBN, RPN) * Friday Night Lights (NBC, The 101 Network) * Front Row (GMA News TV, GMA) * Fudge (ABC, CBS) * Fun House (Syndication, FOX) * Futurama (FOX, Comedy Central, Hulu) ==G== * The Game (The CW, BET) * Gargoyles (Syndication, ABC) * Get Smart (NBC, CBS) * Getting By (ABC, NBC) * The Ghost & Mrs. Muir (NBC, ABC) * Gilmore Girls (The WB, The CW, Netflix) * Girlfriends (UPN, The CW) * God, the Devil and Bob (NBC, Adult Swim) * Goin' Bananas (BBC, IBC, ABS-CBN) * Goof Troop (Syndication, ABC) * The Great British Bake Off (BBC Two, BBC One, Channel 4) * Grounded for Life (FOX, The WB) * Gulong ng Palad (BBC/RPN, ABS-CBN) ==H== * Hallmark Hall of Fame (NBC, CBS, PBS, ABC, Hallmark Channel) * Hazel (NBC, CBS) * Healthline (ABC, IBC, PTV) * Hercules (Syndication, ABC) * The Hogan Family (NBC, CBS) * Hole in the Wall (FOX, Cartoon Network) * Hollywood Squares (NBC, Syndication) * Hollywood Showdown (PAX, GSN) * Home Movies (UPN, Adult Swim) * The Hughleys (ABC, UPN) ==I== * Infinity Train (Cartoon Network, HBO Max) *Interspecies Reviewers (Funimation, Critical Mass video) *In the Heat of the Night (NBC, CBS) * In the House (NBC, UPN) * Isumbong Mo Kay Tulfo (RPN, PTV) *It's a Living (ABC, Syndication) * It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia (FX, FXX) ==J== * The Jackie Gleason Show (DuMont as Cavalcade of Stars, CBS) * JAG (NBC, CBS) * The Jeff Foxworthy Show (ABC, NBC) * Jeopardy! (NBC, Syndication) * The Joey Bishop Show (NBC, CBS) ==K== * Kagat ng Dilim (IBC, TV5) * Kapag May Katwiran, Ipaglaban Mo! (IBC, ABS-CBN as Ipaglaban Mo!, GMA News TV as Kapag nasa Katwiran, Ipaglaban Mo!, Kapamilya Channel, A2Z) * Kape at Balita (GMA, GMA News TV) * Kasangga Mo ang Langit (RPN, IBC, PTV, RJTV) * Kids Incorporated (Syndication, Disney Channel) * Kids Say the Darnedest Things (CBS, ABC) * Kids TV (RPN, ABC) * Kidsongs (Syndication, PBS) * The Killing (AMC, Netflix) ==L== * Land of the Lost (NBC, ABC) * Law & Order: Criminal Intent (NBC, USA) * Last Man Standing (ABC, FOX) * The Lawrence Welk Show (KTLA, ABC, Syndication, PBS) * Leave It to Beaver (CBS, ABC) * Let's Make a Deal (NBC, ABC, Syndication, CBS) * Line of Duty (BBC Two, BBC One) * The Lion Guard (Disney Channel, Disney Junior) * Live with Kelly and Ryan (WABC-TV, Syndication) * Longmire (A&E;, Netflix) * Loosely Exactly Nicole (MTV, Facebook) * Love Connection (Syndication, FOX) * Loveliness (ABS-CBN, IBC) * Lovesick (Channel 4 as Scrotal Recall, Netflix) * Lovingly Yours, Helen (GMA, BBC, City2) * Lucifer (FOX, Netflix) ==M== * Mad TV (FOX, The CW) *Magnum P.I. (CBS, NBC) * Making the Band (ABC, MTV) * Manifest (NBC, Netflix) * Mary Kay and Johnny (DuMont, CBS, NBC) * Match Game (NBC, CBS, Syndication, ABC) * Matlock (NBC, ABC) * May Bukas Pa (IBC, RPN) * Medium (NBC, CBS) * Men Behaving Badly (Thames, BBC One) * The Message (ABS-CBN, IBC, INC TV) * The Mickey Mouse Club (ABC, Syndicated, Disney Channel) * Mickey and the Roadster Racers (Disney Channel, Disney Junior * Mickey Mouse Clubhouse (Playhouse Disney, Disney Junior) * The Mindy Project (FOX, Hulu) * Minute to Win It (NBC, GSN) * Miraculous: Tales of Ladybug & Cat Noir (Nickelodeon, Netflix, Disney Channel) * Molang (Piwi+), (Canal+ Family), Disney Junior, Disney Channel) * Monday Night Football (ABC, ESPN) * Mongolian Barbecue (IBC, RPN) * Monty Python's Flying Circus (BBC One, BBC Two) * Morecambe and Wise (BBC, ATV, Thames) * Motoring Today (IBC, PTV, NBN, Solar Sports) * The Morey Amsterdam Show (CBS, DuMont) * Mukha ng Buhay (PTV, RPN) * Muppet Babies (CBS, Disney Junior) * Muppets Tonight (ABC, Disney Channel) * Murdoch Mysteries (Citytv, CBC) * Mr. Ed (Syndication, CBS) * My Three Sons (ABC, CBS) * Mystery Science Theater 3000 (KTMA, The Comedy Channel, Comedy Central, Sci Fi, Netflix) ==N== * The Naked Truth (ABC, NBC) * Nashville (ABC, CMT) * NBA Inside Stuff (NBC, ABC, NBA TV) * The New Leave It to Beaver (Disney Channel, Superstation WTBS, Superstation TBS) * The Newlywed Game (ABC, Syndication, GSN) * Not So Late Night with Edu (GMA, ABS-CBN) ==O== * Okay Ka, Fairy Ko! (IBC, ABS-CBN, GMA) * On-Air (ABC, IBC) * One Day at a Time (Netflix, Pop, TV Land) * One Life to Live (ABC, TOLN via Hulu) * One Tree Hill (The WB, The CW) * The Original Amateur Hour (DuMont, ABC, NBC, CBS) * The Outer Limits (Showtime, Syfy) ==P== * Pangunahing Balita (ABC, PTV) * Pantomime Quiz (CBS, NBC, DuMont, ABC) * The Paper Chase (CBS, PBS, Showtime) * Passions (NBC, The 101 Network) * Philippines' Most Wanted (PTV, NBN, ABC) * Phineas and Ferb (Disney Channel, Disney XD) * The Pirates of Dark Water (ABC, Syndication) * The PJs (FOX, The WB) * A Place to Call Home (Seven Network, Foxtel) * Pokémon (Syndication, Kids WB, Cartoon Network, Disney XD, Netflix) * Politically Incorrect (Comedy Central, ABC) * Poltergeist: The Legacy (Showtime, Sci Fi) * Power Rangers franchise (FOX, ABC, Toon Disney, Nickelodeon) * The Price Is Right (NBC, ABC, CBS, Syndication) * The Price Is Right (ABC, ABS-CBN) * Probe (ABS-CBN, GMA as The Probe Team, ABC as The Probe Team Documentaries) * Project Runway (Bravo, Lifetime) * Public Forum (IBC, ABC) ==R== * Realtree Outdoors (TNN, ESPN2, Outdoor Channel) * Recipe Rehab (YouTube, ABC, CBS) * The Red Green Show (CHCH-TV, Global, CBC) * Regal Shocker (GMA, IBC, TV5) * Reporter's Notebook (GMA, GMA News TV, GTV) * The Ren & Stimpy Show (Nickelodeon, Spike TV as Ren & Stimpy "Adult Party Cartoon") * Robot Wars (BBC Two, BBC One, BBC Choice, Channel 5) * Rocky and His Friends (ABC, NBC as The Bullwinkle Show) * Rock the Park (The CW, ABC) * Roswell (The WB, UPN) * RuPaul's Drag Race (Logo, VH1) ==S== * Sabrina: The Animated Series (UPN, ABC) * Sabrina the Teenage Witch (ABC, The WB) * Sailor Moon (TV Asahi, Tokyo MX) * Saturday Night's Main Event (NBC, FOX) * Scooby-Doo (CBS, ABC, The WB, The CW, Cartoon Network, Boomerang) * Scream (MTV, VH1) * Scrubs (NBC, ABC) * SEAL Team (CBS, Paramount+) * Search for Tomorrow (CBS, NBC) * Secret Millionaire (FOX, ABC) * Second City Television (Global, CBC, Superchannel) * See True (IBC, GMA) * Sesame Street (NET, PBS, HBO, HBO Max) * Shop 'til You Drop (Lifetime, The Family Channel, PAX) * Side Stitch (ABC, RPN) * Silk Stalkings (CBS, USA) * Single (ABC, IBC) * Sister, Sister (ABC, The WB) * Sliders (FOX, Sci Fi) * SmackDown Live (UPN, The CW, MyNetworkTV, Syfy, USA, FOX) * Smallville (The WB, The CW) * Something So Right (NBC, ABC) * Southland (NBC, TNT) * The Spectacular Spider-Man (The CW, Disney XD) * Shaun the Sheep (CBBC, Netflix) * Stargate SG-1 (Showtime, Sci Fi) * Star vs. the Forces of Evil (Disney XD, Disney Channel) * Step by Step (ABC, CBS) * Student Canteen (ABS- CBN, GMA, RPN) * Summer Camp Island (Cartoon Network, HBO Max) * Supergirl (CBS, The CW) * Super Games (IBC, GMA) * The Super Hero Squad Show (Cartoon Network. The Hub) * Super Sloppy Double Dare (Nickelodeon, Syndication) * Supermarket Sweep (ABC, Lifetime, PAX; returned to ABC) * Supernatural (The WB, The CW) ==T== * T. J. Hooker (ABC, CBS) * Tales from the Cryptkeeper (ABC, CBS as New Tales from the Cryptkeeper) * TaleSpin (Disney Channel, Syndication) * Taxi (ABC, NBC) * Teamo Supremo (ABC, Toon Disney) * The Basketball Show (ABC, RPN) * The Kris Aquino Show (PTV, GMA) * The Sharon Cuneta Show (IBC, ABS-CBN) * Thomas & Friends (PBS Kids, Nick Jr. Channel) * Through the Keyhole (ITV, Sky1, BBC One, BBC Two) * Tic-Tac-Dough (NBC, CBS, Syndication) * Tierra Sangre (PTV, RPN) * Tom Corbett, Space Cadet (CBS, ABC, NBC, DuMont) * Torchwood (United Kingdom: BBC Three, BBC Two, BBC One; United States: Starz HD) * Torchwood Declassified (BBC Three, BBC Two) * The Tony Randall Show (ABC, CBS) * Travel Time (IBC, GMA, Studio 23, ANC) * Tropang Potchi (Q, GMA) * Tuca & Bertie (Netflix, Adult Swim) * Tunay na Buhay (GMA, GMA News TV, GTV) * TV Nation (NBC, FOX) * Twin Peaks (ABC, Showtime) ==U== * Uncle Bob's Lucky 7 Club (GMA, RPN as Uncle Bob's Children's Show) * Unforgettable (CBS, A&E;) * The United States Steel Hour (ABC, CBS) * University Challenge (ITV, BBC Two) * UnREAL (Lifetime, Hulu) * Unsolved Mysteries (NBC, CBS, Lifetime, Spike, Netflix) * Unwrapped 2.0 (Food Network, Cooking Channel) ==V== * Vacation Creation (The CW, ABC) * Valiente (ABS-CBN, GMA) * Veronica Mars (UPN, The CW, Hulu) ==W== * Wagon Train (NBC, ABC) * Wander Over Yonder (Disney Channel, Disney XD) * The Wayne Brady Show (ABC, Syndication) * The Weakest Link (BBC Two, BBC One) * The World Tonight (ABS- CBN, ANC, Kapamilya Channel) * Wheel of Fortune (NBC, Syndication, CBS) * Wheel of Fortune (ABC, ABS-CBN) * Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? (IBC, TV5) * Whose Line Is It Anyway? (Channel 4, ABC, ABC Family, The CW) * Wild 'n Out (MTV, MTV2, VH1) * Wilfred (FX, FXX) * Winx Club (Rai 2, Rai Gulp) * Wonder Woman (ABC, CBS) * WWE Raw (USA, Spike TV) ==Y== * You (Lifetime, Netflix) ==#== * 1 vs. 100 (NBC, GSN) * 101 Dalmatians: The Series (ABC, Syndication) * 2+2=4 (BBC, City2, PTV) * 21 Jump Street (FOX, Syndication) * 3R (Respect, Relax, Respond) (GMA, QTV, TV5) * 5 and Up (ABC, GMA) * The 7D (Disney XD, Disney Channel, Disney Junior) * 9-1-1 (FOX, ABC) Revived |
Jareth is a fictional character and the main antagonist of the 1986 fantasy film Labyrinth. Portrayed by David Bowie, Jareth is the powerful and enigmatic king of the goblins to whom protagonist Sarah Williams wishes away her baby brother Toby. Jareth gives Sarah thirteen hours to retrieve the baby from his castle at the centre of an enormous labyrinth, during which time he sets obstacles in her path and tries to entice her away from her quest. The character was created by director Jim Henson and writer Dennis Lee, and designed by Brian Froud. Several contemporary musicians were initially considered for the role besides Bowie, including Sting, Michael Jackson and Prince. Henson first approached Bowie in 1983 to offer him the part, and the character was developed with Bowie in mind—who was also hired to write the songs for Labyrinth, performing three in the film as Jareth. Conceptualised as the inner fantasy of Sarah, Jareth's character design was influenced by Heathcliff from Wuthering Heights and Rochester from Jane Eyre, as well as the Scarlet Pimpernel, medieval knights, Grimm's Fairy Tales, ballet dancers, contemporary rock stars, and "leather boys" such as Johnny Strabler from The Wild One. Reception to the character has been generally positive, with critics praising Jareth's magnetism and costuming. Bowie's performance as Jareth, while alternately lauded and derided by contemporary critics, has since become one of his most celebrated film appearances. ==Development== ===Conception and writing=== Labyrinth started as a collaboration between director Jim Henson and conceptual designer Brian Froud following their previous collaboration, The Dark Crystal. In making Labyrinth, Henson wanted to create a film that combined elements of fairy tales and classical stories in a script that would appeal to a modern audience. According to Froud, he and Henson decided to have human characters as the lead roles in order to make Labyrinth "more accessible and immediate" than The Dark Crystal, which had featured only puppets. Henson explained that they structured Labyrinth "in a way that the human is really carrying the whole picture" and acts as a "bridge" between the fantastical puppets and the audience. In the film's initial discussions between Henson, Froud, artist Wendy Froud and writer Dennis Lee, the character of Jareth was first conceived as a shapeshifting "prince of darkness" who kidnaps a king's baby, spiriting it away to the Castle of Darkness at the centre of a great labyrinth inhabited by goblins. Wishing to avoid similarities to Ridley Scott's original fairy tale film Legend, which was in development near the same time as Labyrinth, Henson and his team made significant changes to Labyrinth's main characters and story. They decided to have the protagonist be an adolescent girl, Sarah, who journeys to the centre of the Labyrinth to rescue her baby brother after wishing him away to the goblins. Describing the subtext of Labyrinth as being "about the growing-up process of maturity ... a young girl right at that point between girl and woman, shedding her childhood thoughts for adult thoughts", Henson intended to partly represent this in the figure of Jareth, who exists in Sarah's imagination. Henson said of the character: In Lee's early version of the story, Jareth had solved the Labyrinth long ago but "never had the courage to return to the real world". During the drafting stage, Henson and screenwriter Terry Jones had a fundamental disagreement about Jareth's character and what the story would be about. Jones envisaged Jareth as a "hollow man" who merely seems "all powerful to begin with" but is actually using the Labyrinth to "keep people from getting to his heart." In Jones' original script, Jareth represented "people who are more interested in manipulating the world than actually baring themselves at all", and is destroyed by Sarah reaching the Labyrinth's centre. This idea "didn't mean anything" to Henson, who intended his film to be a girl's coming of age story. The casting of David Bowie as Jareth, who was also hired to write songs for the film, resulted in many script changes and had a significant impact on the character's prominence in the story. Jones had intended for the Goblin King not to appear until Sarah reaches the centre of the Labyrinth, as he felt that if Jareth "can appear anywhere he likes there’s no contest". With the thought of Bowie starring in the film, Henson wanted Jareth to sing and appear throughout the film, and asked Jones to re-write the script to allow the character numerous appearances and songs. After receiving a redraft of the script, Bowie found that it lacked humour and considered withdrawing his involvement in the project as a result. To ensure Bowie's involvement, Henson asked Jones rework the script again to restore the humour of some the previous drafts. Shortly before filming began, Henson solicited Elaine May to improve the characterisations of Sarah and Jareth; her contributions "humaniz[ed] the characters" and pleased Henson to the extent that her material was incorporated into the film's shooting script. ===Casting and filming=== According to Henson, Jareth was at one stage going to be a creature in the same vein as his goblin subjects, which were portrayed through the use of puppets and animatronics produced by Henson's Creature Shop. Deciding that the role should be filled by a live actor, Henson initially considered offering it to Simon MacCorkindale or Kevin Kline. After Labyrinth score composer Trevor Jones proposed the idea of using contemporary music for the film, Henson decided he wanted a big, charismatic pop star to sing and act as the Goblin King, "someone who could change the film's whole musical style". Several contemporary singers were considered for the role besides Bowie, including Sting, Michael Jackson and Prince. Henson's first choice was Bowie, whom his sons Brian and John convinced him to offer the role to as they believed Bowie would have the most lasting appeal with audiences. Familiar with his music, the Hensons had also seen Bowie act on Broadway in the play The Elephant Man, and felt that his "other-worldliness" and energy would be a good match for the fantastic creatures and settings planned for the film. "I wanted to put two characters of flesh and bone in the middle of all these artificial creatures," Jim Henson explained, "and David Bowie embodies a certain maturity, with his sexuality, his disturbing aspect, all sorts of things that characterize the adult world." Expounding that Jareth "must have something attractive and menacing about him" and be both "positive and negative at the same time", Henson said that Bowie "had the advantage of being able to be seductive, threatening, scary", and was able to create the range he wanted in the character. Froud similarly felt that Bowie was the perfect choice to play Jareth, writing that his "protean persona" made him well-suited to the role, as "Jareth needed to be a mercurial figure who would constantly throw Sarah off balance emotionally." While Labyrinth was made as a film that would appeal to children, Henson also hoped Bowie's presence and musical contributions would make the film more accessible to older demographics. Henson met Bowie in the summer of 1983 to seek his involvement, as Bowie was in the U.S. for his Serious Moonlight Tour at the time. During a meeting in New York on 18 June 1984, Henson showed Bowie some of Froud's concept art to pique his interest in the film. "That impressed me for openers," Bowie later said, "but he also gave me a tape of The Dark Crystal, which really excited me. I could see the potential of adding humans to his world of creatures". Henson continued to pursue Bowie for the role of the Goblin King, developing the character with him in mind and sending him each revision of the script for his comments. The two men met again in Gstaad, Switzerland on 11 February 1985, and Bowie's deal was set on 15 February 1985. Bowie began shooting his scenes on 3 June 1985. On playing the role of Jareth, Bowie said, "I loved the magic, the mystery." Henson stated that Bowie acted his scenes as written in the script while occasionally contributing ideas, and "needed very little direction, because his own characterization [of Jareth] was always right on." However, Bowie initially had difficulty acting with the puppet characters, as the characters' voices did not come from the puppets themselves but from off- stage which he found disorientating. Henson recalled that Bowie's first few scenes were with the puppet Hoggle, "and he kept wanting to look off-stage to where the voice was coming from ... instead of where Hoggle, the puppet, actually was. It took him a while to get used to that aspect of filming." Bowie completed many of his scenes in two or three takes, except for very technical scenes or those involving complex puppets. Bowie enjoyed making the film, stating, "Labyrinth was great fun to do". Bowie's two dancing scenes were choreographed by Charles Augins and Cheryl McFadden respectively. Jareth's elaborate crystal-ball contact juggling manipulations were choreographed and performed by juggler Michael Moschen. Henson wanted Jareth to have a visible skill with which to express his magical powers, and said that Moschen's work was "as close to real magic as anything that I really know." During filming, Moschen crouched behind Bowie's cloak and placed his hands through the sleeves to replace Bowie's arms. This meant that Moschen could not see the objects he was juggling, and it took many takes to film the scenes with the crystal balls. ===Design and influences=== {{multiple image | align = | direction = | background color = | total_width = 350 | caption_align = | image1 = Fantasy Worlds of Myth and Magic, EMP, Seattle - Labyrinth (10562341773).jpg | width1 = | alt1 = | thumbtime1 = | caption1 = | image2 = David Bowie Jareth costume from Labyrinth at Museum of the Moving Image.jpg | width2 = | alt2 = | thumbtime2 = | caption2 = | footer_background = | footer_align = | footer = Two of the costumes worn by Bowie as Jareth. }} Froud stated that Jareth is "Sarah's inner fantasy, a figure made up of her daydreams and nightmares ... He is seen, through her eyes, as part dangerous goblin, part glamorous rock star". The concept behind the character is that Sarah, having reached the age of sexual awakening, creates Jareth as the living embodiment of her adolescent interests and desires; he is a dream figure who reflects her inner "romantic turmoil." Froud sought to reflect this in the character's outfits and appearance, and drew upon classic "romantic dangerous" figures from a range of literary sources. In his afterword to the 20th-anniversary edition of The Goblins of Labyrinth, Froud wrote that Jareth references "the romantic figures of Heathcliff in Wuthering Heights and a brooding Rochester from Jane Eyre" and the "transfiguring" Scarlet Pimpernel. Jareth's costumes are intentionally eclectic, drawing on the image of Marlon Brando's leather jacket from The Wild One as well as that of a medieval knight "with the worms of death eating through his armour" from Grimms' Fairy Tales. Jareth's close-fitting tights are a reference to ballet dancers, such as Mikhail Baryshnikov. The Goblin King also has a popstar aspect; Froud designed him a sceptre topped with a crystal ball as "a visual echo of a microphone". The sceptre also functions as a swagger stick and riding crop, as Froud regarded Jareth as "the proud lord of the manor, lord of his goblin domain, with his hounds at his feet, ready to go hunting for human souls." Hanging from his neck and adorning his leather jacket and breastplate, Jareth wears the "goblin symbol". Jeweller Mitch Nugent was commissioned to make the baroque amulet and sceptre. Jareth's cloak was designed by costume designer Vin Burnham. The design of the character's countenance and hairstyle went through various stages. Henson revealed, "For a while, we thought we'd give [Bowie] lots of prosthetic make-up, and horns", while Froud said at one stage they attempted to make Jareth's hair look "wolf- like and feral". They eventually settled on "just the wild Kabuki hair", a multi-layered blond wig which was also reminiscent of "a popstar from a rock band". Bowie also gave input into the creation of the character's look. For the ballroom scene, Froud and costume designer Ellis Flyte fashioned Jareth a velvet tailcoat shot with blue, black and silver, and embroidered with broken jewels and mirrors on the front and shoulders. Worn underneath this was a silver silk satin shirt with a jabot, and black leggings printed with a silver snakeskin pattern.Ballroom in a Bubble. in Froud's son Toby, who as an infant played Labyrinth's character of the same name, stated that the Goblin King is meant to be a sexual icon and a temptation to Sarah, alluding to "the dark fairy in folklore [who] are meant to be tempting." This fact was accentuated by a prominent codpiece added to Bowie's costumes. According to puppeteer coordinator Brian Henson, the codpiece had to be reduced from its original size after the studio reviewed the rushes from the first scene shot with Bowie and deemed his costume inappropriate. The codpiece was reduced for Bowie's subsequent scenes. However, due to Jim Henson's dislike for reshooting, Bowie's first scene (the "Blind Beggar" scene) was not reshot. ===Owl=== The white barn owl that appears in Labyrinth "is one of the many manifestations of the Goblin King", according to the film's early production notes. Henson described the owl as "vaguely...the symbol of the Goblin King." Jareth as the owl was performed by a live owl and a puppet owl built by the Creature Shop in alternating shots. The computer-generated owl that flies over the film's opening credits was created by animators Larry Yaeger and Bill Kroyer, and marked the first use of a realistic CGI animal in a film. ===Music=== Jareth is the only main character to sing in Labyrinth. Bowie performed as the character three of the five songs that he wrote for the film: "Magic Dance", "As the World Falls Down" and "Within You". The film's theme song, "Underground", has also been interpreted by some critics as being sung from Jareth's point of view. "Magic Dance", which has been described as a "bouncy pop" song, is performed along with dance by Jareth and his goblins to cheer up baby Toby at the castle. The dialogue starting with the phrase, "You remind me of the babe," that occurs between Jareth and the goblins at the beginning of the song is a direct reference to an exchange between Cary Grant and Shirley Temple in the 1947 film The Bachelor and the Bobby-Soxer. Cinemaps: An Atlas of 35 Great Movies authors Andrew DeGraff and A.D. Jameson suggest the significance of this reference is that The Bachelor and the Bobby-Soxer is about a teenage girl's crush on an older man, just as Sarah is infatuated with the fictitious Goblin King. "As the World Falls Down", which Rolling Stone described as a "sparkling, subdued ballad", soundtracks a dream sequence at a masquerade ball. Though Jareth does not perform the song directly, he mouths the words of the song to Sarah as they are dancing towards the end of the sequence. Henson wanted the song to be "fairly old-fashioned in its sentiments", according to Bowie. A love song, the lyrics promise everlasting loyalty and affection. Jareth sings "Within You" at the film's climax before his final confrontation with Sarah at the top of his castle. "I had to write something that sounded like stone walls and crumbling power," Bowie said of the song, describing its overall effect combined with the film's visuals as "very tragic and slightly disturbing." Adam Trainer of Senses of Cinema described "Within You" as "a dark, tortured-sounding song of love’s betrayal. Throughout, the lyrics emphasise the lengths to which Jareth has gone to facilitate Sarah’s self-indulgent quest." Calling the song "haunting and touching" whilst being the character's most villainous song, Sean Rehbein of Keen Gamer wrote that it "looks into his motivations, and brings forth his vulnerabilities ... as Jareth realizes all his plans haven't worked, and his game is seen as nothing but wicked, instead of charming, by Sarah." Labyrinth: The Ultimate Visual History authors Paula Block and Terry Erdmann suggest Jareth's mournful repeated line at the end of the song, "I can't live within you", is his acknowledgement that he exists only in Sarah's imagination, which she is on the verge of leaving behind. == In Labyrinth== King Jareth is inadvertently summoned by Sarah, a discontented teenager who has rashly wished her baby brother Toby away to the goblins. Jareth urges Sarah to forget about her brother, offering her a crystal ball containing her dreams in exchange for the baby, but Sarah declines, regretting her wish and insistent on getting Toby back. Unable to dissuade her, Jareth reluctantly informs Sarah that Toby is in his castle at the centre of the Labyrinth, and that to retrieve the baby she must solve the Labyrinth in thirteen hours or Toby will remain in the goblin realm forever. As Sarah navigates the Labyrinth, inside the castle Jareth and his goblins entertain Toby while monitoring Sarah's progress through a crystal. Jareth is perturbed by how far she has travelled, and that she does not give up. After Sarah bribes a dwarf named Hoggle into helping her, Jareth appears before the pair. Confronting Hoggle, Jareth questions the dwarf's loyalty, as he had been supposed to lead Sarah back to the beginning of the Labyrinth, and threatens to suspend him over the Bog of Eternal Stench if he continues to help her. Jareth then asks Sarah how she is finding his challenge. Sarah belittles the Labyrinth as being easy, and in response Jareth takes away three hours from her time limit and summons "the Cleaners", a goblin-driven steel machine, to chase her and Hoggle. Later, as Hoggle is running to rescue Sarah from a group of wild forest creatures called the Fireys, Jareth confronts the dwarf again, reproaching him for continuing to help Sarah against his warnings. He gives Hoggle an enchanted peach with the instruction to give it to Sarah. Jareth also warns Hoggle that if Sarah kisses him, Jareth will turn him into the "Prince of the Land of Stench". When Sarah kisses Hoggle in thanks for saving her from the Fireys, they are both sent to the Bog. Jareth releases crystals that float like bubbles to the forest, where Sarah has eaten the peach and fallen into an amnesiac enchantment. The crystals draw near her and she is transported into a dream of a masquerade ball, where she finds Jareth and they dance. Eventually Sarah escapes the dream by smashing the walls of the crystal and, unbeknownst to Jareth, she remembers Toby and continues her journey to save him. In his castle, Jareth is informed that Sarah has gotten past the gate guard to the Goblin City. Alarmed by the news, he orders the goblins to hide Toby and sends his goblin troops to stop Sarah from reaching the castle, but the defence is unsuccessful. Sarah finds Jareth in a gravity-defying room of staircases and he leads her on a chase. Eventually she spots Toby and tries to get to him as Jareth sings a mournful song. In their final confrontation, Jareth reminds Sarah that he took Toby because she wished it and says he is exhausted from living up to her expectations of him. Jareth offers Sarah her dreams, entreating her to let him rule her and promising to be her slave if she will fear, love and obey him. She tells him he has no power over her. Defeated, Jareth returns Sarah and Toby home safely and turns into an owl, flying away. His final appearance is as the owl, briefly watching from outside as a number of goblins and other characters from the Labyrinth celebrate with Sarah in her room, before flying away into the night. == Characterisation == Jareth is the king of the goblins and ruler of the Labyrinth — a vast, maze-like domain within a magical realm referred to as "the Underground" in the film's theme song. Though the Goblin King, Jareth is never said to be a goblin himself, appearing instead as a handsome human. In an early draft of the Labyrinth script, however, he turned into a goblin when Sarah rejected him. Besides his goblin subjects, Jareth also reigns over the fairies, dwarves and various creatures that dwell in the Labyrinth. === Magical powers and abilities === Jareth's powers include the ability to form crystal orbs in his hands, which can create illusions of all types or allow him to view any place within his kingdom. He uses his crystals to show dreams, and offers a crystal to Sarah as a symbol of her dreams in exchange for her baby brother. Jareth is also a master of disguise. He can shapeshift into a barn owl, a form in which he appears at the beginning and the end of the film. In another scene, he disguises himself as a blind beggar. He is able to magically appear and disappear at will, and can walk through material. He can also project his disembodied voice to distant places. Jareth can defy gravity and also has the ability to reorder time. After Sarah belittles the Labyrinth as being too easy, Jareth moves time forward by three hours so that she has a stricter time limit in which to solve it. Although Sarah spends a total of ten hours in the Underground, when she returns to the human world less than five hours have passed. === Personality === According to Brian Froud, Jareth is a Romantic hero, a rebel and an outsider. Jim Henson said that Jareth's "role is similar to being the leader of a gang. Everyone in the kingdom does what he says until Sarah comes along — and she defies him. The goblins [Jareth] controls are like members of his gang. He treats them terribly but they do anything he says." However, Froud said that "in many ways the character is ridiculous" as he is never quite able to control the unruly goblins. Jareth has to remind the goblins to laugh every time he makes a joke, and is often annoyed by their lack of intelligence. Donal Lynch of the Irish Independent observed that Jareth's personality continually "swerve[s] from playful to imperious and back again." Toussaint Egan of Polygon described the character as "a wily and verbose sorcerer with an irrepressible flair for the dramatic." Brooding and discontent, Jareth has reluctantly inherited his position and runs his kingdom under duress, according to David Bowie. Though he would prefer a different life, Jareth is resigned to his role as Goblin King and runs his kingdom "as well as he can", Bowie said, expressing the character's weariness at having to "sort out the whole situation" whenever the goblins collect a baby that has been wished away. Bowie stated that Jareth is not evil; however, he described the king as spoilt, childish and accustomed to getting his own way. "I think Jareth is, at best, a romantic; but at worst, he's a spoilt child, vain and temperamental — kind of like a rock 'n' roll star!" Bowie said, adding that the king is "completely smitten" by the character Sarah, admiring of her strong will and virtue. He described the dynamic between Jareth and Sarah as being like a battle of wits, without true hostility. According to Bowie, Jareth is lonely and longs for companionship, a sentiment which underlies his pleading for Sarah to remain with him in the Underground. Jareth is gentle and friendly towards Toby, and at one point playfully muses on renaming the baby after himself. However, he is cruel in his treatment of Hoggle, using intimidation and the threat of the Bog of Eternal Stench to coerce him to obey, and tormenting Hoggle over his friendship with Sarah. Ed Power of The Telegraph wrote that Jareth is a "mirror image" of Sarah: "both are immature, temperamental and peevish." Brian Henson described Jareth as a "Peter Pan type of character" who is "locked in a sort of teenage sensibility ... He’s a little petulant and unpredictable and he's spoiled rotten". However, Jareth "learns his lesson" about his faults, Henson said, remarking that "Labyrinth is both a coming of age for Sarah and a coming of age, in a way, for Jareth". ==Reception== ===Critical response=== Although Labyrinth received mixed reviews, Jareth has earned a mostly positive reception from entertainment critics. Francie Noyes of The Arizona Republic found Jareth "a wonderful fantasy character, alternately wicked and compelling." Sheila Benson of the Los Angeles Times considered Jareth to be one of the film's strong points, writing, "he has a nice, mocking sense of irony, and he looks suitably magical with his Kabuki lion-mane hair ... He might, in fact, make a fine Shakespearean Oberon, and he'd hardly have to change costume." Paul Byrnes of The Sydney Morning Herald also likened Jareth to Oberon as a "charming tempter", although found that "his characterisation suffers because he constantly breaks into song." Mary Mae Goris of the Irish Independent wrote, "with staring hair and svelte in clinging pantaloons and high hessians [...] he'd make a good Hans Heiling if he could sing." Jareth is often described as a pantomime villain, and a scene stealer. Considering Jareth the film's main attraction, Brian Truitt of The Palm Beach Post called him "the smoothest Goblin King of all time" and a character "[y]ou love to hate and just love to love". Taryn McCabe of Little White Lies praised Jareth as "a dazzling character we feel at once threatened by and compulsively drawn to." Hailing the character as "one of cinema’s most daring and eccentric bad boys" in a feature for film website OneRoomWithAView.com, Amy Hubbard wrote: "Bowie’s Jareth does exactly what he is designed to do – he is the ultimate heartthrob, a representation of danger, love and lust as well as the confusion that such feelings inspire." Bridget McGovern of Tor.com likened the Goblin King to the eponymous villain of Hans Christian Andersen's The Snow Queen, writing that such characters "tend to represent an unsettling mix of childhood fantasies and adult fears and desires; they draw their would-be victims in through a disturbing blend of infantilization and seduction". Adrienna Borda of Taste of Cinema wrote, "He is flirtatious and protective, yet mysterious and menacing. He is Prince Charming combined with a bad boy. Without a doubt, Jareth is simply one of the most attractive villains ever created." Nick Wanserski of The A.V. Club acclaimed Jareth as "a spectacularly realized character," while VultureHound's Jack Edwards praised him as "a wonderful villain without ever truly being evil," writing: "He has that whimsical nature of a folklore antagonist; he provides the chance for victory for the hero by giving Sarah 13 hours, he doesn’t turn Toby to a goblin immediately and when he has been beat he is not destroyed, he is bound by the terms of his world." Chris Cabin of Collider found that "as a character, Jareth seems to be having infinitely more fun than most film villains do," and his creators were "careful not to stress some sadistic side or a rigid belief in evil as a kind of religious duty." Daniel Richardson of UNILAD wrote, "Oozing charisma, adding musical numbers and riffing with the comedic puppets enables the character to avoid the clichés of being a baby-snatcher. Instead, [Jareth] shows the loneliness of a king who has played a sinister game in an attempt to garner affection from someone who isn’t a goblin." Hanif Willis-Abdurraqib of MTV News wrote that the Goblin King is "not a villain in the traditional sense ... he want[s] to be feared, respected, but mostly adored," concluding, "Jareth represent[s] a lot of things, perhaps the greatest being anxiety over whether we will ever be truly loved". Glamour's Ella Alexander appreciated that, unlike many male film antagonists' attitudes towards a young female protagonist, Jareth "notes the complexities and intelligence of Sarah, and is eventually defeated by her", calling it "pretty groundbreaking stuff". Bowie's performance as Jareth was variously lauded and derided by contemporary critics. Time's Richard Corliss praised Bowie as "charismatic", referring to his character as a "Kabuki sorcerer who offers his ravishing young antagonist the gilded perks of adult servitude". Nina Darnton wrote in The New York Times that Bowie was "perfectly cast as the teasing, tempting seducer whom Sarah must both want and reject in order to learn the labyrinth's lessons," and Bruce Bailey of the Montreal Gazette also commended the casting of Bowie, commenting, "He has just the right look for a creature who's the object of both loathing and secret desire. And this is one rock star who can deliver his lines with a combination of menace and playfulness that few seasoned actors could even begin to match." However, Victoria Mather in The Daily Telegraph panned his acting as "robotic", writing, "Bowie makes himself quite ridiculous as the Goblin King complete with punk hair do and black leather, desporting himself with a small, non-speaking character in a babygro". Hal Lipper of the St. Petersburg Times found, "Bowie forgoes acting, preferring to prance around his lair while staring solemnly into the camera. He's not exactly wooden. Plastic might be a more accurate description." Variety dismissed Bowie as "too serious to be campy, too dumb to be serious." In The Straits Times, Serena Toh felt that Bowie was "too self-conscious", while Kannan Chandran was highly critical of his performance, writing, "Bowie tries to inject venom into his role but hisses like a detoxified mamba instead." Bowie's portrayal of Jareth is acclaimed by modern critics, and received particular attention following the actor's death in 2016. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian wrote that Bowie "made a sensational impression" as Jareth, in a role that "is perfect for his aptitude for fantasy and a certain kind of magical surrealism." Marc Burrows of the New Statesman wrote that Bowie "funnels his ambiguity, his magnetism and his subtle disquiet into Jareth ... The performance is hammy but somehow pitched absolutely right for the world it inhabits". Describing Bowie as "regal, arrogant and wildly charismatic", Time Out found his acting as the Goblin King "frighteningly believable". Josh Winning of Total Film wrote of his performance, "Bowie sweeps about his sumptuous castle set like a thing possessed, clearly revelling in the dress up while bringing depth and snark to the role." The Portland Press Herald wrote, "Bowie manages to be both archly hilarious, deeply menacing, and, as the symbol of the teenage heroine's awakening, very sexy." McGovern attributed much of Labyrinth's humour to Bowie's performance, observing that his portrayal of Jareth seemed to draw upon his "penchant for spoofing his own image as a spoiled, out-of-touch rock star and willingness to poke fun at the stereotype of the pretentious, self- obsessed pop idol". Jake Wilson in The Age praised Bowie as being tactful in his portrayal, writing: "there's a camp menace to the performance, but also an unforced jollity, as if he were genuinely delighted to be surrounded by a bunch of puppets." Empire described his performance as "fun, mischievous [...] pantomime but also scary", while The Telegraph called him "wonderfully zany". Jessica Kiang wrote for IndieWire that Bowie "brings his trademark ambiguity to making the villain both attractive and repulsive, lending the film a slightly more grown-up slant". Praising Bowie as "the indisputable star" of the film, Nick Chen of Dazed enthused that Bowie's voice "is tailor-made for a family movie villain". While judging the songs Bowie wrote and performed for Labyrinth as "far from his best work", Tasha Robinson of The A.V. Club praised Bowie's portrayal of Jareth as "gloriously iconic, a perfect blend of predatory, leering rock star and hurt, rejected emo lover". Writing for AXS, Michelle Lavallee said, "Bowie combines a theatrical flamboyance and a sinister style that makes for one of the most memorable villains of the 1980's". ===Legacy=== Despite underperforming at the U.S. box office upon initial release, Labyrinth was later a success on home video and television broadcasts, becoming a cult film. The film's lasting popularity and cult status have been attributed in large part to the character of Jareth and Bowie's performance.* * * * * Jareth has been identified as a cultural icon, and is Bowie's most famous film role.* * * * * Amanda Schurr of Paste wrote that Jareth "was the Wizard of Oz for Gen X moviegoers, much as the film itself sent Jim Henson-worshipping youngsters down their own uniquely ’80s, glitter-flecked Yellow Brick Road." Described by Daily Telegraph writer Robert Colvile as "childhood-defining", the character is particularly popular amongst the generation of children from the 1980s and 1990s.* * * * Bowie told an interviewer in 2002, "There's a generation that kind of know about Labyrinth ... A lot of kids are brought up to me and their mums say, 'This is Jareth, from Labyrinth!' ". Journalist Rob Sheffield called Labyrinth "the gateway drug that keeps introducing [Bowie] to new generations of young fans." Jareth is Bowie's most fondly remembered performance as well as his most "rock-star" acting role, academic Andrew Ross wrote in The Conversation. Burrows argued that Jareth is the most important character Bowie played in his career because it cemented his legacy as "one of ethereal weirdness" in contrast to the more conventional entertainer he had become by the 1980s. Paul Morley in The Guardian identified Labyrinth as "the most blatant example of how Bowie could be both an amiable family entertainer and a far-fetched experimental pop star." Lucas Fagen of Hyperallergic considered Jareth to be Bowie’s "absolute triumph as an actor", more so than his roles in the films The Man Who Fell to Earth (1975) and The Hunger (1983). Jareth is regarded as one of the most iconic characters featured in a fantasy film. Pop culture website The Portalist rated Jareth as one of 50 "Best Fantasy Characters Ever", stating that "his fashion sense, musical abilities, and magnetism make Jareth one of the most iconic characters to come out of the dark fantasy films of the '80s." Total Film included Jareth on a similar list of 50 greatest fantasy characters, and wrote that "Not only can he hold a damn fine tune ... he's also one of the biggest fantasy divas ever", citing as examples: "He knows how to make an entrance and he isn't half a drama queen." The same publication also ranked Jareth as one of 30 greatest film characters from the 1980s. Screen Rant listed Jareth among the 10 most iconic characters created by Jim Henson, writing that while the villain of Labyrinth, "he's so likable and fun it's impossible not to fall under his spell." The website also rated Jareth among the "10 Coolest Villains In Movie History". The character has gained recognition for his looks and fashion, with ShortList ranking him among the "25 Best Dressed Villains" on film. Dazed and Vogue listed Jareth among Bowie's most stylish movie roles, the latter writing that "there's no taking your eyes off of [Jareth] and his over-the-top costumes [...] he’s easily the most fashion-forward Jim Henson creation." In an article listing the "best mullets in movie history", Digital Spy called Jareth's hairstyle the most "magnificent mullet on the silver screen", while Into Film wrote it is "one of the most remarkable wigs in movie history". Ranking it among the "Top 10 Iconic Hairstyles In Pop Culture History", PEDESTRIAN.TV dubbed the hairstyle "The Jareth" and called it the "pinnacle of late 80s hair appeal". Time Out, however, considered it "Bowie's saddest ever haircut". When asked in 2002 to nominate the most "Spinal Tap" fashion moment of his career, Bowie joked that his Labyrinth wardrobe "got pretty damn near it". Rotten Tomatoes considered Jareth among the "Top 10 Most Outrageous Movie Characters", citing among other attributes his "fantastically loud glam-rock" hairstyle and "melodramatic" singing. A sex symbol, * * Jareth has been credited by several publications with initiating the sexual awakening of numerous women as young girls and teenagers during the 1980s and 1990s. * * * A fan favourite, Jareth is a popular subject of fan art, cosplay and fan fiction. Jim Henson went dressed as Jareth to one of the annual masked costume parties he hosted in New York between 1983 and 1988. Since 1997, the Labyrinth of Jareth Masquerade Ball, an event inspired by the character and film, has been held annually in various US cities, including San Diego, Hollywood, and, most recently, Los Angeles. According to event founder Shawn Strider, in the mythology that has developed around the ball, Jareth is a legendary "faerie prince or a goblin prince" who, due to a broken heart, eventually left the Labyrinth to be reunited with Sarah. Props and costumes Bowie wore as Jareth have been showcased in numerous exhibitions, including: the Museum of Pop Culture's permanent installation Fantasy: Worlds of Myth and Magic (opened 2013), the Victoria and Albert Museum's touring exhibit David Bowie Is (2013-2018), the Center for Puppetry Arts' display Jim Henson's Labyrinth: Journey to Goblin City (2016-2017), and the Museum of the Moving Image's permanent feature The Jim Henson Exhibition: Imagination Unlimited (opened 2017). ==Other appearances== Jareth appears in Labyrinth's tie-in adaptations, which include the novelisation by A. C. H. Smith and the three-issue comic book adaptation published by Marvel Comics,Labyrinth (Marvel, 1986 Series) at the Grand Comics Database which was first released in a single volume as Marvel Super Special #40 in 1986.Marvel Super Special #40 at the Grand Comics Database He also appears in the film's picture book adaptation, photo album, and Labyrinth: The Computer Game. ===Novelisation=== The Labyrinth novelisation includes a thematic subplot that was left out of the film, in which Sarah's mother had left her father to become an actress and had become romantically involved with an actor. According to Henson, the actor was to be played by Bowie in the film, so when Jareth appeared in his likeness "[Sarah] was to feel this attraction to him, but also anger". The subplot was ultimately cut from the script as "it loaded the story down". However, in the film various photos are briefly shown in Sarah's room depicting the unnamed actor (Bowie) with Sarah's mother Linda Williams, alongside news clippings reporting their “on/off relationship”. In the novelisation, Linda's costar is named Jeremy. The novelisation elaborates on Sarah aspiring to become an actress like her mother, idolizing both Linda and Jeremy, and fantasising about living their celebrity lifestyle. ===Music videos=== Bowie portrayed Jareth in two music videos for the songs "Underground" and "As the World Falls Down" from the Labyrinth soundtrack. Produced by Steve Barron in 1986, both videos were released on the 1993 VHS tape Bowie - The Video Collection and the 2002 two-disc DVD set Best of Bowie. The videos feature footage of Bowie (as himself) performing the songs, appearances by various Labyrinth puppet characters, and footage of Bowie as the Goblin King taken from the film. ===Spin-off comics=== ====Return to Labyrinth==== Jareth appears as one of the main characters in Return to Labyrinth, a four-volume original English-language manga sequel to the film created by Jake T. Forbes and published by Tokyopop between 2006 and 2010. In the manga, Jareth has been the Goblin King for 1,300 years, and is not a goblin like his subjects but had decided to rule them out of boredom. Having created the Labyrinth to isolate himself and protect his heart, Jareth is weakened by Sarah's defeat and his powers have diminished. In the series, which is set more than a decade after the events of the film, Jareth abdicates his throne, establishing the now teenaged Toby as his heir and leaving him in charge of the Labyrinth, which is in a deteriorating state. Jareth then goes to the human world to entice Sarah, with whom he is still in love, into creating a new world with him using the power of her dreams. However, Sarah realises her dreams and finds a way to preserve the world of the Labyrinth by writing stories. After Sarah and Toby insist everyone be allowed to choose their own paths, Jareth finds himself unwillingly returned to the goblin throne. ====Unreleased graphic novel==== Archaia Entertainment, in collaboration with The Jim Henson Company, announced in 2011 it was developing a prequel graphic novel about the story of how Jareth became the Goblin King. Project editor Stephen Christy described the graphic novel as "a very tragic story" featuring a teenaged Jareth, and not featuring Sarah or Toby. David Bowie was approached by Archaia in order to seek permission to use his likeness, and ascertain if he wished to have any involvement in the project. As a creative consultant on the project, Brian Froud was involved in producing character designs. Reported to feature a young Jareth who is taken into the Labyrinth by a witch, the novel's official synopsis states the plot revolves around Jareth's "attempt to rescue his true love from the clutches of the wicked and beautiful Goblin Queen." ====Labyrinth: Coronation==== Jareth is the central character in Labyrinth: Coronation, a 12-issue comic series published between 2018 and 2019 by Archaia which gives an account of the Goblin King's past as well as the history of the Labyrinth itself. Written by Simon Spurrier, the series takes place within the timeline of the events of the film, framed as a story told to baby Toby by Jareth during their off- screen time together. Beginning in 1790s Venice, the story revolves around an infant Jareth who has been stolen by the previous ruler of the Labyrinth, known as the Owl King, and follows the quest of Jareth's mother, Maria, to rescue her son. Spurrier has mentioned that this comic is not canon to the movie, that it was only inspired by the movie and therefore just his artistic interpretation. ====Short stories==== Jareth appears in several comic short stories set in the world of Labyrinth published by Archaia. He appears in the Labyrinth 2017 Special, a collection of six short stories by multiple authors, mainly featuring in the fifth story, Beauty or the Beast by Roger Langridge, in which he shows the captive baby Toby some of the wonders of his kingdom and informs Toby that he will inherit it someday. Jareth appears in Labyrinth: Under the Spell, a 2018 collection of three comic short stories describing some of the individual histories of his subjects. Jareth has a minor appearance in Labyrinth: Masquerade, a 2020 one-shot story about the ballgoers in Sarah's masquerade dream. ===Merchandise=== Jareth features prominently in Labyrinth merchandise such as colouring and activity books, posters, lobby cards, jigsaw puzzles and school and party supplies. Over the years since the film's release, the character has also been produced and marketed as licensed action figures and figurines. In 2005, Palisades Toys announced a series of 12-inch collectible action figures based on Labyrinth. The first in the series was called the Jareth Classic, dressed in his "signature" outfit of Regency shirt, breeches and riding boots. However, the company went bankrupt in 2006 and the figure's release that year was cancelled. Plan B Toys released a resin bust of Jareth in 2006, set atop a crystal ball. The prototype display also included a version in his armour and cape. As part of its Cult Classics range, NECA released three Jareth action figures: a 12-inch speaking doll dressed in black and a 7-inch non-speaking version in 2007, followed by a differently garbed 7-inch figure in 2008 which also came with a figure of Hoggle the dwarf. A collectible Jareth statue was produced by KnuckleBonz as part of The Jim Henson Company's efforts to promote Labyrinth for its 25th anniversary in 2011, but ultimately never released. Two different Funko Pop figurines of Jareth were released in 2016, and a third "glitter version" in 2017. McFarlane Toys in 2017 released a 7-inch action figure, in his Ballroom dream outfit with a mask and a crystal orb, followed by another 7-inch figure in 2019, in his "Dance Magic" outfit with his sceptre and a miniature goblin. Chronicle Collectibles released a 1:4 scale polyresin statue of Jareth on his throne in 2019, and the same year, Ikon Collectables released a 1:6 scale (34 cm) resin statue of Jareth in his feathered clock, holding out a crystal, as in his final scene in the film. Weta Workshop produced a vinyl figurine of Jareth as a part of its Mini Epics line in 2021. In 2023, pop culture product maker Plastic Meatball released a 3.75″ scale action figure of Jareth in his Throne Room ("Magic Dance") outfit. ==Notes== ==References== ;Bibliography * * * * * * * == External links == * Jareth on IMDb * Jareth at Comic Vine Category:Adventure game characters Category:Fantasy film characters Category:Fictional characters who use magic Category:Fictional characters with heterochromia Category:Fictional goblins Category:Fictional illusionists Category:Fictional kidnappers Category:Fictional kings Category:Fictional owls Category:Fictional shapeshifters Category:Fictional tricksters Category:Film characters introduced in 1986 Category:Labyrinth (1986 film) Category:Male characters in comics Category:Male characters in film Category:Male film villains |
Time, Inc. v. Hill, 385 U.S. 374 (1967), is a United States Supreme Court case involving issues of privacy in balance with the First Amendment to the United States Constitution and principles of freedom of speech. The Court held 6–3 that the latter requires that merely negligent intrusions into the former by the media not be civilly actionable. It expanded that principle from its landmark defamation holding in New York Times v. Sullivan. The Hill family had sued after Life implied in a blurb that the upcoming film adaptation of The Desperate Hours was based on the real-life incident where they were held hostage in their home by escaped convicts. It was accompanied by a photo of the Hills' house in a suburb of Philadelphia, from which they had moved shortly afterwards due to the lingering psychological effects of the episode. In fact, the plot of the novel and a successful play based on it were, while inspired by the Hills' experience, unrelated to it. Former Vice President Richard M. Nixon argued the Hills' case before the Court. ==Background== James Hill and his wife lived in Whitemarsh Township, Pennsylvania, with their five children in 1952, when they were taken hostage in their own house by three escaped convicts. During the ordeal, the family members were treated with dignity by the hostage-takers. The family members were held hostage for 19 hours. The three criminals were apprehended after leaving the Hills' home, and the incident received significant media attention. Mrs. Hill did not appreciate the media focus, and the family relocated to Connecticut in order to seek out a lifestyle out of the limelight. thumb|upright|left|Logo of Life magazine Joseph Hayes wrote a novel published in 1953 called The Desperate Hours, which was influenced by the Hill family's ordeal. The novel by Hayes went on to become a bestseller. In 1954, the Broadway theatre production of the play The Desperate Hours debuted, which depicted a hostage incident similar to that experienced by the Hill family. However, in The Desperate Hours, the scenario was changed from the Hills' actual experiences, to a fictional portrayal of a family victimized by threats of sexual abuse and other violent acts. The setting for the play was Indianapolis, Indiana. Life magazine published an article on the debut of The Desperate Hours on Broadway, and included pictures of the actors in the prior residence of the Hills in the Whitemarsh suburb of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In the article, The Desperate Hours was characterized as a "reenactment" of the ordeal experienced by the Hill family. The Life magazine piece wrote that the photographed actors from the play were pictured in "the actual house where the Hills were besieged". Mrs. Hill experienced a mental breakdown after the piece was published, and James Hill stated he was unable to comprehend why the magazine did not fact check the article through communication with the family. ==Prior litigation== James Hill filed suit in New York against the magazine's publisher, Time, Inc. The suit asserted Life had violated privacy law in the state, by conflating the Hill family with fictional events which had not actually occurred. The legal argument drew upon the notion of false light as related to privacy law. After an initial ruling against Life magazine, the New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division remanded the case for a new trial. After litigation through the court system in New York, a decision was found in favor of the plaintiff, with damages awarded of US$30,000. ==Supreme Court== ===Argument=== Time, Inc. appealed the matter to the U.S. Supreme Court, where the Hill family position was argued by former Vice President Richard Nixon, who was elected president two years later. The position of Life magazine was argued before the Court by attorney Harold Medina Jr., son of U.S. federal judge Harold Medina. In his opening argument, he asserted that the privacy law in question in New York was unconstitutional, due to its broadness and for punitively impacting the press for publishing factual information. As a secondary argument, Medina put forth the notion that the prior ruling in the case was inappropriate because the jury was allowed to determine liability of Life based on the inaccuracy of the article, while neglecting to take into account whether or not the act by the magazine was reckless or willful. He put forth the potential for a lawsuit against the press for a simple unintentional error, "It comes down to if you treat it on a mistake basis, on truth or falsity, what has happened to the law of libel? You don't need the law of libel any more and the safeguards. It is much easier to sue for violation of your right of privacy. But all the defenses that have been set up in the libel law disappear." Regarding his preparation for the case, Nixon remarked to The New York Times journalist Fred Graham, "I locked myself up in my office for two weeks. No phone calls. No interruptions. It takes a tremendous amount of concentration." Graham later wrote of Nixon's argumentation, "Whatever the peculiarities of Nixon's preparation, his performance before the Court proved sound and workman-like, well within the bounds of effective oral advocacy." Nixon argued that a fictional account is not newsworthy, and therefore freedom of the press is not impacted by the privacy law. His essential premise put forth the notion that the "fictionalization" aspect of privacy law did not harm freedom of expression. ===Unpublished draft opinion=== In his 1985 book The Unpublished Opinions of the Warren Court, author Bernard Schwartz revealed that an initial conference had resulted in votes of 6 to 3 to affirm the judgment in favor of the Hill family. Justice Abe Fortas wrote a draft opinion, but it was not published by the Court. After the 1985 publication of Schwartz's book revealed the initial draft opinion of the Court in the case, former President Richard Nixon requested his prior White House Counsel Leonard Garment to investigate the matter. Garment had previously worked with Nixon as his legal partner, and assisted him during the Time, Inc. v. Hill case. Garment contributed an article to The New Yorker which reported on the research undertaken by Nixon before each of the arguments in the case. He recounted Nixon's response after hearing of the verdict of the Court, "I always knew I wouldn't be permitted to win a big appeal against the press." Garment emphasized a comment from the dissent opinion written by Justice Harlan, which warned undesired media attention imparted "severe risk of irremediable harm ... [to] individuals exposed to it and powerless to protect themselves against it." Following the first argument before the Court, justices changed their opinions about the matter, and Justice Hugo Black wrote in a memo to his fellow justices, "After mature reflection, I am unable to recall any prior case in this Court that offers a greater threat to freedom of speech and press than this one does." Justice Black emphasized that though the media makes mistakes at times in its reporting, requiring press organizations to pay out for claims which were not libel related to inaccuracies which did not hurt individuals' reputation, would engender a situation of self-censorship. A subsequent argument was ordered, and the majority opinion shifted since the initial draft opinion. ===Reargument=== A second argument before the Court took place in October 1966. Medina requested the Court declare the privacy law in question unconstitutional, because, "[i]n this field of privacy, I merely suggest that when it is nondefamatory and when you are talking about a public fact, we should have the protection that the fellow who comes in to sue us must prove both falsity and knowledge of falsity, or recklessness, and that this is a minimum, because, mind you, this article here, the dissent in the appellate division, found it was an informative presentation of legitimate news." In his reply to Medina's argumentation, Nixon stated, "It is our contention that in this case it was argued by the plaintiff, it was established by the evidence, it was charged by the court, it was found by the jury, and it was held by the courts of New York in their appeals courts, that Life magazine lied, and that Life magazine knew that it lied. That is the proposition that I content for here." However, the trial judge in the initial case did not provide the jury with an instruction that it had to provide an opinion of recklessness or willful inaccuracy on the part of Life magazine in order to yield a decision in favor of the plaintiff. Medina concluded the reargument period by emphasizing his view that in case it was determined by the Court that evidence showed the Life magazine staff was aware of the inaccuracy of the article in question, this lack of jury instruction was crucial. Medina said that due to this failure to inform the jury of a requirement to find willful inaccuracy on the part of Life magazine, "I still think I am entitled to win." ===Decision=== In January 1967, the Court determined in a 5–4 decision in favor of Time, Inc. Justice William J. Brennan, Jr. wrote the opinion of the Court. Justice Brennan had previously written the majority opinion in the case of New York Times Co. v. Sullivan in 1964; that case ruled individual officials who were publicly known were not able to obtain claims for inaccurate media coverage except in the case of reckless or willful reporting of said inaccuracies. In this case, Justice Brennan utilized a similar test to the matter at hand. He permitted that Life could have a fresh trial where it could be determined whether or not the magazine's reporting was reckless or willfully inaccurate. Justice Brennan wrote about the balance between freedom of speech and exposure to public view: > The guarantees for speech and press are not the preserve of political > expression or comment upon public affairs, essential as those are to healthy > government. One need only pick up any newspaper or magazine to comprehend > the vast range of published matter which exposes persons to public view, > both private citizens and public officials. Exposure of the self to others > in varying degrees is a concomitant of life in a civilized community. The > risk of this exposure is an essential incident of life in a society which > places a primary value on freedom of speech and press. The majority opinion held that states cannot judge in favor of plaintiffs "to redress false reports of matters of public interest in the absence of proof that the defendant published the report with knowledge of its falsity or reckless disregard of the truth". This decision had the impact of elaborating on the "actual malice" standard of the Court's prior holding in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, to also include cases involving false light. Although the Court reversed a judgment for compensatory damages, it recognized a clear right not to be spoken about. A dissent written by Justice Fortas was joined by Justice Tom C. Clark as well as Chief Justice Earl Warren. In addition to Justice Fortas, Justice John Marshall Harlan II wrote another dissent. Justice Harlan observed that as Hill was not a public individual, he was unable to obtain significant viewership for a potential response. He pointed out that this created a problem of "unchallengable untruth", and stated a necessity would have been to request Hill prove negligence on the part of Life magazine's editorship in their falsehoods, as opposed to the more stringent test of proving that the inaccuracy was actually reckless or willful. ==Analysis== In his book Freedom for the Thought That We Hate: A Biography of the First Amendment, author Anthony Lewis examined the case, and noted, "Using someone's likeness without permission has developed as one of the four branches of privacy law. A second is false light privacy, exemplified by the Hill case: putting someone in a false light by, for example, fictionalizing a story about him or her." Authors Lyrissa Barnett Lidsky and R. George Wright write in their book Freedom of the Press: A Reference Guide to the United States Constitution, "... the Supreme Court requires proof of falsity and fault in all defamation cases involving matters of public concern, although the requisite fault depends on the status of the plaintiff. If plaintiffs were able to avoid these requirements simply by choosing to sue for false light rather than defamation, it would encourage an 'end run' around the First Amendment. The United States Supreme Court foresaw and partially prevented this problem in its first false light case, Time, Inc. v. Hill." Regarding the rationale of the decision by the Supreme Court in the case, the authors noted, "The Court's reasoning was parallel to the reasoning being developed in defamation cases: Errors are inevitable in free debate on matters of public interest, and the press must have breathing space to protect it from liability for such 'inevitable' errors." Writing as a contributor to A Good Quarrel: America's Top Legal Reporters Share Stories from Inside the Supreme Court, Fred Graham commented on the positions of Time, Inc. in its argumentation before the Court. Graham noted, "Underlying both defenses was the argument that if this judgment was not unconstitutional, then persons who feel they have been defamed can perform an end run around the defenses established in New York Times v. Sullivan by suing for a violation of privacy." ==See also== *Alien and Sedition Acts *Civil liberties in the United States *Censorship in the United States *Freedom of speech in the United States *List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Warren Court *List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 385 *List of United States Supreme Court cases involving the First Amendment *Media transparency *Westmoreland v. CBS (S.D.N.Y. 1982) *Tory v. Cochran ==Notes== ==References== * * * * * ==Further reading== * Newsworthy: The Supreme Court Battle Over Privacy and Press Freedom by Samantha Barbas, 2017, Stanford University Press ==External links== * * Category:United States Supreme Court cases Category:United States Supreme Court cases of the Warren Court Category:United States Free Speech Clause case law Category:1967 in United States case law Category:Life (magazine) |
The Lacandon are one of the Maya peoples who live in the jungles of the Mexican state of Chiapas, near the southern border with Guatemala. Their homeland, the Lacandon Jungle, lies along the Mexican side of the Usumacinta River and its tributaries. The Lacandon are one of the most isolated and culturally conservative of Mexico's native peoples. Almost extinct in 1943, today their population has grown significantly, yet remains small, at approximately 650 speakers of the Lacandon language. ==Culture== The Lacandon escaped Spanish control throughout the colonial era by living in small, remote farming communities in the jungles of what is now Chiapas and the Guatemalan department of El Petén, avoiding contact with whites and Ladinos. Lacandon customs remain close to those of their pre-Columbian Mesoamerican ancestors. As recently as the late 19th century some bound the heads of infants, resulting in the distinctively shaped foreheads seen in Classic Maya art. And well into the 20th century, they continued using bows and arrows and making arrowheads from flint they quarried in the rainforest. Today they sell versions of these to tourists. Until the mid-20th century the Lacandon had little contact with the outside world. They worshiped their own pantheon of gods and goddesses in small huts set aside for religious worship at the edge of their villages. These sacred structures contain a shelf of clay incense burners, each decorated with the face of a Lacandon deity. The Lacandon also made pilgrimages to ancient Maya cities to pray and to remove stone pebbles from the ruins for ritual purposes. They believe that the Maya sites are places where their gods once dwelled before moving to new domains they constructed in the sky and below the earth. The Maya site of Bonampak, famous for its preserved temple murals, became known to the outside world when Lacandóns led American photographer Giles Healy there in 1946. A few Lacandon continue their traditional religious practices today, especially in the north around Lakes Naja and Mensabok. In the south, a yellow fever epidemic in the 1940s took many lives and caused a high degree of social disruption. The southern group abandoned their pantheon of gods in the 1950s and were later Christianized through the efforts of the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL). Southern Lacandon helped SIL missionaries translate the New Testament and parts of the Old Testament into their language. But in the north the spiritual leader Chan K'in, who lived to an advanced age and died in 1996, helped keep the ancient traditions alive. Chan K'in urged his people to maintain a respectful distance from the outside world, taking some things of value, but not allowing outside influences to overwhelm the Lacandon way of life. ==Language== The Lacandon speak a Mayan language closely related to Yucatec Maya. In their own language they call themselves Hach Winik ("Real People", ) and they call their language Hach T'ana ("Real Language"). The Lacandón have long been traders with other Maya in the area and have adopted some words of Ch'ol and Tzeltal into their lexicon. They have also created their own unique styles of speaking Spanish in some cases. Details of the language of the northern group of Lacandon can be found at the Lacandon Cultural Heritage website. ==Threats to cultural survival== Lacandon interaction with the outside world has accelerated over the past 30 years. In the 1970s, the Mexican government began paying them for rights to log timber in their forests, bringing them into closer contact with the national economy. At the same time, the government built roads into the area, establishing new villages of Tzeltal and Ch'ol Indians who were far more exposed to the outside world than the Lacandon. The roads helped expand farming and logging, and severe deforestation occurred. Then, in the early 1990s, the Lacandon witnessed acts of violence during the Zapatista rebellion in Chiapas. The Zapatistas issued a series of statements of their principles, each called a "Declaration of the Lacandon Jungle". Casa Na Bolom in San Cristóbal de las Casas is devoted to helping the Lacandon cope with the changes imposed on them in recent decades. A scientific and cultural institute, it was founded in 1951 by archaeologist Frans Blom and his wife, photographer Gertrude "Trudi" Duby Blom. Casa Na Bolom ("House of the Jaguar") does advocacy work for the Lacandón, sponsors research on their history and culture, returns to them copies of photographs and other cultural documentation done by scholars over the years, and addresses environmental threats to the Lacandon Jungle, such as deforestation. Among its many projects, Casa Na Bolom has collaborated with a group of Swedish ethnomusicology students who recorded traditional Lacandón songs. A publication of those recordings in CD form is now planned. Several linguists and anthropologists have done extensive studies of Lacandon language and culture, including Phillip Baer, a missionary linguist with Summer Institute of Linguistics who lived among the Lacandon for more than 50 years, Roberto Bruce an American linguist who devoted his life to studying Lacandon language and culture, and Christian Rätsch who spent three years living with the Lacandon while studying their spells and incantations. ==History== The first definite contact with the Lacandons occurred in the last decades of the 18th century. When scholars first investigated in the early 20th century, they thought that the Lacandon were the direct descendants of ancient Classic Maya people who fled into the rainforest at the time of the Spanish Conquest and remained linguistically and culturally pristine ever since. They made that assumption because the Lacandons' physical appearance and dress is so similar to the way the ancient Maya portrayed themselves in their murals and relief carvings. Scholars were also impressed by the fact that “the Lacandon resided near the remote ruins of ancient Mayan cities, had the knowledge to survive in the tropical jungle, and were neither Christian nor modernized”. They thought that these native people were pure Maya untouched by the outside world. But in recent years researchers have revealed a more complex history for the Lacandon. Scholars have now shown that the Lacandon are the result of a coming together of various lowland Mayan refugee groups during the period of Spanish colonial rule. Their “language, clothing, and customs derive from several different Colonial Era Mayan ethnic groups”. It appears that the Lacandon possess multiple origins and that their culture arose as different lowland Mayan groups escaped Spanish rule and fled into the forest. There was a blending of cultural elements as some traits of varied origin were retained while others were lost. The Lacandon seem to have arisen as a distinct ethnic group as late as the 18th century, meaning that they “cannot be the direct descendants of the ancient Maya since their culture did not exist before it was generated through inter-indigenous interaction”. The Lacandon seem to have originated in the Campeche and Petén regions of what is now Mexico and Guatemala and moved into the Lacandon rainforest at the end of the 18th century, a thousand years after the Classic Maya civilization collapsed. Unlike other indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica, though, they were not strongly affected by outside forces until the 19th century. While other Indians were living under the control of the Spanish, the Lacandon lived independently deep in the tropical forest. Their independence allowed them to manage their contact with the outside world in a controlled way. Preserving their ethnic identity was not as effortless, though. The Lacandon deliberately remained in small, isolated groups in order to resist change. They used their inaccessibility and dispersed settlement pattern to protect their traditions. Outsiders avoided the Lacandon region for centuries due to frightening legends about the dense tropical forest. The Spanish—and later the Mexicans, after they gained their independence—sometimes made efforts to settle the region, but failed due to the lack of financial and political support. For generations the only connections the Lacandon had to the outside world came through trade. The Lacandon “often initiated [trade and] sought metal tools, salt, cloth, and other European goods”. Outsiders, for their part, also desired goods from the forest, such as timber, animal skins, and fruits. Although trade was slow and infrequent, it did take place and it allowed for an intermingling of culture and material goods. In the 19th century, outsiders looked toward the forest for valuable timber and new lands for farming. As the 19th century progressed, farmers and ranchers invaded the area, and the Lacandon withdrew farther into the forest, losing more and more land on the periphery of their territory. The Lacandon survived outright conquest, though, by adopting a flexible strategy that led them to accept, resist, or retreat from the imposing foreign culture depending on the circumstances. By the late 20th century, though, the Lacandon were in frequent contact with outsiders within the area that had been their heartland. This resulted in territorial shifts, disease, and new powerful cultural influences. As logging began on a massive scale, the Lacandon came into contact often with forest workers, which resulted in wage work for some and an overall transformation of their culture, a process that continues to the present time. As development in the area took place, the Catholic Church established mission churches which converted many Lacandon. The Lacandon were drawn into the revolt of indigenous peoples that took place in the area in the 1980s and 1990s. They endured the pressure of cultural change as never before in their history. Their strategy of many generations to withdraw into the forest to preserve their traditional way of life now failed them. In 1971 a Mexican presidential order turned 614,000 hectares over to the Lacandon Community, thereby recognizing the land rights of this relatively small group of indigenous forest dwellers over the more numerous settlers, who had been encouraged to colonize the Lacandon Forest under previous government policies. But this did not put an end to the Lacandons' troubles. Ironically, this effort to save Lacandon culture resulted in enduring tensions between the Lacandon and their neighbors. ==Religion== Throughout their history the ritual practices and beliefs of the Lacandon have shifted and evolved. Change has seemed more explicit as contact with the outside world has increased. Therefore, it is important to acknowledge the differences between Lacandon religious practices prior to increased contact (19th century) and those afterwards. As a culturally conservative group of Native Mesoamericans, the Lacandon have maintained characteristics unique to themselves, including certain religious customs, despite the encroachment and influence of the outside world since the early 16th century. It is also important to recognize that while the Lacandon are culturally conservative, they were never isolationist as they had continued contact and trade with other Native Mesoamericans throughout their history. However, the Lacandon have been very secretive about their religious rituals throughout ethnographic history, which has led to many mysteries about the meanings and origins of certain rituals and beliefs. Another problem to consider is that the Lacandon are not an entirely homogeneous group, which has created difficulties for ethnographers in understanding the religious practices of the Lacandon both past and present. Significant differences may be found in ritual behavior related to geographic differences of Lacandon villages. Lacandon villages are small and dispersed throughout the jungle in Chiapas. A further geographic divide is evident between the Lacandon in lowland Chiapas near the Maya ruins of Bonampak and Yaxchilán and the highland Lacandón who reside closer to Lakes Naja and Metzabok within the jungle (see map at). Lacandon who reside in the southern part of the Chiapas jungle have been more exposed to outsiders, are more aggressive than their highland counterparts, have slightly different dress, and adopted the Christian faith more quickly. ===Religious practitioners=== When contacts between Europeans and the Lacandon began being recorded it was believed that they were unchanged ancient Maya descended from those who fled initial Spanish contact and that they were complete with the ritual beliefs and physical appearance of their ancestors. The Lacandon refer to themselves as Hach Winik, or “real people” and report that they are descendants of the Maya. While the Lacandon share a history with the Maya, many of their religious practices are not found among the ancient Maya or other Maya groups. The Lacandon may identify a particular man in a village who has shown extensive ritual knowledge or ability as a healer or religious leader who then performs religious ceremonies. However, basic offerings and incense burning is performed by all male heads of household and generally theirs is an egalitarian society as far as leadership. Ceremonies usually have only male participants and are for a myriad of reasons including; feeding a particular god, a fertility rite, to help with agriculture, and frequently in response to illness. As contact from outsiders increased so did the occurrence of disease among the Lacandón, and with that more rituals focused on healing. The prominence of particular Gods also increased with the influx of outsiders including a God the Lacandon recognize specifically for foreigners among other things.McGee, Jon (2002) "Watching Lacandon Maya Lives," Boston: Allyn and Bacon. ===Gods=== Lacandon deities include K’akoch, the god responsible for the creation of earth, sun, and other gods (who came from the flower of the bak nikte' Plumeria rubra); K’akoch does not interact with humans. Sukunkyum is held to be the first god to come from the bak nikte' and is reportedly in charge of the underworld and judging people's souls; Sukunkyum tends to the sun (when it disappears into the west) and the moon (during the day). Hachäkyum is the younger brother of Sukunkyum; he is the most important deity because he created the jungle, animals, and man and woman (with the help of his wife). In the generation below Hachakyum, there are various mediating gods, such as his son Tuub (T'up) and his son-in-law Ah Kin ('Priest') Chob. Mensäbäk is the god of rain and is therefore very important to the Lacandón. Mensäbäk can be traced back to the pre-Hispanic Maya god Yum Chac, who is also a god associated with rainfall. There are also gods associated with thunder and lightning (Hahanak'uh), earthquakes (Kisin), and war and disease (Ak K'ak'). Inexplicably, the Lacandon seem to have no maize deity, a deity which is present among all other Mayan groups. More recently, Äkyantho', the god of foreigners, has become more prominent. This god, Äkyantho', is described as a light-skinned god that wears a hat and carries a pistol. Äkyantho' is responsible for trade, medicine, diseases, some animals (horses for example), and metal tools. He has a son named Hesuklistos (Jesus Christ) who is supposed to be the god of the foreigners. This is expressive of the Lacandón cultural conservatism and adaptability, in that they fit new gods into their world view. They recognize that Hesuklistos is a god but do not feel he is worthy of worship as he is a minor god. ===Ceremonial buildings, sacred places, and objects of ritual practice=== Most Lacandon villages have a God House where ceremonies take place. Some are located near the religious leaders abode or close to the home of a well-respected or elderly male. Some villages hide the God House away from the village in the jungle so that outsiders are unable to find them. Often these sites are also guarded and even shielded with vegetation so that the rituals performed inside cannot be seen. The God House is built very low to the ground so that it is hard to see into and it is oriented to North, South, East, and West with the entrance on the east side where it faces toward Maya ruins and the sunrise. Inside the God House are the necessities used for various ceremonies. These include drums suspended in the ceiling so they don't touch the ground until they are needed for ritual song and dance; a fire starter traditionally consisting of a fire drill (two sticks) and more recently a lighter, matches or flint; benches to sit around; ceramic bowls for preparing and eating ritual meals or offerings; a conch shell “trumpet” to announce the beginning of a ceremony for both villagers and the gods; a large hollowed trough to make the alcohol Balché for ritual consumption; and most importantly the God House contains rubber characters, incense nodules (made of copal), and ceramic God pots used to burn the offerings for the rituals. Sacred places included caves (where the sun went to the underworld each night), Maya ruins where the Gods had once resided, next to rivers, rock outcroppings or particular places in the jungle (there would not be any cutting of vegetation in these areas). These places are often remote, secret, and not to be viewed by outsiders. God pots are small ceramic bowls that have the head and face of the deity they represent attached to the rim of the pot, often with the head tilted back so that incense or offerings may be placed directly on it. These pots are fired in the open and coated with a mixture of clay, lime, and water and then painted with red or black dyes. The pots have specific masculine or feminine designs including whether the head had straight (male) or braided (female) hair and whether the pot was striped (male) or checked (female). In addition, pots used for rituals are considered to be alive and to have a soul. To bring life to a God pot the Lacandón would use small pebbles they found at Maya ruins that they considered sacred. They would also use cacao beans for the purpose of giving the pot a “heart”. Each God pot was made for a particular deity or ritual and if they remained in good condition they sometimes were given from father to son. When a god pot became full with incense, burnt offerings, or was broken, there would be a renewal ceremony to replace it. The old pot would be taken to a sacred place and left and then new ceramic incense burners and figurines were made (usually to be discarded later) as they created a new pot to take the place of the old. ===Offerings, rituals, and beliefs=== Offerings burnt in the God pots included incense, food, and rubber figurines. The food was often thought to sustain the Gods and keep order in the universe. The figurines were made of sap from the Castilla elastica tree, which was seen as blood from the tree and is thought to represent the blood sacrifices in some of the Lacandon ceremonies. These figurines were usually in the form of humans with specific body parts clearly represented but at times were also in the form of animals. Part of the belief of the Lacandón entailed the Gods being able to partake in the offerings in the God pot by the figurine being burned in the God pot and becoming a messenger for the particular God invoked. The smoke of the offering was seen as the essence, or soul (pixan) which is consumable by the gods.Boremanse, Didier (1993). The Faith of the Real People: The Lacandon of the Chiapas Rain Forest. New York, NY. The Crossroad Publishing Company. Ultimately, there is not a great understanding of the exact meaning of the anthropomorphic rubber figures though the symbolism appears to be representative of human sacrifice. It is known that the rubber figures would be splattered with red annatto dye before being burnt and that at sometime before the 19th century it was common for the Lacandón to participate in bloodletting where they would cut their earlobe or septum and smear the figurine with blood before burning it. The belief was that the God could be sustained from the smoke of the burning blood. Other beliefs, which signify a potential history of human sacrifice, include some Gods preferring human flesh and sacrificing other Gods and also that at the end of the world the Gods would sacrifice humans and would paint their houses with the blood of the humans. The behavior of the Gods being similar to that of humans may point toward cannibalism and human sacrifice among the Lacandón historically though these practices were non-existent or unknown by the 20th century. Other practices may have included ancestor worship as god pots and incense burners have been found at burial sites. Reports of cremation burials (Baer and Baer, 1952) exist as well as ritual links to astronomy and dream interpretation. Not much is known about these practices. A specific belief regarding the god Akyantho’ is that he had first given the Lacandón tools, medicine, animals, liquor, and other trade associated items but then took them away and gave them to foreigners because they were taking better care of these items. As a punishment for their irresponsibility, the Lacandón had to interact with the foreigners in order to obtain what they needed. In addition, the Lacandón believed that their Gods had once dwelled in the ruins along with their ancestors. Many rituals were performed at these sites as evidenced by the numerous god pots found throughout. Breaking any of the rocks or damaging the buildings of the ruins was seen as disrespecting the Gods. Often these places were guarded but the increasing interruption of ceremonies along with the damaging of the sites and the god pots there forced the Lacandón back into the jungles to perform their rituals privately. Didier Boremanse, in the book South and Meso-American Native Spirituality, gives some detailed accounts of specific rituals that he witnessed (pp. 324–351). ==External influences== While the Lacandón have recently seen an influx of outside influence with the coming of roads, logging, tourism, and other modernizations, it is important to recognize that they have had contact with outsiders throughout their history. It should also be noted that the Lacandón were often the initiators of contact with foreigners (including other Mayan groups). Outside contact was usually facilitated by trade and religious conversion. If we examine photographs and drawings of the Lacandón dating from the late 19th century, we can see that their clothing and personal adornments have changed considerably. These valuable historical images show that cultural change has been taking place among the Lacandón for a long time. The Lacandón have sometimes gone into nearby towns to participate in Catholic mass or other rituals performed by priests. The ritual of baptism was of particular interest, possibly because they perceived a cleansing and therapeutic value for that ritual. Initially, attempts by capuchin priests and other missionaries to Christianize the Lacandón were unsuccessful. The priests repeatedly tried to emphasize the importance of monogamy in their religion, which may have led to the initial general non-acceptance of the religion. Polygyny was seen by the male Lacandón as a way to ensure labor and economic power, retain ritual knowledge in food preparation, and maintain fertility among wives at different times. The Christian religion provided somewhat of a break for Lacandón women because there was no need for the exhaustive process and knowledge base of preparing ritual foods for ceremonies. Because of this, and their exclusion from the traditional ceremonies other than cooking, many Lacandón women asked their husbands to convert to Christianity. As mentioned earlier, the geographic differences among the Lacandón may have influenced the rate at which Christian conversion occurred. It is noted that the lowland Lacandón have all but abandoned the historical religion while those in the highlands still practice some traditional rituals. The need for privacy for the rites to be performed and outsider interruption likely has something to do with this as well. The use of music and dance has also decreased in ritual behavior inexplicably since ethnographers began studying the Lacandón. Today, it is possible to buy god pots made by the Lacandón specifically for tourists. These pots are not painted and have not been given “souls” and therefore are not alive and can be sold. Jon McGee (2002) notes that increased participation in a monetary economy because of tourists has decreased the need for subsistence agriculture and with it the religious rites associated with agriculture. Other changes include the simplification of god pot designs, the non-existence of once very important pilgrimages to particular sites (because they have been desecrated), disappearance of bloodletting, and rarity of polygyny. Besides the influence of outsiders, these changes can also be attributed to deaths of the elders and knowledgeable persons who practiced the rituals through old age and often disease. Information was not passed on to younger generations, which opened a place for Christian missionaries to convert more Lacandón. For this reason Protestantism is the dominant religion of the lowland Lacandón today. John McGee (2002) has noted that within four years of the introduction of television, traditional ritual practices among the highland Lacandón has been reduced to just two families and one individual. Many others no longer participate in any religion at this point. ==Economy== The historic Lacandón were neither strictly hunter-gatherers nor swidden agriculturalists, but rather, they were both as they saw fit. Likewise, they were at one time either mobile or sedentary. The Lacandón would make clearings in the forest to raise crops and some livestock, but they would also hunt and fish, and gather roots and plants in the jungle. As such, they had no need for a structured economy, as they relied on their own homesteads as their source of sustenance. The more contact that the Lacandón had with other people, the more their economy morphed. The historic Lacandón would at times trade with outsiders, but there is little to no documentation regarding this contact. What trade was documented showed that it was the most contact the Lacandón had with the outside world at the time. They traded animals, honey, beeswax, tobacco, cotton, and cacao for much-needed metal tools. As time progressed into the 19th and 20h centuries, the goods the Lacandón were given during trade became more advanced, such as firearms, kerosene, coffee, sugar, and clothing among other things. There is evidence that showed that some Lacandón kept regular trade with ranches in Chiapas, and through contact learned languages such as Spanish, Ch'ol, and Tzeltal Maya. This allowed the Lacandón to more easily understand Tzeltal Maya culture and Christianity. To the Lacandón, trade with foreigners was the most vital, and once only way for them to come into contact with the outside world, and for them to obtain things that they themselves cannot produce. Throughout time one can see the advancement of technology reaching the Lacandón. The increased trade in the 19th century also influenced change in the Lacandón subsistence. They started raising chickens, cultivating oranges, plantains, sugar cane, and instead of hunting with bows and arrows, were hunting with rifles. Some Lacandón would gain employment from Ladinos in logging camps, and others would receive payment from logging camps for rights to log in their jungle. By the end of the 19th century and beginning of the twentieth, tourists would come to the Lacandón villages and purchase material items like gourd bowls, bows, and arrowheads. As other indigenous people were given land in the Lacandón Jungle, the common practice of subsistence farming was replaced by semi commercial agriculture of the new people that were given land in the area. This was further influenced by the national government's encouragement of the development of commercial farming, and not the typical slash and burn practices that were historically common in the area. In addition to that, rapid deforestation of the Lacandón Jungle due to cattle grazing led the Lacandón to move from their dispersed settlements to more centralized communities, thus shifting their economic practices. In the early 1970s, oil developments in Tabasco put money into Chiapas, and allowed for the Mexican government to set up a Rain forest reserve, preventing areas of the Lacandón Jungle from being used by logging companies. However, after gaining control of the local extension of the Florida-based logging company Weiss Fricker Mahogany Company, the Mexican government organization Nacional Financiera, S.A. (NAFINSA), which controlled the revenue generated by logging in the Lacandón Jungle. A state-controlled company, the Compañia Forestal de la Lacandon S.A., was created to contract Lacandón communities for logging rights of their land. Unfortunately, NAFINSA controlled most of the royalties made by the company, 70%, as opposed to the 30% that the Lacandón communities received. Following the oil price crash in the early 1980s, the value of the peso dropped dramatically, which made international tourism even more attractive. Though this affected the economy of the Lacandón adversely, it presented an opportunity for them to gain. Lacandón men would dedicate a good amount of their free time towards manufacturing arts and crafts, and then selling their goods to tourists in the larger towns in Chiapas, like Palenque. In 1980, a road was built to connect Palenque with the Lacandón community of Nahá. This allowed tourist traffic to flow into Lacandón communities, and the Lacandón merchant selling material goods no longer had to travel for days, but rather set up his shop along the road, and could carry more items with the advent of vehicular travel in the area. One of the biggest items sold to tourists are hunting kits - bows and arrows. Men making these bows and arrows transitioned from acquiring the materials from the jungle themselves, to just buying the materials and focused strictly on the production of the bows and arrows. These are usually sold at the Maya ruins at Palenque and range in sizes - from full adult sizes to child-sized toys kits. The historical Lacandón needed to rely on only themselves. But as they came into contact with other people, and Mexico became a more unified state, their economy shifted towards a more dependent one, thriving on increased trade with other local people and eventually were introduced with international trade. ==Geography and land use== The Lacandón became associated as being isolated from other groups, a fact which was facilitated largely by the geographical setting in which they lived. The geography led many to be discouraged from venturing into the Lacandón lands, and the result was that the Lacandón people were never completely “conquered” as was the case with other indigenous groups in Mesoamerica. The rugged terrain and thick forests which characterize the Lacandón lands in the eastern sector of the present-day Mexican state of Chiapas (see map at) acted somewhat as a barrier to social interaction outside of the small and dispersed groups in which the Lacandón lived from pre- Conquest times up to the 20th century.Palka, Joel W. Unconquered Lacandon Maya. Gainesville, Fl: University Press of Florida, 2005. The southern Maya lowlands which are home to the Lacandón are characterized by rugged karstic topography and sub-tropical rainforest, known as the Selva Lacandona, or the Lacandon Forest. Several rivers feed into the eastern Chiapas region, such as the Pasión, San Pedro Martir, Lacantún, Jataté, Usumacinta, and Chixoy. The rivers, along with many lakes, swamps and shorelines, contribute to the diversity of the Lacandón lands. The availability of various types of flora and fauna which inhabit these aquatic and terrestrial areas have allowed the Lacandón to thrive in a geographical setting which at first glance appears to be hostile to humans. In order to take full advantage of their resources, the Lacandón have used specific agricultural, hunting and gathering techniques which have been designed to be conservative of the land and ecozone as a whole, which allows for sustainable use and therefore continued yield in the future. 20% of the approximately 700 Lacandón people living today continue to use such techniques.Nations, James D. “The Evolutionary Potential of Lacandon Maya Sustained-yield Tropical Forest Agriculture.” Journal of Anthropological Research 36.1 (1980): 1-30. James Nations recognizes four zones which the Lacandón utilize to maintain a diverse food supply and healthy diet. The primary or old growth forest consists of small portions of tropical rain forest and lower mountainous rain forest, which constitutes the majority of the forest ecosystem. While the growth in this type of rainforest is not quite as tall as that seen in a tropical rainforest, the two largely share the same characteristics (see interactive map at and map at). The primary growth forest provides hunting for the Lacandón, as deer, peccary, agouti, and monkeys inhabit the area. The Lacandón also utilize the many different plant species in the rainforest for various purposes, including dietary and medicinal; the medicinal use of plants is well-developed amongst the Lacandón and is important in their culture.Kashanipour, Ryan Amir and R. Jon McGee. “Northern Lacandon Maya Medicinal Plant Use in the Communities of Lacanja Chan Sayab and Naha’, Chiapas, Mexico.” Journal of Ecological Anthropology 8 (2004): 47-59. This zone is also very important for the maintenance of rich and stable soil, of which the Lacandón take advantage in their milpa systems, the second zone. The milpa, or farmed field, is crucial to the survival of the Lacandón people. Here, they utilize sustainable slash and burn techniques to ensure the continued richness of the soils of the milpa and health of the region in general. The Lacandón people engage in swidden agriculture on a primary or secondary growth forest in January, February or March, and allow the remains to dry until April. During this time, fire breaks are also put into place so as to keep the coming burn from catching other parts of the forest on fire. The firing occurs in April and planting begins soon thereafter. Different crops are grown together in the milpa amongst each other, such that plants of a single crop are separated from one another and surrounded by different crops. Also, tree species (bananas, plantains, etc.) are interspersed amongst maize and vine plants such as squash and chiles, and root crops are cultivated in the ground under these. Plants are harvested in November or December after the rainy season which begins in May or June. This cycle will be repeated for 2 to 5 years, at which time the milpa will be replanted with trees and allowed to be repopulated with wild forest plant species (this zone is then referred to as an acahual). After 5 to 7 years, the land will be used as a milpa again. After this second period of time used as a milpa, however, the land will be replanted with trees and allowed to develop into a mature secondary forest (at least 20 years), at which time it will be used as a milpa again. The third zone, as mentioned above, is the acahual. The Lacandón farmers replant the milpa in tree crops such as rubber or fruit and reap the direct benefits from the plants. The Lacandón also use the acahual as a type of hunting ground, as the animals discussed above frequent the acahaul to graze or eat. The last major zone in the Lacandón lands is that which is near water, such as river banks, stream beds, swamps, and shorelines. The aquatic areas provide the Lacandón with additional sources of protein and a different nutrient base from that which is provided by the terrestrial zones. The people use a specific type of snail species (Pachychilus spp.) known locally as t’unu as a type of protein supplement to their diet.Nations, James D. “Snail Shells and Maize Preparation: A Lacandon Maya Analogy.” American Antiquity 44.3 (1979): 568-571. In addition, the shells from this organism provide great nutritional value, as they provide calcium and lime when burned. The lime is then added to maize to release amino acids such as tryptophan and lysine and the vitamin niacin, which would otherwise be unavailable from the maize (unable to be metabolized) if the lime were not added. By utilizing the primary forest, milpas, acahuales and aquatic areas, the Lacandón have been able to provide a healthy diet for themselves which has contributed to their ongoing survival. thumb|300 px|right|A small dugout canoe in the Lacandón village of Lacanjá in 2001. ==Archaeology== Three sites have been excavated and yielded artifacts that are historically Lacandón, El Caobal, Matamangos and El Magal. The location of these abandoned Lacandón sites have been passed down through generations of fathers taking their sons to the sites for hunting or exploring. The locals who had traveled there as children are the last informants who know the location of the Lacandón settlements. Since the Lacandón did not typically build “stone-and-earth” platforms it is almost impossible to find their lost settlements, making the knowledge of the elder locals crucial. Each site yielded different artifacts, some proved evidence of a home or residences, others may have been manufacturing sites. All show strong evidence of Lacandón inhabitance. The easiest characteristic of Lacandón settlement to spot is the presence of non-native vegetation such as fruit trees. Another being traditional Lacandón pottery. The ceramic vessels found at all of the sites were dark brown and black with dark clouding on both the inside and outside and had a hemispherical shape. The hemispherical shape mimicked the familiar shape of the gourd vessels that were also very important. The gourds had a practical form and were used often for ritual food and drink. The rims of the ceramic vessels were squared off, as if they had been cut with a knife before being fired. Unlike Lacandón gourd bowls, which were typically decorated with carved designs, the ceramic vessels had no designs or adornments. This might have shown some insight as to why they were left behind, perhaps they were so simple and easily produced that they were left behind and new vessels were made after the tribe migrated to a new location. The first site discovered near the ruins of Dos Pilas was El Caobal, located on raised terrain and surrounded by swamp. In Spanish, means “place or abundance of mahogany trees,” this refers to the large concentration of them which most likely due to planting by the Lacandón who relied on them for canoes and also because mahogany trees are not indigenous. El Caobal also has a large amount of mango and banana trees, which are also non-native, which were planted by the Lacandón as a source of food. Beneath the jungle floor laid hundreds of artifacts including pottery, stone tools, metal pots and broken glass to name a few. Some of the artifacts were brought up by root action or a metal detector located and others were found from blind digs. The abundance of artifacts suggests the location a home or possibly a discard zone. The local artifacts that were found included utilitarian ceramics and stone tools, imported items consisted of white earthenware vessels with painted designs, glass bottles and metal tools. At Matamangos, the site approximately one kilometer from El Caobal is identified by its abundance of mango trees (again showing that non-indigenous vegetation points to settlement). Matamangos was also on slightly raised ground and was located near a small group of Maya house mounds. After deciding to dig near one of the largest mango trees large amounts of chert debris such as chert cores, arrowheads and small blades were uncovered, another object that is characteristically Lacandón. Chert was a hard stone that the Lacandón used to make arrowheads and other lithic tools. A large piece of chert (also called a core) would first be heated and then bone is struck with a round hammerstone (made of volcanic rock) against the core, using indirect percussion fragments were chipped off to make prismatic chert blades. A hammerstone (probably imported from the Guatemalan highlands) was also found nearby the chert fragments. The stone was identified as being a hammerstone because of its smooth and rounded from use and fits comfortably in the hand and has scratches and chips from use. The uncovering of these related artifacts suggests possibly a tool manufacturing area or a discard site. Known as El Mangal or “place of many mango trees” by the locals, this site has trees that were much larger than those at Caobal or Matamangos. The area also had a lagoon that was known on regional maps as “El Mangal” (showing a knowledge of the area by people other than the locals). The water in the lagoon is not good for drinking or cooking but it useful for washing and catching fish. A current family has made residence at El Mangal and has unearthed a whole machete, they also found pieces of thick, hard, brown pottery (traditional Lacandón ceramic). While digging a trash pit the family found more pottery, although it was not the traditional smooth bowls that had been found at El Caobal, they were still ethnographically Lacandón. The vessels were identified as incense burners. The shape was hemispherical with a ring base and a hole for venting the fire and releasing smoke. Unlike the smooth ceramics used for every day life these vessels were adorned with the modeled head of a deity on the rim, proving this object is used for religious rites. The modeled heads “closely resemble those made by the ethnographic Lacandon.” Other decorations include incised lines and holes down the front of the bowl and protruding spikes. These vessels were used in “God houses” for religious purposes. During the Lacandón incense burner renewal ceremony men isolated themselves from the community and crafted the burners in solitude. They were placed in the god house and the old burners were deposited at a sacred place in the forest. The presence of these incense burners points possibly to a religious god house, a manufacturing site or even a sacred place of disposal. ==See also== * Chiapas conflict * Kejache * Lakandon Ch'ol * Maya civilization * List of Mayan languages ==References== ==Further reading== *Aída, Rosalva, Hernández, Castillo (2001). Histories and stories from Chiapas: border identities in southern Mexico. (1st Ed.) Austin, TX University of Texas Press. *Baer, Phillip & Dr. William R. Merrifield (1971) "Two Studies on the Lacandones of Mexico," Dallas, TX: SIL Publications. *Blom, Frans & Gertrude Duby Blom (1955) "La Selva Lacandona," Mexico City: Editorial Cultura. *Boremanse, Didier (1998) "Hach Winik: The Lacandon Maya of Chiapas, Southern Mexico," Austin: University of Texas Press. *Bruce, Robert (1974), "El Libro de Chan K'in". INAH, Mexico. *McGee, Jon (1990) "Life, Ritual, and Religion among the Lacandon Maya," Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co. *Perera, Victor & Roberto Bruce (1982) "The Last Lords of Palenque: The Lacandon Mayas of the Mexican Rain Forest," Boston: Little, Brown. *Price, Christine & Gertrude Duby Blom (1972) "Heirs of the Ancient Maya: A Portrait of the Lacandon Indians," New York: Scribner. *Rittlinger, Herbert (1961) "Last of the Maya," New York: Taplinger Publishing Co. *Roeling, Sebastiaan (2007) "Shadows of Bonampak: An Extensive Ethnography of the Lacandon Maya of Chiaps, Mexico" Rotterdam: Uitgeverij S. Roeling. *Bressani, Ricardo and Nevin S. Scrimshaw. “Effect of Lime Treatment on in vitro Availability of Essential Amino Acids and Solubility of Protein Fracturing in Corn.” Agricultural and Food Chemistry 6.10 (1958): 774-778. *Cowgill, U.M. “An Agricultural Study of the Southern Maya Lowlands.” American Anthropologist 64 (1962): 273-286. *Katz, et al.“Traditional Maize Processing Techniques in the New World.” Science 184 (1974): 765-773. *Tozzer, A.M. “Landa's Relacion de las Cosas de Yucatán.” Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology. 18 (1941). Cambridge, MA. ==External links== *Website for the Lacandon Communities *History and Culture *Photos by Georgette Soustelle, 1933-34 *Lacandon Maya photos by Gertrude Blom *Mayaweb: Dedicated to the study of Lacandon Culture *SIL website on Lancandon language *Spiritual Leader Chan K'in *Reinventing the Lacandon *Chan K'in's obituary in the New York Times *Photo Essay *Chan K'in and the Lacandons *Casa Na Bolom *Documentation project on Lacandon language and culture *"The Lancandon Maya" (documentary by http://www.history.ca) Category:Maya peoples Category:Maya mythology and religion Category:Indigenous peoples in Mexico |
The South China Sea Basin is one of the largest marginal basins in Asia. South China Sea is located to the east of Vietnam, west of Philippines and the Luzon Strait, and north of Borneo. Tectonically, it is surrounded by the Indochina Block on the west, Philippine Sea Plate on the east, Yangtze Block to the north. A subduction boundary exists between the Philippine Sea Plate and the Asian Plate. The formation of the South China Sea Basin was closely related with the collision between the Indian Plate and Eurasian Plates. The collision thickened the continental crust and changed the elevation of the topography from the Himalayan orogenic zone to the South China Sea, especially around the Tibetan Plateau. The location of the South China Sea makes it a product of several tectonic events. All the plates around the South China Sea Basin underwent clockwise rotation, subduction and experienced an extrusion process from the early Cenozoic to the Late Miocene. The geological history can be classified into five tectonic evolutionary stages. (1) rift system development (2) sea floor spreading, (3) subsidence of the South China Sea, (4) closure of the South China Sea Basin and (5) uplift of Taiwan. == Rift system development == In the initial stage of the development of South China Sea, a basin was developed by extension to form two passive margins. The consensus is that the extension propagated from the northeast to the southwest, although some experts argue that the southwest basin is in fact older. The rifting and multiple grabens initiated around 55 Ma, based on seismic profiles across the southern China Shelf. The rifting intensified around 50 Ma due to the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates. Two different models on how the extension initiated have been proposed, by Wang (2009) and by Cullen (2010). Wang's model for South China Sea rifting proposes a different area of rift development. The north and northeastern parts of the South China Sea formed their rifts earlier in the Paleocene. The south and southwestern parts of the South China Sea showed a later rifting around the Eocene or later. The difference in rifting and time gap between the northeastern and southwestern regions indicate the South China Sea is not a geologically homogeneous area, and its lithosphere could be divided into two areas, southwest and northeast according to its tectonic evolution. The reasons behind these differences in its rifting stage could be various, such as impact from different plates and different distribution of plumes under the crust. The Red River Fault along the western boundary of the South China Sea was believed to influence the rifting in the south and southwestern regions. Strike-slip faults. Cullen indicated that the South China Sea Basin's rifting could be traced back to the late Cretaceous and the extension concluded in two episodes during the Cenozoic. The first episode of extension occurred in the Early Paleocene and was widely distributed. The first rift system was located mainly in the Dangerous Ground (SE of South China Sea and in the Phu Khanh Basin, offshore central Vietnam. The slab pull between Philippines and South Asia is speculated to be the main force which drove the extension of the Dangerous Grounds and other parts of the South China Sea in that initial phase. The later episode of extension appeared from late Eocene to Early Miocene and propagated towards the southwest. During the second stage of extension the crust was thinned and finally experienced break-up. == Sea floor spreading == Seafloor spreading can be discussed using the magnetic anomaly lineations and the distribution of two types of granite. Theoretically, seafloor spreading should follow the rift phase during basin opening. However, continental rifting and seafloor spreading overlap for around 5 m.y. during the Early Miocene. For example, when northeast area was in the seafloor spreading stage, rifting was ongoing in the southwestern part. Reconstruction of the seafloor spreading following rifting comes from magnetic anomalies. There is no consensus on the precise time when the seafloor started to spread. Brais et al. (1993) proposed that the seafloor was spreading between 30 Ma and 16 Ma. However, new evidence which was found in the Luzon Strait area shows the spreading could be as old as 37 Ma. The whole process of seafloor spreading could be divided into two parts, spreading in the Northeast and spreading in the Southwest. *During the seafloor spreading process, three episodes of spreading were classified based on the magnetic anomalies. The seafloor spreading center jumps three times, at 25.5 Ma, at 24.7 Ma and at 20.5 Ma. These jumps are regarded as the boundaries of the three sea floor spreading episodes that moved the extension to the south out of its original position in the Xisha Trough. Figure 4 shows the trajectory of the seafloor spreading center. **37 Ma to 25.5 Ma. Older magnetic anomalies 14-16 appeared in the northeast of the South China Sea, in the Luzon Strait, while younger ones (anomalies 11–7) are located in the central and western part of the basin. This distribution indicates that during the first episode of seafloor spreading, the ridge migrated from east to west. At the end of the first stage, the ridge jumped 50 km from north to south, and a new center formed parallel to the old ridge (Fig. 4). **25.5 Ma to 24.7. The second, bigger jump occurred at the end of this episode. The magnetic anomaly lineations range from 7 to 6B during this episode. **24.7 Ma to 20.5 Ma. The third ridge jump moved further in the southwest direction. The geometry of the South China Sea Basin after 20.5 Ma is similar to the current shape. The ridge stopped jumping after this stage. After 20.5 Ma, the seafloor spreading moved into the southwestern area of the South China Sea where it finished around 16 to 17 Ma. *In addition to the magnetic anomalies, the distribution of igneous rocks could also be potential evidence to determine the time of seafloor spreading. Analysis of the petrology of several micro-blocks in the South China Sea were done by Yan. Two types of granites were classified. They are tonalitic granite and monzogranite. Tonalitic granite contains higher content of Ti, Al, Fe, Mg, Ca, Na and P, less Si and K, and could be derived from melting of the mantle and lower Precambrian crust. Monzogranite, however, was found to be derived by crustal melting. Therefore, the presence of monzogranite indicates an extension of South China Sea lithosphere. Changing ratios of these two categories of granites, together with their trace and major element compositions, as well as petrology also shows the changing character of seafloor spreading history in Cenozoic. == Tectonic models of sea floor spreading == There are three main models that try to interpret how the opening and formation of the South China Sea happened over long periods of geological time. They are the collision-extrusion model, the subduction-collision model, and the hybrid model. These models were illustrated by Fyhn et al, 2009. === Collision-extrusion model === The collision-extrusion model argues that the opening of the South China Sea Basin is related to the collision of the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The Borneo and Indochina plate are still considered as a single block and attached to each other. When India collided with Eurasia, part of the continent was pushed towards the southeast. This is also called "continental escape" by some papers. This model argues that seafloor spreading was triggered by the push from the collision in the west. A strike-slip fault was formed as a result. A spreading ridge was initiated in the left lateral part of this strike-slip fault. The seafloor spreading ceased with the extrusion stopped. Because of the sea floor spreading, the Borneo block underwent rotation. Although this model explains the geometrical change of the South China Sea Basin during its tectonic evolution, it is still vague on some parts especially in relation to the rotation of Borneo. This model also proposes that no subduction occurred along the north side of Borneo, which is hard to explain given the existence of thrust faults in the SE South China Sea Basin. === Subduction–collision model === The subduction model indicates that the opening of the South China Sea was caused by the slab pull from the subduction of a proto-South China Sea oceanic plate south under Borneo. The existence of the Sabah orogeny supports this subduction. The subduction starts in the Paleocene and ended in the Early Miocene. The disadvantage of this model is that it could not explain changes in the seafloor spreading axes during the spreading of the South China Sea Basin or the rotation of Borneo. === Hybrid model === The hybrid model can be regarded as a mix of the collision-extrusion model and the subduction-collision model. Some of the elements are kept from the collision-extrusion model, such as the rotation of Borneo, however, subduction was also thought to accompany the extrusion. The subduction zone migrated towards the southeast of the South China Sea, which matches with the former convergent boundary along the northern edge of the Borneo Block. This model is used more widely than the other two. == Start of closure of South China Seas == * The collision between the Australia and Asian plates caused the rotation of Borneo and the closure at the south boundary of the South China Sea. * Five smaller collisions with crustal thickening occurred and played a significant role in blocking the sea way between Indonesia and the Pacific. * The collision between the Luzon Arc and mainland Asia lead to the uplift of Taiwan. This collision has been migrating west since the Miocene. With the collision between plates, volcanoes became active. Wang et al. (2000) reported three volcanic ash layers concentrated around 10 Ma, 6 Ma and 2 Ma in the South China Sea, associated with collision and subduction events to the east that occurred after seafloor spreading. * Luzon Strait opened with the uplift of Taiwan. The change of seawater depth in Luzon Strait caused more erosive and cold bottom currents from the western Pacific to dissolve the carbonate below Luzon Strait. The opening of Luzon Strait marked the start of South China Sea Basin as a semi- closed basin. == Subsidence of the South China Sea == As rifting, seafloor- spreading and collision processed, subsidence also occurred in the South China Sea. Due to the unique location of the South China Sea during the Cenozoic, with a subduction zone on east side, the Red River shear zone on the west, and the jumping of the spreading ridge to the south, different but mostly extensional faults developed and caused subsidence forming a basin. Both rift- related subsidence and post-rift thermal subsidence are found in the South China Sea. * In the eastern area, a fore-arc basin was formed with the subduction of the South China Sea under the Philippine Sea plate. Palawan and Taixinan Basins are typical examples of this type of subsidence. * In the western area, several strike-slip faults and normal faults caused the subsidence caused by the Red River shear zone. Yinggehai basin which has the thickest sediment fill (14 km) developed in this area. * In the southern area, normal faults formed due to the rifting. However, some basins in this area have two parts in their subsidence history, such as the Malay Basin and Penyu Basin. The stages are divided by regional inversion in the Miocene ~16 Ma. This inversion separated subsidence into syn-rift and post-rift stages instead of a continuous subsidence process. There was also a subsidence rate change in the South China Sea at 25 Ma and 5 Ma. At 25 Ma, the spreading ridge jumped from the southwest and triggered thermal subsidence and marine transgression in the north South China Sea as thermal subsidence began. Change of rate at 5 Ma occurred with the subsidence in the eastern zone and the rate increased due to the collision of the Luzon Arc in the region of modern Taiwan. There is also renewed subsidence in the NW of the basin, in the Yinggehai Basin after 5 Ma caused by reversal of motion on the Red River Fault. == Impacts of tectonic movements on petroleum resources == The north and northwest parts of the South China Sea are surrounded with rift basins on the passive continental margins. They are the Pearl River Mouth Basin, the Qiongdongnan Basin, the Yinggehai Basin and the Phu Khanh Basin. The development of these basins is closely related to the tectonic history of the South China Sea. Gong et al. (2011),Z.S. Gong , L. F. Huang and P. H. Chen (2011) NEOTECTONIC CONTROLS ON PETROLEUM ACCUMULATIONS, OFFSHORE CHINA, Journal of Petroleum Geology, Vol. 34(1), pp 1- 24 based on extensive drilling results and multichannel seismic data, documented the impacts of these tectonic activities on the deposition of source, reservoir and seal rocks and on the formation of various types of trapping mechanism. These basins show typical McKenzie-type (1978) McKENZIE, D. P.(1978) Some remarks on the development of sedimentary basins. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 40, 25–32. two-stage extension, characterized by a differential subsidence stage (rifting) and followed by thermal regional subsidence stage (post-rifting). Each stage is capable to generate a separate petroleum system. The Pearl River Mouth Basin, for example, developed four rift basins in the Tertiary. The Qiongdongnan Basin lies to the west of Pearl River Mouth Basin, both of which share a similar tectonic tectonostratigraphy. The former's subsidence history however has been influenced by an additional tectonic element, the wrenching movements along the Red River Fault System. The basin's post-rift sequence is separated by an early Miocene unconformity from the syn-rift sequence, from which gas has been produced exclusively. Rift structure in the Yinggehai Basin, due to its thick Neogene overburden, has not yet been identified but is expected as the basin is surrounded by rift basins of similar ages.FYHN, M.B. W., NIELSEN, L. H., BOLDREEL, L. O., THANG,L. D., BOJESEN-KOEFOED, J., PETERSEN, H. I, HUYEN, N. T., DUC, N. A., DAU, N. T., MATHIESEN, A., REID, I., HUONG, D., T., TUAN, H. A., HIEN, L. V., NYTOFT, H. T., and ABATZIS, I., 2009. Geological evolution, regional perspectives and hydrocarbon potential of the northwest Phu Khanh Basin, offshore Central Vietnam. Marine Petrol Geol., 26, 1-24 Clockwise rotation of the Indochina block along the Red River Fault System has been attributed to the transtensional stresses in the basin. CHEN, P.H., CHEN, Z.Y. and ZHANG, Q.M., 1993. Sequence stratigraphy and continental margin development of the northwestern shelf of the South China Sea. AAPG Bull., 77(5), 842-862Rangin et al., 1995; RANGIN, C., KLEIN, M., ROQUES, D., LE PICHON, X. and TRONG L.V., 1995. The Red River fault system in the Tonkin Gulf, Vietnam. Tectonophysics, 243, 209–222. Subsidence of the basin, however, predates the initial movements along the Red River Fault System.GILLEY, L. D., HARRISON, T. M., LELOUP, P. H., RYERSON, F. J., LOVERA, O. M. and WANG J. H., 2003. Direct dating of left- lateral deformation along the Red River shear zone, China and Vietnam. Jour. Geophys. Res., 108(B2), 1401-1421ZHU, M.H., GRAHAM, S. and McHARGUE, T., 2009. The Red River Fault Zone in the Yinggehai Basin, South China Sea. Tectonophysics, 476(3), 397-417 This suggests that the earlier extension in the Yinggehai Basin may have responded to the same tectonic regime as that experienced by the surrounding basins. Similar to the nearby Qiongdongnan basin, a basal Miocene unconformity separating the post-rift from the syn-rift sequences in this basin. This unconformity is, however, regionally diachronous, due to wrench movements. Natural gas has been found in the basin's post-rift sequence, but the hydrocarbon potential of the syn-rift sequence has yet to be proven. == References == Category:South China Sea Category:Tectonics Category:Geology of Asia |
Abdul Ghaffār Khān BR (; 6 February 1890 – 20 January 1988), also known as Bacha Khan () or Badshah Khan (), and honourably addressed as Fakhr-e-Afghan (), was a Pashtun independence activist, and founder of the Khudai Khidmatgar resistance movement against British colonial rule in India. He was a political and spiritual leader known for his nonviolent opposition and lifelong pacifism; he was a devout Muslim and an advocate for Hindu–Muslim unity in the subcontinent.An American Witness to India's Partition by Phillips Talbot, (2007), Sage Publications Due to his similar ideologies and close friendship with Mahatma Gandhi, Khan was nicknamed Sarhadi Gandhi (). In 1929, Khan founded the Khudai Khidmatgar, an anti-colonial nonviolent resistance movement. The Khudai Khidmatgar's success and popularity eventually prompted the colonial government to launch numerous crackdowns against Khan and his supporters; the Khudai Khidmatgar experienced some of the most severe repression of the entire Indian independence movement. Khan strongly opposed the proposal for the Partition of India into the Muslim-majority Dominion of Pakistan and the Hindu-majority Dominion of India, and consequently sided with the pro-union Indian National Congress and All-India Azad Muslim Conference against the pro-partition All-India Muslim League. When the Indian National Congress reluctantly declared its acceptance of the partition plan without consulting the Khudai Khidmatgar leaders, he felt deeply betrayed, telling the Congress leaders "you have thrown us to the wolves." In June 1947, Khan and other Khudai Khidmatgar leaders formally issued the Bannu Resolution to the British authorities, demanding that the ethnic Pashtuns be given a choice to have an independent state of Pashtunistan, which was to comprise all of the Pashtun territories of British India and not be included (as almost all other Muslim-majority provinces were) within the state of Pakistan—the creation of which was still underway at the time. However, the British government openly refused to comply with the demands of this resolution. In response, Khan and his elder brother, Abdul Jabbar Khan, boycotted the 1947 North-West Frontier Province referendum on deciding whether the province should be merged with India or Pakistan, citing that it did not have the options for the Pashtun- majority province to become independent or to join neighbouring Afghanistan. After the Partition of India was brought into effect by the British government on 14 August 1947, Khan pledged allegiance to the newly created nation of Pakistan, and stayed in the now-Pakistani North-West Frontier Province; he was frequently arrested by the Pakistani government between 1948 and 1954. In 1956, he was arrested for his opposition to the One Unit program, under which the government announced its plan to merge all the provinces of West Pakistan into a single unit to match the political structure of erstwhile East Pakistan (present-day Bangladesh). Khan was jailed or in exile during some years of the 1960s and 1970s. He was awarded Bharat Ratna, Indian's highest civilian award, by the Indian government in 1987. Following his will upon his death in Peshawar in 1988, he was buried at his house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. Tens of thousands of mourners attended his funeral, marching through the Khyber Pass from Peshawar towards Jalalabad. It was marred by two bomb explosions that killed 15 people; despite the heavy fighting at the time due to the Soviet–Afghan War, both sides, namely the Soviet–Afghan government coalition and the Afghan mujahideen, declared an immediate ceasefire to allow Khan's burial. == Early years == Abdul Ghaffar Khan was born on 6 February 1890 into a prosperous Sunni Muslim Muhammadzai Pashtun family from Utmanzai, Hashtnagar; they lived by the Jindee-a, a branch of the Swat River, in what was then British India's Punjab province. His father, Abdul Bahram Khan, was a land owner in Hashtnagar. Khan was the second son of Bahram to attend the British-run Edward's Mission School, which was the only fully-functioning school in the region and which was administered by Christian missionaries. At school, Khan did well in his studies, and was inspired by his mentor, Reverend Wigram, into seeing the crucial role education played in service to the local community. In his tenth and final year of secondary school, he was offered a highly prestigious commission in the Corps of Guides regiment of the British Indian Army. Khan declined due to his observational feelings that even Guides' Indian officers were still second-class citizens in their own nation. He subsequently followed through with his initial desire to attend university, and Reverend Wigram (Khan's teacher) offered him the opportunity to follow his brother, Abdul Jabbar Khan, to study in London, England. After graduating from Aligarh Muslim University, Khan eventually received permission from his father to travel to London. However, his mother wasn't willing to let another son go to London, so he began working on his father's lands in the process of figuring out his next steps. At the age of 20 in 1910, Khan opened a madrasa in his hometown of Utmanzai. In 1911, he joined the independence movement of the Pashtun activist Haji Sahib of Turangzai. By 1915, the British colonial authorities had shut down Khan's madrasa, deeming its pro-Indian independence activism to be a threat to their authority. Having witnessed the repeated failure of Indian revolts against British rule, Khan decided that social activism and reform would be more beneficial for the ethnic Pashtuns. This led to the formation of the Anjuman-e Islāh-e Afghānia (Pashto: ) in 1921, and the youth movement Pax̌tūn Jirga () in 1927. After Khan's return from the Islamic Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca, Hejaz−Nejd (present-day Saudi Arabia) in May 1928, he founded the Pashto-language monthly political journal Pax̌tūn (). Finally, in November 1929, Khan founded the Khudāyī Khidmatgār () movement, which would strongly advocate for the end of British colonial rule and establishment of a unified and independent India. == Ghaffar "Badshah" Khan == In response to his inability to continue his own education, Bacha Khan turned to helping others start theirs. Like many such regions of the world, the strategic importance of the newly formed North-West Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan), as a buffer for the British Raj from Russian influence was of little benefit to its residents. Opposition to British colonial rule, the authority of the mullahs, and an ancient culture of violence and vendetta prompted Bacha Khan to want to serve and uplift his fellow men and women by means of education. At 20 years of age, Bacha Khan opened his first school in Utmanzai. It was an instant success and he was soon invited into a larger circle of progressively minded reformers. While he faced much opposition and personal difficulties, Bacha Khan Khan worked tirelessly to organise and raise the consciousness of his fellow Pashtuns. Between 1915 and 1918 he visited 500 villages in all part of the settled districts of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa. It was in this frenzied activity that he had come to be known as Badshah (Bacha) Khan (King of Chiefs). Being a secular Muslim he did not believe in religious divisions. He married his first wife Meharqanda in 1912; she was a daughter of Yar Mohammad Khan of the Kinankhel clan of the Mohammadzai tribe of Razzar, a village adjacent to Utmanzai. They had a son in 1913, Abdul Ghani Khan, who would become a noted artist and poet. Subsequently, they had another son, Abdul Wali Khan (17 January 1917 – 2006), and daughter, Sardaro. Meharqanda died during the 1918 influenza epidemic. In 1920, Bacha Khan remarried; his new wife, Nambata, was a cousin of his first wife and the daughter of Sultan Mohammad Khan of Razzar. They had a daughter, Mehar Taj (25 May 1921 – 29 April 2012), and a son, Abdul Ali Khan (20 August 1922 – 19 February 1997). Tragically, in 1926 Nambata died early as well from a fall down the stairs of the apartment where they were staying in Jerusalem. == Khudai Khidmatgar == In time, Bacha Khan's goal came to be the formulation of a united, independent, secular India. To achieve this end, he founded the Khudai Khidmatgar ("Servants of God"), commonly known as the "Red Shirts" (Surkh Pōsh), during the 1920s. The Khudai Khidmatgar was founded on a belief in the power of Gandhi's notion of Satyagraha, a form of active non-violence as captured in an oath. He told its members: > I am going to give you such a weapon that the police and the army will not > be able to stand against it. It is the weapon of the Prophet, but you are > not aware of it. That weapon is patience and righteousness. No power on > earth can stand against it.Nonviolence in the Islamic Context by Mohammed > Abu Nimer 2004 The organisation recruited over 100,000 members and became influential in the independence movement for their resistance to the colonial government. Through strikes, political organisation and non-violent opposition, the Khudai Khidmatgar were able to achieve some success and came to dominate the politics of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa. His brother, Dr. Khan Abdul Jabbar Khan (known as Dr. Khan Sahib), led the political wing of the movement, and was the Chief Minister of the province (from 1937 and then until 1947 when his government was dismissed by Mohammad Ali Jinnah of the Muslim League). === Kissa Khwani massacre === On 23 April 1930, Bacha Khan was arrested during protests arising out of the Salt Satyagraha. A crowd of Khudai Khidmatgar gathered in Peshawar's Kissa Khwani (Storytellers) Bazaar. The colonial government ordered troops to open fire with machine guns on the unarmed crowd, killing an estimated 200–250.Habib, p. 56. The Khudai Khidmatgar members acted in accord with their training in non-violence under Bacha Khan, facing bullets as the troops fired on them.Johansen, p. 62. Two platoons of The Garhwal Rifles regiment under Chandra Singh Garhwali refused to fire on the non-violent crowd. They were later court-martialled and sentenced to a variety of punishments, including life imprisonment. == Bacha Khan and the Indian National Congress == Bacha Khan forged a close, spiritual, and uninhibited friendship with Gandhi, the pioneer of non-violent mass civil disobedience in India. The two had a deep admiration towards each other and worked together closely till 1947. Khudai Khidmatgar (servants of God) agitated and worked cohesively with the Indian National Congress(INC), the leading national organisation fighting for independence, of which Bacha Khan was a senior and respected member. On several occasions when the Congress seemed to disagree with Gandhi on policy, Bacha Khan remained his staunchest ally. In 1931 the Congress offered him the presidency of the party, but he refused saying, "I am a simple soldier and Khudai Khidmatgar, and I only want to serve." He remained a member of the Congress Working Committee for many years, resigning only in 1939 because of his differences with the Party's War Policy. He rejoined the Congress Party when the War Policy was revised. Bacha Khan was a champion of women's rights and non-violence. He became a hero in a society dominated by violence; notwithstanding his liberal views, his unswerving faith and obvious bravery led to immense respect. Throughout his life, he never lost faith in his non-violent methods or in the compatibility of Islam and non-violence. He recognised as a jihad struggle with only the enemy holding swords. He was closely identified with Gandhi because of his non-violence principles and he is known in India as the 'Frontier Gandhi'. One of his Congress associates was Pandit Amir Chand Boambwal of Peshawar. == The Partition == Khan strongly opposed the partition of India. Accused as being anti-Muslim by some politicians, Khan was physically assaulted in 1946, leading to his hospitalisation in Peshawar.Abdul Ghaffar Khan, 98, a Follower of Gandhi Published: 21 January 1988. The New York Times. On 21 June 1947, in Bannu, a loya jirga was held consisting of Bacha Khan, the Khudai Khidmatgars, members of the Provincial Assembly, Mirzali Khan (Faqir of Ipi), and other tribal chiefs, just seven weeks before the partition. The loya jirga declared the Bannu Resolution, which demanded that the Pashtuns be given a choice to have an independent state of Pashtunistan composing all Pashtun territories of British India, instead of being made to join either India or Pakistan. However, the British Raj refused to comply with the demand of this resolution. The congress party refused last-ditch compromises to prevent the partition, like the Cabinet Mission plan and Gandhi's suggestion to offer the position of Prime Minister to Jinnah. When the 1947 North-West Frontier Province referendum over accession to Pakistan was held, Bacha Khan, the Khudai Khidmatgars, the then Chief Minister Dr Khan Sahib, and the Indian National Congress Party boycotted the referendum. Some have argued that a segment of the population was barred from voting. == Arrest and exile == Bacha Khan took the oath of allegiance to the new nation of Pakistan on 23 February 1948 at the first session of the Pakistan Constituent Assembly. He pledged full support to the government and attempted to reconcile with the founder of the new state Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Initial overtures led to a successful meeting in Karachi, however a follow-up meeting in the Khudai Khidmatgar headquarters never materialised, allegedly due to the role of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Chief Minister, Abdul Qayyum Khan Kashmiri who warned Jinnah that Bacha Khan was plotting his assassination.Korejo, M.S. (1993) The Frontier Gandhi, his place in history. Karachi : Oxford University Press. Following this, Bacha Khan formed Pakistan's first National opposition party, on 8 May 1948, the Pakistan Azad Party. The party pledged to play the role of constructive opposition and would be non-communal in its philosophy. However, suspicions of his allegiance persisted and under the new Pakistani government, Bacha Khan was placed under house arrest without charge from 1948 till 1954. Released from prison, he gave a speech again on the floor of the constituent assembly, this time condemning the massacre of his supporters at Babrra.Syed Minhajul Hassan,(1998) Babra Firing Incident: 12 August 1948, Peshawar: University of Peshawar. He was arrested several times between late 1948 and in 1956 for his opposition to the One Unit scheme.Abdul Ghaffar Khan(1958) Pashtun Aw Yoo Unit. Peshawar. The government attempted in 1958 to reconcile with him and offered him a Ministry in the government, after the assassination of his brother, he however refused.28 September 2005 Wednesday Dawn by Syed Afzaal Husain Zaidi An Old episode recalled He remained in prison till 1957 only to be re-arrested in 1958 until an illness in 1964 allowed for his release."Pakistan: The Frontier Gandhi" (18 January 1954). Time. In 1962, Bacha Khan was named an "Amnesty International Prisoner of the Year". Amnesty's statement about him said, "His example symbolizes the suffering of upward of a million people all over the world who are prisoners of conscience." In September 1964, the Pakistani authorities allowed him to go to United Kingdom for treatment. During the winter, his doctor advised him to go to United States. He then went into exile to Afghanistan, he returned from exile in December 1972 to popular support, following the establishment of a National Awami Party provincial government in North West Frontier Province and Balochistan. He was arrested by Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto's government at Multan in November 1973 and described Bhuttos government as "the worst kind of dictatorship".Wolpert, Stanley A. 1993. Zulfi Bhutto of Pakistan: His Life and Times. New York: Oxford University Press. In 1984, increasingly withdrawing from politics he was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize. He visited India and participated in the centennial celebrations of the Indian National Congress in 1985; he was awarded the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding in 1967 and later Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian award, in 1987.Abdul Ghaffar Khan, 98, a Follower of Gandhi (21 January 1988) The New York Times. Retrieved 21 January 2008 His final major political challenge was against the Kalabagh dam project, fearing that the project would damage the Peshawar valley, his hostility to it would eventually lead to the project being shelved after his death. ==Death== Bacha Khan died in Peshawar in 1988 from complications of a stroke and was buried in his house at Jalalabad, Afghanistan. Over 200,000 mourners attended his funeral, including the Afghan president Mohammad Najibullah. The then Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi went to Peshawar, to pay his tributes to Bacha Khan despite the fact that General Zia ul-Haq attempted to stall his attendance citing security reasons. Additionally, the Indian government declared a five-day period of mourning in his honour. Although he had been repeatedly imprisoned and persecuted, tens of thousands of mourners attended his funeral, described by one commentator as a caravan of peace, carrying a message of love from Pashtuns east of the Khyber to those on the west, marching through the historic Khyber Pass from Peshawar to Jalalabad. This symbolic march was planned by Bacha Khan, to affirmatively demonstrate his dream of Pashtun unification and to help that dream live on after his death. A cease-fire was announced in the Afghan Civil War to allow the funeral to take place, even though it was marred by bomb explosions killing fifteen people. ==Pashtunistan== Abdul Ghaffar Khan took an oath of allegiance to Pakistan in 1948 in the legislation assembly. When during his speech he was asked by the PM Liaquat Ali Khan about Pashtunistan, he replied that it was just a name for the Pashtun province in Pakistan, just like Punjab, Bengal, Sindh and Baluchishtan are the names of provinces of Pakistan as ethno-linguistic names, However, this compromise was apparently contrary to what he believed in and strived for before partition: Pashtunistan as an independent state after the failure of the idea of a united India. Later on in 1980, during an interview with an Indian journalist, Haroon Siddiqui, Abdul Ghaffar Khan said that the "idea of Pashtunistan never helped Pashtuns". According to him, the idea of Pashtunistan was never a reality. He further said that "successive Afghan governments have exploited the idea for their own political ends. It was only towards the end of Mohammed Daoud Khan regime that he stopped talking about Pashtunistan. Later on, even Nur Muhammad Taraki also talked about the idea of Pashtunistan and caused trouble for Pakistan". He said that "Pashtun people greatly suffered because of all this". Abdul Ghaffar Khan gave this interview while he was in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. He also said in the same interview that "I'll live here. I'm now (for all intents and purposes) an Afghan. I'm not even permitting my son, Khan Abdul Wali Khan, political leader of Pakistan's North West Frontier Province, to visit me because he'll insist that I go with him to Pakistan. But I don't want to go". == Legacy == His eldest son Ghani Khan was a poet. Ghani Khan's wife, Roshan, was from a Parsi family and was the daughter of Nawab Rustam Jang a prince of Hyderabad. His second son Abdul Wali Khan was the founder and leader of Awami National Party from 1986 to 2006 and was the Leader of the Opposition in the Pakistan National Assembly from 1988 to 1990. His third son Abdul Ali Khan was non-political and a distinguished educator, and served as Vice-Chancellor of University of Peshawar. Ali Khan was also the head of Aitchison College, Lahore and Fazle Haq college, Mardan. His niece Mariam married Jaswant Singh in 1939. Jaswant Singh was a young British Indian airforce officer and was Sikh by faith. Mariam later converted to Christianity. Mohammed Yahya Education Minister of Khyber Pukhtunkhwa, was the only son in law of Bacha Khan. Asfandyar Wali Khan is the grandson of Abdul Ghaffar Khan, and leader of the Awami National Party. The party was in power from 2008 to 2013. Zarine Khan Walsh, who lives in Mumbai, is the granddaughter of Abdul Ghaffar Khan and was the second daughter of Abdul Ghaffar Khan's eldest son Abdul Ghani Khan. The All India Pakhtoon Jirga-e-Hind is chaired by Yasmin Nigar Khan, who claims to be the great-granddaughter of Abdul Ghaffar Khan. Awami National Party leader Asfandyar Wali Khan rejected the claim, though a cultural ministry official clarified that Yasmin Nigar Khan was a descendant of Abdul Ghaffar Khan's "adopted" son. Salma Ataullahjan is the great grand niece of Abdul Ghaffar Khan and a member of the Senate of Canada. Bacha Khan's political legacy is renowned amongst Pashtuns and those in modern Republic of India as a leader of a non-violent movement. Within Pakistan, however, the vast majority of society have questioned his stance with the All India Congress over the Muslim League as well as his opposition to the partition of India and Jinnah. In particular, people have questioned where Bacha Khan's patriotism rests. == Film, literature and society == In 2008, a documentary, titled The Frontier Gandhi: Badshah Khan, a Torch for Peace, by film-maker and writer T.C. McLuhan, premiered in New York. The film received the 2009 award for Best Documentary Film at the Middle East International Film Festival (see film page). In 1990, a 30 Minutes Biographical Documentary film On Badshah Khan The Majestic Man in English Language Which was telecast On Doordarshan (National channel ) Produced by Mr. Abdul Kabeer Siddiqui, Producer/Director from New Delhi who works for Indian National TV Channel. In Richard Attenborough's 1982 epic Gandhi, Bacha Khan was portrayed by Dilsher Singh. In his home city of Peshawar, the Bacha Khan International Airport is named after him. In his hometown Charsadda, the Bacha Khan University is named after him. Bacha Khan was listed as one of 26 men who changed the world in a recent children's book published in the United States, alongside Tiger Woods and Yo Yo Ma. Cynthia Chin-Lee, Megan Halsey, Sean Addy (2006). Akira to Zoltán: twenty-six men who changed the world. Watertown, MA (US): Charlesbridge. (Badshah Khan is listed under the letter 'B', p. 5) He also wrote an autobiography (1969), and has been the subject of biographies by Eknath Easwaran (see article) and Rajmohan Gandhi (see "References" section, below). His philosophy of Islamic pacifism was recognised by US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, in a speech to American Muslims.Muslim Media Network. (17 September 2009). Hillary Clinton hosts Iftar at State Department. last accessed 22 March 2010. In the Indian city of Delhi, the popular Khan Market is named in his honour, along with another market in the Karol Bagh area of New Delhi, Ghaffar Market. In Mumbai, a seafront road and promenade in the Worli neighbourhood was named Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan Road after him. == See also == * Mirzali Khan * Khudai Khidmatgar * List of peace activists == Footnotes == == References == * * * Caroe, Olaf. 1984. The Pathans: 500 B.C–-A.D. 1957 (Oxford in Asia Historical Reprints)." Oxford University Press. * Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (1969). My life and struggle: Autobiography of Badshah Khan (as narrated to K.B. Narang). Translated by Helen Bouman. Hind Pocket Books, New Delhi. * Rajmohan Gandhi (2004). Ghaffar Khan: non-violent Badshah of the Pakhtuns. Viking, New Delhi. . * Eknath Easwaran (1999). Nonviolent Soldier of Islam: Ghaffar Khan, a man to match his mountains. Nilgiri Press, Tomales, CA. * Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan: A True Servant of Humanity by Girdhari Lal Puri pp. 188–190. * Mukulika Banerjee (2000). Pathan Unarmed: Opposition & Memory in the North West Frontier. School of American Research Press. * Pilgrimage for Peace: Gandhi and Frontier Gandhi Among N.W.F. Pathans, Pyarelal, Ahmedabad, Navajivan Publishing House, 1950. * Tah Da Qam Da Zrah Da Raza, Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Mardan [Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa] Ulasi Adabi Tolanah, 1990. * Thrown to the Wolves: Abdul Ghaffar, Pyarelal, Calcutta, Eastlight Book House, 1966. * Faraib-e-Natamam , Juma Khan Sufi == External links == * * Interview with Bacha Khan * Baacha Khan Trust * Columbia University pictures * Photograph Collection Category:1890 births Category:1988 deaths Category:Recipients of the Bharat Ratna Category:Pakistani civil rights activists Category:Community activists Category:Pakistani secularists Category:Pakistani socialists Category:Muslim reformers Category:Pakistani pacifists Category:People from Peshawar Category:Pashtun people Category:Pashtun nationalists Category:Indian nationalists Category:Nonviolence advocates Category:Pakistani humanitarians Category:Prisoners and detainees of British India Category:Indian independence activists Category:Aligarh Muslim University alumni Category:People from Charsadda District, Pakistan Category:Pakistani expatriates in Afghanistan Category:Pakistani exiles Category:Pakistani Muslim pacifists Category:Indian Muslim pacifists Category:Pakistani prisoners and detainees Category:Amnesty International prisoners of conscience held by Pakistan Category:Pakistani MNAs 1947–1954 Bacha Category:Muslim socialists Category:Gandhians Category:Members of the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan |
South Korea has the raw materials and equipment to produce a nuclear weapon but has not opted to make one. In August 2004, South Korea revealed the extent of its highly secretive and sensitive nuclear research programs to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), including some experiments which were conducted without the obligatory reporting to the IAEA called for by South Korea's safeguards agreement."Nonproliferation, By the Numbers ". Sokolski, Henry. Journal of International Security Affairs. Spring 2007 - Number 12. The failure to report was reported by the IAEA Secretariat to the IAEA Board of Governors;IAEA GOV/2004/84: Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement in the Republic of Korea however, the IAEA Board of Governors decided to not make a formal finding of noncompliance. However, South Korea has continued on a stated policy of non-proliferation of nuclear weapons and has adopted a policy to maintain a nuclear-free Korean Peninsula. By contrast, North Korea has and is developing additional nuclear weapons. == Early nuclear ambitions == When the United States notified the South Korean administration of its plan to withdraw USFK in July 1970, South Korea first considered the possibility of an independent nuclear program. Under the direction of South Korea's Weapons Exploitation Committee, the country attempted to obtain plutonium reprocessing facilities following the pullout of the 26,000 American soldiers of the 7th Infantry Division in 1971. After South Vietnam had fallen in April 1975, then South Korean president Park Chung-hee first mentioned its nuclear weapons aspiration during the press conference on 12 June 1975. However, under pressure from the United States, France eventually decided not to deliver a reprocessing facility to South Korea in 1975. South Korea's nuclear weapons research program effectively ended on April 23, 1975, with its ratification of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. == Post-NPT programs == ===Previously unreported experiments=== In 1982, scientists at the Korean Atomic Energy Research Institute performed an experiment in which they extracted several milligrams of plutonium. Although plutonium has uses other than the manufacture of weapons, the United States later insisted that South Korea not attempt to reprocess plutonium in any way. In exchange, the US agreed to transfer reactor technology and give financial assistance to South Korea's nuclear energy program. It was revealed in 2004 that some South Korean scientists continued some studies; for example, in 1983 and 1984 Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute was conducting chemical experiments related to the handling of spent fuel that crossed the reprocessing boundary.Kang, Jungmin; Hayes, Peter; Bin, Li; Suzuki, Tatsujiro; Tanter, Richard. "South Korea's Nuclear Surprise". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. January 1, 2005. Later, in an experiment at the same facility in 2000, scientists enriched 200 milligrams of uranium to near-weapons grade (up to 77 percent) using laser enrichment. The South Korean government claimed that this research was conducted without its knowledge. While uranium enriched to 77 percent is usually not considered weapons-grade, it could theoretically be used to construct a nuclear weapon.Council on Foreign Relations: Iran's Nuclear Program > Weapons-grade uranium—also known as highly-enriched uranium, or HEU—is > around 90 percent (technically, HEU is any concentration over 20 percent, > but weapons-grade levels are described as being in excess of 90 percent). Federation of American Scientists: Uranium Production > A state selecting uranium for its weapons must obtain a supply of uranium > ore and construct an enrichment plant because the U-235 content in natural > uranium is over two orders of magnitude lower than that found in weapons > grade uranium (>90 percent U-235 U). Highly enriched uranium with a purity of 20% or more is usable in a weapon, but this route is less desirable as far more material is required to obtain critical mass.HEU as weapons material – a technical background These events went unreported to the IAEA until late 2004. === IAEA response === Following Seoul's disclosure of the above incidents, the IAEA launched a full investigation into South Korea's nuclear activities. In a report issued on November 11, 2004, the IAEA described the South Korean government's failure to report its nuclear activities a matter of "serious concern", but accepted that these experiments never produced more than very small amounts of weaponizeable fissile material. The Board of Governors decided to not make a formal finding of noncompliance, and the matter was not referred to the Security Council. Pierre Goldschmidt, former head of the department of safeguards at the IAEA, has called on the Board of Governors to adopt generic resolutions which would apply to all states in such circumstances and has argued "political considerations played a dominant role in the board’s decision" to not make a formal finding of non-compliance.Exposing Nuclear Non-Compliance. Pierre Goldschmidt. Survival: Global Politics and Strategy, vol. 51, no. 1, February–March 2009, pp. 143–164 == American nuclear weapons in South Korea == thumb|Deployment of US atomic weapons in Korea in 1958 The US first deployed nuclear weapons to South Korea in 1958, and numbers peaked in the late 1960s at close to 950, including a mix of tactical and strategic weapons. Following its accession to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1985, the government of North Korea had cited the presence of US tactical nuclear weapons in South Korea as a reason to avoid completing a safeguards agreement with the International Atomic Energy Agency. In 1991, President George H W Bush announced the withdrawal of all naval and land-based tactical nuclear weapons deployed abroad, including approximately 100 such weapons based in South Korea. In January 1992, the governments of North and South Korea signed a Joint Declaration of the Denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula, and in January 1992, the North concluded a comprehensive safeguards agreement with the IAEA. Implementation meetings for the Joint Declaration took place in 1992 and 1993, but no agreement could be found, so consequently the declaration never entered into force. In 2013, South Korean Prime Minister Chung Hong-won rejected calls to again station American tactical nuclear weapons in South Korea. In 2017, during a period of unusually high tension, South Korean defence minister Song Young-moo suggested it was worth reviewing the redeployment of U.S. nuclear weapons to the Korean Peninsula. Yoon Suk-yeol, the incumbent President of South Korea, stated in 2021 that he would ask that the United States redeploy tactical nuclear weapons in South Korea. == Public opinion == In the late 1990s, a notable minority of South Koreans supported the country's effort to reprocess materials, although only a small number called for the government to obtain nuclear weapons. With the escalation of the 2017 North Korea crisis, amid worries that the United States might hesitate to defend South Korea from a North Korean attack for fear of inviting a missile attack against the United States, public opinion turned strongly in favour of a South Korean nuclear arsenal, with polls showing that 60% of South Koreans supported building nuclear weapons. In 2023 Poll, found that over 76% of South Koreans support nuclear weapons.https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2023/02/205_344519.html ==Nuclear-capable state== Although currently South Korea is under the US nuclear umbrella of protection, it could very well break away and try to develop its own nuclear weapons if necessary. Like Japan, South Korea has the raw materials, technology, and resources to create nuclear weapons. Previous incidents show the Republic of Korea (ROK) to be able to possess nuclear weapons in anywhere from one to three years if necessary. The ROK has been shown before to create enriched uranium up to 77%, which although not particularly powerful, shows that South Korea has the potential to make nuclear weapons with more highly enriched uranium. South Korea does not have any ICBMs but possesses a wide range of SRBM and MRBMs through the Hyunmoo series of ballistic/cruise missiles currently fielded to the ROK Army. The Hyunmoo series of ballistic missiles works similarly to the American Tomahawk Missile, which can be armed with the W80 and W84 nuclear warheads. Theoretically, if needed, the 500 kg conventional warhead could be replaced by a small nuclear warhead. The Hyunmoo missiles can already cover the entire range of North Korea and would drastically change the North's disposition if the South had nuclear armed MRBMs. Even though the ROK could procure nuclear weapons, currently like Japan it sees no reason to do so with the protection of the American nuclear arsenal. However, if a conflict erupts with the North, South Korea could quickly evolve into a nuclear-armed state and pose even with the North with the support of the US. According to Suh Kune-yull, a professor of nuclear engineering at Seoul National University, “If we decide to stand on our own feet and put our resources together, we can build nuclear weapons in six months”. South Korean president Yoon Suk Yeol stated in January 2023 that if the security situation regarding the threat from North Korean nuclear weapons deteriorates further, South Korea would consider building their own nuclear weapons to deterent the North or request that the United States deploy nuclear weapons in South Korea. In 1991 the United States removed all of its nuclear weapons from South Korea. The statements from the South Korea president came during a policy briefing by his foreign and defense ministries; the comments are the first time South Korea has officially acknowledged they would consider developing its own nuclear arsenal in response to North Korean nuclear weapons. In 2022 South Korea announced it had developed submarine launched ballistic missiles; South Korea is the only nation with SLBMs that does not possess nuclear weapons. In February 2023, Leader of the People Power Party Chung Jin Suk said that South Korea might need nuclear weapons. In March 2023, Mayor of Seoul Oh Se-hoon called for South Korea to have nuclear weapons. ==Delivery systems== South Korea missile development originates in 1970 with creation of Defense Ministry's research arm the Agency of Defense Development with development starting in 1971 under orders of then president Park Chung-hee. In 19708090 was allowed to service Hawk and Nike Hercules surface-to-air missiles under agreement with maintenance facility under the supervision of the U.S which was set up in the country with South Korean engineers receiving training from the Raytheon and U.S military involving improvement of the missiles. South Korea in 1975 purchased mixer for missiles solid fuel propellant from Lockheed along with some equipment imported later on in 1978 with first successful ballistic missile test of first South Korean short range ballistic missile NHK-1(also known as White/Polar Bear) conducted the same year on September 26 demonstrating 160 km range with maximum range of 180 to 200 km. NHK-1 was by South Korea touted as completely indigenous development though in fact some of the technology was supplied and obtained from the United States. Seoul agreed to not extended range of the missile beyond 180 km under South Korea Ballistic Missile Range Guidelines with the U.S with development of its successor NHK-2 that was tested in October 1982 with development being halted in 1984 until resumption couple years later with completion in 1987 when it entered service, its guidance system was supplied by United Kingdom. In 1995 South Korea requested permission to have 300 km range missiles from the US in line with MTCR with request in 1999 for expansion to 500 km. Development of 300 km range Hyunmoo-2 started in mid to late 1990s with first test in April 1999 with entering service in 2008 as Hyunmoo-2A after restrictions were lifted from previous agreement to limitation comparable to MTCR, Hyunmoo-2B entered service in 2009 with range under MTCR-like restriction and range restriction under South Korea Ballistic Missile Range Guidelines renegotiated in 2012 with the US from 300 km to 800 km with reduced payload from 997 kg to 500 kg. Cap on missile warhead weight was lifted in 2017.Reuters On May 21, 2021, the decades-old South Korea Ballistic Missile Range Guidelines was scrapped, allowing South Korea to develop and possess any type of missile, including intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and advanced submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs). == See also == * International Atomic Energy Agency * North Korea nuclear weapons program * Nuclear power in South Korea * Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty * South Korea Ballistic Missile Range Guidelines * Timeline of the North Korean nuclear program * :ko:대한민국의 핵무기 개발 * :ko:대한민국의 독자 핵무장론 == References == == Further reading == * * * * * * ==External links== * South Korea Nuclear Chronology; Nuclear Threat Initiative Category:Weapons of mass destruction by country Category:Government of South Korea Category:History of South Korea Category:Nuclear technology in South Korea Category:Science and technology in South Korea Category:Nuclear weapons programs Category:Articles containing video clips |
The Wolfgang Press were an English post-punk band, active from 1983 to 1995, recording for the 4AD label. The core of the band was Michael Allen (vocals, bass), Mark Cox (keyboards), and Andrew Gray (guitar). The group is best known for its 1992 international hit single "A Girl Like You (Born to Be Kissed)". ==Style and influences== The official 4AD band profile describes them as "post-punk", transforming to "avant-dance groovers" with Queer. The group were frequently labelled "goth," though they denied the charge. Allen's list of "important records" as of 1995 included De La Soul's 3 Feet High and Rising, Massive Attack's Blue Lines and "anything from Nick Cave and The Fall". He recalled that the record that "maybe started it all" for him was Public Image Ltd's Metal Box. ==History== ===Rema-Rema, Mass (1978–1981)=== Allen started in The Models in 1977. Allen and Cox had both been members of Rema-Rema and Mass, while Gray had been a member of In Camera. All of these bands had also recorded for 4AD.4AD band profile, p. 1, 4ad.com Rema-Rema were formed in 1978The Worriers (Marina Merosi, ZigZag March 1984, p12-13) by schoolmatesRiding Mikes Bikes With Gary Asquith Of The Lavender Pill Mob (Todd E. Jones, April 2006) Allen and Gary Asquith, with Cox, Marco Pirroni (also a school friend of Allen'sThe Mud Black Geniuser Of Michael Allen (Todd C. Allen, MVRemix, February 2006, p4) and a fellow member of The ModelsThe Models (punk77.co.uk)) and Max Prior (who later recorded as Dorothy with Psychic TVThe Story Of "I Confess" (Kid Shirt blog, 2006-01-14)). 4AD founder Ivo Watts-Russell said that hearing Rema-Rema's demo tape "was the first point I knew that we were actually doing something serious [with 4AD]."Rema-Rema (4AD official profile) Their sole recording was the Wheel in the Roses 12"EP (4AD BAD-5, 1 Apr 1980).Rema-Rema – Wheel In The Roses (discogs.com) The band split when Pirroni left to join Adam and the Ants (although Pirroni says he had already leftInterview with Marco Pirroni & Chris Constantinou – The Wolfmen (Terry Lane, Buzzin Music, 2010-12-15) — "Adam didn’t headhunt me — I was already out of Rema Rema when he called me."), and reformed as Mass. Mass consisted of Allen and Cox with Asquith and Danny Briottet. Mass recorded a single, "You And I"/"Cabbage" (4AD AD-14, Oct 1980),Mass (4) – You And I / Cabbage (discogs.com) and an album, Labour Of Love (4AD CAD-107, May 1981).Mass (4) – Labour Of Love (discogs.com) Mass split in 1981. Asquith and Briottet later (1986) formed Renegade Soundwave. (Asquith remained a friend and contributed to Queer.) ===The Burden of Mules (1983)=== After Mass split, Allen and Cox continued working together. The Burden of Mules was described byTrouser Press as "dark and cacophonous, an angry, intense slab of post-punk gloom that is best left to its own (de)vices"; the AllMusic Guide to Electronica describes some tracks as "so morose and vehement as to verge on self-parody." ZigZag was more positive, regarding the album as an artistic success and an "emphatic statement." The band's career retrospective compilation, Everything Is Beautiful, contains no tracks from the album. Guest musicians included Richard Thomas (Dif Juz), David Steiner (In Camera) and guitarist and percussionist Andrew Gray, who soon joined the band. ===Early EPs=== The EPs Scarecrow, Water and Sweatbox followed, produced by Robin Guthrie. These were later compiled (with some remixed versions) as The Legendary Wolfgang Press and Other Tall Stories. The AllMusic Guide to Electronica describes Scarecrow as "a lighter, more streamlined affair", Water as spotlighting "ominously sparse torch songs", and Sweatbox as "deconstructionist pop". ===Standing Up Straight (1986)=== The 4AD band profile describes Standing Up Straight as "an intense blend of industrial and classical tropes". Trouser Press describes it as "as challenging and inventive as the band's other work, adding industrial and classical instrumentation to the creative arsenal", "dark and thoroughly uncompromising" and "not for the easily intimidated." The AllMusic Guide to Electronica describes it as "a challenging, even punishing album, but a rewarding one as well." ===Bird Wood Cage (1988)=== The AllMusic Guide to Electronica notes Bird Wood Cage as "one of the most pivotal records in the Wolfgang Press catalog; here, the trio begins to incorporate the dance and funk elements which would ultimately emerge as the dominant facet of their work." Trouser Press describes Bird Wood Cage as "inserting fascinating bits of business into superficially forbidding songs", including female backing vocals, funky wah-wah guitar and elements of dub reggae. The album was preceded by the EP Big Sex, which presages Bird Wood Cage's musical themes. "King Of Soul", "Kansas" and "Raintime"/"Bottom Drawer" were singles from the album. Allen later said that Bird Wood Cage was the Wolfgang Press album he was most proud of. ===Queer (1991), "A Girl Like You" (1992)=== The genesis of the 1991 album Queer was listening to De La Soul's 1989 debut album 3 Feet High and Rising. As Allen put it, this was when they "rediscovered that music could indeed be fun." "It seemed such a joyous record. There was a freshness and ease about the way it was made that inspired us to reassess our working process."Jeremy Simmonds. "The Wolfgang Press." The Rough Guide to Rock, 3rd ed., Peter Buckley (ed.), p1182. Rough Guides Ltd, October 2003. . The album's sound includes many samples and funkier, poppier beats than previous albums. The AllMusic Guide to Electronica describes it as "alien funk, a collection of idiosyncratic rhythms, dark textures, and ominous grooves."Jason Ankeny. "Wolfgang Press." AllMusic Guide to Electronica: the definitive guide to electronic music, p560. Vladimir Bogdanov, ed., 2001. Backbeat Books. . The band members each play multiple instruments, making the sound fuller than previous work.Wolfgang Press (Altricia Gethers/Megan Frampton, Trouser Press) Bassist Leslie Langston of Throwing Muses guests on most tracks. The singles from the album were "Time" (the album version being titled "Question Of Time"), which included a sample from Pink Floyd's "Time" (from The Dark Side of the Moon),Wolfgang Press, The - Time (discogs.com) followed by a cover of Randy Newman's "Mama Told Me Not to Come." The single "A Girl Like You" was released in May 1992The Wolfgang Press - "A Girl Like You / Angel" (erasure.ru) and became an international hit, scoring No. 2 on the Billboard US Modern Rock (Alternative Songs) chart on 15 August 1992.The Wolfgang Press - A Girl Like You (billboard.com) The song was later covered by Tom Jones, who then asked the band to write "Show Me (Some Devotion)" for him, both recordings appearing on The Lead and How to Swing It (1994). Jones also joined them on-stage for All Virgos Are Mad, a 4AD anniversary concert in Los Angeles in January 1995."He's With The Band." (Billboard, 28 January 1995, p12) Due to sample clearance issues, the 1992 US release of Queer (which includes "A Girl Like You") needed considerable rerecording and remixing.4AD band profile, p. 2, 4ad.com ===Funky Little Demons (1995)=== After "A Girl Like You", the band bought their own studio, removing the financial pressure of traditional studio rental. The band spent two years recording Funky Little Demons. Trouser Press describes the album as "straight-ahead dance music with the correct materials", though "no longer enigmatic risk-takers, the Wolfgang Press have become just another white post-new wave soul band." The single "Going South" reached No. 117 on the UK Singles Chart and No. 33 on the US alternative chart.The Wolfgang Press Songs (MusicVF charts database) A promotional CD of "Christianity" was also distributed in the USWolfgang Press, The – Christianity (discogs.com) and a video released, directed by Mark Neale,Production Notes: Other Cities (Billboard, 20 May 1995, p36) but the band was dropped by 4AD before the single could be released. The album spent one week on the UK Albums Chart at No. 75 in February 1995. Cox left the band in February 1995, shortly before the release of the album. Allen and Gray aimed to continue,The Wolfgang Press (Chaos Control Digizine, 1995) and toured the US without Cox to promote the album,World View News (Keyboard 21, 1995, p11) but later conceded the band had run its course. ===Post-Wolfgang Press and Unremembered Remembered=== A compilation album, Everything Is Beautiful (A Retrospective 1983–1995), was released in 2001. (Despite the name, it contains nothing from before 1984.) Allen records and plays live periodically with his band Geniuser with Giuseppe De Bellis, whom Allen regards as the driving force. Geniuser released the album Mud Black on the Phisteria label in 2005 and an EP called Press/Delete in 2010 on the same label. Gray played on the album. Allen also played with Gary Asquith's Lavender Pill Mob. Gray recorded under the name Limehouse Outlaw, and released an album Homegrown on his own label on 27 May 2002, with some songs co-written by Allen. Gray also recorded with the Lavender Pill Mob. Cox has contributed writing and production to a project entitled U:guru. In 1995 and 1996, after Cox had left the band and Funky Little Demons had been released, the duo of Allen and Gray had planned a follow-up album. Six songs from these sessions would be finally released on Record Store Day 2020, under the title Unremembered Remembered. The album is billed as a Mini-LP and as the band's final studio album. Although there was a seventh track recorded, the band opted not to include it on the release. ==Name== Although some sources indicate that they named themselves after German actor Wolfgang Preiss, Spin said the band claimed to have named themselves after a device that Mozart tried (unsuccessfully) to invent to type out his music.Press Conference: The Wolfgang Press squeezes the soul out of laid-back English pop. (Amy Talkington, Spin, October 1992, p30) No such device is known. Allen has stated elsewhere that the name was chosen to be "meaningless and open to interpretation."The Mud Black Geniuser Of Michael Allen (Todd C. Allen, MVRemix, February 2006, p. 2) ==Discography== ===Albums=== * The Burden of Mules (Aug 1983), 4AD * Standing Up Straight (Aug 1986), 4AD * Bird Wood Cage (7 Nov 1988), 4AD (1988 CD includes Big Sex EP) * Queer (5 Aug 1991), 4AD (initial vinyl copies included 12" EP Sucker of remixes by Martyn Young of Colourbox) * Queer (1992), 4AD/Warner U.S. * Funky Little Demons (23 January 1995), 4AD (initial CD copies with four-track remix bonus disc) * Unremembered Remembered (29 August 2020), 4AD ===Singles and EPs=== * Scarecrow (12" EP, recorded July 1984, released August 1984), 4AD * Water (12" EP, recorded January 1985, released March 1985), 4AD * Sweatbox (12" EP, recorded Apr 1985, released Jul 1985), 4AD * Big Sex (12" EP, recorded Dec 1986, released Apr 1987), 4AD * "King of Soul" (12", 22 Aug 1988), 4AD * "Kansas" (12", 30 January 1989), 4AD * "Raintime/Bottom Drawer" (12" / CD, 2 May 1989), 4AD * "Time" (12" / CD, 2 Apr 1991), 4AD * "Mama Told Me Not to Come" (7" / 12", 13 May 1991), 4AD/Warner U.S. * "A Girl Like You" (7" / 12" / CD), 4AD/Warner U.S. * "Going South", 4AD/Warner U.S. ===Compilations=== * The Legendary Wolfgang Press and Other Tall Stories (Nov 1985), 4AD - compilation of EPs Scarecrow, Water and Sweatbox with some different versions / CD includes two bonus tracks: "The Deep Briny" and "Muted" * Everything Is Beautiful (A Retrospective 1983-1995) (1 Oct 2001), 4AD ===Various Artists compilation appearances=== * State of Affairs (Pleasantly Surprised cassette PS-002, 1984): "Prostitute" (Remixed Version) * Dreams and Desires (Pleasantly Surprised cassette PS-006, 1984): "Ecstasy" (instrumental) * Document: Pleasantly Surprised (82 - 85) (Pleasantly Surprised cassette PS-012, Feb 1986): "Prostitute" (Remixed Version)Various – Document: Pleasantly Surprised (82 - 85) (discogs.com) * Abstract 5 (Sweatbox AMO-5, 1985; LP with Abstract magazine No. 5): "Fire Eater" (Remix)Various Artists - Abstract Magazine : Volume 5 (Everything Starts With An A) * Lonely Is an Eyesore (4AD CAD-703, June 1987): "Cut the Tree" * Unbelievable - The Indie Dance Album (Posh Music for Kids UNB-101, 1991): "Time"Various – Unbelievable - The Indie Dance Album (discogs.com) * Volume One (Volume CD, Sep 1991; CD with Volume magazine No. 1): "Sucker" (Version) (3:36) * Rough Trade: Music for the 90's Vol. 3 (Rough Trade Deutschland RTD-199.1215.2 CD, 1991): "Louis XIV" (4:10)Various – Rough Trade - Music For The 90's • Vol. 3 (discogs.com) * NME Viva 8 - Live at the Town and Country Club 8-1-92 (NME, 1992): "Dreams and Light" (3:22) * Lilliput 1 & 2 (4AD LILLIPUT-1+2, 1992): "A Girl Like You", "Birmingham" * 4AD Presents the 13 Year Itch CD (4AD SHUFFLE-1, 1993): "Peace on Fire" (4:02)1993 releases (4AD)4AD Presents The 13 Year Itch (allmusic.com) * 4AD Presents the 13 Year Itch VHS (4AD SHUFFLE-1, 1993): "Kansas" * All Virgos Are Mad (4AD/Warner 45789 CD, 1994; free CD for All Virgos Are Mad shows): "One" * All Virgos Are Mad (4AD/Warner 45789 CD, 1994; free VHS for All Virgos Are Mad shows): "Kansas" * Facing the Wrong Way (4AD FTWW-1, 1995): "Christianity" (Wicked Man Remix) ==References== ==External links== * The Wolfgang Press at 4AD records Category:4AD artists Category:English gothic rock groups Category:English post-punk music groups Category:English new wave musical groups Category:Musical groups from London |
Wookey Hole Caves () are a series of limestone caverns, a show cave and tourist attraction in the village of Wookey Hole on the southern edge of the Mendip Hills near Wells in Somerset, England. The River Axe flows through the cave. It is a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) for both biological and geological reasons. Wookey Hole cave is a "solutional cave", one that is formed by a process of weathering in which the natural acid in groundwater dissolves the rocks. Some water originates as rain that flows into streams on impervious rocks on the plateau before sinking at the limestone boundary into cave systems such as Swildon's Hole, Eastwater Cavern and St Cuthbert's Swallet; the rest is rain that percolates directly through the limestone. The temperature in the caves is a constant . The caves have been used by humans for around 45,000 years, demonstrated by the discovery of tools from the Palaeolithic period, along with fossilised animal remains. Evidence of Stone and Iron Age occupation continued into Roman Britain. A corn-grinding mill operated on the resurgent waters of the River Axe as early as the Domesday survey of 1086. The waters of the river are used in a handmade paper mill, the oldest extant in Britain, which began operations circa 1610. The low, constant temperature of the caves means that they can be used for maturing Cheddar cheese. The caves were the site of the first cave dives in Britain, undertaken by Jack Sheppard and Graham Balcombe in the 1930s. Since then, divers have explored the extensive network of chambers developing breathing apparatus and novel techniques in the process. The full extent of the cave system is still unknown with approximately , including 25 chambers, having been explored. Part of the cave system opened as a show cave in 1927 following exploratory work by Herbert E. Balch. As a tourist attraction it has been owned by Madame Tussauds and, most recently, the circus owner Gerry Cottle. The cave is notable for the Witch of Wookey Hole, a roughly human-shaped stalagmite that legend says is a witch turned to stone by a monk from Glastonbury. It has also been used as a location for film and television productions, including the Doctor Who serial Revenge of the Cybermen. ==Description== The show cave consists of a dry gallery connecting three large chambers, the first of which contains the Witch of Wookey formation. There are various high-level passages leading off from these chambers, with two small exits above the tourist entrance. The River Axe is formed by the water entering the cave systems and flows through the third and first chambers, from which it flows to the resurgence, through two sumps and long, where it leaves the cave and enters the open air. The river is maintained at an artificially high level and falls a couple of metres when a sluice is lowered to allow access to the fourth and fifth chambers, two small air spaces. Normally, however, these are only accessible by cave diving. Beyond the fifth chamber a roomy submerged route may be followed for a further , passing under three large rifts with air spaces, to surface in the ninth chamber – a roomy chamber over long and the same high. High-level passages here lead to a former resurgence, now blocked, some above the current resurgence. An artificial tunnel leading off from the third chamber allows show cave visitors to cross the seventh and eighth chambers on bridges, and skirt around the ninth chamber on a walkway, before exiting near the resurgence. A second excavated tunnel from the ninth chamber allows visitors to visit the 20th chamber. From the ninth chamber, a dive of about passes almost immediately from the Dolomitic Conglomerate into the limestone, and descends steadily for to a depth of under a couple of high rifts with airbells (enclosed air spaces between water and roof) before reaching air space in the 19th chamber. The 20th chamber is at the top of a large boulder slope – long, wide, and high. From here a roomy passage some long ascends towards a now- blocked fossil resurgence in the Ebbor Gorge. The total length of passages in this area is about . A passage near the end connects with Chamber 24 near Sting Corner. The continuation is found in the 19th chamber, where of passage descending to a depth of surfaces in the 22nd chamber – of dry passages at various levels with a static pool. The way on is within this pool at a depth of where of passage ascends to surface in the 23rd chamber – of large passage, followed by four short sumps that arrive in the 24th chamber. This is of what is described in the guidebook as "magnificent" river passage, high and wide, which finishes at a cascade falling from a long lake. There are also more than of high-level passages above the river. The way on continues underwater for some reaching a depth of before surfacing in the 25th chamber – called the Lake of Gloom because of its thick mud deposits. The sump at the end of this has been dived for to a maximum depth of before gravel chokes prevented further progress. The end is about northeast of the entrance. ==Hydrology and geology== Wookey Hole is on the southern escarpment of the Mendip Hills, and is the resurgence that drains the southern flanks of North Hill and Pen Hill. It is the second-largest resurgence on Mendip, with an estimated catchment area of , and an average discharge of per second. Some of the water is allogenic in origin i.e. drained off non-limestone rocks, collecting as streams on the surface before sinking at or near the Lower Limestone Shale — Black Rock Limestone boundary, often through swallets such as Plantation Swallet near St Cuthbert's lead works between the Hunter's Lodge Inn and Priddy Pools. It then passes through major cave systems such as Swildon's Hole, Eastwater Cavern and St Cuthbert's Swallet, around Priddy, but 95% is autogenic water that has percolated directly into the limestone. The southern slopes of the Mendip Hills largely follow the flanks of an anticline, a fold in the rock that is convex upwards and has its oldest beds at its core. On the Mendips the crest of the anticline is truncated by erosion, forming a plateau. The rock strata here dip 10–15 degrees to the southwest. The outer slopes are mainly of Carboniferous Limestone, with Devonian age Old Red Sandstone exposed as an inlier at the centre. Wookey Hole is a solutional cave, mainly formed in the limestone by chemical weathering whereby naturally acidic groundwater dissolves the carbonate rocks, but it is unique in that the first part of the cave is formed in Triassic Dolomitic Conglomerate, a well-cemented fossil limestone scree representing the infill of a Triassic valley. The cave was formed under phreatic conditions i.e. below the local water table, but lowering base levels to which the subterranean drainage was flowing resulted in some passages being abandoned by the river, and there is evidence of a number of abandoned resurgences. In particular, the passages in the 20th chamber are interpreted as a former Vauclusian spring, the waters of which once surfaced in the Ebbor Gorge. It is uncertain whether that was the original rising or whether it formed when the main rising at Wookey was blocked. The current resurgence is located close to the base of the Dolomitic Conglomerate at the head of a short gorge formed by headward erosion with subsequent cavern collapse. The morphology of the passages is determined by the rock strata in which they are formed. The streamway in the outer part of the cave system that is formed within the Dolomitic Conglomerate is characterised by shallow loops linking low bedding chambers, or tall narrow passages, known as 'rifts', developed by phreatic solutional enlargement of fractured rifts. The streamway in the inner part of the system formed within the limestone is characterised by deep phreatic loops reaching depths as much as , with the water flowing down-dip along bedding planes and rising up enlarged joints. In the far reaches of the cave the passages descend to below sea level. ==History== thumb|Cheddar cheeses in Wookey Hole Caves Witcombe suggests that the name Wookey is derived from the Celtic (Welsh) for 'cave', ogo or ogof, which gave the early names for this cave of "Ochie" or "Ochy". Hole is Anglo-Saxon for cave, which is itself of Latin/Norman derivation. Therefore, the name Wookey Hole Cave basically means cave cave cave. Eilert Ekwall gives an alternative derivation of Wookey from the Old English wocig, meaning a noose or snare for animals. By the 18th century the caves were commonly known as "Okey Hole". It was known as such when it was first described in print in 1681 by the geologist John Beaumont. Fossils of a range of animals have been found including the Pleistocene lion (Felis leo spelæ), cave hyena (Crocuta crocuta spelaea) and badger (Meles meles). Wookey Hole was occupied by humans in the Iron Age, possibly around 250–300 BC, while nearby Hyena Cave was occupied by Stone Age hunters. Badger Hole and Rhinoceros Hole are two dry caves on the slopes above the Wookey ravine near the Wookey Hole resurgence and contain in situ cave sediments laid down during the Ice Age. Just outside the cave the foundations of a 1st-century hut have been identified. These had been built on during the Roman era up to the end of the 4th century. In 1544 products of Roman lead working in the area were discovered. The lead mines across the Mendips have produced contamination of the water emerging from the caverns at Wookey Hole. The lead in the water is believed to have affected the quality of the paper produced. The designation of the water catchment area for Wookey Hole, covering a large area of the Mendip Hills as far away as Priddy Pools, as a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) during the 1970s and 1980s was controversial because of conflicts of interest between land owners, recreational cavers and cave scientists. Initial proposals put forward by the Council of Southern Caving Clubs (part of the British Caving Association) were that SSSI designation, which would restrict what farmers and other landowners were allowed to do, would cover the entire catchment area. This was opposed as being too restrictive and difficult to enforce. It was argued that agricultural use of fields not directly in contact with cave entrances would have little detrimental effect on the caves themselves. There was also debate about which caves and cave features should be considered "important". The final settlement resulted in a smaller area being designated and many agricultural practices being removed from the list of proscribed "Potentially Damaging Operations". The entrance weir and sluice gate servicing the paper mill was built about 1852. The tunnel excavated from the third chamber to the ninth chamber and then out to daylight was dug in 1974–1975 by ex-coal miners from the Radstock area. The show cave was further extended in 2015 by excavating a tunnel from the ninth chamber to the 20th chamber. The constant temperature of in the caves is used by Ford Farm of Dorset to mature Cheddar cheese in the 'Cheese Tunnel' – an excavated side tunnel between the ninth chamber and the exit to the show cave. ===Cave archaeology=== Archaeological investigations were undertaken from 1859 to 1874 by William Boyd Dawkins, who moved to Somerset to study classics with the vicar of Wookey. On hearing of the discovery of bones by local workmen, he led excavations in the area of the hyena den. His work led to the discovery of the first evidence for the use by Paleolithic humans in the caves of the Mendip Hills. Middle Paleolithic tools have been found in association with butchered bones with a radiocarbon age of around 41,000 years. Herbert E. Balch continued the work from 1904 to 1914, when he led excavations of the entrance passage (1904–1915), Witch's Kitchen (the first chamber) and Hell's Ladder (1926–1927) and the Badger Hole (1938–1954), where Roman coins from the 3rd century were discovered along with Aurignacian flint implements. Rhinoceros Hole was scheduled as an ancient monument in 1992. The 1911 work found of stratification, mostly dating from the Iron Age and sealed into place by Romano-British artefacts. Finds included a silver coin of Marcia (124 BC), pottery, weapons and tools, bronze ornaments, and Roman coins from Vespasian to Valentinian II (1st to 4th centuries). The work was continued, first by E. J. Mason from 1946 to 1949, and then by G. R. Morgan in 1972. Later work led by Edgar Kingsley Tratman explored the human occupation of Rhinoceros Hole, and showed that the fourth chamber of the great cave was a Romano-British cemetery. During excavations in 1954–1957 at Hole Ground, just outside the entrance to the cave, the foundations of a 1st-century hut and Iron Age pottery were seen. These were covered by the foundations of Roman buildings, dating from the 1st to the late 4th century. ===Exploration=== thumb|left|upright|An underground lake in the first chamber The cave as far as the third chamber and side galleries has been known since at least the Iron Age period. Before the construction of a dam at the resurgence to feed water to the paper mill downstream, two more chambers (the Fourth and Fifth) were accessible. Further upstream the way lies underwater. Diving was first tried by the Cave Diving Group under the leadership of Graham Balcombe in 1935. With equipment on loan from Siebe Gorman, he and Penelope ("Mossy") Powell penetrated into the cave, reaching the seventh chamber, using standard diving dress. The events marked the first successful cave dives in Britain. Diving at Wookey resumed in early June 1946 when Balcombe used his homemade respirator and waterproof suit to explore the region between the resurgence and first chamber, as well as the underground course of the river between the third and first chambers. During these dives, the Romano-British remains were found and archaeological work dominated the early dives in the cave. The large ninth chamber was first entered on 24 April 1948 by Balcombe and Don Coase. Using this as an advance dive base, the 10th and then 11th chambers were discovered. The way on, however, was too deep for divers breathing pure oxygen from a closed-circuit rebreather. The cave claimed its first life on 9 April 1949 when Gordon Marriott lost his life returning from the ninth chamber. Another fatality occurred in 1981 when Keith Potter was drowned on a routine dive further upstream. Further progress required apparatus that could overcome the depth limitation of breathing pure oxygen. In 1955, using an aqualung and swimming with fins, Bob Davies reached the bottom of the 11th chamber at depth in clear water and discovered the 12th and 13th chambers. He got separated from his guideline and the other two divers in the 11th chamber, ending up spending three hours trapped in the 13th chamber, and had much trouble getting back to safety. Opinion hardened against the use of the short-duration aqualung in favour of longer-duration closed-circuit equipment. Likewise, the traditional approach of walking along the bottom was preferred over swimming. Employing semi-closed circuit nitrogen-oxygen rebreathers, between 1957 and 1960 John Buxton and Oliver Wells went on to reach the elbow of the sump upstream from the ninth chamber at a depth of . This was at a point known as "The Slot", the way on being too deep for the gas mixture they were breathing. thumb|Cave diving equipment in the museum at Wookey Hole Caves A six-year hiatus ensued while open circuit air diving became established, along with free-swimming and the use of neoprene wetsuits. The new generation of cave diver was now more mobile above and under water and able to dive deeper. Using this approach, Dave Savage was able to reach air surface in the 18th chamber (chambers did not have to have air spaces to be so named; they were the limits of each exploration) in May 1966. A brief lull in exploration occurred while the mess of guidelines laid from the ninth chamber was sorted out before John Parker progressed first to the large, dry, inlet passage of the 20th chamber, and thence followed the River Axe upstream on a dive covering at a maximum depth of to the 22nd chamber where the way on appeared to be lost. Meanwhile, climbing operations in the ninth chamber found an abandoned outlet passage that terminated very close to the surface, as well as a dry overland route downstream through the higher levels of the eighth, seventh and sixth chambers as far as the fifth chamber. These discoveries were used to enable the show cave to be extended into the ninth chamber and the cave divers to start directly from here, bypassing the dive from the third chamber onwards. The way on from the 22nd chamber was at last found by Colin Edmond and Martyn Farr in February 1976 and was explored until the line ran out. A few days later Geoff Yeadon and Oliver Statham somewhat controversially reached the 23rd chamber after laying just a further of line. After a further three short dives they surfaced in the 24th chamber to be confronted by what Statham described as "a magnificent sight—the whole of the River Axe pouring down a passage high by wide" terminating in a blue lake after . This lake was dived by Farr a few days later for at a maximum depth of to emerge in the 25th chamber, a desolate, muddy place named "The Lake of Gloom". The 25th chamber represents the furthest upstream air surface in Wookey Hole Cave. From here the River Axe rises up from a deep sump where progressive depth records for cave diving in the British Isles have been set: firstly by Farr () in 1977, then Rob Parker () in 1985, and finally by John Volanthen and Rick Stanton () in 2004. The pair returned again in 2005 to explore the sump to a depth of , setting a new British Isles depth record for cave diving. This record was broken in 2008 by Polish explorer Artur Kozłowski, then later again by Michal Marek, on dives in Pollatoomary in Ireland. Taking advantage of the tunnel driven through to Chamber 20 by the show cave management in 2015, a team began seriously to investigate the leads in that area. One small passage was pushed to a sump that was dived through to Sting Corner in Chamber 24. In 2020 a dry connection was made to the same location. During 1996–1997 water samples were collected at various points throughout the caves and showed different chemical compositions. Results showed that the "Unknown Junction", from where water flows to the static sump in the 22nd chamber by a different route from the majority of the River Axe, is upstream of the sump in the 25th. ==Witch of Wookey Hole== thumb|upright|left|Skeleton in Wells and Mendip Museum labelled as the Witch of Wookey Hole There are old legends of a "witch of Wookey Hole", which are still preserved in the name of a stalagmite in the first chamber of the caves. The story has several different versions with the same basic features: A man from Glastonbury is engaged to a young woman from Wookey. A witch living in Wookey Hole Caves curses the romance so that it fails. The man, now a monk, seeks revenge on this witch who—having been jilted herself—frequently spoils budding relationships. The monk stalks the witch into the cave and she hides in a dark corner near one of the underground rivers. The monk blesses the water and splashes some of it at the dark parts of the cave where the witch was hiding. The blessed water immediately petrifies the witch, and she remains in the cave to this day. A 1000-year-old skeleton was discovered in the caves by Balch in 1912, and has also traditionally been linked to the legendary witch, although analysis indicated that they are the remains of a male aged between 25 and 35. The remains have been part of the collection of the Wells and Mendip Museum, founded by Balch, since they were excavated, though in 2004 the owner of the caves said that he wanted them to be returned to Wookey Hole. It was partly the legend of the witch that prompted TV's Most Haunted team to visit Wookey Hole Caves and Mill to explore the location in depth, searching for evidence of paranormal activity. The show, which aired on 10 March 2009, was the last episode transmitted in series 11 of the show's run on the satellite and cable TV channel Living. In 2009, a new actress to play the 'witch' was chosen by Wookey Hole Ltd amid much media interest. Carole Bohanan in the role of Carla Calamity was selected from over 3,000 applicants. ==Tourism== thumb|The paper mill, dating from around 1860 The cave was first opened to the public by the owner Captain G.W. Hodgkinson in 1927 following preparatory work by Balch. Three years later, John Cowper Powys wrote of the caves in the novel A Glastonbury Romance. Hodgkinson took offence at the portrayal of his fictional equivalent, initiating a costly libel suit. The current paper mill building, whose water wheel is powered by a small canal from the river, dates from around 1860 and is a Grade II listed building. The commercial production of handmade paper ceased in February 2008 after owner Gerry Cottle concluded there was no longer a market for the product, and therefore sold most of the historic machinery. Visitors to the site are still able to watch a short video of the paper being made from cotton. Other attractions include the dinosaur valley, a small museum about the cave and cave diving, a theatre with circus shows, a house of mirrors and penny arcades. In 1956, Olive Hodgkinson, a cave guide whose husband's family owned the caves for over 500 years, was a contestant on What's My Line? In the late 1950s, the caves were photographed by Stanley Long of VistaScreen, to be sold as both souvenirs and as mail-order stereoviews. The cave and mill were joined, after purchase, by Madame Tussauds in 1973 and operated together as a tourist attraction until there was a management team buyout in 1989. A collection of fairground art of Wookey Hole was sold in 1997 at Christie's. The present owner is the former circus proprietor Gerry Cottle, who has introduced a circus school. The cave was used for the filming of episodes of the BBC TV series Doctor Who: the serial Revenge of the Cybermen (1975) starring Tom Baker. This has since been referenced in the comedy of The League of Gentlemen. The cave was also used in the filming of the British series Blake's 7 (1978) and Robin of Sherwood (1983). The caves were used again for Doctor Who in "The End of Time" (2009), including a scene with the Doctor sharing thoughts and visions with the Ood. In 2005, the museum reported that a Dalek prop had gone missing from its collection, and that they had received a ransom note and a detached plunger from the "Guardians of the Planet Earth". The prop was later recovered from Glastonbury Tor after thieves had supposedly considered it "too hot". Cottle denied that this was a publicity stunt. On 1 August 2006, CNN reported that Barney, a Doberman Pinscher employed as a security dog at Wookey Hole, had destroyed parts of a valuable collection of teddy bears, including one which had belonged to Elvis Presley, which was estimated to be worth £40,000 (US$75,000). The insurance company insuring the exhibition of stuffed animals had supposedly insisted on having guard dog protection. Cottle later admitted that he had invented this story as a publicity stunt, and no such bear had ever been owned by the museum. In February 2009 Cottle turned the Victorian bowling green next to the caves into a crazy golf course without first obtaining planning permission. ==References== ==Bibliography== * * * * * * * * * * Dawkins, W.B. (1862) On a hyaena den at Wookey Hole, near Wells. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 18: 115–126. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ==External links== * Wookey Hole Caves / Paper Mill / Museum * Map of Wookey Hole Cave System Category:Caves of the Mendip Hills Category:Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Somerset Category:Tourist attractions in Somerset Category:Show caves in the United Kingdom Category:Limestone caves Category:Grade II listed buildings in Mendip District Category:Somerset folklore Category:Iron Age sites in Somerset cy:Wookey Hole ja:ウーキー・ホール |
U.S. Highway 29 (US 29), internally designated by the Alabama Department of Transportation as State Route 15 (SR 15), is a southwest–northeast state highway across the southeastern part of the U.S. state of Alabama. US 29 and SR 15 traverse Alabama in a general northeast–southwest slope. It has never been a major route in the state; its significance was completely overshadowed with the completion of Interstate 65 (I-65) and I-85 during the 1970s. Today, US 29 and SR 15 serve primarily to connect numerous smaller towns and cities in the southwest, south-central, and eastern parts of Alabama. US 29 has concurrencies with SR 113 from the Florida state line, through Flomaton, SR 3 from Flomaton to Brewton, SR 41 from Brewton to East Brewton, SR 15 from East Brewton to the Georgia State Line, SR 55 and then SR 12, in Andalusia, SR 9 from Brantley to Luverne, SR 10, from Luverne to Troy, SR 6 in Union Springs, SR 8 from Tuskegee to Alliance, and SR 38 in Opelika. Concurrencies with U.S Highways include US 31 from Flomaton to Brewton, US 84 in Andalusia, US 331 from Brantley to Luverne, US 82 in Union Springs, US 80 and unsigned SR 8 from Tuskegee to Alliance, and US 280 between Exits 58 and 62 along I-85 in Opelika. US 29 also runs along I-85 between Exit 51 Auburn and Exit 64 east of Opelika. ==Route description== ===Florida state line through East Brewton=== US 29 enters downtown Flomaton in a concurrency with SR 113 from a bridge over a large railroad yard north of Century, Florida. Descending from that bridge over both the railroad yard and Ringgold Drive, the route is named Sidney E. Manning Boulevard, and has its first intersection with Church Street. The road briefly runs straight north for one block between College Street and Poplar Street, then turns back to the northwest. Sidney E. Manning Boulevard ends at US 31 and US 29/SR 113 makes a right turn joining those routes in a concurrency, crossing a bridge over Big Escambia Creek. Throughout the multiplex with US 31, the road winds along the north side of the Alabama- Florida state line, occasionally making southeast turns. SR 113 turns left and diverts from US 29 and 31 heading towards its terminus at I-65, while US 29 and US 31 continue along hidden SR 3\. For the rest of its journey US 29, US 31, SR 3 and SR 15 wind mostly toward the northeast. A former section of US 31 branches off to the east where it enters Pollard, but US 29/US 31/SR 3 bypasses that community. The road intersects the former segment three times after this. The routes pass by a Georgia-Pacific paper mill just outside of the Brewton City Limits. After the bridge over Burnt Corn Creek, a truck detour veers off to the left onto Persimmon Street, because the main road flanks too closely to a former Louisville and Nashville Railroad line, entering the Brewton Historic Commercial District. The concurrency with US 31/SR 3 ends at SR 41 and US 29 and SR 41 instantly cross that line as they share a wrong way concurrency. The road crosses the Buddy Mitchell Bridge over Murder Creek into East Brewton and Mildred Street becomes Forest Avenue. The end of the concurrency with SR 41 is also the beginning of SR 15 where it remains almost throughout the rest of the state. Just as it did with the overlap with US 31, US 29 winds around the north side of the Alabama-Florida state line. Briefly curving more towards the northeast, it serves as the termini of two county roads, Escambia CR 22 (Ridge Road) and Escambia CR 4 (Brantley Road), before curving back towards the east. East of Escambia CR 43, US 29/SR 15 crosses over a bridge over Conecuh River and enters Conecuh National Forest where it passes through Dixie, and then crosses the Escambia- Covington County line. Along the way, it passes through the communities of Rome and then Pleasant Home, and after curving more toward the north and leaving the forest serves as the northern terminus of SR 137\. Continuing at that northeast trajectory, it passes through Carolina, which contains a wye intersection with Covington CR 36 (Jacobs Road), and a short multiplex with Covington CR 31 between a blinker-light intersection with Rockhole Bridge Road and Salem Church Road, which has no signals of any sort whatsoever. ===Andalusia through Luverne=== The road officially enters Andalusia at the southern terminus of the concurrency with SR 55\. US 29/SR 15/ SR 55 becomes a four lane undivided highway with center left-turn lane provisions It passes the other end of Brooklyn Road (Covington CR 42), then off to the northeast encounters the southern terminus of South Three Notch Road, which was once part of SR 15\. SR 55 leaves the concurrency with US 29 at the west end of the concurrency with US 84/SR 12, and US 29/SR 15 joins that route in another concurrency. US 29/US 84/SR 12/ SR 15 crosses a railroad line as it continues to curve toward the east until it runs southeast then straight east as it encounters Three North Road again. This intersection is the official end of the US 29/US 84 concurrency. US 29/SR 15 turns left onto Three Notch Road, while US 84/SR 12 crosses the same railroad line it encountered northeast of the beginning of the concurrency, and runs east through Opp, Elba, Dothan, and towards coastal Georgia. North of Andalusia, the road curves towards the northwest as it approaches the western terminus of CR 40 (Antioch Road), and then straightens out towards the north as it runs through Heath, where another former segment of SR 15 and Three Notch Road now known as Straughn School Road branches off to the northeast. After the intersection with Barton Road, US 29/SR 15 curves to the northwest again replacing the trajectory of Barton Road itself. From there, a dirt road named CW Green Road branches off northwest of the road. The routes descend along a hill where the run under some power lines, then runs over a culvert before making another left curve and encountering the north end of CW Green Road, which this time is paved. Immediately after this intersection it encounters Covington CR 82 (Haygood Road) and takes it along in a hidden concurrency as it curves to the west. The road crosses another bridge over the Conecuh River and enters Gantt, where it runs straight north, along the way serving as the northern terminus of CR 59 (Point A Road), letting go of another part of CR 82 at Gantt-Red Level Road, and serves as the southern terminus of CR 37 (Oakley-Streak Road). Curving to the northeast, the road passes through Dunns and then runs along the north shore of Gantt Lake eventually passing through Clearview. Maintaining relatively the same trajectory while the coastline of the lake moves away from the road, US 29/SR 15 enters Crenshaw County where it becomes Andalusia Highway and passes through Searight. The road makes a slight curve to the left, but still remains northeast as it passes through Dozier, where it has a blinker-light intersection with Crenshaw CR 77 and becomes Dozier Highway. Further north, it serves as the eastern terminus of SR 106\. The road enters the Town of Brantley just west of the intersection with Spring Hill Road and the name changes to West Emmett Avenue, which runs practically to the east until further downtown where it turns left onto an intersection with US 331 and unsigned SR 9 while East Emmett Avenue continues as a local city street. US 29, U.S 331, SR 9 and SR 15 are co-routed until they split at Luverne, specifically at SR 10 (Third Street). US 331 makes a left turn onto West Third Street, while US 29 makes a right turn onto East Third Street. From there US 29 and SR 15 follow SR 10 east as the name changes from East Third Street to Troy Highway, then curves to the northeast into the Crenshaw-Pike County line north of Chrenshaw CR 50 (Camp Ground Church Road). Once in Pike County, the road starts to curve to the east. ===Troy area to Rural Macon County=== After the intersection with Pike CR 1174 (formerly CR 31), the road descends into a valley then climbs a hill, that crests just before the intersection of Pike CR 2205 (formerly CR 47). East of Pike CRs 2214 and then 1165 (formerly part of CR 25), the road crosses a third bridge over the Conecuh River. Approaching Troy, a railroad line begins to flank the north side of the road while Pike CR 1101 runs along the north side of those tracks, as US 29/SR 10 gains the name Montgomery Street. SR 10 leaves the concurrency with US 29/SR 15 at a quarter- cloverleaf interchange with US 231 and unsigned SR 53\. The ramps are on the southwest and southeast corners, due to the railroad line flanking the north side of the road. Three Notch Road is encountered again, as US 29/SR 15 leaves Montgomery Street to turn left and go north, crossing the same railroad line it passed by over US 231, which itself curves towards the north. In the meantime, the route runs northeast until after the intersection of Love Street, where it turns straight north. The road runs along the west side of the town square between Church and Elm Streets, and later passes just outside of the College Street Historic District. After the intersection with Pierson Street, the road curve to the northeast. Beginning near a cold-storage facility, the road runs along the west side of the same railroad line it had encountered in downtown Troy. After the intersection with Pike CR 55, the road crosses a bridge over that line and then runs along the east side. Both the road and the railroad line curve from the northeast to the southeast, and along the way US 29/SR 15 serves as the southern terminus of SR 223\. The road continues to curve to the southeast until it enters Banks, where it turns left onto a blinker-light intersection with Monticello Avenue crossing that same railroad line in the process, while SR 93 continues south from there. US 29/SR 15 runs mostly eastbound as it serves as the northern terminus of SR 201\. After passing through some of the wetlands surrounding Richland Creek, it serves as the northern terminus of SR 130 north of Monticello, and then the route curves to the northeast. The last community in Pike County is Josie, where it then to north-northwest before the intersection with Pike CR 6628\. After curving to the right as it intersects Pike CR 6652, it runs northeast as it crosses the Bullock County line and descends along a hill. After the county line it passes through communities such as Tanyard, where it intersects CR 53 before curving more towards the north as it runs along bridges over Mill Creek and Double Creek, then Perote, where it intersects Bullock CR 8, then makes a reverse curve as it climbs a slight hill before running straight north. The road tilts north-northwest as it enters Blues Old Stand, and then begins to curve towards the northeast where it passes through Scottland. Winding past a power line right-of-way before making another curve towards the north, it passes through Aberfoil where it has a brief overlap with Bullock CR 31, but more importantly serves as the northern terminus of SR 239, with a connecting road south of that terminus. From there, US 29 curves to the northwest. Approaching Union Springs as it crosses a fourth bridge over the Conecuh River, a US 29 Truck along with hidden SR 197 (Martin Luther King Boulevard South), branches off to the right then the road turns straight north onto South Prairie Street. Further north it crosses a bridge over an abandoned railroad line between Underwood Avenue and Holcombe Avenue. Later South Prairie Street becomes North Prairie Street as US 29/SR 15 makes a right turn onto a concurrency with US 82 and unsigned SR 6 (Blackmon Avenue) for two blocks. The concurrency does not end as US 29/US 82/SR 6/SR 15 makes a left turn onto Martin Luther King Boulevard North, terminating US Truck Route 29. Two blocks after that, US 82/SR 6 makes a right turn onto Conecuh Avenue East, terminating the concurrency, and US 29/SR 15 continues north. On its way out of the city limits, US 29 widens from three lanes to four as it curves to the northwest, then narrows back down to three lanes as it curves to the northeast before finally leaving the city just south of Bullock CR 23, then runs over a culvert over Old Towne Creek. In Sedgefield US 29 curves to the north- northwest and serves as the southwest end of Bullock CR 115\. The road runs relatively in the same direction even as it passes through the Moores Creek wetlands, before the northeast end of CR 115, then crosses a bridge over Dobbs Creek just south of the Bullock-Macon County line. Shortly after this, it runs through Fort Davis which has a one block concurrency with Macon CR 2, due to a culvert over a tributary of Dobbs Creek. It then passes by the abandoned Seaboard Air Line Railroad line and station just before the post office. At the intersection of Saint Mark's Road it makes a curve to the northeast and further north passes through communities such as Cotton Valley and later Davisville where it has another concurrency, this time with Macon CR 47\. ===Tuskegee to the Georgia state line=== In Tuskegee, US 29 becomes Union Springs Road in front of the George Washington Carver Elementary School, and makes a sharp curve to the west-northwest as it approaches Macon CR 10, where it turns into South Main Street. Before reaching Downtown Tuskegee, US 29 makes a slight right curve, but still remains northwest. Running through historic downtown Tuskegee, it makes a right turn in front of the town green to join eastbound US 80 and unsigned SR 8 in Downtown Tuskegee. SR 81, begins on the east side of the town green, before moving to North Main Street, while SR 81 Truck also begins and runs along the concurrency with US 29 and US 80\. US 29, US 80, SR 8, SR 15, and SR 81 Truck are co-routed along East Martin Luther King Junior Drive until the intersection with General Chappie James Drive, where truck route 81 turns north. Later the routes enter Tuskegee National Forest. They briefly leave the forest but then re-enter it together until they split at an interchange southwest of Alliance, which is also the eastern terminus of SR 186\. This interchange has a single eastbound ramp on the southeast corner, and a bi-directional quarter-cloverleaf ramp on the northwest corner. After leaving the forest for the last time and then intersecting a dirt road named Lee Road 191, the route takes a brief dip and then crosses the Macon-Lee County line. Southwest of Auburn, US 29 becomes South College Road, encounters an industrial park at Cox Road and Sand Hill Road (Lee CR 10) and then has an interchange with I-85 at Exit 51. US 29/SR 15 joins I-85 in a concurrency, while South College Road becomes SR 147\. The freeway segment continues northeast into the city of Opelika, the county seat of Lee County. At Exit 58 I-85/US 29 gains a second US concurrency at Exit 58, its four-ramp partial cloverleaf interchange with Gateway Drive, where US 280 (and unsigned SR 38) joins from the northwest. The three highways cross over a Norfolk Southern Railway line just west of their four-ramp partial cloverleaf interchange with SR 51 and SR 169 south of downtown Opelika. US 280/SR 38 splits east toward Phenix City and ColumbUS at the next interchange with US 431 and unsigned SR 1, which is Exit 62. At Exit 64, US 29 leaves I-85 and joins West Point Parkway, but the road runs in close proximity to I-85 from the Auburn area to near Winston-Salem, North Carolina. Though independent of I-85, US 29 has intersections with some relatively important roads leading to it, first among them Andrews Road (unmarked Lee CR 799) which leads I‑85 at Exit 66 as well as a Walmart Distribution Center, then crosses Lee CR 177\. The road briefly turns east, then curves towards the northeast. At the terminus of Lee CR 390, it turns north-northeast and runs under a power line right-of-way. Lee CR 266 branches off to the northwest, while US 29 branches off to the northeast, then the road intersects Lee CR 270\. From there the road curves north-northeast, then crosses an abandoned railroad line between the intersections of Lee CRs 268 and 271, and later runs through a wooded area where it crosses the Lee-Chambers County line where West Point Parkway becomes the Millard Fuller Memorial Highway. North of this border, it starts to make a slight curve to the northeast, where it encounters a multiplex with Chambers CR 388,US 29/Chambers CR 388 overlap (Google Maps) the western end of which leads to I-85 at Exit 70. The road officially enters the City of Valley approximately southwest of the intersection with Ben Brown Road. After the intersection with Judge Brown Road, the road gradually widens from two to four lanes as it crosses the Duwayne Bridges Bridge, and then after the intersection with Fairfax Bypass, becomes a divided highway. From there, the road winds through the former community of Fairfax. The road cuts through a portion of the historic district named for that community. After leaving that district at the intersection with Cusseta Road and River Road, the divider ends at a street named "Boulevard" but the road remains four-lanes wide as it begins to flank the Chattahoochee Valley Railroad Trail.Chattahoochee Valley Railroad Trail (TrailLink) It also gains a continuous center left-turn lane, which it possesses almost throughout the rest of the state. In the former community of Langdale, the road winds down a slight hill then curves from 64th Boulevard to 20th Street, as the trail moves away from the road again in order to run along the Horace King Memorial Covered Bridge. The route, the trail and the bridge are part of the Langdale Historic District, and so are the former Landgale Cotton Mill, the Sears Memorial Auditorium, and various schools. Between 21st Avenue and 59th Street, US 29 crosses a bridge over Moores Creek then intersects Chambers CR 209 (Fob James Road), where it also has a crossing with the same rail trail.Chattahoochee Valley Railroad Trail (TrailLink) Fob James Road leads to Exit 77 on I-85. Roughly near Lanier Health Services, the route enters the former community Eady City and stays there until the intersection of 40th Street, but the route still remains in Valley, although around 33rd Street it enters the former community known as Shawmut, where it runs along the eastern edge of the Shawmut Historic District. The northern border of that district ends at 29th Boulevard, which is north of 23rd Drive,Intersections of 23rd Drive and 29th Boulevard with US 29 in Shawmut, Valley, Alabama (Google Maps) the gateway to Shawmut. Just north of 28th Street the divided highway briefly returns within the vicinity of I-85 at Exit 79, the last exit for I-85 within the state. In Lanett the road runs over a bridge over a former Western Railway of Alabama line and then serves as the eastern terminus of SR 50, the last state highway to intersect with US 29\. At that intersection the road curves straight to the northeast, and becomes Glimer Avenue. A residential frontage road runs along the east side between South 14th Street and South 10th Street. At the intersection of First Street, the numerical order of the side streets reverts forward. North of there, the same WRA line the road crossed over before the intersection with SR 50 begins to flank the east side of the road. The last intersection in Alabama is with North Seventh Avenue, a local street completely dominated by a car and truck dealership. US 29 enters the State of Georgia which runs northwest to southeast and the City of West Point, thus bringing SR 15 to an end. ==History== The original southern terminus of US 29 was in Tuskegee, Alabama, and ran along today's Alabama State Route 81 and Alabama State Route 14. It was extended south into Brewton by 1934.End of US highway 29, including 1928 Alabama DOT map (US Ends.com) Within Flomaton, US 29 was originally a segment of US 331 between 1926 and 1936. US 29 was extended to the road in 1935. Three Notch Road is a local street that was the name of former segments of Alabama State Route 15 US Highway 29 once passed through downtown Auburn and downtown Opelika. The US Highway has been concurrent with Interstate Highway 85 from Exit 51, south of Auburn, to Exit 64, northeast of Opelika. This change was made by Alabama Department if Transportation in the 1990s. Route markers have been appropriately relocated since then, though some maps still show the old route in this area as being part of SR 15. ==Major intersections== ==References== ==External links== *US Highway 29 in Alabama (AARoads) 29 Alabama Category:Transportation in Escambia County, Alabama Category:Transportation in Covington County, Alabama Category:Transportation in Crenshaw County, Alabama Category:Transportation in Pike County, Alabama Category:Transportation in Bullock County, Alabama Category:Transportation in Macon County, Alabama Category:Transportation in Lee County, Alabama Category:Transportation in Chambers County, Alabama |
Dame Jacinda Kate Laurell Ardern ( ; born 26 July 1980) is a New Zealand former politician who served as the 40th prime minister of New Zealand and leader of the Labour Party from 2017 to 2023. A member of the Labour Party, she was a member of Parliament (MP) as a list MP from 2008 to 2017, and for Mount Albert from 2017 to 2023. Born in Hamilton, Ardern grew up in Morrinsville and Murupara. She joined the Labour Party at the age of 17. After graduating from the University of Waikato in 2001, Ardern worked as a researcher in the office of Prime Minister Helen Clark. She later worked in London as an adviser in the Cabinet Office during Tony Blair's premiership. In 2008, Ardern was elected president of the International Union of Socialist Youth. Ardern was first elected as an MP in the 2008 general election, when Labour lost power after nine years. She was later elected to represent the Mount Albert electorate in a by-election on 25 February 2017. Ardern was unanimously elected as deputy leader of the Labour Party on 1 March 2017, after the resignation of Annette King. Exactly five months later, with an election due, Labour's leader Andrew Little resigned after a historically low opinion polling result for the party, with Ardern elected unopposed as leader in his place. Labour's support increased rapidly after Ardern became leader, and she led her party to gain 14 seats at the 2017 general election on 23 September, winning 46 seats to the National Party's 56. After negotiations, New Zealand First chose to enter a minority coalition government with Labour, supported by the Green Party, with Ardern as prime minister. She was sworn in by the governor-general on 26 October 2017. She became the world's youngest female head of government at age 37. Ardern gave birth to her daughter on 21 June 2018, making her the world's second elected head of government to give birth while in office (after Benazir Bhutto). Ardern describes herself as a social democrat and a progressive. The Sixth Labour Government has faced challenges from the New Zealand housing crisis, child poverty, and social inequality. In March 2019, in the aftermath of the Christchurch mosque shootings, Ardern reacted by rapidly introducing strict gun laws, winning her wide recognition. Throughout 2020 she led New Zealand's response to the COVID-19 pandemic, for which she won praise for New Zealand being one of the few Western nations to successfully contain the virus. It is estimated that her government's actions saved as many as 80,000 lives. Ardern moved the Labour Party further to the centre towards the October 2020 general election, promising to cut spending during the remainder of the COVID-19 recession. She led the Labour Party to a landslide victory, gaining an overall majority of 65 seats in Parliament, the first time a majority government had been formed since the introduction of a proportional representation system in 1996. On 19 January 2023, Ardern announced she would resign as Labour leader, prompting global reactions about her leadership style and policy decisions. Following the unopposed election of Chris Hipkins as her successor, she resigned as leader of the Labour Party on 22 January and submitted her resignation as prime minister to the governor-general on 25 January. ==Early life and education== Ardern was born on 26 July 1980 in Hamilton, New Zealand. She grew up in Morrinsville and Murupara, where her father, Ross Ardern, worked as a police officer, and her mother, Laurell Ardern (), worked as a school catering assistant. Ardern was raised in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), and her uncle Ian S. Ardern is a general authority in the church. She studied at Morrinsville College, where she was the student representative on the school's board of trustees. Whilst still at school she found her first job, working at a local fish-and-chip shop. She joined the Labour Party at the age of 17. Her aunt, Marie Ardern, a longstanding member of the Labour Party, recruited the teenaged Ardern to help her with campaigning for New Plymouth MP Harry Duynhoven during his re-election campaign at the 1999 general election. Ardern attended the University of Waikato, graduating in 2001 as a Bachelor of Communication Studies in politics and public relations, a specialist three-year degree. She took a semester abroad at Arizona State University in 2001. After graduating from university, she spent time working in the offices of Phil Goff and of Helen Clark as a researcher. After a period of time in New York City, United States, where she volunteered at a soup kitchen and worked on a workers' rights campaign, Ardern moved to London, England, in 2006, where she became a senior policy adviser in an 80-person policy unit of the United Kingdom Cabinet Office under prime minister Tony Blair. (She did not meet Blair in person while in London, but later at an event in New Zealand in 2011 she questioned him about the 2003 invasion of Iraq.) Ardern was also seconded to the United Kingdom Home Office to help with a review of policing in England and Wales. == Early political career == === President of International Union of Socialist Youth === On 30 January 2008, at 27, Ardern was elected president of the International Union of Socialist Youth (IUSY) at their world congress in the Dominican Republic for a two-year term until 2010. The role saw her spend time in several countries, including Hungary, Jordan, Israel, Algeria and China. It was mid- way through her presidency term that Ardern became a list MP for the Labour Party. She then continued to manage both roles for the next 15 months. === Member of Parliament === Ahead of the 2008 election, Ardern was ranked 20th on Labour's party list. This was a very high placement for someone who was not already a sitting MP, and virtually assured her of a seat in Parliament. Accordingly, Ardern returned from London to campaign full-time. She also became Labour's candidate for the safe National electorate of Waikato. Ardern was unsuccessful in the electorate vote, but her high placement on Labour's party list allowed her to enter Parliament as a list MP. Upon election, she became the youngest sitting MP in Parliament, succeeding fellow Labour MP Darren Hughes, and remained the youngest MP until the election of Gareth Hughes on 11 February 2010. Opposition leader Phil Goff promoted Ardern to the front bench, naming her Labour's spokesperson for Youth Affairs and as associate spokesperson for Justice (Youth Affairs). She made regular appearances on TVNZ's Breakfast programme as part of the "Young Guns" feature, in which she appeared alongside National MP (and future National leader) Simon Bridges. Ardern contested the seat of for Labour in the 2011 general election, standing against incumbent National MP Nikki Kaye for National and Greens candidate Denise Roche. She lost to Kaye by 717 votes. However, she returned to Parliament via the party list, on which she was ranked 13th. Ardern maintained an office within the electorate while she was a list MP based in Auckland Central. After Goff resigned from the Party leadership following his defeat at the 2011 election, Ardern supported David Shearer over David Cunliffe. She was elevated to the fourth-ranking position in his Shadow Cabinet on 19 December 2011, becoming a spokesperson for social development under the new leader. Ardern stood again in Auckland Central at the 2014 general election. She again finished second though increased her own vote and reduced Kaye's majority from 717 to 600. Ranked 5th on Labour's list, Ardern was still returned to Parliament where she became Shadow spokesperson for Justice, Children, Small Business, and Arts & Culture under new leader Andrew Little. In 2014 Ardern was also selected, attended and graduated from the World Economic Forum's (WEF) Forum of Young Global Leaders, founded by Klaus Schwab, which takes place in Switzerland. She remains involved publicly as a part of the Young Global Leaders Alumni Community, and speaks at WEF events. ==== Mount Albert by-election ==== Ardern put forward her name for the Labour nomination for the Mount Albert by-election to be held in February 2017 following the resignation of David Shearer on 8 December 2016. When nominations for the Labour Party closed on 12 January 2017, Ardern was the only nominee and was selected unopposed. On 21 January, Ardern participated in the 2017 Women's March, a worldwide protest in opposition to Donald Trump, the newly inaugurated president of the United States. She was confirmed as Labour's candidate at a meeting on 22 January. Ardern won a landslide victory, gaining 77 per cent of votes cast in the preliminary results. ==== Deputy Leader of the Labour Party ==== Following her win in the by-election, Ardern was unanimously elected as deputy leader of the Labour Party on 7 March 2017, following the resignation of Annette King, who was intending to retire at the next election. Ardern's vacant list seat was taken by Raymond Huo. === Leader of the Opposition === On 1 August 2017, just seven weeks before the 2017 general election, Ardern assumed the position of leader of the Labour Party, and consequently became leader of the Opposition, following the resignation of Andrew Little. Little stood down due to the party's historically low polling. Ardern was unanimously confirmed in an election to choose a new leader at a caucus meeting the same day. At 37, Ardern became the youngest leader of the Labour Party in its history. She is also the second female leader of the party after Helen Clark. According to Ardern, Little had previously approached her on 26 July and said he thought she should take over as Labour leader then, as he was of the opinion he could not turn things around for the party, although Ardern declined and told him to "stick it out". At her first press conference after her election as leader, she said that the forthcoming election campaign would be one of "relentless positivity". Immediately following her appointment, the party was inundated with donations by the public, reaching NZ$700 per minute at its peak. After Ardern's ascension to the leadership, Labour rose dramatically in opinion polls. By late August, the party had reached 43 per cent in the Colmar Brunton poll (having been 24 per cent under Little's leadership) as well as managing to overtake National in opinion polls for the first time in over a decade. Detractors observed her positions were substantially similar to those of Andrew Little, and suggested that Labour's sudden increase in popularity were due to her youth and good looks. In mid- August, Ardern stated that a Labour government would establish a tax working group to explore the possibility of introducing a capital gains tax but ruled out taxing family homes. In response to negative publicity, Ardern abandoned plans to introduce a capital gains tax during the first term of a Labour government. Finance spokesperson Grant Robertson later clarified that Labour would not introduce new taxes until after the 2020 election. The policy shift accompanied strident allegations by Minister of Finance Steven Joyce that Labour had an $11.7 billion "hole" in its tax policy. The Labour and Green parties' proposed water and pollution taxes also generated criticism from farmers. On 18 September 2017, the farming lobby group Federated Farmers staged a protest against the taxes in Ardern's hometown of Morrinsville. New Zealand First leader Winston Peters attended the protest to campaign but was jeered at by the farmers because they suspected he was also in favour of the taxes. During the protest, one farmer displayed a sign calling Ardern a "pretty communist". This was criticised as misogynistic by former prime minister Helen Clark. In the final days of the general election campaign, the opinion polls narrowed with National taking a slight lead. ==== 2017 general election ==== During the general election held on 23 September 2017, Ardern retained her Mount Albert electorate seat by a margin of 15,264 votes. Labour increased its vote share to 36.89 per cent while National dropped back to 44.45. Labour gained 14 seats, increasing its parliamentary representation to 46 seats, the best result for the party since losing power in 2008. The rival Labour and National parties lacked sufficient seats to govern alone and held talks with the Greens and New Zealand First parties about forming a coalition. Under the country's mixed-member proportional (MMP) voting system, New Zealand First held the balance of power and chose to be part of a coalition government with Labour. == Prime minister (2017–2023) == ===First term (2017–2020)=== On 19 October 2017, New Zealand First leader Winston Peters agreed to form a coalition with Labour, making Ardern the next prime minister. This coalition received confidence and supply from the Green Party. Ardern named Peters as deputy prime minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs. She also gave New Zealand First five posts in her government, with Peters and three other ministers serving in Cabinet. The next day, Ardern confirmed that she would hold the ministerial portfolios of National Security and Intelligence; Arts, Culture and Heritage; and Vulnerable Children; reflecting the shadow positions she held as Leader of the Opposition. Her position as Minister for Vulnerable Children was later replaced with the role of Minister for Child Poverty Reduction, while New Zealand First MP Tracey Martin took on the role of Minister for Children. She was officially sworn in by Governor-General Dame Patsy Reddy on 26 October, alongside her ministry. Upon taking office, Ardern said that her government would be "focused, empathetic and strong". Ardern is New Zealand's third female prime minister after Jenny Shipley (1997–1999) and Helen Clark (1999–2008). She is a member of the Council of Women World Leaders. Entering office aged 37, Ardern is also the youngest individual to become New Zealand's head of government since Edward Stafford, who became premier in 1856 also aged 37. On 19 January 2018, Ardern announced that she was pregnant, and that Winston Peters would take the role of acting prime minister for six weeks after the birth. Following the birth of a daughter, she took her maternity leave from 21 June to 2 August 2018. ====Domestic affairs==== Ardern promised to halve child poverty in New Zealand within a decade. In July 2018, Ardern announced the start of her government's flagship Families Package. Among its provisions, the package gradually increased paid parental leave to 26 weeks and introduced a $60 per-week universal BestStart Payment for low and middle-income families with young children. The Family Tax Credit, Orphans Benefit, Accommodation Supplement, and Foster Care Allowance were all substantially increased as well. In 2019, the government began the roll-out of a school lunches pilot programme to assist in reducing child poverty numbers; this was then extended to support 200,000 children (about 25 per cent of school rolls) in low decile schools. Other efforts to reduce poverty have included increases to main welfare benefits, expanding free doctor's visits, providing free menstrual hygiene products in schools and adding to state housing stock. However, as of 2022 critics say rising housing costs are continuing to cripple families and systemic changes are needed to ensure any gains are lasting. Economically, Ardern's government has implemented steady increases to the country's minimum wage and introduced the Provincial Growth Fund to invest in rural infrastructure projects. The National Party's planned tax cuts were cancelled, saying instead it would prioritise expenditure on healthcare and education. The first year of post- secondary education was made free from 1 January 2018 and, after industrial action, the government agreed to increase primary teachers' pay by 12.8 (for beginning teachers) and 18.5 per cent (for senior teachers without other responsibilities) by 2021. Despite the Labour Party campaigning on a capital gains tax for the last three elections, Ardern pledged in April 2019 that the government would not implement a capital gains tax under her leadership. However, since then the period for which capital gain on rental properties sold is taxed has increased from five to ten years since purchase. Ardern travelled to Waitangi in 2018 for the annual Waitangi Day commemoration; stayed in Waitangi for five days, an unprecedented length. Ardern became the first female prime minister to speak from the top marae. Her visit was largely well-received by Māori leaders, with commentators noting a sharp contrast with the acrimonious responses received by several of her predecessors. On 24 August 2018, Ardern removed Broadcasting Minister Clare Curran from Cabinet after she failed to disclose a meeting with a broadcaster outside of parliamentary business, which was judged to be a conflict of interest. Curran remained a minister outside Cabinet, and Ardern was criticised by the Opposition for not dismissing Curran from her portfolio. Ardern later accepted Curran's resignation. In 2019, she was criticised for her handling of an allegation of sexual assault against a Labour Party staffer. Ardern said she had been told the allegation did not involve sexual assault or violence before a report about the incident was published in The Spinoff. Media questioned her account, with one journalist stating that Ardern's claim was "hard to swallow". Ardern opposes criminalising people who use cannabis in New Zealand, and pledged to hold a referendum on the issue. A non-binding referendum to legalise cannabis was held in conjunction with the 2020 general election on 17 October 2020. Ardern admitted to past cannabis use during a televised debate prior to the election. In the referendum, voters rejected the proposed Cannabis Legalisation and Control Bill by 51.17 per cent. A retrospective article published in a medical journal suggested that Ardern's refusal to publicly back the 'yes' campaign "may have been a decisive factor in the narrow defeat". In September 2020, Ardern announced that the government had abandoned plans to make tertiary education tuition-free. ====Foreign affairs==== On 5 November 2017, Ardern made her first official overseas trip to Australia, where she met Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull for the first time. Relations between the two countries had been strained in the preceding months because of Australia's treatment of New Zealanders living in the country, and shortly before taking office, Ardern had spoken of the need to rectify this situation, and to develop a better working relationship with the Australian government. Turnbull described the meeting in cordial terms: "we trust each other...The fact we are from different political traditions is irrelevant". In 2020, Ardern criticised Australia's policy of deporting New Zealanders, many of whom had lived in Australia but had not taken up Australian citizenship, as "corrosive" and damaging to Australia–New Zealand relations. Ardern attended the 2017 APEC summit in Vietnam, the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2018 in London (featuring a private audience with Queen Elizabeth II) and a United Nations summit in New York City. After her first formal meeting with Donald Trump she reported that the US President showed "interest" in New Zealand's gun buyback programme. In 2018, Ardern raised the issue of Xinjiang internment camps and human-rights abuses against the Uyghur Muslim minority in China. Ardern has also raised concerns over the persecution of the Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar. Ardern travelled to Nauru, where she attended the 2018 Pacific Islands Forum. Media and political opponents criticised her decision to travel separately from the rest of her contingent, costing taxpayers up to NZ$100,000, so that she could spend more time with her daughter. At a 2018 United Nations General Assembly meeting, Ardern became the first female head of government to attend with her infant present. Her address to the General Assembly praised the United Nations for its multilateralism, expressed support for the world's youth, called for immediate attention to the effects and causes of climate change, for the equality of women, and for kindness as the basis for action. Trade and Export Growth Minister David Parker and Ardern announced that the government would continue participating in the Trans-Pacific Partnership negotiations despite opposition from the Green Party. New Zealand ratified the revised agreement, the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership, which she described as being better than the original TPP agreement. ====Christchurch mosque shootings==== On 15 March 2019, 51 people were fatally shot and 49 injured in two mosques in Christchurch. In a statement broadcast on television, Ardern offered condolences and stated that the shootings had been carried out by suspects with "extremist views" that have no place in New Zealand, or anywhere else in the world. She also described it as a well- planned terrorist attack. Announcing a period of national mourning, Ardern was the first signatory of a national condolence book that she opened in the capital, Wellington. She also travelled to Christchurch to meet first responders and families of the victims. In an address at the Parliament, she declared she would never say the name of the attacker: "Speak the names of those who were lost rather than the name of the man who took them ... he will, when I speak, be nameless." Ardern received international praise for her response to the shootings, and a photograph of her hugging a member of the Christchurch Muslim community with the word "peace" in English and Arabic was projected onto the Burj Khalifa, the world's tallest building. A mural of this photograph was unveiled in May 2019. In response to the shootings, Ardern announced her government's intention to introduce stronger firearms regulations. She said that the attack had exposed a range of weaknesses in New Zealand's gun law. Less than one month after the attack, the New Zealand Parliament passed a law that bans most semiautomatic weapons and assault rifles, parts that convert guns into semiautomatic guns, and higher capacity magazines. Ardern and French President Emmanuel Macron co-chaired the 2019 Christchurch Call summit, which aimed to "bring together countries and tech companies in an attempt to bring to an end the ability to use social media to organise and promote terrorism and violent extremism". ====COVID-19 pandemic==== On 14 March 2020, Ardern announced in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand that the government would be requiring anyone entering the country from midnight 15 March to isolate themselves for 14 days. She said the new rules will mean New Zealand has the "widest ranging and toughest border restrictions of any country in the world". On 19 March, Ardern stated that New Zealand's borders would be closed to all non-citizens and non- permanent residents, after 11:59 pm on 20 March (NZDT). Ardern announced that New Zealand would move to alert level 4, including a nationwide lockdown, at 11:59 pm on 25 March. National and international media covered the government response led by Ardern, praising her leadership and swift response to the outbreak in New Zealand. The Washington Post Fifield described her regular use of interviews, press conferences and social media as a "masterclass in crisis communication". Alastair Campbell, a journalist and adviser in Tony Blair's British government, commended Ardern for addressing both the human and economic consequences of the coronavirus pandemic. In mid-April 2020, two applicants filed a lawsuit at the Auckland High Court against Ardern and several government officials including Director-General of Health Ashley Bloomfield, claiming that the lockdown imposed as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic infringed on their freedoms and was made for "political gain". The lawsuit was dismissed by Justice Mary Peters of the Auckland High Court. On 5 May 2020, Ardern, her Australian counterpart Scott Morrison and several Australian state and territorial leaders agreed that they would collaborate to develop a trans-Tasman COVID-safe travel zone that would allow residents from both countries to travel freely without travel restrictions as part of efforts to ease coronavirus restrictions. Post-lockdown opinion polls showed the Labour Party with nearly 60 per cent support. In May 2020, Ardern rated 59.5 per cent as 'preferred prime minister' in a Newshub-Reid Research poll—the highest score for any leader in the Reid Research poll's history. The number of lives saved by the response Ardern spearheaded was estimated as up to 80,000 by a team led by Shaun Hendy. ===Second term (2020–2023)=== In the 2020 general election, Ardern led her party to a landslide victory, winning an overall majority of 65 seats in the 120-seat House of Representatives, and 50 per cent of the nationwide party vote (moreover Labour won the party vote in 71 out of the 72 electorates). She also retained the Mount Albert electorate by a margin of 21,246 votes. Ardern credited her victory to her government's response to the COVID-19 pandemic and the economic impacts it has had. ====Domestic affairs==== On 2 December 2020, Ardern declared a climate change emergency in New Zealand and pledged that the Government would be carbon neutral by 2025 in a parliamentary motion. As part of this commitment towards carbon neutrality, the public sector will be required to buy only electric or hybrid vehicles, the fleet will be reduced over time by 20 per cent, and all 200 coal-fired boilers in public service buildings will be phased out. This motion was supported by the Labour, Green, and Māori parties but was opposed by the opposition National and ACT parties. However, climate activist Greta Thunberg said about Jacinda Ardern: "It's funny that people believe Jacinda Ardern and people like that are climate leaders. That just tells you how little people know about the climate crisis ... the emissions haven't fallen." In response to worsening housing affordability issues, Minister of Housing and Urban Development Megan Woods announced new reforms. These reforms included the removal of the interest rate tax-deduction, lifting Housing Aid for first home buyers, renewed allocation of infrastructure funds (named Housing Acceleration Fund) for district councils, an extension of the Bright Line Test from five to ten years. On 14 June 2021, Ardern confirmed that the New Zealand Government would formally apologise for the Dawn Raids at the Auckland Town Hall on 26 June 2021. The Dawn Raids were a series of police raids which disproportionately targeted members of the Pasifika diaspora in New Zealand during the 1970s and early 1980s. In September 2022, Ardern led the nation's tributes following the death of New Zealand's longest-reigning monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. Ardern described her as an "incredible woman", and a "constant in our lives". She also described the Queen as a "much admired and respected" monarch. Ardern also stated that republicanism was currently not on the agenda but believed that the country would head in that direction in the future. In mid December 2022, Ardern was recorded on a hot mic calling the leader of the ACT Party, David Seymour, an "arrogant prick" during Parliament's Question Time. Since New Zealand parliamentary debates are televised, the comment was aired on television during Question Time. Ardern later texted Seymour to apologise for her comment. The two politicians subsequently reconciled and joined forces to raise NZ$60,000 for the Prostate Cancer Foundation by auctioning a signed and framed copy of the Prime Minister's remark. ====COVID-19 and vaccination programme==== On 17 June 2020, Prime Minister Ardern met with Bill Gates and Melinda Gates via a teleconference in a meeting requested by Bill Gates. In the meeting, Ardern was asked by Melinda Gates to "speak up" in support of a collective approach to a COVID-19 vaccine. Ardern said she'd be happy to assist, an Official Information Act request response has shown. A month earlier in May, Ardern's Government had pledged $37 million to help find a COVID-19 vaccine, which included $15 million to CEPI (Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations) founded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the World Economic Forum among others, and $7 million to GAVI (Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunisation), also founded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. During the meeting Gates noted this contribution. Ardern had also met the Gateses the year before in New York. On 12 December 2020, Ardern and Cook Islands Prime Minister Mark Brown announced that a travel bubble between New Zealand and the Cook Islands would be established in 2021, allowing two-way quarantine-free travel between the two countries. On 14 December, Prime Minister Ardern confirmed that the New Zealand and Australian Governments had agreed to establish a travel bubble between the two countries the following year. On 17 December, Ardern also announced that the Government had purchased two more vaccines from the pharmaceutical companies AstraZeneca and Novavax for New Zealand and its Pacific partners in addition to the existing stocks from Pfizer/BioNTech and Janssen Pharmaceutica. On 26 January 2021, Ardern stated that New Zealand's borders would remain closed to most non-citizens and non-residents until New Zealand citizens have been "vaccinated and protected". The COVID-19 vaccination programme began in February 2021. An outbreak of the SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant in August 2021 prompted the government to enact a nationwide lockdown again. By September, the number of new community infections began to fall again; comparisons were made with an outbreak in neighbouring Australia, which was unable to contain a Delta variant outbreak at the same time. On 29 January 2022, Ardern entered into self-isolation after she was identified as a close contact of a COVID-19 case on an Air New Zealand flight from Kerikeri to Auckland on 22 January. In addition Governor-General Cindy Kiro and chief press secretary Andrew Campbell, who were aboard the same flight, also went into self-isolation. On 14 May 2022, Ardern tested positive for COVID-19. Her partner Gayford had tested positive for COVID-19 several days earlier on 8 May. ====Foreign affairs==== thumb|upright=1.2|Ardern delivers a speech virtually at the Singapore FinTech Festival 2020. In early December 2020, Ardern expressed support for Australia during a dispute between Canberra and Beijing over Chinese Foreign Ministry official Zhao Lijian's Twitter post alleging that Australia had committed war crimes against Afghans. She described the image as not being factual and incorrect, adding that the New Zealand Government would raise its concerns with the Chinese Government. On 9 December 2020, Ardern delivered a speech virtually at the Singapore FinTech Festival, applauding the Digital Economy Partnership Agreement (DEPA) among New Zealand, Chile and Singapore as "the first important steps" to achieve the regulatory alignment to facilitate businesses. On 16 February 2021, Ardern criticised the Australian Government's decision to revoke dual New Zealand–Australian national Suhayra Aden's Australian citizenship. Aden had migrated from New Zealand to Australia at the age of six and acquired Australian citizenship. She subsequently travelled to Syria to live in the Islamic State as a ISIS bride in 2014. On 15 February 2021, Aden and two of her children were detained by Turkish authorities for illegal entry. Ardern accused the Australian Government of abandoning its obligations to its citizens and also offered consular support to Aden and her children. In response, Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison defended the decision to revoke Aden's citizenship, citing legislation stripping dual nationals of their Australian citizenship if they were engaged in terrorist activities. Following a phone conversation, the two leaders agreed to work together to address what Ardern described as "quite a complex legal situation". In response to the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis, Ardern stated on 17 May that New Zealand "condemned both the indiscriminate rocket fire we have seen from Hamas and what looks to be a response that has gone well beyond self-defence on both sides." She also stated that Israel had the "right to exist" but Palestinians also had a "right to a peaceful home, a secure home." In late May 2021, Ardern hosted Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison during a state visit at Queenstown. The two heads of governments issued a joint statement affirming bilateral cooperation on the issues of COVID-19, bilateral relations, and security issues in the Indo-Pacific. Ardern and Morrison also raised concerns about the South China Sea dispute and human rights in Hong Kong and Xinjiang. In response to the joint statement, Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Wang Wenbin criticised the Australian and New Zealand governments for interfering in Chinese domestic affairs. In early December 2021, Ardern participated in the virtual Summit for Democracy that was hosted by US President Joe Biden. In her address, she talked about bolstering democratic resilience in the age of COVID-19 followed by panel discussions. Ardern also announced that New Zealand would contribute an additional NZ$1 million to supporting Pacific countries' anti-corruption efforts, as well as contributing to UNESCO's Global Media Defence Fund and the International Fund for Public Interest Media. In April 2022, Ardern was banned from entering Russia along with 129 other parliamentarians and senior government officials after the New Zealand Parliament unanimously imposed sanctions on Russia in response to its invasion of Ukraine. In late May 2022, Ardern led a trade and tourism mission to the United States. During her trip, she urged the Biden Administration to join the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP); the successor to the Trans- Pacific Partnership Agreement which the previous Trump Administration had abandoned in 2017. While attending the Late Show with Stephen Colbert, Ardern also condemned the Robb Elementary School shooting and advocated stronger gun control measures, citing New Zealand's ban on semi-automatic firearms following the 2019 Christchurch mosque shootings. On 27 May, Ardern gave the annual commencement address at Harvard University, speaking about gun reform and democracy. She was also awarded an honorary doctorate in law. On 28 May, Ardern signed a memorandum of understanding with Governor of California Gavin Newsom formalising bilateral cooperation between New Zealand and California in climate change mitigation and research. On 1 June 2022, Ardern met with US President Joe Biden and Vice-President Kamala Harris to reaffirm bilateral relations between the two countries. The two leaders also issued a joint statement reaffirming bilateral cooperation on various issues including the South China Sea dispute, support for Ukraine in response to the Russian invasion, Chinese tensions with Taiwan, and alleged human-rights violations in Xinjiang and Hong Kong. In response, Chinese Foreign Ministry official Zhao Lijian accused New Zealand and the United States of seeking to spread disinformation about China's engagement with Pacific Islands countries, interfering in Chinese internal affairs, and urged New Zealand to adhere to its stated "independent foreign policy". On 10 June 2022, Ardern visited the newly elected Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese. The two leaders discussed a range of issues including Australia's controversial Section 501 deportation policy, Chinese influence in the Pacific region, climate change, and working with Pacific neighbours. In response to Ardern's concerns, Albanese stated that he would explore ways of addressing New Zealand's concerns about the adverse impact of its deportation policies on New Zealanders residing in Australia. In late June 2022, Ardern attended the NATO's Leader Summit, which marked the first time that New Zealand had formally addressed a NATO event. During her speech, she emphasised New Zealand's commitment to peace and human rights. Ardern also criticised China for challenging international norms and rules in the South Pacific. She also alleged that Russia was conducting a disinformation campaign targeting New Zealand due to its support for Ukraine. In response, the Chinese Embassy defended China's engagement with the South Pacific region, claiming that China was only interested in promoting regional development and did not seek to militarise the region. On 30 June 2022, Ardern spoke by telephone with Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky. Though Zelensky had earlier invited Ardern to visit Ukraine during her European trade mission, Ardern had declined due to scheduling issues. During the conversation, Ardern reassured Zelensky that New Zealand would continue imposing sanctions on Russia. Zelensky also thanked New Zealand for providing aid to Ukraine and called for assistance in rebuilding Ukraine. In early August 2022, Ardern led a delegation of New Zealand political leaders, officials, civil society leaders, and journalists including National Party and opposition leader Christopher Luxon, Arts, Culture and Heritage Minister Carmel Sepuloni and Pacific Peoples Minister William Sio on a state visit to Samoa to marked the 60th anniversary of Samoa's independence. This visit preceded an earlier visit to New Zealand in June 2022 by Samoan Prime Minister Fiame Naomi Mata'afa. On 2 August, Ardern met with Fiame to discuss issues of concern to bilateral relations including climate change, economic resilience, COVID-19, health and Samoan seasonal workers in New Zealand. Ardern also confirmed that New Zealand would commit NZ$15 million in aid to support Samoa's climate change mitigation efforts and NZ$12m to rebuild Apia's historical Savalalo Market. In September 2022, Ardern along with her fiance Clarke Gayford and their daughter Neve attended Queen Elizabeth II's funeral. During the funeral, she wore a traditional Māori cloak designed by Māori fashion designer Kiri Nathan. In late October 2022, Ardern and Gayford visited New Zealand's Antarctica base Scott Base to mark the research base's 65th anniversary. The Government had already committed NZ$344 million to the redevelopment of Scott base. After Ardern's C-130 Hercules aircraft of the Royal New Zealand Air Force broke down, she and her entourage returned to Christchurch on an Italian C-130 Hercules aircraft. In mid November 2022, Ardern attended the East Asia Summit in Cambodia where she condemned the Myanmar military regime's execution of political prisoners and called for consensus in response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine. During the East Asia Summit, she met with US President Biden to discuss New Zealand milk company A2 Milk's efforts to supply infant formula to help address the infant formula milk shortage in the United States. On 30 November, Ardern hosted Finnish Prime Minister Sanna Marin, which marked the first visit by a Finnish head of government to New Zealand. During her visit, the two leaders discussed bilateral trade relations, the global economic situation, the Russian invasion of Ukraine, and human rights in Iran. During the ensuing press conference, Ardern rebuffed a suggestion by a journalist that the two heads of government had met because they were of a similar age and gender. === Resignation === On 19 January 2023, at the Labour Party's summer caucus retreat, Ardern announced she would resign as Labour leader and prime minister by 7 February and leave Parliament by the 2023 general election. She cited a desire to spend more time with her partner and daughter and an inability to commit to another four years. Ardern had indicated in November 2022 that she would seek a third term as prime minister. Speaking to the press during the caucus retreat as she announced her resignation plan, Ardern said, "I know what this job takes and I know that I no longer have enough in the tank to do it justice. It is that simple. We need a fresh set of shoulders for that challenge." Ardern's announcement prompted reactions from across the New Zealand political establishment. The opposition National and ACT parties' leaders Christopher Luxon and David Seymour thanked Ardern for her service while expressing disagreement with her Government's policies. Green Party co- leader James Shaw credited Ardern with fostering a constructive working relationship between their parties while fellow co-leader Marama Davidson praised Ardern for her compassion and determination to promote a "fairer and safer" Aotearoa. Similar sentiments were echoed by the Māori Party's co- leaders Debbie Ngarewa-Packer and Rawiri Waititi, who praised her leadership qualities and contributions to New Zealand society. New Zealand First leader and former Deputy Prime Minister Winston Peters attributed Ardern's resignation to her government's failure to deliver on promises and targets during the 2020–2023 parliamentary term. Prominent New Zealanders, including actor Sam Neill, comedian and writer Michèle A'Court, and Internet entrepreneur Kim Dotcom, expressed gratitude for Ardern's service. Overseas, Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese and several state leaders paid tribute to Ardern. In several opinion polls, Ardern's domestic popularity had reached all-time lows in the past few months, although she denied this would affect the Labour Party's chances of winning the next election. Ardern's final event as prime minister was a birthday celebration for Tahupōtiki Wiremu Rātana, a Māori prophet. At the event, Ardern called her work as the Prime Minister the "greatest privilege" and stated that she loved the country and its people. On 25 January, she was succeeded as prime minister and leader of the New Zealand Labour Party by Chris Hipkins, who had been elected unopposed during the Labour Party leadership election. ==Post-premiership== On 4 April 2023 Ardern was announced as a trustee of the Earthshot Prize. Ardern was selected for the post by Prince William, who stated that Ardern had a life- long commitment to supporting sustainable and environmental solutions. According to the Prince, Ardern was one of the first people to encourage him to establish the prize. That same day, Prime Minister Hipkins appointed Ardern as Special Envoy for the Christchurch Call, which she had established following the Christchurch mosque shootings to combat online extremist content. During her valedictory speech, Ardern called on political leaders and parties in New Zealand to take the politics out of climate change while highlighting her role in getting cross-party support for the passage of the Climate Change Response (Zero Carbon) Amendment Act. Ardern accepted dual fellowships at the Harvard Kennedy School for a semester beginning in fall 2023, to serve as the 2023 Angelopoulos Global Public Leaders Fellow and as a Hauser Leader at the Center for Public Leadership, where she intends to share and learn leadership and governance skills. She will also work with Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society as its first Knight Tech Governance Leadership Fellow during that period where she will focus on the study of online extremism. == Political views == Ardern has described herself as a social democrat, a progressive, a republican, and a feminist, citing Helen Clark as a political hero. She has described the extent of child poverty and homelessness in New Zealand as a "blatant failure" of capitalism. Asked by reporters to comment on the 2021 Budget, Ardern stated to "have always described myself as a Democratic Socialist", but she does not consider the term to be useful in New Zealand, as it is not commonly used in the political sphere. The leftist magazine Jacobin asserts that, despite identifying as socialist, her government is effectively neoliberal. Referring to New Zealand's distinctive nuclear-free policy, she described taking action on climate change as "my generation's nuclear-free moment". Ardern has spoken in support of same-sex marriage, and she voted for the Marriage (Definition of Marriage) Amendment Act 2013 which legalised it. In 2018, she became the first New Zealand prime minister to march in a pride parade. Ardern supported the removal of abortion from the Crimes Act 1961. In March 2020, she voted for the Abortion Legislation Act that amends the law to decriminalise abortion. Ardern voted in favour of legalising cannabis in the 2020 New Zealand cannabis referendum, though she refused to reveal her position on legalisation until after the referendum had concluded. With regard to the future of the Māori electorates—a contentious topic in New Zealand politics—Ardern believes the retention or abolition of the electorates (seats) should be decided by Māori, stating, "[Māori] have not raised the need for those seats to go, so why would we ask the question?" She supports compulsory study of the Māori language in schools. In September 2017, Ardern said she wanted New Zealand to debate removing the monarch of New Zealand as head of state. During her announcement on 24 May 2021 of the appointment of Dame Cindy Kiro as the next Governor- General of New Zealand, Ardern said she believed that New Zealand would become a republic within her lifetime. She has, however, met regularly with members of the Royal Family over the years and said that, "My particular views do not change the respect that I have for Her Majesty and for her family and for the work that they've done for New Zealand. I think you can hold both views, and I do." Following the death of Queen Elizabeth II, Ardern reaffirmed her support for republicanism but stated that official moves towards New Zealand becoming a republic was not "on the agenda anytime soon." Ardern advocates a lower rate of immigration, suggesting a drop of around 20,000–30,000. Calling it an "infrastructure issue", she argues that "there hasn't been enough planning about population growth, we haven't necessarily targeted our skill shortages properly"; however, she wants to increase the intake of refugees. In foreign affairs, Ardern has voiced support for a two-state solution to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. She condemned the Israeli killing of Palestinians during protests at the Gaza border. Following the Supreme Court's landmark Make It 16 Incorporated v Attorney-General ruling in November 2022, Ardern has voiced support for lowering the voting age to 16 years. She announced that the Government would introduce legislation lowering the voting age to 16 years; with such legislation requiring a 75 per cent majority. == Public image == Early on in her tenure, Ardern was frequently described as a celebrity politician. After becoming the Labour Party leader, Ardern received positive coverage from many sections of the media, including international outlets such as CNN, with commentators referring to a "Jacinda effect" and "Jacindamania". Jacindamania was cited as a factor behind New Zealand gaining global attention and media influence in some reports, including the Soft Power 30 index. In a 2018 overseas trip, Ardern attracted much attention from international media, particularly after delivering a speech at the United Nations in New York. She contrasted with contemporary world leaders, being cast as an "antidote to Trumpism". Writing for Stuff, Tracy Watkins said Ardern made a "cut-through on the world stage" and her reception was as a "torch carrier for progressive politics as a young woman who breaks the mold in a world where the political strongman is on the rise. She is a foil to the muscular diplomacy of the likes of US President Donald Trump and Russian President Vladimir Putin." A year after Ardern formed her government, The Guardian's Eleanor Ainge Roy reported that Jacindamania was waning in the population, with not enough of the promised change visible. When Toby Manhire, the editor of The Spinoff, reviewed the decade in December 2019, he praised Ardern for her leadership following the Christchurch mosque shootings and the Whakaari / White Island eruption, saying that "Ardern ... revealed an empathy, steel and clarity that in the most appalling circumstances brought New Zealanders together and inspired people the world over. It was a strength of character that showed itself again this week following the tragic eruption at Whakaari." Whilst towards the end of her tenure Ardern faced decreased levels of popularity domestically and increased levels of criticism from across the political spectrum, she denied that these were factors in her decision to resign as Prime Minister. ==Honours== Ardern was one of fifteen women selected to appear on the cover of the September 2019 issue of British Vogue, by guest editor Meghan, Duchess of Sussex. Forbes magazine has consistently ranked her among the 100 most powerful women in the world, placing her 34th in 2021. She was included in the 2019 Time 100 list and shortlisted for Time's 2019 Person of the Year. The magazine later incorrectly speculated that she might win the 2019 Nobel Peace Prize among a listed six candidates, for her handling of the Christchurch mosque shootings. In 2020, she was listed by Prospect as the second-greatest thinker for the COVID-19 era. On 19 November 2020, Ardern was awarded Harvard University's 2020 Gleitsman International Activist Award; she contributed the US$150,000 (NZ$216,000) prize money to New Zealanders studying at the university. In 2021, New Zealand zoologist Steven A. Trewick named the flightless wētā species Hemiandrus jacinda in honour of Ardern. A spokesperson for Ardern said that a beetle (Mecodema jacinda), a lichen (Ocellularia jacinda-arderniae), and an ant (Crematogaster jacindae, found in Saudi Arabia) had also been named after her. In mid-May 2021, Fortune magazine gave Ardern the top spot on their list of world's 50 greatest leaders, citing her leadership during the COVID-19 pandemic as well as her handling of the Christchurch mosque shootings and the 2019 Whakaari / White Island eruption. On 26 May 2022, Ardern was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree by Harvard University for contributions that "shape the world". In the 2023 King's Birthday and Coronation Honours, Ardern was appointed a Dame Grand Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit (GNZM), for services to the State. == Personal life == === Religious views === Raised as a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in New Zealand, Ardern left the church in 2005 at age 25 because, she said, it conflicted with her personal views, in particular her support for gay rights. In January 2017, Ardern identified as agnostic, saying "I can't see myself being a member of an organised religion again". As prime minister in 2019 she met the president of LDS Church, Russell M. Nelson. ===Family=== Ardern is a second cousin of Hamish McDouall, former mayor of Whanganui. She is also a distant cousin of former National MP for Taranaki-King Country Shane Ardern. Shane Ardern left Parliament in 2014, three years before Jacinda Ardern became prime minister. Ardern's partner is television presenter Clarke Gayford. The couple first met in 2012 when they were introduced by mutual friend Colin Mathura-Jeffree, a New Zealand television host and model, but they did not spend time together until Gayford contacted Ardern regarding a controversial Government Communications Security Bureau bill. On 3 May 2019, it was reported that Ardern was engaged to marry Gayford. The wedding was scheduled for January 2022 but was postponed due to an outbreak of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant. On 19 January 2018, Ardern announced that she was expecting her first child in June, making her New Zealand's first prime minister to be pregnant in office. Ardern was admitted to Auckland City Hospital on 21 June 2018, and gave birth to a girl the same day, becoming only the second elected head of government to give birth while in office (after Benazir Bhutto in 1990). Her daughter's given names are Neve Te Aroha. Neve is an anglicised form of the Irish name Niamh, meaning 'bright'; is Māori for 'love', and Te Aroha is a rural town west of the Kaimai Range, near Ardern's former home town of Morrinsville. After growing rumours that Gayford was under police investigation for criminal offences, in 2018 both Ardern and the Police Commissioner Mike Bush took the unusual step of confirming that Gayford was not, and had not been, under any such investigations. == See also == * List of New Zealand governments * Politics of New Zealand * Paddles (cat), Ardern's former pet cat == References == == External links == * Jacinda Ardern's profile on the New Zealand Parliament website * Jacinda Ardern at the New Zealand Labour Party * Category:1980 births Category:Living people Category:21st-century New Zealand politicians Category:21st-century New Zealand women politicians Category:Candidates in the 2017 New Zealand general election Category:Candidates in the 2020 New Zealand general election Category:Female heads of government in New Zealand Category:Former Latter Day Saints Category:Gun politics in New Zealand Category:Leaders of the Opposition (New Zealand) Category:Members of the New Zealand House of Representatives Category:New Zealand agnostics Category:New Zealand feminists Category:New Zealand former Christians Category:New Zealand Labour Party leaders Category:New Zealand Labour Party MPs Category:New Zealand list MPs Category:New Zealand MPs for Auckland electorates Category:New Zealand republicans Category:People from Hamilton, New Zealand Category:People from Morrinsville Category:People from Murupara Category:Prime Ministers of New Zealand Category:New Zealand socialist feminists Category:University of Waikato alumni Category:Women government ministers of New Zealand Category:Women members of the New Zealand House of Representatives Category:Women opposition leaders Category:21st-century women prime ministers Category:World Economic Forum Young Global Leaders Category:New Zealand people of English descent Category:New Zealand people of Scottish descent Category:Women deputy opposition leaders Category:People educated at Morrinsville College Category:Dames Grand Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit |
thumb|Photo of the Arago spot in a shadow of a 5.8 mm circular obstacle thumb|700px|Numerical simulation of the intensity of monochromatic light of wavelength λ = 0.5 µm behind a circular obstacle of radius . thumb|Formation of the Arago spot (select "WebM source" for good quality) thumb|Arago spot forming in the shadow In optics, the Arago spot, Poisson spot, or Fresnel spot"Although this phenomenon is often called Poisson's spot, Poisson probably was not happy to have seen it because it supported the wave model of light. The spot is sometimes called Fresnel's spot because it is a direct consequence of his work, and Arago's spot because Arago devised the experiment that confirmed its existence." Katz, Debora M., Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Foundations and Connections, Advance Edition, Volume 2, Cengage Learning, 2015. is a bright point that appears at the center of a circular object's shadow due to Fresnel diffraction. This spot played an important role in the discovery of the wave nature of light and is a common way to demonstrate that light behaves as a wave (for example, in undergraduate physics laboratory exercises). The basic experimental setup requires a point source, such as an illuminated pinhole or a diverging laser beam. The dimensions of the setup must comply with the requirements for Fresnel diffraction. Namely, the Fresnel number must satisfy F = \frac{d^2}{\ell \lambda} \gtrsim 1, where * is the diameter of the circular object, * is the distance between the object and the screen, and * is the wavelength of the source. Finally, the edge of the circular object must be sufficiently smooth. These conditions together explain why the bright spot is not encountered in everyday life. However, with the laser sources available today, it is undemanding to perform an Arago-spot experiment. In astronomy, the Arago spot can also be observed in the strongly defocussed image of a star in a Newtonian telescope. There, the star provides an almost ideal point source at infinity, and the secondary mirror of the telescope constitutes the circular obstacle. When light shines on the circular obstacle, Huygens' principle says that every point in the plane of the obstacle acts as a new point source of light. The light coming from points on the circumference of the obstacle and going to the center of the shadow travels exactly the same distance, so all the light passing close by the object arrives at the screen in phase and constructively interferes. This results in a bright spot at the shadow's center, where geometrical optics and particle theories of light predict that there should be no light at all. ==History== At the beginning of the 19th century, the idea that light does not simply propagate along straight lines gained traction. Thomas Young published his double-slit experiment in 1807. The original Arago spot experiment was carried out a decade later and was the deciding experiment on the question of whether light is a particle or a wave. It is thus an example of an experimentum crucis. At that time, many favored Isaac Newton's corpuscular theory of light, among them the theoretician Siméon Denis Poisson. In 1818 the French Academy of Sciences launched a competition to explain the properties of light, where Poisson was one of the members of the judging committee. The civil engineer Augustin-Jean Fresnel entered this competition by submitting a new wave theory of light. Poisson studied Fresnel's theory in detail and, being a supporter of the particle theory of light, looked for a way to prove it wrong. Poisson thought that he had found a flaw when he argued that a consequence of Fresnel's theory was that there would exist an on-axis bright spot in the shadow of a circular obstacle, where there should be complete darkness according to the particle theory of light. This prediction was seen as an absurd consequence of the wave theory, and the failure of that prediction should be a strong argument to reject Fresnel's theory. However, the head of the committee, Dominique-François-Jean Arago, decided to actually perform the experiment. He molded a 2 mm metallic disk to a glass plate with wax. He succeeded in observing the predicted spot, which convinced most scientists of the wave nature of light and gave Fresnel the win. From p. 16: "L'un de vos commissaires, M. Poisson, avait déduit des intégrales rapportées par l'auteur, le résultat singulier que le centre de l'ombre d'un écran circulaire opaque devait, lorsque les rayons y pénétraient sous des incidences peu obliques, être aussi éclairé que si l'écran n'existait pas. Cette conséquence a été soumise à l'épreuve d'une expérience directe, et l'observation a parfaitement confirmé le calcul (e)." (One of your commissioners, Mr. Poisson, had deduced from the integrals [that had been] reported by the author [i.e., Mr. Fresnel], the strange result that the center of the shadow of an opaque circular screen should — when the [light] rays penetrate it [i.e., the shadow] at slightly oblique incidences — also be illuminated as if the screen didn't exist. This result has been submitted to the test of a direct experiment, and observation has perfectly confirmed the calculation (e).) Arago later noted that the phenomenon (later known as "Poisson's spot" or the "spot of Arago") had already been observed by Delisle and Maraldi a century earlier. Although Arago's experimental result was overwhelming evidence in favor of the wave theory, a century later, in conjunction with the birth of quantum mechanics (and first suggested in one of Albert Einstein's Annus Mirabilis papers), it became understood that light (as well as all forms of matter and energy) must be described as both a particle and a wave (wave–particle duality). However the particle associated with electromagnetic waves, the photon, has nothing in common with the particles imagined in the corpuscular theory that had been dominant before the rise of the wave theory and Arago's powerful demonstration. Unlike attempts of the corpuscular theory to explain the propagation of light, the properties of photons have no role in explaining phenomena such as diffraction and interference; these are examples of light propagation strictly dependent on its wave character. ==Theory== 300px|thumb|right|Notation for calculating the wave amplitude at point P1 from a spherical point source at P0. At the heart of Fresnel's wave theory is the Huygens–Fresnel principle, which states that every unobstructed point of a wavefront becomes the source of a secondary spherical wavelet and that the amplitude of the optical field E at a point on the screen is given by the superposition of all those secondary wavelets taking into account their relative phases. This means that the field at a point P1 on the screen is given by a surface integral: U(P_1) = \frac{A e^{\mathbf{i} k r_0}}{r_0} \int_S \frac{e^{\mathbf{i} k r_1}}{r_1} K(\chi) \, dS, where the inclination factor K(\chi) which ensures that the secondary wavelets do not propagate backwards is given by K(\chi) = \frac{\mathbf{i}}{2 \lambda} (1 + \cos(\chi)) and * A is the amplitude of the source wave * k = \frac{2\pi}{\lambda} is the wavenumber * S is the unobstructed surface. The first term outside of the integral represents the oscillations from the source wave at a distance r0. Similarly, the term inside the integral represents the oscillations from the secondary wavelets at distances r1. In order to derive the intensity behind the circular obstacle using this integral one assumes that the experimental parameters fulfill the requirements of the near-field diffraction regime (the size of the circular obstacle is large compared to the wavelength and small compared to the distances g = P0C and b = CP1). Going to polar coordinates then yields the integral for a circular object of radius a (see for example Born and Wolf): U(P_1) = - \frac{\mathbf{i}}{\lambda} \frac{A e^{\mathbf{i} k (g + b)}}{g b} 2\pi \int_a^\infty e^{\mathbf{i} k \frac{1}{2} \left(\frac{1}{g} + \frac{1}{b}\right) r^2} r \, dr. 300px|thumb|right|The on- axis intensity at the center of the shadow of a small circular obstacle converges to the unobstructed intensity. This integral can be solved numerically (see below). If g is large and b is small so that the angle \chi is not negligible one can write the integral for the on-axis case (P1 is at the center of the shadow) as (see ): U(P_1) = \frac{A e^{\mathbf{i} k g}}{g} \frac{b}{\sqrt{b^2 + a^2}} e^{\mathbf{i} k \sqrt{b^2 + a^2}}. The source intensity, which is the square of the field amplitude, is I_0 = \left|\frac{1}{g} A e^{\mathbf{i} k g}\right|^2 and the intensity at the screen I = \left| U(P_1) \right|^2. The on-axis intensity as a function of the distance b is hence given by: I = \frac{b^2}{b^2 + a^2} I_0. This shows that the on-axis intensity at distances b much greater than the diameter of the circular obstacle is the same as the source intensity, as if the circular object was not present at all. However at larger distances b, it turns out that the size of the bright spot (as can be seen in the simulations below where b/a is increased in successive images) is larger therefore making the spot easier to discern. ===Calculation of diffraction images=== To calculate the full diffraction image that is visible on the screen one has to consider the surface integral of the previous section. One cannot exploit circular symmetry anymore, since the line between the source and an arbitrary point on the screen does not pass through the center of the circular object. With the aperture function g(r,\theta) which is 1 for transparent parts of the object plane and 0 otherwise (i.e. It is 0 if the direct line between source and the point on the screen passes through the blocking circular object.) the integral that needs to be solved is given by: U(P_1) \propto \int_0^{2\pi} \int_0^\infty g(r,\theta) e^{\frac{\mathbf{i} \pi \rho^2}{\lambda} \left( \frac{1}{g} + \frac{1}{b} \right)} \rho \, d\rho \, d\theta. Numerical calculation of the integral using the trapezoidal rule or Simpson's rule is not efficient and becomes numerically unstable especially for configurations with large Fresnel number. However, it is possible to solve the radial part of the integral so that only the integration over the azimuth angle remains to be done numerically. For a particular angle one must solve the line integral for the ray with origin at the intersection point of the line P0P1 with the circular object plane. The contribution for a particular ray with azimuth angle \theta_1 and passing a transparent part of the object plane from r = s to r = t is: R(\theta_1) \propto e^{\frac{\pi}{2} \mathbf{i} s^2} - e^{\frac{\pi}{2} \mathbf{i} t^2}. So for each angle one has to compute the intersection point(s) of the ray with the circular object and then sum the contributions I(\theta_1) for a certain number of angles between 0 and 2\pi. Results of such a calculation are shown in the following images. 200px 200px 200px The images are simulations of the Arago spot in the shadow of discs of diameter 4 mm, 2 mm, and 1 mm, imaged 1 m behind each disc. The disks are illuminated by light of wavelength of 633 nm, diverging from a point 1 m in front of each disc. Each image is 16 mm wide. ==Experimental aspects== ===Intensity and size=== For an ideal point source, the intensity of the Arago spot equals that of the undisturbed wave front. Only the width of the Arago spot intensity peak depends on the distances between source, circular object and screen, as well as the source's wavelength and the diameter of the circular object. This means that one can compensate for a reduction in the source's wavelength by increasing the distance l between circular object and screen or reducing the circular object's diameter. The lateral intensity distribution on the screen has in fact the shape of a squared zeroth Bessel function of the first kind when close to the optical axis and using a plane wave source (point source at infinity): U(P_1, r) \propto J_0^2 \left(\frac{\pi r d}{\lambda b}\right) where * r is the distance of the point P1 on the screen from the optical axis * d is the diameter of circular object * λ is the wavelength * b is the distance between circular object and screen. The following images show the radial intensity distribution of the simulated Arago spot images above: 200px 200px 200px The red lines in these three graphs correspond to the simulated images above, and the green lines were computed by applying the corresponding parameters to the squared Bessel function given above. ===Finite source size and spatial coherence=== The main reason why the Arago spot is hard to observe in circular shadows from conventional light sources is that such light sources are bad approximations of point sources. If the wave source has a finite size S then the Arago spot will have an extent that is given by Sb/g, as if the circular object acted like a lens. At the same time the intensity of the Arago spot is reduced with respect to the intensity of the undisturbed wave front. Defining the relative intensity I_\text{rel}as the intensity divided by the intensity of the undisturbed wavefront, the relative intensity for an extended circular source of diameter w can be expressed exactly using the following equation: I_\text{rel}(w) = J_0^2\left(\frac{w R \pi}{g \lambda}\right) + J_1^2\left(\frac{w R \pi}{g \lambda}\right) where J_0and J_1are the Bessel functions of the first kind. R is the radius of the disc casting the shadow, \lambda the wavelength and g the distance between source and disc. For large sources the following asymptotic approximation applies: I_\text{rel}(w) \approx \frac{2 g \lambda }{\pi^2 w R} ===Deviation from circularity=== If the cross-section of the circular object deviates slightly from its circular shape (but it still has a sharp edge on a smaller scale) the shape of the point-source Arago spot changes. In particular, if the object has an ellipsoidal cross-section the Arago spot has the shape of an evolute. Note that this is only the case if the source is close to an ideal point source. From an extended source the Arago spot is only affected marginally, since one can interpret the Arago spot as a point-spread function. Therefore, the image of the extended source only becomes washed out due to the convolution with the point-spread function, but it does not decrease in over all intensity. ===The circular object's surface roughness=== The Arago spot is very sensitive to small-scale deviations from the ideal circular cross-section. This means that a small amount of surface roughness of the circular object can completely cancel out the bright spot. This is shown in the following three diagrams which are simulations of the Arago spot from a 4 mm diameter disc (g = b = 1 m): 200px 200px 200px The simulation includes a regular sinusoidal corrugation of the circular shape of amplitude 10 μm, 50 μm and 100 μm, respectively. Note, that the 100 μm edge corrugation almost completely removes the central bright spot. This effect can be best understood using the Fresnel zone concept. The field transmitted by a radial segment that stems from a point on the obstacle edge provides a contribution whose phase is tight to the position of the edge point relative to Fresnel zones. If the variance in the radius of the obstacle are much smaller than the width of Fresnel zone near the edge, the contributions form radial segments are approximately in phase and interfere constructively. However, if random edge corrugation have amplitude comparable to or greater than the width of that adjacent Fresnel zone, the contributions from radial segments are no longer in phase and cancel each other reducing the Arago spot intensity. The adjacent Fresnel zone is approximately given by: \Delta r \approx \sqrt{r^2 + \lambda \frac{g b}{g + b}} - r. The edge corrugation should not be much more than 10% of this width to see a close to ideal Arago spot. In the above simulations with the 4 mm diameter disc the adjacent Fresnel zone has a width of about 77 μm. ==Arago spot with matter waves== In 2009, the Arago spot experiment was demonstrated with a supersonic expansion beam of deuterium molecules (an example of neutral matter waves). Material particles behaving like waves is known from quantum mechanics. The wave-nature of particles actually dates back to de Broglie's hypothesis as well as Davisson and Germer's experiments. An Arago spot of electrons, which also constitute matter waves, can be observed in transmission electron microscopes when examining circular structures of a certain size. The observation of an Arago spot with large molecules, thus proving their wave-nature, is a topic of current research. ==Other applications== Beside the demonstration of wave-behavior, the Arago spot also has a few other applications. One of the ideas is to use the Arago spot as a straight line reference in alignment systems.Feier et al. Another is to probe aberrations in laser beams by using the spot's sensitivity to beam aberrations. Finally, the aragoscope has been proposed as a method for dramatically improving the diffraction-limited resolution of space-based telescopes. ==See also== * Aragoscope * Occulting disk ==References== Category:Diffraction |
In visual arts, music and other media, minimalism is an art movement that began in post–World War II in Western art, most strongly with American visual arts in the 1960s and early 1970s. Prominent artists associated with minimalism include Donald Judd, Agnes Martin, Dan Flavin, Carl Andre, Robert Morris, Anne Truitt and Frank Stella. The movement is often interpreted as a reaction against abstract expressionism and modernism; it anticipated contemporary postminimal art practices, which extend or reflect on minimalism's original objectives. Minimalism in music often features repetition and gradual variation, such as the works of La Monte Young, Terry Riley, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, Julius Eastman and John Adams. The term minimalist often colloquially refers to anything or anyone that is spare or stripped to its essentials. It has accordingly been used to describe the plays and novels of Samuel Beckett, the films of Robert Bresson, the stories of Raymond Carver, and the automobile designs of Colin Chapman. The word was first used in English in the early 20th century to describe a 1915 composition by the Soviet painter Kasimir Malevich, Black Square. == Visual arts == Minimalism in visual art, sometimes called "minimal art", "literalist art" Reprinted: and "ABC Art",Rose, Barbara. "ABC Art", Art in America 53, no. 5 (October–November 1965): 57–69. refers to a specific movement of artists that emerged in New York in the early 1960s in response to abstract expressionism. Examples of artists working in painting that are associated with Minimalism include Nassos Daphnis, Frank Stella, Kenneth Noland, Al Held, Ellsworth Kelly, Robert Ryman and others; those working in sculpture include Donald Judd, Dan Flavin, David Smith, Anthony Caro and more. Minimalism in painting can be characterized by the use of the hard edge, linear lines, simple forms, and an emphasis on two dimensions. Minimalism in sculpture can be characterized by very simple geometric shapes often made of industrial materials like plastic, metal, aluminum, concrete, and fiberglass; these materials are usually left raw or painted a solid colour. Minimalism was in part a reaction against the painterly subjectivity of Abstract Expressionism that had been dominant in the New York School during the 1940s and 1950s. Dissatisfied with the intuitive and spontaneous qualities of Action Painting, and Abstract Expressionism more broadly, Minimalism as an art movement asserted that a work of art should not refer to anything other than itself and should omit any extra-visual association. Judd's work was showcased in 1964 at Green Gallery in Manhattan, as were Flavin's first fluorescent light works, while other leading Manhattan galleries like Leo Castelli Gallery and Pace Gallery also began to showcase artists focused on minimalist ideas. === Minimalism in visual art broadly === In a more general sense, minimalism as a visual strategy can be found in the geometric abstractions of painters associated with the Bauhaus, in the works of Kazimir Malevich, Piet Mondrian and other artists associated with the De Stijl movement, and the Russian Constructivist movement, and in the work of the Romanian sculptor Constantin Brâncuși. Minimalism as a formal strategy has been deployed in the paintings of Barnett Newman, Ad Reinhardt, Josef Albers, and the works of artists as diverse as Pablo Picasso, Yayoi Kusama, Giorgio Morandi, and others. Yves Klein had painted monochromes as early as 1949, and held the first private exhibition of this work in 1950—but his first public showing was the publication of the Artist's book Yves: Peintures in November 1954.Hannah Weitemeier, Yves Klein, 1928–1962: International Klein Blue, Original-Ausgabe (Cologne: Taschen, 1994), 15. . == Design, architecture, and spaces == The term minimalism is also used to describe a trend in design and architecture, wherein the subject is reduced to its necessary elements. Minimalist architectural designers focus on the connection between two perfect planes, elegant lighting, and the void spaces left by the removal of three-dimensional shapes in an architectural design. Minimalist architecture became popular in the late 1980s in London and New York, where architects and fashion designers worked together in the boutiques to achieve simplicity, using white elements, cold lighting, and large space with minimum objects and furniture. Minimalistic design has been highly influenced by Japanese traditional design and architecture. The works of De Stijl artists are a major reference: De Stijl expanded the ideas of expression by meticulously organizing basic elements such as lines and planes. With regard to home design, more attractive "minimalistic" designs are not truly minimalistic because they are larger, and use more expensive building materials and finishes. There are observers who describe the emergence of minimalism as a response to the brashness and chaos of urban life. In Japan, for example, minimalist architecture began to gain traction in the 1980s when its cities experienced rapid expansion and booming population. The design was considered an antidote to the "overpowering presence of traffic, advertising, jumbled building scales, and imposing roadways." The chaotic environment was not only driven by urbanization, industrialization, and technology but also the Japanese experience of constantly having to demolish structures on account of the destruction wrought by World War II and the earthquakes, including the calamities it entails such as fire. The minimalist design philosophy did not arrive in Japan by way of another country, as it was already part of the Japanese culture rooted on the Zen philosophy. There are those who specifically attribute the design movement to Japan's spirituality and view of nature. Architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886–1969) adopted the motto "Less is more" to describe his aesthetic. His tactic was one of arranging the necessary components of a building to create an impression of extreme simplicity—he enlisted every element and detail to serve multiple visual and functional purposes; for example, designing a floor to also serve as the radiator, or a massive fireplace to also house the bathroom. Designer Buckminster Fuller (1895–1983) adopted the engineer's goal of "Doing more with less", but his concerns were oriented toward technology and engineering rather than aesthetics. === Concepts and design elements === The concept of minimalist architecture is to strip everything down to its essential quality and achieve simplicity. The idea is not completely without ornamentation, but that all parts, details, and joinery are considered as reduced to a stage where no one can remove anything further to improve the design. The considerations for 'essences' are light, form, detail of material, space, place, and human condition. Minimalist architects not only consider the physical qualities of the building. They consider the spiritual dimension and the invisible, by listening to the figure and paying attention to details, people, space, nature, and materials., believing this reveals the abstract quality of something that is invisible and aids the search for the essence of those invisible qualities—such as natural light, sky, earth, and air. In addition, they "open a dialogue" with the surrounding environment to decide the most essential materials for the construction and create relationships between buildings and sites. In minimalist architecture, design elements strive to convey the message of simplicity. The basic geometric forms, elements without decoration, simple materials and the repetitions of structures represent a sense of order and essential quality. The movement of natural light in buildings reveals simple and clean spaces. In the late 19th century as the arts and crafts movement became popular in Britain, people valued the attitude of 'truth to materials' with respect to the profound and innate characteristics of materials. Minimalist architects humbly 'listen to figure,' seeking essence and simplicity by rediscovering the valuable qualities in simple and common materials. === Influences from Japanese tradition === The idea of simplicity appears in many cultures, especially the Japanese traditional culture of Zen Buddhist philosophy. Japanese manipulate the Zen culture into aesthetic and design elements for their buildings. This idea of architecture has influenced Western society, especially in America since the mid 18th century. Moreover, it inspired the minimalist architecture in the 19th century. Zen concepts of simplicity transmit the ideas of freedom and essence of living. Simplicity is not only aesthetic value, it has a moral perception that looks into the nature of truth and reveals the inner qualities and essence of materials and objects. For example, the sand garden in temple demonstrates the concepts of simplicity and the essentiality from the considered setting of a few stones and a huge empty space. The Japanese aesthetic principle of refers to empty or open space. It removes all the unnecessary internal walls and opens up the space. The emptiness of spatial arrangement reduces everything down to the most essential quality. The Japanese aesthetic of values the quality of simple and plain objects. It appreciates the absence of unnecessary features, treasures a life in quietness and aims to reveal the innate character of materials. For example, the Japanese floral art of has the central principle of letting the flower express itself. People cut off the branches, leaves and blossoms from the plants and only retain the essential part of the plant. This conveys the idea of essential quality and innate character in nature. === Minimalist architects and their works === The Japanese minimalist architect Tadao Ando conveys the Japanese traditional spirit and his own perception of nature in his works. His design concepts are materials, pure geometry and nature. He normally uses concrete or natural wood and basic structural form to achieve austerity and rays of light in space. He also sets up dialogue between the site and nature to create relationship and order with the buildings. Ando's works and the translation of Japanese aesthetic principles are highly influential on Japanese architecture. Another Japanese minimalist architect, Kazuyo Sejima, works on her own and in conjunction with Ryue Nishizawa, as SANAA, producing iconic Japanese Minimalist buildings. Credited with creating and influencing a particular genre of Japanese Minimalism,Puglisi, L. P. (2008), New Directions in Contemporary Architecture, Chichester, John Wiley and Sons. Sejimas delicate, intelligent designs may use white color, thin construction sections and transparent elements to create the phenomenal building type often associated with minimalism. Works include New Museum (2010) New York City, Small House (2000) Tokyo, House surrounded By Plum Trees (2003) Tokyo. In Vitra Conference Pavilion, Weil am Rhein, 1993, the concepts are to bring together the relationships between building, human movement, site and nature. Which as one main point of minimalism ideology that establish dialogue between the building and site. The building uses the simple forms of circle and rectangle to contrast the filled and void space of the interior and nature. In the foyer, there is a large landscape window that looks out to the exterior. This achieves the simple and silence of architecture and enhances the light, wind, time and nature in space. John Pawson is a British minimalist architect; his design concepts are soul, light, and order. He believes that though reduced clutter and simplification of the interior to a point that gets beyond the idea of essential quality, there is a sense of clarity and richness of simplicity instead of emptiness. The materials in his design reveal the perception toward space, surface, and volume. Moreover, he likes to use natural materials because of their aliveness, sense of depth and quality of an individual. He is also attracted by the important influences from Japanese Zen Philosophy. Calvin Klein Madison Avenue, New York, 1995–96, is a boutique that conveys Calvin Klein's ideas of fashion. John Pawson's interior design concepts for this project are to create simple, peaceful and orderly spatial arrangements. He used stone floors and white walls to achieve simplicity and harmony for space. He also emphasises reduction and eliminates the visual distortions, such as the air conditioning and lamps, to achieve a sense of purity for the interior. Alberto Campo Baeza is a Spanish architect and describes his work as essential architecture. He values the concepts of light, idea and space. Light is essential and achieves the relationship between inhabitants and the building. Ideas are to meet the function and context of space, forms, and construction. Space is shaped by the minimal geometric forms to avoid decoration that is not essential. == Literature == Literary minimalism is characterized by an economy with words and a focus on surface description. Minimalist writers eschew adverbs and prefer allowing context to dictate meaning. Readers are expected to take an active role in creating the story, to "choose sides" based on oblique hints and innuendo, rather than react to directions from the writer. Some 1940s-era crime fiction of writers such as James M. Cain and Jim Thompson adopted a stripped-down, matter-of-fact prose style to considerable effect; some classify this prose style as minimalism. Another strand of literary minimalism arose in response to the metafiction trend of the 1960s and early 1970s (John Barth, Robert Coover, and William H. Gass). These writers were also sparse with prose and kept a psychological distance from their subject matter. Minimalist writers, or those who are identified with minimalism during certain periods of their writing careers, include the following: Raymond Carver, Ann Beattie, Bret Easton Ellis, Charles Bukowski, Ernest Hemingway, K. J. Stevens, Amy Hempel, Bobbie Ann Mason, Tobias Wolff, Grace Paley, Sandra Cisneros, Mary Robison, Frederick Barthelme, Richard Ford, Patrick Holland, Cormac McCarthy, and Alicia Erian. American poets such as Stephen Crane, William Carlos Williams, early Ezra Pound, Robert Creeley, Robert Grenier, and Aram Saroyan are sometimes identified with their minimalist style. The term "minimalism" is also sometimes associated with the briefest of poetic genres, haiku, which originated in Japan, but has been domesticated in English literature by poets such as Nick Virgilio, Raymond Roseliep, and George Swede. The Irish writer Samuel Beckett is well known for his minimalist plays and prose, as is the Norwegian writer Jon Fosse. Dimitris Lyacos's With the People from the Bridge, combining elliptical monologues with a pared-down prose narrative, is a contemporary example of minimalist playwrighting."From the Ruins of Europe: Lyacos's Debt-Riddled Greece" by Joseph Labernik, Tikkun, 21 August 2015 In his novel The Easy Chain, Evan Dara includes a 60-page section written in the style of musical minimalism, in particular inspired by composer Steve Reich. Intending to represent the psychological state (agitation) of the novel's main character, the section's successive lines of text are built on repetitive and developing phrases. == Music == The term "minimal music" was derived around 1970 by Michael Nyman from the concept of minimalism, which was earlier applied to the visual arts., citing Dan Warburton as his authority. More precisely, it was in a 1968 review in The Spectator that Nyman first used, but note that although this article claims that Nyman's article was "The Origin of Minimalism", that word appears nowhere in the text the term, to describe a ten-minute piano composition by the Danish composer Henning Christiansen, along with several other unnamed pieces played by Charlotte Moorman and Nam June Paik at the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London. However, the roots of minimal music are older. In France between 1947 and 1948, Yves Klein conceived his Monotone Symphony (1949, formally The Monotone-Silence Symphony) that consisted of a single 20-minute sustained chord followed by a 20-minute silenceGilbert Perlein & Bruno Corà (eds) & al., Yves Klein: Long Live the Immaterial! ("An anthological retrospective", catalog of an exhibition held in 2000), New York: Delano Greenidge, 2000, , p. 226: "This symphony, 40 minutes in length (in fact 20 minutes followed by 20 minutes of silence) is constituted of a single 'sound' stretched out, deprived of its attack and end which creates a sensation of vertigo, whirling the sensibility outside time."See also at YvesKleinArchives.org a 1998 sound excerpt of The Monotone Symphony (Flash plugin required), its short description , and Klein's "Chelsea Hotel Manifesto" (including a summary of the 2-part Symphony). – a precedent to both La Monte Young's drone music and John Cage's 4′33″. == Film and cinema == In film, minimalism usually is associated with filmmakers such as Robert Bresson, Chantal Akerman, Carl Theodor Dreyer, and Yasujirō Ozu. Their films typically tell a simple story with straightforward camera usage and minimal use of score. Paul Schrader named their kind of cinema: "transcendental cinema". In the present, a commitment to minimalist filmmaking can be seen in film movements such as Dogme 95, mumblecore, and the Romanian New Wave. Abbas Kiarostami, Elia Suleiman, and Kelly Reichardt are also considered minimalist filmmakers. The Minimalists – Joshua Fields Millburn, Ryan Nicodemus, and Matt D'Avella – directed and produced the film Minimalism: A Documentary, which showcased the idea of minimal living in the modern world. == In other fields == === Cooking === Breaking from the complex, hearty dishes established as orthodox haute cuisine, nouvelle cuisine was a culinary movement that consciously drew from minimalism and conceptualism. It emphasized more basic flavors, careful presentation, and a less involved preparation process. The movement was mainly in vogue during the 1960s and 1970s, after which it once again gave way to more traditional haute cuisine, retroactively titled cuisine classique. However, the influence of nouvelle cuisine can still be felt through the techniques it introduced.Mennel, Stephan. All Manners of Food: eating and taste in England and France from the Middle Ages to the present. 2nd ed., (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 163-164. === Fashion === The capsule wardrobe is an example of minimalism in fashion. Constructed of only a few staple pieces that do not go out of style, and generally dominated by only one or two colors, capsule wardrobes are meant to be light, flexible and adaptable, and can be paired with seasonal pieces when the situation calls for them. The modern idea of a capsule wardrobe dates back to the 1970s, and is credited to London boutique owner Susie Faux. The concept was further popularized in the next decade by American fashion designer Donna Karan, who designed a seminal collection of capsule workwear pieces in 1985. === Science communication === To portray global warming to non-scientists, in 2018 British climate scientist Ed Hawkins developed warming stripes graphics that are deliberately devoid of scientific or technical indicia, for ease of understanding by non-scientists. Hawkins explained that "our visual system will do the interpretation of the stripes without us even thinking about it". Warming stripe graphics resemble color field paintings in stripping out all distractions and using only color to convey meaning. Color field pioneer artist Barnett Newman said he was "creating images whose reality is self- evident", an ethos that Hawkins is said to have applied to the problem of climate change and leading one commentator to remark that the graphics are "fit for the Museum of Modern Art or the Getty." A visual form of global warming data is presented through knitted or crocheted work. This project known as "tempestry" and it is carried out by collaborating with many artists to show the variations in temperatures using specified colors of yarn for each temperature or temperature range. The whole tapestry gives visual representation of global warming that may be taking place at a given location. The word "tempestry" is a portmanteau of "temperature" and "tapestry." === Minimalist lifestyle === In a lifestyle adopting minimalism, there is an effort to use materials which are most essential and in quantities that do not exceed certain limits imposed by the user themselves. There have been so many terms evolved from the concept. Like minimalist decors, minimalist skincare, minimalist style, minimalist accessories, etc. All such terms signify the usage of only essential products in that niche into our lives. This will help to focus on things that are important in one's life. It will save resources from going waste if excess quantities are bought. It will also save the time of acquiring the excess materials that may be found unnecessary. A minimalist lifestyle helps to enjoy life with simple things that are available without undue efforts to acquire things that may be bought at great expenses. Minimalism also leads to less clutter in living spaces. ==See also== == Notes and references == === Notes === === References === === Sources === * * * * * * * ==Further reading== * * Keenan, David, and Michael Nyman (4 February 2001). "Claim to Frame". Sunday Herald == External links == * * Agence Photographique de la Réunion des musées nationaux et du Grand Palais des Champs-Elysées * "A Short History of Minimalism—Donald Judd, Richard Wollheim, and the origins of what we now describe as minimalist" By Kyle Chayka January 14, 2020 The Nation Category:Contemporary art movements Category:Modern art Category:Abstract art Category:Western art Category:Modernism Category:Simple living Category:1960s in art Category:1970s in art Category:Postmodern art Category:Postmodernism |
Take the High Road (renamed High Road from 1994 to 2003) was a Scottish soap opera produced by Scottish Television, which started in February 1980 as an ITV network daytime programme, and was broadcast until 2003. It was set in the fictional village of Glendarroch, and exteriors were filmed in the real-life village of Luss on the banks of Loch Lomond. The series was dropped by most ITV stations in the 1990s – the Scottish, Grampian, Border and Ulster stations continued to screen it until the last episode. From April 2020, the entire series is being made available free to view on the STV Player app. ==History== thumb|Location crew on Loch Lomond at Millarochy Bay, Balmaha. This was the first of two locations for the 'Boathouse'; because of access difficulties, the scenes were eventually switched to the west side of the Loch at Rossdhu House (1984) ===Origins=== In 1979, the ITV network decided that its daytime schedule would be improved by the inclusion of a soap opera set in Scotland.Elder, p. 12. At the time the only soap opera being made by any of the three Scottish regional companies was Scottish Television's Garnock Way, set in a Central Belt mining community not far from Glasgow. It had been running in Scotland for three years and was very popular there, but the network rejected it because they wanted, in their words, "lots of Scotch Lochs and Hills". It was decided that a new programme would be made which had its central core in a rural, lochside setting where the community were all part of an estate, comprising a village and several farms. As Michael Elder puts it, the series would have a romantic background against which a practical story of everyday events would be set.Elder, p. 13. The original name for the fictitious estate and village was Glendhu and the proposed title for the programme was The Glendhu Factor. The network did not like this, because viewers in other ITV regions may have had difficulty with both the placename and the role of factor. As a result, the village was renamed Glendarroch. In Scotland, a factor is a person responsible for managing an estate, but the word has other connotations elsewhere. Location filming for a pilot had been done in and around the village of Luss on the western shore of Loch Lomond, overlooked by Ben Lomond. The popular song "The Bonnie Banks o' Loch Lomond" contains the line, "O ye'll tak' the high road, and I'll tak' the low road" and so the title High Road, Low Road was suggested, but this was also dropped after someone pointed out that, said quickly, "it sounds like a Chinese takeaway". After some debate it was decided that the series would be called Take the High Road. In late 1979, partly because of an ITV strike at the time, Garnock Way was axed, and production began on the new programme. ===Links to Garnock Way=== Take the High Road was introduced as a replacement for Garnock Way, which contained very similar characters and actors to the original characters of Take the High Road. Some viewers were rather displeased about Garnock Way being axed; to help defuse some of the anger, Todd the garage mechanic, played by Bill Henderson, would suffer a nervous breakdown, and would move north to set up business on his own to help resolve his alcohol problems. Because of shortage of time and the wish to keep most of the existing actors, it did not follow this plan. The appointed producer Clarke Tait decided to have a scenario where Henderson's character, Todd, had his name changed to Ken Calder who happened to be a garage mechanic with a drink problem. ===Production and changes=== The main writer was series creator Don Houghton. Many of the early scripts were written by Michael Elder, who also played Dr Wallace in the show. Books by the same name as the show were also produced by him. Until 1986, the series only broadcast 40 weeks of the year, with a break usually from January to the spring. During the course of its existence, Take the High Road went through some major changes and face lifts. Perhaps the most noticeable was the renovation of Blair's store: at first, everything was kept behind the counter as was once common practice; in series two, soon after Brian Blair was released from prison, it was transformed into a walk-around store. A few themes in Take the High Road were broadly in line with Scottish culture – for example, the relationships between crofters like Dougal Lachlan, villagers like storekeeper Isabel Blair, the "lady laird" Elizabeth Cunningham and the estate factor, originally Alan McIntyre. The Protestant religion was a recurring traditional theme and the series highlighted the remoteness of the village and estate. Several storylines focused on the difficulties of access faced by agencies such as the health service and the police, as when an RAF helicopter had to be summoned to Ardvain for Grace Lachlan following her near-fatal heart attack. Elizabeth's family had historically (but no longer) owned the estate, the village and the neighbouring crofts and farms. Though still resident in the "Big House", Elizabeth protected the interests of her people but lack of revenue had forced her to sell the estate to Max Langemann's multinational business consortium. As the series began, Elizabeth was battling to resist Langemann's ruthless plan to convert Glendarroch into a leisure resort for his rich clientele. In 2005, this scenario was echoed in real life when American businessman Donald Trump bought an Aberdeenshire estate to build a controversial golf resort. Despite her resistance to Langemann, Elizabeth understood that modernity was coming and was willing to accept it on terms favourable to the estate and its people. Her traditional mindset, however, contrasted sharply with those of her successors. In the first series, realising the need for new ideas to raise revenue, Elizabeth encouraged her daughter Fiona to join forces with Isabel's son Jimmy in launching a water-skiing enterprise on the loch. In March 1990, the series was revamped in a bid to attract a younger audience, which resulted in some outcry about the changes and a belief that new sets had taken away the authenticity of a Scottish village. However, within six months, the changes were hailed as a success and enabled stronger story lines, and the introduction of five new male characters. During its run, Take the High Road was always one of the highest-rated television programmes in Scotland, and had an extremely loyal following throughout the rest of the UK. Indeed, when the series was cancelled by the ITV Network, so many protests were received from viewers in England that some ITV regions reinstated the programme. Starting from 22 July 1994, the series' name was changed to just High Road, until it was cancelled in April 2003. ===Outcome=== Take the High Road was the only soap for the ITV network which was not made by one of the "Big Five" companies. This helped to give Scotland a place on the network and also provide sufficient revenue to help STV to produce more programmes for ITV and Channel 4. ==Cast and characters== ==Series 1 episodes== # overall series # writer director producer air date 1 1 Don Houghton Clarke Tait Clarke Tait 19 February 1980 plot summary Ken Calder (Bill Henderson) arrives in Glendarroch village from Glasgow, intending to take over the running of the garage workshop. Estate factor Alan McIntyre (Martin Cochrane) is worried about mysterious activities at Laird's Point on the shore of Loch Darroch. His secretary Lorna Seton (Joan Alcorn) calls him to say that the "lady laird" Elizabeth Cunningham (Edith MacArthur) has a visitor in Max Langemann (Frederick Jaeger), head of the German multinational that has bought the estate with plans for modern development. Isabel Blair (Eileen McCallum) and her son Jimmy (Jimmy Chisholm) are busy running the local store and post office, but are distracted by local gossip Maggie Ferguson (Irene Sunters). At the remote estate croft called Ardvain, district nurse Kay Grant (Vivien Heilbron) is caring for shepherd's wife Amy Lachlan (Julie Ann Fullarton), who is about to give birth. Amy's husband Dougal (Alec Monteath) and his mother Grace (Marjorie Thomson) nervously await developments. Ken takes over the garage and helps to fix a car belonging to Fiona Cunningham (Caroline Ashley), Elizabeth's daughter. Not knowing Ken is a recovering alcoholic, Fiona offers him a can of beer and Ken reacts by knocking it out of her hand. 2 2 Don Houghton Clarke Tait Clarke Tait 21 February 1980 plot summary 3 3 Don Houghton Ted Williamson Clarke Tait 26 February 1980 plot summary 4 4 Don Houghton Ted Williamson Clarke Tait 28 February 1980 plot summary 5 5 Don Houghton David Andrews Clarke Tait 4 March 1980 plot summary 6 6 Don Houghton David Andrews Clarke Tait 6 March 1980 plot summary ==Broadcasting== ===STV series=== Dates are for Scottish Television, which on some occasions was ahead of the ITV network daytime showing. * Series 1: 19 February 1980 – 28 May 1980: episodes 1–30 * Series 2: 14 October 1980 – 7 January 1981: episodes 31–56 * Series 3: 7 April 1981 – 2 July 1981: episodes 57–82 * Series 4: 6 October 1981 – 18 March 1982: episodes 83–126 * Series 5: 24 August 1982 – 23 December 1982: episodes 127–162 * Series 6: 5 July 1983 – 20 March 1984: episodes 163–234 * Series 7: 4 September 1984 – 7 February 1985: episodes 235–276 * Series 8: 14 May 1985 – 28 November 1985: episodes 277–334 * Series 9: 18 March 1986 – 18 December 1986 to episodes 335–415 * 2 February 1987 – 27 April 2003: episodes 416–1517. From February 1987 onward, the series was broadcast all year round twice a week. In May 1993 the series become weekly. Later during the run, however, there were several gaps during which the series was not shown, although the storylines continued uninterrupted each time the series resumed. First major gap was from 12 September to 22 October 2000; from 16 April to 12 May 2001; from June to August 2001; from 24 September to 27 October 2001; from 18 February to 6 April 2002; from June to September 2002; and in February 2003. ===Regional scheduling=== Take the High Road was broadcast by all ITV companies when it started in 1980. Nearly all regions broadcast Take the High Road during the daytime, except for Scottish Television who broadcast the soap in the early evenings around 7.00pm, instead of Emmerdale. From 1984 Border Television moved the series to a peak-time slot. Grampian Television did the same too in September 1987. ===Dropped by the ITV network=== During 1993, the new ITV network centre was reviewing all long-standing series made by ITV companies, the issues of the series being dropped becoming even more apparent as the regions south of the border were months behind in their transmissions in Scotland. On 2 June 1993, Marcus Plantin, ITV's network director, announced the termination of Take The High Road from September 1993, as 'ITV's statisticians believed English audiences have had enough'. This resulted in public protest, as many believed that without ITV companies south of the border, the series had no chance. The issue was raised in parliament under early day motions, and the Daily Record newspaper held a protest as well. By the end of June, Scottish Television decided to continue producing the series mainly for the Scottish market, on a weekly basis. Shortly afterwards nearly all the ITV companies decided to keep the series going except for Carlton, Central, Tyne Tees and Yorkshire, who all dropped the series from 7 September 1993.Published: Thursday 2 September 1993 Newspaper: The Stage Page: 25 "Television Review: Plenty to get your teeth into" Carlton reinstated the series from 16 October 1993,Newspaper: The Stage, Thursday 14 October 1993, P20 "Snaps" and Central did the same on 5 November 1993 after viewers complained about the show being dropped in the first place. Only two companies refused to reinstate the series: Tyne Tees Television and Yorkshire Television, although both finally brought the series back in early 1996, starting from where they left off. From 1995 onwards the number of ITV areas broadcasting the soap gradually reduced, however some did complete the series: * Anglia Television and Meridian television until Christmas 1995 * Yorkshire, Tyne Tess, HTV and Granada Television until Christmas 1997. * Carlton Television until Christmas 1998 * Central and Westcountry until Friday 24 May 2002. * Border Television completed the series in 2003. * UTV completed the series in 2004. ===International=== Take the High Road was broadcast in a number of countries around the world, including, Canada, United States, New Zealand. In Australia, it was broadcast on ABC1, In Ireland, the series was broadcast during the daytime five days a week from the beginning on RTÉ One. As episodes caught up with the UK transmissions, the number of episodes broadcast per week was reduced. ===Repeats=== Take the High Road was repeated on Sky Soap; the episodes shown in early 1997 were from the beginning, and 1989 episodes were being shown when the channel ended in April 1999. Early episodes from about 1994–95 were shown on Sky Scottish in 1997/98. It was repeated briefly on Life One from February 2008. This channel began with episode 1000 from 1992 but it ceased broadcasting after only six weeks having shown only four episodes. In the autumn of 2010, nearly every episode (except for 23) were added to YouTube by Scottish Television, making the series accessible to viewers across the world. The series was removed from YouTube when it began repeating on STV new local channel called STV Glasgow from 3 June 2014 broadcasting one episode each weekday, with omnibus at the weekends, The series was also shown on STV Edinburgh from its launch in January 2015. When STV Glasgow & STV Edinburgh were renamed STV2, the series was moved to a Saturday morning between 9am and 11am until June 2018, when the STV2 channel closed down. STV continued to make the series available online via the STV Player, from the same point where STV2 left off. Five episodes were uploaded every week from 8 July 2018 on Sundays. From 14 September 2019 this increased to five episodes each Saturday and five episodes each Sunday. This run ended after the final episodes were uploaded on 18 April 2020. ==Current availability== Starting on 26 April 2020, STV began a complete rerun of the programme by loading five episodes per week onto their STV Player app. They are free to view. Each block of five episodes remains available for six months, with the first five removed on 23 October 2020 and so on. Viewers can access the available episodes on mobile media by registering with STV Player and can watch them on television by linking their membership to the STV Freeview function. As of 15 July 2021, a few selected episodes from the series are available on BritBox, a subscription only service curated by the BBC and ITV. ==Sponsorship== Take the High Road was sponsored by Brooke Bond Scottish Blend tea from the beginning of 1992 until 1995 or 1996. Mother's Pride sponsored it from August 1999 to September 2001 on Scottish and Grampian TV. The sponsorship credits revealed the adventures of one man and his dog, Doug, as they searched for the village of Glendarroch. The STV Player rerun is being sponsored by Tunnock's bakery. ==Books== These books were all written by Michael Elder, except for Summers Gloaming, which was written by Don Houghton: * Summer's Gloaming (November 1982) * Danger in the Glen (January 1984) * Mist on the Moorland (1985) * The Man From France (1986) * The Last of the Lairds (May 1987) * 10 Years of Take the High Road (1990) ==Theme tune== The theme tune was written by composer Arthur Blake, who was STV's Musical Director at the time, and there were four versions of it over the 23-year run. The first version was performed by Silly Wizard and was used until 1982. This version was quite "Scottish folk band" in style and pretty lively. Instruments featured included the accordion, banjo, drum kit, and synthesiser. The music for the closing credits featured a drum roll introduction. Silly Wizard performed another version which was released on record in 1980. The "Silly Wizard" theme tune was replaced by an orchestral version from Esp 127 on 24 August 1982. The orchestral version was used from 1982 until episode 334 in 1985. Instruments featured included the oboe, clarinet, violin, and drum kit. While this version was in use, the music for the break strings tended to vary from episode to episode. Like the Silly Wizard version, the music for the closing credits also featured a drum roll introduction. The third version was a different orchestral arrangement and was used from episode 335 in 1986 until episode 727 at the beginning of 1990. This new orchestral version was more violin led than the former, which had made more use of wind instruments, and featured no percussion. From episode 728 in 1990, the fourth, rock-style, version made its debut and continued to be used until the end of the series. This version was electric guitar led (played by session guitarist Duncan Finlay) and featured percussion during the "middle" section. From 1994 when the programme name was shortened to High Road, the length of the closing credits was cut, so the closing theme was faded in just before the middle eight. ==DVD releases== Take the High Road became available for the first time ever when distribution company Go Entertain commenced releasing the series in 2012 on DVD. Rights to the series were later acquired by Alba Home Entertainment in 2013, with sets released in the same format, with the exception of each set now available with one disc. The series ceased releasing in 2014 after 16 volumes and 96 episodes, possibly due to poor sales. It is currently unknown if any future sets will become available. In an unusual occurrence, the series was not rated by the BBFC for home video release, which is normally the case for all television series and films. It received an 'E' (Exempt from classification) rating, an unofficial rating only applied to documentaries or sports events released on home video. Title Year Episodes No. of discs Release date (Region 2) Ref Volume 1 1980 1–6 2 1 October 2012 Volume 2 1980 7–12 2 24 October 2012 Volume 3 1980 13–18 2 12 November 2012 Volume 4 1980 19–24 2 4 March 2013 Volume 5 1980 25–30 2 25 March 2013 Volume 6 1981 31–36 1 27 May 2013 Volume 7 1981 37–42 1 24 June 2013 Volume 8 1981 43–48 1 9 September 2013 Volume 9 1981 49–54 1 21 October 2013 Volume 10 1981 55–60 1 20 January 2014 Volume 11 1981 61–66 1 14 April 2014 Volume 12 1981 67–72 1 14 April 2014 Volume 13 1981 73–78 1 14 July 2014 Volume 14 1981 79–84 1 14 July 2014 Volumes 1–10: Collector's Edition 1980–81 1–60 15 13 October 2014 Volume 15 1981 85–90 1 27 October 2014 Volume 16 1981 91–96 1 27 October 2014 ==Notes== ==References== ==Bibliography== * * ==External links== * * * Category:1980 Scottish television series debuts Category:1980s British television soap operas Category:1980s Scottish television series Category:1990s British television soap operas Category:1990s Scottish television series Category:2000s British television soap operas Category:2000s Scottish television series Category:2003 Scottish television series endings Category:British television soap operas Category:English-language television shows Category:ITV soap operas Category:Scottish television soap operas Category:Television shows produced by Scottish Television Category:Television shows set in Scotland |
thumb|360px|right|Barrier island contrasted with other coastal landforms Barrier islands are coastal landforms and a type of dune system that are exceptionally flat or lumpy areas of sand that form by wave and tidal action parallel to the mainland coast. They usually occur in chains, consisting of anything from a few islands to more than a dozen. They are subject to change during storms and other action, but absorb energy and protect the coastlines and create areas of protected waters where wetlands may flourish. A barrier chain may extend uninterrupted for over a hundred kilometers, excepting the tidal inlets that separate the islands, the longest and widest being Padre Island of Texas, United States.Garrison, J.R., Jr., Williams, J., Potter Miller, S., Weber, E.T., II, McMechan, G., and Zeng, X., 2010, "Ground- penetrating radar study of North Padre Island; Implications for barrier island interval architecture, model for growth of progradational microtidal barrier islands, and Gulf of Mexico sea-level cyclicity:" Journal of Sedimentary Research,' v. 80, p. 303–319. Sometimes an important inlet may close permanently, transforming an island into a peninsula, thus creating a barrier peninsula, often including a beach, barrier beach. The length and width of barriers and overall morphology of barrier coasts are related to parameters including tidal range, wave energy, sediment supply, sea-level trends, and basement controls.Davis Jr., p. 144. The amount of vegetation on the barrier has a large impact on the height and evolution of the island. Chains of barrier islands can be found along approximately 13-15% of the world's coastlines.Smith, Q.H.T., Heap, A.D., and Nichol, S.L., 2010, "Origin and formation of an estuarine barrier island, Tapora Island, New Zealand:" Journal of Coastal Research, v. 26, p. 292–300. They display different settings, suggesting that they can form and be maintained in a variety of environments. Numerous theories have been given to explain their formation. A human-made offshore structure constructed parallel to the shore is called a breakwater. In terms of coastal morphodynamics, it acts similarly to a naturally occurring barrier island by dissipating and reducing the energy of the waves and currents striking the coast. Hence, it is an important aspect of coastal engineering. ==Constituent parts== ;Upper shoreface The shoreface is the part of the barrier where the ocean meets the shore of the island. The barrier island body itself separates the shoreface from the backshore and lagoon/tidal flat area. Characteristics common to the upper shoreface are fine sands with mud and possibly silt. Further out into the ocean the sediment becomes finer. The effect of waves at this point is weak because of the depth. Bioturbation is common and many fossils can be found in upper shoreface deposits in the geologic record. ;Middle shoreface The middle shoreface is located in the upper shoreface. The middle shoreface is strongly influenced by wave action because of its depth. Closer to shore the sand is medium-grained, with shell pieces common. Since wave action is heavier, bioturbation is not likely. ;Lower shoreface The lower shoreface is constantly affected by wave action. This results in development of herringbone sedimentary structures because of the constant differing flow of waves. The sand is coarser. ;Foreshore The foreshore is the area on land between high and low tide. Like the upper shoreface, it is constantly affected by wave action. Cross-bedding and lamination are present and coarser sands are present because of the high energy present by the crashing of the waves. The sand is also very well sorted. ;Backshore The backshore is always above the highest water level point. The berm is also found here which marks the boundary between the foreshore and backshore. Wind is the important factor here, not water. During strong storms high waves and wind can deliver and erode sediment from the backshore. ;Dunes Coastal dunes, created by wind, are typical of a barrier island. They are located at the top of the backshore. The dunes will display characteristics of typical aeolian wind-blown dunes. The difference is that dunes on a barrier island typically contain coastal vegetation roots and marine bioturbation. ;Lagoon and tidal flats The lagoon and tidal flat area is located behind the dune and backshore area. Here the water is still, which allows fine silts, sands, and mud to settle out. Lagoons can become host to an anaerobic environment. This will allow high amounts of organic-rich mud to form. Vegetation is also common. == Location == Barrier Islands can be observed on every continent on Earth, except Antarctica. === Australia === Moreton Bay, on the east coast of Australia and directly east of Brisbane, is sheltered from the Pacific Ocean by a chain of very large barrier islands. Running north to south they are Bribie Island, Moreton Island, North Stradbroke Island and South Stradbroke Island (the last two used to be a single island until a storm created a channel between them in 1896). North Stradbroke Island is the second largest sand island in the world and Moreton Island is the third largest. Fraser Island, another barrier island lying 200 km north of Moreton Bay on the same coastline, is the largest sand island in the world. === United States === Barrier islands are found most prominently on the United States' East and Gulf Coasts, where every state—from Maine to Florida (East Coast) and from Florida to Texas (Gulf Coast)—features at least part of a barrier island. Many have large numbers of barrier islands; Florida for instance has twenty-five. Padre Island, Texas, is the world’s longest barrier island; other well-known islands on the Gulf Coast include Galveston Island in Texas and Sanibel and Captiva Islands in Florida. Those on the East Coast include Miami Beach and Palm Beach in Florida; Hatteras Island in North Carolina; Assateague Island in Virginia and Maryland; Absecon Island in New Jersey, where Atlantic City is located; and Jones Beach Island and Fire Island, both off Long Island in New York. No barrier islands are found on the Pacific Coast of the United States due to the rocky shore and short continental shelf, but barrier peninsulas can be found. Barrier islands can also be seen on Alaska's Arctic coast. === Canada === Barrier Islands can also be found in Maritime Canada, and other places along the coast. A good example is found at Miramichi Bay, New Brunswick, where Portage Island as well as Fox Island and Hay Island protect the inner bay from storms in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. === Mexico === Mexico's Gulf Coast has numerous barrier islands and barrier peninsulas. ===New Zealand=== Barrier islands are more prevalent in the north of both of New Zealand's main islands. Notable barrier islands in New Zealand include Matakana Island, which guards the entrance to Tauranga Harbour, and Rabbit Island, at the southern end of Tasman Bay. See also Nelson Harbour's Boulder Bank, below. === Europe === Barrier islands can be observed in the Baltic Sea from Poland to Lithuania as well as distinctly in the Wadden Islands, which stretch from the Netherlands to Denmark. Lido di Venezia and Pellestrina are notable barrier islands of the Lagoon of Venice which have for centuries protected the city of Venice in Italy. Chesil Beach on the south coast of England developed as a barrier beach. Barrier beaches are also found in the north of the Azov and Black seas. ==Processes== ;Migration and overwash Water levels may be higher than the island during storm events. This situation can lead to overwash, which brings sand from the front of the island to the top and/or landward side of the island. This process leads to the evolution and migration of the barrier island. ;Critical width concept Barrier islands are often formed to have a certain width. The term “critical width concept” has been discussed with reference to barrier islands, overwash, and washover deposits since the 1970s. The concept basically states that overwash processes were effective in migration of the barrier only where the barrier width is less than a critical value. The island did not narrow below these values because overwash was effective at transporting sediment over the barrier island, thereby keeping pace with the rate of ocean shoreline recession. Sections of the island with greater widths experienced washover deposits that did not reach the bayshore, and the island narrowed by ocean shoreline recession until it reached the critical width. The only process that widened the barrier beyond the critical width was breaching, formation of a partially subaerial flood shoal, and subsequent inlet closure. For the present discussion, critical barrier width is defined as the smallest cross-shore dimension that minimizes net loss of sediment from the barrier island over the defined project lifetime. The magnitude of critical width is related to sources and sinks of sand in the system, such as the volume stored in the dunes and the net long-shore and cross-shore sand transport, as well as the island elevation. The concept of critical width is important for large-scale barrier island restoration, in which islands are reconstructed to optimum height, width, and length for providing protection for estuaries, bays, marshes and mainland beaches. ==Formation theories== Scientists have proposed numerous explanations for the formation of barrier islands for more than 150 years. There are three major theories: offshore bar, spit accretion, and submergence. No single theory can explain the development of all barriers, which are distributed extensively along the world's coastlines. Scientists accept the idea that barrier islands, including other barrier types, can form by a number of different mechanisms.Davis Jr., p. 147 There appears to be some general requirements for formation. Barrier island systems develop most easily on wave-dominated coasts with a small to moderate tidal range. Coasts are classified into three groups based on tidal range: microtidal, 0–2 meter tidal range; mesotidal, 2–4 meter tidal range; and macrotidal, >4 meter tidal range. Barrier islands tend to form primarily along microtidal coasts, where they tend to be well developed and nearly continuous. They are less frequently formed in mesotidal coasts, where they are typically short with tidal inlets common. Barrier islands are very rare along macrotidal coasts.Boggs, S., Jr., 2012, Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy: New Jersey, Pearson Education, Inc., 585 p. Along with a small tidal range and a wave-dominated coast, there must be a relatively low gradient shelf. Otherwise, sand accumulation into a sandbar would not occur and instead would be dispersed throughout the shore. An ample sediment supply is also a requirement for barrier island formation. The last major requirement for barrier island formation is a stable sea level. It is especially important for sea level to remain relatively unchanged during barrier island formation and growth. If sea level changes are too drastic, time will be insufficient for wave action to accumulate sand into a dune, which will eventually become a barrier island through aggradation. The formation of barrier islands requires a constant sea level so that waves can concentrate the sand into one location.Coastal Services Center, NOAA’s Coastal Services Center Barrier Islands: Formation and Evolution . Accessed April 10, 2011. ===Offshore bar theory=== In 1845 the Frenchman Elie de Beaumont published an account of barrier formation. He believed that waves moving into shallow water churned up sand, which was deposited in the form of a submarine bar when the waves broke and lost much of their energy. As the bars developed vertically, they gradually rose above sea level, forming barrier islands. ===Spit accretion theory=== American geologist Grove Karl Gilbert first argued in 1885 that the barrier sediments came from longshore sources. He proposed that sediment moving in the breaker zone through agitation by waves in longshore drift would construct spits extending from headlands parallel to the coast. The subsequent breaching of spits by storm waves would form barrier islands.Davis Jr., pp. 144–145 ===Submergence theory=== William John McGee reasoned in 1890 that the East and Gulf coasts of the United States were undergoing submergence, as evidenced by the many drowned river valleys that occur along these coasts, including Raritan, Delaware and Chesapeake bays. He believed that during submergence, coastal ridges were separated from the mainland, and lagoons formed behind the ridges.Davis Jr., p. 145 He used the Mississippi–Alabama barrier islands (consists of Cat, Ship, Horn, Petit Bois and Dauphin Islands) as an example where coastal submergence formed barrier islands. His interpretation was later shown to be incorrect when the ages of the coastal stratigraphy and sediment were more accurately determined.Morton, p. 2 Along the coast of Louisiana, former lobes of the Mississippi River delta have been reworked by wave action, forming beach ridge complexes. Prolonged sinking of the marshes behind the barriers has converted these former vegetated wetlands to open-water areas. In a period of 125 years, from 1853 to 1978, two small semi-protected bays behind the barrier developed as the large water body of Lake Pelto, leading to Isles Dernieres's detachment from the mainland. ===Boulder Bank=== An unusual natural structure in New Zealand may give clues to the formation processes of barrier islands. The Boulder Bank, at the entrance to Nelson Haven at the northern end of the South Island, is a unique 13 km-long stretch of rocky substrate a few metres in width. It is not strictly a barrier island, as it is linked to the mainland at one end. The Boulder Bank is composed of granodiorite from Mackay Bluff, which lies close to the point where the bank joins the mainland. It is still debated what process or processes have resulted in this odd structure, though longshore drift is the most accepted hypothesis. Studies have been conducted since 1892 to determine the speed of boulder movement. Rates of the top-course gravel movement have been estimated at 7.5 metres a year. == Ecological importance == Barrier islands are critically important in mitigating ocean swells and other storm events for the water systems on the mainland side of the barrier island, as well as protecting the coastline. This effectively creates a unique environment of relatively low energy, brackish water. Multiple wetland systems such as lagoons, estuaries, and/or marshes can result from such conditions depending on the surroundings. They are typically rich habitats for a variety of flora and fauna. Without barrier islands, these wetlands could not exist; they would be destroyed by daily ocean waves and tides as well as ocean storm events. One of the most prominent examples is the Louisiana barrier islands.Stone, G.W., and McBride, R.A., 1998, "Louisiana barrier islands and their importance in wetland protection: forecasting shoreline change and subsequent response of wave climate:" Journal of Coastal Research, v. 14, p. 900–915. ==See also== * North Frisian Barrier Island * Outer Banks * Virginia Barrier Islands * New York Barrier Islands * Texas barrier islands * Sea Islands * Long Beach Island * Bald Head Island ==Notes== ==References== * * ==External links== Category:Physical oceanography Category:Coastal geography Category:Hydrology Category:Coastal and oceanic landforms Category:Oceanographical terminology Category:Islands by type |
In computing, channel I/O is a high-performance input/output (I/O) architecture that is implemented in various forms on a number of computer architectures, especially on mainframe computers. In the past, channels were generally implemented with custom devices, variously named channel, I/O processor, I/O controller, I/O synchronizer, or DMA controller. == Overview == Many I/O tasks can be complex and require logic to be applied to the data to convert formats and other similar duties. In these situations, the simplest solution is to ask the CPU to handle the logic, but because I/O devices are relatively slow, a CPU could waste time (in computer perspective) waiting for the data from the device. This situation is called 'I/O bound'. Channel architecture avoids this problem by processing some or all of the I/O task without the aid of the CPU by offloading the work to dedicated logic. Channels are logically self-contained, with sufficient logic and working storage to handle I/O tasks. Some are powerful or flexible enough to be used as a computer on their own and can be construed as a form of coprocessor, for example, the 7909 Data Channel on an IBM 7090 or IBM 7094; however, most are not. On some systems the channels use memory or registers addressable by the central processor as their working storage, while on other systems it is present in the channel hardware. Typically, there are standard interfaces between channels and external peripheral devices, and multiple channels can operate concurrently. A CPU typically designates a block of storage as, or sends, a relatively small channel program to the channel in order to handle I/O tasks, which the channel and controller can, in many cases, complete without further intervention from the CPU (exception: those channel programs which utilize 'program controlled interrupts', PCIs, to facilitate program loading, demand paging and other essential system tasks). When I/O transfer is complete or an error is detected, the controller typically communicates with the CPU through the channel using an interrupt. Since the channel normally has direct access to the main memory, it is also often referred to as a direct memory access (DMA) controller. In the most recent implementations, the channel program is initiated and the channel processor performs all required processing until either an ending condition or a program controlled interrupt (PCI). This eliminates much of the CPU—Channel interaction and greatly improves overall system performance. The channel may report several different types of ending conditions, which may be unambiguously normal, may unambiguously indicate an error or whose meaning may depend on the context and the results of a subsequent sense operation. In some systems an I/O controller can request an automatic retry of some operations without CPU intervention. In earlier implementations, any error, no matter how small, required CPU intervention, and the overhead was, consequently, much higher. A program- controlled interruption (PCI) is still used by certain legacy operations, but the trend is to move away from such PCIs, except where unavoidable. == History == The first use of channel I/O was with the IBM 709 vacuum tube mainframe, whose Model 766 Data Synchronizer was the first channel controller, in 1957. Its transistorized successor, the IBM 7090, had two to eight 6-bit channels (the 7607) and a channel multiplexor (the 7606) which could control up to eight channels. The 7090 and 7094 could also have up to eight 8-bit channels with the 7909. While IBM used data channel commands on some of its computers, and allowed command chaining on, e.g., the 7090, most other vendors used channels that dealt with single records. However, some systems, e.g., GE-600 series, had more sophisticated I/O architectures. Later, the IBM System/360 and System/370 families of computer offered channel I/O on all models. For the lower-end System/360 Models 50 and below and System/370 Model 158 and below, channels were implemented in the CPU's microcode, and the CPU itself operated in one of two modes, either "CPU Mode" or "Channel Mode", with the channel mode 'stealing' cycles from the CPU mode. For larger IBM System/360 and System/370 computers the channels were still bulky and expensive separate components, such as the IBM 2860 Selector channel (one to three selector channels in a single box), the IBM 2870 Byte multiplexor channel (one multiplexer channel, and, optionally, one selector subchannel in a single box), and the IBM 2880 Block multiplexor channel (one or two block multiplexor channels in a single box). On the 303x processor complexes, the channels were implemented in independent channel directors in the same cabinet as the CPU, with each channel director implementing a group of channels. Much later, the channels were implemented as an on-board processor residing in the same box as the CPU, generally referred to as a "channel processor", and which was usually a RISC processor, but which could be a System/390 microprocessor with special microcode as in IBM's CMOS mainframes. Amdahl Corporation's hardware implementation of System/370 compatible channels was quite different. A single internal unit, called the "C-Unit", supported up to sixteen channels using the very same hardware for all supported channels. Two internal "C-Units" were possible, supporting up to 32 total channels. Each "C-Unit" independently performed a process generally called a "shifting channel state processor" (a type of barrel processor), which implemented a specialized finite state machine (FSM). Each CPU cycle, every 32 nanoseconds in the 470V/6 and /5 and every 26 nanoseconds in the 470V/7 and /8, the "C-unit" read the complete status of next channel in priority sequence and its I/O Channel in-tags. The necessary actions defined by that channel's last state and its in-tags were performed: data was read from or written to main storage, the operating system program was interrupted if such interruption was specified by the channel program's Program Control Interrupt flag, and the "C-Unit" finally stored that channel's next state and set its I/O Channel out-tags, and then went on to the next lower priority channel. Preemption was possible, in some instances. Sufficient FIFO storage was provided within the "C-Unit" for all channels which were emulated by this FSM. Channels could be easily reconfigured to the customer's choice of selector, byte multiplexor) or block multiplexor channel, without any significant restrictions by using maintenance console commands. "Two-byte interface" was also supported as was "Data-In/Data-Out" and other high-performance IBM channel options. Built-in channel-to-channel adapters were also offered, called CCAs in Amdahl-speak, but called CTCs or CTCAs in IBM-speak. A real game-changer, and this forced IBM to redesign its mainframes to provide similar channel capability and flexibility. IBM's initial response was to include stripped-down Model 158s, operating in "Channel Mode", only, as the Model 303x channel units. In the Amdahl "C-unit" any channel could be any type, selector, byte multiplexor) or block multiplexor, without reserving channels 0 and 4 for the byte multiplexers, as on some IBM models. Some of the earliest commercial non-IBM channel systems were on the UNIVAC 490, CDC 1604, Burroughs B5000, UNIVAC 1107 and GE 635. Since then, channel controllers have been a standard part of most mainframe designs and primary advantage mainframes have over smaller, faster, personal computers and network computing. The 1965 CDC 6600 supercomputer utilized 10 logically independent computers called peripheral processors (PPs) and 12 simple I/O channels for this role. PPs were a modified version of CDC's first personal computers, the 12-bit CDC 160 and 160A. The operating system initially resided and executed in PP0. The channels had no direct access to memory and could not cause interrupts; software on a PP used synchronous instructions to transfer data between the channel and either the A register or PP memory. SCSI introduced in 1981 as a low cost channel equivalent to the IBM Block Multiplexer Channel is now ubiquitous in the form of Fibre Channel and Serial Attached SCSI. Modern computers may have channels in the form of bus mastering peripheral devices, such as PCI direct memory access (DMA) devices. The rationale for these devices is the same as for the original channel controllers, namely off- loading transfer, interrupts, and context switching from the main CPU. Channel controllers have been made as small as single-chip designs with multiple channels on them, used in the NeXT computers for instance. == Description == The reference implementation of channel I/O is that of the IBM System/360 family of mainframes and its successors, but similar implementations have been adopted by IBM on other lines, e.g., 1410 and 7010, 7030, and by other mainframe vendors, such as Control Data, Bull (General Electric/Honeywell) and Unisys. Computer systems that use channel I/O have special hardware components that handle all input/output operations in their entirety independently of the systems' CPU(s). The CPU of a system that uses channel I/O typically has only one machine instruction in its repertoire for input and output; this instruction is used to pass input/output commands to the specialized I/O hardware in the form of channel programs. I/O thereafter proceeds without intervention from the CPU until an event requiring notification of the operating system occurs, at which point the I/O hardware signals an interrupt to the CPU. A channel is an independent hardware component that coordinates all I/O to a set of controllers or devices. It is not merely a medium of communication, despite the name; it is a programmable device that handles all details of I/O after being given a list of I/O operations to carry out (the channel program). Each channel may support one or more controllers and/or devices, but each channel program may only be directed at one of those connected devices. A channel program contains lists of commands to the channel itself and to the controller and device to which it is directed. Once the operating system has prepared a complete list of channel commands, it executes a single I/O machine instruction to initiate the channel program; the channel thereafter assumes control of the I/O operations until they are completed. It is possible to develop very complex channel programs, including testing of data and conditional branching within that channel program. This flexibility frees the CPU from the overhead of starting, monitoring, and managing individual I/O operations. The specialized channel hardware, in turn, is dedicated to I/O and can carry it out more efficiently than the CPU (and entirely in parallel with the CPU). Channel I/O is not unlike the Direct Memory Access (DMA) of microcomputers, only more complex and advanced. On large mainframe computer systems, CPUs are only one of several powerful hardware components that work in parallel. Special input/output controllers (the exact names of which vary from one manufacturer to another) handle I/O exclusively, and these, in turn, are connected to hardware channels that also are dedicated to input and output. There may be several CPUs and several I/O processors. The overall architecture optimizes input/output performance without degrading pure CPU performance. Since most real-world applications of mainframe systems are heavily I/O-intensive business applications, this architecture helps provide the very high levels of throughput that distinguish mainframes from other types of computers. In IBM ESA/390 terminology, a channel is a parallel data connection inside the tree-like or hierarchically organized I/O subsystem. In System/390 I/O cages, channels either directly connect to devices which are installed inside the cage (communication adapter such as ESCON, FICON, Open Systems Adapter) or they run outside of the cage, below the raised floor as cables of the thickness of a thumb and directly connect to channel interfaces on bigger devices like tape subsystems, direct access storage devices (DASDs), terminal concentrators and other ESA/390 systems. ==Types of channels== Channels differ in the number and type of concurrent I/O operations they support. In IBM terminology, a multiplexer channel supports a number of concurrent interleaved slow-speed operations, each transferring one byte from a device at a time. A selector channel supports one high-speed operation, transferring a block of data at a time. A block multiplexer supports a number of logically concurrent channel programs, but only one high-speed data transfer at a time. Channels may also differ in how they associate peripheral devices with storage buffers. In UNIVAC terminology, a channel may either be internally specified index (ISI), with a single buffer and device active at a time, or externally specified index (ESI), with the device selecting which buffer to use. == Channel program == A channel program is a sequence of channel command words (CCWs) that are executed by the I/O channel subsystem in the IBM System/360 and subsequent architectures. A channel program consists of one or more channel command words. The operating system signals the I/O channel subsystem to begin executing the channel program with an SSCH (start sub-channel) instruction. The central processor is then free to proceed with non-I/O instructions until interrupted. When the channel operations are complete, the channel interrupts the central processor with an I/O interruption. In earlier models of the IBM mainframe line, the channel unit was an identifiable component, one for each channel. In modern mainframes, the channels are implemented using an independent RISC processor, the channel processor, one for all channels. IBM System/370 Extended ArchitectureIBM System/370 Extended Architecture Principles of Operation, SA22-7085-0 and its successors replaced the earlier SIO (start I/O) and SIOF (start I/O fast release) machine instructions (System/360 and early System/370) with the SSCH (start sub-channel) instruction (ESA/370 and successors). Channel I/O provides considerable economies in input/output. For example, on IBM's Linux on IBM Z, the formatting of an entire track of a DASD requires only one channel program (and thus only one I/O instruction), but multiple channel command words (one per block). The program is executed by the dedicated I/O processor, while the application processor (the CPU) is free for other work. === Channel command words === A channel command word (CCW) is an instruction to a specialized I/O channel processor which is, in fact, a finite state machine. It is used to initiate an I/O operation, such as "read", "write" or "sense", on a channel- attached device. On system architectures that implement channel I/O, typically all devices are connected by channels, and so all I/O requires the use of CCWs. CCWs are organized into channel programs by the operating system, and I/O subroutine, a utility program, or by standalone software (such as test and diagnostic programs). A limited "branching" capability, hence a dynamically programmable capability, is available within such channel programs, by use of the "status modifier" channel flag and the "transfer-in-channel" CCW. === Chaining === IBM CCWs are chained to form the channel program. Bits in the CCW indicates that the following location in storage contains a CCW that is part of the same channel program. The channel program normally executes sequential CCWs until an exception occurs, a Transfer-in-Channel (TIC) CCW is executed, or a CCW is executed without chaining indicated. Command chaining tells the channel that the next CCW contains a new command. Data chaining indicates that the next CCW contains the address of additional data for the same command, allowing, for example, portions of one record to be written from or read to multiple data areas in storage (gather-writing and scatter-reading). === Self- modifying channel programs === Channel programs can modify their own operation during execution based on data read. For example, self modification is used extensively in OS/360 ISAM. === Channel program example === The following example reads a disk record identified by a recorded key. The track containing the record and the desired value of the key is known. The device control unit will search the track to find the requested record. In this example <> indicate that the channel program contains the storage address of the specified field. SEEK SEARCH KEY EQUAL TIC *-8 Back to search if not equal READ DATA The TIC (transfer in the channel) will cause the channel program to branch to the SEARCH command until a record with a matching key (or the end of the track) is encountered. When a record with a matching key is found the DASD controller will include Status Modifier in the channel status, causing the channel to skip the TIC CCW; thus the channel program will not branch and the channel will execute the READ command. The above example is correct for unblocked records (one record per block). For blocked records (more than one record per block), the recorded key must be the same as the highest key within that block (and the records must be in key sequence), and the following channel program would be utilized: SEEK SEARCH KEY HIGH OR EQUAL TIC *-8 Back to search if not high or equal READ DATA If the dataset is allocated in tracks, and the end of the track is reached without the requested record being found the channel program terminates and returns a "no record found" status indication. Similarly, if the dataset is allocated in cylinders, and the end of the cylinder is reached without the requested record being found the channel program terminates and returns a "no record found" status indication. In some cases, the system software has the option of updating the track or cylinder number and redriving the I/O operation without interrupting the application program. == Channel programs in virtual storage systems == On most systems channels operate using real (or physical) addresses, while the channel programs are built using virtual addresses. The operating system is responsible for translating these channel programs before executing them, and for this particular purpose the Input/Output Supervisor (IOS) has a special fast fix function which was designed into the OS Supervisor just for those "fixes" which are of relatively short duration (i.e., significantly shorter than "wall-clock time"). Pages containing data to be used by the I/O operation are locked into real memory, or page fixed. The channel program is copied and all virtual addresses are replaced by real addresses before the I/O operation is started. After the operation completes, the pages are unfixed. As page fixing and unfixing is a CPU-expensive process long-term page fixing is sometimes used to reduce the CPU cost. Here the virtual memory is page-fixed for the life of the application, rather than fixing and freeing around each I/O operation. An example of a program that can use long-term page fixing is Db2. An alternative to long-term page fixing is moving the entire application, including all its data buffers, to a preferred area of main storage. This is accomplished by a special SYSEVENT in MVS/370 through z/OS operating systems, wherein the application is, first, swapped-out from wherever it may be, presumably from a non-preferred area, to swap and page external storage, and is, second, swapped-in to a preferred area (SYSEVENT TRANSWAP). Thereafter, the application may be marked non-swappable by another special SYSEVENT (SYSEVENT DONTSWAP). Whenever such an application terminates, whether normally or abnormally, the operating system implicitly issues yet another special SYSEVENT on the application's behalf if it has not already done so (SYSEVENT OKSWAP). == Booting with channel I/O == Even bootstrapping of the system, or Initial Program Load (IPL) in IBM nomenclature, is carried out by channels, although the process is partially simulated by the CPU through an implied Start I/O (SIO) instruction, an implied Channel Address Word (CAW) at location 0 and an implied channel command word (CCW) with an opcode of Read IPL, also at location 0. Command chaining is assumed, so the implied CCW at location 0 falls through to the continuation of the channel program at locations 8 and 16, and possibly elsewhere should one of those CCWs be a transfer-in-channel (TIC).See System/370 Principles of Operation, GA22–7000–4, pp 54—55, Initial Program Loading; System/370 Extended Architecture is quite similar, although XA utilizes an "implied" Start Subchannel (SSCH) instead of an "implied" Start I/O. To load a system, the implied Read IPL CCW reads the first block of the selected IPL device into the 24-byte data area at location 0, the channel continues with the second and third double words, which are CCWs, and this channel program loads the first portion of the system loading software elsewhere in main storage. The first double word contains a PSW which, when fetched at the conclusion of the IPL, causes the CPU to execute the IPL Text (bootstrap loader) read in by the CCW at location 8. The IPL Text then locates, loads and transfers control to the operating system's Nucleus. The Nucleus performs or initiates any necessary initialization and then commences normal OS operations. This IPL concept is device-independent. It is capable of IPL-ing from a card deck, from a magnetic tape, or from a direct access storage device, (DASD), e.g., disk, drum. The Read IPL (X'02') command, which is simulated by the CPU, is a Read EBCDIC Select Stacker 1 read command on the card reader and a Read command on tape media (which are inherently sequential access in nature), but a special Read-IPL command on DASD. DASD controllers accept the X'02' command, seek to cylinder X'0000' head X'0000', skip to the index point (i.e., just past the track descriptor record (R0)) and then treat the Read IPL command as if it were a Read Data (X'06') command. Without this special DASD controller behavior, device-independent IPL would not be possible. On a DASD, the IPL Text is contained on cylinder X'0000', track X'0000', and record X'01' (24 bytes), and cylinder X'0000', track X'0000', and record X'02' (fairly large, certainly somewhat more than 3,000 bytes). The volume label is always contained on cylinder X'0000', track X'0000', and block X'03' (80 bytes). The volume label always points to the VTOC, with a pointer of the form HHHH (that is, the VTOC must reside within the first 65,536 tracks). The VTOC's Format 4 DSCB defines the extent (size) of the VTOC, so the volume label only needs a pointer to the first track in the VTOC's extent, and as the Format 4 DSCB, which describes the VTOC, is always the very first DSCB in the VTOC, HHHH also points to the Format 4 DSCB. If an attempt is made to IPL from a device that was not initialized with IPL Text, the system simply enters a wait state. The DASD (direct access storage device) initialization program, IBCDASDI, or the DASD initialization application, ICKDSF, places a wait state PSW and a dummy CCW string in the 24 bytes, should the device be designated for data only, not for IPL, after which these programs format the VTOC and perform other hard drive initialization functions. ==See also== * Autonomous peripheral operation * Booting * Bus and Tag * Execute Channel Program * GEC 4000 series * GCOS (operating system) * I2O * IBM System z9 * IBM System z10 * Initial program load * Intel 8089 * System/360 * UNIVAC 1110 * z/Architecture == References == == Notes == == External links == * IBM System/370 Principles Of Operation (GA22-7000-4), see chapter on Input/Output Operations Category:Mainframe computers Category:IBM System/360 mainframe line |
A cross-sex friendship is a platonic relationship between two unrelated people of differing sexes or gender. There are multiple types of cross-sex friendships, all defined by whether or not each party has a romantic attraction to each other, or perceives that the other is interested. A few theories have been developed to explain the existence of such friendships. Research has been done on why men and women initiate these relationships, how they are perceived by others, implications for children with cross-sex friendships, among others. Cross-sex friendships can also create problems for those involved if either or both have or ever had any romantic feelings for the other. ==Background== Cross-sex friendships play a large role in social relations of both men and women. They can be a cause of complications because of the potential for romance or sexual interactions. Monsour (2002) defines a cross-sex friendship as a “voluntary, non-familial, non-romantic, relationship between a female and a male in which both individuals label their association as a friendship”. However, just because these friendships are labeled as “non- romantic,” one cannot assume that there are no romantic or sexual undertones. Guerrero and Chavez (2005) suggest that there are four types of cross-sex friendships: mutual romance, strictly platonic, desires romance, and rejects romance. In a “mutual romance” cross-sex friendship, one of the participants wants a romantic relationship with the other individual and believes that the other individual wants the same. In “strictly platonic” relationships, the individual believes that the other simply wants to be just platonic friends with no thought of romance. In a "desires romance" cross-sex friendship, one individual wants the friendship to become a romantic relationship but does not believe the other individual wants a romantic relationship. In a “rejects romance” cross-sex relationship, one individual does not want the relationship to turn romantic, but believes that their friend does. Each of these friendship styles are based on the goals and viewpoint of the individual. Other theories and research discuss the causes and benefits of cross-sex friendships. ==Major theories== ===Evolutionary theory=== Bleske-Rechek et al. (2012) theorize that cross-sex friendships are a part of humans’ evolved mating strategies. Current mating strategies unconsciously motivate individuals to enter into cross-sex friendships because it gives them more opportunities to mate. As a result, individuals within these cross-sex friendships often develop attraction to the other individual, even when that attraction is completely unintended. This evolutionary theory predicts that cross-sex friendships are formed by males for sexual access and by females for protection. This demonstrates one way in which cross-sex friendships serve, in part, as a long term mating acquisition strategy. Having more opportunities to mate is an evolutionary advantage, however, being attracted to a cross-sex friend creates negative social consequences. This is especially true for younger adults who are attracted to a cross-sex friend, because these people report less satisfaction in their current romantic relationship. Also, middle- aged adults tend to nominate attraction to their cross-sex friends as more of a negative than a positive. ===Social learning theory=== In addition, social learning theory predicts that if cross-sex friendships are a result of the desire for sexual access and protection, this is because they are imitating other cross-sex friendships. Most popular television shows and movies suggest that the goal of forming cross-sex friendships is a romantic relationship. People learn from the friendships they see in popular culture and model their behavior after them. Preference for same sex relationships is a societal norm that is taught to children from a young age. This homosocial norm encourages same sex friendships early on that shape how adolescents view and measure cross-sex friendships. Culturally supported rules about friendships and gender influence the formation of interpersonal relationships. For this reason, ideas of cross-sex friendship can vary from place to place. While diverse cultures view relationships across genders differently, studies have shown that similar ideals for friendship seem to exist around the world in areas such as the United States, Europe, and East Asia. Additionally, adolescent definitions of cross-sex friendships closely match definitions given by adults, suggesting that children develop perceptions on the matter by imitating the opinions of adults in their lives. During adolescence, a distinction starts to form between romantic relationships and platonic friendships, which is influenced by personal experience as well as exposure to media and popular culture. Teenagers learn from portrayals of romance on television and base their own relationships on these representations. Popular media romanticizes and sexualizes interactions between people of opposite sexes, leading to a cultural expectation of sexual attraction in cross-sex friendships. This common conception leads a small percentage of the population to believe that men and women cannot exist in solely platonic friendships. ===The glass partition=== Kim Elsesser and Letitia Anne Peplau found that the professional workplace environment and heightened sexual harassment awareness can hinder cross-sex friendship formation. The barrier between men and women forming cross-sex friendships in the professional workplace is called the "glass partition" because of its similarities to the glass ceiling, which prevents women from reaching the top levels of leadership of corporations. The glass partition disadvantages women who work in predominantly male workplaces because women have fewer opportunities for networking. The glass partition results from fearing that friendliness toward a cross-sex friend will be misinterpreted by the friend and by co-workers as romantic or sexual interest, that humor may be perceived as sexual harassment by cross-sex friends, and that conversational topics might be perceived as offensive by cross-sex friends. When coworkers or other third parties see a cross-sex friendship in the workplace as romantic, this relationship is often viewed negatively, hurting both the male and female worker. This concern becomes specifically prevalent when dealing with cross-sex friendships between superiors and subordinates. It is more likely that this relationship can be misconstrued as often the subordinate, usually a female, might be seen as trying to make advances in order to further their career. Sexual harassment can hinder the development of cross-sex friendships as well. It is typical practice in companies and organizations to have policies against sexual harassment and to conduct trainings regarding sexual harassment. Due to this heightened awareness of sexual harassment occurrences, many individuals will step back from cross-sex friendships as they can sometimes be misinterpreted by the opposite sex individual or bystanders as sexual harassment. In the study conducted by Elsesser and Peplau, it was stated that most men interviewed in their study often think over conversation topics before initiating conversation with women coworkers, in fear that their comments would be misinterpreted as sexual harassment. In the cases of such wrong accusations, many would rather avoid the possibility of such a situation through avoiding the development of cross-sex friendships as opposed to deal with the possible misconceptions. Furthermore, it has been reported that oftentimes for men, there is a fear of offending the opposite sex regarding certain conversation topics. For instance, a male management consultant interviewed by Elsesser and Peplau stated that he commonly segregates by gender what type of jokes or humor he expresses in the workplace in fear that it might offend a female coworker. On the contrary, women often say that while they do not feel as though they censor their conversation as much, they can often sense such reservations and unwillingness to relax in men, making friendships awkward and harder to develop. The fear to create cross-sex friendships in the workplace becomes a problem as friendships amongst coworkers can be specifically important for career development. Friendships can provide information access, networking and emotional support to any individual all of which are valuable for job performance. Hence, when one is limited to forming friendships with those of the same sex, certainly, they are being deprived of advancement in the workplace. ==Major empirical findings== Research has been done in the areas of attraction, protection, perception, cross-sex friendships throughout development, and touch and sexual activity between cross-sex friends. These studies find that there are some evolutionary and social benefits to cross-sex friendships. However, there are also some negative social consequences. ===Attraction=== Within cross-sex friendships, men judge sexual attraction and the desire for sex as a more important reason than do women for initiating their friendship. Additionally, men are more sexually attracted to their opposite-sex friends and have more frequent desires to have sexual intercourse with their opposite-sex friends than women are. Bleske-Rechek et al. (2012) found that men overestimate how much their female friends are attracted to them. Women are less likely to want to date their male friends if he is in a committed relationship, but men have the same desire to date their female friend whether or not she is dating someone. Bleske-Rechek et al. (2012) hypothesize that a man's desire to date his female friend is not changed by whether or not their female friend is in a relationship. This is due to males’ mating strategies that focus around acquiring short term mates. Furthermore, Bleske-Rechek et al. (2012) suggest that men would pursue cross-sex friendships both when single and in a relationship, while women would be less likely to pursue cross-sex friends while dating someone. Attraction within these friendships can cause challenges. Sexual attraction can arise for a variety of reasons in cross-sex friendships. In a study by Halatsis and Christakis (2009), participants cited social pressures and emotional vulnerability as reasons for sexual attraction arising in a cross-sex friendship. A social pressure that may prompt sexual attraction between cross- sex friends is the perceptions other friends have of their relationship and emotional vulnerability coupled with closeness may provoke sexual attraction between cross-sex friends. When sexual attraction develops in a friendship, it can corrupt the friendship and individuals state that behavior often changes. Sexual attraction in cross-sex friendships is often dealt with in one of three ways: management of this attraction through communication or an internal decision not to pursue the attraction in order to preserve the friendship, a sexual relationship forms then dissipates, or sex becomes a part of the friendship. When participants in the study by Halatsis and Christakis (2009) were asked about their experience with sexual attraction in cross-sex friendships, over 50% had experienced attraction, and over 50% of that group had expressed or acted on their sexual attraction. However, men had a tendency to be more attracted to their cross-sex friends, and a higher tendency to act on that attraction. Only 16% of individuals who had acted on their sexual attraction claimed that their friendship ended as a result, otherwise the friendship remained intact or transformed into a romantic relationship. Reeder (2000) found that there are four types of attraction within cross-sex friendships: subjective physical/sexual attraction, objective physical/sexual attraction, romantic attraction, and friendship attraction. Subjective physical/sexual attraction occurs when one of the individuals in the friendship is physically attracted to the other. Objective physical/sexual attraction happens when one individual thinks that the other is attractive in general, yet they are not attracted to the person. Romantic attraction within the cross-sex friendship occurs when one of the individuals within the friendship desires to turn the friendship into a romantic relationship because they believe he or she would make a good girlfriend or boyfriend. Friendship attraction is simply when an individual feels very platonically connected to his or her friend. The four types can coexist together within a friendship or can occur separately. Furthermore, the type of attraction that an individual feels within a cross-sex friendship can change over time. Within Reeder's (2000) sample, friendship attraction is the most prevalent type of attraction within cross-sex friendships. Even when participants felt other types of attraction within their cross-sex friendships, they prioritized their friendship attraction so that the relationship would not be ruined. ===Protection=== Historically, women are more vulnerable due to their smaller stature and lesser strength, on average, compared with men. Thus, women have consistently needed to secure protection for themselves. Seeking protection from men would have been an evolutionary advantage as women who do so increase their reproductive success, which has caused an evolved preference for men who are willing and able to offer protection. Therefore, it is not surprising that Bleske-Rechek & Buss (2001) found that women judged physical protection as a more important reason for initiating an opposite-sex friendship than did men and that opposite-sex friendship is a strategy women use for gaining physical protection. In this regard, males have historically been perceived as having an advantage in cross-sex friendships because the number of resources they have to offer in the relationship exceeds those of females (Monsour et al. 57). In terms of exchange principles within the friendship, women would benefit more than men (Monsour et al. 57). While women may enter into cross- sex friendships for protection, men may enter them for the possibility of sexual encounters (Akbulut and Weger 100). These interactions are desirable because men get to spread their genes through potential offspring (Akbulut and Weger 100). In return, females can benefit from this type of cross-sex friendship through their friend's interest in potential offspring (Akbulut and Weger 101). In this regard, the men within these cross-sex friendships would devote time and energy to caring for and protecting their potential children, which would be beneficial to the females in these relationships (Akbulut and Weger 101). Therefore, in cross-sex friendships, it has been discovered that males are commonly the ones more interested in initiating romantic relationships due to their potential benefits, as observed in a survey of male and female college students (Akbulut and Weger 110). ===Perception=== The way in which other individuals perceive cross-sex friends can affect the friendship itself. Cross-sex friends sometimes face the audience challenge within their social groups, which occurs when other people assume that they are in a romantic or sexual relationship and the cross-sex friends have to present themselves as just friends in response. Schoonover and McEwan (2014) state that since male-female romantic relationships are the norm, people often assume that cross-sex friendships have the potential to develop into a more intimate relationship. The different types of cross-sex friendships will experience the audience challenge in different ways. Strictly platonic friends are least likely to bring about the audience challenge, while mutual romance are the most likely to face the audience challenge. The number of cross-sex friends an individual has also plays a role in how their cross-sex friendships are perceived. When an individual has numerous cross-sex friendships, they are much less likely to face the audience challenge. Regardless of the severity of the audience challenge, those in cross-sex friendships have been found to spend a considerable amount of time thinking about how their relationship is perceived by others, according to the results of a study that surveyed young adults in cross-sex friendships (Schoonover and McEwan 399). If the peers within their social network of friends want or believe that the cross-sex friendship is romantic, issues could potentially arise in other relationships (Schoonover and McEwan 389). For example, if either member of the friendship has a romantic partner, that person could become jealous or suspicious, which could create tension and destroy the cross-sex friendship (Schoonover and McEwan 389). Therefore, the surrounding social network's opinions of the cross-sex friendship can change the degree that the friends have to worry about the audience challenge (Schoonover and McEwan 391). In other words, as the network's support of the cross-sex friendship as a strictly platonic relationship increases, the audience challenge decreases (Schoonover and McEwan 401). However, while the audience challenge can be a problematic issue for certain types of cross-sex friendships, it has found to not be commonly experienced within cross-sex friendships at large (Schoonover and McEwan 394). One of the main attributes to this finding was that members of the cross-sex friendships were able to effectively communicate with each other as well as their social network about the nature of their relationship and how they were being perceived (Monsour et al. 75). ===Children’s and adolescent’s cross-sex friendships=== Cross-sex friendships in childhood and adolescence often have an immense impact on adult cross-sex friendships. Successfully forming cross- sex friendships in childhood is often an indication that these individuals will be able to form positive cross-sex friendships later in life. Thus, early cross-sex friendships act as a blueprint for further social interactions. Children's social skills and behavior can be altered based on whether or not they have predominantly same-sex friends or cross-sex friends. One study by Kovacs, Parker, and Hoffman (1996), they found that children who primarily had friends of the opposite sex were perceived to be more aggressive, yet less shy by others. Furthermore, teachers said that the children with primarily friends of the opposite sex had lower academic performance and social skills, but faced less stereotyping in regards to gender roles and were better adjusted to their social atmosphere than children with few friends in general. Results from Kovacs, Parker, and Hoffman's (1996) study show that children who have a best friend that is the opposite sex have poorer social functioning abilities. Yet, when children have friends primarily of the same sex, but some cross-sex friendships, they tend to be more well-adjusted and have stronger social skills. Additional studies conducted by Bell and Kalmijn oppose these negative observations behind cross-sex friendships in children, concluding that cross- sex friendships help children overcome communication barriers with the opposite sex, granting them an advantage with their social and communication skills later on. Their studies also observed that cross-sex friendships in children incorporate stronger senses of nurturance and intimacy that lack in same-sex friendships., as cited in Traustadottir, 2004, p. 4 Cross-sex friendships in adolescence are very different than in childhood. In adolescence, cross-sex friendships are not only more accepted by peers, but also can increase an individual's social status among same-sex peers. A study on adolescents in 6th through 8th grade conducted by Malow-Iroff (2006) discovered that adolescents often use the creation of cross-sex friends as a road to popularity because children with both cross-sex and same-sex friends are more accepted by both sexes. Adolescents mainly look for cross-sex friends who are sociable, as they expect less from these friendships as they do from same-sex friends. Another study by Ami Flam Kuttler, Annette M. La Greca, and Mitchell J Prinstein surveyed 223 students from grades 10 through 12. The study concluded that although the number of cross-sex friendships in adolescents increase with age, both girls and boys felt a sense of stronger companionship and prosocial support with their friends of the same sex. However, adolescent boys claimed they felt as if their female companions provide support in regards to self-esteem more so than males. In addition to these findings, the study concluded that adolescents with predominately cross- sex friendships at these ages is perceived in relation to a lower social acceptance, rather than attaining to social or behavioral complications as observed in children through middle childhood. ===Touch and sexual activity in cross-sex friendships=== In cross-sex friendships, Miller, Denes, Diaz, and Ranjit (2014) found that when men believe the friendship to be strictly platonic, they are more open to touching their friend. However, when they think intimacy may be increasing in the relationship, they are less likely to desire casual touching. In contrast, the opposite was discovered to be true when it comes to women. Miller et al. (2014), found that women report being more uncomfortable if touched by their cross-sex friend in a public situation than men did. When there is touch between cross-sex friends, no matter how much intimacy is involved in the friendship, men tend to be more aroused by the touch than women are. The researchers hypothesize that the research results may have been confounded by a social desirability bias because women may be less likely to admit arousal from the touch of a cross-sex friend out of fear of being negatively labeled by others. Afifi and Faulkner (2000) investigated instances in which individuals had sexual interactions with their platonic cross-sex friends. 51% of their sample had sex with their friend when they had no intention of pursuing a romantic relationship with them, and 34% of participants noted having sexual relations with their friend on multiple occasions. Within Afifi & Faulkner's study, of those who had sex with their friend, two-thirds stated that it improved their relationship and 56% stated that the relationship did not develop into something romantic. Sexual interactions are recognized as a possible outcome of cross-sex friendships (Monsour et al. 56). In the face of these sexual overtones, some welcome the sexual tension in their cross-sex friendship while others note that the potential intimacy could destroy their relationship (Monsour et al. 57). With the sexual component, some friends are hesitant to enter into romantic relationships due to the anticipated disapproval of their social network of peers (Akbulut and Weger 109). Cross-sex friends often have overlapping social circles (Akbulut and Weger 109). Each member in the cross-sex friendship depends on their social network for support and other emotional needs (Akbulut and Weger 109). Thus, potentially falling out of touch with members of one's own social network if the romantic relationship did not work out, is too costly for some cross-sex friends, even if they have engaged in sexual interactions (Akbulut and Weger 109). ==Nature/nurture== The biological basis for cross-sex relationships cannot be found in ancient human history, because the way humans conducted their lives is different from the way current humans do now. Up until 10,000 years ago, or for over 99% of human history, humans’ ancestors lived their lives in a nomadic fashion, foraging in groups structured by reproductive partners and offspring — not unlike the way families are organized current-day. Females began reproducing at an early age, and males practiced behaviors that showcased ownership over their female partners in order to safeguard them from other males. There have only been scattered ethnographic references to cross-sex friendships across cultures. Therefore, for much of ancient human history, cross-sex friendships were not common. Today, men and women interact in non-romantic, supportive ways in all types of contexts: work, sports, education, and hobbies, yet these unions are not based on sexual intentions. Evolved mating strategies were mentioned earlier and can be dovetailed with this biological history. ==Controversies== Participants in cross-sex friendships face many challenges, including learning how to navigate the particular type of friendship. The four types of cross-sex friendship as defined by Guerrero and Chavez (2005) referenced earlier are: strictly platonic, mutual romance, desires romance, and rejects romance. In addition, O’Meara (1989) originally stated that the four essential challenges cross-sex friends face are: 1) determining the type of emotional bond experienced in the relationship, 2) confronting the issue of sexuality, 3) dealing with the issue of relationship equality within a cultural context of gender inequality, and 4) the challenge of public relationships — presenting the relationship as authentic to relevant audiences. Schnoonover (2014) built research upon O’Meara's audience challenge and found that members of Guerrero and Chavez's (2005) different friendship types may experience challenges differently. For example, for “mutual romance” couples, members may be approaching the preliminary romantic stage of the relationship and if their romantic feelings feed into their behaviors toward each other, then they will be the most likely to be mistaken for a romantic couple. In contrast, “strictly platonic” friends should be the least likely to prompt the audience challenge. “Desires romance” and “rejects romance” couples may also be subject to the audience challenge — if observers of the friendship see the member acting in a romantic manner or admitting romantic intent, the observers might be more likely to regard the cross-sex friendship as a growing romantic relationship more so than a friendship. Another controversial question surrounding cross-sex friendships that is often raised is - after two romantic partners end their relationship — or more colloquially, “break up” — can they still be platonic friends? Kenny and Schneider (2000) found three major conclusions about cross-sex friendship with a romantic history. First, rebranding a discontinued romantic relationship as a friendship is common in modern American culture. Second, there are particular predictors of whether a friendship will occur after romance. One critical factor is whether there was a platonic friendship before the romantic relationship existed. Because the partners knew how to navigate friendship with each other before romance, they were more likely to be friends afterwards. Third, the atmosphere in which the breakup occurred determined the likelihood of a post-friendship. Kenny and Schneider (2000) cited evidence noting that a more significant indicator of an upcoming friendship is the communication in which the breakup occurred, not the individual who first initiated the breakup. When looking at how men and women's same sex relationships work, men tend to talk about more of their problems and open up more with women, rather than their other male friendships which tends to facilitate a bit of a gray area of what is expected when a man and a woman are friends. Cross-sex friendship can exist after marriage when the married couple transition out of the passionate phase. Original feelings while dating are feelings of passion and what many describe as love, however as the relationship progresses through the years and into marriage, studies have found these feelings to be diminished and transition into more of a friendship. This is a topic of controversy as some argue it cannot be labeled as a cross sex “friendship” but rather a romantic relationship, however a study by Alan Booth and Elaine Hess (1974) dictates that almost all cross sex friendships can have some sexual/romantic influence, however it does not discount the friendship. The “friend zone” has also focused on the argument that two people of opposite sexes can never be friends, and many saying that no friendship can occur after one party has made it evident that they have romantic feelings for the other. This coincides with questions on if the parties involved can have had or currently have romantic feelings for one another, or if a friendship must be based on solely feelings of platonic friendship for the duration of the friendship. The definition of a cross-sex friendship that J. Donald O'Meara (1989) gives is a relationship between a man and a woman that is not primarily focused on romance, but is not always void of romantic feelings, meaning that once one party had been in the “friend zone” as long as the relationship is primarily aimed towards a friendship, it is still a cross-sex friendship. Researchers in child development psychology, more specifically a study done by Donna M. Kovacs, Jeffrey G. Parker and Lois W. Hoffman (1996) looked into children's cross sex friendships, and found an absence of these types of friendships at younger ages. This raised cause for concern within the study as the researchers discussed how this could be due to a greater separation of genders at younger ages, which can reinforce societal defined gender roles, and prevent these types of friendships, which can be beneficial to development from occurring. ==See also== * Human bonding * Heterosociality * Romantic friendship ==References== Category:Friendship Category:Interpersonal relationships Category:Gender and society |
Dennis E. Puleston Ph.D (19 June 1940 - 29 June 1978Harrison, P.D.; Messenger, P.E. (1980). "Obituary: Dennis E. Puleston". American Antiquity 45 (2): 272-276.) was an American archaeologist and ecologist. Puleston archaeology, biologyecology developed the ecological approach to the study of archaeology, looking at the manner in which humans adapt to their natural environment. His work involved pioneering interdisciplinarity methods which remain current to this day and led to a greater emphasis upon ecological and experimental archaeological research in the 80's and 90's.Mathewson, Kent (1990). "Rio Hondo Reflections: Notes on Puleston's Place and the Archaeology of Maya Landscapes". in Ancient Maya Wetland Agriculture: Excavations on Albion Island, Northern Belize. Edited by Mary D. Pohl. Westview Press. Boulder, Co. His work is still used to teach the importance of diversity in scientific interest, need for social relevance, and problem solving in archaeology classes due to the broadness of his approach. Puleston's work ranged from experiments in reconstruction and usefulness testing of chultuns or raised fields, building a traditional dugout canoe and using it to investigate otherwise unreachable areas, or challenging the belief that the Ancient Maya subsisted on a milpa agricultural complex – maize, beans, and squash. == Life and career == Puleston was born to Dennis and Elizabeth Rhode Puleston. He has one brother, Peter, and two sisters, Sally and Jennifer. His father was a noted ornithologist sailor, explorer, painter and environmentalist. It is from him that the younger Dennis learned a love of adventure, the outdoors, and science. According to puleston.org—a repository for a majority of Puleston's works and photographs from the field, Dennis “lived and worked in such places as the Canadian wilderness, the island of Moorea, Society Islands, and the tropical forests of Central America which he came to love deeply.”Writings Dennis attended high school at Bellport High School, in Brookhaven, New York, and upon graduating embarked on his own adventures. A great illustration of his adventures and eventual decision to become an archaeologist is found in the following excerpt from Harrison and Messenger's obituary: :Before beginning formal study of biology at Antioch College, he [Dennis] spent a season working with the National Film Board of Canada as assistant in the production of a cinematic study of tundra ecology. During the years of study at Antioch, Denny’s interest in archaeology developed through a series of contacts and field experiences. In 1960 he worked as a student assistant under Roland Force and Paul S. Martin in the Chicago Natural History Museum. It was Paul Martin who arranged a visit for Denny and a classmate to Tikal in Guatemala via a letter of introduction to Edwin S. Shook, then director of the project. When they arrived in Guatemala the pair found tickets to Tikal waiting for them and a warm welcome at the site. For Denny the visit stretched into the 1961 field season, then another, and another…. As a graduate student at the University of Pennsylvania, Dennis met and married Olga Stavrakis.Travel with Olga Dennis and Olga had a son, Cedric, and a daughter, Lyda. During many of Dennis's adventures his family would accompany him. His brother, Peter and his wife, Olga were partners and contributors to a number of his projects, and his son, Cedric is now in conducting post-doc work in the field. Puleston's career was intimately tied to Tikal. Originally invited to join the Tikal Project in 1961 by Edwin Shook, the Project Director, Dennis entered graduate school at the University of Pennsylvania Museum in 1964 continuing his work at Tikal under the direction of William Coe. Puleston became interested in how the ordinary Tikal citizen lived and focused his research on population and subsistence asking questions about how the Classic Maya managed their environment in such a way that it could feed large populations without degrading the delicate ecological balance of the sub tropical forest. At the time, archaeological research focused on the central mapped area of Tikal, representing the urban and ceremonial core of the polity. Dennis began to explore the surrounding jungle in order to learn where settlement dropped off and the agricultural area began. Up until that time, few archaeologists ventured regularly into the jungle and many of the smaller sites mapped today remained unknown. Dennis searched for the city limits to try to determine the site and, ultimately, the population of Tikal and to this end he began exploring and mapping the smaller sites outside the city center. He then developed a major research program, called the Sustaining Area Project, which mapped four 12 km strips extending out from the center of Tikal. Using a compass and pace method for the mapping he and his research teams were able to quickly and accurately cover large areas of dense jungle within which they discovered a number of previously unknown small sites, causeways, an enormous earthworks north of Tikal and hundreds of housemounds and residential platforms. Based on this work, Puleston proposed a new population estimate for Tikal of at least 80,000 inhabitants within the boundaries defined by the earthworks and by drops in population density. He suggested that the earthworks may have served as a defensive fortifications (the first discovered in the Maya Lowlands at that time) and probably the northern urban border of the site.Puleston, Dennis E. (1974). "Intersite Areas in the Vicinity of Tikal and Uaxactun. In Mesoamerican Archaeology: New Approaches. Edited by Norman Hammond. University of Texas Press, Austin, TX pp. 303-312. He studied caves and sacred writing to expand knowledge on the spiritual beliefs of the ancient Maya.http://www.mesoweb.com/pari/publications/RT04/Pathways.pdf And, he developed several important hypotheses on Maya subsistence and agriculture that are discussed below. Puleston died in 1978, struck by lightning while viewing a thunderstorm from the summit of El Castillo, Chichen Itza in Yucatan, Mexico. == Approach to archaeology == While several of Puleston's contemporaries were concerned with human interactions with nature -- cultural ecology,Butzer, Karl W. (1996). "Ecology in the long view: Settlement histories, agrosystemic strategies, and ecological performance". Journal of Field Archaeology 23:141-150. Dennis's approach was novel in its ability to juxtapose the micro and macro perspectives of these environments into one coherent argument.Flannery, Kent; Puleston, Dennis E. (1982), "The Role of Ramon in Maya Subsistence", Maya Subsistence: Studies in Memory of Dennis E. Puleston, Academic Press, pp. 353-366Harrison, Peter D.; Turner, B. L.; Puleston, Dennis E. (1978), "Terracing, Raised Fields, and Tree Cropping in the Maya Lowlands: A New Perspective on the Geography of Power", Pre-Hispanic Maya Agriculture, University of New Mexico Press, pp. 225-245 Traditional archaeological methods rest on theory interpreted through anthropological observations and repetition of artifactual data from site to site.Renfrew, C. & Bahn, P. G. (1991), Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice, London: Thames and Hudson Ltd, However, a more encompassing approach was needed to address the problems Puleston was studying. Therefore, he set forth to test many of his theories through experiments in the environment. A wave of such approaches was evident in the aftermath of Puleston's death, as evident in the book, Maya Subsistence: A Tribute to Dennis E. Puleston and In the recordings of the proceedings of Puleston's memorial conference (available at https://web.archive.org/web/20120515225809/http://findingaids.princeton.edu/getAid?eadid=WC012&kw;= ), entitled "The History and Development of Maya Subsistence, which was held in October 1979 in Minneapolis. Unfortunately, arguments of environmental change since the 8th and 9th century decline of Lowland Maya societies have been convincing and have been used to undermine the experimental approach to archaeology to the point that it is now rarely practiced.Coles, John Morton (1979), Experimental archaeology, London a.o.: Academic Press, / , 274 pp. Republished 2010Tringham, Ruth (1978), Experimentation, ethnoarchaeology, and the leapfrogs in archaeological methodology. in: Gould, Richard A. (editor): Explorations in ethnoarchaeology. Albuquerque, pp 169-199. Consequently, there is a waning in the study of ecology and archaeology through these experiments. Despite this, there are still questions to be answered through experimental means and a portion of the field, particularly in Europe, but also including American researchers like Clark Erickson and John P. Hart are actively involved in experimental archaeology to this day. Below are brief synopses of two of Puleston's works in experimental archaeology. == Research into chultuns == Chultuns are man-made holes in the ground and are found in many parts of Mesoamerica. They come in several forms, but they are all called by the same moniker. In 1971, Puleston wrote an article entitled, An Experimental Approach to the Function of Classic Maya Chultuns. Within this article, he shows that, despite the common name, there are several different types of chultuns and he suggests that these different styles were indicative of differing uses.Puleston, Dennis E. (1971). "An Experimental Approach to the Function of Classic Maya Chultuns". American Antiquity 36 (3): 322-335 In this article, he asserted that while the first chultuns documented where single chambers with plastered walls for holding and collecting water, the chultuns in the Tikal region were different in shape, not plastered, and did not hold water. Dr. Puleston conducted three experiments to test the chultuns. First, he filled a chultun with water and watched it drain away quickly. This lent credibility to his assertion that chultuns of this region were not for water storage. Next, Puleston built a chultun. To do so he created stone tools similar to those that would have been used to construct one 1,000 years ago. Upon completion, in 1966, Puleston filled the chultun with a diversity of locally produced dietary contributions, like maize, beans, squash, and cassava. Every two weeks, Puleston would pull the items out and document their state of preservation. These items were weighed, examined, and photographed. The observations were then compared to a control group that was store above ground. However, the control group was quickly consumed by rodents and insects. While the chultun stored produce was not consumed, the end products were also not consumable. Upon completion of this 11-week experiment, Puleston (1971) noted that, “while the chultun apparently offered valuable protection from vermin, it evidently could not be used for the storage of maize, beans, or squash”. The following year Puleston tried the experiment once more, but this time he added a nut from a local tree – the Brosium alicastrum (ramon) to the mix. O.F. Cook (1935) is cited in Puleston's article as the originator of the idea that chultuns could have been used to store ramon nuts, however, without Puleston's experiment this assertion had never been taken seriously. What Puleston found changed many archaeologists' opinion of the ramon's utility and its possible utilization in ancient Maya society. Not only did the ramon nuts survive the 13-week experiment that once again devastated the comparable crops, after 13 months, ”they were still in excellent condition and completely edible”. Puleston drew on these experiments for further work on the ramon as an alternative staple in the Maya diet. The resultant argument can be seen in a number of the linked articles below, and a synopsis of his findings is included below. == Legacy == Puleston was instrumental in the wave of investigation of subsistence ecology that followed his demise.Flannery, Kent V. (1982). "Maya Subsistence: Studies in Memory of Dennis E. Puleston. Academic Press. Austin, TX. A book, Maya Subsistence: Studies in Memory of Dennis E. Puleston, was written in dedication to Dennis and his passion. Many of Dennis's friends and colleagues contributed to this book, in 1982. But the story did not end there. While there is a dwindling amount of study on ecological aspects of archaeology and even less utilization of experimental archaeology in the field today, there are some who remain dedicated to the pursuit of these answers and for many modern applied and/or experimental archaeologists, Puleston is an inspiration. In 2015, British Archaeological Reports published a collection of Puleston's field work, edited and revised by Olga Stavrakis-Puleston. This volume represents the only full report of Puleston's Tikal survey and also covers several related sub-projects, including excavations of Tikal satellite sites. == Bibliography== Several of Dennis E. Puleston's published articles are listed here. However, much more of his and related articles, both published and unpublished can be found at www.puleston.org. * 1967: Defensive Earthworks at Tikal * 1973: Dissertation: Ancient Maya Settlement Patterns and Environment at Tikal, Guatemala: Implications for Subsistence Madels * 1977: The Art and Archaeology of Hydraulic Agriculture in the Maya Lowlands * 1978: Terracing, Raised Fields, and Tree Cropping in the Maya Lowlands: A New Perspective on the Geography of Power * 1978: Ancient Maya Settlement Patterns in the Peten, Guatemala, with Don S. Rice * 2015: Settlement and Subsistence: The assembled work of Dennis E. Puleston (Field research 1961-1972) http://www.barpublishing.com/settlement-and-subsistence-in-tikal.html == Notes == ==References== Category:1940 births Category:1978 deaths Category:Deaths from lightning strikes Category:20th-century American archaeologists |
Jean Edmond Dujardin (; born 19 June 1972) is a French actor and comedian. He began his career as a stand-up comedian in Paris before guest starring in comedic television programmes and films. He first came to prominence with the cult TV series Un gars, une fille, in which he starred alongside his partner Alexandra Lamy, before gaining success in film with movies such as Brice de Nice, Michel Hazanavicius's OSS 117: Cairo, Nest of Spies and its sequel OSS 117: Lost in Rio, as well as 99 Francs. Dujardin garnered international fame and widespread acclaim with his performance of George Valentin in the 2011 award-winning silent movie The Artist. The role won him numerous awards, including the Academy Award for Best Actor (the first for a French actor), the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy, the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role, the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role and the Cannes Film Festival Best Actor. He later appeared in Martin Scorsese's 2013 black comedy The Wolf of Wall Street and George Clooney's 2014 historical drama, The Monuments Men. ==Early life== Jean Dujardin was born on 19 June 1972 in the commune of Rueil-Malmaison, Hauts-de-Seine department, Île-de-France region, in the western suburbs of Paris. He grew up in neighbouring Plaisir, Yvelines. After attending high school, he went to work for the construction company of his father, Jacques Dujardin, as a locksmith. Dujardin began contemplating a career in acting while serving his mandatory military service a few years later. ==Career== Jean Dujardin began his acting career performing a self- written one-man show in various bars and cabarets in Paris. He first gained attention when he appeared on the French talent show Graines de star in 1996 as part of the comedy group Nous Ç Nous, which was formed by members of the Carré blanc theater. From 1999 to 2003, Dujardin starred in the France production of the originally Canadian comedy series Un gars, une fille, alongside his future wife Alexandra Lamy, before transitioning to a career in film. The TV series charted the path of a relationship; each episode was less than ten minutes long. In 2005, he portrayed the titular surfer in the popular comedic film Brice de Nice and performed on its accompanying soundtrack. In 2006, Dujardin starred as racist, sexist secret agent Hubert Bonisseur de La Bath in the comedy OSS 117: Cairo, Nest of Spies, a role which earned him an Etoile D'Or Award and a César Award nomination for Best Actor. The film's success spawned a sequel, OSS 117: Lost in Rio. In 2007, directed by Jan Kounen, he starred in the film 99F (99 francs), a very successful existential parody of an advertising exec, adapted from the eponymous best-seller written by Frédéric Beigbeder. This same year, he ventured in drama for the first time on the silver screen, playing a tortured father and cop in Franck Mancuso's Contre-enquête. In 2009, he appeared in A Man and His Dog alongside screen legend Jean-Paul Belmondo, with whom he has often been compared. In 2010, he starred alongside Albert Dupontel, playing his character's cancer in The Clink of Ice, a French black comedy written and directed by Bertrand Blier. In 2011, Dujardin starred as movie star George Valentin in the silent film The Artist, reuniting him with OSS 117: Cairo, Nest of Spies director Michel Hazanavicius and his co-star in that film, Bérénice Bejo. The film premiered at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival, where he received the Best Actor Award. His performance garnered much critical acclaim and he received numerous nominations, including the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor and the Screen Actors Guild for Best Actor. On 15 January 2012, Dujardin won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. He later went on to win the Screen Actors Guild for Best Actor, and the BAFTA for Best Actor. He was also nominated for the César award of the best actor but lost it to Omar Sy for his role in the second most ever viewed movie in France Intouchables. Dujardin went on to win the Best Actor award at the 84th Academy Awards. In effect he is the fourth French actor to be nominated for an Oscar and the first to win the Best Actor. Following his Oscar nomination for his role in The Artist, WME agency signed the actor. French film historian Tim Palmer has analyzed Dujardin's career and rise to success in France, noting how his formative roles were often unredeemable buffoons, very skillful portrayals of childlike men who aggressively and unabashedly reject the responsibilities and compromises of adult life. Dujardin's breakthrough roles as Brice de Nice and OSS 117 exemplified this tendency.Palmer, Tim (2011). Brutal Intimacy: Analyzing Contemporary French Cinema, Wesleyan University Press, Middleton CT. . In February 2012, Dujardin appeared in Les Infidèles with co-star and friend Gilles Lellouche. He was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in June 2012 along with 175 other individuals. In 2013, Dujardin starred in Éric Rochant's Möbius with Cécile de France and Tim Roth. thumb|upright=0.75|Jean Dujardin in 2014 His second film that year was Martin Scorsese's The Wolf of Wall Street, playing alongside Leonardo DiCaprio, Jonah Hill, Matthew McConaughey, and Kyle Chandler, among others. He appeared in The Monuments Men, directed by George Clooney, and co-starring Clooney, Matt Damon, and Cate Blanchett, and starred in the French film Le Petit Joueur. In late 2014, La French, was released in Europe and subsequently in the United States in early 2015. He plays a French police magistrate who tries to dismantle the French Connection and bring down the Unione Corse. ==Personal life== Dujardin has been married three times and has four children. His first marriage, to Gaëlle Demars, ended in 2003. They have two sons, born in 2000 and 2001. In 2003, he started dating his on-screen partner Alexandra Lamy of the comedy series Un gars, une fille; the two had originally met at the audition, and fell in love while shooting the series. They married in Anduze on 25 July 2009. In November 2013, it was announced that the couple had separated. He began dating French ice dancer Nathalie Péchalat in 2014 after following her to Japan to watch her perform in the world ice skating championships, and they had a daughter who they named Jeanne, in December 2015. They married on 19 May 2018 in a small ceremony. Péchalat gave birth to daughter Alice in February 2021 ==Filmography== ===Film=== Year Title Role Director Notes 2002 À l'abri des regards indiscrets Jean-Luc Ruben Alves Hugo Gélin Short 2002 If I Were a Rich Man Weston the seller Gérard Bitton Michel Munz 2003 Toutes les filles sont folles Lorenzi Pascale Pouzadoux 2003 Bienvenue chez les Rozes Mathieu Gamelin/MG Francis Palluau 2003 The Car Keys Himself Laurent Baffie 2004 Cash Truck Jacques Nicolas Boukhrief 2004 Mariages ! Alex Valérie Guignabodet 2004 Les Dalton Cowboy Philippe Haïm 2004 Rien de grave Travelling Salesman Renaud Philipps Short 2005 La vie de Michel Muller est plus belle que la vôtre Himself Michel Muller 2005 Brice de Nice Brice de Nice James Huth Also co-writer NRJ Ciné Award for Best Look NRJ Ciné Award for Best Quote 2005 L'Amour aux trousses Franck Philippe de Chauveron 2005 Il ne faut jurer de rien ! Valentin Eric Civanyan 2006 OSS 117: Cairo, Nest of Spies Hubert Bonisseur de La Bath/OSS 117 Michel Hazanavicius Étoile d'Or Award for Best Actor Nominated—César Award for Best Actor Nominated—Globes de Cristal Award for Best Actor Nominated—NRJ Ciné Award for Actor of the Year Nominated—NRJ Ciné Award for Best Look Nominated—NRJ Ciné Award for Best Kiss Nominated—NRJ Ciné Award for Best Quote Nominated—Raimu Award for Comedy 2007 Contre-enquête Richard Malinowski Franck Mancuso 2007 Hellphone The Warrior of the Cellar James Huth 2007 Deux sur la balançoire Jerry Ryan Yves Di Tullio Bernard Murat TV movie 2007 Cherche fiancé tous frais payés Nightclub Host Aline Issermann 2007 99 Francs Octave Parango Jan Kounen Raimu Award for Comedy Nominated—Étoile d'Or Award for Best Actor 2008 Ca$h Cash Éric Besnard 2009 A Man and His Dog The Worker Francis Huster 2009 OSS 117: Lost in Rio Hubert Bonisseur de La Bath/OSS 117 Michel Hazanavicius Nominated—Globes de Cristal Award for Best Actor 2009 Lucky Luke Lucky Luke James Huth Also co-writer 2010 Little White Lies Ludo Guillaume Canet 2010 The Clink of Ice Charles Faulque Bertrand Blier 2010 A View of Love Marc Palestro Nicole Garcia Swann d'Or for Best Actor 2011 The Artist George Valentin Michel Hazanavicius Academy Award for Best Actor AACTA International Award for Best Actor BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role Cannes Film Festival Best Actor Award Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy Hollywood Film Festival Spotlight Award Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead Las Vegas Film Critics Society Award for Best Actor London Film Critics Circle Award for Actor of the Year Phoenix Film Critics Society Award for Best Actor Santa Barbara International Film Festival Cinema Vanguard Award Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role Étoile d'Or Award for Best Actor Women Film Critics Circle Award for Best Screen Couple (with Bérénice Bejo) Nominated—Alliance of Women Film Journalists EDA Award for Best Actor Nominated—Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor Nominated—Central Ohio Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor Nominated—César Award for Best Actor Nominated—Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor Nominated—Dallas-Fort Worth Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor (runner-up) Nominated—Detroit Film Critics Society Award for Best Actor Nominated—European Film Award for Best Actor Nominated—Globes de Cristal Award for Best Actor Nominated—Houston Film Critics Society Award for Best Actor Nominated—Lumières Award for Best Actor Nominated—National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actor (second runner-up) Nominated—New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor Nominated—Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Actor Nominated—San Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best Actor Nominated—Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Nominated—St. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor Nominated—Utah Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor (runner-up) Nominated—Vancouver Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor Nominated—Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor Nominated—Women Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor 2012 The Players Fred/Olivier/François/Laurent/James Emmanuelle Bercot Jean Dujardin Michel Hazanavicius Jan Kounen Gilles Lellouche Also co-director, co-writer and co-producer 2013 Möbius Moïse Éric Rochant 2013 The Wolf of Wall Street Jean-Jacques Saurel Martin Scorsese 2013 9 Month Stretch Sign Language Interpreter Albert Dupontel 2014 The Monuments Men Jean-Claude Clermont George Clooney 2014 The Connection Pierre Michel Cédric Jimenez 2015 Un plus une Antoine Abeilard Claude Lelouch 2016 Up for Love Alexandre Laurent Tirard 2016 Brice 3 Brice de Nice James Huth Also co-writer 2017 Chacun sa vie Jean the policeman Claude Lelouch 2017 Sahara Georges Pierre Coré Voice 2018 I Feel Good Jacques Benoît Delépine & Gustave Kervern 2018 Return of the Hero Captain Charles-Grégoire Neuville Laurent Tirard 2019 Deerskin Georges Quentin Dupieux 2019 An Officer and a Spy Georges Picquart Roman Polanski Nominated - César Award for Best Actor Nominated - Lumières Award for Best Actor 2021 OSS 117: From Africa with Love Hubert Bonisseur de La Bath/OSS 117 Nicolas Bedos Présidents Nicolas Anne Fontaine 2022 November Fred Cédric Jimenez 2023 Sur les chemins noirs Pierre Denis Imbert ===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 1996–1999 Carré Blanc / Nous C Nous Various TV sketches 1997–1998 Farce Attaque Himself Also co-writer 1999–2003 Un gars, une fille Jean / "Loulou" Lead role opposite later lover and wife Alexandra Lamy 1999 Un gars, une fille Jean / "Loulou" Special guest in the episode "À Paris"; reprised his role from the French series 2007 Palizzi Dustman Also creator and director 2012 Saturday Night Live George Valentin-like character Appeared in the "Les jeunes de Paris" sketch 2013 Le débarquement Various TV series (2 episodes) 2013 Platane Himself TV series (1 episode: "La fois où il a cru que le signe c'était un zodiac") 2018 Call My Agent! Jean Dujardin TV series (1 episode : "Jean") ==Music video== * 2005 : "Le Casse de Brice" (directed by J.G. Biggs) * 2016 : "Pour un pote" featuring Bigflo & Oli ==References== ==External links== * *Oscar contender Dujardin in ad campaign controversy over new film on RFI English Category:1972 births Category:Living people Category:Best Actor Academy Award winners Category:Best Actor BAFTA Award winners Category:Best Actor AACTA International Award winners Category:Best Musical or Comedy Actor Golden Globe (film) winners Category:Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actor winners Category:French male film actors Category:French comedians Category:French television directors Category:People from Rueil-Malmaison Category:French male television actors Category:20th-century French male actors Category:21st-century French male actors Category:Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role Screen Actors Guild Award winners Category:Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead winners Category:French male screenwriters Category:French screenwriters Category:French male comedians Category:French male voice actors Category:Knights of the Ordre national du Mérite Category:Chevaliers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres |
Jay Christopher Cutler (born April 29, 1983) is an American former football quarterback who played in the National Football League (NFL) for 12 seasons. A member of the Chicago Bears for most of his career, he is the franchise leader in passing yards, passing touchdowns, attempts, and completions. Cutler played college football at Vanderbilt University, where he was the SEC Offensive Player of the Year as a senior, and was selected in the first round of the 2006 NFL Draft by the Denver Broncos. During his three seasons with the Broncos, he earned Pro Bowl honors in 2008. The following year, Cutler was traded to the Bears, where he played eight seasons. His most successful season was in 2010 when he led the Bears to a division title and NFC Championship Game appearance. After being released by Chicago, Cutler spent his final season with the Miami Dolphins. He was named among the 100 greatest Bears of All-Time in 2019. ==Early years== Cutler was born in Santa Claus, Indiana in 1983. Cutler attended Heritage Hills High School in Lincoln City, Indiana. He started three years as a quarterback for the Patriots football team, amassing a combined 26–1 record in his junior and senior years, including a perfect 15–0 during his senior year. Cutler and his team outscored opponents 746–85, including a 90–0 shutout at Pike Central. During his senior year, Cutler connected on 122 of 202 passes (60.4%) for 2,252 yards with 31 touchdowns, while rushing 65 times for 493 yards with 11 touchdowns. He also started at safety for three years, intercepting nine passes as a senior, 12th overall in the state. His team's perfect record during his senior year included the school's first 3A state championship, where Heritage Hills beat Zionsville in overtime, 27–24. The most notable play of the game occurred when Cutler lateraled the ball to the halfback, Cole Seifrig, who then passed it to Cutler who ran it into the end zone. Cutler also played strong safety in the state championship and made 19 tackles. Cutler was named a first-team All-State selection by the Associated Press as a senior. In addition to playing football in high school, he was a first-team all-state selection in basketball, scoring 1,131 points; he co-holds the school record for FGs made (16) in a game and garnered honorable mention all-state accolades as a shortstop in baseball. Cutler grew up as a Chicago Bears fan during his youth in Indiana. ==College career== Cutler attended Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee. He redshirted in his 2001 freshman season, and subsequently started all 45 career games that he played for the Commodores, the most starts by a quarterback in school history. He did not miss a game in college due to injury. The Commodores were 11–35 during his tenure, including going 5–27 versus the SEC. In 2002, Cutler set the school record for touchdowns and rushing yards by a freshman and rushed for more yards than any other Southeastern Conference quarterback that year. The Associated Press honored him with a first-team freshman All-SEC selection. In 2004, as a junior, Cutler completed 61.0 percent of his passes, setting a school record, while throwing for 1,844 yards with 10 touchdowns and a career-low five interceptions. The 2005 season, Cutler's final year of play at Vanderbilt, was his most successful. As an 11-game starter, he completed 273 of 462 passes (59.1%) for 3,073 yards, 21 touchdowns and nine interceptions, as he became the first Commodore to win the SEC Offensive Player of the Year (coaches and media) since 1967. With his senior-season performance, Cutler became the second Commodore to throw for more than 3,000 yards in a season, while his 273 completions and 21 touchdowns ranked second on the school's single-season list. He led the Commodores to victories over Wake Forest, Arkansas, Ole Miss, Richmond and Tennessee. The Commodores also scored the second most points ever (42) laid upon the Florida Gators at their current home field at Ben Hill Griffin Stadium. Vanderbilt nearly upset the 13th-ranked Gators before falling 49–42 in the second overtime after a controversial excessive celebration call prevented the Commodores from going for 2 at the end of regulation. Reflecting on Cutler's college career, former Denver Broncos safety John Lynch said, "If this guy can take a bunch of future doctors and lawyers and have them competing against the Florida Gators, this guy is a stud." Cutler ended his career by leading Vanderbilt past Tennessee 28–24, their first over the Volunteers since 1982 (the year before Cutler was born), and the first in Knoxville since 1975. Cutler passed for three touchdowns and 315 yards, becoming the first quarterback in school history to record four consecutive 300-yard passing performances. Cutler's final play in college was the game-winning (and streak- ending) touchdown pass to teammate Earl Bennett against Tennessee. A finalist for the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award (nation's top senior quarterback), Cutler was a first-team All-SEC pick by the league's coaches and led the conference with a school-record 3,288 yards of total offense. While at Vanderbilt, Cutler was a three-year captain and four-year starter, setting school career records for total offense (9,953 yards), touchdown passes (59), passing yards (8,697), pass completions (710), pass attempts (1,242), and combined touchdowns (76). Cutler graduated from Vanderbilt in 2005 with a bachelor's degree in human and organizational development. In 2016, Cutler was inducted into the Vanderbilt Athletics Hall of Fame.Jay Cutler Inducted into Vanderbilt Athletics Hall of Fame. vucommodores.com. Retrieved March 31, 2023. ===College statistics=== Season Passing Rushing NCAA passing efficiency ratings per Note that NFL passer ratings are calculated quite differently. 2002 103 212 48.6 1,433 6.8 10 9 17 112.4 123 393 3.2 9 2003 187 327 57.2 2,347 7.2 18 13 16 127.7 115 299 2.6 1 2004 147 241 61.0 1,844 7.7 10 5 24 134.8 109 349 3.2 6 2005 273 462 59.1 3,073 6.7 21 9 23 126.1 106 215 2.0 1 Career 710 1,242 57.2 8,697 7.0 59 36 80 125.9 453 1,256 2.8 17 ===Awards and honors=== * The Sporting News third-team freshman All-American (2002) * Associated Press first-team freshman All-SEC (2002) * First-team All-SEC (2005) * SEC Offensive Player of the Year (2005)''' *Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award finalist (2005) *Maxwell Award Semifinalist (2005) *Davey O'Brien Award Finalist (2005) *Manning Award Finalist (2005) *Sammy Baugh Trophy Finalist (2005) * Vanderbilt Athletics Hall of Fame (2016) ===Records=== Vanderbilt University school career records: * Total offense: 9,953 * Combined touchdowns: 76 ==Professional career== Cutler was ranked by many experts as the third-best quarterback prospect in the 2006 NFL Draft, after Matt Leinart of USC and Vince Young of Texas. ESPN's Chris Mortensen and Ron Jaworski tabbed him as the best quarterback available in the draft, and some scouts believed he had better arm strength than Young and Leinart, and compared him to Brett Favre for his gunslinger attitude. At the 2006 NFL Scouting Combine, Cutler completed 23 repetitions of a 225-pound bench press (more than some linemen) and ran a 40-yard dash in 4.77 seconds. Cutler was selected, with the 11th pick of the first round of the draft, by the Denver Broncos, who traded their 1st and 3rd round picks to the St. Louis Rams to move up. Many believed Cutler was chosen by the Broncos due to the lackluster performance in the previous season's AFC Championship Game of Jake Plummer. After the pick by Denver, Cutler said, "We had no warning. I think I knew about 15 seconds before everyone else did." Cutler, as predicted by most, was the third quarterback chosen, after Young (3rd overall) and Leinart (10th). He is the third first-round pick to come from Vanderbilt, preceded by Will Wolford and Bill Wade. On July 27, 2006, Cutler agreed to terms on a six-year $48 million contract, which included $11 million in bonuses. ===Denver Broncos=== ====2006 season==== After a strong training camp in 2006, Cutler was promoted from third to second on the Broncos' quarterback depth chart ahead of Bradlee Van Pelt. He passed for more yards than any other rookie in the preseason. On November 27, head coach Mike Shanahan officially announced that Cutler would replace Jake Plummer as starting quarterback despite a 7–4 record because, "I think he gives us the best chance to win now." The controversial decision capped weeks of speculation and rumors about Cutler's impending promotion to a starting role. Cutler took his first NFL snap on December 3 (Week 13), and after some initial jitters (0-3 with sack and fumble) completed his first touchdown to tight end Stephen Alexander in the second quarter. In the fourth quarter, he threw a memorable 71-yard touchdown to fellow-rookie Brandon Marshall to tie the game 20–20. It was one of the longest touchdown passes for a debut in NFL history and was also the second-longest pass play between two rookies in Broncos history. He also had two interceptions and took three sacks in the loss. On December 10, in a road loss against the San Diego Chargers, Cutler connected with tight end Tony Scheffler for two touchdowns in a span of 48 seconds, which is tied for fastest, in league history that two rookies produced a pair of scoring passes. Cutler's first win came in his third start on December 17, which was a 37–20 road victory over the Arizona Cardinals. He finished the game 21-of-31 with 261 yards, two touchdowns, an interception and a QB rating of 101.7, the highest for a Broncos rookie since John Elway in 1983. One touchdown traveled 65 yards in the air, and was recorded as a 54-yard touchdown to Javon Walker on the Broncos' third play of the game. Shanahan said to the media, "You saw what he could do today. It doesn't take a genius out there to figure out this guy is very composed, can make all the throws and plays with a lot of confidence." Cutler then led the Broncos to a Christmas Eve win over the Cincinnati Bengals, 24–23, in his fourth start on the season. He went 12-of-23 with 179 yards, two touchdowns and one interception. He also directed the Broncos on a 99-yard drive in the third quarter that culminated on a Mike Bell two-yard touchdown run. As a result of the two passing touchdowns in the game against the Bengals, Cutler became the first rookie QB in NFL history to throw for at least two touchdowns in each of his first four games played. He also became the second rookie in league history (fifth player overall) to throw at least two touchdown passes in each of his first four starts. The Broncos' quest to clinch a playoff berth came up short in the final game of the season, when they fell at home 26–23 in overtime to the San Francisco 49ers. The loss dropped the Broncos to a 9–7 overall record and 4–4 at home. Despite sustaining a concussion in the first half, Cutler finished 21 of 32 with 230 yards and a touchdown, and led Denver on a game-tying touchdown drive in the closing minutes of regulation to force overtime. In five games played on the season, Cutler finished with a record of 2–3, and went 81-of-137 for 1,001 yards, nine touchdowns, and five interceptions, earning a franchise rookie record passer rating of 88.5. He posted the second-highest touchdown percentage (6.6) and third-highest TD-to- INT ratio (1.8) among NFL rookies since 1970 with at least 125 passing attempts. ====2007 season==== The 2007 NFL season marked Cutler's first full season as the starting quarterback for the Denver Broncos. In the first game of the season against the Buffalo Bills, Cutler led Denver to a comeback win on a 12-play, 42-yard drive culminating in a Jason Elam 42-yard field goal as time expired. Cutler's pass attempts (39), completions (23), and yards (304) for the game were career-highs at the time. He led Denver to their second straight comeback win the next week in the home opener against the Oakland Raiders. Late in regulation, Cutler moved the team 78 yards in 15 plays for the game-tying field goal with 2:18 remaining. The game went into overtime, where he engineered a 52-yard drive that led to another game-winning field goal by Elam. Cutler had a touchdown pass during the game, making him the first Broncos passer to begin his Broncos career with at least one touchdown pass in his first seven starts. The streak reached nine games through losses to Jacksonville and Indianapolis (which featured his first career rushing touchdown), but ended with a 41–3 home loss to the San Diego Chargers in the fifth game of the season. After the bye week in Week 6, the 2-3 Broncos beat the 4–1 Pittsburgh Steelers, 31–28 (all three wins on last-second Elam field goals). Cutler had a QB rating of 106.7, and career highs of 75.9% passes completed, three touchdowns, 41 rushing yards and a long run of 31 yards, earning NBC Sunday Night Football's Horse Trailer Player of the Game (with Elam). Cutler finally had an interception-free game in his 12th start against the 6–1 Green Bay Packers, in which he drove 89-yards for a game-tying field goal in the last 2:27 of regulation, before losing in overtime, 19–13, on Green Bay's first play from scrimmage. In week 8, Cutler had just four attempts against the Detroit Lions before leaving with a leg injury; backup Patrick Ramsey floundered in a 44–7 loss. Cutler returned the next week in a 27–11 victory at Kansas City. In Week 10, the 4-5 Broncos faced the 6-3 Tennessee Titans (and fellow 2006 draftee Vince Young for the first time) in a MNF game. Cutler posted a career-second-best 137.0 passer rating in a 34–20 victory. He was the first Broncos quarterback since Elway in 1995 to throw two 40+ yard touchdowns in a game (of the team's franchise-record four 40+ yard touchdowns that night), and the 5–5 Broncos moved into a tie with San Diego atop the AFC West. However, the Broncos won only one of the next five games, a 41–7 Chiefs blowout. In that game, Cutler passed for four touchdowns and a then-career-best rating of 141.0. But that bright spot came between two pairs of losses; in the four games Cutler had five interceptions, took 12 sacks, twice had a rating under 50.0, and culminated in 23–3 loss to San Diego that eliminated the Broncos from the playoffs. Cutler salvaged a 7–9 record with a 22–19 overtime win over Minnesota, eliminating them as well. Denver missed the playoffs for a second straight year. Cutler started all 16 games, completing 297-of-467 passes (63.6%) for 3,497 yards, 20 touchdowns and 14 interceptions. He was the NFL's 12th-ranked passer (88.1) and also had the tenth-most passing yards (3,497). Furthermore, Cutler was the league's ninth-best third-down passer, with a 92.1 passer rating (73-of-125 for 901 yards, eight touchdowns, and three interceptions). It was the seventh most passing yards in Broncos history, and third-best completion percentage. Like his predecessor Plummer, Cutler showed mobility with 44 rushes for 205 yards (4.7 yards per carry) and a touchdown on the season. In late 2007, various experts suggested Cutler was the young quarterback most likely to reach the elite status along the lines of Peyton Manning and Tom Brady. Cutler, Brandon Marshall, and Tony Scheffler went to Atlanta together to train and work on timing for the 2008 season. ====2008 season==== Before the 2008 regular season began, Cutler and tight end Daniel Graham were voted offensive captains by Broncos teammates. Cutler started the season with a 41-14 Monday Night Football victory over Oakland. He completed 16-of-24 passes for 300 yards and two touchdowns, The next week, Cutler and the Broncos defeated the San Diego Chargers in Denver, 39–38. Cutler went 36-of-50, with 350 yards passing and a career-best-tying four touchdowns, including one to Eddie Royal on 4th and Goal with 0:24 left, followed by a game-winning two-point conversion again to Royal. This occurred one play after Cutler fumbled, but an inadvertent whistle by referee Ed Hochuli before the Chargers recovered gave the Broncos the ball back. In Week 3, Cutler had 264 yards and two touchdowns in a 34–22 home win over New Orleans. Cutler threw two interceptions for the first time in the Broncos first defeat, 33–19 at Kansas City. Despite this, he finished September first in the AFC in completions (102), passing yards (1,275), and attempts (157), second in yards per attempt (8.12), third in passing touchdowns (9) and quarterback rating (98.6), and fifth in completion percentage (65.0%), winning AFC Offensive Player of the Month honors for the first time in his career. thumb|left|upright|Cutler with the Denver Broncos in 2008 The Broncos edged Tampa Bay 16–13 behind Cutler's 23-of-34 performance with 227 yards, one touchdown and no interceptions. The Broncos were 4–1 and leading AFC West. But then followed a 24–17 loss to Jacksonville Jaguars, where Cutler passed for just 192 yards, two touchdowns and one interception. Next, Cutler injured his index finger on the first play of a 41-7 drubbing at New England; he ended the night with 168 yards and two interceptions. After a bye week, the Broncos suffered their third straight defeat, 26–17 to Miami, behind Cutler's 24-of-46 passing for 307 yards, two touchdowns and season-high three interceptions. During the 1-4 skid, Cutler had all seven of the Broncos touchdowns. In game 9, the Broncos found themselves down 23–10 at Cleveland, but in the 4th quarter Cutler threw a career-long 93-yard touchdown to Eddie Royal, followed by a touchdown passes to Daniel Graham and the game-winner to Brandon Marshall with 1:14 left. Cutler finished the game going 24-of-42 with 447 yards (career-high), three touchdowns and one interception, and received AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors for the first time in his career. The next week, Cutler threw another late 4th quarter touchdown to Daniel Graham for a 24–20 win at Atlanta. In game 11, Cutler's streak of games with a touchdown ended at 11 as he went 16-of-37 for 204 yards and an interception in a 31–10 loss to Oakland. He did, however, reach 3,000 yards on the season, tying John Elway by reaching this mark in 11 games. In a windy game 12 against the New York Jets, Cutler went 27-of-43 with 357 yards, two touchdowns and one interception in the 34–17 victory. The 7-5 Broncos had a 3-game road win streak, 3 game home loss streak, and 3 game lead on San Diego (who had their own 3 game loss streak) with four games remaining. Cutler began December completing a season high 80% of his 40 passes for 286 yards, two touchdowns, and one interception in a 24–17 win over the Chiefs. The win came via a 95-yard drive and go-ahead touchdown pass to Brandon Marshall for Cutler's fourth rally of the season. However, Cutler was just 21-of-33 with 172 yards, one touchdown, and one interception in a 30–20 loss to Carolina, and despite 359 yards and 2 rushing touchdowns, had no passing touchdowns and one interception in a 30–23 loss to Buffalo. This set up a winner-takes-the- division season finale against the San Diego Chargers. Cutler went 33-of-49 with 316 yards, one touchdown, and two interceptions, but it wasn't enough to counteract the Chargers seven touchdowns and Denver lost 52–21, failing to reach the playoffs for the third straight season. Cutler finished the season with career-highs in passing completions (384), passing attempts (616), passing yards (4,526), passing touchdowns (25), interceptions (18), rushing attempts (57) and rushing touchdowns (2). At the time, his passing yards, completions and attempts were all single-season franchise records for the Broncos. He also had the most 300-yard passing games (8) in team history. For the season, Cutler ranked third in the NFL in completions (first in the AFC), second in passing attempts (first in the AFC), third in passing yards (first in the AFC) and seventh in passing touchdowns (third in the AFC). He was selected as the FedEx Air Player of the Week for his performances during Weeks 10, 13 and 14. He finished third in fan voting for AFC quarterbacks in the 2009 Pro Bowl, and was officially selected as a reserve. Before the game in Hawaii, fellow Pro Bowlers Peyton Manning, Nick Mangold, and Kris Dielman threw him into a pool, ruining his blood sugar monitor. A replacement one was found at a drugstore, and Cutler played without incident. ===Chicago Bears=== ====2009 season==== thumb|240px|left|Cutler points out the mike linebacker during training camp, 2009 Cutler was traded with the Broncos' fifth-round selection in the 2009 NFL Draft pick to the Chicago Bears for quarterback Kyle Orton, the Bears' first- and third-round selections in 2009, and first-round pick in the 2010 NFL Draft on April 3, 2009. On October 20, Cutler and the Bears came to terms on a two-year contract extension worth $30 million, running through 2013. Cutler was the subject of most of the praise and criticism during the Chicago Bears' mercurial season. He began the season with 4 INTs in a loss to Green Bay, followed by seven touchdowns to one interception in three straight wins with a 100+ QB Rating. The Bears lost eight of the next ten games behind Cutler's 11 touchdowns vs NFL-leading 20 interceptions. This included a Week 9 loss to San Francisco where Cutler threw a career-high five interceptions and no touchdowns, and a Game 14 loss to Baltimore where Cutler had career-worsts of 94 yardsmin. 15 attempts and a passer rating of 7.9. But Cutler again reversed direction in Game 15 against Brett Favre's division rival Vikings, where he threw four touchdowns, including a go-ahead late in the 4th quarter, and 31-yard game-winner in overtime. He earned Offensive Player of the Week for his effort against the Vikings. He then ended the season with another four-touchdown outing and win over Detroit. Cutler finished the season with 27 touchdowns, league-leading 26 interceptions, 3,666 yards passing, and career-worst passer rating of 76.8. ====2010 season==== The Bears hired Mike Martz (famed for developing the St. Louis Rams' "Greatest Show on Turf") as offensive coordinator. Though Martz was critical of Cutler as an analyst, both professed excitement about working together. Cutler led the Bears to a 3–0 start, throwing six touchdowns and only two interceptions. However, in week 4, Cutler was sacked nine times in the first half against the New York Giants, missing the rest of that game and the next with a concussion. He returned to six sacks in a loss to Seattle and 4 interceptions in a loss to Washington, leaving the Bears at 4–3 at their bye week. thumb|upright|Cutler in 2010 Martz retooled the offensive line and showed more commitment to the running game, allowing Cutler to escape the next three games with just six sacks total. He won those three, followed by then- career-bests of four touchdowns and rating of 146.2 in a win over the 7–3 Eagles (winning NFC Player of the Week), and an 80.8% completion percentage in a win over Detroit. After a 152-yard, no touchdown, two interception loss to New England, Cutler won back-to-back games with three touchdowns, one interception, and 100+ ratings in each, before dropping the season finale to Green Bay. The Bears finished with an 11–5 record, an NFC North title, and a first-round bye. Despite taking a league-leading 52 sacks, Cutler finished the season with 3,274 passing yards, 23 touchdowns, 16 interceptions, 232 rushing yards, and 4 comeback victories. In Cutler's playoff debut against the Seattle Seahawks, he had 274 passing yards, two passing touchdowns, 43 rushing yards, and two rushing touchdowns in the Bears 35–24 win, making him the second quarterback in NFL history since Otto Graham in 1954 and 1955 to score two touchdown passes and two touchdown runs in a playoff game. In the NFC Championship Game, Cutler completed 6-of-14 passes for 80 yards and an interception, before a knee injury sidelined him early in the third quarter of a 21–14 loss to Green Bay. The Bears did not make an immediate announcement about Cutler's condition, allowing speculation to grow. In possibly the NFL's first player-on-player social media attack, Cutler was being criticized seconds after the injury by Maurice Jones-Drew, Darnell Dockett, Deion Sanders, and Mark Schlereth. Bears coach Lovie Smith later clarified that he, and not Cutler, made the decision after consulting the medical and training staff. The following day, an MRI revealed Cutler had sprained his MCL. Hall of Fame quarterback Troy Aikman commented that the widespread reaction reflected hostility towards Cutler's career-long polarizing attitude. Bears teammates defended Cutler, and his critics themselves became the targets of insults from other players, including Packers Aaron Rodgers ("disrespectful"), LeRoy Butler ("stupid"), and B. J. Raji ("pretty wrong and a lot times it has a lot to do with jealousy"). ====2011 season==== Throughout 2011, offensive coordinator Mike Martz was commonly criticized for aggressive play-calling in a pass-happy offense, leading to unnecessary wear on a quarterback returning from injury. In the season opener against the Atlanta Falcons, Cutler started the season off on a good note with 312 passing yards, two touchdowns, and one interception in the 30–12 win. In Week 2 against the New Orleans Saints, Cutler was sacked 6 times and kicked in the throat. During Week 6, Cutler was caught on microphone asking a player to go to Martz on the sideline, and, "Tell him I said fuck him!" Despite these incidents, by Week 10, Cutler had a QB rating of 85.7 (12th in the league) and the Bears were 6–3. However, on November 20, Cutler broke the thumb on his throwing hand tackling San Diego's Antoine Cason after an interception. He played through the final drive for the win, but the injury required season-ending surgery. Under backups Caleb Hanie and Josh McCown, the Bears lost six of their remaining seven games, and missed the playoffs. Overall, in his shortened 2011 season, Cutler had 2,319 passing yards, 13 touchdowns, and seven interceptions. ====2012 season==== Before the season, the Bears replaced Martz with Mike Tice, hired Cutler's former coach Jeremy Bates from the Broncos, and acquired his former teammate, wide receiver Brandon Marshall from the Miami Dolphins. Unlike Martz, Tice allowed Cutler to call audibles at the line of scrimmage. Cutler started his season by throwing an interception returned for a touchdown by the Colts' Jerrell Freeman. He bounced back from a 4.9 first-quarter passer rating to finish the game 21-of-35 for 333 yards, two touchdowns, and a 98.9 passer rating, in a 41–21 victory. In week 2, Cutler was sacked seven times and threw four interceptions against Green Bay, yelling at his porous offensive line and bumping left tackle J'Marcus Webb on his way to a 28.2 passer rating in a 23–10 loss. The line responded by surrendering just 5 sacks in the next three games, all wins, the second a 34–18 win over Dallas where Cutler was 18 of 24 for 275 yards, two touchdowns, no interceptions, and the third-best passer rating of his career (140.1). After close wins over Detroit and Carolina, Cutler had three touchdowns and no interceptions with a rating of 138.1 in a 51–20 blowout of Tennessee, bringing the Bears to 7–1 on the season, and Cutler's personal record in games with a 100+ QB rating to 25–0.This win, combined with In Week 10 against the Houston Texans, Cutler joined Michael Vick and Alex Smith as the third NFL quarterback out with a concussion that day. His replacement Jason Campbell lost that game and the next. Cutler returned for a Week 12 win over the Minnesota Vikings. Despite a 119.6 passer rating against the Seattle Seahawks in week 13, the Bears lost in overtime, which was followed by two close losses to Minnesota and Green Bay. Cutler finished the season with two solid performances in easy wins over the Cardinals and Lions. Despite a 10–6 record, the Bears missed the playoffs. Cutler again finished the season in the top 5 for times sacked, but nevertheless, led the league in fourth-quarter passer rating with 114.7. In just four seasons, he was already the Bears all- time team leader in passer rating (81.9) and completions (1,034), and second in yards (12,292), touchdowns (82), and completion percentage (59.6%). His reunion with Brandon Marshall led to franchise records of 118 receptions for 1,508 yards, and the 7th-year receiver's first All-Pro selection. ====2013 season==== New head coach Marc Trestman developed a successful strategy to better protect his quarterback, and in the first six games Cutler was sacked only 9 times compared to 23, 19, and 19 in the previous three seasons. Under the new scheme, Cutler began the season with three consecutive games with a 90+ passer rating for the first time since 2009. In each of those wins, he threw touchdowns in the 4th quarter, including game-winners in week 1 against Cincinnati and week 2 against Minnesota. He threw three interceptions in a week 4 loss to Detroit. In week five, Cutler was sacked three times and fumbled in the first 16 minutes of the game, then rebounded for 358 yards, two touchdowns, and a season-high 128.1 passer rating in defeat. He threw 2 touchdowns in a Week 6 win over the New York Giants. Through the first six games, he had a career best 95.2 passer rating, five multiple touchdown games, and a franchise-record 1,630 passing yards. However, against the Washington Redskins the following week, his 100th career start, Cutler tore a groin muscle when sacked by Chris Baker, breaking Jim Harbaugh's franchise record for most times sacked. Josh McCown was solid in relief, barely losing that Redskins game in a 45–41 shootout, and after the bye-week tossing two touchdowns in a 27–21 win at Green Bay. Cutler was medically cleared to return early for the week 10 game against Detroit, where he had 250 yards, one touchdown, and one interception before a hit from Stephen Tulloch in the second quarter finally drove him from the game on the Bears last drive. McCown drove 74 yards in 90 seconds for a touchdown, but the two-point conversion failed and the Bears lost 21–19. Cutler missed the next four games with his injury and McCown played well in his absence, leading to some controversy when Cutler was reinstated as the starting QB in Week 15. Cutler threw two interceptions in the first half against the Cleveland Browns, one returned for a touchdown, but ended with a 102.2 passer rating and three touchdowns. In the next week's 54–11 loss to the Philadelphia Eagles, Cutler ended up with 14,687 career passing yards for the Bears, one more than Sid Luckman's franchise record. The season finale was a winner-takes-the-division matchup at home against Green Bay. Despite Cutler's 15-of-24 passing for 226 yards, two touchdowns, and one interception for a 103.8 passer rating, the Bears lost 33–28 on a last-minute Hail Mary, missing the playoffs with an 8–8 record. Cutler ended the season completing 224 of 355 passes for 2,621 yards, 19 touchdowns, 12 interceptions, and a career-high 89.2 passer rating. On January 2, 2014, Cutler signed a seven-year deal, keeping him with the Bears through the 2020 NFL season. ====2014 season==== thumb|Marc Trestman looks on as Cutler practices in 2014. Cutler and the Bears struggled to a 5–11 record in Trestman's second year as head coach. The Bears opened the season with an overtime loss to the Buffalo Bills, in which Cutler threw two touchdowns and interceptions for 349 yards. The next week, the team overcame a 17-point deficit behind Cutler's four touchdown passes to defeat the San Francisco 49ers. The next week, he led the Bears to a 27–19 victory against the New York Jets, tallying 225 passing yards, two touchdowns and no interceptions. In both weeks 4 and 5, Cutler threw two touchdowns and two interceptions in defeats to the Packers and Panthers. In week 6, Cutler recorded a career-high 381 passing yards, defeating Atlanta 27–13. Cutler recorded just 190 yards in a loss to Miami, then threw three touchdowns but suffered a lopsided 51–23 defeat to the New England Patriots, and threw two interceptions in an even worse 55–14 loss to the Packers. The 3–6 Bears drew criticism from former Bears linebacker Brian Urlacher, who suggested that Phil Emery shouldn't have re-signed Cutler. "Financially, he is one of the elite guys in the NFL... He just hasn't produced like an elite quarterback." Cutler and the Bears rebounded with two consecutive wins. He threw three touchdowns, two interceptions, and 330 yards against the Vikings, and 130 yards and one passing touchdown against Tampa Bay. That would be the last win of the season. Cutler started the Thanksgiving Day game against Detroit with two passing touchdowns, but the Bears stumbled for the remainder of the game en route to 34–17 loss. He finished the game with two touchdowns, two interceptions, and 280 yards. The Bears suffered their eighth loss of the season to the Dallas Cowboys, in which Cutler threw 341 yards, two touchdowns and one interception, mathematically eliminating the Bears from the playoffs. Under criticism, offensive coordinator Aaron Kromer partially blamed Cutler's audibles and impromptu play calling for the poor record, but later apologized to Cutler and the Bears organization in a press conference. The next week, Cutler threw two touchdowns, three interceptions, and just 194 yards for a season-low 55.8 passer rating in a loss to the Saints. Trestman demoted Cutler in favor of Jimmy Clausen, but Cutler returned when Clausen suffered a concussion in the loss to Detroit. In the Bears' season finale against the Vikings, Cutler completed 23 of 36 passes for 172 yards, and a 63 passer rating in the loss. He accrued 3,812 passing yards, a career-high 28 passing touchdowns, but led the NFL with 18 interceptions. ====2015 season==== The Bears hired John Fox as their new head coach on January 19. Both Fox and GM Ryan Pace were initially lukewarm on Cutler, but reluctantly decided to keep Cutler as the starter. Tight end Martellus Bennett indicated his teammates were similarly unenthusiastic. Cutler began the season with a lackluster 225 yards in a loss to Green Bay, tossing a last-minute touchdown to Bennett to bring his rating up to 67.5. He began Week 2 against the Cardinals with 8 straight completions, but then threw an interception and injured his hamstring failing to stop safety Tony Jefferson from returning it for a touchdown. Without Cutler, the Bears lost 48–23 to the Cardinals, and were shutout 26–0 in Week 3 at Seattle. Cutler returned against Oakland, throwing two first half touchdowns, and drove 48 yards in the last 2:05 to set-up a game-winning field goal. In Week 5, Cutler threw two touchdowns in the final 3:05 for a dramatic 18–17 victory over the Chiefs and a tie of Jim McMahon's record for the most wins in team history. In Week 6, Cutler was just short of a third consecutive comeback: despite a season-best 353 yards, a 4th quarter touchdown and 2-point conversion, followed by a 69-yard drive in 17 seconds for a game-tying field goal, the Bears lost in overtime to the Lions. After the bye, in Week 8 Cutler again scored a go-ahead touchdown late in the 4th quarter, but the Vikings rallied for two late scores and a 23–20 win. In Week 9 against San Diego, Cutler threw yet another late 4th quarter touchdown, which both won the game 22–19, and set the Bears franchise record (139). In Week 10, Cutler had a stellar performance in a 37–13 win against St. Louis, going 19-for-24 for 258 yards, three touchdowns (two of them for 80+ yards for the only time in franchise history) and no interceptions; his 151.0 passer rating was a career-best. That would be the season high-point for both the 4–5 Bears and Cutler. The Bears went 2–5 the rest of the season, four of the losses by less than 7 points. Cutler had three unremarkable games in narrow losses to Denver and San Francisco and a narrow win at Green Bay. In the Broncos game, Cutler led a 65-yard, potential game-tying drive, but Bears running back Jeremy Langford was stopped on the two point conversion attempt, and the Bears lost 17–15. In Week 14, Cutler threw for 315 yards and two touchdowns against Washington, including a 50-yard completion with two minutes remaining, but Robbie Gould missed the game-tying field goal in a 24–21 loss. The next week, Cutler was sacked five times and threw an interception in a 38–17 loss to Minnesota, then had just 156 yards but a 100.2 passer rating in a win over Tampa Bay. In the season finale against Detroit, Cutler had two touchdowns, but three interceptions including one deep in Lions territory at the 2 minute warning to seal the 24–20 loss. Despite his receiving unit being plagued by injuries, Cutler had one of his best seasons as he ended 2015 with 3,629 passing yards, 21 touchdowns, 11 interceptions, and career highs in passer rating (92.3) and completion percentage (64.4). The 11 interceptions were the lowest in his career and resulted in an interception percentage of 2.3, the lowest in a season when he has started at least 12 games, while 21 touchdowns were his second-most since 2011 and the 3,629 yards were the third- most in his career. On third down, Cutler had a 103.2 passer rating (fourth in the NFL) after completing 91 of 141 passes for 1,242 yards, seven touchdowns and two interceptions. ====2016 season==== With Adam Gase's departure to become the head coach of the Miami Dolphins, Dowell Loggains became the Bears' offensive coordinator. In Cutler's first two games, he was sacked eight times and had two interceptions in losses to the Houston Texans (where he injured his right thumb but completed the game), and Philadelphia Eagles (where he re- aggravated his injury and was replaced by Brian Hoyer). He missed the next five games before making his return against the Vikings, where he completed 20 of 31 passes for 252 yards, a touchdown and a 100.5 passer rating en route to a 20–10 victory. Zach Miller praised Cutler's performance in his return, even adding that he delivered a half-time speech to motivate his teammates. Cutler fumbled and threw two interceptions (including a pick-6) in a loss to Tampa Bay. Cutler sustained a labrum injury in his throwing shoulder on November 20, 2016, in a loss to the Giants, and missed the rest of the season. In his five games in 2016, Cutler recorded 1,059 passing yards, four touchdowns, five interceptions, and a 78.1 passer rating. On March 9, 2017, Cutler was released by the Bears through a $2 million buyout clause, after the guaranteed years in his seven-year contract had run out. After Cutler's lackluster performances and injuries, the move was expected for months, as the Bears decided to award a $45 million contract to Mike Glennon. In May 2017, Cutler announced his retirement from professional football and was hired by Fox Sports to be a commentator. ===Miami Dolphins=== On August 3, 2017, Miami Dolphins quarterback Ryan Tannehill suffered a season-ending injury, and the team reached out to the retired Cutler. On August 7, Cutler signed a one-year, $10 million contract with the Dolphins, reuniting him with former Bears offensive coordinator Adam Gase, who was hired as Miami's head coach in 2016. In Week 2, the Dolphins won their first game against the Los Angeles Chargers, 19–17. Cutler was 24-of-33 for 230 yards with a touchdown to wide receiver Kenny Stills in the road victory. In a Week 7 game against the New York Jets, Cutler suffered multiple cracked ribs. He was replaced by Matt Moore during the game and was ruled out for the following week's game against the Baltimore Ravens. He returned in Week 9 to face the Oakland Raiders. In the 27–24 loss, he was very efficient going 34-of-42 for 311 yards and a touchdown. In the Week 11 game, Cutler suffered a concussion, which caused him to miss the team's next game. Cutler had his best performance of the year in a Monday Night Football game against New England where he outplayed Tom Brady and the Dolphins upset the Patriots. Cutler threw three touchdowns in the win. On December 27, he said he would probably only continue his NFL career if he can be a starter, stating, "I wouldn't want to move again or go somewhere just to back up." He started 14 games and finished with 2,666 passing yards, 19 touchdowns, and 14 interceptions for the Dolphins in the 2017 season. The Dolphins did not make the playoffs and Cutler went 6–8 as a starter. Many teammates, including receiver Kenny Stills, praised Cutler during the season; Stills described him as "a good man." "People in other places have kind of given him a hard time. I got to know him as a man and as a player and I appreciate him. I like him. I'm thankful for the experience of playing with him, catching some balls from him." ==NFL career statistics== Legend Led the league Bold Career high Year Team Games Passing Rushing Sacks Fumbles 2006 DEN 5 5 2−3 81 137 59.1 1,001 7.3 9 5 88.5 12 18 1.5 0 13 85 8 2 2007 DEN 16 16 7−9 297 467 63.6 3,497 7.5 20 14 88.1 44 205 4.7 1 27 153 11 4 2008 DEN 16 16 8−8 384 616 62.3 4,526 7.3 25 18 86.0 57 200 3.5 2 11 69 5 2 2009 CHI 16 16 7−9 336 555 60.5 3,666 6.6 27 26 76.8 40 173 4.3 1 35 204 9 1 2010 CHI 15 15 10−5 261 432 60.4 3,274 7.6 23 16 86.3 50 232 4.6 1 52 352 10 6 2011 CHI 10 10 7−3 182 314 58.0 2,319 7.4 13 7 85.7 18 55 3.1 1 23 159 7 3 2012 CHI 15 15 10−5 255 434 58.8 3,033 7.0 19 14 81.3 41 233 5.7 0 38 250 8 4 2013 CHI 11 11 5−6 224 355 63.1 2,621 7.4 19 12 89.2 23 118 5.1 0 19 132 5 3 2014 CHI 15 15 5−10 370 561 66.0 3,812 6.8 28 18 88.6 39 191 4.9 2 38 223 12 6 2015 CHI 15 15 6−9 311 483 64.4 3,659 7.6 21 11 92.3 38 201 5.3 1 29 150 8 5 2016 CHI 5 5 1−4 81 137 59.1 1,059 7.7 4 5 78.1 5 24 4.8 0 17 104 6 2 2017 MIA 14 14 6−8 266 429 62.0 2,666 6.2 19 14 80.8 15 25 1.7 0 20 154 6 0 Career 153 153 74−79 3,048 4,920 62.0 35,133 7.1 227 160 85.3 382 1,675 4.4 9 322 2,035 95 38 ===Awards and honors=== * Pro Bowl (2008) * AFC passing yards leader (2008) * AFC Offensive Player of the Month (September 2008) * AFC Offensive Player of the Week – (Week 10, 2008) * Two-time NFC Offensive Player of the Week – (Week 16, 2009; Week 12, 2010) * Six-time FedEx Air Player of the Week – (Week 10, 2008; Week 13, 2008; Week 14, 2008; Week 16, 2009; Week 1, 2010; Week 9, 2017) ===Chicago Bears franchise records=== As of 2022, Jay Cutler held at least 14 Bears franchise records, including: * Completions: career (2,020), season (384 in 2008) * Pass Attempts: career (3,271), season (615 in 2008) * Passing Yards: career (23,443) * Passing TDs: career (154), playoff game (2 on January 16, 2011, against the Seattle Seahawks; with 3 others) * Sacked: career (251), season (52 in 2010), game (9 on October 3, 2010, against the New York Giants; with 2 others) * Pass Yds/Game: career (229.8) * 300+ yard passing games: career (16), season (4 in 2014; with Brian Hoyer and Mitchell Trubisky) Other franchise records (as of 2022) * Highest Completion Percentage in a Single Season: 66.0% (2014) (15 starts) * Most 4th Quarter Comeback Wins in a Single Season: 4 (2010 and 2015) * Most Career 4th Quarter Comeback Wins: 16 (2009–2016) * Most Game Winning Drives in a Single Season: 4 (2009 and 2010 and 2015) (tied with Bill Wade and Bob Avellini) * Most Career Game Winning Drives: 18 (2009–2016) * Most Wins: 51 (2009–2016) == In the media == An animated representation of Cutler briefly appeared in the South Park episode "Guitar Queer-O." The show is set in Colorado and the characters are avid Broncos fans. Two characters, Stan and Kyle, meet Cutler and say, "Nice to meet you. I mean, you kinda suck, but my dad says you might be good some day." Cutler himself later responded to the episode, saying, "It was cool. I thought it was funny. They can make fun of me if they want to." Cutler, along with former Broncos tight end Tony Scheffler and former Broncos backup quarterback Preston Parsons, took part in an episode of Oprah's Big Give filmed in Denver in 2007. The episode aired on ABC on March 9, 2008. In 2011, after the Bears lost five straight games while Cutler was out with a thumb injury, Chicago recording artist Magic 1 recorded "Cutty Come Back", a parody of the song "Baby Come Back". An internet meme, called "Smokin' Jay Cutler", portrays pictures of Cutler in an apathetic state with a cigarette photoshopped into his mouth. Cutler commented he is aware of the meme and "gets a kick out of that". Aaron Rodgers of the Green Bay Packers performed a smoking gesture to reference the meme during a 38–14 win over the Bears in 2014. In 2013, Cutler played himself in an episode of the comedy show The League alongside his ex-wife, Kristin Cavallari, who appeared in one other episode of the show. Cutler supported Mitt Romney in the 2012 presidential election, and Donald Trump in 2016 and 2020. Cutler posted and then deleted an Instagram post in November 2020 that supported the conspiracy that Joe Biden's victory in the 2020 presidential election was illegitimate. Cutler regularly appeared on the show Very Cavallari between 2018 and 2020. ==Personal life== ===Family and children=== Cutler began dating Kristin Cavallari in September 2010 and became engaged to her in April 2011. They called off the engagement in July 2011, but subsequently confirmed their reconciliation that November. Cutler and Cavallari married on June 7, 2013, in Nashville, Tennessee. They have two sons and one daughter. Despite the birth of his first son coming the day before the Bears played their preseason opener against the Denver Broncos, Cutler dressed for the game, though he did not play. In April 2020, the couple announced that they are getting a divorce, with Cavallari saying the split came as a result of the two simply "growing apart." As of May 2021, the couple had not finalized their divorce due to financial issues. In June 2022, it was reported that their settlement had been finalized and the couple was officially divorced. ===Volunteer work=== Cutler does volunteer work for young people with developmental disabilities through Vanderbilt's "Best Buddies" program. During the 2007 offseason, Cutler started the Jay Cutler Foundation, which partnered with Mile High United Way's Youth Success Initiative to help at-risk youth overcome obstacles and graduate from high school. On May 1, 2008, Cutler announced that he was diagnosed with type 1 diabetes and needs daily insulin shots. He is responding well with the insulin treatments. Cutler works with Dedicated to Diabetes, which is a Denver-based organization that aims to improve public knowledge about diabetes. For the 2009 season, Cutler teamed up with Eli Lilly and Company in a campaign called "Touchdowns For Diabetes". For every touchdown pass Cutler threw during the 2009 season, Lilly sent a child to diabetes camp by donating $1,000 to the ADA's "Camp Scholarship" fund—roughly the cost of providing tuition for one child to attend a week of diabetes camp. For every pass Cutler completed in 2009, Lilly donated $100 to the ADA Camp Scholarship fund to allow even more kids the chance to attend camp the following summer. In 2012, Cutler visited Perspectives Charter School in Chicago, and talked about diabetes awareness. ===Business ventures=== In 2021, Cutler launched a meat subscription service called CUTS and his podcast "Uncut" a few months later. In 2022, Cutler launched Gratis Brewing, which is based in Nashville. ==References== ==External links== * Category:1983 births Category:American Conference Pro Bowl players Category:American football quarterbacks Category:Chicago Bears players Category:Denver Broncos players Category:Living people Category:Miami Dolphins players Category:People from Santa Claus, Indiana Category:People with type 1 diabetes Category:Players of American football from Indiana Category:Vanderbilt Commodores football players |
Duro v. Reina, 495 U.S. 676 (1990), was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court concluded that Indian tribes could not prosecute Indians who were members of other tribes for crimes committed by those nonmember Indians on their reservations. The decision was not well received by the tribes, because it defanged their criminal codes by depriving them of the power to enforce them against anyone except their own members. In response, Congress amended a section of the Indian Civil Rights Act, , to include the power to "exercise criminal jurisdiction over all Indians" as one of the powers of self-government. == Background == left|thumb|alt=Map of Maricopa County showing Salt River Indian Reservation in red|Map of Maricopa County showing Salt River Indian Reservation in red === Reservation === The Salt River Indian Reservation, located to the east of Scottsdale, Arizona, is home to the Salt River Pima Maricopa Indian Community. The reservation was established in 1879 by executive order to recognize the occupation of the land by Pima and Maricopa Indians., 33 (1999); 3 806-07 (Charles J. Kappler ed. 1904). The Indians moved from the Gila River Indian Reservation due to white settlers upstream diverting water from the Gila River to the point that the Indians could no longer farm there. at 33; Report in the Matter of the Investigation of the Salt and Gila Rivers: Reservations and Reclamation Service, Before the H. Comm. on the Interior, 62d Cong. 4 (1913). Although the Indians had complained at the Gila River reservation, nothing was done to stop the theft of their water, where at the Salt River, the tribes were upstream of the settlers and did not have the same problem.H. Comm. on the Interior Report at 4-5. In 1926, the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) created a Pima Advisory Council and in 1934 the two tribes adopted a constitution for the reservation., 61-63 (2000). The current constitution dates from 1940. at 61-63. === Facts === Albert Duro was not a member of the Salt River Pima Maricopa Indian Community. He was from California and was a member of the Torres-Martinez Desert Cahuilla Indians;, 108 (2009). thus, he was not eligible for membership in the Salt River Pima Maricopa Indian Community, and could not vote in tribal elections, hold tribal office, or serve on tribal juries. Duro lived on the Salt River Indian Reservation at 108. with a "woman friend" and worked for the tribe's construction company, PiCopa Construction. In 1984, he was accused of killing a 14-year-old boy inside the boundaries of the reservation. Initially, Duro was charged with murder and aiding and abetting murder in federal court, but the prosecution dismissed those charges without prejudice. Duro was handed over to Salt River tribal authorities, who charged Duro with illegally firing a weapon because under federal law, Indian tribes are limited to prosecuting misdemeanor crimes. The tribal courts denied Duro's motion to dismiss for lack of jurisdiction, and then Duro filed a petition for a writ of habeas corpus in the United States District Court for the District of Arizona. The district court granted the writ and ordered Duro released. Under Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe, , the tribal court had no jurisdiction over non-Indians. If the district court were to find that the tribal court had jurisdiction over Indians who were not members of the tribe, it reasoned that would violate the equal protection guarantee of freedom from discrimination based on race. The Ninth Circuit reversed. It read the Supreme Court's decision in United States v. Wheeler, , which stated that tribal courts do not have jurisdiction over nonmembers, as supported by an "equivocal" history, and concluded that federal statutory law allowed tribal jurisdiction over all Indians, not simply members. Finally, it concluded that holding that tribes lacked criminal jurisdiction over nonmembers would create a "jurisdictional void," since only the state might have the power to prosecute the nonmember, and the state may lack the power or resources to do so. The U.S. Supreme Court agreed to review the Ninth Circuit's decision. ==Opinion of the Court== In an opinion by Justice Kennedy, the Court described this case as falling at the "intersection" of its prior decisions in Oliphant and Wheeler. In Oliphant, the Court held that the inherent sovereignty of Indian tribes did not allow them to have criminal jurisdiction over non- Indians who commit crimes on the reservation. And in Wheeler, the Court held that tribes retain their jurisdiction to prosecute their members for crimes committed on the reservation. The question this case posed was whether "the sovereignty retained by the tribes in their dependent status within our scheme of government includes the power of criminal jurisdiction over nonmembers." The Court reasoned that the decisions in Oliphant and Wheeler compelled a negative answer to this question. The sovereignty retained by the Indian tribes is "of a unique and limited character." A fully sovereign government would have the power to prosecute all crimes that take place within its territorial boundaries, but the Indian tribes are no longer sovereign in that sense. The sovereignty retained by the tribes to prosecute their own members stems from their power to govern themselves in order to maintain "their own unique customs and social order." When the tribes were relegated to dependents of the federal government, they did not lose this inherent power. Rather, the tribes were divested only of the power to regulate relations between themselves and nonmembers. The distinction between members and nonmembers is the critical distinction in this case, not the distinction between Indian and non-Indians. Thus, states may not impose taxes on transactions between members that take place on reservations, because this would interfere with the sovereignty of tribes vis-à-vis their own members. Tribes also retain the power to regulate hunting on lands they own or lands held in trust for them by the United States, but not on lands held in fee. And although other decisions of the Court had recognized broader retained powers in the civil context, criminal powers of Indian tribes were strictly limited to members because "the exercise of criminal jurisdiction subjects a person not only to the adjudicatory power of the tribunal, but also to the prosecuting power of the tribe, and involves a far more direct intrusion on personal liberties." Thus, Indian tribes may only prosecute members for crimes committed on their reservations. Because Duro was not a member of the Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community, that tribe did not have the power to prosecute him for the crime of illegally firing a weapon. The tribes argued that, historically, tribes had jurisdiction over all Indians regardless of membership. For example, federal statutes used the word "Indian" without regard to membership, to refer to the "family of Indians." Courts of "Indian offenses," established by the Department of the Interior for tribes without their own functioning court systems, historically exercised jurisdiction over all Indians without regard to membership, and continue to do so. But the Court responded that federal statutes had always referred to federal programs, and never to the power of tribes with respect to individual Indians. "The historical record prior to the creation of modern tribal courts shows little federal attention to the individual tribes' powers as between themselves or over one another's members. Scholars who do find treaties or other sources illuminating have only divided in their conclusions." After the federal government allowed the tribes to "express [their] retained tribal sovereignty" by creating their own tribal courts, the Secretary of the Interior still had to approve the legal codes the tribes created before the courts of Indian offenses would yield to the tribes own courts. Written opinions of the Solicitor General of the Department of the Interior consistently affirmed the power of the tribes over their own members, but went no further. In light of the historical record, the Court was not "persuaded that external criminal jurisdiction is an accepted part of the courts' function." The Court could not ignore the fact that Duro was also a citizen of the United States, entitled to all the privileges and immunities that attach to that status. One right a citizen of the United States enjoys is the right to due process of law, which protects them from "unwarranted intrusions on their personal liberty. Criminal trial and punishment is so serious and intrusion on personal liberty that its exercise over non-Indian citizens was a power necessarily surrendered by the tribes in their submission to the overriding sovereignty of the United States." Tribal courts do not necessarily afford defendants the full range of protections afforded defendants in federal courts by the Bill of Rights. Because tribal members may participate in tribal governance, the Court approves of tribal members being subject to the criminal jurisdiction of their own tribes. Because nonmembers do not participate in tribal governance, the Court felt it was too great an intrusion to allow tribes to prosecute nonmembers. Finally, the Court rejected the argument that not allowing tribes to prosecute nonmembers, those nonmembers would escape prosecution altogether for criminal activity engaged in within tribal boundaries. The federal government retains the power to prosecute felonies that take place on reservations. Tribes retain the power to expel undesirable persons. Tribal authorities may still arrest the nonmember and detain him until he can be handed over to authorities who do have the power to prosecute the nonmember. The tribe pointed out that state authorities can lack the power to prosecute crimes committed by nonmembers on reservations; Arizona, for instance, expressly disclaims this prosecutorial authority. But Congress has allowed states to assume this power, and Arizona is free to take up Congress's invitation. Finally, if the tribes still believed that there remained a "jurisdictional void," despite these options, they could persuade Congress to give it to them. ===Dissenting opinion=== Justice Brennan disagreed that the Court's holding did not create a jurisdictional void. "The existence of a jurisdictional gap is not an independent justification for finding tribal jurisdiction, but rather is relevant to determining congressional intent. The unlikelihood that Congress intended to create a jurisdictional void in which no sovereign has the power to prosecute an entire class of crimes should inform our understanding of the assumptions about tribal power upon which Congress legislated." Accordingly, Justice Brennan believed the Court should have read the historical evidence in such a way that supported Congress's intent to allow Indian tribes to exert jurisdiction over nonmembers. Furthermore, Justice Brennan did not accept the Court's argument that the fact that nonmembers were citizens of the United States counseled against allowing tribes to exert jurisdiction over nonmembers. If that was true, he said, it would also be true that tribes could not exert jurisdiction over their own members either. Nor had the Court ever held that participation in the political process was a prerequisite to exercising criminal jurisdiction over a citizen. If this were true, then states could never prosecute nonresidents or aliens. ==Aftermath== Congress quickly addressed the jurisdictional gap that emerged from the Court's ruling by amending the Indian Civil Rights Act in 1990 as part of the Department of Defense Appropriations Act of 1991, which was signed into law on November 5, 1990.Pub. L. 101-511 § 8077(b)Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968, Apr. 11, 1968, (codified as amended at ). Nearly fourteen years later, the Supreme Court ruled on the constitutionality of this amendment to 25 U.S.C. § 1301(2) in United States v. Lara (2004), upholding the amendment to the Indian Civil Rights Act and effectively overturning Duro v. Reina. ==See also== * Tribal sovereignty in the United States * List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 495 * List of United States Supreme Court cases * Lists of United States Supreme Court cases by volume * List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rehnquist Court == References == ==External links== * * Commentary from the National Conference of State Legislatures Category:United States Supreme Court cases Category:United States Native American criminal jurisdiction case law Category:1990 in United States case law Category:United States Supreme Court cases of the Rehnquist Court Category:Native American history of Arizona |
The United States Government Accountability Office reported more than 150 incidents from 2001 to 2006 of nuclear plants not performing within acceptable safety guidelines. According to a 2010 survey of energy accidents, there have been at least 56 accidents at nuclear reactors in the United States (defined as incidents that either resulted in the loss of human life or more than US$50,000 of property damage). The most serious of these was the Three Mile Island accident in 1979. Davis-Besse Nuclear Power Plant has been the source of two of the top five most dangerous nuclear incidents in the United States since 1979. and Relatively few accidents have involved fatalities. ==Context== Globally, there have been at least 99 (civilian and military) recorded nuclear reactor accidents from 1952 to 2009 (defined as incidents that either resulted in the loss of human life or more than US$50,000 of property damage, the amount the US federal government uses to define major energy accidents that must be reported), totaling US$20.5 billion in property damages. The accidents involved meltdowns, explosions, fires, and loss of coolant, and occurred during both normal operation and extreme emergency conditions (such as droughts and earthquakes). Property damage costs include destruction of property, emergency response, environmental remediation, evacuation, lost product, fines, and court claims. Because nuclear reactors are large and complex, accidents onsite tend to be relatively expensive. In the U.S., at least 56 nuclear reactor accidents have occurred.Benjamin K. Sovacool. A Critical Evaluation of Nuclear Power and Renewable Electricity in Asia, Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol. 40, No. 3, August 2010, pp. 379–380. The most serious of these U.S. accidents was the Three Mile Island accident in 1979. According to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the Davis–Besse Nuclear Power Station has been the source of two of the top five most dangerous nuclear incidents in the United States since 1979. The United States Government Accountability Office reported more than 150 incidents from 2001 to 2006 of nuclear plants not performing within acceptable safety guidelines. In 2006, it said: "Since 2001, the ROP has resulted in more than 4,000 inspection findings concerning nuclear power plant licensees' failure to fully comply with NRC regulations and industry standards for safe plant operation, and NRC has subjected more than 75 percent (79) of the 103 operating plants to increased oversight for varying periods". ==History== The Atomic Energy Act of 1954 encouraged private corporations in the United States to build nuclear reactors and a significant learning phase followed with many early partial core meltdowns and accidents at experimental reactors and research facilities. This led to the introduction of the Price-Anderson Act in 1957, which was "an implicit admission that nuclear power provided risks that producers were unwilling to assume without federal backing".Benjamin K. Sovacool. The costs of failure: A preliminary assessment of major energy accidents, 1907–2007, Energy Policy 36 (2008), p. 1808. Nuclear reactor accidents continued into the 1960s with a small test reactor exploding at the Stationary Low-Power Reactor Number One in Idaho Falls in January 1961 resulting in three deaths which were the first fatalities in the history of U.S. nuclear reactor operations.Perhaps the Worst, Not the First TIME magazine, May 12, 1986. There was also a partial meltdown at the Enrico Fermi Nuclear Generating Station in Michigan in 1966. The large size of nuclear reactors ordered during the late 1960s raised new safety questions and created fears of a severe reactor accident that would send large quantities of radiation into the environment. In the early 1970s, a highly contentious debate over the performance of emergency core cooling systems in nuclear plants, designed to prevent a core meltdown that could lead to the "China syndrome", received coverage in the popular media and technical journals.Walker, J. Samuel (2004). Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective (Berkeley: University of California Press), pp. 10–11.Wolfgang Rudig (1990). Anti-nuclear Movements: A World Survey of Opposition to Nuclear Energy, Longman, pp. 66–67. In 1976, four nuclear engineers —three from GE and one from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission— resigned, stating that nuclear power was not as safe as their superiors were claiming.Jim Falk (1982). Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power, Oxford University Press, p. 95. The San Jose Three TIME, Feb. 16, 1976.The Struggle over Nuclear Power TIME, Mar. 08, 1976. They testified to the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy that: > "the cumulative effect of all design defects and deficiencies in the design, > construction and operations of nuclear power plants makes a nuclear power > plant accident, in our opinion, a certain event. The only question is when, > and where.Mark Hertsgaard (1983). Nuclear Inc. The Men and Money Behind > Nuclear Energy, Pantheon Books, New York, p. 72. ==Three Mile Island accident== On March 28, 1979, equipment failures and operator error contributed to loss of coolant and a partial core meltdown of Unit 2's pressurized water reactor at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Power Plant in Pennsylvania.World Nuclear Association (1999). Three Mile Island: 1979 Retrieved December 24, 2008. The scope and complexity of this reactor accident became clear over the course of five days, as a number of agencies at the local, state and federal levels tried to solve the problem and decide whether the ongoing accident required an emergency evacuation, and to what extent. Cleanup started in August 1979 and officially ended in December 1993, with a total cleanup cost of about $1 billion. In his 2007 preliminary assessment of major energy accidents, Benjamin K. Sovacool, estimated that the TMI accident caused a total of $2.4 billion in property damages.Benjamin K. Sovacool. The costs of failure: A preliminary assessment of major energy accidents, 1907–2007, Energy Policy 36 (2008), p. 1807. The health effects of the Three Mile Island accident are widely, but not universally, agreed to be very low level.Mangano, Joseph (2004). Three Mile Island: Health study meltdown, Bulletin of the atomic scientists, 60(5), pp. 31 -35.World Nuclear Association. Three Mile Island Accident January 2010. The TMI accident forced regulatory and operational improvements on a reluctant industry, but it also increased opposition to nuclear power.Wellock, Thomas R. Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective (Book review) The Historian, 22 September 2005. The accident triggered protests around the world.Mark Hertsgaard (1983). Nuclear Inc. The Men and Money Behind Nuclear Energy, Pantheon Books, New York, p. 95 & 97. ==List of accidents and incidents== Nuclear reactor accidents in the U.S.Benjamin K. Sovacool (2009). The Accidental Century – Prominent Energy Accidents in the Last 100 Years Benjamin K. Sovacool. A Critical Evaluation of Nuclear Power and Renewable Electricity in Asia, Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol. 40, No. 3, August 2010, pp. 393–400. Date Location Description Fatalities Cost (in millions 2006 US$) INES rating November 29, 1955 Idaho Falls, Idaho, US Power excursion with partial core meltdown at National Reactor Testing Station's EBR-1 Experimental Breeder Reactor I 0 5 July 26, 1959 Simi Valley, California, USA Partial core meltdown at Santa Susana Field Laboratory's Sodium Reactor Experiment 0 32 January 3, 1961 Idaho Falls, Idaho, US Steam explosion and meltdown results in three fatalities at National Reactor Testing Station's SL-1 Stationary Low-Power Reactor Number One 3 22 4 July 24, 1964 Charlestown, Rhode Island, USA An error by a worker at a United Nuclear Corporation fuel facility led to an accidental criticality 1 ?? October 5, 1966 Monroe, Michigan, USA Sodium cooling system malfunctions at Enrico Fermi demonstration breeder reactor causing partial core meltdown 0 19 July 16, 1971 Cordova, Illinois, USA An electrician is electrocuted by a live cable at the Quad Cities Unit 1 reactor on the Mississippi River 1 1 April 21, 1973 Pacific Ocean, 370 miles from Puget Sound Primary coolant leak on board the USS Guardfish while underway 0 unknown August 11, 1973 Covert Township, Michigan, USA Steam generator leak at the Palisades Nuclear Generating Station causes manual shutdown of pressurized water reactor 0 10 March 22, 1975 Athens, Alabama, USA Fire burns for seven hours and damages more than 1600 control cables for three nuclear reactors at Browns Ferry, disabling core cooling systems 0 240 November 5, 1975 Brownville, Nebraska, USA Hydrogen gas explosion damages the Cooper Nuclear Facility's auxiliary building 0 13 June 10, 1977 Waterford, Connecticut, USA Hydrogen gas explosion damages three buildings and forces shutdown of Millstone-1 Boiling Water Reactor 0 15 February 4, 1979 Surry, Virginia, USA Surry Unit 2 shut down in response to failing tube bundles in steam generators 0 12 March 28, 1979 Middletown, Pennsylvania, US Loss of coolant and partial core meltdown, see Three Mile Island accident and Three Mile Island accident health effects 0 2,400 5 November 22, 1980 San Clemente, California, USA Worker cleaning breaker cubicles at San Onofre Pressurized Water Reactor contacts an energized line and is electrocuted 1 1 January 25, 1982 Ontario, New York, USA Ginna Nuclear Generating Station (then operated by Rochester Gas & Electric now by Constellation Energy Nuclear Group) experiences a steam tube rupture, releasing radioactivity into the environment. 0 1 February 26, 1982 San Clemente, California, USA Southern California Company shuts down San Onofre Unit 1 out of concerns about earthquake 0 1 March 20, 1982 Scriba, New York, USA Recirculation system piping fails at Nine Mile Point Unit 1, forcing two year shutdown 0 45 March 25, 1982 Buchanan, New York, USA Damage to steam generator tubes and main generator resulting in a shut down Indian Point Energy Center Unit 3 for more than a year 0 56 June 18, 1982 Seneca, South Carolina, USA Feedwater heat extraction line fails at Oconee 2 Pressurised Water Reactor, damaging thermal cooling system 0 10 February 12, 1983 Forked River, New Jersey, USA Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station fails safety inspection, forced to shut down for repairs 0 32 February 26, 1983 Fort Pierce, Florida, USA Damaged thermal shield and core barrel support at St. Lucie Unit 1, necessitating 13-month shutdown 0 54 September 15, 1984 Athens, Alabama, US Safety violations, operator error, and design problems force six year outage at Browns Ferry Unit 2 0 110 March 9, 1985 Athens, Alabama, US Instrumentation systems malfunction during start-up, which led to suspension of operations at all three Browns Ferry Units 0 1,830 June 9, 1985 Oak Harbor, Ohio, US Loss of feedwater event at Davis-Besse reactor after main pumps shut down and auxiliary pumps tripped due to operator error. NRC review determines site area emergency should have been declared 0 ? April 11, 1986 Plymouth, Massachusetts, US Recurring equipment problems force emergency shutdown of Boston Edison's Pilgrim Nuclear Power Plant 0 1,001 December 9, 1986 Surry, Virginia, USA Feedwater line-burst at Surry Nuclear Power Plant kills 4 4 March 31, 1987 Delta, Pennsylvania, US Peach Bottom units 2 and 3 shutdown due to cooling malfunctions and unexplained equipment problems 0 400 July 15, 1987 Burlington, Kansas, USA Safety inspector dies from electrocution after contacting a mislabeled wire at Wolf Creek Nuclear Generating Station 1 1 December 19, 1987 Scriba, New York, US Malfunctions force Niagara Mohawk Power Corporation to shut down Nine Mile Point Unit 1 0 150 March 29, 1988 Burlington, Kansas, USA A worker at the Wolf Creek Generating Station falls through an unmarked manhole and electrocutes himself when trying to escape 1 1 September 10, 1988 Surry, Virginia, USA Refuelling cavity seal fails and destroys internal pipe system at Surry Unit 2, forcing 12-month outage 0 9 March 5, 1989 Tonopah, Arizona, USA Atmospheric dump valves fail at Palo Verde Unit 1, leading to main transformer fire and emergency shutdown 0 14 March 17, 1989 Lusby, Maryland, US Inspections at Calvert Cliff Units 1 and 2 reveal cracks at pressurized heater sleeves, forcing extended shutdowns 0 120 November 17, 1991 Scriba, New York, USA Safety and fire problems force shut down of the FitzPatrick nuclear reactor for 13 months 0 5 April 21, 1992 Southport, North Carolina, USA NRC forces shut down of Brunswick Units 1 and 2 after emergency diesel generators fail 0 2 February 3, 1993 Bay City, Texas, USA Auxiliary feed-water pumps fail at South Texas Project Units 1 and 2, prompting rapid shutdown of both reactors 0 3 February 27, 1993 Buchanan, New York, USA New York Power Authority shuts down Indian Point Energy Center Unit 3 after AMSAC system fails 0 2 March 2, 1993 Soddy-Daisy, Tennessee, USA Equipment failures and broken pipes cause shut down of Sequoyah Unit 1 0 3 December 25, 1993 Newport, Michigan, USA Shut down of Fermi Unit 2 after main turbine experienced major failure due to improper maintenance 0 67 14 January 1995 Wiscasset, Maine, USA Steam generator tubes unexpectedly crack at Maine Yankee nuclear reactor; shut down of the facility for a year 0 62 May 16, 1995 Salem, New Jersey, USA Ventilation systems fail at Salem Units 1 and 2 0 34 February 20, 1996 Waterford, Connecticut, US Leaking valve forces shutdown Millstone Nuclear Power Plant Units 1 and 2, multiple equipment failures found 0 254 May 15, 1996 Morris, Illinois, US Plunging water levels around the nuclear fuel in the reactor's core prompt shut down at Dresden Generating Station 0 ? September 2, 1996 Crystal River, Florida, US Balance-of-plant equipment malfunction forces shutdown and extensive repairs at Crystal River Unit 3 0 384 September 5, 1996 Clinton, Illinois, USA Reactor recirculation pump fails, prompting shut down of Clinton boiling water reactor 0 38 September 20, 1996 Seneca, Illinois, USA Service water system fails and results in closure of LaSalle Units 1 and 2 for more than 2 years 0 71 September 9, 1997 Bridgman, Michigan, USA Ice condenser containment systems fail at Cook Units 1 and 2 0 11 May 25, 1999 Waterford, Connecticut, USA Steam leak in feed-water heater causes manual shutdown and damage to control board annunicator at the Millstone Nuclear Power Plant 0 7 September 29, 1999 Lower Alloways Creek Township, New Jersey, USA Major Freon leak at Hope Creek Nuclear Generating Station causes ventilation train chiller to trip, releasing toxic gas and damaging the cooling system 0 2 February 15, 2000 Buchanan, New York, USA NRC Alert issued after steam tube rupture Indian Point Unit 2 0 2 February 16, 2002 Oak Harbor, Ohio, US Severe boric acid corrosion of reactor head forces 24-month outage of Davis-Besse reactor 0 605 3 January 15, 2003 Bridgman, Michigan, USA A fault in the main transformer at the Donald C. Cook Nuclear Generating Station causes a fire that damages the main generator and back-up turbines 0 10 June 16, 2005 Braidwood, Illinois, USA Exelon's Braidwood nuclear station leaks tritium and contaminates local water supplies 0 41 August 4, 2005 Buchanan, New York, USA Entergy's Indian Point Nuclear Plant leaks tritium and strontium into underground lakes from 1974 to 2005 30 March 6, 2006 Erwin, Tennessee, USA Nuclear Fuel Services plant spills 35 litres of highly enriched uranium, necessitating 7-month shutdown 0 98 September, 2009 Crystal River, Florida, USA When cutting into Crystal River 3 Nuclear Power Plant containment building to create a large opening for the replacement of the Steam generator (nuclear power) the structure was severely cracked resulting in the permanent closure of the facility. 0 1,000+ February 1, 2010 Vernon, Vermont, US Deteriorating underground pipes from the Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Plant leak radioactive tritium into groundwater supplies 0 700 July 15, 2011 Morris, Illinois, US Chemical leak of sodium hypochlorite restricted access to a vital area that houses plant cooling water pumps at Dresden Generating Station 0 ? January 30, 2012 Byron, Illinois, US Unusual Incident reported at Byron Nuclear Generating Station. Partial loss of offsite power led to a loss of nearly all power and safety functions until operators manually disconnected the grid from the plant. This exposed an electrical design flaw present in nearly every US nuclear reactor. 0 Undetermined March 31, 2013 Russellville, Arkansas, US One worker was killed and two others injured when part of a generator fell as it was being moved at the Arkansas Nuclear One. 1 ? July 2016 Bridgman, Michigan, US Heavy steam leak into the turbine building of D.C. Cook Nuclear Station 0 ? July 2018 Genoa, Wisconsin, US La Crosse Boiling Water Reactor Deconstruction leak into Mississippi River 0 ? ==Nuclear safety== Nuclear safety in the U.S. is governed by federal regulations issued by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). The NRC regulates all nuclear plants and materials in the U.S. except for of nuclear plants and materials controlled by the U.S. government, as well those powering naval vessels.About NRC, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Retrieved 2007-6-1.Our Governing Legislation, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Retrieved 2007-6-1. The 1979 Three Mile Island accident was a pivotal event that led to questions about U.S. nuclear safety. Earlier events had a similar effect, including a 1975 fire at Browns Ferry, the 1976 testimonials of three concerned GE nuclear engineers, the GE Three. In 1981, workers inadvertently reversed pipe restraints at the Diablo Canyon Power Plant reactors, compromising seismic protection systems, which further undermined confidence in nuclear safety. All of these well-publicised events undermined public support for the U.S. nuclear industry in the 1970s and the 1980s. Recent concerns have been expressed about the safety of nuclear reactors. In 2012, the Union of Concerned Scientists, which tracks ongoing safety issues at operating nuclear plants, found that "leakage of radioactive materials is a pervasive problem at almost 90 percent of all reactors, as are issues that pose a risk of nuclear accidents". Following the Japanese Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, according to Black & Veatch's annual utility survey that took place after the disaster, of the 700 executives from the US electric utility industry that were surveyed, nuclear safety was the top concern.Eric Wesoff, Greentechmedia. "Black & Veatch’s 2011 Electric Utility Survey." June 16, 2011. Retrieved October 11, 2011. There are likely to be increased requirements for on-site spent fuel management and elevated design basis threats at nuclear power plants. License extensions for existing reactors will face additional scrutiny, with outcomes depending on the degree to which plants can meet new requirements, and some of the extensions already granted for more than 60 of the 104 operating U.S. reactors could be revisited. On- site storage, consolidated long-term storage, and geological disposal of spent fuel is "likely to be reevaluated in a new light because of the Fukushima storage pool experience". In October 2011, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission instructed agency staff to move forward with seven of the 12 safety recommendations put forward by the federal task force in July. The recommendations include "new standards aimed at strengthening operators' ability to deal with a complete loss of power, ensuring plants can withstand floods and earthquakes and improving emergency response capabilities". The new safety standards will take up to five years to fully implement. ==See also== *Nuclear power accidents by country *Nuclear and radiation accidents by country *Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents *List of canceled nuclear plants in the United States *Nuclear safety ==References== ==Further reading== *Conservation Fallout: Nuclear Protest at Diablo Canyon (2006) *Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power (2011) *Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis (1971) *Fallout: An American Nuclear Tragedy (2004) *Fukushima: Japan's Tsunami and the Inside Story of the Nuclear Meltdowns (2013) *Full Body Burden: Growing Up in the Nuclear Shadow of Rocky Flats (2012) *Killing Our Own: The Disaster of America's Experience with Atomic Radiation (1982) *In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age (2009) *Making a Real Killing: Rocky Flats and the Nuclear West (1999) *Non-Nuclear Futures: The Case for an Ethical Energy Strategy (1975) *Normal Accidents: Living with High-Risk Technologies (1984) *Nuclear Politics in America (1997) *Nuclear Terrorism: The Ultimate Preventable Catastrophe (2004) * Nuclear War Survival Skills (1979) *Nuclear Weapons: The Road to Zero (1998) *The Making of the Atomic Bomb (1987) *Nukespeak: Nuclear Language, Visions and Mindset (1982) *On Nuclear Terrorism (2007) *Plutopia (2013) Category:Nuclear history of the United States Accid |
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