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Kwannon is a character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. She first appeared in X-Men #17 (Feb. 1993) and was created by writer Fabian Nicieza and artist Andy Kubert. The character is most commonly associated with the X-Men, specifically the character of Betsy Braddock, with whom Kwannon was body-swapped for 29 years of publication history; in stories published during this period, the character used the moniker Revanche. After returning to her original body, she became the second Psylocke, while Braddock (who had previously used the codename while her mind was in Kwannon's body) became the new Captain Britain. In her initial appearances, the character was depicted as a former assassin for the Hand with low-level empathic telepathy abilities and the power to generate a psionic sword. Since the franchise-wide relaunch Dawn of X, Kwannon has been featured as Psylocke in Fallen Angels, Hellions, and Marauders. ==Publication history== Kwannon first appeared in X-Men #17 (Feb. 1993), created by writer Fabian Nicieza and artist Andy Kubert. She appeared in X-Men comics of this era until her death in X-Men #31. Much of the early narrative surrounding the character of Kwannon was confused by continuity errors created by Fabian Nicieza, who had failed to read Uncanny X-Men #255, which depicts the character of Psylocke being discovered on the shores of an island by ninjas of The Hand. Kwannon's origin described in X-Men #22 directly contradicted this scene, so subsequent comics introduced a convoluted series of events to explain away this and other inconsistencies. Her body - or rather the original body of Betsy Braddock, which she had come to possess - is later briefly resurrected by The Sisterhood in Uncanny X-Men #509, but Kwannon herself does not appear. Kwannon is later resurrected permanently and returned to her original body in the final pages of the limited series Hunt For Wolverine: Mystery In Madripoor #4, and she resurfaces in the 2019 series The Uncanny X-Men vol. 5 #16. Kwannon took on the mantle of Psylocke, as part of the new Fallen Angels team alongside Cable and X-23. The relaunch was written by Bryan Edward Hill and penciled by Szymon Kudranski. After the conclusion of the Fallen Angels mini series, Kwannon was featured as the field leader of Mister Sinister's Hellions in the series of the same name written by Zeb Wells and Stephen Segovia. Kwannon was later featured as a member of the Marauders as the team was refocused on their mission of mutant rescue in the series relaunch by writer Steve Orlando.Marauders Annual #1 In addition to many X-related team titles, Psylocke (both Betsy Braddock and Kwannon) have appeared in several limited series. In the year of 1997, the characters appeared in the 4-issue team-up series Psylocke and Archangel: Crimson Dawn. The character(s) also received the solo 4-issue series X-Men: Psylocke in 2010. ==Fictional character biography== The Japanese woman known as Kwannon was first seen as the prime assassin of the Japanese crimelord Nyoirin and lover of The Hand assassin Matsu'o Tsurayaba. With the criminal interests of Nyoirin and The Hand quickly coming into conflict, Kwannon elicits a promise from Matsu'o that they will fight to the death rather than betray their respective lords. During a duel at the estate of Nyoirin, Kwannon eventually falls from a cliff; with her physical injuries and lack of oxygen while underwater causing her to become brain-damaged and comatose. Nyoirin, who possesses an unrequited love for Kwannon, bids that Matsu'o take her to The Hand to be healed, with the promise that he will not cross their organisation again.X-Men #22. Marvel Comics. The Hand is able to use their scientific and mystical resources to keep Kwannon's body alive, but is unable to resuscitate her mind.X-Men #31. Marvel Comics. ===Betsy Braddock Body Swap=== Around this time The Hand discovers the telepathic Betsy Braddock washed ashore on one of their bases in the South China Sea, suffering complete amnesia after having passed through the Siege Perilous. The Hand presents her to Matsu'o who notes that she (and the X-Men) are assumed to be dead, and that he knows how The Hand may use her.The Uncanny X-Men #255. Marvel Comics. Meeting with the supervillain and crime lord The Mandarin he offers him both the services of The Hand, and the opportunity to create a unique assassin - one with psionic gifts, who can mentally acquire the secrets of his enemies and kill with a thought - if he will use his skills at "conditioning" and sensory deprivation, in conjunction with the "spiritual resources" of The Hand to brain-wash Betsy.The Uncanny X-Men #256. Marvel Comics. The two men are subsequently shown doing so, with a mind-controlled Psylocke, who is now East Asian in appearance, emerging from a sensory deprivation tank at the end of The Uncanny X-Men #256. In a flashback scene from the same time period, Matsu'o and Nyoirin discuss placing Kwannon's mind in Betsy's body, adding that the transfer will require the use of the Mandarin's rings. It is revealed that Kwannon's "intuitive empathy" and "low-level telepathic abilities" made her mind capable of withstanding direct contact with the mind of a powerful psychic such as Betsy.X-Men #32 At the same time Matsu'o strikes a deal with the extra-dimensional sorceress Spiral, a begrudging servant of Mojo, to ensure Kwannon's physical body is healed enough to survive the stresses of the procedure. As Mojo and Spiral have a marked interest in Betsy - and the continued transmission of the feed from the bionic eyes they implanted in her body some time ago - Spiral also uses her magic and the alien technology of her Body Shoppe to intermingle the DNA of the two women. The two bodies now share genetic traits and mutations such as purple hair and eyes, both possessing true telepathic abilities, and have a physical resemblance to each other despite their different races. This resemblance is strong enough that Wolverine is able to recognise Betsy's face upon seeing her for the first time in Kwannon's body, and later notes that both bodies share a similar smell. Both women are also now able to create psychic weapons - Psylocke a blade of focused telepathic energy from the back of her right hand, and Kwannon a psychic katana construct. Due to the extreme damage to Kwannon's mind - and possible further intervention from Spiral, who at one point claims responsibilityX-Men #32. Marvel Comics. \- the switching of minds between the two women is only partially successful. Betsy in Kwannon's body retains all of her memories, but gains the martial arts and other expertise of Kwannon, as well as some of her preferences and personality traits (she shows a liking for East Asian themed clothing and decorations,X-Men #24. Marvel Comics. is generally more aggressive and pursues a flirtation with Cyclops). While Kwannon awakens an amnesiac invalid - essentially a blank slate - but now speaks with a British accent, even while speaking Japanese, and can also read in this language. Betsy briefly operates as The Mandarin's assassin before breaking free and rejoining the X-Men.The Uncanny X-Men #258. Marvel Comics. Meanwhile, Spiral meets with Nyoirin, heavily implying that Betsy's former body now contains the remnants of Kwannon's mind. Seizing this opportunity, Nyoirin takes this body back to his estate, nursing Kwannon back to physical health, while at the same time retraining her and feeding her lies regarding her history and identity.X-Men #31-32. Marvel Comics. To prove her readiness to confront the X-Men and her 'other self', Kwannon, in a partial duplicate of Betsy's former armor, defeats a gang of street thugs on the streets of Tokyo and then later slaughters ninja at Nyoirin's estate. During this time Nyoirin specifically refers to her as Kwannon, while Kwannon states her goal is to "regain her rightful place as (Nyoirin's) elite assassin" - making it clear both are aware of her true identity. At Nyoirin's behest Kwannon travels to America, infiltrating the X-Mansion and showing enough skill with her telepathy to mask her mind from Jean Grey, Charles Xavier and Betsy. She confronts Betsy in the Danger Room while wearing a facsimile of her former armor, and is shown manifesting her psychic katana on panel for the first time; using the weapon to incapacitate her.X-Men #20. Marvel Comics. Confronted by Charles Xavier and multiple X-Men, Kwannon states that she is the real Betsy Braddock, and that the Psylocke they are harboring is an imposter sent by Nyoirin to assassinate them all.X-Men #21. Marvel Comics. As Kwannon is in Betsy's former body, their scents are the same and even the mansion computer registers their energy signatures as duplicates, there is considerable doubt as to the veracity of Betsy's identity. Even Charles Xavier and Jean Grey are unable to immediately telepathically discern the truth, with both women sharing surface psi-signatures. This is exacerbated when Betsy refuses a deeper telepathic scan as she does not want her mind violated, while Kwannon willingly offers to submit - something Betsy notes is "masterfully played". Kwannon also displays intimate knowledge of the X-Men, recognising those present, and correctly identifying that she has never previously met Professor Xavier (whether this is due to careful research on Kwannon and Nyoirin's behalf, or memories she gained from Betsy is never made clear). Betsy and Kwannon preferred to settle the question of their identities through combat. However Charles Xavier and Wolverine note anomalies in Kwannon's story - her scent is different from Betsy's from before she went through the Siege, and she is now proficient in Ninjitsu - it is therefore decided that Kwannon, now calling herself Revanche, along with Betsy as Psylocke, and the X-Men Gambit and Beast will travel to Japan to search for answers. A rationale for Revanche's choice of new codename is never stated on panel, though it presumably refers to her stated intent of reclaiming her life from Betsy. Revanche also debuts a new costume, which incorporates colours and elements from Betsy's former Psylocke armor.X-Men #21 & 22\. Marvel Comics. Infiltrating Nyoirin's estate, Kwannon demonstrates intimate knowledge of the buildings and defenses, claiming this is due to being held prisoner there for months. She leads the X-Men to Nyoirin's study, which contains a large portrait of Betsy in Kwannon's body, titled "Kwannon In Repose" - Revanche states this is proof of Betsy's treachery, however the portrait features purple hair, which Kwannon's body only gained after the mind swap, so it is clearly part of a larger deception by Revanche and Nyoirin. The quartet are ambushed by Silver Samurai, who is easily dispatched by Psylocke and Revanche, with the two demonstrating mirrored fighting styles and instinctively coordinated attacks, as they did while fighting ninja earlier. The battle with Silver Samurai reveals a hidden scroll written by Nyoirin, which Revanche is able to read despite it being written in Japanese. She then stabs Psylocke with her psychic katana, preventing her from leaving while she reads a story from the scroll (and seems to project the images from this story into Psylocke's mind) that seems to explain what happened to the two: while on assignment, Kwannon found Betsy who had just emerged from the Siege Perilous, her body and mind fractured. When the two touched their minds fused, with a confused Psylocke running off and becoming brain-washed by Matsu'o and The Mandarin, while Revanche ended up in a sanitarium, and was eventually found by Nyoirin. A key factor demonstrating the falseness of this story is that Psylocke is showing emerging from the Siege fully clothed in her armor, while anyone truly emerging from the Siege Perilous does so naked. The four are then confronted by Nyoirin. After a standoff, he insists that the two women have merged minds and identities, and sends them after Matsu'o. Of note the narration in issue #22 states that Revanche is seeking answers about her identity, which contradicts previous issues where she is clearly a willing participant in Nyoirin's deception. Psylocke and Revanche then confront Matsu'o in his home, grievously wounding him and further demonstrating their coordinated fighting style. Matsu'o also insists that the two women have combined identities, with he and Nyoirin each having deliberately moulded them into assassins.X-Men #23. Marvel Comics. Upon returning from Japan Psylocke and Revanche spar, trying to come to an understanding about their current state of being. It is stated that even though they move and function in concert, they are unable to read each other's minds. A conversation at the end of the issue further implies that Revanche is not who she says she is. Revanche is accepted by the X-Men, and is present during a meeting regarding Magneto's attack on the Earth, Thanksgiving celebrations, and accompanies a team of X-Men to Genosha while Psylocke is left behind.X-Men #25-26. Marvel Comics. Seeking answers, Psylocke finally agrees to let Jean Grey probe her mind, with Jean finding that the two women have been fused on a fundamental level. While on a mission with the X-Men's Blue team Revanche reveals she is suffering from the Legacy Virus, a lethal infection that is fatal to mutants. Her reaction to her illness and subsequent behaviour further call the truth of her claims into question, while Psylocke alternately displays concern and antagonism toward her.X-Men Annual #2. Marvel Comics.X-Men #27-28. Marvel Comics. With her death approaching Revanche departs the X-Mansion in the middle of the night, leaving behind the bionic eyes that had been implanted in her body and a note confessing her duplicity in attempting to assume Psylocke's identity. At the same time Spiral visits Matsu'o, confessing her part in merging the two women. Journeying to Japan Revanche confronts Matsu'o for his part in her ordeal, stating that the Legacy Virus is increasing her telepathic powers as it builds to her death; allowing her to cut through the fog of her memory, and the lies told by Nyoirin, to the truth. Even as she painfully probes Matsu'o's mind he still refuses to see Revanche as she currently is, picturing her as Psylocke instead. He also continues to insist that he had no knowledge of the two women switching bodies until after the fact, suggesting an extreme level of denial as to his part in the body swap. However, he does confess that once he did realise he tried to mould Psylocke into a facsimile of Revanche, hoping that having her body would be enough; while Revanche confesses that what she believed to be her previous memories were actually based on lies and a fictitious diary created by Nyoirin specifically to keep her away from Matsu'o. This explains why she failed to recognise Matsu'o during their previous encounter, while Matsu'o states he pretended not to know her as part of some penance for the wrongs he had visited upon her. With the moment of her death imminent Revanche begs Matsu'o to kill her, which he does. Her death is felt telepathically by Psylocke and Archangel, while the final truth and some of the telepathic energy she wielded is imprinted onto Matsu'o. Psylocke is visited by Spiral, who confesses her part in proceedings and hints she should use the bionic eyes to show her the truth. Psylocke watches a playback from the time of her transformation, recorded by the eyes, which answers many questions regarding Matsu'o, Nyoirin, The Mandarin and Spiral's involvement. She also realises that Revanche was unconsciously using her telepathic powers to create anger and confusion in the minds around her, explaining the aggressive reactions of some of the X-Men; and likely explaining away plot holes like why Psylocke or Revanche didn't simply read Nyoirin or Matsu'o's minds when they confronted them. This information leads her back to Japan, where she finds Matsu'o, who has killed Nyoirin for his part in things. Matsu'o presents her with the final truth regarding the body swap, confirming that Revanche was never comfortable with the telepathic abilities she gained and projected that anger and discomfort into the minds around her; and that ultimately she came to respect Psylocke and the X-Men. He is then able to use the final burst of Revanche's telepathic energy to take away all of Kwannon's memories from Psylocke (thought she retains her martial arts skills and abilities). Psylocke and Matsu'o then bury Kwannon, putting their history behind them and departing peacefully. Much later the Sisterhood of Mutants stole this body from a grave in Tokyo (it seems Kwannon's final body was moved by Matsu'o, as this is not the original location of her grave) and performed a ritual using a captured Psylocke, which forcibly restored Betsy to her original body and under the control of the Red Queen.The Uncanny X-Men #508 In a final confrontation, Betsy faced off against Dazzler, attacking her with her psionic blade. Alison defended herself, channeling the ambient noise of San Francisco into an intense laser beam, burning off half of Betsy's face and allowing her to regain control. Betsy drove her blade into her own head and confronted the darker counterpart controlling her body on the astral plane. Betsy eventually won, and her psyche returned to Kwannon's body, leaving her original body a corpse yet again.The Uncanny X-Men #511 In the aftermath, Psylocke identifies the body as genuine and travels to Japan, intending to re-inter Kwannon, but during an attack by agents of the Hand her original body is destroyed, at the behest of Matsu'o.Psylocke #1 Psylocke eventually realises this is an attempt by Matsu'o to goad her into performing a mercy killing on him. Psylocke eventually agrees, and projects an illusion of herself as Kwannon to comfort him in his final moments.Psylocke #4 ===Resurrection in Original Body=== During the "Hunt for Wolverine" storyline, Psylocke's soul is absorbed by Sapphire Styx, leaving her body dead. As Psylocke's soul escapes, Styx's body explodes and she instinctively reforms a new body, identical to her original British body, from Styx's soul power. Later, Kwannon is revealed to be returned to life in her original body. She ambushes a henchman in Viper's penthouse, stating in Japanese that she has some questions and manifesting one of Psylocke's psychic knives. Kwannon reappeared in East Transia when the X-Men took on a new version Brotherhood of Evil Mutants. Finding out that this Magneto was actually the clone Joseph, Kwannon killed him with her sword, then told the X-Men while speaking in Japanese that she was trying to remember them and that she was nothing as translated by Wolverine. She said she killed Joseph because he was a weapon to be used to erase mutants from the world if not stopped. ===Dawn of X=== In the new status quo for mutants post House of X and Powers of X, Kwannon is amongst the gathered mutants of Krakoa to celebrate their new lives. She is seen by Elizabeth Braddock, but both avoid a direct contact with each other.Excalibur #1. Marvel Comics. Still trying to find her place in this new era, she becomes part of a loose group of mutants that include Kid Cable and X-23, as the Fallen Angels of this new paradise.Fallen Angels vol. 2 #1-6. Marvel Comics. Soon after, she assumes a leadership role in another team of outcast mutants: the Hellions, alongside Havok, John Greycrow (formerly Scalphunter), Empath, Wild Child, Mister Sinister, Nanny and Orphan- Maker.Hellions #1-. Marvel Comics. When Betsy arrives on Krakoa, she actively avoids Kwannon due to having taken over her body for many years and corrects several people who attempt to refer to her as Psylocke. During Excalibur, Betsy is accidentally transported into the body of Queen Elizabeth III, an alternate reality version of herself. In this reality, Kwannon is the ex-wife of Angel, the Queen's lover and she reluctantly helps Betsy find her way to Otherworld so that she can return to her original universe. Betsy attempts to find out more about the life of this Kwannon but, after Kwannon reads her mind and finds out about their history, she becomes angry and sends Betsy away. When Betsy returns to her original reality, her teammates suspect that the woman presenting as Betsy is not the real one. As Rogue and Rictor search Apocalypse's lab for answers, they are attacked by Betsy but are saved by Kwannon, who states that it is not the real Betsy Braddock. Kwannon joins a magic ritual that aims to reunite Betsy's consciousness with a clone body but, when this fails, she releases Betsy's consciousness, much to the anger of Excalibur. Kwannon states that only she will be able to find Betsy and heads into Otherworld, where she locates Betsy's consciousness attacking a village. The two battle psychically, with Betsy stating that she is in too much pain over her failures and over what she did to Kwannon that she feels as though she can't go on and demands Kwannon leave her spirit to rest, but Kwannon states that her spirit is hurting others and tells her that she is worthy to be Captain Britain. Kwannon explains that neither of them were at fault for Betsy taking over her body and that there was no way to "fix" what had happened, rather they both just have to accept that there will always be a connection between them. Kwannon then takes Betsy's soul back to their original reality and returns it to her body, bringing her back to life and finally ending their previous animosity.Excalibur #16-20 During the events of Inferno, Psylocke replaced Gorgon as one of the Great Captains of Krakoa.Inferno #1. Marvel Comics. ==Abilities== Previous to the exchanging bodies with Betsy Braddock, Kwannon was said to be an "intuitive empath" with "low-level telepathic abilities". The extent and origin of these abilities is unknown.All-New Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update vol. 1 #4 Upon inhabiting Braddock's body she gained telepathic abilities and the power to generate a katana and other bladed weapon constructs composed of psionic energy. These blades were capable of disrupting a person's neural functions on contact, generally rendering them unconscious. The appearance of the katana varied; on at least one occasion Kwannon was shown to generate a small psychic dagger instead of a full blade.X-Men #23 Using her psi-blade, Kwannon could force her way into another telepath's mind.X-Men #22 Though her new body had originally possessed a wide range of telepathic abilities, Kwannon very rarely utilized them. In combat she relied almost solely on her martial arts skill and psychic katana. However, she was shown to possess enough skill and power to successfully shield her mind from Jean Grey's telepathic scans and sneak into the X-Mansion undetected.X-Men #20 It was later explained that because of the discomfort of using her newfound telepathy, Kwannon unconsciously projected her frustration and confusion onto the X-Men whenever she was around them, causing them to be more agitated and aggressive in return, and to believe the same lies she herself had been told by Nyoirin.X-Men #32 This manipulation was so subtle that none of the X-Men's other telepaths were able to detect it. Once infected with the Legacy Virus, Kwannon's telepathic powers increased to the point where she was able to cut through the fog of her own clouded memories and recall the truth of her origins. She was also shown to read minds and project her own thoughts, even across continents, and to psionically mask her mind from Professor Xavier's own telepathic abilities, even while standing right beside him.X-Men #31 Shortly before her death, Kwannon displayed a butterfly-like psychic energy aura whenever using her powers, as Braddock did in both her original and Japanese bodies. Kwannon was also somehow able to temporarily imprint Matsu'o Tsurayaba with telepathic energy that freed Braddock of the portions of Kwannon's mind she had absorbed. After resurrection in her original body, Kwannon has displayed a wider range of telepathic abilities: the capacity to generate the same 'blades' of disruptive psionic energy that Betsy Braddock manifested while in possession of Kwannon's body, the ability to read and project thoughts, project her astral form into the astral plane or into the minds of others, and to identify and track mental signatures over long distances. She often uses her telepathy to read and counter the movements of opponents in physical combat. On various occasions, she also has demonstrated mid-level telekinesis, enabling her to levitate, move and manipulate objects and matter with her mind. Hellions #5-6 She floats in the air when meditating Fallen Angels Vol 2 #1 and once created a pair of psionic butterfly wings to fly a longer distance.Fallen Angels Vol 2 #6 ==Other versions== ===Ultimate Marvel=== The Ultimate Marvel version of Kwannon appears in Ultimate X-Men, in which she and that universe's Elisabeth Braddock are body-swapped as are their Earth-616 counterparts. In this continuity, Braddock is a member of S.T.R.I.K.E.'s Psi-Division who is killed by Colossus to destroy Proteus, who has taken her as his host.Ultimate X-Men #17 She later appears at the gala celebration held at the X-Mansion, explaining that, after she died, her consciousness migrated to the body of a comatose Japanese girl named Kwannon. Due to the age difference between these versions of the characters, upon inhabiting Kwannon's body, Braddock was too young to be a S.T.R.I.K.E. agent, instead working undercover for Professor Xavier and joining the X-Men.Ultimate X-Men #32 ===House of M=== Kwannon, in Psylocke's original body post bodyswap, was seen in the House of M altered reality as a member of Magneto's elite guards.House of M #7 (Nov. 2005) ==Collections== Title Material collected Publication date ISBN X-Men: Psylocke Psylocke #1-4, Uncanny X-Men (1963) #256-258 2010 ==In other media== The iteration of Psylocke with Betsy Braddock's mind in Kwannon's body has been featured in media other than comic books, including a non-speaking cameo in the 1992 X-Men animated television series, a variety of video games, as well as film portrayals by Meiling Melançon in the 2006 film X-Men: The Last Stand and by Olivia Munn in the 2016 film X-Men: Apocalypse. Since Kwannon's in- story return to her original body and adoption of the Psylocke moniker, the character has been featured as a purchasable outfit in Fortnite Battle Royale. ==See also== *Kwannon ==References== ==External links== * Spotlight on Revanche at UncannyXmen.net * Category:Asian superheroes Category:Characters created by Fabian Nicieza Category:Comics characters introduced in 1993 Category:Fictional female assassins Category:Marvel Comics cyborgs Category:Fictional empaths Category:Fictional female ninja Category:Fictional female swordfighters Category:Fictional swordfighters in comics Category:Japanese superheroes Category:Marvel Comics characters who have mental powers Category:Marvel Comics martial artists Category:Marvel Comics mutants Category:Marvel Comics telekinetics Category:Marvel Comics telepaths Category:Marvel Comics female superheroes Category:X-Men members |
The Battle of Helena was fought on July 4, 1863, near Helena, Arkansas, during the American Civil War. Union troops captured the city in July 1862, and had been using it as a base of operations. Over 7,500 Confederate troops led by Lieutenant General Theophilus Holmes attempted to capture Helena in hopes of relieving some of the pressure on the Confederate army besieged in Vicksburg, Mississippi. Helena was defended by about 4,100 Union troops led by Major General Benjamin Prentiss, manning one fort and four batteries. Differing interpretations of Holmes' order to attack at daylight resulted in Brigadier General James F. Fagan's troops attacking Battery D unsupported, and Major General Sterling Price's attack against the Union center was made after Fagan's had largely fizzled out. To the north, Confederate cavalry commanded by Brigadier Generals John S. Marmaduke and Lucius M. Walker failed to act in concert and accomplished little. The assaults failed, and Vicksburg fell the same day. Later in the year, Union troops used Helena as a staging ground for their successful campaign to capture Little Rock, Arkansas. ==Background== In December 1860, the state of South Carolina seceded from the United States, as a result of several disagreements with the federal government, slavery chief among them. Further Deep South states seceded early in the next year, forming the Confederate States of America. The Civil War began on April 12, when Confederate troops bombarded Fort Sumter. When Abraham Lincoln, the newly elected President of the United States, called for 75,000 volunteers to put down the rebellion, this proved the catalyst for the southern state of Arkansas to secede and join the Confederacy. Fighting occurred to the north in Missouri during 1861, but in early March 1862, Confederate forces were defeated in northern Arkansas at the Battle of Pea Ridge. Beginning in late April, Union (United States) forces followed up on the victory at Pea Ridge by moving into Arkansas, threatening the state capital of Little Rock, and occupying the Mississippi River town of Helena on July 12. By early 1863, holding Helena provided the Union with significant advantages, such as serving as a supply depot for the ongoing Vicksburg campaign, providing a marshalling point for a future advance against Little Rock, and securing northeastern Arkansas. In late May, with Union troops heavily pressuring Vicksburg, Confederate authorities sent a message to General Joseph E. Johnston suggesting that forces from the Trans-Mississippi Department be used to relieve the pressure on Vicksburg. One idea was an attack on Helena. The commander of Confederate forces in the Trans-Mississippi, Lieutenant General Edmund Kirby Smith, was forwarded in June the dispatch that Johnston had received, and delegated making the decision whether to attack Helena to Lieutenant General Theophilus Holmes, the Confederate commander of the District of Arkansas. == Prelude == On June 9, Holmes learned that the strength of the Union forces in Helena was about 3,000 or 4,000 men, and decided against an attack. He thought the attack would be too costly, and instead suggested placing an artillery battery along the Mississippi river to intercept Union shipping. Further vacillation by Holmes ended when Confederate cavalry reported on June 14 that the garrison at Helena had been weakened. He began moving towards Jacksonport and met Major General Sterling Price and Brigadier General John S. Marmaduke on June 18. There they formed a plan to concentrate Confederate forces against Helena, although Holmes was still nervous about the proposed attack, as he was worried that it might fail. He made an agreement with Price, who was much more popular with the general public, that he would publicly support the decision of the attack in the case of a failure. Once formed, the plan called for Price, with his 3,095 infantry, to move from Jacksonport to Cotton Plant on June 22, along with Marmaduke's 1,750 cavalry; that 1,339 infantry commanded by Brigadier General James F. Fagan would move from Little Rock to Clarendon, and that Brigadier General Lucius M. Walker would screen Helena with his 1,462 cavalry. Holmes would accompany the attack. On June 22, Holmes revised the plan, ordering Price to concentrate at a location known as Switzer's, instead of Cotton Plant. Rains and high stream levels slowed Price's approach, and though Marmaduke's men reached Switzer's on time, the infantry was delayed at the crossing of the Cache River. Moving through swamps resulted in the loss of many accompanying animals and wagons. Holmes and Fagan reached Clarendon on June 26. Once there, Holmes provided further orders for the advance: Walker was to screen Fagan's movement to Helena with part of his command, while Price continued on to Helena from Switzer's. Price's advance continued to be slowed by the terrain and weather, to the annoyance of Holmes, who rightly believed that the delay had prevented any remaining chance of the movement being a surprise. The Confederate columns finally united on July 3, and that day began the final movement towards Helena. Overall, the Confederates had 7,646 men. thumb|left|alt=Map of the battlefield, including troop positions. The Union lines form a ring around the city of Helena, with their backs to the Mississippi River. Confederate troops attack from multiple angles|Map of the troops positions at Helena The Union troops in Helena were commanded by Major General Benjamin Prentiss and consisted of the Thirteenth Division of the XIII Corps. Although Prentiss was in command of the general district around Helena, the garrison itself was operationally commanded by Brigadier General Frederick Salomon, the commander of the division. Salomon would make many of the decisions in the upcoming battle. Prentiss originally dismissed rumors of a Confederate attack, but by late June gave more credence to the reports. A defensive position known as Fort Curtis already existed to the west of Helena, but four new batteries, named with the letters A, B, C, and D, were ordered built. Each of the four batteries was located on a high point of Crowley's Ridge. Trees were felled in front of the Union lines, although it is unclear if they were simply left where they fell as an obstruction or were converted into abatis. Prentiss was originally intended to be reinforced by three vessels from the Union Navy, but only one, the timberclad USS Tyler, was available when the Confederate attack struck. Prentiss also cancelled a planned celebration of the Fourth of July as a precaution, and ordered the roads into town barricaded with felled trees. The Union garrison would face the coming attack with 4,129 men. Remembering the surprise suffered by men under his command in the earlier Battle of Shiloh, Prentiss ordered reveille blown daily at 2 am. Prentiss' men had advantages over the Confederates through their defenses, batteries, and naval support. The Confederates had support from the local white populace. == Battle == On July 3, Holmes, Price, Walker, Fagan, and Marmaduke gathered to formulate the plan of assault. Holmes noted that the defenses of Helena were stronger than he expected, but carried on with the attack anyway. Price was to attack the Union center, focusing on Battery C on Graveyard Hill. South of Price, Fagan was to attack Battery D on Hindman's Hill, while Marmaduke, supported by Walker, was to attack from the north, take Rightor's Hill, and then use the hill as an artillery position to fire on Batteries A and B. Walker's specific orders were to "act against the enemy as circumstances may justify", a vague order that left him under his own initiative and resulted in him accomplishing little in the coming battle. Holmes made a pledge that he would take personally responsibility for the results of the assault if it failed. The converging attack would be difficult, and the generals interpreted Holmes' order to begin the attack at "daylight" differently. Historian Robert Kerby describes the Confederate plan as "a model of brutal irresponsibility". Since Prentiss was aware of a coming attack, the Confederates would not have the advantage of surprise. Their plans were also hampered by poor reconnaissance. Late on July 3, Fagan sent a patrol commanded by Colonel William H. Brooks to secure the junction of the two roads leading to Little Rock. To protect Fagan's flank, Brooks' men were sent up the Lower Little Rock Road at around 1:30 am; the detachment opened the battle in the early dawn by clashing with Union pickets. Brooks' Confederates also encountered a camp of African-American refugees. Some of the refugees were killed, some were taken prisoner, and the camp was burned by the Confederates at some point during the battle. The felled trees slowed Fagan's main attack, which was on the Upper Little Rock Road, and forced the Confederates to leave their supply wagons and cannons behind. Either at 3:30 am or shortly after 4:00 am, Fort Curtis fired a warning shot, alerting the Union defenders to the Confederate approach. At 4:05 am, Fagan's skirmishers sighted the Union position, and with the day dawning, Fagan attacked with three infantry regiments. Fagan's charge took the first line of Union defenses, but his men started taking fire from Batteries C and D. Minutes after Fagan's men became engaged, Marmaduke's men on the north end of the Confederate line entered the action, driving Union skirmishers back towards Battery A. The Confederates came under fire from the 29th Iowa Infantry Regiment, which had been sent to reinforce the position at Rightor's Hill, and became disorganized. Marmaduke paused his men, who were fighting dismounted, to wait for artillery to be brought up and for Walker's men to arrive in support. Meanwhile, on the Lower Little Rock road, Brooks ran into trouble, taking fire from Battery K, 1st Missouri Light Artillery Regiment and Tyler. The fire from the artillery battery did little damage, but the gunboat's shots were more effective. Brooks' men became disorganized and did not reform until 8:00 am. Price's attack had been delayed. Advancing his men through ravines and over hills, Price decided that his artillery would have to be left behind, although picked men from his batteries were to accompany the infantry to man the Union pieces that the attack expected to capture. Obstructions on the line of approach also disorganized Price's ranks. Price's advance was led by the 9th Missouri Sharpshooter Battalion, who sighted the Union positions on Graveyard Hill. Despite dawn beginning to be visible in the sky, Price misunderstood Holmes' order to attack at daylight and held back his troops, until Holmes came over to explain his orders. Meanwhile, Fagan's men attacked the second Union line of works. The 43rd Indiana Infantry Regiment had been facing Fagan's Confederates, and was reinforced by parts of the 33rd Iowa Infantry Regiment and the 35th Missouri Infantry Regiment, under orders from Salomon. Because Price had not yet attacked, Fagan's men came under fire from both Battery D and Battery C. Fagan's Confederates broke through the second Union line, then a third and fourth, but then halted at about 7:00 am, their attack spent. They were now in front of Battery D. Marmaduke has his own problems in his sector on the line. Joseph Bledsoe's Missouri Battery was brought up to provide artillery support, and two of its guns opened on the Union positions. Marmaduke followed up the bombardment with an attack against Battery A, but fog that had concealed the advance dissipated and the attack was repulsed by the 29th Iowa, who mounted a counterattack. His dismounted cavalrymen were pushed back by the 29th Iowa and part of the 36th Iowa Infantry Regiment, and his flank was threatened by the 5th Kansas Cavalry Regiment and the 1st Indiana Cavalry Regiment, which were commanded by Powell Clayton. The two Union cavalry regiments were holding a position behind a levee. Bledsoe's two guns were driven off, but neither side could defeat the other. Walker's men had encountered the felled trees across their path of advance, and though he threw forward a skirmish line, most of his men remained back at the barricades. Walker's men spent the rest of the morning primarily skirmishing with Clayton's cavalry and firing at long range. Without Clayton's men first being driven from behind the levee, Rightor's Hill could not be taken. Around the time Fagan's men approached Battery D at 7:00 am, Price's attack began. Price's command consisted of the brigades of Brigadier Generals Dandridge McRae and Mosby Monroe Parsons, and was led by the 9th Missouri Sharpshooter Battalion and a company of Arkansans local to the Helena area. Confusion was initially caused by the two brigades being separated by a ridge and unable to see each other. Each wasted time waiting for the other to advance. The cannons in Battery C were manned by men from the 33rd Missouri Infantry Regiment, and they, along with a portion of the 33rd Iowa, poured a deadly fire into Parsons' men, while Battery B fired at McRae's brigade. The failure of the attacks on Batteries A and D allowed those positions to fire on Price's men, and Tyler and Fort Curtis added artillery fire as well; Tyler had moved to a different location that allowed for better fire on Graveyard Hill after suppressing Brooks' men. Price's Missouri sharpshooters found positions from which they could pick off the gunners in Battery C. thumb|left|alt=Grassy hill overgrown with trees|Battery B, as seen in 2016 Price's first attack was repulsed, as was a second. On the third try, the Confederates managed to overrun Battery C, but the men from the 33rd Missouri had time to spike one cannon and take supplies necessary for firing before the Confederates captured the guns. Holmes and Price arrived on the hill, and finding that the Union guns could not be used, ordered Tilden's Missouri Battery and Marshall's Arkansas Battery to begin to come up. The advance up the hill had also thrown the Confederates into disarray. Carried by momentum, some of Price's infantry charged down the hill towards Helena itself, but were driven off. Many men from the 7th Missouri Infantry Regiment (Lewis') were captured at this time. A critical moment in the battle had arrived: if the Confederates could get enough artillery onto Graveyard Hill, they could shell the Union forces into submission. Prentiss ordered the other three batteries to fire on Graveyard Hill, as well as Tyler, two cannons in reserve, and four cannons from Battery K, 1st Missouri Light Artillery emplaced on Lower Little Rock Road. Confident that a single regiment could hold off Walker, Salomon pulled the 1st Indiana Cavalry towards Fort Curtis and a new line was formed in that vicinity using the Indiana cavalrymen and parts of the 33rd Iowa, 33rd Missouri, and 35th Missouri. Fagan's men resumed the attack upon hearing the fighting on Graveyard Hill, and drove the 43rd Indiana and part of the 33rd Iowa from the final Union line in front of Battery D, but were unable to take the Battery itself, having been hit by crossfire while maneuvering through a ravine. Fagan's lines had been badly thinned by not only Union fire but also heat and exhaustion. Both Price and Holmes were issuing orders independently, and Holmes' orders were making things worse for the Confederates. Holmes ordered the 8th Missouri Infantry Regiment (Burns') to attack Fort Curtis, but upon seeing the regiment charge, the rest of Parsons' men joined in, believing a general attack was beginning. The Union guns concentrated on this attack and inflicted heavy casualties on it. The few who made it close to Fort Curtis were easily repulsed. Many Confederates surrendered. Holmes ordered Parsons to attack Battery D to support Fagan, but as Parsons' men were too badly disorganized at the time, McRae was given the order to attack. McRae sent about 200 men to attack the battery, but they were unsuccessful. Believing a full-fledged attack to be a suicide charge, McRae had his men simply fire on the rifle pits in hopes of diverting attention away from Fagan's command. Price then ordered Parsons to attack Battery D, but was informed that McRae had already been ordered to do that. With Price's men shredded, Fagan's men exhausted, and the cavalry not making any progress, Holmes decided to order a withdrawal at 10:30 am. Price's men fell back and abandoned Graveyard Hill. About 100 men remained behind on the hill, pinned down by Union fire. A Union counterattack retook the hill and captured many prisoners, with over 350 prisoners taken on Graveyard Hill alone. Between 10:30 and 11:00 am, Fagan received orders to retreat from before Battery D. Part of the 37th Arkansas Infantry Regiment was trapped during the retreat and was captured. Including the men of the 37th Arkansas, about 250 Confederates surrendered in Fagan's sector. The Union troops had taken advantage of the severe disorganization and scattering of the Confederate forces to take the prisoners. Either around the time that Battery C fell to Price's attack or as Fagan's withdrawal was ending, Brooks placed a 6-pounder field gun on a hilltop and began to fire on the Union positions, but Battery K, 1st Missouri Light Artillery and Tyler drove it off. Marmaduke received orders to withdraw at about 11:00 am, but being angry at Walker over Walker's failure to support his attack and believing that Walker faced only a small force, decided against informing Walker of his retreat. After Marmaduke's withdrawal, Union troops attempted to attack Walker's flank, but the Confederate cavalrymen withdrew from the field before they were caught. Walker's withdrawal occurred at about 2:00 pm. Historian Robert E. Shalhope wrote that the Confederate attacks were repulsed "perhaps less by the powerful Union entrenchments than by their own poorly co- ordinated attack". == Aftermath == Holmes lost 1,636 of the 7,646 men he had taken into the battle: 173 killed, 687 wounded, and 776 missing. Prentiss claimed the capture of more than 1,100 Confederate soldiers and stated that over 300 dead Confederates were buried by Union troops. Almost all of the Confederate losses were from the brigades of Fagan, Parsons, and McRae, who took 32 percent of their attacking forces as casualties. Walker lost only 12 men; historian Mark Christ attributes this to the weakness of his attack. According to Christ, Prentiss lost 220 of the 4,129 men he took into battle: 57 killed, 127 wounded, and 36 missing. The historian Ed Bearss reports Union losses as 57 killed, 146 wounded, and 36 missing for a total of 239, and historian Thomas W. Cutrer provides the same figures as Bearss. Casualties were heaviest among the 33rd Iowa and the 33rd Missouri, while the 2nd Arkansas Infantry Regiment (African Descent) saw the first combat wounds suffered by African American soldiers in Arkansas during the war. The unit had not completed formation at the time of the battle and was poorly trained, so it had been positioned in an area where it was unlikely to be directly engaged. Holmes accused McRae of "misbehavior before the enemy", and in his report placed part of the blame for the failure on McRae, but McRae was cleared by a subsequent court-martial. The battle also destroyed any positive relationships remaining between Holmes and Price, with the former believing that the latter should have reinforced Fagan. Both Holmes and Marmaduke accused Walker of dereliction of duty. Most of the Confederates withdrew from the area the next morning, falling back to Jacksonport, although Walker's men remained behind to harass any Union troops that sallied forth from the city. Believing that the Confederates were preparing to attack again, Prentiss requested reinforcements, which arrived from Memphis, Tennessee, on July 6. Vicksburg had surrendered on July 4, and the Confederate garrison at Port Hudson, Louisiana fell within a week. News also reached the Union forces at Helena of a major Union victory at the Battle of Gettysburg in Pennsylvania. With the fall of Vicksburg and Port Hudson, the Confederate forces in the Trans-Mississippi were cut off from the rest of the Confederacy. Confederate infantry deserted in large numbers, their morale shattered. The Confederate repulse at Helena had preserved the Union bridgehead in eastern Arkansas, and had parried an attempt to break Union control of the Mississippi River. Helena was reinforced and in mid-August, Union forces began a campaign against Little Rock, with Helena as the staging ground. Price commanded the Confederate forces during the campaign, as Holmes had fallen ill. Events during this campaign worsened the split between Marmaduke and Walker, and the former killed the latter in a duel on September 6. On September 10, Union troops took Little Rock. The Helena Confederate Cemetery includes burials of Confederate soldiers killed during the battle, and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, as are the remains of the Union batteries. == See also == * List of American Civil War battles * Troop engagements of the American Civil War, 1863 ==Notes== == References == ==Bibliography== * * * * * * * * * * * * == Further reading == * ==External links== * Battle of Helena at the Historical Marker Database Category:1863 in the American Civil War Category:1863 in Arkansas Category:Arkansas in the American Civil War Helena Helena Category:History of Phillips County, Arkansas Category:July 1863 events Helena Helena |
Jules Lucien André Bianchi (; 3 August 1989 – 17 July 2015) was a French motor racing driver who drove for the Marussia F1 Team in Formula One. Bianchi had previously raced in Formula Renault 3.5, GP2 and Formula Three and was a Ferrari Driver Academy member. He entered Formula One as a practice driver in 2012 for Sahara Force India. In 2013, he made his debut driving for Marussia, finishing 15th in his opening race in Australia and ended the season in 19th position without having scored any points. His best result that year was 13th at the . In October 2013, the team confirmed that he would drive for the team the following season. In the 2014 season, he scored both his and the Marussia team's first points in Formula One at the . On 5 October 2014, during the , Bianchi lost control of his Marussia in very wet conditions and collided with a recovery vehicle, suffering a diffuse axonal injury. He underwent emergency surgery and was placed into an induced coma, and remained comatose until his death on 17 July 2015. Bianchi's death was the first to result from an on- track incident in Formula One in over 20 years, after Ayrton Senna's fatal accident at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix. As of 2023, it is also the most recent fatal accident to have occurred in Formula One. ==Personal life== Jules Bianchi was born in Nice, France, to Philippe and Christine Bianchi. He had two siblings, brother Tom and sister Mélanie, and had been the godfather of current Ferrari driver Charles Leclerc. Bianchi was the grandson of Mauro Bianchi, who competed in GT racing during the 1960s and three non-championship Formula One Grands Prix in . He was also the grandnephew of Lucien, who competed in 19 Formula One Grands Prix between and and won the 1968 24 Hours of Le Mans, before dying during Le Mans testing the following year. His favourite racing driver was Michael Schumacher. ==Early career== Bianchi's exposure to motorsport started at around 3 years of age through karting and was facilitated by the fact that his father owned a kart track. Since age 17, Bianchi was professionally managed by Nicolas Todt. ===Formula Renault 2.0=== In 2007, Bianchi left karting and raced in French Formula Renault 2.0 for SG Formula, where he finished as champion with five wins. He also competed in the Formula Renault Eurocup where he had one pole position and one fastest lap in three races. ===Formula 3 Euro=== In late 2007, Bianchi signed with ART Grand Prix to compete in the Formula 3 Euro Series. In 2008 Bianchi won the Masters of Formula 3 at Zolder, and also finished third in the 2008 Formula 3 Euro Series season. Bianchi continued in the F3 Euroseries in 2009, leading ART's line-up along with rookie team-mates Valtteri Bottas, Esteban Gutiérrez and Adrien Tambay. With eight wins, Bianchi sealed the title with a round to spare, at Dijon-Prenois. He then added a ninth win at the final round at Hockenheim. He also drove in the Formula Renault 3.5 Series at Monaco, after SG Formula acquired the cars formerly run by Kurt Mollekens. ===GP2=== thumb|left|Bianchi at Monza in 2011 Bianchi drove for ART in the subsequent GP2 Asia season and the 2010 GP2 season. He competed in three of the four rounds of the GP2 Asia championship. In the main series, Bianchi took two pole positions and a number of points positions before he was injured in a first- lap crash at the Hungaroring. In the feature race, he spun into the path of the field exiting the first corner, and was struck head-on by Ho-Pin Tung, sustaining a fractured second lumbar vertebra in the process. Bianchi was fourth in the drivers' championship at the time of his injury. Despite initial pessimistic assessments of the severity of his injury, he recovered to take part in the next round of the championship. Bianchi remained with ART for 2011, and was partnered by 2010 GP3 Series champion Esteban Gutiérrez. He starred in the first two rounds of the 2011 GP2 Asia Series, holding off Romain Grosjean for victory in the feature race and gaining fourth in the sprint race, but he was later penalised. He finished runner-up to Grosjean in the drivers' championship. In the main series, Bianchi finished third in the championship, behind Grosjean and Luca Filippi. ===Formula Renault 3.5=== Bianchi opted to switch to the Formula Renault 3.5 Series for 2012, following his one-off appearance in the category in 2009. He signed for the Tech 1 Racing team, and was partnered with Kevin Korjus, and later with Daniel Abt. He finished second in the title race, narrowly losing out to Robin Frijns at the final round. ==Formula One career== ===Ferrari and Sahara Force India (test roles)=== In August 2009, Bianchi was linked by the BBC and various other media sources to the second Ferrari Formula One seat occupied by Luca Badoer during Felipe Massa's absence. Bianchi tested for Ferrari at the young drivers test at Circuito de Jerez for two of the three days, over 1–2 December 2009. The other drivers tested on 3 December included Daniel Zampieri, Marco Zipoli and Pablo Sánchez López as the top three finishers in the 2009 Italian Formula Three Championship. Bianchi's performance in this test led to him becoming the first recruit of the Ferrari Driver Academy and signing up to a long-term deal to remain at the team's disposal. On 11 November 2010 he was confirmed by Ferrari as the team's test and reserve driver for the season, replacing Luca Badoer, Giancarlo Fisichella and Marc Gené, as well as confirming he would test for the team during the young driver test in Abu Dhabi over 16–17 November. Bianchi carried on his GP2 racing, as Formula 1 allows test and reserve drivers to race in parallel in other competitions. On 13 September 2011, Bianchi tested for Ferrari at Fiorano, as part of the Ferrari Driver Academy, with fellow academy member and Sauber F1 driver Sergio Pérez. Bianchi completed 70 laps and recorded a quickest lap time of 1:00.213. For the 2012 season, Ferrari loaned him to the Sahara Force India team, for whom he drove in nine Friday free practice sessions over the course of the year as the outfit's test and reserve driver. ===Marussia F1=== ====2013==== On 1 March 2013, Marussia announced that Bianchi was to replace Luiz Razia as a race driver after Razia's contract was terminated, due to sponsorship issues. Bianchi qualified 19th for the , out-qualifying team-mate Max Chilton by three-quarters of a second. Bianchi overtook Pastor Maldonado, and Daniel Ricciardo on the first lap and he eventually finished 15th on his debut. He was 19th on the grid again in Malaysia, 0.3 seconds away from Q2. Bianchi fell behind the Caterhams at the start of the race, but moved up the order after the pit stops, eventually going on to finish 13th, ahead of his teammate, and both Caterhams. As of the , Bianchi had beaten his teammate in all qualifying sessions and all races that both of them had finished. In the he and Charles Pic of Caterham were given ten-place grid penalties for receiving three reprimands over the season, and at the race, his race ended early after a collision with Giedo van der Garde. ====2014==== In October 2013, Marussia confirmed that Bianchi would stay at the team for the following season. After starting off the season with struggles in Australia, in which he was not classified, Bianchi overcame the odds to score his – and his team's – first World Championship points by finishing ninth at the . Out of the nine races which Bianchi and Chilton completed without retiring, during the 2014 season, he was the quicker driver in eight of them, establishing his status as the first driver. Chilton retired twice, and Bianchi five times, with three of Bianchi's retirements being mechanical failures. Days before his fatal accident, Bianchi declared himself "ready" to step into the Scuderia Ferrari race seat should the team need him amid the looming departure of Fernando Alonso. ==2014 Suzuka accident== The 2014 Japanese Grand Prix was held on 5 October, under intermittent heavy rainfall caused by the approaching Typhoon Phanfone and in fading daylight. On lap 43 of the race, Bianchi lost control of his car and veered right towards the run-off area on the outside of the Dunlop Curve (turn seven) of the Suzuka Circuit. He collided with the rear of a tractor crane tending to the removal of Adrian Sutil's Sauber after Sutil had spun out of control and crashed in the same area a lap before. Bianchi did not slow down enough to avoid losing control while approaching the double waved yellow flags. Spectators' video footage and photographs of the accident revealed that the left side of Bianchi's Marussia car was extensively damaged and the roll bar destroyed as it slid under the tractor crane. The impact was such that the tractor crane was partially jolted off the ground causing Sutil's Sauber, which was suspended in the air by the crane, to fall back to the ground. The race was stopped, and Lewis Hamilton was declared the winner. Bianchi was reported as being unconscious after not responding to either a team radio call or marshals. He was treated at the crash site before being taken by ambulance to the circuit's medical centre. Since transport by helicopter was not possible due to poor weather conditions, Bianchi was further transported by ambulance, for 32 minutes under police escort. The destination was the nearest hospital, Mie Prefectural General Medical Center in Yokkaichi, which was some away from the Suzuka circuit. Initial reports by his father, Philippe, to television channel France 3, were that Bianchi was in critical condition with a head injury and was undergoing an operation to reduce severe bruising to his head. The FIA subsequently said that CT scans showed Bianchi suffered a "severe head injury" in the crash, and that he would be admitted to intensive care following surgery. Among his first hospital visitors immediately after the Grand Prix were Marussia's CEO Graeme Lowdon and team principal John Booth (the latter staying by Bianchi's side even after the inaugural Russian Grand Prix), as well as Ferrari's team principal Marco Mattiacci and fellow driver Felipe Massa. Bianchi's parents arrived on 6 October and were joined, three days later, by their other children, Mélanie and Tom, as well as Jules' best friend, Lorenzo Leclerc. The family released a statement the next day, expressing appreciation for the outpouring of support from the public and for the presence of professor Gerard Saillant, president of the FIA Medical Commission, and professor Alessandro Frati, neurosurgeon of the Sapienza University of Rome, who travelled to Japan at the request of Scuderia Ferrari. They also provided a medical update, confirming that the injury suffered was a diffuse axonal injury and that Bianchi was in a critical but stable condition. Initial media reports in October 2014—said to be based on information obtained from Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) documents—claimed that the speed at the moment of loss of control was recorded at and that the impact generated . This data had been sourced from Bianchi's g-sensors in his earplugs; however, it was understood that these slipped out at a crucial moment. Subsequent calculations in July 2015 indicated a peak of and data from the FIA's World Accident Database (WADB)—which sources information from racing accidents worldwide—also indicate Bianchi's impact occurred 2.61 seconds after the loss of control, at a speed of and at an angle of 55 degrees. According to Andy Mellor, Vice President of the FIA Safety Commission, this is the equivalent of "dropping a car to the ground without a crumple zone". ===Team and driver reactions=== At the inaugural , one week after the accident, Marussia originally registered Alexander Rossi in place of the hospitalised Bianchi, before finally deciding to field only a single car driven by Max Chilton. There were several tributes at the race to show support for Bianchi: *Marussia adopted a "#JB17" livery on the cockpit sides of its MR03 car (which continued to be used in the subsequent year). *Every driver wore a sticker on their helmet saying " #17" ("We're all with Jules #17"), being an idea championed by fellow French driver, Jean-Éric Vergne. *The drivers held a one-minute silence in honour of Bianchi just before the next race. *The race winner, Lewis Hamilton, dedicated his win to Bianchi. The day after the , then-outgoing Ferrari president, Luca di Montezemolo, disclosed to the media that Bianchi had been poised to become the third Ferrari driver in 2015 in the event that the championship moved to three car teams, as had widely been speculated at the time. Following the Russian Grand Prix, Marussia's CEO Graeme Lowdon confirmed that the team would return to a two-car operation for the remainder of the season, however, the team entered administration prior to the next race, the United States Grand Prix. The team's financial backer, Andrei Cheglakov, later revealed that Bianchi's crash was a key factor in the Russian's decision to end his financial support of the team and quit Formula One. After the 2015 Australian Grand Prix in March, John Booth, now team principal of the newly established Manor Marussia F1 team, paid tribute to Bianchi's point performance at the 2014 Monaco Grand Prix since the prize money won enabled the team to stay in Formula One. In addition, coinciding with the , Manor Marussia continued to show support for Bianchi with special red wristbands inscribed with "Monaco 2014 P8 JB17". ===FIA reaction and investigation=== Following Bianchi's accident, the FIA began an investigation and also considered appropriate changes to safety procedures, such as those at the Brazilian Grand Prix, where the location of a tractor crane serving the Senna S chicane was altered. The FIA released its initial findings at a special conference held during the inaugural Russian Grand Prix on the Saturday after the Japanese Grand Prix weekend. Among other things, it was revealed that Bianchi had slowed down at Suzuka's Turn 7 but without disclosing by what margin or the speed of impact, and that the journey to the hospital by ambulance took only an extra 37 minutes relative to the helicopter, without any adverse effects on Bianchi's condition. Further, the FIA confirmed ongoing research into closed cockpits for Formula One cars, the possibility of fitting protective skirting to all recovery vehicles as well as ways to slow down cars in crash zones more effectively than double yellow flags. With respect to the latter, the FIA moved to quickly consider the introduction of a virtual safety car – or VSC system – which was then tested during the season's final three Grands Prix in the United States, Brazil and Abu Dhabi – based on a Le Mans racing "slow zone" arrangement that does not neutralise race proceedings as much as safety car periods. The following week, the FIA reportedly emailed all teams to request that they retain any information related to Bianchi's Suzuka accident, for exclusive use by an accident panel established by the FIA to investigate Bianchi's accident. One week later the FIA announced a review panel to investigate the cause of the accident, which was made up of former drivers and team principals, and published its findings four weeks later. The report found that there was no single cause of Bianchi's accident. Instead, the contributing factors were found to include track conditions, car speed and the presence of a recovery vehicle on the circuit. The report also made several suggestions to improve safety when recovering stricken vehicles — which were subsequently introduced for the 2015 season — before concluding that it would not have been possible to mitigate Bianchi's injuries through changes to the cockpit design. The report also revealed that Bianchi pressed both the throttle and brake which should shut off power to the engine. However, Marussia's uniquely designed brake-by-wire system was found to be incompatible with the FailSafe so the engine was not shut off. Despite this, Marussia was not found to be responsible for the accident. For the 2015 season, on safety grounds, the FIA also implemented measures requiring that no race can start less than 4 hours before sunset or dusk, except in the case of official night races. The revised regulations affected the start time of Australian, Malaysian, Chinese, Japanese and Russian Grands Prix. In July 2015, Peter Wright, the Chairman of the FIA Safety Commission was quoted as saying that a closed cockpit would not have averted Bianchi's head injuries, while the Vice President, Andy Mellow, also confirmed that attaching impact protection to recovery vehicles was not a feasible solution. ===Medical treatment and updates=== The first family update following Bianchi's emergency surgery was made by his father in the week beginning 13 October 2014. Bianchi was reported to be in a "desperate" condition, with doctors describing his survival as a miracle. Even so, the father openly stated that he drew hope from Michael Schumacher waking from his coma. Marussia also issued regular updates on Bianchi's condition while rejecting initial speculation about their role in the accident. While hospitalised in Yokkaichi, Bianchi remained in a critical but stable condition, and required a medical ventilator. He was taken out of his artificial coma in November 2014 and began breathing unaided, making his relocation to France for admission at the Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice (CHU) possible. There, Bianchi remained unconscious and in a critical condition but more accessible to his family for their daily vigil. On 13 July 2015, Bianchi's father publicly conceded becoming "less optimistic" as a consequence of no significant progress and the lapse of time since the accident. ==Death== Bianchi died on 17 July 2015, aged 25, from injuries sustained at the time of his accident in Suzuka nine months earlier. His death made him the first Formula One driver to be killed by injuries sustained during a Grand Prix since Ayrton Senna in 1994. In their official statement, Bianchi's family said: The funeral service was held at the Nice Cathedral, on 21 July 2015. He was subsequently cremated and his ashes rest at Monte Carlo Cemetery and partially floated into the Mediterranean Sea. Many current, former, and future drivers attended Bianchi's funeral, including Alexander Wurz, Esteban Gutiérrez, Allan McNish, Alexander Rossi, Lewis Hamilton, Charles Leclerc, Nico Rosberg, Jenson Button, Sebastian Vettel, Jean-Éric Vergne, Marcus Ericsson, Roberto Merhi, Adrian Sutil, Valtteri Bottas, Pastor Maldonado, Pedro de la Rosa, Romain Grosjean, Daniel Ricciardo, Felipe Massa, Alain Prost, Nico Hülkenberg, Olivier Panis, Daniil Kvyat, and Max Chilton. In May 2016 it was announced that Bianchi's family plans to take legal action against the FIA, Bianchi's Marussia team, and Bernie Ecclestone's Formula One Group. ===Tributes=== Widespread tributes followed from fellow past and present drivers, Bernie Ecclestone, French president François Hollande, and other sport personalities. The Manor Marussia team also published a statement on their Facebook page describing Bianchi as, among other things, "a magnificent human being" and a "shining talent". The Grand Prix Drivers' Association announced that it felt a responsibility "to never relent in improving safety". FIA President Jean Todt also announced that race number 17 would be retired from the list of those available for Formula One drivers, as a mark of respect. In paying his respects, di Montezemolo also stated that, thanks to GP2 experience and fine performance with Marussia and in test sessions, Bianchi was the racing driver that Scuderia Ferrari had chosen for the future even being described as a would-be replacement for Kimi Räikkönen. Chilton dedicated his maiden Indy Lights pole position and race win, which he scored on the same weekend as Bianchi's death, to his former Marussia teammate. A minute's silence was observed on the grid before the start of the in Bianchi's honour and in the presence of his family surrounded by current drivers. Commemorative stickers on helmets and cars were other tributes at that race. Race winner, Sebastian Vettel of Ferrari, dedicated his maiden Hungarian win to Bianchi and his family, acknowledging that the Frenchman would have been part of the team in the future. Daniil Kvyat also dedicated his maiden podium finish as did third-placed finisher, Daniel Ricciardo. The Rue du Sapin, the street address of the Allianz Riviera football stadium, was renamed in Bianchi's honour in 2016. Charles Leclerc (Bianchi's godson) wore a tribute helmet to Bianchi and Leclerc's father, Herve at the 2019 Monaco Grand Prix with the design of Bianchi's helmet on one side, and his father's on the other side. At the 2020 Bahrain Grand Prix, Romain Grosjean was involved in a major accident which saw his car break in half and catch fire. Grosjean credited the safety changes brought on by Bianchi's fatal crash with saving his life. ===Foundation=== In December 2015, Bianchi's father announced plans to create a foundation in his son's honour to uncover and nurture young drivers throughout their career. The initiative involves exhibiting Jules Bianchi's memorabilia (from go-karts and single-seaters to personal pictures and videos) and merchandising with JB17 branding, sponsoring opportunities and events. Among the supporters is Prince Albert of Monaco, where the foundation is based. == In popular culture == French musician Benjamin Biolay created a single titled Grand Prix, with lyrics that describe the tragedy experienced by Bianchi. This single is part of an album also titled Grand Prix. Biolay is a motorsport fan and was saddened by Bianchi's death. At the 2021 Victoires de la Musique, Grand Prix won the award for Best Album. Bianchi also appeared as an extra in the Formula E docudrama film titled And We Go Green, produced by Leonardo DiCaprio, using archived video footage of him when he was still alive. The film was released in 2020. ==Racing record== ===Career summary=== Season Series Team Races Wins Poles F/Laps Podiums Points Position 2007 French Formula Renault 2.0 SG Formula 13 5 5 10 11 172 1st 2007 Eurocup Formula Renault 2.0 SG Formula 6 0 1 1 0 4 22nd 2008 Formula 3 Euro Series ART Grand Prix 20 2 2 2 7 47 3rd 2008 Macau Grand Prix ART Grand Prix 1 0 0 0 0 N/A 9th 2008 Masters of Formula 3 ART Grand Prix 1 1 0 0 1 N/A 1st 2009 Formula 3 Euro Series ART Grand Prix 20 9 6 7 12 114 1st 2009 British Formula 3 Championship ART Grand Prix 4 0 2 2 3 0 NC 2009 Macau Grand Prix ART Grand Prix 1 0 0 0 0 N/A 10th 2009 Formula Renault 3.5 Series SG Formula 1 0 0 0 0 0 NC 2009–10 GP2 Asia Series ART Grand Prix 6 0 1 2 1 8 12th 2010 GP2 Series ART Grand Prix 20 0 3 1 4 52 3rd 2011 GP2 Series Lotus ART 18 1 1 0 6 53 3rd 2011 GP2 Asia Series Lotus ART 4 1 0 1 2 18 2nd 2011 Formula One Scuderia Ferrari Test driver Test driver Test driver Test driver Test driver Test driver Test driver 2012 Formula Renault 3.5 Series Tech 1 Racing 17 3 5 7 8 185 2nd 2012 Formula One Sahara Force India F1 Team Reserve driver Reserve driver Reserve driver Reserve driver Reserve driver Reserve driver Reserve driver 2013 Formula One Marussia F1 Team 19 0 0 0 0 0 19th 2014 Formula One Marussia F1 Team 15 0 0 0 0 2 17th Source: Bianchi was a guest driver, therefore ineligible to score points. ===Complete Formula 3 Euro Series results=== (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Entrant Chassis Engine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 DC Points 2008 ART Grand Prix Dallara F308/049 Mercedes HOC 1 HOC 2 MUG 1 MUG 2 PAU 1 PAU 2 NOR 1 NOR 2 ZAN 1 ZAN 2 NÜR 1 NÜR 2 BRH 1 BRH 2 CAT 1 CAT 2 BUG 1 BUG 2 HOC 1 HOC 2 3rd 47 2009 ART Grand Prix Dallara F308 Mercedes HOC 1 HOC 2 MUG 1 MUG 2 PAU 1 PAU 2 NOR 1 NOR 2 ZAN 1 ZAN 2 NÜR 1 NÜR 2 BRH 1 BRH 2 CAT 1 CAT 2 DIJ 1 DIJ 2 HOC 1 HOC 2 1st 114 ===Complete Formula Renault 3.5 Series results=== (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Team 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Pos Points 2009 KMP Group/SG Formula CAT 1 CAT 2 SPA 1 SPA 2 MON 1 HUN 1 HUN 2 SIL 1 SIL 2 BUG 1 BUG 2 ALG 1 ALG 2 NÜR 1 NÜR 2 ALC 1 ALC 2 NC 0 2012 Tech 1 Racing ALC 1 ALC 2 MON 1 SPA 1 SPA 2 NÜR 1 NÜR 2 MSC 1 MSC 2 SIL 1 SIL 2 HUN 1 HUN 2 LEC 1 LEC 2 CAT 1 CAT 2 2nd 185 ===Complete GP2 results=== (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Entrant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 DC Points 2010 ART Grand Prix CAT FEA CAT SPR MON FEA MON SPR IST FEA IST SPR VAL FEA VAL SPR SIL FEA SIL SPR HOC FEA HOC SPR HUN FEA HUN SPR SPA FEA SPA SPR MNZ FEA MNZ SPR YMC FEA YMC SPR 3rd 52 2011 Lotus ART IST FEA IST SPR CAT FEA CAT SPR MON FEA MON SPR VAL FEA VAL SPR SIL FEA SIL SPR NÜR FEA NÜR SPR HUN FEA HUN SPR SPA FEA SPA SPR MNZ FEA MNZ SPR 3rd 53 ====Complete GP2 Asia Series results==== (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Entrant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 DC Points 2009–10 ART Grand Prix YMC1 FEA YMC1 SPR YMC2 FEA YMC2 SPR BHR1 FEA BHR1 SPR BHR2 FEA BHR2 SPR 12th 8 2011 Lotus ART YMC FEA YMC SPR IMO FEA IMO SPR 2nd 18 ===Complete Formula One results=== (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicates fastest lap) Year Entrant Chassis Engine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 WDC Points Sahara Force India F1 Team Force India VJM05 Mercedes FO 108Z 2.4 V8 AUS MAL CHN BHR ESP MON CAN EUR GBR GER HUN BEL ITA SIN JPN KOR IND ABU USA BRA – – Marussia F1 Team Marussia MR02 Cosworth CA2013 2.4 V8 AUS MAL CHN BHR ESP MON CAN GBR GER HUN BEL ITA SIN KOR JPN IND ABU USA BRA 19th 0 Marussia F1 Team Marussia MR03 Ferrari 059/3 1.6 V6 t AUS MAL BHR CHN ESP MON CAN AUT GBR GER HUN BEL ITA SIN JPN RUS USA BRA ABU 17th 2 Driver did not finish the Grand Prix, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance. ==References== ==External links== * * * *Jules Bianchi Society Category:1989 births Category:2015 deaths Category:Sportspeople from Nice Category:French racing drivers Category:French Formula One drivers Category:French Formula Renault 2.0 drivers Category:Formula Renault Eurocup drivers Category:Formula 3 Euro Series drivers Category:Formula 3 Euro Series champions Category:British Formula Three Championship drivers Category:GP2 Asia Series drivers Category:French people of Belgian descent Category:French sportspeople of Italian descent Category:GP2 Series drivers Category:World Series Formula V8 3.5 drivers Category:Marussia Formula One drivers Category:People with disorders of consciousness Category:People with severe brain damage Category:French people of Lombard descent Category:Manor Motorsport drivers Category:SG Formula drivers Category:ART Grand Prix drivers Category:Tech 1 Racing drivers Category:Karting World Championship drivers Category:Sport deaths in Japan Category:Racing drivers who died while racing |
The following is an alphabetical list of topics related to the nation of Belize. ==General== * Coat of arms of Belize * Demographics of Belize * Flag of Belize * Foreign relations of Belize * Great Blue Hole * ISO 3166-2:BZ * Sarstoon River * The Scout Association of Belize ==Buildings and structures== ===Archaeological sites=== ====Maya sites==== * Actun Tunichil Muknal * Altun Ha * Cahal Pech * Caracol * Cerros * High Temple, Lamanai * Lamanai * Louisville, Belize * Lubaantun * Mask Temple, Lamanai * Maya ruins of Belize * Nim Li Punit * Xunantunich ===Houses=== ===Zoos=== * Belize Zoo ==Cable television stations== * Krem Television * LOVE Belize Television ==Communications== *.bz Internet country code top-level domain for Belize * Amandala * Communications in Belize * Great Belize Productions * Great Belize Television * KREM FM * Krem Television * List of radio stations in Belize * LOVE Belize Television * LOVE FM * RSV Media Center * Speed Net * The Belize Times * The Guardian (Belize) * The Reporter (Belize) * Tropical Vision Limited ===Media=== * Amandala * Centaur Cable Network * Great Belize Productions * Great Belize Television * KREM FM * Krem Television * List of radio stations in Belize * LOVE FM * RSV Media Center * The Belize Times * The Guardian (Belize) * The Reporter (Belize) * Tropical Vision Limited ====Newspapers==== * Amandala * The Belize Times * The Guardian (Belize) * The Reporter (Belize) ====Radio stations==== * FM 2000 * KREM FM * List of radio stations in Belize * LOVE FM * WAVE Radio ====Television stations==== * Centaur Cable Network * Great Belize Television * Krem Television * LOVE Belize Television * Template:Television in Belize * Tropical Vision Limited ==Conservation== ==Culture== ===Music=== * Brukdown * Garifuna music * Music of Belize * Punta ====Garifuna music==== * Chumba * Garifuna music * Punta rock =====Punta===== * Punta rock ====Musicians==== * Andy Palacio * Colville Young * Francis Reneau * Gerald Rhaburn * Leroy Young * Paul Nabor * Selwyn Walford Young * Shyne * Wilfred Peters * Yung Fresh =====Composers===== * Colville Young * Errollyn Wallen * Francis Reneau * Selwyn Walford Young ===Sport=== * Belize at the 2006 Commonwealth Games * Belize Premier Football League * Cross Country Cycling Classic * Football Federation of Belize ====Football==== * Belize national football team * Belize Premier Football League * Belmopan United * Boca F.C. * Football Federation of Belize * Griga United * Hankook Verdes * Juventus (Belize) * Kremandala * Kulture Yabra FC * New Site Erei * San Pedro Seahawks * Wagiya =====Footballers===== * Jarbi Alvarez * Rudolph Flowers * Shane Moody-Orio * Stanley Reneau =====Football venues===== * Carl Ramos Stadium * Isidoro Beaton Stadium * MCC Grounds * Michael Ashcroft Stadium * Norman Broaster Stadium * Orange Walk People's Stadium ====Belize at the Olympics==== * Belize at the 1996 Summer Olympics * Belize at the 2000 Summer Olympics * Belize at the 2004 Summer Olympics ==Economy== * Belize dollar * Economy of Belize ===Airlines=== * Maya Airways * Maya Island Air * Tropic Air ===Companies=== * Maya Island Air * Tropic Air ====RSV Media Center==== * LOVE Belize Television * LOVE FM * RSV Media Center ===Trade unions=== * Belize National Teachers Union * Christian Workers' Union * General Workers' Union (Belize) * National Trade Union Congress of Belize * Public Service Union of Belize * United General Workers Union ==Education== * American Global University School of Medicine * University of Belize ===Primary schools=== * Grace Primary School * Holy Redeemer Primary School * La Inmaculada Roman Catholic School * Louisiana Government School * Queen Square Primary School * Saint Andrew's Primary School *Sarteneja Nazarene Primary School * St. John Vianney Roman Catholic Primary School * St. Joseph Primary School * St. Luke Methodist School * St. Martin Deporres School * St. Mary's Primary School * St. Peter Claver Primary School * Trinity Methodist School ===High schools=== * Belmopan Comprehensive High School * Bishop Martin High School * Canaan High School * Corozal Community College * Edward P. Yorke High School * Gwen Liz High School * Mopan Technical High School * Muffles College High school * New Hope High School *Our Lady of Guadalupe High School * Our Lady of Mount Carmel High School * Palotti High School * Sacred Heart College (Belize) * San Pedro High School *Sarteneja Baptist High school * St. Catherine's Academy * St. John's College * St. Michael's High School * Technical High school * Wesley College, Belize ===Universities and colleges=== * Belize Adventist Junior College * Centro Escolar Mexico Junior College * Corozal Junior College * Galen University * Independence Junior College * Lynam Agricultural College 1953-1971 * Muffles Junior College * Sacred Heart Junior College * San Pedro Junior College * St. John's College Junior College * Stann Creek Ecumenical Junior College * University of Belize * University of the West Indies * Wesley Junior College ===University=== * Galen University * University of Belize * University of the West Indies ==Ethnic groups== * Asians * Belizean Kriol people * East Indian * Garifuna people * German Mennonites * Lebanese * Maya peoples * Mestizo ==Fauna== * Agkistrodon bilineatus * Great curassow * Jaguar * Jaguarundi * Ocelot * Plain chachalaca ==Flora== ==Geography== *Adjacent countries: * Geography of Belize : : * Armenia, Belize * Belize Barrier Reef * Big Creek, Belize * Blue Hole (park) * Elridgeville * Gales Point * Guanacaste National Park (Belize) * Gulf of Honduras * Independence and Mango Creek * Peini * Placencia * Port Loyola * Ports of Belize * Roaring Creek * San Carlos, Belize * San Joaquin, Corozal * San José, Orange Walk District * San Pedro Columbia * Shipyard, Belize * Silver Creek, Belize * Spanish Lookout * St. Margret's, Belize * Valley of Peace, Belize ===Bays=== * Chetumal Bay *Corozal Bay *Sarteneja Bay ===Caves=== * Actun Box Ch'iich' * Actun Tunichil Muknal ===Cities and towns=== * Belize City * Belmopan * Benque Viejo del Carmen * Bullet Tree Falls * Burrell Boom * Carmelita, Belize * Chunox * Consejo * Corozal Town * Dangriga * Guinea Grass Town * Hattieville * Hopkins, Belize * Ladyville * Las Cuevas * Little Belize * Monkey River Town * Orange Walk Town * Patchacan * Progresso, Belize * Punta Gorda, Belize * San Antonio, Cayo * San Antonio, Toledo * San Estevan, Belize * San Ignacio Cayo * San Pablo, Orange Walk * San Pedro Town *Sarteneja * Toledo Settlement * Trial Farm, Belize * Xaibe ===Districts=== * Belize District * Cayo District * Corozal District * Districts of Belize *Islands District * Orange Walk District * Stann Creek District * Toledo District ===Islands=== * Ambergris Caye * Caye Caulker * Islands of Belize * St. George's Caye ===Mountains=== * Doyle's Delight * Maya Mountains * Victoria Peak (Belize) ===Parks=== * Belize Botanic Gardens * Chiquibul National Park * Cockscomb Wildlife Sanctuary * Guanacaste National Park * Hol Chan Marine Reserve ===Rivers=== * Belize River * Hondo River (Belize) * Macal River * Mopan River * Mullins River ===Subdivisions=== ===Geography stubs=== * Actun Tunichil Muknal * Armenia, Belize * Banco Chinchorro * Belize Botanic Gardens * Belize City * Belize District * Belize River * Belize Zoo * Benque Viejo del Carmen * Big Creek, Belize * Blue Hole (park) * Cahal Pech * Caracol * Caribbean Lowlands * Carmelita, Belize * Cayo District * Chetumal Bay * Chunox * Consejo * Corozal District * Corozal Town * Dangriga * Districts of Belize * Doyle's Delight * Elridgeville * Gales Point * Great Blue Hole * Guanacaste National Park (Belize) * Guinea Grass Town * Gulf of Honduras * Hattieville * Hondo River (Belize) * Hopkins, Belize * Hummingbird Highway * Independence and Mango Creek * Islands of Belize * Ladyville * Little Belize * Louisville, Belize * Macal River * Maya Mountains * Monkey River Town * Mopan River * Mullins River * Nim Li Punit * Orange Walk District * Orange Walk Town * Patchacan * Peini * Placencia * Port Loyola * Ports of Belize * Progresso, Belize * Punta Gorda, Belize * Roaring Creek * San Estevan, Belize * San Ignacio Cayo * San Joaquin, Corozal * San José, Orange Walk District * San Pablo, Orange Walk * San Pedro Town *Sarteneja * Shipyard, Belize * Silver Creek, Belize * Spanish Lookout * St. George's Caye * St. Margret's, Belize * Stann Creek District * Template:Belize-geo-stub * Toledo District * Toledo Settlement * Trial Farm, Belize * Valley of Peace, Belize * Xaibe * Xunantunich ==Government== * Senate of Belize ===Official residences=== * Government House, Belize ==History== * 2005 Belize unrest * Battlefield Park * British Honduras * Captaincy General of Guatemala * Cross Country Cycling Classic * Dausuva * Guatemalan claim to Belizean territory * History of Belize ===Elections=== * Belize legislative election, 1974 * Belize legislative election, 1979 * Belize legislative election, 1984 * Belize legislative election, 1989 * Belize legislative election, 1993 * Belize legislative election, 1998 * Belize legislative election, 2003 * Belize municipal election, 2006 * British Honduras legislative election, 1954 * British Honduras legislative election, 1957 * British Honduras legislative election, 1961 * British Honduras legislative election, 1969 * Elections and Boundaries Commission * Elections and Boundaries Department * Elections in Belize ====Municipal elections==== * Belize municipal election, 2006 ===Hurricanes=== * 1934 Central America Hurricane * Hurricane Edith * Hurricane Francelia * Hurricane Greta-Olivia * Hurricane Hattie * Hurricane Iris * Hurricane Janet * Hurricane Keith ==Languages== * Belizean Kriol language * Garifuna language * Guatemala-Belize Language Exchange Project * Languages of Belize * Mopan language * Q'eqchi * Spanish language ==People== * Abdulai Conteh * Alice Gibson * Antonio Soberanis Gómez * Baron Bliss * :Category:Belizean people * :Category:Roman Catholic bishops in Belize * Chito Martínez * Elijio Panti * Evan X Hyde * George Enrique Herbert * John Avery (journalist) * Marion Jones * Marion M. Ganey * Michael Ashcroft * Samuel Alfred Haynes * Thomas Gann ===People by occupation=== ====Sportspeople==== =====Athletes===== * Emma Wade =====Basketball players===== * Milt Palacio ====Musicians==== * Moses Michael Levi Barrow (born Jamal Michael Barrow; 1978), better known by his stage name Shyne, rapper and politician ====Writers==== * Colville Young * Evan X Hyde =====Novelists===== * Colville Young * Zee Edgell =====Short story writers===== * Colville Young ====Nurses==== *Cleopatra White ==Politics== * Commonwealth realm * Elections and Boundaries Commission * Elections and Boundaries Department * House of Representatives of Belize * Leader of the Opposition, Belize * List of political parties in Belize * Politics of Belize * Senate of Belize ===Politicians=== * Adolfo Lizarraga * Dean Barrow * Godfrey Smith (politician) * Gwendolyn Lizarraga * Jane Ellen Usher * Lisa Shoman * Moses Michael Levi Barrow (born Jamal Michael Barrow; 1978), better known by his stage name Shyne * Said Musa ====People's United Party politicians==== * Dolores Balderamos-Garcia * Godfrey Smith (politician) * John Briceño * Jorge Espat * Jose Coye * Marcial Mes * Maxwell Samuels * Ralph Fonseca * Valdemar Castillo ====Prime Ministers==== * George Cadle Price * List of prime ministers of Belize * Manuel Esquivel * Said Musa ===Political parties=== * Democratic and Agricultural Labour Party (DALP) * Honduran Independence Party (HIP) * List of political parties in Belize * National Alliance for Belizean Rights (NABR) * National Independence Party (Belize) (NIP) * National Party (Belize) (NP) * National Reform Party (NRP) * People's United Party * United Black Association for Development (UBAD) * United Democratic Party (Belize) * Vision Inspired by the People (VIP) * We the People Reform Movement (WTP) ==Religion== ===Churches (communities and buildings)=== H * Holy Redeemer Cathedral * Holy Redeemer Catholic Parish, Belize City P * Port Loyola Calvary Chapel * Presbyterian Church of Belize S * Sacred Heart Church, Dangriga * St. Andrew's Anglican Church (San Ignacio) * St. Andrew's Church (Belize City) * St. Ann's Anglican Church * St. John's Cathedral (Belize City) * St. Peter Claver, Punta Gorda U * Unity Presbyterian Church ===History=== * Anglican Diocese of Belize * Belize Evangelical Mennonite Church * History of Roman Catholicism in Belize * Mennonites in Belize ===Personages=== * Roman Catholic ** Bishop Salvatore di Pietro ** Bishop Frederick C. Hopkins ** Bishop Joseph Anthony Murphy ** Bishop William A. Rice ** Bishop David Francis Hickey ** Bishop Robert Louis Hodapp ** Bishop Osmond P. Martin ** Bishop Dorick M. Wright ** Bishop Christopher Glancy ** Marion M. Ganey, SJ ** Caritas Gloria Lawrence, RSM ** William “Buck” Stanton, SJ ==Transport== * Hummingbird Highway * Rail transport in Belize * Southern Highway * Transport in Belize ===Airports=== * List of airports in Belize * Philip S. W. Goldson International Airport ===Roads=== * George Price Highway * Hummingbird Highway * Northern Highway, Belize * Southern Highway ==Visitor attractions== ==Stub articles== * .bz * Abdulai Conteh * Andy Palacio * Antonio Soberanis Gómez * Baron Bliss * Battlefield Park * Belize at the 1996 Summer Olympics * Belize at the 2000 Summer Olympics * Belize at the 2006 Commonwealth Games * Belize dollar * Belize Premier Football League * Belizean Kriol people * Belmopan United * British Honduras * Brukdown * Carl Ramos Stadium * Centaur Cable Network * Chito Martínez * Christian Workers' Union * Chumba * Coat of arms of Belize * Communications in Belize * Dausuva * Elijio Panti * Elmira Minita Gordon * Emma Wade * Evan X Hyde * Flag of Belize * FM 2000 * Football Federation of Belize * Francis Reneau * General Workers' Union (Belize) * Gerald Rhaburn * Godfrey Smith (politician) * Griga United * Hankook Verdes * High Temple, Lamanai * Holy Redeemer Primary School * IFOB * Isidro Belton Stadium * Islam in Belize * Jarbi Alvarez * John Avery (journalist) * Juventus (Belize) * Kremandala * Kulture Yabra FC * Languages of Belize * Las Cuevas * Leroy Young * List of endemic species of Belize * Manuel Esquivel * Marion Jones Sports Complex * Maya ruins of Belize * Michael Ashcroft Stadium * Military of Belize * Milt Palacio * Misuse of Drugs Act (Belize) * National Alliance for Belizean Rights (NABR) * National Assembly of Belize * National Independence Party (Belize) * National Trade Union Congress of Belize * New Site Erei * Norman Broaster Stadium * Orange Walk People's Stadium * Paul Nabor * Philip S. Wright * Q'eqchi * Rail transport in Belize * Roman Catholicism in Belize * RSV Media Center * Rudolph Flowers * Said Musa * Saint Andrew's Primary School * Samuel Alfred Haynes * San Pedro Seahawks * Sarstoon River * Selwyn Walford Young * Senate of Belize * Shane Moody-Orio * Southern Highway * St. John Vianney Roman Catholic Primary School * Stanley Reneau * Template:Belize-stub * The Reporter (Belize) * Tropic Air * Tropical Vision Limited * United General Workers Union * Wagiya * Walter Lewis * WAVE Radio * Western Highway, Belize * Wilfred Peters * Zee Edgell ==See also== * * *Commonwealth of Nations *List of Belize-related topics *List of Central America-related topics *List of international rankings *Lists of country- related topics *Outline of geography *Outline of North America *United Nations ==External links== * * |
James Chilton Francis Hayter, (18 October 1917 – 3 October 2006) was a New Zealand flying ace of the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the Second World War. He was officially credited with at least five aerial victories. Born in Timaru, Hayter joined the Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) in November 1938 and on completing his flight training the following year was sent to the United Kingdom. He transferred to the RAF on a short service commission and served with No. 103 Squadron during the Battle of France, flying Fairey Battle light bombers. He was transferred to Fighter Command and flew Hawker Hurricane fighters with No. 605 Squadron. Hayter flew during the later stages of the Battle of Britain and then on the Channel Front for the first few months of 1941. He was rested from May to July, being posted to instructing duties during this time, before joining No. 601 Squadron. Awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC) in October, he was dispatched to the Middle East in March 1942. There he served with No. 33 Squadron before being given command of No. 274 Squadron, which he led until September, when he was sent to train pilots of the Turkish Air Force. Hayter returned to duty with the RAF when he took command of No. 74 Squadron in April 1943, operating in the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. The squadron was involved in the failed Dodecanese campaign, which saw Hayter and several other pilots having to escape the island of Kos by boat. Reforming at Edku in late December, the squadron returned to the United Kingdom in April 1944 and served with the Second Tactical Air Force during the campaign in Northwest Europe. Hayter, having transferred to the RNZAF, relinquished command at the end of the year and was sent to the Fighter Leader's School at the Central Fighter Establishment. He was repatriated to New Zealand in September 1945 and released from the RNZAF. In civilian life he took up farming and later became a mariner. He died at Takaka in 2006, at the age of 88. ==Early life== James Chilton Francis Hayter, the son of H. Hayter, a farmer, was born in Timaru, New Zealand, on 18 October 1917 and was educated at Nelson College. On completing his schooling, he commenced working on his father's farm, which was on D'Urville Island in the Marlborough Sounds. He subsequently worked as a roustabout on other farms and stations in the Marlborough region. In his spare time, he received tuition in flying at the Marlborough Aero Club and upon deciding to pursue a career in military aviation, joined the Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) on a short service commission in 1938. His initial training, which commenced in November, was at No. 1 Flying Training School at Wigram. He gained his wings on 19 April 1939. Hayter was involved in a crash when a Vickers Vildebeest, in which he was an observer, made a forced-landing at Wigram on 8 May. Uninjured, he was in another crash, flying again as an observer in a Vildebeest, the following month when the pilot flew too low over Lake Ellesmere and crashed, Hayter receiving minor injuries. His flight training was completed in June and the following month he left New Zealand, traveling on the SS Tamaroa, for the United Kingdom. He was to serve with the Royal Air Force (RAF) and was granted a short service commission as a pilot officer with effect from 16 August 1939. Hayter was posted to No. 98 Squadron, which was based at Hucknall equipped with Fairey Battle light bombers. Following the outbreak of the Second World War, the squadron was used as a reinforcement unit, training and distributing pilots to serve with operational squadrons. Hayter had another crash, this time as the pilot, when he flew his Battle into an air raid shelter. ==Second World War== In November 1939, Hayter was posted to No. 103 Squadron; this was one of ten Bomber Command squadrons sent to France as part of the Advanced Air Striking Force (AASF). Based at Plivot and operating Battles, the squadron mainly performed in a reconnaissance role over the French–German border and also flew leaflet drops into Germany. On 10 May, Germany commenced its invasion of France and the Low Countries and two days later Hayter flew on his first bombing raid, against a pontoon bridge over the Meuse River. Despite the intervention of Messerschmitt Bf 110 heavy fighters, he was successful. A large mass raid mounted by the AASF on the afternoon of 14 May, directed at German forces near Sedan, saw many casualties among the attackers such that the Battles, slow with limited range and armament, were rarely used in significant numbers again. The next day, No. 103 Squadron abandoned its base and flew south to St Lucien Ferme near the Seine. thumb|Officers of No. 103 Squadron in front of a Fairey Battle at Betheniville; Hayter stands at far right The bomber squadrons in France continued to harry the German advance, attacking transport and advancing troops. On 12 June, Hayter and his air gunner engaged a Henschel Hs 126 reconnaissance aircraft over northern France. Despite the Hs 126 apparently crashing, Hayter did not claim it and it was subsequently confirmed as being destroyed by the French. While attempting to land at his airfield on 16 June, Hayter was shot down by a Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter. Unharmed, he and the rest of the squadron were withdrawn to England just hours later as France was about to surrender. He subsequently volunteered to transfer to Fighter Command. Promoted to flying officer on 3 September, the next day he was transferred to No. 615 Squadron, a fighter squadron then resting at Prestwick in Scotland and training replacement pilots after being heavily engaged in the Battle of Britain. After two weeks, he was posted to No. 605 Squadron. ===Battle of Britain=== No. 605 Squadron was stationed at Croydon, operating Hawker Hurricane fighters to intercept Luftwaffe raids against London. It regularly was on patrol over Kent and Surrey for the next weeks and on 15 October, Hayter damaged a Bf 109 over Canterbury. He met and damaged another Bf 109 while patrolling south of Mayfield on 26 October but immediately afterwards was shot down; having bailed out of his damaged aircraft, Hayter landed in the grounds of the home of Victor Cazalet, a member of parliament, who was hosting a party. Hayter was slightly wounded but a doctor present treated his injuries and he joined in the festivities while waiting for his fiancée, who lived nearby and he later married, to pick him up. The intensity of the Luftwaffe's operations was on the decline at this stage and the Battle of Britain ended a few days later. In November, the squadron began receiving new Hurricane Mk IIs and flying one of these, Hayter destroyed a Bf 109 to the south west of Canterbury on 1 December. ===Channel Front=== In early 1941, Fighter Command went on to the offensive and No. 605 Squadron began to fly operations over France. Its first such operation was on 10 February, when it escorted Bristol Blenheim light bombers to Boulogne. Later in the month Hayter was appointed a flight commander and was promoted to acting flight lieutenant. At the end of the month, the squadron was rested and sent to Martlesham Heath for a month, before moving again, this to Tern Hill where it stayed until May. By this time Hayter had flown on 150 sorties and was posted to instructing duties at No. 52 Operational Training Unit at Debden. Although intended to be a rest, being an instructor still came with risk and in June, Hayter crashed twice in three days when his pupil, the same on both occasions, froze when landing a North American Harvard trainer. Hayter was posted to No. 611 Squadron, which was operating Supermarine Spitfire fighters from Hornchurch, in July. His new unit regularly flew bomber escort missions and sweeps to France and on one of these, carried out on 10 July, Hayter shot down a Bf 109. His Spitfire was damaged by anti-aircraft fire later on in the flight and he had to crash land near Southend. Four days later, he destroyed another Bf 109 to the south of Boulogne and on 29 August shot down a Bf 109 over England. In early September his flight lieutenant rank was made substantive. He damaged a Bf 109 to the east of Mardyck on 17 September. The following month, he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC), the announcement being made on 17 October in The London Gazette. ===Middle East=== In November, No. 611 Squadron was rested, relocating to Drem for a quiet period of convoy patrols. Hayter, by this time having completed 76 sorties with the squadron, was transferred to the Middle East in March 1942. He was posted to No. 33 Squadron, based at Gambut in Libya and equipped with Hurricanes. The squadron was carrying out sweeps, bomber escort sorties and patrols over the front line. In June, Hayter was engaged by an Italian Macchi MC.202 and in the ensuing dogfight, his Hurricane was damaged. In endeavouring to make a crash landing, he found himself with the opportunity to fire his aircraft's machine-guns at his Italian opponent. As a result, the MC.202 had to crash land as well, with the Italian being made a prisoner of war. left|thumb|A Hawker Hurricane of No. 33 Squadron being rearmed, Egypt The following month, Hayter was promoted to acting squadron leader and appointed commander of No. 274 Squadron, a squadron operating Hurricane fighter-bombers from Landing Ground 92. By this time, the Axis advance in Egypt had been halted and the Allied fighter squadrons were busy on ground attack and patrol sorties around El Alamein. On 10 July, Hayter's squadron was providing air cover for another unit and became involved in a dogfight with group of Italian fighters near El Adem and he claimed one MC.202 as probably destroyed. He shot down a Bf 109 over El Alamein on 18 July. In September, No. 274 Squadron moved to Edku and was engaged in patrolling the Delta region and providing air cover for shipping. The following month, Hayter was seconded for special duties, with effect from 4 October and sent to Turkey. Here he acted as an instructor for Turkish pilots learning to operate the Hurricane and P-40 Kittyhawk fighters. His secondment ended on 6 March 1943 and he took command of No. 74 Squadron, based in Mehrabad, in Iran, as part of the Allied garrison defending the region from a possible German attack from the Caucasus. Hayter's command moved to El Daba in May and patrolled the area around Alexandria without seeing much action. On 23 July, Hayter led a flight of the squadron as part of a large fighter sweep, involving over 100 aircraft, to German-occupied Crete. During this sortie, the first of its size mounted against the island, Hayter's flight attacked a number of ground targets and returned to their base without loss. No. 74 Squadron continued to be involved in the occasional offensive sweep in combination with its patrolling duties until the end of August, at which time it re-equipped with the Spitfire Mk Vc. The following month, No. 74 Squadron participated in the Dodecanese campaign, an attempt to seize the Italian- controlled Dodecanese islands in the Aegean Sea. Hayter flew the squadron to operate from Antimachia airfield on Kos Island. On 3 October the Germans invaded Kos and by the afternoon had overrun the airfield. Abandoning their Spitfires, Hayter and a number of other pilots took to nearby hills. They evaded the pursuing Germans for four days before being rescued by personnel of the Special Boat Service who took them to Cyprus on a fishing boat. Hayter returned to Edku on 24 October but it was not until nearly the end of the year that No. 74 Squadron was complete again. He was mentioned in despatches on 14 January 1944 for his efforts to evade capture on Kos. Once it had been re- built, No. 74 Squadron resumed uneventful patrolling duties for the next three months, most of which was spent at Ekdu and Dekhelia. ===Return to Europe=== In April 1944, No. 74 Squadron was dispatched to the United Kingdom and settled at North Weald, where it converted to the latest Spitfire Mk LF.IXe. It became operational the following month and was engaged in sweeps, patrols and bomber escort duties as part of the North Weald Wing. Hayter was again mentioned in despatches on 8 June, for "distinguished service". A few days afterwards his squadron commenced flying in Operation Diver, where it patrolled for V-1 flying bombs and sought out the sites from which the rockets were launched. On 1 July Hayter's rank of squadron leader was made substantive. Later in July, No. 74 Squadron was transferred to the Second Tactical Air Force, flying bomber escort missions. It began operating from France, based at Sommervieu on 19 August and thereafter often worked in support of the advancing Allied armies, attacking ground targets but also still acting in an escort role for bombers. By this time his short service commission in the RAF had ended and he transferred to the RNZAF. Hayter relinquished command of No. 74 Squadron at the end of December, by which time it was based at Antwerp and returned to the United Kingdom. Awarded a bar to his DFC in January 1945 for his services with the squadron, he took a course at the Fighter Leaders' School at the Central Fighter Establishment at Milfield and by June was preparing for a return to New Zealand. He eventually departed the United Kingdom in mid-August. Hayter ended the war having flown 535 sorties, during which he was credited with shooting down five aircraft, one probably destroyed and three damaged. There was also another aircraft destroyed which he did not claim. ==Later life== Arriving in New Zealand in late September 1945, Hayter was transferred to the Reserve of Officers at the end of the year. In civilian life, he took up farming but by the 1960s found the work increasingly difficult due to his war injuries. Following operations on his back and having sold his farm, he became a mariner. He worked on a survey ship in Australia, Singapore and South America and subsequently gained a master's certificate. He then worked in the shipping industry in the United States. Returning to New Zealand in 1973, he again took up farming but four years later became the manager of a camping ground. In 1978 he was found guilty of cultivating cannabis on his property in Golden Bay, despite claiming his innocence. He later worked in property development in Takaka in the Tasman District. He died on 3 October 2006 at Takaka and is buried at Wakapuaka Cemetery in Nelson. ==Notes== ==References== * * * * * * * * Category:1917 births Category:2006 deaths Category:People from Timaru Category:New Zealand World War II flying aces Category:New Zealand World War II pilots Category:New Zealand people of World War II Category:Royal Air Force officers Category:Royal Air Force squadron leaders Category:The Few Category:Recipients of the Air Force Cross (United Kingdom) Category:Burials at Wakapuaka Cemetery |
Maurizio Abbatino (; born 19 July 1954) is a former Italian criminal, one of the original bosses of the Banda della Magliana, an Italian criminal organization based in the city of Rome, particularly active throughout the late 1970s until the early 1990s. He became a pentito, a collaborator with justice after his arrest in 1992. ==Early life== Born and raised in a street in the Magliana neighborhood, Abbatino frequented school at Palestrina (in the province of Rome), staying at the house of his paternal grandmother. Abbatino began committing crimes in the early 1970s, and in 1972 he was arrested for the first time for robbery, resistance to arrest and possession of burglar's tools. Two years later came his second arrest, this time for double murder. In the trial that followed however he was acquitted for lack of evidence and immediately released. In those years, the underworld of Rome was disorganized, with many small groups called batterie, each independent and containing usually 3-4 people, dealing mostly in gambling and some robberies. Abbatino's nickname in the underworld has been Crispino, because of his curly, black hair. He had a strong passion for fast cars, and since the beginning proved himself to be a highly capable driver, so much that several batterie regularly employed him as a getaway driver in their robberies for his skills in evading the police. Skilled, but also cold and calculating, Abbatino therefore came to lead — when he was only 21 years old — his own batteria, which consisted of several people that he would later involve in the future project for the Banda della Magliana.Antonio Mancini, La Vera Storia della Banda della Magliana ==Banda della Magliana== The Banda della Magliana was formed after a casual encounter between Crispino and another exponent of the Roman underworld, Franco Giuseppucci, known as Er Negro. Giuseppucci at the time was well known for having a mobile home in which several criminals stored their weapons. Though he stopped using the mobile home due to police investigations, he maintained this role of weapons keeper. One day, he was given a bag containing weapons belonging to his friend Enrico De Pedis, another respected criminal of the period. The car was stolen by another street criminal, unaware of who the owner was or what the car contained, but once he found the weapons he sold them immediately. While moving the weapons in his car, he stopped at a cafe to buy a snack. Giovanni Tigani — better known as 'Paperino' — stole the car, with the keys still inside, unaware of who the owner was or what the car contained. "Er Negro" immediately began searching for the car and weapons and he discovered they were given to Emilio Castelletti, one of the criminals working for Abbatino.Giovanni Bianconi, Ragazzi di Malavita The encounter between Giuseppucci, Abbatino and De Pedis thus set the stage for the formation of a new, larger batteria, much larger than most conventional groups at the time and which allowed them to no longer be confined to marginal roles in the criminal underworld. Each of them brought in the members of their own groups and slowly recruited and gathered more from others, becoming steadily larger. For example, Giuseppucci was involved with money laundering and bookmaking, while Abbatino's crew was more practical of robberies and was intent on getting into drug trafficking. Giuseppucci virtually became the leader of the gang as he was the one to propose further operations and expansions, with Crispino being the effective second in command. The Banda della Magliana was eager to get their hands on new and profitable illicit businesses, beginning with drug trafficking, but they lacked the effective funds to be able to launch this initiative. It was Giuseppucci who proposed to the two groups a way in which they could gain enough money to finance their future operations: the kidnapping of duke Massimiliano Grazioli Lante della Rovere, against a ransom. Giuseppucci, who had previous experience with a kidnapping, deemed him an easy target as he was wealthy but without an escort. And so, on the night of 7 November 1977, Giuseppucci and Abbatino's men moved on and ambushed the duke as he was on his way back from the countryside. Crispino personally led the operation and the duke was captured and temporarily taken to an apartment in Rome, but due to the inexperience in the kidnapping for most of the members and the difficulty in finding a safe location to keep the hostage, they asked for the help of a small gang from the Montespaccato area, who then hid the duke in the campanian countryside. The Banda della Magliana first requested 10 billion in cash to release the hostage, but over time and through negotiations the request was lowered to about 1.5 billion. On 14 February 1978 the duke's son, after following a complicated set of instructions, delivered the money to Abbatino's henchmen, but the duke was nowhere to be found. There had been in fact a setback: one of the members of the Montespaccato group had been seen unmasked by the duke, which meant the duke had to be killed to prevent them from being identified: Crispino traveled to the countryside house where the duke was being kept so he could take a picture of the prisoner to prove to the family that he was still alive, and when he was on his way back the duke was murdered by the Montespaccato members and buried somewhere in Campania. His body has never been found.Così fu ucciso il duca Grazioli - Il Corriere della Sera With the ransom obtained, instead of spending everything the group decided to keep the savings and instead invest in the drug trade. It is at around this time that Nicolino Selis, known as Er Sardo (because he was born in Nuoro), a close associate and godson of Raffaele Cutolo, entered the alliance of batterie — he had been trying to apply the same idea that Cutolo was applying with his NCO in Naples, but in Roman territory. Selis and his lieutenants became the main link between the Banda della Magliana and the NCO, which was the first supplier of drugs for the organization, and there was a meeting between Cutolo, Giuseppucci and Abbatino when the former was on the run to secure the alliance: in order to prove their worth, Cutolo asked them to dispose of a car in which there were the bodies of two men he had personally killed. The car, a rare model for the time, easily noticeable in the Neapolitan area, disappeared in a Roman scrapyard. Storia criminale del figlio di un fornaio, Misteri D'Italia Abbatino's role in drug trafficking was overseeing distribution in the Magliana and Monteverde neighborhoods. He also became one of the main killers for the gang, alongside Edoardo Toscano, Raffaele Pernasetti, Vittorio Carnovale and others. Unlike Giuseppucci, who preferred to remain in the shadows to avoid attracting too much police attention, Crispino earned a reputation as a "man of action" and was regularly on the front lines, ever since the organization's first high-profile murder: that of Franco Nicolini, the undisputed king of the city's bookmaking. Giuseppucci and Selis ordered his assassination because they wanted to obtain total control of Rome's betting shops. On the evening of 25 July 1978, as Nicolini was exiting the Tor di Valle Racecourse and heading for the parking lot, he was ambushed by Giuseppucci's men who opened fire on him. Nicolini tried to escape, but he was blocked by Abbatino's car and finished off by Edoardo Toscano and Giovanni Piconi. Following this the Banda della Magliana became more and more powerful, soon taking control of virtually the entire city's drug trade and gambling operations, by either employing or killing anybody who competed: Abbatino personally murdered, among others, Claudio Vannicola and Angelo De Angelis, two of the city's most prominent drug traffickers at the time. Unlike Giuseppucci however, Abbatino was not interested in politics, but he did take part in a series of meetings with criminologist, psychiatrist and neofascist professor Aldo Semerari, and has been directly involved in the corruption of doctors, judges and politicians.Angela Camuso, Mai ci fu Pietà ==Shift in leadership== Following the slow but steady takeover of much of Rome's underworld by the Banda, one of the very few groups remaining who remained independent and competed with the group was the Proietti Clan, an association of several brothers and cousins who had a heavy influence in Roman betting shops (they were particularly close to Franco Nicolini). When Nicolini was murdered and the Banda della Magliana took complete control over Roman betting shops, the Proietti's suddenly and completely lost all privileges derived from them. The Proietti's answer arrived on 13 September 1980 when Franco Giuseppucci was shot dead as he entered his car to return home. Giuseppucci's death came as a massive shock to the Banda della Magliana members and after an emergency meeting, it was agreed by all members that the Proietti Clan had to be exterminated, setting off Rome's first gang war. ===War with the Proietti Clan=== The two criminals who killed Er Negro were Maurizio Proietti, known as Er Pescetto, and Fernando Proietti known as Er Pugile. Their plan also included the elimination of Domenico Zumpano, a friend and bodyguard of Giuseppucci who however they could not locate. Their suspicious actions caught the attention of a nearby police patrol, who stopped them and arrested them after they noticed they were carrying firearms. This had the side effect of temporarily shielding the two from the revenge of the Banda della Magliana, which instead decided to take it out on Enrico Proietti, known as Er Cane, who was a cousin of the two killers but was not involved with the assassination. On 27 October 1980 Er Cane is approached by a car, from which Crispino and his men open fire on him, but although heavily wounded Er Cane manages to flee. After several more attacks on the clan's relatives and associates, on the evening of 16 March 1981, the gang managed to track down Maurizio Er Pescetto, who had been released from jail, at his father's house in Donna Olimpia street, and it what would be one of the most infamous shootouts in the gang's history, Abbatino leads an expedition and the two chosen killers, Marcello Colafigli and Antonio Mancini reach Maurizio Proietti and his brother Mario as they were returning home with their families. In the furious shootout that ensued Er Pescetto was shot to death and his brother Mario though wounded was able to escape. What the gang did not predict is that a police unit was by coincidence present near the area and immediately called in for reinforcements once they heard the gunshots. Crispino and the rest of his men had to escape to avoid being detected and the two shooters had a stand-off with the police in which they were both wounded, but eventually surrendered and were arrested. Finally, the war with the Proietti Clan ended when, on 30 June 1982, the second of Giuseppucci's killers, Fernando Er Pugile, was ambushed and shot to death in his car by Edoardo Toscano. The war with the Proietti marked a period of strong aggregation in the Banda della Magliana, and although the botched attack of Donna Olimpia street brought about a lot of police attention, the Banda della Magliana was able to conquer the few remaining territories and assets that were not yet under their control. ===Internal Divisions=== After the death of Giuseppucci, Abbatino emerged as the most capable and determined leader of the organization, but his position was soon challenged. Nicolino Selis, due to his friendship with NCO Boss Raffaele Cutolo, reportedly acted as if he was the leader of the whole group: he began pretending more money for himself and his group, started recruiting criminals in jail to be only loyal to him and even began organizing drug shipments without informing the rest of the gang. He even went so far as to order the death of Danilo Abbruciati on behalf of Selis. The rest of the Banda della Magliana began seeing Selis as more of a puppet in the hands of the NCO rather than one of their own, and so they secretly sided with Abbruciati. Selis exited the psychiatric hospital he was put in after a false psychiatric evaluation on 3 February 1981, and disappeared after he was led to an appointment by Abbatino and his men. Selis' body has never been found. That same night, Selis' right-hand man, Antonio Leccese, was shot dead as he returned home. More of Selis' lieutenants would later be killed in the following periods, which coupled with the murder of Vincenzo Casillo on 29 January 1983, ended the NCO's presence in Rome. One of the few who survived was Fulvio Lucioli, Selis' personal driver who would later become the first "pentito" of the Banda della Magliana. At around the same time, another fracture occurred within the gang. The group known as "i Testaccini", so called because most of them were from and operated in the Testaccio neighborhood, represented by Danilo Abbruciati and Enrico De Pedis, gradually distanced themselves from the rest of the gang. They began investing money in real estate and construction firms, became very close to the Sicilian Mafia (in particular Pippo Calò) and several entrepreneurs who were suspected of being linked to the Mafia such as Flavio Carboni. The Testaccini, more so than the rest of the gang, benefited from protection and collusion of important personalities, and many of their members were often able to entirely avoid jail time. The division began to manifest itself after Domenico Balducci, a usurer and entrepreneur as well as a member of the gang, was killed by members of the Testaccini on 16 October 1981, on the orders of Pippo Calò and Danilo Abbruciati. Abbatino's group, referred to as "i Maglianesi" was not informed of the decision to kill Balducci and they requested an immediate meeting with the Testaccini. There, Abbatino and his men accused the Testaccini of being traitors, exploiting the entire organization for their own goals and putting the security of its members at risk for the sake of pleasing the Sicilian Mafia, while not adequately contributing to the economic help for imprisoned members and even committing murders of high-profile criminals such as Balducci without first informing the rest of the organization. The Testaccini promised to settle everything, but by now the two groups had reached a breaking point. When Abbruciati later died under mysterious circumstances in Milan while shooting the vice-president of the Banco Ambrosiano, Roberto Rosone, an act for which again Abbatino was not informed, the Maglianesi held meetings in which they decided the Testaccini were no longer trustworthy and resolved to eliminate all of its most prominent members, even though they continued to operate alongside them in drug trafficking for the time being. In contrast to the Testaccini which invested in legit businesses and became involved in money laundering, Abbatino's group was the one most responsible for murders and drug trafficking, activitie which attracted much more police attention. Most of the members were usually arrested only for a few months at a time before being released for lack of evidence. Abbatino in particular wanted to solve the problem once and for all by faking medical documents, for which he had paid corrupt medics and he even bought a pacemaker using the gang's money to simulate a heart condition. He had almost succeeded in being granted permanent house arrest until Fulvio Lucioli, known as "Er Sorcio", decided to cooperate with authorities and Abbatino was accused of over a dozen murders, and so he was moved from the private clinic back into prison, alongside most of the high ranking members of the organization. Amidst the increasing tensions between the Maglianesi and Testaccini, Abbatino's extended period of detention meant his role had to be temporarily filled by other people who were at the time free — such as Claudio Sicilia — and who now found Abbatino to be an inconvenient obstacle. Rumours and accusations abounded: Abbatino was accused by his men of ignoring their needs, spending the organization's money for his medical equipment while not doing enough to help those who had gotten in trouble for earlier crimes. But most of all he was accused to be a traitor because Abbatino, despite having accepted the plan to eliminate the Testaccini, spoke in favor of Enrico De Pedis due to their long-standing friendship. De Pedis was instead hated by Marcello Colafigli and Edoardo Toscano, two other high ranking members of the Maglianesi. ===Escape to South America=== Abbatino tried again and again to obtain house arrest, feigning cancer and leg paralysis, managing to get himself hospitalized into a private clinic whose owners he had bribed off, when another high ranking member of the gang decided to turn informant: Claudio Sicilia. Unlike Lucioli who had been a low level member, Sicilia was the main organizer of drug shipments and revealed much more than Lucioli: one of the first things he revealed was that Abbatino was in fact perfectly healthy and was only simulating an illness to obtain house arrest. Realizing that prison was now inevitable and that he would likely have gotten caught in the clash between the two now rival groups, Abbatino decided to flee Italy. Due to his supposed leg paralysis, the police officers who monitored him did not believe he was capable of moving and so did not pay him too much attention. On the night of 20 December 1986 Abbatino manages to escape the clinic by tying together the sheets of the hospital's beds and rappelling down the window. With the help of his brother Roberto and a few accomplices he managed to reach Switzerland, from where he took an airplane to Venezuela. While Abbatino was in hiding, back in Rome in two very surprising verdicts the tribunals dismissed the declarations of both Lucioli and Sicilia. The first one, Sicilia, was dismissed only ten days after the beginning of the trial by judge Antonio Pelaggi (who was later found to have been a close friend of Enrico Nicoletti, one of the leaders of the Testaccini). Sicilia would be released years later without state protection, killed by hitmen of the Banda della Magliana. Two years later in 1988, a court presided by judge Corrado Carnevale — known as "l'ammazzasentenze" (the verdict killer) because of the high number of convictions of Mafiosi overturned on appeal at the Maxi Trial for the slightest technicality, such as the lack of a rubber stamp on a document — completely overturned the convictions for the Lucioli trial, deeming Lucioli to be "insane" and his revelations "completely unreliable". In both cases the tribunal ruled that the Banda della Magliana did not actually exist. When all of the gang members went free, war finally broke out between the Maglianesi and Testaccini: between 1989 and 1991 several high ranking members of the organization were killed, most notably Edoardo Toscano and Enrico De Pedis, the leaders of each faction. On 15 March 1991, Roberto Abbatino disappeared without a trace after leaving his house. His body was found three days later floating in the Tiber river: he had been kidnapped and tortured for days with a knife as evidenced by the stab wounds on his body. His killers wanted to find out where Maurizio Abbatino was hiding, but despite the enormous suffering, Roberto did not reveal the location of his brother, and was thus killed and dumped at the river. Roberto Abbatino was not involved in criminal activities. Abbatino's father had previously been threatened into revealing the location of his son.Angela Camuso, Mai ci fu Pietà ==Arrest and turncoat== Maurizio Abbatino, the only founding member of the Banda della Magliana to be still alive, was arrested, after 6 years on the run, on 24 January 1992 in Caracas, Venezuela, as he was leaving a pub. The police were able to track him down when on New Year's Eve, he made a phone call back home to talk to his family. Abbatino later admitted that he was fully aware he would have been traced by making that phone call. Immediately following his arrest he announced he would cooperate with Italian authorities.Preso l'ultimo boss di Roma - Il Corriere della SeraSorpreso in Venezuela il boss della Magliana - Il Corriere della Sera After being sent back to Rome via airplane he was immediately admitted into the witness protection program and sent to a secure location. Following his revelations to the magistrates, which were similar and which rehabilitated the ones made years before by Fulvio Lucioli and the defunct Claudio Sicilia, on 16 April 1993 a giant police operation, dubbed Operazione Colosseo, involving more than 500 police officers, ended with the arrest of over a hundred members and associates of the Banda della Magliana. The trial against the organization began in 1995 and ended one year later. This time, the tribunal recognized the existence of the criminal association: the judges considered it to be a Mafia association on the same level as the Camorra, Cosa Nostra and 'Ndrangheta, and asked for several life sentences. This particular judgement was later overturned on appeal, resulting in much lighter sentences for many of its members, particularly those involved in money laundering and similar activities. Despite this, the trial is generally considered to have marked the end of the Banda della Magliana. Abbatino testified at other trials, including the trials for the murder of Duke Grazioli and the journalist Mino Pecorelli. He was given a new identity and lives in a secret location. In March 2016, however, state protection was taken away from him. ==References== Category:1954 births Category:Living people Category:Criminals from Rome Category:Banda della Magliana members Category:Pentiti Category:Italian drug traffickers Category:Italian exiles |
The Lawyers' Movement, also known as the Movement for the Restoration of Judiciary or the Black Coat Protests, was the popular mass protest movement initiated by the lawyers of Pakistan in response to the former president and army chief Pervez Musharraf's actions of 9 March 2007 when he unconstitutionally suspended Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry as the chief justice of Pakistan's Supreme Court. Following the suspension of the chief justice, the Supreme Court Bar Association (SCBA) declared the judge's removal as an "assault on the independence of judiciary" and were backed by several political parties. ==History== ===Suspension of Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry=== In the first few months of 2007, several conflicts had already raged between chief justice Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry and the Pakistani government. Chaudhry had worked hard to clear a backlog of cases at the Supreme Court and had "[taken] on politically controversial issues", particularly with regard to the Pakistan Steel Mills corruption case where the chief justice ruled against the sale of the state-owned steel mills at a "throw-away price". Issues pertaining to the privatisation of the state-owned steel mills upset Shaukat Aziz, who served as the prime minister under the Musharraf administration. What irked president Pervez Musharraf however was the controversial Missing Persons case that found Pakistan's intelligence agencies (including the FIA and the ISI) to be complicit in the forced disappearances of up to 400 people (including terror suspects and human rights activists) without due process since 2001. Under Chaudhry's leadership, the courts had increasingly started "exercising independence from the government" when it ordered the security agencies to produce the missing people in court. When the Musharraf administration asked the judge to quit, Chaudhry refused to go. On 9 March 2007, Musharraf had no other choice but to suspend Chaudhry from his post for alleged and unspecified charges of misconduct and misuse of authority. The sacking of the head of the judiciary sparked bloody protests throughout Pakistan and "edged the country towards a constitutional crisis". The civil unrest grew with regards to the validity of the allegations as well as doubts as to whether Musharraf had the power to suspend the chief justice. It was on these grounds that Chaudhry waged a legal battle in the Supreme Court seeking his reinstatement. He called his suspension a "thinly veiled assault on the independence of judiciary in Pakistan". ===Adliya Bachao Tehreek=== Chaudhry's suspension was met with protests from Pakistan's legal community. Senior judges and lawyers initiated the Adliya Bachao Tehreek (; Save the Judiciary Movement) with the aim of getting Chaudhry reinstated and maintain the independence of the judiciary. The movement was led by SCBA presidents Munir A. Malik, Aitzaz Ahsan, and Ali Ahmad Kurd along with others leading lawyers. The Adliya Bachao Tehreek is seen as a precursor to the eventual Lawyer's Movement. Renowned politician and lawyer Aitzaz Ahsan was pivotal in bringing together an "influential group of constitutional lawyers who had long opposed the various periods of military rule in Pakistan’s short history". He orchestrated a "campaign of motorcades" to take the chief justice to various bar associations around the country. Wherever the cavalcade passed, the chief justice was welcomed by people tossing rose petals at his car and chanting "Go Musharraf Go!" ===Police brutality in Sahiwal=== On 5 May 2007, a rally was organised in support of the chief justice in Sahiwal. The deposed chief justice was to make an appearance at a bar association in Sahiwal on his way to Multan. Upon his arrival, the police (allegedly acting under orders from the Musharraf regime) baton-charged and attacked the otherwise peaceful "torch-bearing" demonstrators. There were reports that the police threw petrol bombs at the rally burning at least 13 lawyers; five suffered from major burns. Around 50 lawyers were injured in the mayhem. The New York Times later interviewed Ishtiaq Ahmed, a lawyer who shared an eyewitness account of the incident, saying that Sahiwal was where the lawyers "suffered more than any place". On 9 May 2007, the general house of the Lahore High Court Bar Association (LHCBA) demanded the Punjab and Sindh governments to step down immediately for patronising state terrorism. The bar also called for the removal of Sahiwal DPO Javed Shah. The LHC later upheld the sentences against other police officers involved in the attacks on 24 July 2013. ===Black Saturday riots in Karachi=== As the movement started gaining support from political parties in the opposition, the various pro-government parties, in particular Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM) and Pakistan Muslim League (Q) (PML-Q), allied themselves with Musharraf and began organising protest demonstrations of their own against the "politicisation of the issue of [the justice's suspension]". On 12 May 2007, two such rival demonstrations in Karachi came to a violent end when ensuing clashes left more than 40 people killed with several hundred injured and arrested. On the chief justice's arrival in Karachi to address the Sindh High Court Bar Association at its 50th anniversary, gunfights and clashes erupted across the provincial capital as Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) and Awami National Party (ANP) activists who supported the judge and the pro-government MQM activists took to the streets against each other. During the riots that ensued, media offices of the Business Recorder Group and Aaj TV were also attacked. There were also reports that the activists of the pro-government MQM had torched a lawyers' office resulting in the deaths of about seven lawyers burnt alive in the fire. Following the attacks on media offices, the news media strengthened in their resolve to support the chief justice's reinstatement. Political opponents in the parliament blamed one another for the May 12 mayhem. Several opposition politicians placed the responsibility of the attacks on pro-government parties like the MQM, while MQM held the opposition parties responsible for the situation in Karachi. An editorial in the Daily Times said, "the possibility of any compromise to correct [Musharraf's] original mistake [of removing the chief justice] has vanished now ... the ante has been upped by the government." ===Temporary reinstatement=== Four months into the movement, Musharraf caved under the "pressure of incessant nonviolent civil resistance" and reinstated Chaudhry as the chief justice on 20 July 2007. The Supreme Court cleared Chaudhry of all charges when restoring him to his earlier position. Nevertheless, the lawyers still continued their movement against Musharraf, declaring his actions and rule "illegal". The legal community put pressure on Chaudhry to take up several controversial cases against the Musharraf regime – one such case challenged the army chief's eligibility as a candidate in the upcoming presidential elections on 6 October 2007. ===Judiciary dismissed again under emergency rule=== On 3 November 2007, the reelected president Pervez Musharraf declared a state of emergency in Pakistan and imposed a provisional constitutional order (PCO). Under the PCO, Musharraf dismissed the chief justice again and removed about sixty other judges. Several opposition politicians and lawyers called the removal of these judges as "illegal and unconstitutional". In shuffling the functions of the judiciary, several judges to asked to take oath under the 2007 PCO arrangements. The lawyers, in turn, refused to take oath under the PCO and reacted to the dismissals and the emergency rule by boycotting the courts and taking part in protests and hunger strikes. People from outside the legal community also took part in these protests further motivated by political agendas. The international pressure following the nationwide protest forced Musharraf to end emergency rule in December 2007. In ending the emergency rule, Musharraf still did not reinstate Chaudhry and the other judges who had refused to take oath under the PCO arrangements. These judges had persistently protested and did so until Musharraf resigned in August 2008. ===List of prominent judges removed=== * Chief justice Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry * Justice Rana Bhagwandas * Justice Khalil-ur-Rehman Ramday * Justice Javaid Iqbal * Justice Raja Muhammad Fayyaz Ahmad * Justice Mian Shakirullah Jan * Justice Chaudhry Ijaz Ahmed * Justice Khawaja Muhammad Sharif * Justice Mahmood Akhtar Shahid Siddiqui * Justice Ghulam Rabbani ===Movement activists put under house arrest=== On 4 November 2007, prominent leaders of the movement were kept under house arrest including former chief justice Iftikhar Chaudhry, Aitzaz Ahsan and Munir A. Malik. Such were the restrictions imposed on the judges under arrest that Malik later developed serious health problems due to his confinement when his kidneys shut down and his liver malfunctioned. Amongst the various lawyers, opposition politicians and human rights activists put under house arrest was the UN special rapporteur Asma Jahangir. She was placed under house arrest on 5 November 2007. An email from Jahangir's house arrest was published in The Independent, in which she regretted that Musharraf had "lost his marbles". ===Nationwide crackdown on lawyers=== On 5 November 2007, police raided the Lahore High Court Bar Association. They baton-charged and threw tear gas into the premises and arrested over 800 lawyers. The Lahore High Court condemned the attack saying that never had it occurred in the history of Pakistan that armoured police vehicles entered a court's premises to attack protesting lawyers who had sought refuge within the court building. The protesting lawyers had earlier showered rose petals in front of the locked courtrooms of the judges who refused to take the oath under the PCO. At the Sindh High Court (SHC) in Karachi, several protesting lawyers were arrested at the court premises. When removed judges tried to enter the court premises, they were stopped by police outside the gates. Over 45 protesting lawyers were picked up from the SHC premises including former FSC judge Shafi Mohammadi, relieved SHC chief justice Sabihuddin Ahmed's son Salahuddin Ahmed, justice Anwar Zaheer Jamali's son Najeeb Jamali, senior lawyer Fakhruddin G. Ebrahim's son Zahid Ebrahim and the son in law of Khawaja Muhammad Sharif, Azhar Hameed. ===2008 general elections and the Bhurban Accord=== The 2008 general elections were held on 18 February 2008, after being postponed from 8 January 2008. The PPP and the Pakistan Muslim League (N) (PML-N) won the largest and second largest number of seats respectively in the national assembly. After the general elections, PPP and PML-N agreed to form a coalition government and Asif Ali Zardari and Nawaz Sharif, the chiefs of both PPP and PML-N respectively, joined together to organise a movement to impeach Pervez Musharraf. The two leaders met at Pearl Continental Bhurban in Murree on 8 March 2008 where they signed a mutual political agreement called the Bhurban Accord. According to this political agreement, the two leaders agreed to restore the judiciary by 30 April 2008 and reinstate the 60 judges previously sacked by Musharraf. However, when the PPP came into government, Zardari took a less stringent stance than Sharif on the issue of the reinstatement of judges. ===Zardari's reluctance to reinstate judges=== The deposition of judges on November 3 had played in Zardari's favour. Just before the emergency rule was imposed, the Supreme Court had begun deliberations on the legality of Musharraf's US-backed proposal — the National Reconciliation Ordinance (NRO) — which had sought to drop corruption charges against Benazir Bhutto and Zardari in return for a joint Bhutto–Musharraf coalition to govern Pakistan. Where Bhutto and Zardari sympathised with Musharraf on his feud with the Supreme Court, they simultaneously criticised the imposition of martial law or a military dictatorship. As soon as the Supreme Court could issue a decision, Musharraf had replaced its members with his supporters. After the 2008 elections, a Bhutto–Musharraf coalition seemed highly unlikely and Zardari felt political pressure from his peers to reinstate the judges. Zardari had feared that by reinstating the judges to their earlier posts, he would welcome cases against him in light of the Supreme Court's earlier deliberations on the legality of the NRO. Even after Musharraf resigned office in August 2008 and Zardari sworn in as the new president, he was reluctant to reinstate the judges immediately. This eventually led the lawyers to openly criticise the PPP-led government along with its PML-N allies and considered "them [both] a part of the same regime", since both had faltered over their agreement in the Bhurban Accord. These developments gave further traction to the original Adliya Bachao Movement. The stalwarts of the original movement reshaped their movement around the changing circumstances and called this rekindling of the movement as the "Lawyers' Movement". ===The movement splits into camps=== With Zardari's reluctance to reinstate Chaudhry and his later decision in February 2009 to declare president's rule in Punjab, the Lawyers' Movement broke into two separate camps – the first camp led by Hamid Khan held a pro-judiciary stance, while the other camp held a rather pro-government stance. Although there were some that didn't side with any particular camp at a given time. Much like its predecessor movement Adliya Bachao Tehreek, both the camps in the Lawyers' Movement lobbied for the reinstatement of the sacked judges but differed on political grounds and the policies of their affiliated parties. The movement gained momentum as protests raged throughout Pakistan, particularly in Punjab under the encouragement of deposed representatives of the province. Former prime minister and PML-N chief Nawaz Sharif called for the reinstatement of Chaudhry helping this renewed struggle gain some leverage. ===Petition=== On 21 January 2009 the Lahore High Court Bar Association carried out a 10 Million signature movement. As the name suggests, the purpose of the movement was to get 10 million signatures on a large white cloth which was to be presented to the parliament at the end of long march. Political party workers, concerned citizen and lawyers participated and signed the petition.10 Million Signature Movement - 21 January, 2009 ===Pakistan Long March=== On 16 March 2009 the Lawyers' Community had given a call for nationwide 'Long March'. Many political parties like the Pakistan Muslim League (Nawaz Group), Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf, Jamaat-e-Islami and others supported and participated in the Long March. The march was from Karachi to Islamabad to demand the reinstatement of a Supreme Court Chief Justice and other judges ousted from office by former President Pervez Musharraf. Supporters of the 'restoration of judges' participated in the Long March despite a ban imposed on protests and rallies under Section 144 by the government.The News - Lawyers vow to hold rally despite ban - 12 March, 2009 ===Eventual restoration of the judiciary=== As a result of the Lawyer's Movement, Zardari was forced to meet their demands and Chaudry was reinstated as the chief justice by prime minister Yousaf Raza Gillani on 17 March 2009. ==Prominent leaders of the movement== ===Original stalwarts=== These activists were responsible for organising the 2007 Adliya Bachao Tehreek which paved the way for the later Lawyers' Movement. * Ali Ahmad Kurd was a strong opponent of Musharraf's military regime and challenged the former army chief's eligibility as a candidate for the 2008 presidential elections. * Aitzaz Ahsan wrote a poem while under house arrest which became the anthem of the Lawyers' Movement. Ahsan faced severe pressures being a member of the PPP's central executive committee, yet he greatly contributed to the movement setting aside his party's political aspirations. * Munir A. Malik was decorated with a number of awards for his role in the Lawyers' Movement including the Dorab Patel Rule of Law Award by the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan (HRCP), the Human Rights Defender Award by the Asian Human Rights Commission (AHRC) shared with Aitzaz Ahsan and the 2008 Gwangju Prize for Human Rights. ===Pro- judiciary camp=== Certain decisions made by the PPP-led government showed resentment on various decisions of the Supreme Court. It was this contest between the government and the judiciary that made various members of the Lawyers' Movement side with a more pro-judiciary stance. The members who remained resolute against the PPP-led government for the restoration of judiciary in accordance with the Bhurban Accord were mostly led by Hamid Khan. * Hamid Khan and vice-president of PTI. * Tariq Mahmood served as a judge with the Balochistan High Court and refused to take oath under Musharraf's presidency. He was arrested and detained with his family during the emergency rule. * Athar Minallah resigned his distinguished civil services career to join the Lawyers' Movement. He served as a minister in the North-West Frontier Province caretaker government under Musharraf's regime. After Musharraf suspended Chaudhry, he switched over sides and joined other lawyers in support of Chaudhry's reinstatement. * Asrar-ul-Haq Mian was an executive chairman of the Pakistan Bar Council, Being a senior advocate of the Supreme Court, his role was pivotal in the Lawyers' Movement. He later supported Aitzaz Ahsan's camp backing Tariq Javed Chaudhry's nomination in the Lahore Bar Association election against Latif Khosa. * Naseer Ahmed Bhutta as a PML-N MNA was vital in gaining the support of his party in joining the Lawyers' Movement to unite against Musharraf's unconstitutional suspension of the judges. He served as a leading figurehead of the PML-N and held his party's determination in reinstate the November 2 judiciary. * Mian Muhammad Aslam played an active role in the Lawyers' Movement. * Anwar Kamal Khan was a former PML-N senator who lobbied the Lawyers' Movement cause in the NWFP provincial assembly where he suggested to "line up a united opposition against the military dictator [Pervez Musharraf]". He also famously called Benazir Bhutto a "spent bullet for Pervez Musharraf". * Rana Asadullah Khan was Secretary of Lahore High Court Bar Association at that time and he managed three famous long marches. He also started campaign of ten million signature petition to the Parliament for restoration of True Judiciary.His father was also a renowned lawyer Rana Abdul Rahim Khan. He struggled against Ayub Khan dictatorship when he was Secretary of Lahore High Court Bar Association in 1968.His elder brother Rana Mashhood Ahmad Khan was also Secretary of High Court Bar, Lahore. The only distinction this family enjoys that father and his two sons served as Secretary of Bar. ===Civil Society=== The following individuals were from the Civil Society were recognized at the final flag raising ceremony for their contribution to the movement: * PPP Senator Safdar Ali Abbasi, * Talat Hussain, journalist * Hamid Mir, TV show host * Mazhar Abbas, president of the Pakistan Federal Union of Journalist and * Asma Shirazi, prominent TV anchor. ===Pro-government camp=== These group of Lawyers' Movement activists sided with the PPP government after Zardari didn't reinstate the judges after he was sworn as the president of Pakistan. * Latif Khosa was instrumental in the Lawyers’ Movement and voiced his appeal to restore dozens of senior judges sacked by Musharraf in 2007. He later distanced himself from the movement when the PML-N joined the movement against PPP, the political party that Khosa was affiliated with. He later organised a pro-government camp within the Lawyers' Movement. * Latif Afridi was the general secretary of the Awami National Party (ANP) and later its breakaway faction National Awami Party of Pakistan (NAPP). He garnered support from both ANP and NAPP in backing the Lawyers' Movement. * Asma Jahangir * Qazi Anwar * Muhammad Yasin Azad ==Various actors in the movement== ===Pakistani media=== The print and electronic media were very active in the Lawyers' Movement. Geo News even had to face a ban. Days before the call for 16 March 2009 Long March, Geo News carried out a series of public service message campaign which was sponsored by Mir Khalil ur Rehman Foundation (MKRF) for restoration of the judges. One of the campaign's message was an 8 minutes 12 Seconds video which showed all the promises and statements, especially by Pakistan Peoples Party leaders, about the restoration of the judges but were not fulfilled. The campaign proved very successful in educating people and reminding the government of their commitments. The government even blocked Geo News in many parts of the country as the government believed the campaign was biased. Critics say that Print and electronic media, at times, crossed their limits of authority and helped creating a negative sentiment about the government among masses regarding the Chief Justice issue. However, the Lawyers movement succeeded in getting the interest of commons. Television channels covered the rallies of Judges for hours continuously. ===Political parties=== Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI), Jamaat-e-Islami, Pakistan Muslim League (PMLN), Pakhtun-khwa Milli Awami Party,http://news.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the- newspaper/national/achakzai+calls+for+convening+apc Awami National Party and Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) supported the Lawyers' Movement on different occasions. ==In popular culture== * The music video for Shehzad Roy's 2008 song Laga Reh takes a satirical look at the Lawyers' Movement and depicts a protesting lawyer trying to light a matchstick in order to set ablaze a tyre as riots continue in the background. Later when the judiciary was restored after the Lawyers' Movement, Roy depicted corruption in the nation's judiciary and media in Apne Uloo, his 2011 song featuring Wasu. * The music video for Ali Azmat's 2011 song Bum Phatta criticised the media circus that surrounded the ousting of Musharraf and the Lawyers' Movement, when it should instead be focused on pressing matters like poverty, education and terrorism. == See also == * Suspension of Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry ==Citations== ===References=== * * * * * * * *longmarch.restore-pakistan-judiciary.org ==External links== * * * * * Category:2007 in Pakistan Category:Social movements in Pakistan Category:Protests in Pakistan Category:Legal history of Pakistan Category:Political history of Pakistan L Category:Peace marches Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Pakistani democracy movements Category:2007 in Pakistani politics |
Same-sex marriage has been legally recognized in Massachusetts since May 17, 2004, as a result of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court (SJC) ruling in Goodridge v. Department of Public Health that it was unconstitutional under the Massachusetts Constitution to allow only opposite-sex couples to marry. Massachusetts became the sixth jurisdiction in the world (after the Netherlands, Belgium, Ontario, British Columbia, and Quebec) to legalize same- sex marriage. It was the first U.S. state to open marriage to same-sex couples. ==Legal history== ===Background=== In 1989, passing legislation first proposed in 1973, Massachusetts prohibited discrimination based on sexual orientation in credit, public and private employment, union practices, housing, and public accommodation. In the decade that followed, political debate addressed same-sex relationships through two proxy issues: spousal benefits and parenting rights. The Boston City Council debated health insurance for the same-sex partners of city employees in May 1991, and Cambridge began providing health benefits to the same-sex partners of its employees the following year. In 1992, Governor Bill Weld issued an executive order providing limited benefits to the same-sex partners of approximately 3,000 management-level state employees, covering only leave for family sickness and bereavement, far short of the health benefits LGBT activists were seeking, but probably the first state-level recognition of same-sex relationships. The Roman Catholic bishops of Massachusetts, replying in The Pilot, the newspaper of the Boston Archdiocese, said that Weld's "domestic partners" decision harms the common good "by making a special interest group equal to the family" and confuses "civil rights and family benefits". They asked: "Why should special recognition and assistance be given to friends who happen to share the same house?" Legislation to establish domestic partnerships that would carry spousal benefits was introduced annually in the Massachusetts General Court without success. Its supporters focused on equal benefits and fairness rather than same-sex relationships themselves. In 1998, when the General Court passed a home rule petition allowing Boston to create such a status, Governor Paul Cellucci vetoed it because it applied to different-sex couples, which he thought undermined marriage, while he offered to sign legislation that applied to same-sex couples only. Boston Mayor Thomas Menino's attempt to extend health care benefits to city employees' domestic partners by executive order was successfully challenged by the Catholic Action League in court. The state had no explicit regulations with respect to foster care and parenting by gays and lesbians, either singly or in relationships, until, on May 24, 1985, the state Department of Social Services, with the approval of Governor Michael Dukakis, created a rule that foster children be placed in "traditional family settings". In December 1986, a commission that reviewed the foster care system recommended that sexual orientation could not be used to disqualify foster parents. As Dukakis delayed accepting that recommendation, advocates for gay and lesbian rights threatened protests against his presidential campaign. The ban on gay foster parents was enacted into law in the 1989 budget. After a lawsuit challenging the ban was settled out of court, the Dukakis administration withdrew the policy in April 1990. In the 1990s, court decisions further expanded the parenting rights of gays and lesbians. In September 1993, the state's highest court ruled that state law allowed for second-parent adoption by a parent of the same sex as a biological parent. In July 1999, the same court awarded visitation rights to each of two mothers after their separation. Same-sex marriage itself was rarely mentioned or addressed directly during these years. The Coalition for Lesbian and Gay Civil Rights launched a campaign on behalf of marriage rights for same-sex couples in Massachusetts in 1991. Governor Bill Weld said he would be willing to meet with the group and said he was undecided on the question. When asked about "gay marriage" while running to represent Massachusetts in the U.S. Senate in 1994, Mitt Romney said: "it is not appropriate at this time". In December 1996, considering the possibility of Hawaii legalizing same-sex marriage, Weld said that Massachusetts would recognize the validity of same- sex marriages licensed there. He called the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) unconstitutional. ===Protection of Marriage Amendment=== In December 1998, Representative John H. Rogers, a Democrat, proposed legislation to prevent Massachusetts from granting legal recognition to same-sex marriages established elsewhere: "a purported marriage contracted between persons of the same sex shall be neither valid nor recognized in the Commonwealth." In 1999, the Lesbian and Gay Political Alliance of Massachusetts called it a "hate bill" and a coalition of more than 150 religious leaders formed the Religious Coalition for the Freedom to Marry to oppose it. Other religious leaders organized in support of the measure. Rogers revised his proposal to define marriage as the union of a man and a woman when he offered it again in 2001, with the additional provision that "Any other relationship shall not be recognized as a marriage, or its legal equivalent, or receive the benefits exclusive to marriage in the Commonwealth." The chair of the Lesbian and Gay Political Alliance of Massachusetts said its prospects for passage were slim but it could serve as a countervailing proposal to efforts at establishing civil unions or providing benefits to same-sex partners of state and local government employees. Alongside these legislative maneuvers, the Gay & Lesbian Advocates & Defenders (GLAD) filed a lawsuit in state court challenging the denial of marriage rights to same-sex couples in April 2001. In July 2001, Massachusetts Citizens for Marriage announced a campaign to amend the Constitution of Massachusetts with language similar to Rogers' legislation, called the "Protection of Marriage Amendment". Some signature gatherers complained that opponents of the amendment were harassing them and their opponents charged in turn that some signature gatherers were misrepresenting the petition's content. A sufficient number of signatures were certified in December. The President of the Massachusetts Senate controls the calling of a constitutional convention and its agenda. Senate President Tom Birmingham, an opponent of the amendment, called a joint meeting of the General Court as a constitutional convention for June 19, 2002, and immediately adjourned it for a month saying legislators needed for time to consider the agenda items. When the constitutional convention met again on July 17, the amendment's opponents knew that proponents had the 50 votes needed for passage. Birmingham, who was presiding, moved for adjournment without considering the amendment, and his motion passed 137 to 53. He called the amendment "wrong-hearted and wrong- headed" and defended the procedure: "Everybody recognizes a vote to adjourn was a vote up or down" on the amendment. "I did gavel the last constitutional convention to a recess because I felt the members needed more time to assess... Today we saw democracy in action. They may not like it, but they lost two to one." A representative of the Catholic Action League, which supported the amendment, said: "Everything that is wrong with Massachusetts state government was apparent today for all the world to see". One legislator who voted to adjourn said: "For those of us who believe in an open democratic process, this was not a comfortable vote". State Senator Cheryl A. Jacques, an opponent of the amendment and a lesbian, said: "I'm proud to have done anything possible to defeat this hate-filled, discriminatory measure. I'll take a victory on this any way I can get it." Arlene Isaacson of the Massachusetts Gay and Lesbian Political Caucus later explained it was a critical moment because same-sex marriage had no chance of winning a popular vote at the time: "Not that we would lose by a little, because that wasn't an issue. Rather, it was that we were going to get massacred". In April 2003, a committee of the General Court held a hearing on the constitutional amendment, but took no action. The four Roman Catholic bishops of Massachusetts, long distracted by the revelations of the sexual abuse of minors by priests, did not address the issue until late May, when they ordered pastors to read and publish a statement to mobilize their parishioners to contact their legislators to urge then to support the constitutional amendment. ===Goodridge v. Department of Public Health=== Seven same-sex couples represented by Gay & Lesbian Advocates & Defenders (GLAD) initiated a lawsuit in state court, Goodridge v. Department of Public Health, on April 11, 2001. GLAD attorney, Jennifer Levi, argued the case in Superior Court on behalf of the plaintiffs. Levi argued that denying same-sex couples equal marriage rights was unconstitutional under the State Constitution. On May 7, 2002, Suffolk County Superior Court Judge Thomas E. Connolly ruled that the state marriage statute was not gender-neutral, no fundamental right to same-sex marriage existed, and that limiting marriage to male-female couples was rational because "procreation is marriage's central purpose". He concluded his legal analysis by saying that the issue should be handled by the General Court. The plaintiffs appealed directly to the Supreme Judicial Court (SJC), which heard arguments on March 4, 2003. Mary Bonauto of GLAD argued the case for the plaintiffs. Assistant Attorney General Judith Yogman represented the Massachusetts Department of Public Health. On November 18, 2003, the SJC ruled 4 to 3 that the state's ban on same-sex marriage was unconstitutional. The court said: "We declare that barring an individual from the protections, benefits, and obligations of civil marriage solely because that person would marry a person of the same sex violates the Massachusetts Constitution." It provided a definition of marriage that would meet the State Constitution's requirements: "We construe civil marriage to mean the voluntary union of two persons as spouses, to the exclusion of all others." The court stayed its ruling for 180 days (i.e. until May 17, 2004) to allow the General Court to "take such action as it may deem appropriate in light of this opinion." Governor Mitt Romney said he disagreed with the SJC's decision, but "We obviously have to follow the law as provided by the Supreme Judicial Court, even if we don't agree with it". He said he would work with the General Court to draft a law "consistent" with the ruling. He also backed an amendment to the State Constitution to define marriage as the union of a man and a woman while also providing by statute "basic civil rights and appropriate benefits to same-sex couples and other nontraditional relationships." Romney quickly joined legislators in attempting to satisfy the Goodridge decision by creating civil unions for same-sex couples. His views were recognized as an attempt to establish his record on a controversial issue while planning to run for the Republican nomination for president. Former Governor Weld took credit for laying the groundwork for the decision: "A lot of the stuff we did foreshadowed the opinion." He said: "It is a thunderbolt, but a thunderbolt correctly heard." Opponents of gay and lesbian rights opposed any compromise with the SJC. Brian Camenker, head of the Parents Rights Coalition, said: "As Martin Luther King Jr. pointed out in his letter from the Birmingham jail, there are some laws that are so unnatural that you have an obligation to openly defy them. The concept of stable, healthy gay relationships is largely a manufacturing of the gay propaganda machine." He called the decision "complete lunacy" and said: "It's beyond shocking. It's madness. It's four judges basically turning society inside out with no input from anybody else." ===Interpreting Goodridge=== On December 11, 2003, the Massachusetts Senate put forward legislative language creating civil unions for same-sex couples to the SJC, asking if it satisfied the court's requirements. On February 4, 2004, the court replied that it was unacceptable to allow different-sex couples marriages but same-sex couples only civil unions, that the distinction between marriage and civil unions constituted unconstitutional discrimination, even if the rights and obligations attached to each were identical. It called the difference between the terms marriage and civil union "a considered choice of language that reflects a demonstrable assigning of same-sex, largely homosexual, couples to second-class status." As for the argument that the federal government's refusal to recognize same-sex marriages as marriages justified the use of a different term, the court said: "Courts define what is constitutionally permissible, and the Massachusetts Constitution does not permit this kind of labeling... We do not abrogate the fullest measure of protection to which residents of the Commonwealth are entitled under the Massachusetts Constitution ... because those rights might not be acknowledged elsewhere." The court also reiterated the need for the General Court to modify the state's marital laws. "The purpose of the stay was to afford the Legislature an opportunity to conform the existing statutes to the provisions of the Goodridge decision." It ended: "The answer to the question is 'No.'" Religious leaders responded with strong statements on both sides of the issue. Archbishop Seán Patrick O'Malley said in a statement: "The tone and tenor of this answer clearly demonstrates the overly activist stance of the four-judge majority... Clearly, the justices who issued this opinion seem determined to blur the constitutional separation of powers and to usurp the rightful role of the Legislature." He called for the General Court to act during its scheduled joint session to put a constitutional amendment banning same-sex marriage to a popular vote. Governor Mitt Romney authored an op-ed in The Wall Street Journal that called the latest SJC ruling "wrongly decided and deeply mistaken", backed a state constitutional amendment and urged other states to take similar action, but did not endorse the idea of a federal constitutional amendment. Without coming to agreement on how to proceed, legislative leaders considered several legal options, including passing statutes to delay the implementation of Goodridge, a strategy outlined by Mary Ann Glendon of Harvard Law School, until a referendum on a constitutional amendment could be held in November 2006. Amending the Massachusetts Constitution is a multi-year process that could not be accomplished before the date set by the SJC for the issuance of marriage licenses to same-sex couples.Massachusetts Legislature: Article XLVIII, accessed July 5, 2013 In order to amend the State Constitution, it is necessary for an amendment first to receive sufficient support at two state constitutional conventions, which is a joint meeting of the two houses of the General Court (the House of Representatives and the Senate), held during two successive two-year sessions, before going before the voters in a referendum during a normally scheduled November election. An amendment put forward by legislators needs a majority (101 out of 200) at two constitutional conventions and an amendment put forward by petition needs a 25% vote (50 out of 200) at two constitutional conventions. ===Constitutional convention 2004=== Advocates of same-sex marriage, who had been far outnumbered as demonstrators two years earlier, were a large and constant presence in the House of Representatives throughout the 2004 convention, coordinated by MassEquality, an umbrella organization formed to respond to the public backlash against Goodridge. They had mobilized constituent telephone calls with increasing success in the weeks before the convention and emphasized the impact on children being raised by gay parents. The amendment's proponents drew support from Massachusetts Citizens for Life and larger donations than they had previously received, along with personal lobbying in localities. The General Court met in joint session as a constitutional convention on February 11, and after six hours of debate rejected two amendments, one proposed by House Speaker Thomas M. Finneran and the other by Senate President Robert Travaglini. Both would have banned same-sex marriage, one would have made civil unions possible in the future and the other would have established civil unions. Finneran commented: "We are as divided as the nation on this. We are doing the best we can. We are human beings. We struggle. Sometimes we come up short." The convention met again the next day and defeated an amendment that defined marriage as the union of a man and a woman and disavowed any position on civil unions on a 103–94 vote that showed divisions in each party and Catholic legislators evenly divided. Ronald Crews of the Massachusetts Family Institute blamed Finneran's misreading of his own caucus for the failure of his own proposed language, a defeat in the convention's opening moments from which Crews found it impossible to recover. At the end of March, after extended debate, and some tactical voting in which some legislators backed measures they would not ultimately support in order to prevent the adoption of an even stronger measure, the convention passed by a vote of 105–92 an amendment to ban same-sex marriage but allow civil unions. It also specified that civil unions should not be treated as marriages for federal purposes. The language adopted had Romney's support. One report described the process: "Tenuous and shifting coalitions held together in the final vote, despite a series of parliamentary moves by liberal lawmakers to stop anything from moving forward. In the end, an amendment that was disliked by the political right and the political left was approved because it was the only measure that could draw the support of a majority of lawmakers." The proposed amendment, if approved by a second constitutional convention in 2005, would be placed before the voters as a referendum in November 2006. Romney believed the vote justified asking the SJC to stay its ruling requiring the issuance of marriage licenses to same-sex couples on May 17, but Attorney General Thomas Reilly said there was no legal basis for making that request. As the constitutional convention concluded its work on the amendment, some politicians announced plans to make the November 2004 elections a referendum on same-sex marriage. In Vermont, following the enactment of civil unions legislation in 2000, a large group of its supporters had been defeated. One political action committee announced plans to target legislative candidates who supported same-sex marriage, eight Republicans and two independents. Ronald Crews of the Massachusetts Family Institute estimated a possible shift of 10 to 15 seats against same-sex marriage. The elections resulted in shifts that consistently favored supporters of same-sex marriage rights. Carl Sciortino, a gay activist and first-time candidate, drew support from supporters of same-sex marriage, but ran largely on traditional issues like education, taxation, and health-care, and narrowly defeated a 16-year veteran and same-sex marriage opponent in the Democratic primary on September 14. Later that month, Speaker of the House Finneran resigned from the General Court to be replaced by Sal DiMasi, who backed same-sex marriage. Some candidates who backed a constitutional amendment did not make same-sex marriage a campaign issue as anticipated, but it proved critical in a few races. All 50 incumbents who opposed a constitutional amendment and faced challengers won re-election. Four supporters of Goodridge retired and successors with similar views replaced them. Five opponents of Goodridge retired and three of their successors were supporters of same-sex marriage. In special elections in the spring of 2005, three incumbents who supported a constitutional amendment lost to supporters of same-sex marriage. ===Attempts to delay implementation=== Despite Romney's urging, Attorney General Reilly refused to ask the SJC to stay its decision, saying that implementation was not problematic and that a popular vote on a constitutional amendment was the only way to resolve the issue. On April 16, 2004, Romney asked the General Court to pass legislation giving him authority to request a stay. He said the implementation of the SJC ruling presented legal complications, citing both a 1913 law that invalidated the marriage of non-residents if the marriage was invalid in their home state and the possibility that a popular referendum on same-sex marriage might retroactively invalidate same-sex marriages. Conservative groups like the Coalition for Marriage praised Romney for continuing to search for a way to block same-sex marriages. In April, the Catholic Action League of Massachusetts and several conservative advocacy organizations tried to block the implementation of Goodridge in state court until the attempt to amend the State Constitution was allowed to run its course. A single justice of the SJC dismissed the complaint on May 3. A few days later, shortly before the Goodridge decision was to take effect, four conservative public interest law firms, Liberty Counsel, the Thomas More Law Center, Citizens for the Preservation of Constitutional Rights, and the American Family Association Center for Law and Policy, brought suit in federal court on behalf of the Vice President of the Catholic Action League, Robert Largess, and eleven members of the General Court to stop the May 17 marriages. It argued that the SJC's decision deprived the people of Massachusetts of their right to a republican government. On May 13, 2004, U.S. District Court Judge Joseph Tauro denied their request for an injunction delaying implementation of the decision, as did the First Circuit Court of Appeals on June 29. In November, the Supreme Court declined to hear the case without comment. On May 14, Democratic Representative Philip Travis filed legislation to impeach Chief Justice Margaret Marshall, the author of the Goodridge decision. Another bill targeted all four justices who signed the majority decision in that case. ===Implementation=== With respect to implementation, the principal dispute concerned the 1913 statute that denied a marriage license to a couple if their marriage would not be valid in their state of residence. The Massachusetts Town Clerks' Association raised the issue for the first time on February 24, reporting that some of them were receiving inquiries from out-of-state couples. New York Attorney General Eliot Spitzer made the question more urgent when he issued a non-binding opinion on March 3 that "New York common law requires recognizing as valid a marriage... validly executed in another state". On March 31, Romney took the position that no other states recognized same-sex marriage and therefore residents of other states could not marry in Massachusetts. Reilly took the position that 38 states expressly denied recognition to same-sex marriages and that residents of other states could obtain licenses. Localities that supported the right of same-sex couples to marry resisted both those interpretations. On April 11, Provincetown's Board of Selectmen decided their town clerk would approve marriage license applications from any couple that swore, as was customary, that their marriage was lawful. The town manager said: "We've never been the marriage police with heterosexual couples, and we're not about to start with same-sex couples". Worcester's clerk took a similar position on April 16. Before the end of the month, an investigation by The Boston Globe showed that since 1976 town clerks had been repeatedly instructed not to question applicants for marriage licenses about their eligibility. A spokesman for Governor Romney said that the Goodridge decision "changed the definition of marriage, it changed the way the new marriage forms look, and it changed the way city and town clerks will carry out the requirements of the law." When Romney suggested confusion over the 1913 law justified postponing the implementation of Goodridge, Mary Bonauto, the lawyer who successfully argued Goodridge, suggested he get the law repealed: "If he's so concerned about problems, he can file an emergency bill to repeal that law. Massachusetts has basically said discriminating against people of the same sex is unconstitutional. So why would we try so hard to uphold another state's discriminatory law?" She asked: "Under the governor's logic, if some state again started banning marriages between Catholics and Protestants, then would Massachusetts enforce that?" In an interview on April 23, Romney said: "Massachusetts should not become the Las Vegas of same-sex marriage. We do not intend to export our marriage confusion to the entire nation." His spokesman announced he was sending letters to the governors and attorneys general of the other states to explain his view that same-sex marriage was not legal in their state and asking "if we're wrong" about that. Denying license to all out-of- state couples became known as "the Romney plan". It also allowed visitors from Ontario to marry, since same-sex marriage was legal there. The governor's legal counsel, Daniel Winslow, warned that a justice of the peace who could not in conscience officiate at a same-sex wedding should resign. On May 4, when the Romney Administration began training clerks to handle applications from same-sex couples, a report from The Boston Globe called it "a major shift from the governor's earlier stance on enforcing limitations on licensing gay marriage." The new forms were gender-neutral, identifying the applicants as "Party A" and Party B" and asking each to check a box for either male or female. Clerks could require proof of residency if they asked that of all couples, but needed only to have applicants swear that there were no legal impediments to their marrying in Massachusetts. The administration said that earlier reports had been premature. Some towns and clerks announced plans to knowingly issue licenses to out-of-staters, including Provincetown, Worcester, and Somerville. Bonauto said that GLAD's position was that applicants should never be less than honest, "let alone on a form signed under oath". ===First same-sex marriages=== On May 16, 2004, Cambridge, which The New York Times described as having "a well-known taste for erudite rebelliousness", decorated the wooden staircases of City Hall with white organza. Hundreds of applicants and supporters in celebratory dress–"glittery party hats and boutonnieres"–gathered in the street. City officials opened the building at 12:01 a.m. May 17 "for a rousing party, with wedding cake, sparkling cider and the music of the Cambridge Community Chorus." Some 262 couples obtained licenses, starting with Marcia Hams and Susan Shepherd. The first to wed in Cambridge were Tanya McCloskey and Marcia Kadish at 9:15 a.m. Cambridge City Clerk Margaret Drury was the first city clerk in the U.S. to perform a legal same-sex marriage. Massachusetts has a three-day waiting period before issuing marriage licenses, but many couples obtained waivers of the waiting period in order to be wed as soon as possible. Other cities and towns in Massachusetts began issuing applications during normal business hours. Boston Mayor Thomas Menino greeted three of the couples who were plaintiffs in Goodridge and said: "We've broken down the barrier. I am so proud of these people. I am very proud to be mayor of this city today." The first to marry in Boston City Hall were Tom Weikle and Joe Rogers, who lined up for their license application at 5:30 a.m. and were wed about 11 a.m. by Boston's city clerk. Rejecting the Romney's insistence that the 1913 statute be respected, Somerville Mayor Joseph Curtatone addressed a crowd of same-sex couples that included several from New York gathered in front of Town Hall at 8 am.: "No matter who you are or where you come from, if you fill out the application, you will be given a license to marry. Those of you from out of state, welcome to Somerville." The seven couples who were party to the Goodridge lawsuit were all wed on May 17, beginning with Robert Compton and David Wilson at Boston's Arlington Street Church. There were sizable celebrations in Northampton, Worcester, and Provincetown, while "explicit protests were scattered and few". A survey from The Boston Globe found that half of the couples who applied for licenses on the first day had been partners for a decade or more. Two-thirds were women and 30% were raising children. Only the towns that had made an issue of issuing licenses to out-of-staters had appreciable numbers of them. In the first week, 2,468 same-sex couples applied for licenses, including at least 164 from 27 other states and the District of Columbia. News coverage of the day's events in Massachusetts was extensive, though limited outside the United States. The Today Show broadcast live coverage from outside Boston City Hall. The three major networks lead their evening news shows with wedding coverage. The Cincinnati Enquirer ran the tag "For better or for worse" above the headline "Same-sex weddings make history". It was the lead story in The Washington Post and The New York Times. Governor Romney in a brief statement said: "All along, I have said an issue as fundamental to society as the definition of marriage should be decided by the people. Until then, I intend to follow the law and expect others to do the same." President George W. Bush took note of these events in Massachusetts with a statement calling for a federal constitutional amendment "defining and protecting marriage as a union of a man and a woman as husband and wife." It said: "The sacred institution of marriage should not be redefined by a few activist judges. All Americans have a right to be heard in this debate." On the same day, non-binding opinions by the attorneys general of two more neighboring states fueled debate about enforcing the 1913 law. On May 17, Richard Blumenthal wrote in a letter to Romney that the status of an out-of-state same-sex marriage in Connecticut was not "automatically void", and Patrick C. Lynch reported that Rhode Island only invalidated a marriage that violated public policy as in cases of "bigamy, incest or mental incompetence". ===Constitutional convention 2005=== The constitutional convention took up the compromise amendment approved in 2004. It failed on a vote of 157–39 on September 14, after many moderate legislators who had initially supported it refused to and most legislators opposed to same-sex marriage abandoned its compromise language. State Senator Brian Lees, a Republican who co-sponsored the amendment in the previous convention, explained why he withdrew his support: "Gay marriage has begun, and life has not changed for the citizens of the commonwealth, with the exception of those who can now marry. This amendment which was an appropriate measure or compromise a year ago, is no longer, I feel, a compromise today." Opponents turned instead to an alternative method of amending the Constitution that they thought would allow them to present an uncompromising ban on same-sex marriage to the voters. This method would require the collection of thousands of signatures on petitions but would need the support of only a quarter of the legislators to become a referendum. The process of gathering signatures was already underway when the legislators voted to reject the 2004 compromise. Travis explained that the opponents' fervor came in reaction to the position taken by gay and lesbian activists: ===Initiative to amend the State Constitution=== ====Petitions==== An organization called VoteOnMarriage.org organized the petition drive. Its backers included Governor Romney, former Boston Mayor Ray Flynn, former SJC Justice Joseph Nolan, and Gilbert Thompson, president of the board of the Black Ministerial Alliance of Greater Boston. The language of their amendment was: Unlike amendments in other states, the amendment did not explicitly forbid other forms of legal relationships for same-sex couples, such as civil unions or domestic partnerships. It did not attempt to invalidate same-sex marriages licensed since Goodridge. Attorney General Reilly certified the language and format of the petitions as valid on September 7, 2005. Advocates of same-sex marriage objected that the proposed amendment was clearly designed to reverse the SJC decision, a violation of the State Constitution's rule that amendments could not be used for that purpose. Deval Patrick, Reilly's principal opponent for the Democratic nomination for governor, said "There was a strong argument that this should have gone a different way." Massachusetts Secretary of State William F. Galvin said: "I think this is one of those instances where the institution of gay marriage may be less divisive to society than the referendum campaign will be. The emotions that this kind of issue brings out can be very detrimental to society. It has been around for a year and any honest person can conclude that it has not been detrimental to society." VoteOnMarriage.org collected 170,000 signatures before the December 7, 2005 deadline, almost three times the number required. Paid signature collectors from Arno Political Consultants subsequently revealed that an unknown but large number of these signatures had been collected through fraud. The collectors told voters that they were signing a petition about a different issue or that the petitions were in favor of same- sex marriage. In a case led by attorney Jennifer Levi, GLAD challenged Reilly's certification of the petitions in court, claiming the effort contradicted a provision of the Massachusetts Constitution (Article 48, Section 2), which prohibits the use of such petitions for "reversal of a judicial decision." In July, the SJC ruled unanimously that the amendment did not constitute "reversal" of a judicial decision, given that the proposed amendment sought to define only those marriages performed after its passage. If passed, the amendment would have restricted future marriages to different- sex couples but would not have invalidated the approximately 8,000 same-sex marriage licenses already issued. ====Constitutional convention 2006==== On July 12, 2006, the General Court sitting as a constitutional convention voted 100 to 91 to postpone action on the initiative amendment until November 9, 2006, two days after the elections. Supporters of same-sex marriage sought the delay, which the amendment's backers denounced and Romney criticized it. As that date neared, Arline Isaacson, a lobbyist for the Gay and Lesbian Political Caucus, was not optimistic about her side's chances and Senate President Robert Travaglini was considering allowing a vote to adjourn without acting on the measure. Instead, on November 9, 2006, the legislators in convention voted 109 to 87 to recess until January 2, the last day of the legislative session. On November 19, 2006, Governor Romney led a rally against the General Court's delaying tactics in front of the Massachusetts State House. Romney said: "The issue before us is not whether same-sex couples should marry. The issue before us today is whether 109 legislators will follow the constitution." He said he would ask a justice of the SJC to order the initiative placed on the ballot because the legislators were refusing to fulfill their constitutional obligations. The next day, he sent the 109 legislators a copy of the State Constitution with a letter underscoring the document's provision that the legislators sitting as a constitutional convention shall vote on initiatives: "Not 'may' vote ... not 'could' vote ... not 'perhaps' vote ... It's very clear." His reference was to the clause: "final legislative action in the joint session ... shall be taken only by call of the yeas and nays". He filed the lawsuit as one member of a group of private citizens on November 24, citing 5 occasions in 24 years in which the General Court failed to vote on valid initiatives. Other plaintiffs included Ray Flynn and officials of VoteOnMarriage.org and the Catholic Action League of Massachusetts. Named as defendants were the Massachusetts Secretary of State, who oversees the preparation of election ballots, William F. Galvin, and the President of the Massachusetts Senate who chairs joint sessions of the General Court, Senator Travaglini. After a 20-minute hearing on November 30, Associate Justice Judith A. Cowin ordered an expedited hearing before the full SJC on December 20. At that hearing, both sides agreed that the SJC could not enforce an order against the General Court. An attorney for the plaintiffs said: "We're not asking you to tell the General Court how to do their business. We're only asking you to declare what their constitutional obligations are." The First Assistant Attorney General representing the General Court countered that the voters were free to replace the legislators at the next election. On December 27, 2006, the SJC ruled unanimously that Article 48 of the State Constitution requires legislators to take recorded votes on initiative amendments. The SJC's opinion authored by Justice John M. Greaney said the legislators' duties were "beyond serious debate", and described their constitutional obligations: Alt URL He explained that the court could take no action against the plaintiffs in the case: "[T]here is no presently articulated judicial remedy for the Legislature's indifference to, or defiance of, its constitutional duties. We have no statutory authority to issue a declaratory judgment concerning the constitutionality of the legislative action, or inaction, in this matter." VoteOnMarriage.org, which had gathered signatures on the proposal the legislators had failed to vote on, sued on December 13, asking a federal court to order them to vote or, in the absence of a vote, to order the amendment placed on the ballot. It also sought $500,000 from the 109 legislators who voted to adjourn, the cost of its signature-gathering campaign. Arline Isaacson, one of the leaders of the Massachusetts Gay and Lesbian Political Caucus, urged the General Court to adjourn without voting on the amendment. She said: "We know that if the Legislature votes on the amendment, we will lose this year and next year, and it will go to the ballot, where it will likely pass." Senator Brian Lees said he thought the General Court would not be swayed by the ruling and he stood by his opposition to taking a vote: "I will never vote to put a form of discrimination into the state constitution." Before the legislators met, Deval Patrick, who was due to succeed Romney as governor on January 4, 2007, said: "I hope by whatever means appropriate, the constitutional convention today ends this debate. I think a vote on adjournment is a vote on the merits." The joint session of the General Court, promptly after coming to order and without debate, voted on the amendment on January 2, 2007, the last day of its 2005–2006 session. There were 62 votes in favor and 132 opposed, a sufficient number to require the amendment's consideration at another constitutional convention. Isaacson said that the SJC ruling "really tipped the scales against us." ====Constitutional convention 2007==== When the General Court met as a constitutional convention in June 2007, observers anticipated a closer vote than the previous January because of retirements and some announced changes in position. Advocates of the amendment charged that the political pressure on legislators on the part of Governor Deval Patrick and legislative leaders included job offers and trading votes on other issues. Opponents of the amendment cast the vote as one of conscience and personal rather than political lobbying. The day before the convention, the state's four Roman Catholic bishops in a letter to legislators endorsed putting the issue to a popular vote: "[T]he marriage debate should not be reserved only to lawyers and lawmakers. Every citizen has a stake in the outcome, because every citizen has a stake in the well-being of the family." Cardinal O'Malley called several legislators to lobby for their votes and Governor Patrick said he offered some help in their re-election campaigns. On June 14, 2007, the convention opened and proceeded immediately to a vote on the issue without debate. The measure failed to obtain the required 50 votes, as 45 voted in favor, 151 opposed the measure, and four were absent or abstained from the vote. Two new legislators who were thought to support the amendment voted against it, while nine who had supported it in January, seven Democrats and two Republicans, changed their votes to oppose it. VoteOnMarriage.Org announced it would attempt to unseat legislators who had switched sides to defeat the amendment. ===Marriages of non-residents=== A Massachusetts law enacted in 1913 invalidated the marriage of non-residents if the marriage was invalid in the state where they lived. Historians and legal scholars believe it originated in an upsurge of anti- miscegenation sentiment associated with the notoriety of champion boxer Jack Johnson's marriages to white women. Though moribund for decades, it was used to prevent same-sex couples who were residents of other states from marrying in Massachusetts. As the date neared for the issuance of marriage licenses to same-sex couples, Governor Romney and some town clerks disputed how and whether that law should be enforced, and Romney had used the state's authority to block the same-sex marriages of non-residents from being properly recorded. He told a news conference: "We certainly won't record on our public health records marriages that are on the face of them not consistent with the law". The clerks soon relented under orders from Attorney General Reilly. In June 2004, GLAD brought a lawsuit, Cote-Whitacre v. Department of Public Health, on behalf of several out-of-state same-sex couples and several town clerks who objected to being forced to discriminate in denying licenses to such couples. The SJC upheld the law on March 30, 2006, though it allowed that residents of states like New York and Vermont, which did not explicitly exclude same-sex couples from marriage, might pursue the case further. On September 29, 2006, Superior Court Justice Thomas Connolly determined that same-sex couples who reside in Rhode Island can marry in Massachusetts after finding "that same-sex marriage is ... not prohibited in Rhode Island". Page 8. In May 2007, Judge Connolly declared valid the marriages of several same-sex couples, residents of New York, who married in Massachusetts before July 6, 2006, when a New York court issued a ruling that same-sex marriage was not legal there, New York's first explicit prohibition on same-sex marriage. In July 2007, the Department of Public Health ruled that same-sex couples from New Mexico, where whether the law prohibited same-sex marriage was disputed, can obtain marriage licenses in Massachusetts. On June 15, 2007, following the defeat of the initiative to amend the State Constitution, Kris Mineau of the Massachusetts Family Institute warned that gay and lesbian activists would try to repeal the 1913 law next so that "This radical social experiment will be exported to the other 49 states". He said its repeal would "open the floodgates for Massachusetts to become the Mecca for same-sex marriage. Their goal is to strike down the marriage restrictions in every state. Their launching pad will be Massachusetts." Isaacson said "no one is rushing" to take on that issue and that "In the short term, we want everyone to rest, breathe and appreciate the incredible victory that took place". Liberal columnist Ellen Goodman wrote: "Las Vegas? Mecca? So far, little Rhode Island is the only state that allows gay residents to wed in Massachusetts. We are the Las Vegas of Rhode Island." On June 30, 2008, the Williams Institute at the University of California, Los Angeles, in reply to an inquiry from Daniel O'Connell, Massachusetts Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, reported that it calculated that allowing non-resident same-sex couples to marry would add $37 million to the Massachusetts economy in each of the next three years and add 330 jobs for the same period. The Massachusetts General Court took up the repeal of the 1913 law the next month. On July 15, the Massachusetts Senate voted to repeal it on a unanimous voice vote. The House approved the legislation on July 29, 2008 on a 118 to 35 vote, and Governor Deval Patrick signed the bill into law on July 31. It took effect immediately. Patrick said: "I think other states will make their own judgments, and I expect them to–that's their own business. All we can do is tend our own garden, and make sure that it's weeded, and I think we've weeded out a discriminatory law that we should have." MassResistance mounted a petition drive for a referendum to reinstate the law in October 2008, but failed to collect enough signatures. ===Recognition of legal relationships from other jurisdictions=== On July 26, 2012, in a case involving a same-sex couple who established a civil union in Vermont in 2003, the SJC ruled unanimously in Elia-Warnken v. Elia that Massachusetts recognizes a same-sex civil union established in another jurisdiction as the legal equivalent of a marriage. Chief Justice Roderick L. Ireland wrote: "Refusing to recognize a legal spousal relationship that granted rights equal to those acquired through marriage, in a State that did not allow same-sex couples to marry at the time, would only perpetuate the discrimination against same-sex couples" that led the court to tell the Senate in 2004 that civil unions would not suffice as an alternative to marriage for same-sex couples. The SJC took a comparable position on September 12 with respect to domestic partnerships established in other jurisdictions in a case involving a California couple, Hunter v. Rose. ===Charron v. Amaral=== On July 10, 2008, the Supreme Judicial Court ruled unanimously that a surviving partner in a same-sex relationship, that was prevented from marrying before the same-sex marriage ban was declared unconstitutional, could not sue for loss of consortium. The court ruled that its decision in Goodridge could not be applied retroactively. Previously, the lower court had granted summary judgment to the defendants. ==Marriage statistics== In the first year, more than 6,200 same-sex couples had married in Massachusetts. That number fell to only 1,900 marriages in the second year. Out of the total of more than 8,100 marriages, 64% involved lesbian couples. In comparison, more than 36,000 heterosexual couples are married each year in Massachusetts. The number of marriage licenses issued to same-sex couples in Massachusetts leveled off at about 1,500 a year in 2006 and 2007. They represented about 4% of all marriages in the state. A total of 22,406 same-sex marriages were performed in Massachusetts from 2004 to 2012, mostly in Barnstable, Middlesex and Suffolk counties. Subtracting the first year total, an average of 2,025 marriages were performed each subsequent year. Massachusetts marriage statistics (2004–16) Year Heterosexual marriages Male marriages Lesbian marriages Total marriages % same-sex marriages 2004 27,196 2,176 3,945 33,317 18.37% 2005 37,447 736 1,324 39,507 5.21% 2006 36,550 543 899 37,993 3.80% 2007 36,373 591 933 37,897 4.02% 2008 34,734 865 1,303 36,923 5.87% 2009 33,582 1,083 1,731 36,407 7.73% 2010 34,094 852 1,483 36,429 6.41% 2011 34,115 800 1,412 36,327 6.09% 2012 35,142 722 1,191 37,055 5.16% 2013 33,168 1,502 1,694 36,820 8.68% 2014 33,592 1,182 1,475 36,284 7.32% 2015 35,446 903 1,094 37,450 5.33% 2016 37,582 911 1,119 39,652 5.12% Total 449,471 12,866 19,603 482,061 6.74% ==Public opinion== {| class="wikitable" |+style="font-size:100%" | Public opinion for same-sex marriage in Massachusetts |- ! style="width:190px;"| Poll source ! style="width:200px;"| Date(s) administered ! class=small | Sample size ! Margin of error ! style="width:100px;"| % support ! style="width:100px;"| % opposition ! style="width:40px;"| % no opinion |- | Public Religion Research Institute | align=center| March 11–December 14, 2022 | align=center| ? | align=center| ? | align=center| 83% | align=center| 12% | align=center| 5% |- | Public Religion Research Institute | align=center| March 8–November 9, 2021 | align=center| ? | align=center| ? | align=center| 85% | align=center| 14% | align=center| 1% |- | Public Religion Research Institute | align=center| January 7–December 20, 2020 | align=center| 1,017 random telephone interviewees | align=center| ? | align=center| 77% | align=center| 22% | align=center| 1% |- | Public Religion Research Institute | align=center| April 5–December 23, 2017 | align=center| 1,280 random telephone interviewees | align=center| ? | align=center| 80% | align=center| 13% | align=center| 7% |- | Public Religion Research Institute | align=center| May 18, 2016–January 10, 2017 | align=center| 1,952 random telephone interviewees | align=center| ? | align=center| 74% | align=center| 19% | align=center| 7% |- | Public Religion Research Institute | align=center| April 29, 2015–January 7, 2016 | align=center| 1,521 random telephone interviewees | align=center| ? | align=center| 76% | align=center| 18% | align=center| 6% |- | New York Times/CBS News/YouGov | align=center| September 20–October 1, 2014 | align=center| 2,389 likely voters | align=center| ± 2.2% | align=center| 71% | align=center| 19% | align=center| 10% |- | Public Religion Research Institute | align=center| April 2, 2014–January 4, 2015 | align=center| 984 random telephone interviewees | align=center| ? | align=center| 73% | align=center| 21% | align=center| 6% |- | Public Policy Polling | align=center| September 20–23, 2013 | align=center| 616 voters | align=center| ± 4% | align=center| 60% | align=center| 28% | align=center| 11% |- | Public Policy Polling | align=center| May 1–2, 2013 | align=center| 1,539 voters | align=center| ± 2.5% | align=center| 58% | align=center| 32% | align=center| 10% |- | Public Policy Polling | align=center| June 22–24, 2012 | align=center| 902 voters | align=center| ± 3.3% | align=center| 62% | align=center| 30% | align=center| 8% |- | Public Policy Polling | align=center| March 16–18, 2012 | align=center| 936 voters | align=center| ± 3.2% | align=center| 58% | align=center| 31% | align=center| 11% |- | Public Policy Polling | align=center| September 16–18, 2011 | align=center| 791 voters | align=center| ± 3.5% | align=center| 60% | align=center| 30% | align=center| 10% |- | Public Policy Polling | align=center| June 2–5, 2011 | align=center| 957 voters | align=center| ± 3.2% | align=center| 59% | align=center| 33% | align=center| 8% |- | Decision Research | align=center| 2005 | align=center| 600 registered voters | align=center| ± 4% | align=center| 62% | align=center| 35% | align=center| 3% |- | University of New Hampshire's Survey Center | align=center| March 5–8, 2005 | align=center| 501 adults | align=center| ± 4.4% | align=center| 56% | align=center| 37% | align=center| 7% |- | KRC Communications Research of Newton | align=center| February 18–19, 2004 | align=center| 400 adults | align=center| ± 5% | align=center| 35% | align=center| 53% | align=center| 10% |- | KRC Communications Research of Newton | align=center| 2003 | align=center| ? | align=center| ? | align=center| 48% | align=center| 43% | align=center| 9% |- | KRC Communications Research of Newton | align=center| 2003 | align=center| ? | align=center| ± 5% | align=center| 50% | align=center| 44% | align=center| 6% |- ==See also== * LGBT rights in Massachusetts * Same-sex marriage law in the United States by state * Same-sex marriage legislation in the United States * Same-sex marriage status in the United States by state * Divorce of same-sex couples ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * Text of the Goodridge v. Department of Public Health decision * Mary Bonauto, "Goodridge in Context", Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, v. 40 (2005) Category:2004 in LGBT history Category:2004 in Massachusetts Category:LGBT rights in Massachusetts Category:Massachusetts law Category:Political history of Massachusetts Massachusetts |
Metin Akdülger (born 10 April 1988) is a Turkish actor, writer, musician. He is co-writer of comic book series "Görmüş Geçirmiş Kaptan 88". His music band is "Journers". Akdülger, who took part in amateur plays and made short films during his youth, attended acting classes at his school due to his interest in acting while continuing his education at Koç University. He continued to take part in amateur theatre plays at the university. He joined the Craft Theatre team in 2012. His professional theatre career began in 2012 with his role in the play Tape. In 2013, he entered television, and began starring in the popular TV series Medcezir. In the same year, he made his cinematic debut with the movie Bensiz, in which he portrayed a footballer who suffers a stroke. After this experience, Akdülger returned to theatre by joining the cast of Mary, which went on stage in 2014 at Didaskali Theatre. In 2015, he starred in the period series Analar ve Anneler. In 2016, he took part in the play Kahramanlar Hep Erkek, an adaptation of Duygu Asena's autobiography Kadının Adı Yok. In the same year, he landed his first leading role in a TV series by portraying Murad IV in the second season of the historical show Muhteşem Yüzyıl: Kösem. After this series, Akdülger had a solo performance with the play Baldan Karanlık in 2017, which was well received by the critics. With his performance in the play, he received the "Promising Actor of the Year" at the 2nd Üstün Akmen Theatre Awards. In the same year, he appeared in the movie Kırık Kalpler Bankası. Akdülger had a leading role in My Favourite Fabric, which premiered at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival. He then continued his career with roles in the crime fiction series Şahsiyet in 2018 and the fantasy series Atiye in 2019. In addition to feature films, Akdülger has played in many short films throughout his career and has been a judge in many short film competitions. In late 2019, he formed the band Journers with Burak Yeşildurak and started making music. == Early life and education == Metin Akdülger was born on 10 April 1988 in Bursa. His family were Turkish immigrants from Thessaloniki and Skopje, and he spent his childhood on a farmhouse. He realized that he had an interest in acting while taking part in small plays in high school and shooting short films with his friends. But instead of enrolling in conservatory, he decided to study international relations and political science "to learn what is happening in the world". He moved from Bursa to Istanbul to study international relations at Koç University. When he was in the third year of his studies, he learned that Yıldız Kenter was teaching at his school and started to attend her classes. He was Kenter's assistant for a while. The first play he took part in at the university was an adaptation of Romeo and Juliet. He wanted the role of Tybalt in the play, but ended up portraying Romeo. After taking Kenter's classes, he decided to try method acting, and in 2012 he took acting lessons from Merve Taşkan. In the same year he started working with Craft Theatre. His first professional theatre debut came in 2012, with a role in an adaptation of Stephen Belber's Tape, which was directed by Tevfik Şahin. He portrayed the character of Vince on stage. ==Career== ===2013–2015: Medcezir and Bensiz=== Akdülger went to New York City to take further acting training after his first theatre experiences. When he was there, he stopped taking lessons because he thought that the techniques he would learn abroad could not be adapted to Turkish culture and industry upon his return to Istanbul. While in New York, he began preparations for a potential role in the Turkish adaptation of The O.C. titled Medcezir. He auditioned for the role when he returned to Turkey. In the same period, an offer was made for him to portray Şehzade Selim in the fourth season of Muhteşem Yüzyıl, for which he auditioned as well. At the end of the process, Akdülger began to portray the character of Orkun Civanoğlu in Medcezir. The series was directed by Ali Bilgin and premiered on 13 September 2013 on Star TV. It concluded after two seasons on 12 June 2015. After the series, Akdülger commented that "he did not comply with the role of villain, but he successfully overcame the [hardships of playing the] role". Radikal defended the character's motive and behavior in the series, mentioning that he "justifying reasons to be bad" and "the reason for the hatred in his eyes could be understood". Akdülger, who had previously met and worked with Ahmet Küçükkayalı, received an offer from him in 2013 to portray the character of Necip in a movie that was set to be written and directed by Küçükkayalı himself and Akdülger subsequently accepted the offer. The movie, called Bensiz, was released on 2 May 2014 as a mutual work by Turkey, Germany and France, in which he portrayed a football player in the amateur league called Necip, who becomes paralyzed following an illness. Akdülger started preparing for the role a year before the movie was released. He played football in the amateur league, joining the team Başıbüyük Spor in Maltepe for about three months, and together with his acting coach Merve Taşkan met paralyzed people in hospitals. He lost 17 kg in 40 days for the role. Akdülger believed that process wore him out but nourished him along the way. Akdülger's performance in the movie was praised by Hürriyet columnist Uğur Vardan. After making his television and cinematic debut, Akdülger portrayed Ganin in an adaptation of Mary, which was produced by Didaskali Theatre for the 19th Istanbul Theatre Festival in 2014 at the request of the Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts. Evaluating the play, Yaşam Kaya wrote that Akdülger is "successful and in the foreground". After Medcezir, it was reported that Akdülger would appear in a period drama written by Berkun Oya and directed by Mehmet Ada Öztekin. He later accepted the offer after reading the script and began meeting with the crew. Analar ve Anneler tells the stories of two young mothers leading different lives in 1970s and premiered on ATV on 22 October 2015. In this series, Akdülger played the role of Tahsin, the university friend of Sinem Kobal's character Zerrin. He later stated that he was "experiencing different things day by day through [playing] Tahsin," adding that playing a character from 1970s had deepened his relationship with his family, especially his father. The series concluded with 9 episodes. ===2016–2018: Muhteşem Yüzyıl: Kösem and Baldan Karanlık=== In 2016, Akdülger took part in the theatre play which was prepared for Duygu Asena's 70th birthday and adapted from the author's autobiographical novel, Kadının Adı Yok'. Produced by Akbank Sanat and directed by Kemal Hamamcıoğlu, Kahramanlar Hep Erkek went on stage in April 2016. In 2016, Akdülger refused the offer to play in the TV series No 309 on Fox. He later made an agreement with a producer for a new series which was set to be broadcast on the same channel. However, after receiving an offer to play Murad IV in Muhteşem Yüzyıl: Kösem he was reported to have terminated his contract. Akdülger shared the leading role with Nurgül Yeşilçay and Farah Zeynep Abdullah in the second season of this historical TV show which premiered on Fox on 18 November 2016 and ended on 27 June 2017. The season focused on the power struggles between Murad IV and his mother Kösem Sultan. Akdülger has described Muhteşem Yüzyıl: Kösem as a turning point in his career. Sema Karabıyık from Yeni Şafak from Akdülger's portrayal of Muard IV not exceptional, a viewpoint supported by Sabah columnist Mevlüt Tezel who believed casting him in this role was "a big mistake". Besides appearing on television, Akdülger was a cast member on Onur Ünlü's Kırık Kalpler Bankası which was released on 13 April 2017 during the 36th International Istanbul Film Festival. In this movie, which was a modern comedy adaptation of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, Akdülger portrayed a footballer name Turan. In the fall of 2017, Akdülger started working for the one-man show Baldan Karanlık, written and directed by Hamamcıoğlu. The play, which was about the story of an abandoned dog, went on stage for the first time on 9 December 2017. Akdülger later stated that this show had brought him to life after working for a long time on television; adding that he had found the story very motivational and said, "there's no need to do some dramaturgical crazy work because the play is on fire itself. As a result, your field of exploration as an actor increases. It has a very sincere language for me. This is reflected in my performance." Akdülger's physical performance was admired by Akşam, and Ranini.tv praised him for his simple and powerful performance. Vatan also wrote that the audience were impressed by "the magnificent performance" of the actor. For his performance in Baldan Karanlık, Akdülger shared the "Promising Actor of the Year" award with Efe Erkekli and Ozan Dolunay at the 2nd Üstün Akmen Theatre Awards. In February 2018, it was announced that Akdülger would join the cast of Puhutv's miniseries Şahsiyet. The series was directed by Onur Saylak and written by Hakan Günday, in which Akdülger plays the role of a journalist and DJ named Ateş Arbay who helps Cansu Dere's character Nevra in solving the murders committed by an old retired court clerk. The series premiered on 17 March 2018 and concluded with 12 episodes. In 2018, Akdülger appeared in a main role in Gaya Jiji's My Favourite Fabric, in which he played an imaginary man that appears to a young woman who is about to get married amidst the Syrian civil war but wants to pursue her dreams. The movie was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival. ===2019–present: My Favourite Fabric and The Gift=== In March 2019, it was reported that Akdülger had joined the cast of Netflix's new fantasy drama series The Gift and its principal photography was underway. The series is centered around Atiye portrayed by Beren Saat, an artist who comes across universal secrets in Göbekli Tepe, Anatolia. Akdülger played the role of Atiye's boyfriend Ozan, the son of a wealthy businessman. Anibal Güleroğlu from Milliyet found Ozan as one of the "most believable" characters in the series. Its first season premiered on 27 December 2019. Its second season was released in September 2020, followed by a third and final season in June 2021. Akdülger appeared in a feature film, titled One-Way to Tomorrow, by Ozan Açıktan in 2020 opposite Dilan Çiçek Deniz which tells the story of two people traveling from Ankara to İzmir to attend the same wedding. It was released on 19 June 2020. ==Personal life and other activities== Akdülger says that since he was the youngest child of his family, he had a lonely childhood. He liked painting when he was young, and during his high school years, he played bass guitar and had formed a rock band with his friends. He played American football at university. In May 2020, he said that he had been practicing veganism for 6–7 months. He says that he has not had a TV at home since his university years. Akdülger who is interested in writing besides acting, stated in a 2018 interview that he had prepared three short plays and two long ones, yet he believed he take them to stage in the future as a producer, rather than an actor or director. In May 2020, during an interview for XOXO The Mag, Akdülger said that he had been working on a script with a friend from Bursa for the past 3 years. Akdülger has had roles in many short films besides feature films. He has appeared in many videos on Hamamcıoğlu's YouTube channel. Together with his high school friend, Burak Yeşildurak, he founded the music band Journers and together they released a single titled "Döngüm" in December 2019. Akdülger said that forming a band called Journers was on Yeşildurak's mind for a long time, and the band was founded when they made the song "Döngüm" to support each other during a difficult period in their lives. Since they needed a more professional person with a knowledge of music to help with live performances, their high school friend Mehmet Can Erdek joined the band and Akdülger said that new people might join them in the future. The band released the song "Bırak Aksın" on 9 March 2020, for which an animated music video was released on 14 May. On 30 April 2020, he released the songs "Aşk Canavarı" and "İstiyorum Elbet" with the same band. Akdülger says that he does not self-identify as a musician but he "enjoys" making music. He contributes to the songs as a vocalist, songwriter and bassline composer. Akdülger was a judge in the Univision section of the 2018 KısaKes Film Festival. In 2019, he curated the selection of short movies from Turkey at the 18th !f Istanbul International Independent Film Festival. In the same year, he was a judge in the national fiction category at the 20th International İzmir Short Film Festival. He also served as a judge at the 1st Umursuyorum (I Care About) Short Animated Film competition organized by Bahçeşehir University and Turkey Spinal Cord Injury Association, with whom he had worked while preparing for his role in Bensiz. In 2020, he voiced the digital version of Abdussamed Delen's novel Ahşap Kulübe, which was published by the association. == Filmography == ===Television=== TV series Year Title Role Notes 2013–2015 Medcezir Orkun 2015 Analar ve Anneler Tahsin 2016–2017 Muhteşem Yüzyıl: Kösem Murad IV Main role (season 2) 2018 Şahsiyet Ateş Arbay Web series 2019 Tek Yürek Desyus 2019–2021 Atiye Ozan Web series 2021–2022 Kulüp Orhan Şahin Web series 2022– Between the World and Us Kenan Web series ===Film=== Movies Year Title Role Notes Ref. 2013 The Mask Police Short film 2014 Bensiz Necip 2015 Farewellcome Young man Short film 2016 Yok, Sağ Ol Short film 2016 Tereddüt Guest appearance 2017 Kırık Kalpler Bankası Turan It was shown at festivals and events, but was not publicly released. 2019 My Favourite Fabric Dreaming man 2019 The Ruse Benjamin Short film, Akdülger is also one of the producers. 2020 One-Way to Tomorrow Ali Netflix's first original Turkish movie 2020 İnsanlar İkiye Ayrılır Barış Guest appearance === Music videos === Music videos Year Title Role Notes Ref. 2016 "Yine Buluşuruz" Korhan Futacı, Kara Orkestra and Yasemin Mori's music video. 2019 "Bekliyodum Bayadır" Cameo F.A.'s music video ==Theatre== Plays Year Title Role 2012 Tape Vince 2014 Mary Ganin 2016 Kahramanlar Hep Erkek Himself 2017 Baldan Karanlık Dog == Awards == Award Ceremony Category Work Result 2nd Üstün Akmen Theatre Awards 2 May 2018 Promising Actor of the Year Baldan Karanlık ==References== ==External links== * * Category:Living people Category:1988 births Category:Turkish male stage actors Category:Turkish male television actors Category:Turkish male film actors Category:Koç University alumni Category:People from Bursa |
Taal Volcano (; ) is a large caldera filled by Taal Lake in the Philippines. Located in the province of Batangas, the volcano is second of the most active volcanoes in the country, with 38 recorded historical eruptions, all of which were concentrated on Volcano Island, near the middle of Taal Lake. The caldera was formed by prehistoric eruptions between 140,000 and 5,380 BP. The volcano is located about south of Manila, the capital of the Philippines. Taal Volcano has had several violent eruptions in the past, causing deaths on the island and the populated areas surrounding the lake, with an overall death toll of about 6,000. Because of its proximity to populated areas and its eruptive history, the volcano was designated a Decade Volcano, worthy of close study to prevent future natural disasters. All volcanoes in the Philippines are part of the Ring of Fire. == Etymology == Taal Volcano was known as Bombou or Bombon in the 1800s. The municipality of Taal and the Taa-lan River (now known as Pansipit River) were named after the Taa-lan tree, which grows along the river. The tree also grew along the shore of Bombon Lake (now known as Taal Lake). The Taa-lan River was a narrow channel that connects the present-day Taal Lake and Balayan Bay to each other. Taal is a Tagalog word in the Batangueño dialect that means true, genuine, and pure. == Geography == Taal Volcano is part of a chain of volcanoes lining the western edge of the island of Luzon. They were formed by the subduction of the Eurasian Plate underneath the Philippine Mobile Belt. Taal Lake lies within a caldera formed by explosive eruptions between 140,000 and 5,380 BP. Each of these eruptions created extensive ignimbrite deposits reaching as far away as present-day Manila. Taal Volcano and Lake are entirely located in the province of Batangas. The northern half of Volcano Island falls under the jurisdiction of the lake shore town of Talisay, and the southern half in San Nicolas. The other communities that encircle Taal Lake include the cities of Tanauan and Lipa, and the municipalities of Talisay, Laurel, Agoncillo, Santa Teresita, San Nicolas, Alitagtag, Cuenca, Balete, and Mataasnakahoy. Permanent settlement on the island is prohibited by the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), declaring the whole Volcano Island as a high-risk area and a Permanent Danger Zone (PDZ). Despite the warnings, some families remain settled on the island, earning a living by fishing and farming crops in the rich volcanic soil. Since the formation of the caldera, subsequent eruptions have created a volcanic island within the caldera, known as Volcano Island. This island covers an area of about with the center of the island occupied by the Main Crater with a single crater lake formed from the 1911 eruption. The island consists of different overlapping cones and craters, of which forty-seven have been identified. Twenty six of these are tuff cones, five are cinder cones, and four are maars. The Main Crater Lake on Volcano Island is the largest lake on an island in a lake on an island in the world. This lake used to contain Vulcan Point, a small rocky island inside the lake. After the 2020 eruption, the Main Crater Lake temporarily disappeared due to volcanic activity, but had returned by March 2020. == Eruptions == === Pre-20th century === There were 42 recorded eruptions at Taal between 1572 and 1977. The first recorded eruption occurred in 1572, the year Augustinian friars founded the town of Taal on the shores of the lake (on what is now San Nicolas, Batangas). In 1591, another mild eruption took place, producing great masses of smoke from the crater. From 1605 to 1611, the volcano displayed such great activity that Father Tomas de Abreu had a huge cross of anubing wood erected on the brink of the crater.Lyons, Norbert. "Taal, One of the World's Great Volcanoes", American Chamber of Commerce Journal, Philippine Islands, p. 7 thumb|The dormant Binintiang Malaki (Big Leg) cone was the center of the 1707 and 1715 eruptions. Between 1707 and 1731, the center of volcanic activity shifted from the Main Crater to other parts of Volcano Island. The eruptions of 1707 and 1715 occurred in Binintiang Malaki (Giant Leg) crater, the cinder cone visible from Tagaytay Ridge, and was accompanied by thunder and lightning. Minor eruptions also occurred in Binintiang Munti crater on the westernmost tip of the island in 1709 and 1729. A more violent event happened on September 24, 1716, blowing out the entire southeastern portion of the crater of Calauit, opposite Mount Macolod. Father Manuel de Arce noted that the 1716 eruption "killed all the fishes...as if they had been cooked, since the water had been heated to a degree that it appeared to have been taken from a boiling caldron". The 1731 eruption off Pira-Piraso, the eastern tip of the island, created a new island. The Main Crater began experiencing further activity on August 11, 1749, and its eruptions were particularly violent (VEI = 4) until 1753. Then came the great 200-day eruption of 1754, Taal Volcano's greatest recorded eruption, which lasted from May 15 to December 12. The eruption caused the relocation of the towns of Tanauan, Taal, Lipa and Sala. The Pansipit River was blocked, causing the water level in the lake to rise. Father Bencuchillo stated that of Taal, "nothing was left...except the walls of the church and convent...everything was buried beneath a layer of stones, mud, and ashes". After the great eruption, Taal Volcano remained quiet for 54 years besides from a minor eruption in 1790. Not until March 1808 did another big eruption occur. While this outbreak was not as violent as the one in 1754, the immediate vicinity was covered with ashes to a depth of . The eruption brought great changes in the interior of the crater, according to chroniclers of that time. According to Friar Miguel Saderra Maso, "Before [the eruption], the bottom looked very deep and seemed unfathomable, but at the bottom, a liquid mass was seen in continual ebullition. After the eruption, the crater had widened and the pond within it had been reduced to one-third and the rest of the crater floor was higher and dry enough to walk over it. The height of the crater walls has diminished and near the center of the new crater floor, a little hill that continually emitted smoke. On its sides were several wells, one of which was especially remarkable for its size." On July 19, 1874, an eruption of gases and ashes from the volcano killed all the livestock on the volcano island. From November 12–15, 1878, ashes ejected by the volcano covered the entire island. Another eruption took place in 1904, which created a new outlet in the southeastern wall of the principal crater. Before 2020, the last eruption from the main crater was in 1911, which obliterated the crater floor creating the present lake. In 1965, a huge explosion sliced off a huge part of the island, moving activity to a new eruption center, Mount Tabaro. === 1911 eruption === thumb|upright=2|Taal Volcano's crater before the 1911 eruption, with the central cone and one of the lakes on the crater floor thumb|Aerial view of Taal Volcano in Lake Taal, circa 1930s One of the more devastating eruptions of Taal took place in January 1911. During the night of the 27th of that month, the seismographs at the Manila Observatory commenced to register frequent disturbances, which were at first of insignificant importance, but increased rapidly in frequency and intensity. The total recorded shocks on that day numbered 26. During the 28th there were recorded 217 distinct shocks, of which 135 were microseismic and 10 quite severe. The frequent and increasingly strong earthquakes caused much alarm in Manila, but the observatory staff was soon able to locate their epicenter in the region of Taal Volcano and assured the public that Manila was in no danger, as Taal was some away, too far to directly damage the city. In Manila, in the early hours of January 30, people were awakened by what they at first perceived as loud thunder. The illusion was heightened when lightning illuminated the southern skies. A huge, fan-shaped cloud of what looked like black smoke ascended to great heights, crisscrossed with a brilliant display of volcanic lightning. This cloud finally shot up in the air, spread, then dissipated, marking the culmination of the eruption, at about 2:30 am. On Volcano Island, the destruction was complete. It seems that when the black, fan-shaped cloud spread, it created a blast downward that forced hot steam and gases down the slopes of the crater, accompanied by a shower of hot mud and sand. Many trees had their bark shredded and cut away from the surface by the hot sand and mud. This shower was the main cause of the loss of life and destruction of property around the volcano. The fact that practically all the vegetation was bent downward, away from the crater, suggested that there must have been a very strong blast down the outside slopes of the cone. Very little vegetation was actually burned or even scorched. Six hours after the explosion, dust from the crater was noticeable in Manila as it settled on furniture and other polished surfaces. The solid matter ejected had a volume of between 70 and 80 million cubic metres (2.5 and 2.8 billion cu ft). Ash fell over an area of , although the area in which actual destruction took place measured only . The detonation from the explosion was heard over an area more than in diameter. ==== Death toll ==== The eruption of the volcano claimed a reported 1100 lives and injured 199, although it is assumed that more perished than the official records show. The seven barangays that existed on the island previous to the eruption were completely wiped out. Post mortem examination of the victims seemed to show that practically all had died of scalding by hot steam or hot mud, or both. The devastating effects of the blast reached the west shore of the lake, where a number of villages were also destroyed. 702 cattle were killed and 543 nipa houses destroyed. Crops suffered from the deposit of ashes that fell to a depth of almost half an inch in places near the shore of the lake. thumb|upright=1.25|Main Crater with Vulcan Point Island in 2009 ==== Aftermath ==== Volcano Island sank between as a result of the eruption. It was also found that the southern shore of Lake Taal sank because of the eruption. No evidences of lava could be discovered anywhere, nor have geologists been able to trace any visible records of a lava flow having occurred at any time on the volcano during the eruption. Another peculiarity of the geologic aspects of Taal is the fact that no sulphur has been found on the volcano. The yellow deposits and encrustations noticeable in the crater and its vicinity are iron salts, according to chemical analysis. A slight smell of sulfur was perceptible at the volcano, which came from the gases that escaped from the crater. Great changes took place in the crater after the eruption. Before 1911, the crater floor was higher than Taal lake and had several separate openings in which there were lakes of different colors. There was a green lake, a yellow lake, a red lake and some holes filled with hot water from which steam issued. Many places were covered with a shaky crust of volcanic material, full of crevices, which was always hot and on which it was rather dangerous to walk. Immediately after the explosion, the various colored lakes had disappeared and in their place was one large lake, about ten feet below the level of the lake surrounding the island. The crater lake gradually rose to the level of the water in Taal Lake. Popular opinions after the creation of the lake held that the presence of the water in the crater cooled off the material below and thus lessened the chances of an explosion or the extinction of the volcano. This explanation has since been rejected by experts. The subsequent eruptions in 1965 and successive activity came from a new eruptive center, Mount Tabaro. Ten years after the eruption, no changes in the general outline of the island could be discerned from a distance. On the island, however, many changes were noted. The vegetation had increased; great stretches that were formerly barren and covered with white ashes and cinders became covered with vegetation. === 1965 to 1977 eruptions === thumb|upright=1|Cinder cone and embayment created by the 1965 eruption There was another period of volcanic activity on Taal from 1965 to 1977, with the area of activity concentrated in the vicinity of Mount Tabaro. The 1965 eruption was classified as phreatomagmatic, generated by the interaction of magma with the lake water to produce the violent explosion that cut an embayment on Volcano Island. The eruption generated "cold" base surges which travelled several kilometers across Lake Taal, devastating villages on the lake shore and killing about a hundred people. One American geologist, who had witnessed an atomic bomb explosion as a soldier, visited the volcano shortly after the 1965 eruption and recognised "base surge" (now called pyroclastic surge) as a process in volcanic eruption. Precursory signs were not interpreted correctly until after the eruption; the population of the island was evacuated only after the onset of the eruption. After nine months of repose, Taal reactivated on July 5, 1966, with another phreatomagmatic eruption from Mount Tabaro, followed by another similar eruption on August 16, 1967. The Strombolian eruptions, which started five months after on January 31, 1968, produced the first historical lava fountaining witnessed from Taal. Another Strombolian eruption followed a year later on October 29, 1969. The massive flows from the two eruptions eventually covered the bay created by the 1965 eruption, reaching the shore of Lake Taal. The last major activities on the volcano during this period were the phreatic eruptions of 1976 and 1977. === Early 21st century === thumb|Taal Volcano is a complex volcano located on the island of Luzon in the Philippines. Since the 1977 eruption, the volcano had shown signs of unrest since 1991, with strong seismic activity and ground fracturing events as well as the formation of small mud pots and mud geysers on parts of the island. The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) regularly issued notices and warnings about current activity at Taal, including about the ongoing seismic unrest. ==== 2008 ==== On August 28, the PHIVOLCS notified the public and authorities that the Taal seismic network recorded 10 volcanic earthquakes from 05:30 to 15:00. ==== 2010 ==== On June 8, the PHIVOLCS raised the volcano status to Alert Level 2 (scale is 0–5, 0 referring to No Alert status), which indicates the volcano is undergoing magmatic intrusion, a precursor to an eruption. PHIVOLCS reminded the general public that the Main Crater was off-limits due to the possibility of hazardous steam-driven explosions and build-up of toxic gases. Areas with hot ground and steam emissions, such as portions of the Daang Kastila Trail, are considered hazardous. From May 11–24, Main Crater Lake's temperature increased by . The composition of Main Crater Lake water has shown above normal values of MgCl, SO4Cl, and Total Dissolved Solids. There has been ground steaming, accompanied by hissing sounds, on the northern and northeast sides of the main crater. On April 26, the volcanic seismicity was reported to have had increased. ==== 2011 ==== From April 9 to July 5, the alert level on Taal Volcano was raised from 1 to 2 because of the increased seismicity of Volcano Island. Frequency peaked at about 115 tremors on May 30 with a maximum intensity of IV, accompanied by rumbling sounds. Magma was intruding towards the surface, as indicated by continuing high rates of CO2 emissions in the Main Crater Lake and sustained seismic activity. Field measurements on May 24 showed that lake temperatures had increased slightly, pH values were slightly more acidic, and water levels were higher. A deformation survey conducted around Volcano Island from April 26 to May 3 showed that the volcano edifice had inflated slightly relative to the April 5–11 survey. === 2019 to 2022 activity and eruption === ==== 2019 ==== Alert Level 1 was raised on the volcano because of frequent volcanic activities since March. Based on the 24-hour monitoring of the Taal Volcano's seismic network, 57 volcanic earthquakes were observed from the morning of November 11 to the morning of November 12. ==== 2020 ==== thumb|The January 12, 2020, eruption The volcano erupted on the afternoon of January 12, with the alert level of the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) escalating from Alert Level 2 to Alert Level 4. It was an eruption from the main crater on Volcano Island. The eruption spewed ashes to Calabarzon, Metro Manila, some parts of Central Luzon, and Pangasinan, in the Ilocos Region, which cancelled classes, work schedules, and flights. Ashfalls and volcanic thunderstorms were reported, and forced evacuations were made from the island. There were also warnings of a possible volcanic tsunami. The volcano produced volcanic lightning above its crater with ash clouds. The eruption progressed into a magmatic eruption, characterized by a lava fountain with thunder and lightning. By January 26, 2020, PHIVOLCS observed an inconsistent, but decreasing volcanic activity in Taal, prompting the agency to downgrade its warning to Alert Level 3. On February 14, PHIVOLCS downgraded the volcano's warning to Alert Level 2, due to consistent decreased volcanic activity. A total of 39 people died in the eruption, mostly because they refused to leave their homes or suffered health-related problems during the evacuation. ==== 2021 ==== In February, residents from Taal Volcano Island were preemptively evacuated due to the volcano's increasing activity. On March 9, 2021, PHIVOLCS raised the alert level from 1 to 2. In June, the volcano's emission of sulfur dioxide gas caused vog to appear over nearby provinces, and even Metro Manila. On July 1, the volcano erupted at around 3:16 p.m, and the alert level was raised from Alert Level 2 to Level 3. Five eruptions were recorded on July 7. On July 23, PHIVOLCS lowered the alert level status from Alert Level 3 to Level 2. ==== 2022 ==== Between January 29 and 30, the volcano had nine phreatomagmatic bursts on its main crater. On March 26, PHIVOLCS raised the volcano's alert level status to Alert Level 3 due to a short lived-phreatomagmatic eruption with the evacuation of around 1,100 residents around the area and surrounding towns. Two phreatomagmatic events were recorded in which it emitted toxic plumes of 800 meters and 400 meters. Locals have then reported an explosion near the crater around 1:00 PM (Philippine Time) with subsequent spurs of ashes around the lake. High level toxic emissions have been recorded as well as 14 volcanic earthquakes and 10 volcanic tremors within the day. The next day on March 27, volcanic activities were relatively tranquil with almost no recorded earthquakes although sulfur dioxide emission still measured at 1,140 tons. The National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC) estimated that some 3,850 individuals were displaced on Monday, March 28. On April 9, PHIVOLCS downgraded again the alert level status from Level 3 to Level 2. It was then downgraded further to Alert Level 1 after around three months on July 11. On August 3, PHILVOLCS recorded a low-level unrest of the volcano with the increase of sulfur dioxide (SO2) emission. Thereupon, the alert level 1 warning was raised although evacuation of nearby population was not yet implemented. Abnormal spike of sulfur in the atmosphere was measured up to 12,125 tons that day. For comparison, daily and usual sulfur dioxide emission was measured up to 4,952 tons since July 15. Volcanic smog, or vog, and toxic gases were largely observed in Batangas and surrounding towns since August 2. ===2023=== In June, sulfur dioxide levels around the volcano recorded a massive increase, causing a vog that forced the suspension of classes in Laurel and Talisay, as well as in parts of Agoncillo. On 29 June, PHIVOLCS recorded a phreatic burst that lasted for one minute and eight seconds. == Activity monitoring == thumb|A solar-powered remote monitoring station located at Taal Volcano island ===Alert levels=== PHIVOLCS maintains a distinct Alert Level system for six volcanoes in the Philippines, including Taal Volcano. There are six levels in the system, numbered 0 to 5. Taal Volcano Alert Signals Alert Level Criteria Interpretation 0 Background, quiet No eruption in foreseeable future. 1 Low level seismicity, fumarolic, other activity Magmatic, tectonic or hydrothermal disturbance; no eruption imminent. 2 Low to moderate level of seismicity, persistence of local but unfelt earthquakes. Ground deformation measurements above baseline levels. Increased water and/or ground probe hole temperatures, increased bubbling at Crater Lake. 3 Relatively high unrest manifested by seismic swarms including increasing occurrence of low frequency earthquakes and/or harmonic tremor (some events felt). Sudden or increasing changes in temperature or bubbling activity or radon gas emission or crater lake pH. Bulging of the edifice and fissuring may accompany seismicity. 4 Intense unrest, continuing seismic swarms, including harmonic tremor and/or "low frequency earthquakes" which are usually felt, profuse steaming along existing and perhaps new vents and fissures. Hazardous eruption is possible within days. 5 Base surges accompanied by eruption columns or lava fountaining or lava flows. Hazardous eruption in progress. Extreme hazards to communities west of the volcano and ashfalls on downwind sectors. === Eruption precursors at Taal=== * Increase in frequency of volcanic quakes with occasional seismic events accompanied by rumbling sounds. * On the Main Crater Lake, changes in the water temperature, level, and bubbling or boiling activity on the lake. Before the 1965 eruption began, the lake's temperature rose to about degrees above normal. However, with some eruptions, there is no reported increase in the lake's temperature. * Development of new or reactivation of old thermal areas like fumaroles, geysers or mudpots. * Ground inflation or ground fissuring. * Increase in temperature of ground probe holes on monitoring stations. * Strong sulfuric odor or irritating fumes similar to rotten eggs. * Fish dieoffs and the drying up of vegetation. ==== Other possible precursors ==== Volcanologists measuring the concentration of radon gas in the soil on Volcano island measured an anomalous increase of radon concentration by a factor of six in October 1994. This increase was followed 22 days later by the magnitude 7.1 Mindoro earthquake on November 15, centered about south of Taal, off the coast of Luzon. A typhoon had passed through the area a few days before the radon spike was measured, but when Typhoon Angela, one of the most powerful to strike the area in ten years, crossed Luzon on almost the same track a year later, no radon spike was measured. Typhoons, therefore, were ruled out as the cause, and strong evidence suggests that the radon originated in the stress accumulation before the earthquake. == References == == External links == * * Taal Volcano Eruptions 1572–1911 from RWTH Aachen University Web Site * Taal Volcano Eruptions 1600–2010 from Google Category:Volcanoes of Luzon Category:Taal Lake Category:Landforms of Batangas Category:National geological monuments of the Philippines Category:Decade Volcanoes Category:Calderas of the Philippines Category:Volcanic crater lakes Category:VEI-6 volcanoes Category:Active volcanoes of the Philippines Category:Protected landscapes of the Philippines Category:21st-century volcanic events Category:20th-century volcanic events Category:16th-century volcanic events Category:Tourist attractions in Batangas Category:Holocene calderas Category:Volcanic lakes of the Philippines |
Portchester Castle is a medieval fortress that was developed within the walls of the Roman Saxon Shore fort of Portus Adurni at Portchester, to the east of Fareham in Hampshire. The keep was probably built in the late 11th century as a baronial castle and Portchester was taken under royal control in 1154. The monarchy controlled the castle for several centuries and it was a favoured hunting lodge of King John. It was besieged and captured by the French in 1216 before permanently returning to English control shortly thereafter. Occupying a commanding position at the head of Portsmouth Harbour, in the medieval period Portchester was an important port. The castle saw the embarkation for several campaigns to France led by England's kings. In anticipation of a French invasion during the first quarter of the 14th century, Edward II spent £1,100 repairing and reinforcing Portchester Castle. A plot to overthrow Henry V was discovered and the culprits apprehended at Portchester; this event features in Shakespeare's play, Henry V. Later in its history, the castle was used as a prison. Today Portchester Castle is a Scheduled Ancient Monument, and a Grade I listed building. The castle has been in the ownership of the Southwick Estate since the 17th century but is managed by English Heritage and open to visitors throughout the year. The Norman church, St. Mary's, which stands in the south-east corner of the grounds, falls within the Anglican Diocese of Portsmouth. ==Background== thumb|left|The D-shaped towers are typical of 3rd-century Roman forts. The Roman defences were integrated into the medieval castle. The strategic importance of Portchester has been recognised since at least the 3rd century when a Roman fort was established on the site. Though it is uncertain exactly when the fort was constructed, it is thought that it was built by Marcus Aurelius Carausius on the instructions of emperor Diocletian between 285 and 290. It was one of several forts built along the British coast in the period to combat raids by pirates. Portchester was probably a base from which the Classis Britannica, the Roman fleet defending Britain, operated. It is the best preserved Roman fort north of the Alps. Although the Roman army retreated from Britain in the early 5th century, it is unlikely that the fort was ever completely abandoned, although its use continued on a much smaller scale. A 10th-century hall and tower were discovered within the fort, suggesting it was a high-status residence during the Saxon period. In 904, Portchester came into the possession of King Edward the Elder and the fort became a burh to help defend the country against Vikings, as listed in the Burghal Hidage. ==Medieval castle and palace== 300px|thumb|right|The outer bailey with the church as seen from the keep It is uncertain when the castle was built, although it was probably in the late 11th century. In the aftermath of the Norman Conquest, the manor of Portchester was granted to William Maudit, an associate of William the Conqueror and a powerful magnate and it was probably he who built Portchester Castle. The form of this early castle is uncertain, although Maudit was probably responsible for creating the inner ward in the north-west corner of the fort. At this point it would probably have been defended by a wooden palisade and a moat, with the original Roman stone walls of the fort acting as the defence of the outer bailey. Maudit died in about 1100, and his property passed onto his son, Robert Maudit. He died in 1120, and a few years later the family estates came into the hands of William Pont de l'Arche through marriage to Robert Maudit's daughter. Although the castle was still unrecorded in this period, it was probably at this point that it was rebuilt in stone. The evidence for this is that the stonework of the castle is similar to that of St Mary's parish church, which was built in the 1130s in the outer bailey. The church was built for an Augustinian priory which Pont de l'Arche established within the castle in 1128. Other buildings would have been planned for the priory, although almost no trace of them survives. As the community moved to a new site at Southwick between 1147 and 1150, the buildings may never have been completed. William Pont de l'Arche probably retained possession of Portchester Castle until his death in 1148, although who inherited it is uncertain. It may have passed to William Maudit, a descendant of the Maudit who most likely founded the castle, or Henry Maudit, William de l'Arche's son. The earliest extant reference to the castle is in a grant from 1153 in which Henry Plantagenet, later King Henry II granted the castle to Henry Maudit. Regardless, when Henry ascended to the throne in 1154 he took over possession of Portchester Castle. It would remain in royal control for several centuries. More records survive from the castle's period as a royal fortress than the previous period; the royal accounts provide details of the castle's condition and structure. For instance, as only small sums were spent on the keep during the royal tenure, it is assumed that it was largely complete, and in 1183 the Rolls record that there were royal apartments separate from the keep. Henry II regularly visited Portchester, and it featured in his dispute with Thomas Becket. It was here that Henry met with the Bishop of Évreux who spoke on Becket's behalf. The castle was also used as a prison for important people, such as the Earl of Leicester. When Henry II's sons rebelled against him with the support of some leading barons in the Revolt of 1173–1174, Portchester was made ready for war. In preparation to defend the castle, catapults were made and it was garrisoned with ten knights, later increased to 20. thumb|left|Aerial image of the castle King John often stayed at Portchester Castle and was there when he heard of the Loss of Normandy in 1204. The Forest of Bere was nearby, making Portchester a popular place for the king to stay recreationally. Portchester was also the departure point of missions to France in 1205 and 1213 as John tried to recover Normandy from Philip Augustus, the King of France. John's trips to France ended in defeat. After sealing Magna Carta in 1215, John appealed to the pope to annul it. As a result, his opponents were excommunicated in September. At this point, he laid siege to Rochester Castle and the rebels turned to France for help. The barons offered the throne to Prince Louis, the oldest son of the French king. Louis' campaign was initially successful and he captured London and Winchester before Portchester Castle surrendered to his forces in June 1216. John died on 19 October 1216, and nine days later his eldest son was crowned King Henry. Louis' fortunes took a turn for the worse, and Portchester Castle was recaptured in the spring of 1217. There was a stalemate between Henry III and Louis until the English victory at the Battle of Lincoln on 20 May. After his supply lines with France were cut in August, Louis was bribed to leave England. Henry tried to recapture Normandy, which was lost by his predecessor, until conditions in England forced him to abandon them in 1259, and Portchester was a frequent departure point for troops on campaign. For most of the century little attention was paid to the castle's defences, however towards the end of the century a wooden tower was built to reinforce the eastern Roman wall. During the reign of Edward II (1307–1327), a French invasion was anticipated and Portchester garrisoned. The Crown spent more than £1,100 repairing and reinforcing Portchester Castle between 1320 and 1326. The buildings of the inner ward were remodelled and the outer gatehouses extended. Despite the expensive work undertaken by Edward II, a survey of 1335 recorded that many of the castle's buildings were in a ruinous state, and the south wall of the Roman fort had been damaged by the sea. Although he infrequently stayed at Portchester, in June 1346 Edward III assembled his 15,000 strong army there before leaving for France on the campaign that ended in victory at the Battle of Crécy. Further work was carried out in the 1350s and 1360s when the domestic buildings within the castle were reordered and the sea wall repaired. Between 1396 and 1399 the royal apartments that stand today, albeit in a ruined state, were built for Richard II under master mason Walter Walton. thumb|left|View of Portchester Castle from Picturesque Views of the Antiquities of England & Wales (1786) In 1415, King Henry V was making preparations at Portchester Castle for a campaign in France, part of the Hundred Years' War between the two countries. While at Portchester in July a conspiracy, known as the Southampton Plot, to overthrow Henry was uncovered. It was at the castle that he arrested the conspirators: Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge, Henry Scrope, 3rd Baron Scrope of Masham, and Sir Thomas Grey. The three men were executed in early August. In the 15th century the nearby town of Portsmouth some away grew to become a significant economic centre and an important port. It took over from Portchester as a place of military importance, and the castle entered a period of decline. A survey from 1441 noted the castle was "right ruinous and feeble". Despite its state, when Margaret of Anjou, wife of Henry VI, landed in England in 1445, Portchester Castle was selected as her port of arrival. The castle was allowed to continue to languish until the last decade of the century attempts were made to repair the castle's buildings. When Henry VIII visited with Queen Anne Boleyn in 1535 October, it was the first time in over a century that the reigning monarch had been to the castle. thumb|Portchester Castle from seawards Between October 1562 and June 1563, the English occupied the port of Le Havre on France's northern coast. During this period the castle acted as a military hospital for those involved in the conflict with France. With relations with Spain worsening, Elizabeth I made Portchester Castle ready for war, anticipating a Spanish invasion. At that time Henry Radcliffe future Earl of Sussex, was Constable. On 30 August 1591 Elizabeth came to the castle, but the floors of the state chambers were rotten, and she had dinner in the bedchamber of the keeper. Instead of her usual sweet perfumes the chamber was freshened with rue and hyssop.Paul E. J. Hammer, 'Letters from Cecil to Hatton', Religion, Politics and Society in Sixteenth-Century England (Cambridge, 2003), p. 240. By 1603 the castle was in a fit state for Elizabeth to hold court there. Sir Thomas Cornwallis was made constable and remodelled the buildings along the eastern side of the inner bailey. A royal survey from 1609 documents the castle's improved condition, noting that the buildings built by Cornwallis contained "four fair lodging chambers above and as many rooms for office below". ==Use as a prison== thumb|right|300px|The keep The castle passed out of royal control in 1632 when Charles I sold it to Sir William Uvedale. Since then, Portchester Castle has passed through his successors, the Thistlethwaite family. The castle did not witness fighting during the English Civil War, though for a short time in 1644 it was garrisoned by Parliamentarian dragoons. One of the roles castles commonly filled was that of a prison. From the late 17th century onwards this became Portchester's most important function. In 1665, 500 prisoners from the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667) were held at the castle. Some were housed in the church in the outer bailey. They damaged the building by setting it on fire. The church was not repaired until some 40 years later. Between 1702 and 1712 the Crown leased Portchester Castle from the Uvedales to incarcerate prisoners from the War of the Spanish Succession. The first detailed accounts of the prisoners' conditions come from the middle of the century. It was last used in the 19th century as a gaol for over 7,000 French prisoners of the Napoleonic Wars. Hospital Lane (formerly Seagates Lane), which flanks the western side of the castle, was the location of the prison hospital which survives today as Portchester House, a private residence. Those that died in captivity were often buried in what are now tidal mudflats to the south of the castle, their remains occasionally disturbed by storms. ==Today== Today Portchester Castle is open to visitors and is also used for recreation: the inner section of the castle accommodates displays and exhibits. The castle is a popular venue for school outings, while the sea wall is frequented at high tide by anglers in pursuit of flounder and bass. The castle buildings are in the care of English Heritage. ==Local legends== Local legend states that late in his life Pontius Pilate was brought here by galley as a final refuge. ==See also== * Constable of Portchester Castle * Castles in Great Britain and Ireland * * List of castles in England ==References== ;Notes ;Bibliography * * * * * * * * * ==External links== *Portchester Castle with English Heritage *Bibliography of sources relating to Portchester Castle *'Portchester Castle: from Roman fort to prisoner-of-war depot' on Google Arts & Culture *The Collection of material relating to the French prisoners' theatricals at Portchester Castle, 1810s is held by the Victoria and Albert Museum Theatre and Performance Department. Category:Castles in Hampshire Category:English Heritage sites in Hampshire Category:Borough of Fareham Category:Grade I listed buildings in Hampshire Category:Grade I listed castles Category:Tourist attractions in Hampshire Category:Scheduled monuments in Hampshire Category:Ruins in Hampshire Category:Museums in Hampshire Category:History museums in Hampshire Category:Military and war museums in England Category:Roman harbors in England Category:Roman auxiliary forts in England Category:Saxon Shore forts |
"Just a Fool" is a duet recorded by American singer songwriters Christina Aguilera and Blake Shelton for Aguilera's seventh studio album, Lotus (2012). The track was written by Claude Kelly, Wayne Hector, and its producer Steve Robson. "Just a Fool" was sent to contemporary hit and hot adult contemporary radio stations in the United States by RCA Records as the second and final single from the album on December 4, 2012. The song is a country pop ballad which discusses the pain of a break-up. Following its release, "Just a Fool" received mostly positive reviews from music critics, who complimented the track's sound. Commercially, the single peaked at number 71 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 37 on the Canadian Hot 100, also reaching number one in Ukraine, and number four in Iceland. As of 2015, the single has sold 802,000 digital copies in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan. To promote Lotus and the song, Aguilera and Shelton performed "Just a Fool" on the third season of American television singing contest The Voice on November 19, 2012, and on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on December 7, 2012. ==Background and release== Following the release of her sixth studio album, Bionic (2010), which failed to generate impact on charts worldwide, Aguilera filed for divorce from her husband Jordan Bratman, starred in the film Burlesque and recorded the accompanying soundtrack. She then became a coach on NBC's singing competition show The Voice and appeared as a featured artist on Maroon 5's single "Moves Like Jagger" (2011), which spent four weeks atop the US Billboard Hot 100 chart. Following these events, Aguilera announced her plans to begin production of her seventh album, stating that she wanted high quality and "personal" songs for the record. Regarding the creative direction, she revealed that the album would be a "culmination of everything I've experienced up until this point ... I've been through a lot since the release of my last album, being on ('The Voice'), having had a divorce ... This is all sort of a free rebirth for me." She further said "I'm embracing many different things, but it's all feel-good, super-expressive [and] super-vulnerable." Aguilera continued to say that the album would be about "self-expression and freedom" because of the personal struggles she had overcome during the last couple of years. Speaking about her new material during an interview on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno in 2012, Aguilera said that the recording process for Lotus was taking a while because "I don't like to just get songs from producers. I like them to come from a personal place ... I'm very excited. It's fun, exciting, introspective, it's going to be great". Recorded at Northern Sky Music by Sam Miller, "Just a Fool" was written by Steve Robson, Claude Kelly and Wayne Hector, with production handled by Steve Robson. Aguilera's vocals were recorded at The Red Lips Room in Beverly Hills, California, while Shelton's vocals were recorded at Luminous Sound in Dallas, Texas. The duo's vocals were recorded by Oscar Ramirez, and Aguilera produced them with Kelly. Robson also carried out programming and keyboards, arranging, and guitars. Following the release of Lotus, "Just a Fool" managed to debut on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, prompting RCA Records to release the song as a single. On December 4, 2012, the label sent the track to contemporary hit and hot adult contemporary radio stations in the United States as the second and final single from the album. On February 18, 2013, the single was released to adult contemporary radio in the US. ==Development== Blake Shelton and Christina Aguilera both served as coaches on the NBC's American reality talent show The Voice and became good friends during production. During an interview, Aguilera said, "He's my big brother, I'm the closest to him of all the guys. Blake is just a rockstar; he's great. He's so playful, so fun and down to earth. He's got a lot of heart". The whole idea for the duet between Christina and Blake came into being when Christina started a performance with a snippet of his song "Hillbilly Bone". Blake tweeted he was speechless, and Christina tweeted back, "Now we need to team up for a country duet Blake!! I'm down!!". In an interview with Rolling Stone, Aguilera commented about teaming up with her colleagues, > "I'm one that likes to collaborate. I love feeding off the creative energy, > and it only makes me better. I'm on a continual path both personally and > professionally. All-around, it's my goal to better myself as a person and an > artist, and the show is one of those contributing factors and the guys are > great friends at this point. It's fun collaborating with them at this > point". Aguilera also revealed that Shelton "busted his [butt]" to "make the time" to record the song with her. On October 16, 2012, it was announced that the duet was called "Just a Fool" and the track would be included on Aguilera's album Lotus (2012). According to Steve Robson-the main writer of the song-at first, "Just a Fool" was initially pitched to Pink, but later Adam Lambert recorded a version of the track. Finally, Aguilera and Shelton recorded "Just a Fool" after the song was scrapped from Lambert's album Trespassing (2012) "at the last minute". == Composition == "Just a Fool" was written by Steve Robson, Claude Kelly and Wayne Hector, with production done by Robson. The song is a country pop ballad with elements of pop rock. The track is also Aguilera's first country song. It lasts for a duration of (four minutes and 13 seconds). "Just a Fool" was composed in the key of G major, with a moderate slow tempo of 56 beats per minute. Many instruments were featured on the track, including keyboards, guitars and strings. It starts with a simple guitar riff and a toe- tapping mid-tempo drum beat. Chris Youne of 4Music described the song as a "pop-meets-rock-meets-country" song. Lyrically, "Just a Fool" talks about the pain of a break-up. Aguilera takes the first verse singing about sitting alone in a bar late at night, "Another shot of whisky please bartender, keep it coming till I don't remember". At the second verse, Blake sings in his raspy country tones and the two unite for the chorus. Robert Cospey of Digital Spy described the chorus of the track as a "sing-songy" one. == Critical reception == "Just a Fool" received mostly positive reviews from music critics. In a track-by-track review, Robert Copsey of Digital Spy wrote that the song "looks obligatory on paper but fortunately isn't so bad in reality [...] Truth be told, we suspect there's a good reason why this has been saved for the back- end of the album". Chris Younie of 4Music praised the song, writing that "It's mature, sophisticated and unlike anything else we've heard on the album. If you want variety, you got it". Andrew Hammp for Billboard was also positive toward the track, commenting that the song has an "epic" chorus that only increases in volume as the song progresses. In an extremely positive review, Glenn Gamboa of Newsday wrote that Aguilera and Shelton "empty their broken hearts in a magnificently sung breakup song". She also praised "Just a Fool" as Aguilera's career signature which should "stand next to 'Beautiful'". Mike Wass of Idolator called "Just a Fool" is a "gorgeous" country ballad, while Jon Caramanica of The New York Times described it as a "surprisingly warm duet" and Molly Lambert of Grantland named it "a monster-ballad". That Grape Juice praised "Just a Fool" as an "emotive anthem" and an "unexpected gem". Sarah Godfrey of The Washington Post called it a "straightforward country-pop piece", while Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic named it "a slow, bluesy closer". Christina Garibaldi of MTV News praised Shelton's "smooth" and country vocals on the "hearbreaking" ballad, which fits nicely with Aguilera's "booming" ones. Melinda Newman of HitFix analyzed that Aguilera's voices on "Just a Fool" sounded like former longtime producer Linda Perry as she sings "yeah, yeah, yeah", but Shelton's sounds "rose to the occasion" and plays the "perfect partner". Michael Galluci of PopCrush praised Aguilera's "great" "throaty rasp" on the track. Jim Farber of New York Daily News provided a mixed review, writing that "[Shelton] sings with measured resolve while [Aguilera] nearly suffocates him. It's certainly a powerful approach, but it comes at the cost of communicating genuine soul". Negatively, Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine called it "an out-of-place country-pop duet with Blake Shelton, who feels like a cheap cash-in", while Annie Zaleskie for The A.V. Club criticized its "schmaltzy" sound. ==Chart performance== Music-related website That Grape Juice noted that at the time of its release, the song was "growing into a burgeoning hit". The single debuted at number 92 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart during the week of November 18, 2012. During the following week, it climbed to number 71, which became its peak position on the chart. On the Adult Pop Songs chart, "Just a Fool" debuted at number 40 during the week of December 29, 2012 and peaked at number 28. On February 25, 2013, the single debuted at number 27 on the Adult Contemporary and peaked at number 23 shortly after. The song stayed a total of 12 weeks on the chart. As of April 2015, "Just a Fool" has sold over 802,000 copies in United States becoming Aguilera's tenth best selling digital single there, according to Nielsen SoundScan. In Canada, the single peaked at number 37 on the country's singles chart and remained there for 20 weeks. On the 49th week of 2012, "Just a Fool" debuted and peaked at number 45 in Slovakia. It reached Top 5 in Iceland, where its peak was number four. == Live performances and cover versions == On November 19, 2012, Aguilera and Shelton performed "Just a Fool" for the first time on the third season of The Voice, an American television singing competition on which she is serviced as a coach. Wearing "sharp in dark", "semi-casual" outfits, the couple sang the first verse at opposite sides of the stage, and then came together onstage and shared the second one. During the performance, Aguilera kept belting to a minimum. The duo ended their singing with a hug. Caila Ball from Idolator wrote, "Clumsy cross- promotions and hyperbole aside, it was a night of stellar performances, kicked off by Coaches Christina and Blake making the world debut of 'Just a Fool'". She continued to praise the performance, commenting, "It was a refreshingly stripped down performance from Legendtina – who uncharacteristically took the stage in jeans. Blake, on the other hand, looked a little awkward up there without a guitar and a stool". On December 7, 2012, Aguilera and Shelton performed "Just a Fool" again on The Ellen DeGeneres Show. Sam Lansky from Idolator praised the performance, writing that the performance featured "typically dramatic" vocals and a lot of "spectacular runs", which helped the duo sound great. During the semi-finals of the twelfth season of American television singing contest American Idol, contestant Paul Jolley chose "Just a Fool" as the song to sing on the show. On May 7, 2013, Filipino singer Charice Pempengco also made a cover of the song on the show Kris TV with her girlfriend Alyssa Quijano. Kelly Clarkson covered the song in her own talk show on February 12, 2021. Blake Shelton performed the song with Wendy Moten during the finale of the 21st season of The Voice. ==Credits and personnel== ;Recording *Recorded at Northern Sky Music. *Vocals recorded at The Red Lips Room, Beverly Hills, California ; Luminous Sound, Dallas, Texas . ;Personnel *Songwriting – Steve Robson, Claude Kelly, Wayne Hector *Producing – Steve Robson *Programming & keyboards – Steve Robson *Arranging - Steve Robson, Pete Whitfield *Guitars - Luke Potashnick, Steve Robson *Violins - Pete Whitfield, Sarah Brandwood-Spencer, Alex Stemp, Julian Cole *Celli - Simon Turner, Ruth Owens *Recording - Sam Miller *Vocal recording - Oscar Ramirez *Vocal producing - Christina Aguilera, Claude Kelly Credits adapted from the liner notes of Lotus, RCA Records. ==Charts== Chart (2012–13) Peak position Canada (Canadian Hot 100) 37 Canada AC (Billboard) 26 Canadian Digital Song Sales (Billboard) 21 Iceland (Tónlist) 4 Slovakia (Rádio Top 100) 45 US Billboard Hot 100 71 US Adult Contemporary (Billboard) 21 US Adult Top 40 (Billboard) 28 == Release history == Country Released Format Label United States Contemporary hit radio RCA Records Hot adult contemporary radio Adult contemporary radio ==References== Category:2010s ballads Category:2012 singles Category:Christina Aguilera songs Category:Blake Shelton songs Category:Pop ballads Category:Country ballads Category:Songs written by Claude Kelly Category:Songs written by Steve Robson Category:Songs written by Wayne Hector Category:RCA Records singles Category:Song recordings produced by Steve Robson Category:Sony Music singles Category:2012 songs Category:Songs about heartache Category:Male–female vocal duets |
Aaron Edward Eckhart (born March 12, 1968) is an American actor. Born in Cupertino, California, Eckhart moved to the United Kingdom at an early age. He began his acting career by performing in school plays, before moving to Australia for his high school senior year. He left high school without graduating, but earned a diploma through a professional education course, and then graduated from Brigham Young University (BYU) in Utah, U.S., in 1994 with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in film. As an undergraduate at BYU, Eckhart met director and writer Neil LaBute, who cast Eckhart in several of LaBute's original plays. Five years later Eckhart made a debut as an unctuous, sociopathic womanizer in LaBute's black comedy film In the Company of Men (1997), followed by appearances in three more of the director's films. Eckhart gained wide recognition as George in Erin Brockovich (2000), and, in 2006, he received a Golden Globe nomination for his portrayal of Nick Naylor in Thank You for Smoking. In 2008 he played a major role in Christopher Nolan's blockbuster Batman film The Dark Knight as District Attorney Harvey Dent / Two-Face. In 2019 he starred in Roland Emmerich’s blockbuster Midway. ==Early life== Eckhart was born on March 12, 1968 in Cupertino, California, the son of Mary Martha Lawrence, a writer, artist, and poet, and James Conrad Eckhart, a computer executive. He is the youngest of three brothers. His father is of German-Russian descent, while his mother has English, German, Scots-Irish, and Scottish ancestry. He was raised as a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and served a two-year mission in France and Switzerland. Eckhart's family relocated to the United Kingdom in 1981, following his father's job in information technology. During their time in the United Kingdom, the family moved around Surrey, England, living in towns such as Cobham, Ripley, and Walton-on-Thames. Eckhart attended American Community School, where he was first introduced to acting, starring in a school production as Charlie Brown. In 1985, Eckhart moved to Australia and settled in Sydney, where he attended American International School of Sydney for his high school senior year; he further developed his acting skills in productions like Waiting for Godot, where he admits that he gave a "terrible" performance. In the autumn of his senior year, Eckhart left school to take a job at the Warringah Mall movie theater. He eventually earned his diploma through a professional education course. This also allowed Eckhart time to enjoy a year of surfing in Hawaii and France, as well as skiing in the Alps. In 1988, Eckhart returned to the United States and enrolled as a film major at Brigham Young University–Hawaii, but later transferred to Brigham Young University (BYU) in Provo, Utah. He graduated in 1994 with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree. He also studied acting at the William Esper Studio. ==Career== ===Early work=== While at Brigham Young University, Eckhart appeared in the Mormon-themed film Godly Sorrow, and the role marked his professional debut. At this time he met director/writer Neil LaBute, who cast Eckhart in several of LaBute's original plays. After graduating from BYU, Eckhart moved to New York City, acquired an agent, and took various occasional jobs, including bartending, bus driving, and construction work. His first television roles were in commercials. In 1994, he appeared as an extra on the television drama series Beverly Hills, 90210. Eckhart followed this small part with roles in documentary re-enactments (Ancient Secrets of the Bible: Samson), made-for- television movies, and short-lived programs like Aliens in the Family. In 1997, Eckhart was approached by Neil LaBute to star in a film adaptation of LaBute's stage play In the Company of Men. He played a frustrated white-collar worker who planned to woo a deaf office worker, gain her affections, then suddenly dump her. The film, his first feature to reach theaters, was critically well received, with Desson Howe of The Washington Post reporting that Eckhart is the "movie's most malignant presence" and that he "is in chilling command as a sort of satanic prince in shirtsleeves". In the Company of Men was a critical success, winning Best First Film for LaBute at the 63rd annual New York Film Critics Circle Awards. His performance won him the Independent Spirit Award in the category of Best Debut Performance. The film was ranked as one of "The 25 Most Dangerous Movies" by Premiere magazine. The following year Eckhart starred in another LaBute feature, Your Friends & Neighbors (1998), as Barry, a sexually frustrated husband in a dysfunctional marriage. For the role Eckhart was required to gain weight. In 1999, he starred opposite Elisabeth Shue in Molly, a romantic comedy-drama in which he played the self-absorbed brother of an autistic woman who was cured by surgery. Eckhart also starred that year as a football coach, an offensive coordinator in Oliver Stone's Any Given Sunday. ===Critical success=== Eckhart first gained wide exposure in 2000 as George, a ponytailed, goateed biker, in Steven Soderbergh's drama Erin Brockovich. The film was met with reasonable reviews, and was a box office success, earning $256 million worldwide. His performance was well received by critics; Entertainment Weekly's Owen Gleiberman wrote that Eckhart "may be playing a bit of an ideal [...] but he makes goodness as palpable as he did yuppie evil in 'In the Company of Men'." In an August 2004 interview, Eckhart claimed that he had not worked for nearly a year before he was cast in the movie. "I felt like I sort of was getting away from what I wanted to do as an actor. [...] I had nine months off, but it wasn't a vacation. Sure, I didn't earn any money for nine months, but every day I was reading scripts, I was producing my own material, I was taking meetings, I was working on my craft." Following the release of Erin Brockovich, Eckhart co-starred with Renée Zellweger in LaBute's Nurse Betty (2000). He next appeared in Sean Penn's mystery feature The Pledge (2001), in which he played a young detective partnered with a veteran detective, played by Jack Nicholson. The movie received generally favorable reviews, but it did not fare particularly well at the box office. The following year, he collaborated with LaBute in a film adaptation of the Man Booker Prize-winning novel Possession (2002). In 2003, Eckhart co-starred with Hilary Swank in The Core, a film about a geophysicist who tries to detonate a nuclear device in order to save the world from destruction. The film was critically and financially unsuccessful. Also in 2003, he appeared in The Missing, in which he played Cate Blanchett's lover, and in the action-thriller Paycheck opposite Ben Affleck. Paycheck, based on a short story by science fiction writer Philip K. Dick, garnered generally negative reception. Film critic Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film two stars (out of four), saying that he "enjoyed the movie" but felt that it "exploits [Dick's story] for its action and plot potential, but never really develops it." The following year, away from film, Eckhart guest starred in two episodes of NBC's comedy sitcom Frasier, where he played a boyfriend of Charlotte, Dr. Frasier Crane's love interest. His next film role was in E. Elias Merhige's thriller Suspect Zero, a movie about an FBI agent who tracks down a killer who murders serial killers. Upon release, the movie received broadly negative reviews. Despite the reception, Eckhart's performance was favored by critics; Newsday wrote that Eckhart was a "classically handsome leading man ... but Merhige demands of him complexity and anguish." Suspect Zero was a box office disappointment, earning $11 million worldwide. Also in 2004, Eckhart starred on the London stage, opposite Julia Stiles, in David Mamet's Oleanna at the Garrick Theatre. The drama ran until mid-2004. For this performance, Eckhart received favorable critical reviews. In 2005, returning to film, Eckhart appeared in Neverwas as a therapist who takes a job at a rundown mental hospital that once treated his father (Nick Nolte). The feature was never given a full theatrical release, eventually being released straight to DVD in 2007. ===Worldwide recognition=== Eckhart's next project was Thank You for Smoking, in which he played Nick Naylor, a tobacco lobbyist whose firm researched the link between smoking cigarettes and lung cancer. Eckhart said that he felt challenged playing the role: "You have to say these words that are crazy, and yet do it with a smile on your face and have the audience like you. At one point, I'm doing a talk show with a kid who's dying of cancer, and he's going through chemotherapy and the whole thing, and I spin it so the anti-smoking people are the bad guys and I'm the good guy, and I'm this guy's best friend. I mean, it's whacked out." The film was screened at a special presentation at the 30th annual Toronto International Film Festival in 2005. It had a limited release in March 2006 and was released worldwide the following month. For his performance, Eckhart received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actor in a Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. A contributor of USA Today wrote that he gave a "standout, whip- smart performance" citing that as Nick Naylor he kept him "likable even in his cynicism." In the Seattle Post-Intelligencer review of the film, it was reported that "Under his chummy but compassionless smile" Eckhart radiated charm and "Naylor's true joys: manipulating arguments, steering debate, cooking words." In this same year, he starred with Helena Bonham Carter in Conversations with Other Women (2006). While promoting this film, Eckhart revealed that he wishes not to be typecast or repeat himself, saying he does not want to play any more villains. He appeared in the 2006 film noir The Black Dahlia—based on a real 1947 crime—as Sergeant Leland "Lee" Blanchard, a detective investigating the murder of Elizabeth Short, later dubbed the "Black Dahlia". The film premiered at the 63rd Venice International Film Festival. Reception for the movie was mixed, but many critics enjoyed Eckhart's performance; Time Out magazine praised Eckhart and co-star Hilary Swank for their performances, writing "...both [are] great in their secondary roles." Internationally viewed as a sex symbol, he was named one of People magazine's 100 Most Beautiful People in 2006. The following year, Eckhart was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. He starred in No Reservations (2007), a remake of the 2001 German romantic comedy Mostly Martha. He starred opposite Catherine Zeta-Jones as an up-and-coming hotshot chef. The film was met with mixed reviews and was unfavorably compared to the original film. Eckhart starred in the 2008 comedy Meet Bill, in which he played the eponymous character, a sad executive working at his father-in-law's bank. He gained 30 pounds and donned a fat suit for the role. Also in 2008, Eckhart portrayed the comic book character Harvey Dent in Christopher Nolan's The Dark Knight, the sequel to the 2005 film Batman Begins. Nolan's decision to cast Eckhart was based on his portrayal of corrupt characters in the films In the Company of Men, The Black Dahlia, and Thank You For Smoking. He noted in his depiction of the character that "[he] is still true to himself. He's a crime fighter, he's not killing good people. He's not a bad guy, not purely", while admitting "I'm interested in good guys gone wrong." The Dark Knight was a big financial and critical success, setting a new opening weekend box office record for North America. With revenue of $1 billion worldwide, it became the fourth highest-grossing film of all time, and the highest-grossing film of Eckhart's career. Roger Ebert opined that Eckhart did an "especially good job" as his character in the feature, while Premiere magazine also enjoyed his performance, noting that he "makes you believe in his ill-fated ambition ... of morphing into the conniving Two-Face." Following the success of The Dark Knight, Eckhart next appeared in Alan Ball's Towelhead (2008), an adaption of the Alicia Erian novel of the same name, in which he played a Gulf War Army reservist who sexually abuses his 13-year-old Arab-American neighbor. The film was screened under the name Nothing is Private at the 2007 Toronto International Film Festival. When he was first approached for the role, Eckhart revealed that he did not want to play a "pedophile". When asked about the sex scenes, Eckhart said: "Those were difficult times .... The way I did it was to really trust Alan. It was in the words. I really trusted Summer [Bishil], and I tried to get her to trust me, to build a relationship when we were doing physical scenes. We'd really rehearse them mechanically, and I'd say, 'OK, I'm going to put my hand here, I'm going to do this.' ... I think I found it more difficult." Towelhead was critically and financially unsuccessful. He next co-starred with Jennifer Aniston in the romantic drama Love Happens, released in September 2009, as a motivational speaker coming to terms with his own grief. The movie received ambivalent reviews, with a contributor of the Orlando Sentinel reporting that Eckhart plays "broken" for the whole movie. The following year he starred alongside Nicole Kidman in Rabbit Hole (2010), an adaption of David Lindsay-Abaire's 2005 drama of the same name. The feature premiered at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival. In 2011, Eckhart starred in Jonathan Liebesman's science fiction film Battle: Los Angeles, in which he portrayed a combat veteran Marine platoon sergeant. The film was set in modern-day Los Angeles during a global alien invasion, and followed a platoon of U.S. Marines who are joined by an Air Force special operations sergeant and some Army infantry soldiers in combat operations against the alien enemy. He appeared alongside Johnny Depp, Richard Jenkins, and Amber Heard in Hunter S. Thompson's novel adaptation The Rum Diary, directed by Bruce Robinson. In the film, Eckhart played Sanderson, a wealthy landowner, who believes everything has a price and introduces Paul Kemp (Depp) to a different standard of living. He starred as a U.S. President who is taken hostage, in the 2013 action thriller Olympus Has Fallen, opposite Gerard Butler, and reprised the role in its 2016 sequel London Has Fallen. In 2019 he starred in Roland Emmerich’s blockbuster movie Midway, which also starred Ed Skrein, Patrick Wilson, Dennis Quaid and Woody Harrelson. ==Personal life== Eckhart met actress Emily Cline during the filming of In the Company of Men and they became engaged, but they separated in 1998. He has always been reluctant to speak about his relationships in interviews. Eckhart dated songwriter and member of SHeDAISY Kristyn Osborn from 2006 to 2007. He appeared in the group's video for their song "I'm Taking the Wheel". Eckhart has noted that hypnosis helped him to quit drinking, smoking, and partying, and that he undertakes amateur photography in his spare time. ==Filmography== ===Film=== Year Title Role Notes 1993 Hot Shots! Part Deux Prisoner Uncredited Slaughter of the Innocents Ken Reynolds 1997 In the Company of Men Chad Independent Spirit Award for Best Debut Performance Satellite Award for Outstanding New Talent 1998 Your Friends & Neighbors Barry Thursday Nick 1999 Molly Buck McKay Any Given Sunday Nick Crozier 2000 Erin Brockovich George Nurse Betty Del Sizemore Tumble "Man" 2001 The Pledge Stan Krolak 2002 Possession Roland Michell 2003 The Core Dr. Joshua "Josh" Keyes The Missing Brake Baldwin Paycheck James Rethrick 2004 Suspect Zero Thomas Mackelway 2005 Neverwas Zach Riley Also co-producer Thank You for Smoking Nick Naylor Nominated – Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy Nominated – Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead Nominated – St. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor Conversations with Other Women Man 2006 The Wicker Man Truck Stop Patron The Black Dahlia Sgt. Lee Blanchard 2007 No Reservations Nick Palmer Towelhead Mr. Vuoso Meet Bill Bill Anderson Also executive producer 2008 The Dark Knight Harvey Dent / Two-Face Central Ohio Film Critics Association Award for Best Acting Ensemble People's Choice Award for Favorite Cast Nominated – Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Cast Nominated – Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor Nominated – Scream Award for Best Villain 2009 Love Happens Dr. Burke Ryan 2010 Rabbit Hole Howie Corbett Nominated – Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead Nominated – San Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best Actor To Be Friends N/A Producer 2011 Battle: Los Angeles SSGT Michael Nantz The Rum Diary Hal Sanderson 2012 Erased Ben Logan Also known as The Expatriate 2013 Olympus Has Fallen President Benjamin Asher 2014 I, Frankenstein The Monster / Adam Frankenstein 2015 My All American Darrell Royal 2016 London Has Fallen President Benjamin Asher Sully First Officer Jeff Skiles Bleed for This Kevin Rooney Incarnate Dr. Seth Ember 2019 Midway Lieutenant Colonel Jimmy Doolittle Line of Duty Frank Penny Also known as Live! 2020 Wander Arthur Bretnik 2023 Ambush Drummond TBA Afterward Post-production TBA Muzzle Jake Rosser Post-production TBA Rumble Through the Dark Jack Boucher Post- production TBA The Bricklayer TBA Filming ===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 1992 Double Jeopardy Dwayne Television film 1993 History's Greatest Miracles Samson Television Special 1996 Aliens in the Family Episode: "Meet the Brodys" 2004 Frasier Frank 2 episodes 2018 The Romanoffs Greg Episode: "The Violet Hour" 2022 The First Lady President Gerald Ford 10 episodes Pantheon Cary (voice) 8 episodes ==References== ==Sources== *Mitchell, Peter. "Dundee a talisman for Eckhart." The Age. May 1, 2003. Accessed December 15, 2008. *Head, Steve. "IGN interviews Aaron Eckhart." IGN. August 24, 2004. Accessed December 30, 2008. *Roberts, Farin. "BBC Movies – Aaron Eckhart interview." BBC Films. June 16, 2006. Accessed December 30, 2008. (Farin Roberts interviews Aaron Eckhart in discussion of Thank You for Smoking.) [Includes video clip]. *Fischer, Paul. "Aaron Eckhart No Reservations Interview." Femail. Accessed December 30, 2008. *Berkshire, Geoff. "'Dark Knight' Q&A;: Aaron Eckhart." Chicago Metromix. July 14, 2008. Accessed December 15, 2008. *Blades, Nicole. "Aaron Eckhart Interview." Women's Health. July 16, 2008. Accessed October 24, 2008. *Mottram, James. "Aaron Eckhart interview." Marie Claire. July 28, 2008. Accessed December 30, 2008. *Fischer, Paul. "Aaron Eckhart The Dark Knight Interview." Femail. Accessed December 30, 2008. *Berk, Phillip. "Man of the Hour." Filmink. September 16, 2008. Accessed October 3, 2008. ==External links== * * * Brief Bio at via LDS Utah Film personalities * 2006 Terri Gross radio interview Category:1968 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century American male actors Category:21st-century American male actors Category:20th-century Mormon missionaries Category:American expatriates in Australia Category:American expatriates in England Category:American film producers Category:Former Latter Day Saints Category:American male film actors Category:American Mormon missionaries in France Category:American Mormon missionaries in Switzerland Category:American people of English descent Category:American people of German descent Category:American people of German-Russian descent Category:American people of Scotch-Irish descent Category:American people of Scottish descent Category:Brigham Young University alumni Category:Independent Spirit Award winners Category:Male actors from California Category:People educated at ACS International Schools Category:People from Cupertino, California Category:William Esper Studio alumni |
MV Agusta Reparto Corse is MV Agusta's factory motorbike racing team, currently competing in the Superbike World Championship, Supersport World Championship and Moto2 (in collaboration with Forward Racing). == History == Giovanni Castiglioni, Chairman and President of MV Agusta, signed an agreement with Alexander Yakhnich, Chairman of Yakhnich Motorsport, to establish the new MV Agusta Reparto Corse for the 2014 season. The team was operated by Yakhnich Motorsport and competed in the World Supersport and World Superbike Championships. In June 2014 Castiglioni and Yakhnich signed an agreement which stipulates that MV Agusta will take over all operations concerning the racing team. MV Agusta Reparto Corse partnered with Team Vamag in late 2017 in preparation for the 2018 Supersport World Championship. The team was known as MV Agusta Reparto Corse by Vamag that season. ==Superbike World Championship== For the 2014 WSBK Season, Claudio Corti rode a race-prepared MV Agusta F4 for the team and finished 17th in the championship. Leon Camier substituted for Corti at Laguna Seca. In 2015, 2016 and 2017, Leon Camier was the rider for the team, finishing 13th, 8th and 8th in the Championship in these years. Jordi Torres was the team's rider except for the last two races, where Maximilian Scheib rode. Torres finished 13th in the championship and Scheib 26th. ===WSBK Results=== Year Rider 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 Pts Year Rider R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2 Pts 2014 Claudio Corti AUS 13 AUS 18 SPA Ret SPA Ret NED 14 NED Ret ITA 18 ITA Ret GBR 15 GBR 12 MAL Ret MAL DNS SMR 13 SMR 17 POR DNS POR DNS USA USA SPA 15 SPA Ret FRA 13 FRA 8 QAT Ret QAT 14 17th 27 Leon Camier AUS AUS SPA SPA NED NED ITA ITA GBR GBR MAL MAL SMR SMR POR POR USA 15 USA 10 SPA SPA FRA FRA QAT QAT (16th) 7 (37) 2015 Leon Camier AUS 10 AUS 8 THA Ret THA Ret SPA 10 SPA 15 NED 10 NED 10 ITA Ret ITA Ret GBR 9 GBR Ret POR Ret POR Ret ITA 13 ITA 16 USA 10 USA 10 MAL 13 MAL 12 SPA 9 SPA 8 FRA 5 FRA 15 QAT Ret QAT Ret 13th 89 2016 Leon Camier AUS 7 AUS Ret THA 11 THA 11 SPA Ret SPA 16 NED 4 NED 9 ITA 6 ITA 5 MAL 10 MAL 9 GBR 4 GBR 5 ITA 8 ITA Ret USA 11 USA DNS GER 5 GER 4 FRA 7 FRA 4 SPA 7 SPA Ret QAT 18 QAT 13 8th 168 2017 Leon Camier AUS 5 AUS 8 THA 8 THA Ret SPA 11 SPA 10 NED 10 NED 6 ITA 6 ITA Ret GBR 6 GBR 6 ITA 11 ITA Ret USA 6 USA Ret GER 5 GER 6 POR 4 POR Ret FRA 4 FRA Ret SPA 12 SPA 12 QAT 9 QAT 9 8th 168 2018 Jordi Torres AUS Ret AUS 8 THA 10 THA Ret SPA Ret SPA 8 NED 9 NED 6 ITA 14 ITA 5 GBR 11 GBR 9 CZE Ret CZE Ret USA 9 USA 7 ITA 18 ITA Ret POR 7 POR 13 FRA 12 FRA 14 ARG ARG QAT QAT 13th 98 Maximilian Scheib AUS AUS THA THA SPA SPA NED NED ITA ITA GBR GBR CZE CZE USA USA ITA ITA POR POR FRA FRA ARG 13 ARG Ret QAT Ret QAT C 26th 3 ==Supersport World Championship== For the 2014 Supersport World Championship Reparto Corse fielded riders Jules Cluzel and Vladimir Leonov on race-prepared F3 675s. Leonov was replaced by Massimo Roccoli from the Misano round onwards. Cluzel scored 3 wins for the team and finished 2nd in the championship this season. Jules Cluzel and Lorenzo Zanetti rode for Reparto Corse in 2015, Cluzel winning 3 races. Due to injury, Cluzel was replaced by Nicolás Terol for the last three rounds. In 2016, Cluzel and Zanetti were retained by Reparto Corse, Cluzel winning 2 races. Massimo Roccoli rode instead of Cluzel in the last race in Qatar. P. J. Jacobsen and Alessandro Zaccone rode for Reparto Corse in 2017. MV Agusta Reparto Corse partnered with Team Vamag in late 2017 in preparation for the 2018 Supersport World Championship. The team was known as MV Agusta Reparto Corse by Vamag that season. Raffaele De Rosa and Ayrton Badovini were the two riders for the team. In 2019 Raffaele De Rosa was retained by Reparto Corse and joined by Federico Fuligni. ===WorldSSP Results=== Year Team No Rider 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Pos Pts Constructors Pos Pts 2013 ParkinGO MV Agusta Corse 21 Christian Iddon AUS 21 ESP Ret NED 11 ITA 13 GBR Ret POR 10 ITA DNS GBR 5 GER 12 TUR Ret FRA 3 ESP Ret 15th 45 4th 104 47 Roberto Rolfo AUS Ret ESP 9 NED 6 ITA 11 GBR 3 POR Ret ITA 14 GBR 6 GER 15 TUR 5 FRA Ret ESP 3 6th 7 2014 MV Agusta RC–Yakhnich M. MV Agusta Reparto Corse 16 Jules Cluzel AUS 1 ESP Ret NED 3 ITA 15 GBR 2 MAL 2 ITA 1 POR Ret ESP Ret FRA 1 QAT 3 2nd 148 3rd 162 65 Vladimir Leonov AUS Ret ESP 8 NED 12 ITA Ret GBR 15 MAL 14 ITA POR ESP FRA QAT 19th 15 (19) 155 Massimo Roccoli AUS ESP NED ITA GBR MAL ITA 14 POR 10 ESP Ret FRA 15 QAT 10 20th 15 ATK Racing 25 Alex Baldolini AUS ESP NED ITA Ret GBR MAL ITA 19 POR Ret ESP FRA QAT \- 0 2015 MV Agusta Reparto Corse 16 Jules Cluzel AUS 1 THA Ret ESP Ret NED 2 ITA 2 GBR 2 POR 1 ITA 1 MAL 2 ESP WD FRA QAT 4th 155 3rd 218 87 Lorenzo Zanetti AUS 2 THA Ret ESP 5 NED 6 ITA 3 GBR 4 POR 5 ITA 3 MAL 3 ESP 3 FRA 4 QAT 3 3rd 158 88 Nicolás Terol AUS THA ESP NED ITA GBR POR ITA MAL ESP 5 FRA 14 QAT 6 18th 23 Race Department ATK#25 25 Alex Baldolini AUS 7 THA 9 ESP 6 NED 9 ITA Ret GBR Ret POR Ret ITA 5 MAL 10 ESP 7 FRA Ret QAT 8 8th 67 Team Factory Vamag 53 Nicola Jr. Morrentino AUS THA ESP NED ITA GBR POR ITA MAL ESP Ret FRA QAT \- 0 GRT Racing Team 95 Miroslav Popov AUS THA ESP NED ITA GBR POR ITA MAL ESP 18 FRA QAT \- 0 2016 MV Agusta Reparto Corse 16 Jules Cluzel AUS 17 THA 1 ESP 4 NED 18 ITA 2 MAL 7 GBR 8 ITA Ret GER 3 FRA 1 ESP 6 QAT 3 2nd 142 3rd 203 52 Massimo Roccoli AUS THA ESP NED ITA MAL GBR ITA GER FRA ESP QAT 9 27th 7 87 Lorenzo Zanetti AUS Ret THA 8 ESP Ret NED 29 ITA DSQ MAL 13 GBR 10 ITA 5 GER 7 FRA 9 ESP QAT 13th 44 (50) GRT Racing Team 4 Gino Rea AUS 7 THA 9 ESP Ret NED 2 ITA Ret MAL 3 GBR 4 ITA 3 GER Ret FRA Ret ESP WD QAT 7th 81 41 Aiden Wagner AUS 10 THA 15 ESP Ret NED DNQ ITA 17 MAL 16 GBR 19 ITA 14 GER FRA ESP QAT 26th 9 65 Michael Canducci AUS THA ESP NED ITA MAL GBR ITA GER 23 FRA Ret ESP 17 QAT Ret \- 0 87 Lorenzo Zanetti AUS THA ESP NED ITA MAL GBR ITA GER FRA ESP 10 QAT Ret 13th 6 (50) Race Department ATK#25 25 Alex Baldolini AUS 6 THA 6 ESP Ret NED 5 ITA 4 MAL 9 GBR 7 ITA 6 GER 12 FRA DNS ESP QAT 10 8th 80 Team Factory Vamag 44 Roberto Rolfo AUS 9 THA 18 ESP Ret NED 22 ITA 14 MAL 12 GBR 14 ITA Ret GER 18 FRA 16 ESP Ret QAT Ret 24th 15 Ellan Vannin Motorsport 57 Ilario Dionisi AUS THA ESP NED ITA MAL GBR ITA 17 GER FRA ESP QAT \- 0 Schmidt Racing 77 Kyle Ryde AUS THA ESP NED ITA MAL GBR 21 ITA 22 GER FRA ESP QAT 25th 0 (15) 88 Nicolás Terol AUS 11 THA Ret ESP 3 NED 13 ITA 9 MAL Ret GBR Ret ITA 18 GER FRA ESP QAT 17th 31 2017 MV Agusta Reparto Corse 61 Alessandro Zaccone AUS THA ESP Ret NED 18 ITA 10 GBR Ret ITA 11 GER 14 POR Ret FRA Ret ESP 12 QAT 23rd 17 4th 145 99 P. J. Jacobsen AUS 6 THA Ret ESP 3 NED 4 ITA 3 GBR Ret ITA 4 GER Ret POR 5 FRA 3 ESP 4 QAT Ret 6th 108 Race Department ATK#25 7 Davide Pizzoli AUS Ret THA 14 ESP DNS NED Ret ITA Ret GBR ITA GER POR FRA ESP QAT 37th 2 25 Alex Baldolini AUS 13 THA DNS ESP NED ITA Ret GBR 16 ITA DNS GER Ret POR DNS FRA ESP QAT 31st 3 (8) 69 Xavier Cardelús AUS THA ESP 13 NED ITA GBR Ret ITA GER DNS POR FRA ESP QAT 36th 3 (5) Team Factory Vamag 44 Roberto Rolfo AUS 1 THA 11 ESP 6 NED 15 ITA Ret GBR 14 ITA 18 GER POR FRA ESP QAT 12th 43 87 Lorenzo Zanetti AUS THA ESP NED ITA GBR ITA GER 6 POR 8 FRA 6 ESP 17 QAT 11 16th 33 163 Davide Stirpe AUS THA ESP NED ITA GBR ITA Ret GER POR FRA ESP QAT \- 0 2018 MV Agusta Reparto Corse by Vamag 3 Raffaele De Rosa AUS 6 THA 7 SPA Ret NED 3 ITA 3 GBR 3 CZE 3 MIS 2 POR 4 FRA 7 ARG Ret QAT 8 6th 133 2nd 138 86 Ayrton Badovini AUS 9 THA 15 SPA Ret NED 12 ITA Ret GBR 7 CZE Ret MIS 10 POR 8 FRA 12 ARG 11 QAT 11 11th 49 Extreme Racing Bardahl 63 Davide Stirpe AUS THA SPA NED ITA DNS GBR CZE MIS 16 POR FRA ARG QAT \- 0 2019 MV Agusta Reparto Corse 3 Raffaele De Rosa AUS 18 THA 5 SPA 2 NED Ret ITA 3 SPA 5 MIS Ret GBR 5 POR Ret FRA 4 ARG 6 QAT 7 6th 101 3rd 109 22 Federico Fuligni AUS Ret THA Ret SPA 13 NED 15 ITA 14 SPA Ret MIS 11 GBR 18 POR 14 FRA Ret ARG QAT 17th 13 22 Filippo Fuligni AUS THA SPA NED ITA SPA MIS GBR POR FRA ARG 22 QAT DNS 2020 MV Agusta Reparto Corse 3 Randy Krummenacher PHI DSQ JER JER POR POR ARA ARA ARA ARA CAT CAT MAG MAG EST EST - 0 3rd 140 3 Raffaele De Rosa PHI DSQ JER 5 JER 5 POR 3 POR 12 ARA 4 ARA 3 ARA 2 ARA Ret CAT 14 CAT 4 MAG 4 MAG Ret EST Ret EST 3 6th 135 22 Federico Fuligni PHI DSQ JER 13 JER 14 POR Ret POR 16 ARA 12 ARA 12 ARA 10 ARA 14 CAT 17 CAT Ret MAG 8 MAG Ret EST 13 EST 17 18th 32 Year Team Bike No Rider 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Pos Pts Constructors Pos Pts 2021 MV Agusta Corse Clienti MV Agusta F3 800 RR 66 Niki Tuuli SPA SPA POR POR ITA ITA NED NED CZE CZE SPA SPA FRA FRA SPA SPA SPA SPA POR POR ARG ARG INA INA 11th 140 3rd 140 2022 MV Agusta Reparto Corse MV Agusta F3 800 RR 27 Mattia Casadei SPA SPA NED NED POR POR ITA ITA GBR GBR CZE CZE FRA FRA SPA SPA POR POR ARG ARG INA INA AUS AUS 23rd 25 5th 205 54 Bahattin Sofuoğlu SPA SPA NED NED POR POR ITA ITA GBR GBR CZE CZE FRA FRA SPA SPA POR POR ARG ARG INA INA AUS AUS 14th 72 66 Niki Tuuli SPA SPA NED NED POR POR ITA ITA GBR GBR CZE CZE FRA FRA SPA SPA POR POR ARG ARG INA INA AUS AUS 8th 152 92 Marcel Schrötter SPA SPA NED NED POR POR ITA ITA GBR GBR CZE CZE FRA FRA SPA SPA POR POR ARG ARG INA INA AUS AUS 29th 9 2023 MV Agusta Reparto Corse MV Agusta F3 800 RR 23 Marcel Schrötter AUS AUS INA INA NED NED SPA SPA EMI EMI GBR GBR ITA ITA CZE CZE FRA FRA SPA SPA POR POR ARG ARG 6th* 46* 5th* 46* 54 Bahattin Sofuoğlu AUS AUS INA INA NED NED SPA SPA EMI EMI GBR GBR ITA ITA CZE CZE FRA FRA SPA SPA POR POR ARG ARG 14th* 18* == References == == External links == * Official website * SBK Superbike Category:Superbike racing Category:Motorcycle racing teams Category:MV Agusta Category:Motorcycle racing teams established in 2013 Category:2013 establishments in Italy |
This is a list of schools in Derbyshire, England. ==State-funded schools== ===Primary schools=== * Abercrombie Primary School, Chesterfield * Aldercar Infant School, Aldercar * All Saints' CE Infants School, Matlock * All Saints' CE Junior School, Matlock * All Saints RC Voluntary Academy, Old Glossop * Ambergate Primary School, Ambergate * Anthony Bek Community Primary School, Pleasley * Arkwright Primary School, Arkwright Town * Ashbourne Hilltop Primary School, Ashbourne * Ashbourne Primary School, Ashbourne * Ashbrook Infant School, Borrowash * Ashbrook Junior School, Borrowash * Ashover Primary School, Ashover * Aston-on-Trent Primary School, Aston-on-Trent * Bakewell CE Infant School, Bakewell * Bakewell Methodist Junior School, Bakewell * Bamford Primary School, Bamford * Barlborough Primary School, Barlborough * Barlow CE Primary School, Barlow * Barrow Hill Primary Academy, Barrow Hill * Belmont Primary School, Swadlincote * Biggin CE Primary School, Biggin * Birk Hill Infant School, Eckington * Bishop Pursglove CE Primary School, Buxton * Blackwell Community Primary School, Blackwell * Bolsover CE Junior School, Bolsover * Bolsover Infant School, Bolsover * Bonsall CE Primary School, Bonsall * Bradley CE Primary School, Bradley * Bradwell CE Infant School, Bradwell * Bradwell Junior School, Bradwell * Brailsford CE Primary School, Brailsford * Bramley Vale Primary School, Bramley Vale * Brampton Primary School, Brampton * Brassington Primary School, Brassington * Breadsall CE Primary School, Breadsall * The Brigg Infant School, South Normanton * Brimington Junior School, Brimington * Brimington Manor Infant School, Brimington * Brockley Primary School, Shuttlewood * Brockwell Junior School, Loundsley Green * Brockwell Nursery School, Loundsley Green * Brookfield Primary School, Langwith Junction * Brooklands Primary School, Long Eaton * Burbage Primary School, Burbage * Buxton Infant School, Buxton * Buxton Junior School, Buxton * Buxworth Primary School, Buxworth * Calow CE Primary School, Calow * Camms CE Primary School, Eckington * Carsington and Hopton Primary School, Carsington * Castle View Primary School, Matlock * Castleton CE Primary School, Castleton * Cavendish Junior School, Newbold Moor * Chapel-en- le-Frith CE Primary School, Chapel-en-le-Frith * Charlesworth Primary School, Charlesworth * Charlotte Infant School, Ilkeston * Chaucer Infant School, Ilkeston * Chaucer Junior School, Ilkeston * Chellaston Fields Spencer Academy, Chellaston * Chinley Primary School, Chinley * Christ Church CE Primary School, Stonegravels * Christ the King RC Academy, Alfreton * Church Broughton CE Primary School, Church Broughton * Church Gresley Infant School, Church Gresley * Clifton CE Primary School, Clifton * Clover Leys Spencer Academy, Chellaston * Cloudside Academy, Sandiacre * Clowne Infant School, Clowne * Clowne Junior School, Clowne * Codnor Community CE Primary School, Codnor * Combs Infant School, Chapel-en-le-Frith * Coppice 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School, Draycott * Dronfield Infant School, Dronfield * Dronfield Junior School, Dronfield * Dronfield Stonelow Junior School, Dronfield * Duckmanton Primary School, Duckmanton * Duffield the Meadows Primary School, Duffield * Duke of Norfolk CE Primary School, Glossop * Dunston Primary Academy, Newbold * Earl Sterndale CE Primary School, Earl Sterndale * Eckington Junior School, Eckington * Edale CE Primary School, Edale * Egginton Primary School, Egginton * Elmsleigh Infant School, Swadlincote * Elton CE Primary School, Elton * English Martyrs' RC Academy, Long Eaton * Etwall Primary School, Etwall * Eureka Primary School, Midway * Eyam CE Primary School, Eyam * Fairfield CE Junior School, Fairfield * Fairfield Infant School, Fairfield * Fairmeadows Foundation Primary School, Newhall * Field House Infant School, Ilkeston * Findern Primary School, Findern * Firfield Primary School, Breaston * Fitzherbert CE Primary School, Fenny Bentley * Fritchley CE Primary School, Fritchley * Furness Vale Primary School, Furness Vale * Gamesley Primary School, Gamesley * Gilbert Heathcote Infant School, Whittington Moor * Glebe Junior School, South Normanton * Gorseybrigg Primary School, Dronfield Woodhouse * Granby Junior School, Ilkeston * Grange Primary School, Ilkeston * Grassmoor Primary School, Grassmoor * Great Hucklow CE Primary School, Great Hucklow * The Green Infant School, South Normanton * Grindleford Primary School, Grindleford * Hadfield Infant School, Hadfield * Hady Primary School, Hady * Hague Bar Primary School, Hague Bar * Hallam Fields Junior School, Ilkeston * Harpur Hill Primary School, Harpur Hill * Harrington Junior School, Long Eaton * Hartington CE Primary School, Hartington * Hartshorne CE Primary School, Hartshorne * Hasland Infant School, Hasland * Hasland Junior School, Hasland * Hathersage St Michael's CE Primary School, Hathersage * Hayfield Primary School, Hayfield * Heage Primary School, Heage * Heath Fields Primary School, Hatton * Heath Primary School, Heath * Henry Bradley Infant School, Brimington * Herbert Strutt Primary School, Belper * Highfield Hall Primary School, Chesterfield * Highfields Spencer Academy, Highfield * Hilton Primary School, Hilton * Hodthorpe Primary School, Hodthorpe * Holbrook CE Primary School, Holbrook * Hollingwood Primary School, Hollingwood * Holme Hall Primary School, Chesterfield * Holmesdale Infant School, Dronfield * Holmgate Primary School, Clay Cross * Hope Primary School, Hope * Horsley CE Primary School, Horsley * Horsley Woodhouse Primary School, Horsley Woodhouse * Howitt Primary Community School, Heanor * Hulland CE Primary School, Hulland * Hunloke Park Primary School, Wingerworth * Immaculate Conception RC Primary, Spinkhill * Inkersall Primary Academy, Inkersall * Ironville and Codnor Primary School, Ironville * John King Infant Academy, Pinxton * Kensington Junior School, Ilkeston * Kilburn Infant School, Kilburn * Kilburn Junior School, Kilburn * Killamarsh Infant School, 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School, Matlock * St John's CE Primary School, Belper * St John's CE Primary School, Ripley * St Joseph's RC Academy, Matlock * St Joseph's RC and CE Primary School, Staveley * St Joseph's RC Primary School, Langwith Junction * St Laurence CE Primary School, Long Eaton * St Luke's CE Primary School, Glossop * St Margaret's RC Academy, Glossop * St Mary's RC Academy, Glossop * St Mary's RC Academy, New Mills * St Mary's RC Primary School, Chesterfield * St Oswald's CE Primary School, Ashbourne * St Thomas RC Academy, Ilkeston * Sale and Davys CE Primary School, Barrow upon Trent * Sawley Infant School, Sawley * Sawley Junior School, Sawley * Scarcliffe Primary School, Scarcliffe * Scargill CE Primary School, West Hallam * Shardlow Primary School, Shardlow * Sharley Park Primary School, Danesmoor * Shirland Primary School, Shirland * Simmondley Primary School, Simmondley * Somercotes Infant School, Somercotes * Somerlea Park Junior School, Somercotes * South Darley CE Primary School, South Darley * South Wingfield Primary School, South Wingfield * Speedwell Infant School, Staveley * Spire Junior School, Chesterfield * Spire Infant School, Chesterfield * Springfield Junior School, Swadlincote * Stanley Common CE Primary School, Stanley Common * Stanton Primary School, Stanton * Stanton-in-Peak CE Primary School, Stanton- in-Peak * Staveley Junior School, Staveley * Stenson Fields Primary Community School, Stenson Fields * Stonebroom Primary School, Stonebroom * Stoney Middleton CE Primary School, Stoney Middleton * Street Lane Primary School, Denby * Stretton Handley CE Primary School, Woolley Moor * Sudbury Primary School, Sudbury * Swanwick Primary School, Swanwick * Taddington and Priestcliffe School, Taddington * Tansley Primary School, Tansley * Taxal and Fernilee CE Primary School, Whaley Bridge * Temple Normanton Junior Academy, Temple Normanton * Thornsett Primary School, Birch Vale * Tibshelf Infant School, Tibshelf * Tintwistle CE Primary School, Tintwistle * Town End Junior School, Tibshelf * Tupton Primary Academy, New Tupton * Turnditch CE Primary School, Turnditch * Unstone Junior School, Unstone * Unstone St Mary's Infant School, Unstone * Waingroves Primary School, Ripley * Walton Holymoorside Primary School, Holymoorside * Walton On Trent CE Primary School, Walton-on- Trent * Wessington Primary School, Wessington * Westfield Infant School, Brampton * Westhouses Primary School, Westhouses * Weston-on-Trent CE Primary School, Weston-on-Trent * Whaley Bridge Primary School, Whaley Bridge * Whaley Thorns Primary School, Langwith * Whitecotes Primary School, Chesterfield * Whitfield St James' CE Primary School, Glossop * Whittington Green School, Old Whittington * Whitwell Primary School, Whitwell * Wigley Primary School, Wigley * William Gilbert Endowed CE Primary School, Duffield * William Levick Primary School, Dronfield Woodhouse * William Rhodes Primary School, Boythorpe * Willington Primary School, Willington * Winster CE Primary School, Winster * Wirksworth CE Infant School, Wirksworth * Wirksworth Infant School, Wirksworth * Wirksworth Junior School, Wirksworth * Woodbridge Junior School, Alfreton * Woodthorpe CE Primary School, Woodthorpe * Woodville CE Junior School, Woodville * Woodville Infant School, Woodville * Youlgrave All Saints' CE Primary School, Youlgrave === Secondary schools=== * Aldercar High School, Aldercar * Anthony Gell School, Wirksworth * Belper School, Belper * The Bolsover School, Bolsover * Brookfield Community School, Chesterfield * Buxton Community School, Buxton * Chapel-en-le-Frith High School, Chapel-en-le-Frith * David Nieper Academy, Amber Valley * Dronfield Henry Fanshawe School, Dronfield * The Ecclesbourne School, Belper * Eckington School, Eckington * Frederick Gent School, South Normanton * Friesland School, Sandiacre * Glossopdale School, Hadfield * Granville Academy, Swadlincote * Heanor Gate Science College, Heanor * Heritage High School, Clowne * Highfields School, Matlock * Hope Valley College, Hope Valley * John Flamsteed Community School, Derby * John Port Spencer Academy, Etwall * Kirk Hallam Community Academy, Ilkeston * Lady Manners School, Bakewell * The Long Eaton School, Long Eaton * Netherthorpe School, Staveley * New Mills School, New Mills * Ormiston Ilkeston Enterprise Academy, Ilkeston * Outwood Academy Hasland Hall, Chesterfield * Outwood Academy Newbold, Newbold * Parkside Community School, Chesterfield * The Pingle Academy, Swadlincote * Queen Elizabeth's Grammar School, Ashbourne * The Ripley Academy, Ripley * St John Houghton Catholic Voluntary Academy, Kirk Hallam * St Mary's Roman Catholic High School, Chesterfield * St Philip Howard Catholic Voluntary Academy, Glossop * St Thomas More Catholic School, Buxton * Shirebrook Academy, Shirebrook * Springwell Community College, Staveley * Swanwick Hall School, Alfreton * Tibshelf Community School, Tibshelf * Tupton Hall School, Chesterfield * Whittington Green School, Old Whittington * William Allitt Academy, Swadlincote * Wilsthorpe School, Long Eaton ===Special and alternative schools=== *Alfreton Park Community Special School, Alfreton *Ashgate Croft School, Chesterfield *Bennerley Fields School, Cotmanhay *Brackenfield Special School, Long Eaton *Holbrook School for Autism, Holbrook *Holly House Special School, Old Whittington *North East Derbyshire Support Centre, Hasland *Peak School, Cauldwell *South Derbyshire Support Centre, Newhall *Stanton Vale School, Long Eaton *Stubbin Wood School, Shirebrook *Swanwick School and Sports College, Swanwick ===Further education=== * Buxton & Leek College, Buxton * Chesterfield College, Chesterfield * Derby College, Ilkeston / Morley ==Independent schools== ===Primary and preparatory schools=== * Barlborough Hall School, Barlborough * Dame Catherine Harpur's School, Ticknall * Repton Prep, Foremark * St Peter and St Paul School, Chesterfield * St Wystan's School, Repton * Watchorn Christian School, Alfreton ===Senior and all-through schools=== * Abbotsholme School, Thurvaston * Mount St Mary's College, Spinkhill * OneSchool Global UK, Long Eaton * Repton School, Repton * St Anselm's School, Bakewell * Trent College, Long Eaton ===Special and alternative schools=== * Alderwasley Hall School, Alderwasley * Arnfield Independent School, Tintwistle * Bladon House School, Newton Solney * Bradshaw Farm Independent School, Quarnford * Eastwood Grange School, Ashover * Ellern Mede Derby School, Breaston * High Grange School, Burnaston * Jasmine House School, Heanor * The Linnet Independent Learning Centre, Castle Gresley * Longdon Park School, Egginton * The Meadows, Dove Holes * New Direction, Clowne * Old Sams Farm Independent School, Quarnford * Pegasus School, Cauldwell * REAL Independent Schools, Ilkeston Derbyshire Category:Schools in Derbyshire Category:Lists of buildings and structures in Derbyshire |
Mary Ann Adams Maverick (March 16, 1818 - February 24, 1898), was an early Texas pioneer and author of memoirs which form an important source of information about daily life in and around San Antonio during the Republic of Texas period through the American Civil War. ==Early life== Mary Ann Adams was born in Tuscaloosa County, Alabama, to William Lewis Adams, a lawyer, and Agatha Strother (Lewis) Adams. Her maternal grandmother was a cousin of James Madison, while her father's family had founded Lynchburg, Virginia. Her parents lived along the James River in Virginia, where her father exported flour and tobacco. During the War of 1812 her father left Virginia for what is now Alabama and bought a plantation near the site of Tuscaloosa. While purchasing supplies in Mobile, Robert Adams answered Andrew Jackson's call for volunteers to help defend New Orleans and raised a company which he led at the Battle of New Orleans.Marks (1989), p. 64. In 1816, her mother came to live permanently in Alabama as well. In Alabama, Robert Adams practiced law, and in 1827 he served as an agent of U.S. Treasury Department. He died in June 1827, leaving his widow to raise their six surviving children, all under the age of 12.Marks (1989), p. 65. Mary attended boarding school in Tuscaloosa to meet her father's wish that his children be appropriately educated.Marks (1989), p. 66. On August 4, 1836, Mary Adams married Samuel Augustus Maverick, a Yale graduate who had been the Alamo garrison's delegate to the Convention of 1836 declaring Texas' independence from Mexico.Marks (1989), pp. 53-54. Sam Maverick sold his Alabama plantation at the beginning of 1837, and Mary Maverick accompanied her husband to New Orleans so that he could conduct business and be closer to news of Texas. While she was in New Orleans, her brother William Adams left for Texas.Marks (1989), p. 69. In March 1837, she and her husband visited his father in South Carolina, where they refused the elder Maverick's gift of his plantation. On May 14, 1837, she gave birth to her first child, Samuel Maverick, Jr. in South Carolina.Marks (1989), p. 70. ==Establishment in San Antonio== In October 1837, Mary Maverick, her brother, son, and seven slaves left South Carolina. After a brief stop in Tuscaloosa, they left for the Republic of Texas on December 7, accompanied by her fifteen- year-old brother, Robert Adams, and three additional slaves. The party crossed into Texas near New Year's Day 1838.Marks (1989), p. 71. On February 4, they rented rooms at the home of George Sutherland, and for four months Maverick remained there while her husband continued on to San Antonio.Marks (1989), p. 72. Maverick and the rest of her party reached San Antonio on June 15, 1838.Marks (1989), p. 78. In her memoirs, she claims to have been the first U.S.-born female to settle in San Antonio, but letters to her mother mentioned another American lady, married to an Irishman, who died shortly after the Mavericks arrived. The family rented rooms at the same home where her brother William resided.Marks (1989), p. 80. Shortly after moving into a new home along the San Antonio River, Maverick gave birth to her second child, Lewis Antonio Maverick, who became the first Anglo-American child to be born in and grow up in San Antonio.Marks (1989), p. 85. During the next few years, more Anglo families moved to San Antonio.Marks (1989), p. 86. Her brothers returned to Alabama, but William came back to Texas in 1839 with another brother, Andrew, to begin farming.Marks (1989), p. 87. Mary was often left alone, as her husband spent months traveling for business or combing the Texas wilderness on surveying missions. The Mavericks participated in the so-called Council House Fight on March 19, 1840, when half of a peace-delegation of sixty-five Comanches, consisting of men, women and children, was slaughtered and the other half taken hostage. The Comanche delegation arrived in San Antonio, a traditional safe haven for peace talks, to negotiate a peace treaty and a demarcation line and bargain for the ransom of white captives. The army had ordered prior to the meeting that, if not all Anglo-Texans believed to be Comanche captives at that time were returned at the beginning of the talks, all the negotiators of the band be held until the captives were returned, and then the ransom would be paid.Marks (1989), pp.90-91. Maverick and a female neighbor had been watching several Indian children playing when they heard gunfire within the council house and saw Indians fleeing from the building. She alerted her husband and brother Andrew, and, while Samuel Maverick rushed outside to chase down the Indians, Maverick and Andrew hurried outside to find the children. They discovered three of the fugitive Indians in the back yard, while their slave cook, Jinny, tried to protect the two Maverick children and her own four children by threatening the Indians with a large rock. Andrew Adams shot two of the three Indians and joined the main fight. Maverick hid her children in the house and watched the battle through the windows. At one point she was curious enough to go outside for a closer look, but was ordered to return indoors by a soldier. The skirmish continued until all of the Indians were dead or captured.Marks (1989), p. 91. In her diary, Maverick wrote that "'All [Indians] had a chance to surrender ... and every one who offered or agreed to give up was taken prisoner and protected.'"Marks (1989), p. 92. Two days after the battle, Samuel Maverick again left his wife and children alone, under the protection of her two brothers.Marks (1989), p, 93. During his business trip, Sam sold many of his lands in South Carolina and Alabama, and bought two years worth of provisions, which he had shipped to Linville, Texas. Before he could escort the goods on to San Antonio, Linville was raided by a party led by Buffalo Hump, during the Great Raid of 1840, and all of their provisions were destroyed.Marks (1989), p. 95. In December 1840, Maverick's aunt and uncle, John and Ann Bradley, arrived in Texas from Alabama along with their young children. Happy to be surrounded by family again, Maverick expanded her own family in April 1841 with the birth of her daughter Agatha.Marks (1989), p. 97. Later that year, Maverick's mother, Agatha Adams, planned a journey to visit them and to consider settling in Texas. She fell ill days before she was scheduled to leave, however, and died on October 2.Marks (1989), p. 98. ==Runaway of '42== The citizens of San Antonio received word in February 1842 that Mexican president Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna was again sending troops into Texas, which Mexico still did not recognize as a separate country. The Mavericks left some of their possessions with Mexican neighbors and joined their other Anglo neighbors in the Runaway of '42. With her brothers William and Andrew, Maverick and her immediate family travelled east, the first time Maverick had left San Antonio since her arrival.Marks (1989), p. 100. For several days, she and the children boarded with a rancher outside of Seguin while her husband and brothers returned to San Antonio to fight. On March 6, the sixth anniversary of the fall of the Alamo, Maverick received word that San Antonio had fallen to Santa Anna. She worried about her men for several days until they appeared, having turned back before reaching San Antonio. The Mavericks moved on to Gonzales, where they squatted in a house left empty when its residents had fled in the Runaway.Marks (1989), p. 101. The men accompanied Texas army troops to retake San Antonio, and the Mexican army retreated without a fight, although they caused a great deal of damage to the homes of American citizens. Samuel Maverick returned to his wife and moved her to LaGrange so that she would be farther from the threat of Indian attacks. On April 30 he left Maverick alone there while he returned to Alabama to get her younger sister, Elizabeth, who had been living as a boarder since her mother died the previous year.Marks (1989), p. 102. Samuel Maverick returned to San Antonio without his family in late August 1842 to argue a case before the district court. The Mexican army, under General Adrian Woll, surrounded San Antonio and captured the small number of Anglo-American men in the city.Marks (1989), p. 104. On September 15, Samuel Maverick and his countrymen were forced to march toward Mexico. Mary Maverick's brothers participated in the Battle of the Salado on September 18, where their company ambushed some of the Mexican soldiers, killing 60 of them. Her uncle John Bradley joined another company, and Maverick sent her slave Griffin to go with him. She instructed Griffin to pose as a runaway slave bound for Mexico in the hope that he would be able to help free Samuel Maverick. As an extra assurance, she gave Griffin funds that could be used to ransom back her husband. This band of Texans was surprised by a Mexican cavalry detachment.Marks (1989), p. 106. Griffin was killed in the battle, and Bradley was taken captive and marched to join Samuel Maverick and the other prisoners.Marks (1989), p. 107. Maverick continued to receive letters from her husband during his captivity, so that she could be comforted that he was still alive.Marks (1989), p. 108. ==Other== Mary Maverick bore ten children over a span of 21 years. Four died of illness before the age of eight, which led Mary to seek solace in the spiritualism which was increasingly popular in mid-19th- century America. As her surviving children grew up, she became active in the public sphere. During the Civil War, while four of her sons served in the Confederate States Army, she was active in San Antonio relief efforts. Her memoirs relate her attempts to revive the then-dying art of homespun cloth production to supply the needs of the Confederate cause. A devout Episcopalian, she was instrumental in establishing St. Mark's Church in San Antonio and served as president of the Ladies' Parish Aid Society. ==Later life== After Sam's death in 1870, as San Antonio grew, Mary Maverick made efforts to see that the pioneer past was not forgotten. She was a prominent member of the San Antonio Historical Society and the Daughters of the Republic of Texas. She helped promote the annual Battle of Flowers celebration, and devoted effort to the restoration and preservation of the Alamo as an historic site. Her watercolor sketch of the Alamo, completed during her first residence in San Antonio, is one of the earliest-known depictions after the battle. Although she did not herself immigrate to Texas until two years after the fall of the Alamo, in 1889 she wrote a brief account of the battle based on the recollections of witnesses. She died on February 24, 1898, and was buried beside her husband at San Antonio City Cemetery Number 1.Handbook of Texas Online ==Memoirs== Throughout her life, Mary had kept diaries of her experiences. In 1895, with the help of her son George Madison Maverick, she published these as her memoirs. They provide an engrossing and vivid picture of life on the Texas frontier and mid-19th-century San Antonio, including household management, child-rearing and family life, medical practices, and social and political observations. Mary Maverick's writings, in particular her eyewitness account of the Council House Fight in San Antonio in 1840, are often cited in studies of Texas pioneer life. In particular, she claimed that Matilda Lockhart, the white captive who was returned by the Comanches to white authorities on that day, had been beaten, raped and had suffered burns to her body. Allegedly, her face was severely disfigured, with her nose entirely burned away, a detail which has been commonly included in Texas history descriptions of the incident since the publications of the Maverick memoirs in 1895. Reports of abuse are, however, conspicuously missing in primary documents authored by eyewitnesses immediately after the event. Neither Col. Hugh McLeod mentioned any abuse in his report of March 20, 1840 (commenting on the intelligence of the girl but nothing like a missing nose), nor any other Texas officials at the time nor Matilda Lockhart's own sister-in-law, who was in San Antonio, in a letter written to her own mother shortly after the release. Anderson writes: "While published in the 1890s, this description has been used by historians to claim that the massacre came about as a result of the justifiable rage of Texas men. Yet none of the Texas officials claimed this to be the case at the time; evidence of abuse is conspicuously missing in the primary documents, however no reliable narrative counters it. Maverick may have exaggerated Lockhart's condition because of the growing criticism of Texas in the American and European Press. The most significant source on Matilda's condition is a brief statement made in a letter by her sister-in- law, Catherine Lockhart, who was in San Antonio. Catherine describes Matilda's release but says nothing of abuse."Anderson(2005) pp. 181 f. ==Footnotes== ==References== * * Memoirs of Mary A. Maverick, Rena Maverick Green, ed. (San Antonio: 1921). * Samuel Maverick, Texan, Rena Maverick Green, ed. (San Antonio, 1952). * Maverick Family Papers, Barker Texas History Center, University of Texas at Austin. * The Conquest of Texas - Ethnic Cleansing in the Promised Land, 1820-1875, Gary Clayton Anderson (Norman: 2005). ==External links== *Early photo of Mary Maverick with five of her children. *Samuel Maverick: John Howland's Texas Legacy *Mary Maverick's description of the Council House Fight of 1840 *Mary Ann Adams Maverick in the Texas State Historical Association's Handbook of Texas Online * Category:1818 births Category:1898 deaths Category:American slave owners Category:People from San Antonio Category:Historians of Texas Category:Ranchers from Texas Category:Burials at San Antonio City Cemetery No. 1 Category:American women historians Category:19th-century American women writers Category:American women slave owners |
This is a List of Beam Approach beacon system Units of the Royal Air Force. The first system to guide RAF aircraft safely down onto a runway was called the Standard Blind Approach (SBA) system and was trialled in the late 1930s. It was also being used by a few civil airports. By late 1941 the word 'Blind' was changed to 'Beam' as it was felt that blind did not give a reassuring feel to a system used when visibility was very low. The word Standard came from Standard Radio, the name of the company that made the equipment under license from the German company that designed it. However the equipment was also 'standard' fit on RAF aircraft. The change from Blind to Beam is evidenced in the two sets of Unit names in the tables below. There were no physical beams in the system at all, rather it relied on a heavily distorted dipole radiation pattern using a single transmitter. Instead of 'beams' it used a single heavily distorted toroid that was flipped left and right with a periodicity that simulated a morse code letter, the plane of equal field strength in this arrangement being mathematically equal to a line of zero width - a perfect 'beam' from an imperfect, cheaper, and simple radio transmitter. SBA was not automatic, the pilot flew the aircraft at all times. The Beam Approach Beacon System (BABS) is an automatic radar landing system developed in the early 1940s but not used until much later when it replaced the SBA system. ==Blind Approach Training flights== Name Formed Location Aircraft Disbanded at Disbanded Unit became 1 Blind Approach Training Flight 12 January 1941 Abingdon Armstrong Whitworth Whitley Abingdon 8 November 1941 1501 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 2 Blind Approach Training Flight February 1941 Linton-on-Ouse Armstrong Whitworth Whitley Driffield 8 November 1941 1502 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 3 Blind Approach Training Flight 27 January 1941 Mildenhall Vickers Wellington Mildenhall 8 November 1941 1503 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 4 Blind Approach Training Flight 17 December 1940 Wyton Vickers Wellington Wyton 8 November 1941 1504 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 5 Blind Approach Training Flight 1 January 1941 Honington Vickers Wellington Airspeed Oxford Honington 8 November 1941 1505 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 6 Blind Approach Training Flight 6 January 1941 Waddington Bristol Blenheim Handley Page Hampden Airspeed Oxford Douglas Boston Waddington 8 November 1941 1506 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 7 Blind Approach Training Flight 18 January 1941 Finningley Bristol Blenheim Handley Page Hampden Airspeed Oxford Finningley 8 November 1941 1507 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 8 Blind Approach Training Flight January 1941 Wattisham Bristol Blenheim Horsham St Faith 8 November 1941 1508 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 9 Blind Approach Training Flight January 1941 Thornaby Vickers Wellington Airspeed Oxford Dyce 8 November 1941 1509 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 10 Blind Approach Training Flight January 1941 Leuchars Vickers Wellington Airspeed Oxford Leuchars 8 November 1941 1510 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 11 Blind Approach Training Flight 22 September 1941 Upwood Airspeed Oxford Upwood October 1941 1511 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 12 Blind Approach Training Flight 22 September 1941 Dishforth Airspeed Oxford Dishforth October 1941 1512 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 13 Blind Approach Training Flight 22 September 1941 Honington Honington October 1941 1513 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 14 Blind Approach Training Flight 22 September 1941 Coningsby Coningsby October 1941 1514 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 15 Blind Approach Training Flight 22 September 1941 Swanton Morley Airspeed Oxford Swanton Morley October 1941 1515 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 16 Blind Approach Training Flight 22 September 1941 Topcliffe Llanbedr October 1941 1516 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 17 Blind Approach Training Flight October 1941 Wattisham Airspeed Oxford de Havilland Tiger Moth Ipswich October 1941 1517 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 20 Blind Approach Training Flight 10 October 1941 Breighton Airspeed Oxford de Havilland Tiger Moth RAF Holme October 1941 1520 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 21 Blind Approach Training Flight October 1941 Stradishall Airspeed Oxford Stradishall October 1941 1521 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 22 Blind Approach Training Flight October 1941 Docking Airspeed Oxford Docking October 1941 1522 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 23 Blind Approach Training Flight October 1941 Little Rissington Little Rissington October 1941 1523 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 24 Blind Approach Training Flight October 1941 Bottesford Airspeed Oxford Bottesford October 1941 1524 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 25 Blind Approach Training Flight October 1941 Brize Norton Brize Norton October 1941 1525 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 26 Blind Approach Training Flight 3 October 1941 Andover Airspeed Oxford Thruxton October 1941 1526 (Beam Approach Training) Flight ==Beam Approach Training flights== Name Formed Location Aircraft Disbanded at Disbanded Unit became 1501 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 8 November 1941 Abingdon Stanton Harcourt 15 November 1943 Disbanded 1502 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 8 November 1941 Driffield Leconfield 15 August 1943 Disbanded 1503 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 8 November 1941 Mildenhall Lindholme 6 August 1943 Disbanded 1504 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 8 November 1941 Wyton Newmarket 21 August 1943 Disbanded 1505 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 8 November 1941 Honington Upper Heyford 3 February 1943 Disbanded 1506 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 8 November 1941 Waddington Skellingthorpe 21 October 1943 Disbanded 1507 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 8 November 1941 Finnigley Gransden Lodge 27 November 1943 Disbanded 1508 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 8 November 1941 Swanton Morley Unk 1 March 1944 Became 1508 (Radio Aids Training) Flight 1509 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 8 November 1941 Thornaby Dyce 14 August 1944 Absorbed 1510 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 8 November 1941 Leuchars Unk March 1943 Became 1510 (BABS) Flight 1511 (Beam Approach Training) Flight October 1941 Upwood Unk 15 September 1945 Became 1511 (Radio Aids Training) Flight 1512 (Beam Approach Training) Flight October 1941 Dishforth Banff 30 August 1944 Disbanded 1513 (Beam Approach Training) Flight October 1941 Honington Airspeed Oxford Avro Anson Bramcote 1 December 1946 Became 1513 (Radio Aids Training) Flight 1514 (Beam Approach Training) Flight October 1941 Coningsby Fiskerton 9 January 1945 Disbanded 1515 (Beam Approach Training) Flight October 1941 Swanton Morley Airspeed Oxford Colby Grange 1 June 1945 Disbanded 1516 (Beam Approach Training) Flight October 1941 Llanbedr Unk 15 September 1945 Became 1516 (Radio Aids Training) Flight 1517 (Beam Approach Training) Flight October 1941 Wattisham Wheaton Aston 17 December 1945 Disbanded 1518 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 3 November 1941 Scampton Edzell 30 August 1944 Disbanded 1519 (Beam Approach Training) Flight November 1941 South Cerney Feltwell 3 July 1945 Disbanded 1520 (Beam Approach Training) Flight October 1941 Holme-on- Spalding-Moor Sturgate 29 May 1945 Disbanded 1521 (Beam Approach Training) Flight October 1941 Stradishall Unk 15 September 1945 Became 1521 (Radio Aids Training) Flight 1522 (Beam Approach Training) Flight October 1941 Docking Watchfield April 1942 Absorbed 1523 (Beam Approach Training) Flight October 1941 Little Rissington Little Rissington 17 December 1945 Disbanded 1524 (Beam Approach Training) Flight October 1941 Bottesford Tollerton 9 January 1945 Disbanded 1525 (Beam Approach Training) Flight October 1941 Brize Norton Docking 26 June 1945 Disbanded 1526 (Beam Approach Training) Flight October 1941 Thruxton Hampstead Norris 9 November 1944 Disbanded 1527 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 29 October 1941 Prestwick Unk 15 September 1945 Became 1527 (Radio Aids Training) Flight 1528 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 22 November 1941 West Malling Unk 15 September 1945 Became 1528 (Radio Aids Training) Flight 1529 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 22 November 1941 Wittering Fairford 16 February 1946 Disbanded 1530 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 14 August 1942 Hunsdon Wittering 1 August 1944 Disbanded 1531 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 20 July 1942 Cranage Cranage 29 May 1945 Disbanded 1532 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 15 October 1942 Hullavington Babdown Farm 15 June 1942 Disbanded 1533 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 27 October 1942 Church Lawford Church Lawford 3 April 1945 Disbanded 1534 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 7 December 1942 Shawbury Shawbury 29 May 1945 Disbanded 1535 (RCAF Beam Approach Training) Flight 15 December 1942 Middleton St George Topcliffe 30 August 1943 Disbanded 1536 (Beam Approach Training) Flight March 1943 Grantham Airspeed Oxford Spitalgate 8 May 1945 Disbanded 1537 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 4 May 1943 Upavon Little Rissington 4 April 1947 Disbanded 1538 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 15 April 1943 Croughton Croughton 18 October 1944 Disbanded 1539 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 15 April 1943 South Cerney South Cerney 1 June 1945 Disbanded 1540 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 15 April 1943 Lulsgate Bottom Weston Zoyland 17 December 1945 Disbanded 1541 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 17 May 1943 Stracathro Stracathro 11 July 1945 Disbanded 1542 (Beam Approach Training) Flight July 1943 Dallachy Dallachy 30 August 1944 Disbanded 1544 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 24 January 1944 Errol Errol 30 August 1944 Disbanded 1545 (Beam Approach Training) Flight March 1945 Wheaton Aston Halfpenny Green 17 December 1945 Disbanded 1546 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 8 May 1944 Faldingworth Faldingworth 9 January 1945 Disbanded 1547 (Beam Approach Training) Flight 1 June 1945 Watchfield Watchfield 1 January 1947 Disbanded 1551 (Beam Approach Calibration) Flight 20 November 1942 Bicester Bicester 15 April 1943 Merged ==Radio Aids Training flights== Name Formed Location Aircraft Disbanded at Disbanded Unit became 1508 (Radio Aids Training) Flight 20 September 1945 Unk Unk 20 November 1945 1508 (Acclimatisation) Flight 1510 (Radio Aids Training) Flight 9 August 1947 Unk Bircham Newton 15 September 1948 Absorbed 1511 (Radio Aids Training) Flight 15 September 1945 Unk Wheaton Aston 1 August 1946 Disbanded 1513 (Radio Aids Training) Flight 15 September 1945 Unk Bramcote 1 December 1946 Disbanded 1516 (Radio Aids Training) Flight 15 September 1945 Unk Snaith 11 April 1946 Disbanded 1521 (Radio Aids Training) Flight 15 September 1945 Unk Longtown 1 April 1946 Disbanded 1527 (Radio Aids Training) Flight 15 September 1945 Unk Prestwick 28 February 1946 Disbanded 1528 (Radio Aids Training) Flight 15 September 1945 Unk Fairford 4 March 1946 1555 (Radio Aids Training) Flight 1552 (Radio Aids Training) Flight 15 September 1945 Melbourne Full Sutton 26 October 1946 Disbanded 1553 (Radio Aids Training) Flight 15 September 1945 Melbourne Melbourne 1 October 1945 Disbanded 1554 (Radio Aids Training) Flight 15 September 1945 Melbourne Melbourne 1 October 1945 Disbanded 1555 (Radio Aids Training) Flight 15 September 1945 Fairford Bircham Newton 31 August 1947 Disbanded 1556 (Radio Aids Training Refresher) Flight 15 September 1945 Stradishall Fairford 1 April 1946 Disbanded 1559 (Radio Aids Training) Flight 1 October 1946 Oakington Bircham Newton 9 August 1947 Disbanded ==Other units== Name Formed Location Aircraft Disbanded at Disbanded Unit became No. 1508 (GEE Training) Flight RAF 1 March 1944 Unk Unk Ouston 8 August 1944 'C' Flight of No. 62 OTU No. 1510 (BABS) Flight RAF March 1943 Anson 9 August 1947 1510 (Radio Aids Training) Flight Blind Approach Training and Development Unit RAF 22 September 1939 Boscombe Down Anson, Whitley Boscombe Down 14 October 1940 Wireless Intelligence Development Unit Beam Approach Calibration Flight RAF October 1941 Oxford, Anson Bicester 20 November 1942 1551 (Beam Approach Calibration) Flight Beam Approach Training Flight, Church Lawford RAF March 1942 Church Lawford Church Lawford 27 October 1942 1533 (Beam Approach Training) Flight Beam Approach Training Flight, Nanyuki RAF Nanyuki Nanyuki 26 June 1942 Absorbed by No. 70 OTU Blind Approach Calibration Flight RAF 12 July 1941 Watchfield Oxford, Anson October 1941 Beam Approach Calibration Flight Beam Approach Development Unit RAF 4 October 1942 Watchfield Anson, Oxford, Master Hinton-in-the-Hedges 15 April 1943 'A' Flight, Signals Development Unit RAF Blind Landing Experimental Unit 1 October 1945 Woodbridge Anson Martlesham Heath 1 November 1949 ==See also== Royal Air Force *List of Royal Air Force aircraft squadrons *List of Royal Air Force aircraft independent flights *List of conversion units of the Royal Air Force *List of Royal Air Force Glider units *List of Royal Air Force Operational Training Units *List of Royal Air Force schools *List of Royal Air Force units & establishments *List of RAF squadron codes *List of RAF Regiment units *List of Battle of Britain squadrons *List of wings of the Royal Air Force *Royal Air Force roundels Army Air Corps *List of Army Air Corps aircraft units Fleet Air Arm *List of Fleet Air Arm aircraft squadrons *List of Fleet Air Arm groups *List of aircraft units of the Royal Navy *List of aircraft wings of the Royal Navy Others *List of Air Training Corps squadrons *University Air Squadron *Air Experience Flight *Volunteer Gliding Squadron *United Kingdom military aircraft serial numbers *United Kingdom aircraft test serials *British military aircraft designation systems ==References== ===Citations=== ===Bibliography=== * Category:Training units and formations of the Royal Air Force |
The Not Accepted Anywhere album tour was the touring period from 2005 through to 2007 when Welsh rock-band The Automatic promoted their debut album Not Accepted Anywhere. Over the three-year period, the band covered the United Kingdom several times, as well as touring in the United States, Japan, France and the Netherlands.Interview: The Automatic musictowers.com,web.archive.org, August 3, 2006Latest News theautomatic.co.uk, web.archive.org, December 29, 2005The Automatic tour dates theautomatic.co.uk, web.archive.org, December 30, 2005 The band began touring as an opening act for bands such as Goldie Lookin Chain, Kaiser Chiefs, The Kooks, The Ordinary Boys and Hard Fi in 2005 and early 2006The Automatic @ Bar Pure BBC, February 24, 2006 before appearing third on the bill for the NME 2006 New Music TourNME New Music Tour: Line-up revealed NME, March 14, 2006 and then going on to perform at festivals such as Reading and Leeds, Oxegen, Camden Crawl, Glastonbury, South by Southwest and Warped tour, amongst others.Camden Crawl 2006 Line-up thecamdencrawl.com, December 15, 2010 On tour the band were supported most notably by friends Viva Machine on almost all UK tours, and by Frank Turner, who had just begun as a solo artist – with The Automatic being fans of his former band Million Dead. ==Background== ===Support shows=== In October through to November 2005 the band supported Goldie Lookin Chain on their UK tour, this tour supported the band's release of debut single "Recover ".Exclusive: The Automatic Plan Easter Release For Debut Album gigwise.com, November 22, 2005 This tour was followed by an intense period in the studio recording their debut album, heading back out in January to support The Kooks on their Inside In/Inside Out tour.The Automatic Support The Kooks On UK Tour gigwise.com, November 25, 2005 Later in 2006 the band also supported Kaiser Chiefs at their performances at the Millennium Square in Leeds, and well as supporting The Ordinary Boys in March.The Ordinary Boys Tour March peterhill.net, March 2006 Cancelled supporting appearances included Kaiser Chiefs European tour in November 2006, and My Chemical Romance's The Black Parade World Tour in 2007.The Automatic Interview designermagazine.tripod.com, December 2006Kaiser Chiefs announce European club tour NME, September 12, 2006 During the band's headline of the NME Indie Rock 2007 Tour The Automatic let The View take the headline position at Carling Academy in their native Glasgow.The View headline Shockwaves NME Awards Indie Tour NME, February 3, 2007 ==Design and set-up== From 2006 onwards – when the band were headlining more and more performances, they began using various backdrops – ranging from simple sheet banners, to the more extravagant video screens. The artwork used was all based around designs made by Dean 'D*Face' Stockton for the album Not Accepted Anywhere, and the singles "Raoul", "Recover" and "Monster", many of these were then animated for performances – such as their 2006 London Forum performance where they used three giant screens, incorporating animations with a live feed of the band performing.Darren Lovvel – Clients darrenlovell.co.uk, July 30, 2010The Automatic on Facebook, January 6, 2010 The Automatic Photo album London Forum October 2006 In 2007 Rock Drops recreated D*Face's Raoul 'Globe' artwork from the re-release of the single – and used throughout tour and festival appearances by the band as a stage banner.Rockdrops rockdrops.com, June 17, 2010 Alex Pennie was often noted by critics for being the band's energetic showman.The Automatic @ Pianos: Go Ahead, Girl. Go Ahead Get Down musicsnobbery.com, March 19, 2007The Automatic Automatic: Double the Name, Double the Fun Spin Magazine, July 27, 2007 On the NME 2007 tour Alex Pennie's stage antics lead to a fans classes getting broken, followed by wrestling a member of the audience who started smoking on stage on the Irish leg of the tour.The Automatic cause havoc on Shockwaves NME Awards indie tour NME, February 2, 2007 Pennie whilst playing at New York's' Bowery Ballroom in July broke his ankle half way through the set, after one of his jumps went wrong – and sat out several songs until "Gold Digger" when he rejoined his band mates for the remainder of the set. On several occasions the band's cover of Kanye West's "Gold Digger" would involve other musicians and guests, with primary vocalist and bassist Rob playing flute, Jamie Allen; one of the band's technicians would take over bass guitar, whilst Alex Pennie and James Frost split vocals. At Reading and Leeds festivals in 2006 Goldie Lookin Chain joined the band onstage for the track, whilst Viva Machine joined the band onstage wrapped in bandages in ULU, London in July 2006, and on Warped Tour 2007 Newton Faulkner sung and played guitar on the track.The Automatic: ULU, London, Monday July 24 NME, August 11, 2006 On the closing show of the 2007 NME Indie Rock Tour the band's tour manager Mike Doyle sung vocals on the band's cover of Talking Heads song "Life During Wartime".Shockwaves NME Awards Indie Rock Tour ends in style NME, February 24, 2007 Throughout the tour the band requested as part of their rider that venues put together a David Hasselhoff shrine, by October 2006 the band revealed this had been fulfilled by upwards of 20 venues.the automatic interview and live review skiddle.com, October 13, 2006Interview with The Automatic Automatic theywillrockyou.com, June 13, 2007 ==Concert broadcasts and coverage== BBC 6 Music's Steve Lamacq covered the band's opening night too their October 2006 leg of the album tour – in Exeter's Lemon Grove. Originally the entire 14 song set was broadcastThe Automatic – Lemon Grove, Exeter 2006 BBC, 6 Music, January 21, 2008 with 7 songs made available on BBC Online afterwards.Lamacq In The City, Exeter – October 3 2006 BBC, 6 Music, October 3, 2006 The BBC also covered The Automatic at Reading and Leeds Festivals with broadcasts of "Monster" and "Gold Digger" with Goldie Lookin Chain from the Radio 1/NME Tent.LINE-UP AND ARTISTS: The Automatic BBC Online, August 26, 2006Reading and Leeds 06 Line-up and Artists BBC Online, August 25, 26, 27 2006 A year later at Glastonbury Festival 2007 BBC Three and BBC Online screened much of the band's set.Artists/Line-up – The Automatic BBC Online, Glastonbury Festival 2007, June 2007Glastonbury 2007 Artists BBC Online, Glastonbury Festival 2007, June 2007 MTV featured performances of the band at Oxegen 2006, including "Recover" and "Monster",Full OXEGEN Festival line-up announced RTÉ.ie, June 16, 2006 whilst Channel 4 broadcast performances of "Raoul", "Recover" and "Monster" from T4 on the Beach 2006.T4 on the Beach 2006 The Automatic Channel 4, T4 on the Beach 2006, September 2, 2010 At South by Southwest in Austin, Texas the band's entire set was filmed by Blaze TV,SXSW LIVE Blaze.tv, SXSW Live, September 6, 2010 and later broadcast on Crackle, with "Monster" being made part of the 2007 SXSW DVD.First Ever Filming Of South-by-Southwest Festival Released On DVD starpulse.com, August 27, 2007 ===GMTV Incident and aftermath=== On July 21, 2006 the band made an appearance on GMTV – ITV's breakfast program. The band had been told that they would be playing a track on a morning show "not GMTV, it's something on just after it".The Student Pocket Guide – The Automatic Interview thestudentpocketguide.com, August 29, 2010 With a performance the night before at Bristol's Carling Academy, members of the band decided to stay up all night drinking, until the 6:00 am start at GMTV. The band went on live at around 9:00 am, miming their single "Monster" as GMTV were unwilling for the band to perform live.The Automatic trash GMTV set NME, July 21, 2010 The performance went on to involve guitarist Frost smashing his rented guitar repeatedly onto the floor, before jumping into the drum kit, whilst Pennie walked around with his Alesis Micron keyboard, taking off his trousers and eventually ending up on the floor with Frost, whilst Rob and Iwan continued to mime along to the backing track. During the performance an ITV cameraman received an injury when Frost was destroying his equipment, the cameraman reportedly threatened to sue the band, but later decided not to – saying he was simply pissed off at the time.The Automatic: Interview + Live Review!!! skiddle.com, October 13, 2006 A month before the GMTV incident the band also were forced to mime on Channel 4's T4 on the Beach 2006, which they were unhappy about doing – stating prior to playing "Will we go on drunk? Let's just say there will be some interesting dancing going on as we aren't allowed to plug in our instruments."The Automatic Promise Live TV Appearance To Remember stereoboard.com, June 11, 2006Review: T4 on the Beach 2006 BBC, June 23, 2006 ==Personnel== Musicians * Robin Hawkins – bass guitar, flute, vocals * Alex Pennie – synthesizer, percussion, vocals * James Frost – guitar, vocals * Iwan Griffiths – drums Additional musicians * Jamie Allen – bass guitar during "Gold Digger" Guest musicians * Goldie Lookin Chain – guest vocals on "Gold Digger" at Reading and Leeds festivals 2006 * Newton Faulkner – guest vocals and guitar on "Gold Digger" on Vans warped tour 2007 * Mike Doyle – guest vocals on "Life During Wartime", NME Indie Rock Tour 2007 * Adequate Seven – guest vocals on "Gold Digger" at the Newquay Boardmasters Festival in 2006 * Capdown – guest vocals on "Gold Digger" at the Newquay Boardmasters Festival in 2006 * Mystery Jets – guest vocals on "Gold Digger" at the Newquay Boardmasters Festival in 2006 * Get Cape, Wear Cape, Fly – guest vocals and guitar on "Gold Digger" at the Newquay Boardmasters Festival in 2006 Crew * Stan Saunders – sound * Jamie Allen – engineer * Mike Doyle – tour manager * Darren Lovell – lighting * Peter Hill – engineer/photography * James "Jizz" Lawrenson – sound mixer ==Reception== During their Not Accepted Anywhere tour the band were noted for their energetic live performances, particularly the antics of keyboardist Alex Pennie, whose performances would involve running around the stage with a Cow bell, strangling himself with a microphone, climbing on-top of amps and speakersThe Automatic cause havoc on Shockwaves NME Awards indie tour NME, February 2, 2007The Automatic / Alterkicks / Mumm-Ra – Manchester Academy 1 – 14.10.2006 designermagazine.tripod.com, October 14, 2006 Similarly Robin Monheit of Spin Magazine reviewing the band's New York show in July 2007 wrote "the Bowery Ballroom might not have been packed for last night's Automatic Automatic show, but synth-player/vocalist Alex Pennie performed as if it most definitely was" praising the band's energy.The Automatic Automatic: Double the Name, Double the Fun Spin Magazine, July 27, 2007 "...Pennie, is a sort of wee-sized caged animal, combining his fidgety keyboard fiddling with the most intense punk roars I've heard since At The Drive-In. Throughout the gig, he will run directly into the crowd, shove any and all fans in his way..." wrote themusicslut.com of the band's performance in New York in March 2007The Automatic @ Pianos: Keep Your Eyes Peeled! The Music Slut, March 19, 2007 Critics of the band's live sets were often quick to point out that single "Monster" was best received by audiences at live showsTHE AUTOMATIC, UNIVERSITY GREAT HALL, CARDIFF rocklouder.co.uk (Sonic Publishing), October 31, 2006 ==Set list== With only one album out, the set lists were composed almost entirely of the album's 12 tracks, although on occasion some of the album's b-sides were performed, including "Time = Money" on the October leg of the 2006 tourLamacq In The City, Exeter – October 3 2006 BBC, BBC 6 Music, October 3, 2006 whilst in mid-2006 the band began covering Kanye West's track "Gold Digger"The Automatic cause mayhem at shop show NME, September 23, 2006The Automatic's Kanye West cover gets release NME, October 25, 2006 this was eventually accompanied with a cover of Talking Heads track "Life During Wartime".Shockwaves NME Awards Indie Rock Tour ends in style NME, February 24, 2007 It wasn't until 2007 that the band began including new songs in their set list, "Steve McQueen" and "Revolution" (later retitled "Secret Police") were first performed on the "ShockWaves NME Indie Rock Tour", originally intended for a new single soon after the tour, but ultimately released on This Is A Fix over a year later.The Automatic interview designermagazine.tripod.com, December 2006 ;From Not Accepted Anywhere * "That's What She Said" * "Raoul" * "You Shout" * "Recover" * "Monster" * "Lost at Home" * "Keep Your Eyes Peeled" * "Seriously... I Hate You Guys" * "On The Campaign Trail" * "Team Drama" * "By My Side" * "Rats" ;From This Is A Fix * "Steve McQueen" * "Revolution" ;B-sides * "Time = Money" * "Jack Daniels" ;Covers * "Gold Digger" originally by Kanye West * "Life During Wartime" originally by Talking Heads ==Tour dates== Date City Country Venue Support act(s) Goldie Lookin Chain Tour (October–November 2005) October 14, 2005 Manchester England Manchester Academy Goldie Lookin Chain (headline)Exclusive: The Automatic Plan Easter Release For Debut Album gigwise.com, November 22, 2005 October 15, 2005 Liverpool Carling Academy October 16, 2005 Bristol Carling Academy October 17, 2005 Cardiff Wales Cardiff University October 19, 2005 Southampton England Southampton University October 20, 2005 Norwich UEA October 21, 2005 Kingston upon Hull Hull University October 23, 2005 Aberdeen Scotland Moshulu October 24, 2005 Glasgow The Garage October 25, 2005 Edinburgh The Liquid Rooms October 26, 2005 Newcastle upon Tyne England Newcastle University Union October 28, 2005 Leeds Irish Centre October 29, 2005 Liverpool Carling Academy October 30, 2005 Manchester Manchester University October 31, 2005 Wolverhampton Little Civic November 1, 2005 Norwich UEA Hard Fi November 2, 2005 Cambridge The Junction November 3, 2005 Brighton Concorde 2 November 4, 2005 Chester Telford's Warehouse November 9, 2005 London Barfly November 21, 2005 Blackwood Wales Miners Institute November 22, 2005 Swansea Patti Pavilion November 23, 2005 Bangor Bangor University November 24, 2005 Aberystwyth Aberystwyth University November 25, 2005 Bridgend Recreation Centre November 26, 2005 Wrexham Central Station November 27, 2005 Brecon Market Hall The Kooks Tour (January–February 2006) January 24, 2006 Southampton England Joiners Arms The Kooks (headline)The Automatic tour dates theautomatic.co.uk, web.archive.org, December 30, 2005Latest News theautomatic.co.uk, web.archive.org, December 29, 2005 January 25, 2006 Birmingham Bar Academy January 26, 2006 Cambridge APU January 27, 2006 Bristol Louisiana January 28, 2006 Tunbridge Wells The Forum January 30, 2006 Leeds Cockpit January 31, 2006 Nottingham Social February 1, 2006 Manchester Academy February 2, 2006 Sheffield Fuzz Club February 3, 2006 Newcastle Academy February 5, 2006 Edinburgh Scotland Venue February 6, 2006 Glasgow King Tuts February 7, 2006 Hull England Adelphi February 8, 2006 Liverpool Korova February 10, 2006 Oxford Zodiac February 11, 2006 Norwich Arts Centre February 13, 2006 Brighton Concorde 2 February 14, 2006 London ULU February 15, 2006 100 Club Raoul tour (February–March 2006) February 21, 2006 Peterborough England Met Lounge The Marshals February 22, 2006 Wrexham Wales Central Station February 23, 2006 Sunderland England Pure February 25, 2006 Aberdeen Scotland The Tunnels February 26, 2006 Dundee Reading Rooms February 27, 2006 York England Fibres February 28, 2006 Stoke-on-Trent Sugarmill March 2, 2006 Swansea Wales Divas March 3, 2006 Northampton England Soundhaus March 4, 2006 Bedford Esquires March 5, 2006 Exeter Cavern March 7, 2006 Southend Chinnerys March 8, 2006 London Barfly March 9, 2006 Cardiff Wales Clwb Ifor Bach Kaiser Chiefs headline (April 2006) April 29, 2006 Leeds England Millennium Square Kaiser Chiefs (headline) April 30, 2006 NME New Music Tour (May 2006) May 6, 2006 Bristol England Bristol University Boy Kill Boy ¡Forward, Russia! Howling Bells The Long BlondesNME New Music Tour: Line-up revealed NME, March 14, 2006 May 7, 2006 Cardiff Wales Cardiff University May 8, 2006 Wolverhampton England Wulfrun May 10, 2006 Glasgow Scotland QMU May 11, 2006 Middlesbrough England Empire May 12, 2006 Manchester Manchester University May 14, 2006 Portsmouth Pyramids Centre May 15, 2006 Leicester Leicester University May 16, 2006 Cambridge Wales Junction May 18, 2006 Norwich England UEA May 19, 2006 Sheffield Leadmill May 20, 2006 Liverpool Carling Academy May 23, 2006 Oxford Brookes University May 24, 2006 London Electric Ballroom Summer tour (June–August 2006) May 31, 2006 Merthyr Tydfil Wales Studio Bar Viva Machine June 1, 2006 Cowbridge Sports Centre June 2, 2006 Neath Windsor Club June 3, 2006 Narberth Queens Hall June 5, 2006 Brecon Brycheiniog Theatre June 18, 2006 Weston-super-Mare England T4 on the Beach, Main Stage Festival July 8, 2006 County Kildare Ireland Oxegen, Punchestown Racecourse, Main Stage Festival July 9, 2006 Balado Scotland T in the Park, Futures Stage Festival July 11, 2006 Liverpool England Barfly Cat the Dog Viva Machine July 12, 2006 Norwich Waterfront July 13, 2006 London University of London Union July 15, 2006 Abersoch Wales Wakestock Festival July 16, 2006 Oxford England Zodiac Cat the Dog Viva Machine July 17, 2006 Birmingham Carling Academy July 19, 2006 Brighton Concorde 2 July 20, 2006 Bristol Carling Academy July 23, 2006 Cardiff Wales The Point July 28, 2006 Niigata Prefecture Japan Naeba Ski Resort, Fuji Rock Festival Festival August 4, 2006 Newquay England Rip Curl Boardmasters Unleashed '06 Festival August 5, 2006 Cardiff Wales Cardiff big weekend Festival August 5, 2006 Canterbury England Electric Garden Festival Festival August 20, 2006 Huntingdon Secret Garden Party FestivalThe Automatic join Secret Garden Party bill NME, July 4, 2006 August 26, 2006 Reading Festival, Reading Radio 1 Stage Festival August 27, 2006 Leeds Festival, Leeds Album release tour (October–November 2006) October 3, 2006 Exeter England Lemon Grove Frank Turner Mumm-Ra Alterkicks Viva MachineTHE AUTOMATIC, UNIVERSITY GREAT HALL, CARDIFF rocklouder.co.uk (Sonic Publishing), October 31, 2006 October 4, 2006 Southampton Southampton University October 5, 2006 Loughborough Loughborough University October 7, 2006 Belfast Northern Ireland Mandela Hall October 8, 2006 Dublin Ireland Temple Bar Music Centre October 9, 2006 Glasgow Scotland ABC October 10, 2006 Aberdeen Lemon Tree October 12, 2006 Newcastle upon Tyne England Newcastle University October 13, 2006 Kingston upon Hull Hull University October 14, 2006 Manchester Manchester Academy 1 October 15, 2006 Leeds Leeds University October 17, 2006 Cambridge Corn Exchange October 18, 2006 Nottingham Trent University October 19, 2006 London London Astoria October 20, 2006 Sheffield Sheffield Leadmill October 22, 2006 Bristol Carling Academy October 23, 2006 Cardiff Wales Cardiff University October 24, 2006 Brighton England Corn Exchange October 26, 2006 Oxford Brookes University October 27, 2006 Bournemouth Old Fire Station October 28, 2006 Saint Helier Jersey Jersey Gloucester Hall October 30, 2006 Brecon Wales Brecon Market Hall October 31, 2006 Warwick England University of Warwick November 1, 2006 Aberystwyth Wales Aberystwyth University November 3, 2006 London England London Forum European Dates (November 2006) November 10, 2006 Paris France La Boule Noire The Blood Arm November 25, 2006 Amsterdam Netherlands Paradiso London Calling FestivalLondon Calling Festival londoncalling.nl, November 25, 2006 January 23, 2007 Cologne Germany Prime Club NME Rock Tour (January–February 2007) January 29, 2007 Belfast Northern Ireland Ulster Hall Mumm-Ra The Horrors The View January 30, 2007 Dublin Ireland Ambassador Theatre February 1, 2007 Glasgow Scotland Carling Academy Glasgow February 3, 2007 Manchester England Manchester Academy February 6, 2007 Newcastle upon Tyne Carling Academy Newcastle February 7, 2007 Birmingham Carling Academy Birmingham February 8, 2007 Norwich University of East Anglia February 10, 2007 Cardiff Wales Cardiff University Mumm-Ra The View February 11, 2007 Sheffield England Octagon Centre February 12, 2007 Reading The Hexagon Mumm-Ra The Horrors The View February 14, 2007 Nottingham Nottingham Rock City February 15, 2007 Liverpool Liverpool University February 16, 2007 Southampton Guildhall February 18, 2007 Cambridge Cambridge Corn Exchange February 19, 2007 Exeter Exeter University February 20, 2007 Bristol Bristol Carling Academy February 23, 2007 London Brixton Academy Summer festival circuit (March–June 2007) March 17, 2007 Austin United States South by Southwest, SXSW Emo's Festival March 18, 2007 South by Southwest, SXSW Bat Bar FestivalNME SXSW showcase packs the house NME, March 15, 2007 March 19, 2007 New York City Pianos April 30, 2007 London England Give It A Name, Earls Court, Main Stage Festival May 25, 2007 Lausanne Switzerland Balélec Festival, Grande Scène Festival May 26, 2007 Pontypridd Wales The Full Ponty, Ynysangharad Park, Main Stage Festival June 10, 2007 Dores Scotland RockNess, Main Stage Festival June 22, 2007 Glastonbury England Glastonbury Festival, The Other Stage Festival Warped tour (June–July 2007) June 29, 2007 Pomona United States Pomona Fairgrounds Warped Tour June 30, 2007 Ventura Seaside Park July 1, 2007 Mountain View Shoreline Amphitheatre July 3, 2007 Vancouver Canada Thunderbird Stadium July 5, 2007 Calgary Race City Speedway July 7, 2007 Salt Lake City United States Utah State Fairgrounds July 8, 2007 Denver Invesco Field Mile High July 11, 2007 Phoenix Cricket Pavilion July 12, 2007 Las Cruces NMSU Practise Field July 18, 2007 Selma Verizon Wireless Amphitheater July 19, 2007 Jacksonville Reynolds Park Yacht Club July 15, 2007 Tampa Vinoy Park July 21, 2007 Miami Bicentennial Park July 22, 2007 Orlando Tinker Field July 23, 2007 Charlotte Verizon Amphitheatre July 24, 2007 USA/Canada headline tour (July–August 2007) July 26, 2007 New York City United States Bowery Ballroom Liam and Me Mile High School What A Great Audience The Sterns Various July 27, 2007 Hartford Sweet Janes July 28, 2007 Washington, D.C. Rock N Roll Hotel July 30, 2007 Boston MA Great Scotts July 31, 2007 Philadelphia Northstar August 1, 2007 Toronto Canada Mod Club August 3, 2007 Detroit United States MI Shelter August 4, 2007 Chicago Subterranean August 6, 2007 Charlotte Tremont Music Hall August 7, 2007 Atlanta GA Vinyl Get Loaded in the Park (August 2007) August 26, 2007 London England Clapham Common, Main Stage ==References== ==External links== *The Automatic on Facebook *theautomatic.co.uk Official website Category:2005 concert tours Category:2006 concert tours Category:2007 concert tours Category:The Automatic |
The Silverwing Book Series is a series of novels by Canadian writer Kenneth Oppel about the adventures of a young bat. All four books, published between 1997 and 2007, are commonly assigned in the curriculum of upper elementary and middle school grades in Canada, and in some parts of the United States. ==Summary== ===Prologue: The Great War=== The great war between the birds and the beasts happened approximately 65 million years after the extinction of the dinosaurs for dominance over the land and sky. The bats, however, seeing themselves as neither birds nor beasts, remained neutral throughout the conflict. Finally a compromise was reached; the birds would control the sky, while the beasts would claim the land. However, because the bats refused to take sides, they were banished from being allowed to fly during the day—not even allowed to so much as look at the sun—ever again; only emerging at night. The war is based on Aesop's Fables called "The Birds, the Beasts and the Bat." === Sun Freedom (Silverwing and Sunwing) === As Shade Silverwing looks at the sun, the owls destroy Tree Haven. While the Silverwing bats are migrating to Hibernaculum, he gets swept to sea. After Shade meets Marina Brightwing on an island, they head to the city. They encounter many other characters such as Zephyr, a bat who can see through the past and future, the cannibals Goth and Throbb, the rat kings Romulus and Remus, and humans who attempt to capture or kill them. Shade stays with Marina and finds his colony at Hibernaculum. After hibernating for two days, some members of the colony go on a journey to find Cassiel, who disappeared after finding the truth about the humans. When they find a building called "paradise" with bats living in it, the colony finds out that Cassiel is absent. While the other bats make themselves at home, Shade and Marina escape. After being separated, Shade ends up in the jungle, teams up with Orestes and finds out that sacrifices were being made at the Vampyrum Spectrum pyramid in order to banish the sun, and that Cassiel will also be a sacrifice. After Shade and Marina free the bats, owls and rats in order to defeat Goth, the owls permit the bats to look at the sun, while Marina and Shade become mates. === Underworld (Firewing) === Years later while Shade returns to Tree Haven for the first time, his son Griffin falls to the underground after accidentally dropping a fiery stick on his friend Luna. Finding out that dead bats live here forgetting that they died, he finds multiple bats with a strange glow. In the underworld, Cama Zotz orders the revived Goth to hunt down Griffin. After Frieda gives the sound map to Griffin, he and Luna attempt to escape from the underworld, and are helped by other dead bats that know each other. Goth kills Griffin, but Shade gives up his life for Griffin and Luna, who return to the upper world. ==Main characters== *Shade: A silver-haired bat who is teased about his lack of size and strength. He learns about Cassiel from the colony. He is naïve to the dangerous world around him, where owls rule the skies and he dares look at the sun - which in their world is forbidden - without much idea about the consequences. This starts off a chain of events, which test both his loyalty and strength to the fellow bats. He is the main protagonist of the series who saves his colony more than once and slowly rises in the ranks to become the respected Silverwing he always wanted to be. In 'Firewing', he is a father and appears briefly in the main plot. *Marina Brightwing: An Eastern red bat and Shade's closest friend who is one year older than him. After being banded, she was banished from her colony and went to live on an island. In Silverwing after meeting Shade at the island, she escorts him to reunite with his colony. Goth tore off Marina's band. In Sunwing, Shade and Marina become mates. In Firewing, Marina's role is much more minor compared to the other two books in the series; she briefly appears in the beginning and is only mentioned in the ending. This was probably to give Griffin, their son, more character growth and development. *Goth: A cannibal bat and prince of the Vampyrum spectrum who is deceptive and cunning. He and Throbb were taken from South America to the city. His carnivorous nature makes him eat many kinds of animals, including birds, turning the owls against bats. In the first book, Goth and Throbb are captured by scientists. They escape, meet Shade and Marina, and plot to follow them to Hibernaculum, where they could kill the entire colony. In the end, Goth is injured by lightning. The demon-god Cama Zotz heals Goth and makes him King of the Vampyrum Spectrum, but Goth was killed when the high priest Voxzaco dropped a powerful explosive device on the temple in an attempt to sacrifice everyone to resurrect Cama Zotz in the Underworld. In Firewing, he attempts to take Griffin's life as his own and give Shade's life to Zotz. However, he failed, but was reborn and went to the Upperworld to restart Zotz's worship. *Griffin: Shade and Marina's son, and a Silverwing and Brightwing hybrid. He is notable for being a worrywart and having a way with words. At the end of Firewing he feels he has become a hero like Shade. Griffin and Luna are nearly killed by Goth, but Shade gives his life for the two so that they could return home to the upper world. *Luna: A female Silverwing newborn and Griffin's best friend. While the other Silverwing newborns see Griffin as boring and somewhat annoying, she sees his neurotic and worry-wart antics as amusing. Luna created "the Owl Game", which involves landing as close to an owl as possible, which Griffin dislikes. Later, Luna, Griffin and a few Silverwing newborns see and investigate a fire in the forest. They discover humans near the campfire, and Griffin steals some fire from the humans, but accidentally drops it on Luna, who suffers fatal burns as a result. ==Secondary characters== ===Silverwings=== The Northern Bats have an Elder hierarchy, with one being elected high elder. Silverwings are based on the Silver-Haired Bat. *Ariel: Shade's mother who raises Shade after Cassiel left. At the end of Sunwing, she is elected elder. *Cassiel: Shade's father, who left the colony and see the sun. Shade notices his father is alive when Zephyr told him, finally Shade finds him in the abandoned Mayan temple being used by the Vampyrum Spectrum for sacrifices. *Mercury: A male; the only one who stays with the females and their young outside of winter. He acts as a messenger amongst the Silverwings, befitting his namesake. *Chinook: Shade's best friend. At the end of Sunwing he and Shade become friends and brothers because his parents died and he was adopted by Ariel and Cassiel at Shade's request (though Shade kept this a secret from Chinook, believing his once- rival would never let him hear the end of it). Chinook is frequently scared, like his step-nephew Griffin, but is brave when he needs to be, and he has good survival instincts. He was once very fond of dumping snow on Shade's head, though this may have just been an attempt to gain attention from Shade and Marina. *Plato and Isis: Chinook's parents who travel with the other Silverwings to the human building at the beginning of Sunwing. They perished in the firestorm in the jungle. *Jarod, Osric, Yara, Rasha and Penumbra: Newborns; friends and admirers of Chinook. *Frieda: An elder of the Silverwing colony who is banded. She is the oldest bat in the colony, thus the wisest and helps Shade, even though he did something foolish. At the end of Sunwing, she dies at Bridge City. In the Underworld, she meets Griffin, telling him where to find the tree of life, a possible means of escape for him. She commends Griffin's desire to take Luna with him despite the fact that he knows she may slow him down. *Bathsheba: A selfish elder of the colony, who scolds Shade for breaking the law and mistrusts the animals. In the television series, Bathsheba betrays them. *Lucretia: One of the female elders who becomes a chief elder in Firewing. *Aurora: One of the female elders. *Icarus: A male; he is optimistic about what the bands foretell. *Ishmael: A Silverwing captured by the Vampyrum for the ritual. He escaped, but his brother and others did not. While helping rescue Chinook and the other captives, Ishmael knocked his brother off of the Stone and was killed seconds later by Voxzaco on the sacrificial stone. ===Vampyrum Spectrum=== The Vampyrum Spectrum has a monarchy. They are carnivores and eat just about anything smaller than them, including other bats. They worship the Mayan bat god Cama Zotz. Vampyrum spectrum is the Latin name of the Spectral Bat. *Throbb: Goth's fellow prisoner in the first book, who lacks courage and is forced to do his bidding. He is killed by a thunderstorm. His ghost serves Cama Zotz in the Underworld by aiding in an attempt to tunnel through to the world of the living. *Voxzaco: A High Priest talking to Cama Zotz by eating strange, possibly hallucinogenic, herbs (shrooms). His spine is crooked due to age. He is able to interpret the stone calendar that serves religious purposes. He commits suicide by dropping a bomb that destroys the temple in an attempt to sacrifice 100 hearts to Zotz. In the third book, Zotz reveals that his ghost is suffering eternal torment in his stomach for his failure. While alive, he tried to remove the heart of Ishmael's brother, but Ishmael sacrificed his life for his brother, allowing Voxzaco to devour him. *Phoenix: Zotz's female servant, whose name is derived from the phoenix, a legendary bird who rejuvenates itself through an immersion in fire. Phoenix fails to restore it with Goth, after Shade gives life for Griffin. She was to become Goth's mate when she was restored to life, but it is unknown when she will be able to do so, as it is not common for creatures to be sucked into the Underworld. *Murk: A rare benevolent Vampyrum traveling to the Tree with Shade, Yorick, Nemo and Java. ===Other bats=== *Zephyr: An albino bat who lives in a church spire, a central hub for migrating bat colonies. He is very old and has lost his ability to see, but he uses his sonar with great accuracy. He also can see into the past and future using his ears. He has a vast knowledge of medicinal herbs. *Scirocco: A long-eared bat that led a movement among the banded bats, saying they were promised to become humans. It is unknown what happened to him, or whether he was killed by Goth and Throbb. *Penelope: A banded Brightwing who was originally part of Marina's colony. Like Marina, she was exiled from the colony for having a band. She later became one of those who followed Scirocco. She and her colony are devoured by Goth and Throbb. *Caliban: A mastiff bat who leads a survival group living in Statue Haven. The group consisted of bats used by humans to carry fire (bombs) and were led by Shade's father until he was captured by the Vampyrum Spectrum. Statue Haven was based within the statue of Christ the Redeemer above Rio de Janeiro. ===Dead bats in Zotz's kingdom=== *Yorick: A 500-year-old Silverwing bat who always wants the way, because he has the map to the Tree. He lethally crashed into a tree, which severely damaged his wing and he has to suffer the pain. *Nemo: A fish eater living in the coastal waters way down south. He has been dead for roughly 48 years. His death was caused by being eaten. *Java: A foxwing with a wingspan of five feet, though she is a runt like Shade and even bigger than Goth. She becomes innocent toward any living thing. She does not have the gift of echolocation, which Shade does not like, but has excellent eyesight. She became lost after setting out for the Tree, having forgotten the verbal instructions the Pilgrims gave her, when Yorick found her way off course and invited her to travel with him. Unlike her two companions, she lived a full life and died of old age. ===Other animals=== *King Boreal: The king of the owls who appears only in Sunwing. When he goes to attack Bridge City, although he is persuaded otherwise by his son, Orestes. He is also persuaded to lift the flying ban on the bats, free the imprisoned bats at the various Hibernaculums and to also give the bats the freedom to fly in the daylight if they so choose. *Brutus: An owl general who led the owls burning Tree Haven, after Shade glimpsed the sun. He dislikes bats and fought in the war to retrieve the Sun, although he wanted his species to keep control of the daylight skies and the owls won. *Orestes: A young owl prince; son of King Boreal. One of those who persuaded the owls to lift their ban on the presence of bats in daylight. He was saved by Shade from humans. In the TV adaptation, he is Brutus's son. *Romulus: King of the Northern rats who is considered a freak because of winglike flaps of skin between his fore and hind legs, which for his part led him to believe that bats and rats have a common ancestor. When his brother Prince Remus fled, he took command. *Remus: Prince of the Northern rats. He is distrustful of everyone, to the point of paranoia. He scares himself into abdication from the throne, believing a plot to poison him was afoot. *General Cortez: King of the southern rats, who appears only in Sunwing, where his youngest son is captured by Vampyrum. He and Shade stop Goth from resurrecting Zotz, and save Cassiel, Ariel, Chinook and Cortez's son. He also helps Marina save Shade. He is named after the conquistador Hernando Cortez who conquered the Aztec Empire. ==Locations== *Tree Haven: An oak tree where young bats are raised during the spring and summer. In Silverwing, the owls burned it down. After the new one is chosen, the females and newborns start living there at the end of Sunwing. *Stone Hold: A place where the male bats roost during the spring and summer. *Spire: The tower of a cathedral, which is a landmark in some colonies sound maps for migrating. Shade's colony came to this Spire; this is also where Shade and Marina meet Zephyr the Keeper of the Spire. *Hibernaculum: A place behind a waterfall where Shade's colony goes to hibernate during the winter. *Human Building: A bat paradise with no predators and plenty of insects, where it is always summer and they can see the sun. However, it is a place where humans take bats (northern and southern) and owls to attach explosives to them and send them south to bomb enemies. *Jungle: A rainforest, most likely in Central America. Home to the Vampyrum spectrum bats and the Pyramid. It also hosts creatures such as large insects, southern owls and other exotic things that northern bats haven't seen. *Statue Haven: A statue of Jesus Christ facing Rio de Janeiro. The survivors of the explosions from the metal disks use it as a safe haven from the Vampyrum. *The Pyramid: Home to the royal order of Vampyrum. It is filled with millions of bats. It was destroyed when Voxzaco dropped an explosive on it, killing them. Shade's family and friends escaped, although many bats—including the others—did not. *Underworld: A place created by Cama Zotz for his Vampyrum spectrum. It is beneath the earth and is mostly made up of pictures that occur in bats' minds as a result of conflicting sonal vibration, giving the appearance of images. All bats that die end up there. It is possible, but rare, for a living thing to enter the Underworld, where the denizens will notice a "glow" about them; this "glow" is the creature's life force, and it can be stolen from them. At the place where Zotz fought and killed his counterpart Nocturna, a great Tree made seemingly of fire grows. Entering it, the bats become as Nocturna has become; an observing intelligence in the natural world. ==References== ==External links== *Kenneth Oppel's Official Site *Siverwing Material Category:Novels by Kenneth Oppel Category:Young adult novel series Category:Children's fantasy novels Category:Young adult fantasy novels Category:Fantasy novel series Category:Canadian fantasy novels Category:Fictional bats |
Series 4, Episode 8 is the final episode of the fourth series of the British comedy-drama television series Cold Feet. It was written by Mike Bullen, directed by Ciaran Donnelly, and was first broadcast on the ITV network on 10 December 2001. The plot follows on directly from the previous episode, as Adam and Rachel (James Nesbitt and Helen Baxendale), and Karen and David (Hermione Norris and Robert Bathurst) travel to Sydney, Australia for Pete and Jo's (John Thomson and Kimberley Joseph) impromptu wedding. Adam is sceptical that Pete is truly in love with Jo, and Jo's rich father Rod (Gary Sweet) suspects that Pete is only marrying her to get access to his money. Under pressure from Rod, Pete gets cold feet and he and Jo call off the wedding. The couple soon reconcile and marry with Rod's blessing. Meanwhile, David discovers that Karen has been having an affair with her colleague Mark (Sean Pertwee) and ends their marriage, and Rachel gives birth prematurely in a Sydney hospital. The episode was conceived by Mike Bullen and Cold Feets executive producer Andy Harries in 2000. Both attended a television conference in Sydney and decided to contrive the main plot of the fourth series so the characters would end up in Australia. Helen Baxendale was pregnant and could not fly to Australia, so all scenes featuring Rachel were filmed in Manchester and Salford, England. After location scouting and casting around the Sydney area in May and July, production in Australia ran for 18 days in October 2001. Locations used included a heritage home in Vaucluse for the wedding scenes, Palm Beach for a beach barbecue scene, and outside the Sydney Opera House. The episode was watched by nearly nine million people on its original UK broadcast and received a mixed reaction from newspaper critics; some believed the trip to Sydney was an unnecessary jaunt for the cast and crew, others selected the episode as a "pick of the day". It also received mixed reviews in Australia and New Zealand. Kimberley Joseph's performance was praised, as was Gary Sweet's guest role. The episode represented the series when it won the award for Best Drama Series at the British Academy Television Awards 2002. ==Plot== Adam and Rachel (James Nesbitt and Helen Baxendale), and Karen and David (Hermione Norris and Robert Bathurst) arrive in Sydney, Australia for Pete and Jo's (John Thomson and Kimberley Joseph) hastily arranged wedding. Jo's father Rod Ellison (Gary Sweet) is surprised to learn that his daughter is marrying a man he suspects is only after his money. After speaking to Rod, Adam tells Pete that he thinks the wedding is going ahead for the wrong reasons. Pete reacts angrily and tells Adam to forget being his best man. The following morning, Rod tries to bribe Pete to call off the wedding, but Pete declines. He later overhears Rod forbidding Jo to marry him and tells her they ought to postpone the wedding. Jo is devastated at his decision, and tells him to get out of her house. She confides her sorrow in her ex-fiancé Shawn (Sandy Winton), who unsuccessfully tries to restart their relationship by proposing to her. Rachel, who is spending most of her time in her hotel room on account of her pregnancy, receives a visit from her expatriated lesbian sister Lucy (Susannah Doyle). Lucy tells Rachel that she has been sleeping around with men in order to have a child. When Adam learns of this, he suggests to Lucy that she use some of his banked sperm. They broach the idea to Rachel, who is disgusted at the thought of her husband having a baby with her sister and forbids it from going ahead. Meanwhile, Karen finally assures David that the animosity between them caused by his extramarital affair is in the past. She emails Mark Cubitt (Sean Pertwee), a man she has been having an affair with in England, to tell him their fling is over. Mark arrives at her apartment the next morning and spends the day with her after David cancels a visit to an art gallery with her. He convinces her that David is still the same insensitive man that he has always been. The next day, Karen tells Rachel that she will leave David to be with Mark. Pete and Adam make up after their row and Adam goes to Jo's to collect Pete's clothes. Her regret over her breakup with Pete leads Adam to convince Rod that he should give the wedding his blessing. He follows David to a business meeting with Rod, which David has arranged as a prelude to emigrating his family to Sydney, and with David's help changes Rod's mind about Pete. Rod later meets Jo and Pete to give them his blessing, and they reconcile. On the day of the wedding, David finally reveals his plans for the family to Karen, unaware that Mark is in the apartment. Karen is surprised that David has made the plans, including finding a house for them to live in. Mark is irritated by David's attitude and reveals the affair to him. Enraged, David lashes out at Mark and the two fight. Karen angrily tells Mark to leave. Outside the hotel, Rachel goes into premature labour. Adam rushes her to hospital, where she is taken into surgery. At the wedding venue, Pete asks David to take Adam's place as best man. As Adam has the rings, David volunteers his own wedding band to Pete, and Karen does the same for Jo. Pete and Jo exchange their wedding vows and are pronounced husband and wife. After the wedding, Karen tries to approach David but he just walks away, telling her "no more". Later, Pete, Jo and Karen join Adam and Rachel at the hospital, where they are introduced to the baby, Matthew Sydney Williams. David flies home alone in tears. ==Production== === Writing === The episode was devised following a lecture given by writer Mike Bullen and executive producer Andy Harries at the Screen Producers Association of Australia conference in November 2000.de Lisle, Rosanna (11 December 2000). "Manchester six go walkabout". Sydney Morning Herald (Fairfax Media): p. 4 (The Guide section).Harries, Andy. (2003). Interview on bonus disc of "Cold Feet: The Complete Story" DVD [DVD]. Video Collection International. Bullen and Harries already knew that actress Fay Ripley did not want to renew her contract to play Jenny Gifford for the whole fourth series, so developed a storyline where Jenny's ex-husband Pete would meet and fall in love with an Australian woman after his divorce. The storyline would culminate in an episode set in Australia, which Harries wanted "for no desperately good reason except that it's a nice place to go". The storyline was plotted and Kimberley Joseph was cast as Jo Ellison, who makes her first appearance in Series 4, Episode 1. As originally planned, the fourth series would have depicted all of the main characters permanently emigrating to Australia; Bullen said, "One of them [the characters], whose relationship is no more, meets an Australian in England and he comes out here, and the notion is that the others follow. Then one of the others would have a reason for wanting to walk away from his life so he comes out here too. That's really an excuse to bring everyone out, and the final episode would be a 90-minute special looking back on their lives up to that point; because it would be the last episode with these characters." Having the characters permanently based in Australia opened up the possibility of spin- off series set in the country.Courtis, Brian (26 April 2001). "Cold Feet steps south". The Age (Fairfax Media): p. 32 (Green Guide section). The direction of the fourth series, and thus the finale, changed significantly when Helen Baxendale announced that she was pregnant. Bullen wanted the episode to be an ordinary episode of Cold Feet that just happened to be set in Australia. The original script included stereotypical references to Australian culture, such as "prawns on the barbie", but these were cut to avoid turning the episode into a travelogue. Bullen told the Sun Herald, "I really wanted to go beyond 'no worries' and 'she'll be right mate'. We've asked most of the local actors to improvise with their own sayings, to make sure we get it right." In 2003, Bullen recalled this episode's script as the most difficult he had ever written.Bullen, Mike (22 February 2003). "And they all lived happily ever after...". Western Mail (Western Mail & Echo): p. 4. The collapse of Karen and David's marriage was a controversial issue among the writer and producers; two characters had already divorced and Harries wanted to avoid all three of the main relationships failing. After enjoying the quality of the Australian guest stars, Bullen joked to the Sun Herald that he would write a spin-off series featuring Gary Sweet.Sams, Christine (7 October 2001). "TV's coolest Brits warm their feet in Aussie sand". Herald Sun (The Herald and Weekly Times): p. 45. Eventually, no spin-off series were created. This episode was produced as the final episode of Cold Feet; Mike Bullen did not believe he could continue writing another series and cast members were eager to take other roles. During production in Australia, Bullen's interest in the series was renewed, and he decided he would like to write a final run of episodes. ===Filming=== The episode was directed by Ciaran Donnelly, who also directed the previous episode. Mike Bullen visited Sydney in March 2001 to scout for locations. He was followed in May by producer Spencer Campbell and production designer Chris Truelove, who made preliminary casting decisions and scouted more locations. They finalised the arrangements in July.Madjarian, Annette (23 May 2001). "'Cold Feet' shoots in Oz". Encore (RBI Australia). Unusually, the production schedule was drawn up without a final script in place.Miller, Kylie (23 May 2002). "Travelling south. The Age (Fairfax Media): p. 8 (Green Guide section). This caused complications as Campbell allocated too much time for filming in Sydney and not enough in Manchester. As a result, some scenes set in Sydney were filmed in Manchester; the scene where the characters arrive at Sydney Airport was filmed in a hall at the University of Manchester. Campbell rationalised that viewers who had never been to Sydney would not be able to tell the difference.Campbell, Spencer. (2003). Interview on bonus disc of "Cold Feet: The Complete Story" DVD [DVD]. Video Collection International. Helen Baxendale was nearing the end of her pregnancy, so could not join the rest of the cast abroad, thus all of her scenes were filmed in Manchester and Salford. The scenes in Rachel and Adam's hotel room were shot at the Lowry Hotel in Salford and exterior scenes of the hotel were filmed at the GMEX Centre. The taxi that takes Rachel and Adam to the hospital was a Holden car imported to Britain from Australia and altered to look like a taxi. The final scene of the episode was filmed on an aeroplane set constructed in a studio. Robert Bathurst said, "We shot the scene in the studio because we weren't allowed to film on a real aircraft. So we had to get sections of a plane's interior and stick them all together. The bits were flapping all over the place whenever anyone moved. I had to look out the porthole and have a weep. As I was doing that, I looked out and there through the window, standing where the wing should be, was the show's carpenter trying to hold the set together.""TV ONE People: Robert Bathurst". TVNZ. Retrieved on 9 September 2009 (archived by WebCite on 1 June 2011). thumb|left|220px|Strickland House, the exterior filming location for Pete and Jo's wedding Production in Sydney commenced the week beginning 1 October and lasted for 18 days. The main cast and Sean Pertwee were flown out along with a skeleton crew. Additional staff were drawn from those already working for Granada Australia, the Australian production arm of Granada Productions, as flying a complete British crew overseas would have been prohibitively expensive. Filming locations included Hyde Park, Kirribilli, Double Bay and the Northern Beaches. The scenes of Shawn's barbecue were filmed in Palm Beach and the facade of a terraced house in Paddington was used for an establishing scene of Lucy's apartment. The wedding scenes were set in the grounds of Strickland House, Vaucluse.Smith (2003), p. 204. Another scene was filmed on location outside the Sydney Opera House. While preparing for the scene, Hermione Norris and Robert Bathurst were distracted by a group of British tourists yelling that Karen should leave David after David's affair in Series 3. The group remained quiet when the scene was being shot. Karen and David's apartment was filmed at a building near Luna Park in Milsons Point. A stunt team co-ordinated the fight scene between Mark and David but could not convincingly choreograph a headbutt between Mark and David. The stunt co-ordinator and Pertwee, who was already experienced in stunt fighting, agreed Pertwee would get a better reaction from Bathurst by almost headbutting his face for real, instead of "hitting air".Pertwee, Sean (2002). "Cold Feet Backstage" featurette on "Cold Feet: The Complete 4th Series" DVD. [DVD]. Granada Interactive. Initially startled by the move, Bathurst conceded that it was better for him to be surprised as he might have flinched if he had known what Pertwee was about to do.Bathurst, Robert (2002). "Cold Feet Backstage" featurette on "Cold Feet: The Complete 4th Series" DVD. [DVD]. Granada Interactive. Hermione Norris found the scene upsetting insofar as it was unusual to see Robert Bathurst playing David in such an emotional state.Norris, Hermione (2002). "Cold Feet Backstage" featurette on "Cold Feet: The Complete 4th Series" DVD. [DVD]. Granada Interactive. ==Reception== The episode was originally broadcast in an extended 90-minute commercial timeslot on 10 December 2001 on the ITV network in the United Kingdom (ITV1, STV and UTV) and on TV3 in Ireland. Unofficial overnight ratings recorded an average of 8.5 million viewers and a 37% audience share for the episode in the UK.Deans, Jason (11 December 2001). "Sydney sunshine warms Cold Feet". mediaguardian.co.uk (Guardian News & Media). Retrieved on 14 July 2009 (archived by WebCite on 1 June 2011). Final ratings, accounting for PVR viewings, rose to 8.95 million (38% share), making it the twenty-first most-watched show of the week.Rogers, Jon (11 January 2002). "Ratings: Weeks ending 9 and 16 December". Broadcast (Emap Media): p. 32. The fourth series had been broadcast on ITV on consecutive Sunday and Monday nights, and the Monday ratings had been considerably lower. Episode 8 marked the peak of the Monday night ratings. The episode received mixed reaction from newspaper critics. In the Liverpool Echo, Rachael Tinniswood wrote that the episode "was a fantastic display of everything that has made Cold Feet such a popular drama over the past few years" and that Kimberley Joseph had proved to be "a more than adequate replacement" for Fay Ripley over the course of the fourth series.Tinniswood, Rachael (11 December 2001). "Thanks a million, Chris". Liverpool Echo (Liverpool Daily Post & Echo): p. 19. Tony Purnell wrote in the Daily Mirror that "The fact that the gang ended up in Australia showed just how much the series had lost its way."Purnell, Tony (11 December 2001). "Funny situation for comedies". Daily Mirror (MGN): p. 35 (archived at The Free Library). Graham Young in the Birmingham Mail wrote that the excursion to Sydney "smacks more of giving the cast a treat after four years, rather than any real necessity of the script".Young, Graham (10 December 2001). "Warming up down under". Birmingham Mail (Birmingham Post & Mail): p. 19. The Daily Records critic wrote "if this is the last-ever episode, we should make the most of what has been a relatively disappointing series".Staff (10 December 2001). "Tension rises Down Under". Daily Record (Scottish Daily Record & Sunday Mail): p. 23 (archived at The Free Library). In a column about Chewin' the Fat, Scotsman critic Aidan Smith accused the episode—"which somehow managed to squeeze the Harbour Bridge into every shot"—of being the point the series jumped the shark.Smith, Aidan (14 December 2001). "Chewin' the shark". The Scotsman (The Scotsman Publications): p. 4. Times columnist Caitlin Moran described it as "both draining and tensifying". Moran went on to say that Adam and Rachel had become poorly characterised and suggested that Mike Bullen had come to loathe the characters.Moran, Caitlin (14 December 2001). "Wham bam? Thank you". The Times (Times Newspapers): p. 9 (Times2 supplement). The episode was selected as a "pick of the day" in The Sunday Times.Staff (9 December 2001). "Monday 10 December". The Sunday Times (Times Newspapers): p. 63. Writing in the Journal of British Cinema and Television in 2006, Greg M. Smith analysed the development of the David character over the course of Series 4, including the fantasy scene in this episode where David imagines living with Karen in Australia, and the scene where David and Karen take off their wedding rings: "Old, exhausted love is traded for new, vibrant love in this single gesture. Karen pursues David as he storms off after the ceremony, shouting his name, undoubtedly ready to alternate once more between pain and partial forgiveness, as they have done throughout their marriage. David turns and says: 'No, Karen. No more'." (archived on author's website). Smith also compared the scene to the wedding scene in the film The Best Years of Our Lives (William Wyler, 1946). ITV submitted the episode to the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) to represent the series in the Best Drama Series category at the British Academy Television Awards 2002. The series won, and the award was collected by Mike Bullen, Andy Harries and Spencer Campbell at the BAFTA ceremony in April 2002.Smith (2003), p. 214."Past Winners and Nominees—Television nominations 2001". British Academy of Film and Television Arts. Retrieved on 26 July 2008. The scene in which Pete meets Rod for the first time was voted "Best Dramatic Moment" at the BBC's annual TV Moments broadcast in 2002.BBC Press Office (16 March 2002). "TV's Best Moments of 2001 Honoured". Press release. Retrieved 7 August 2007 (archived by WebCite on 1 June 2011. The episode was first broadcast in Australia on the Seven Network on 6 June 2002. Robin Oliver for the Sydney Morning Herald wrote "Unlike any of the other seemingly compulsory Oz adventures to which British TV panders, this one presents a superior storyline while soaking up the views." Oliver complimented the performances of Gary Sweet and Kimberley Joseph, and Ciaran Donnelly's direction.Oliver, Robin (3 June 2002). "TV previews". The Sydney Morning Herald (Fairfax Media): p. 20 (The Guide section). The Ages Debi Enker was critical, decrying the plot as "fairly creaky" and the locations as "a very glossy ad for the sights of Sydney". She also thought Gary Sweet and James Nesbitt looked bored in their roles.Enker, Debi (30 May 2002). "Turn On, Turn Off". The Age (Fairfax Media): p. 28 (Green Guide section). In New Zealand, the episode was broadcast on TV ONE on 17 September 2002. The New Zealand Heralds reviewer Michele Hewitson was critical of the clichés in the script, particularly the stereotypical characterisation of Rod Ellison, who she described as "a bit of a bastard". Hewitson was also critical of Karen's reaction to David's attempts to repair their relationship, and concluded by writing, "God only knows why they had to drag the entire cast all the way to Australia. You can take this lot out of Manchester but they'll still be moaning, angst-ridden and selfish."Hewitson, Michele (17 September 2002). "Downunder fantasies turn into nightmares". New Zealand Herald (APN News & Media). ==Home video== The episode was first released as part of the Cold Feet: The Complete 4th Series DVD and VHS. The set was released in the United Kingdom on 25 November 2002 and in Australia on 3 April 2007."Cold Feet: The Complete Fourth Series". British Video Association. Retrieved on 25 February 2010 (archived by WebCite on 1 June 2011).Bruce, Daniel (9 May 2007). "Cold Feet-Complete 4th Series (2001)". Michael D's Region 4 DVD Info. Retrieved on 24 August 2007 (archived by WebCite on 1 June 2011). It was also released on a single disc DVD in 2003 as a promotional venture between the Sunday Mirror and Woolworths.Staff (23 February 2003). "Free Cold Feet DVD". Sunday Mirror (MGN): p. 28\. (archived at findarticles.com). ==Notes== ==References== Bibliography *Smith, Rupert (2003). Cold Feet: The Complete Companion. (London: Granada Media). . Category:2001 British television episodes Category:Television episodes written by Mike Bullen |
Music of Malaysia is the generic term for music that has been created in various genres in Malaysia. A great variety of genres in Malaysian music reflects the specific cultural groups within multiethnic Malaysian society: Malay, Chinese, Indian, Dayak, Kadazan-Dusun, Bajau, Orang Asli, Melanau, Kristang and others. In general, music of Malaysia may be categorised as classical, folk, syncretic (or acculturated music), popular and contemporary art music. Classical and folk music emerged during the pre-colonial period and exists in the form of vocal, dance and theatrical music such as Nobat, Mak Yong, Mak Inang, Dikir barat, Ulek mayang and Menora. The syncretic music developed during the post-Portuguese period (16th century) and contains elements from both local music and foreign elements of Arabian, Persian, Indian, Chinese and Western musical and theatrical sources. Among genres of this music are Zapin, Ghazal, Mata-kantiga, Joget, Jikey, Boria and Bangsawan. Both Malaysian popular music and contemporary art music are essentially Western-based music combined with some local elements. In 1950s, the musician P. Ramlee helped in creating a Malaysian music that combined folks songs with Western dance rhythms and western Asian music. ==Ethnic traditions== Besides Malay music, Chinese and Indian Malaysians have their own forms of music, and the indigenous tribes of Peninsula and East Malaysia have unique traditional instruments. ===Malay music=== Traditional Malay music spans from music for various theatrical forms such as wayang kulit, bangsawan and dance dramas as well as story-telling, to folk songs and music for dances, royal ceremonies, martial arts (silat), life cycle events, and religious occasions. Many forms of traditional Malay music and performing arts appear to have originated in the Kelantan-Pattani region with influence from India, China, Thailand and Indonesia. The music is based around percussion instruments, the most important of which is the gendang (drum). There are at least 14 types of traditional drums, including kompang and hadrah drums. Drums and other traditional percussion instruments are often made from natural materials. Besides drums, other percussion instruments (some made of shells) include: the rebab (a bowed string instrument), the serunai (a double-reed oboe-like instrument), the seruling (flute), and trumpets. Music is traditionally used for storytelling, celebrating life-cycle events, and times like harvest. It was once used as a form of long-distance communication. The ancient royal court music of Malaysia is called the Nobat, and this music is still performed at formal royal events in Kuala Lampur's Istana Negara (and Brunei's Lapau).Halid, Raja Iskandar Bin Raja (2022). The Malay Nobat: A History of Power, Acculturation, and Sovereignty. Lexington Books (Rowman & Littlefield). In East Malaysia, gong-based musical ensemble such as agung and kulintang are commonly used in ceremonies such as funerals and weddings. These ensembles are also common in neighbouring regions such as in the southern Philippines, Kalimantan in Indonesia and Brunei. thumb|Malays playing gongs The Malays of Kelantan and Terengganu are culturally linked to peoples from the South China Sea area, and are quite different from the West Coast of Malaya. The martial art of silat Melayu developed in the Malay peninsula since the beginning of common eraThesis: Seni Silat Melayu by Abd Rahman Ismail (USM 2005 matter 188) also popular in Malaysia, while essentially still important as a branch of the self-defence form. Similar to t'ai chi, though of independent origin, it is a mix of martial arts, dance and music typically accompanied by gongs, drums and Indian oboes. The natives of the Malay Peninsula played in small ensembles called kertok, which performed swift and rhythmic xylophone music. This may have led to the development of dikir barat. In recent years, the Malaysian government has promoted this Kelantanese music form as a national cultural icon.Malaysian Ministry of Information Portal. "National Dikir Barat Competition To Be Expanded Next Year" , 2006. Retrieved on 30 January 2009. Johor art performances such as Zapin and Hamdolok as well as musical instruments including Gambus and Samrah have apparent Arab and Persian influences.Folk dance with religious origin, 14 April 2005, Peggy Loh, Travel Times, New Straits Times Arabic-derived zapin music and dance is popular throughout Malaysia, and is usually accompanied by a gambus and some drums. Ghazals from Arabia are popular in the markets and malls of Kuala Lumpur and Johor, and stars like Kamariah Noor are very successful. In Malacca, ronggeng is the dominant form of folk music. It played with a violin, drums, guitar, bass, synthesizer, button accordion and a gong instrument. Another style, Dondang Sayang is slow and intense; it mixes influences from China, India, Arabia, and Portugal with traditional elements. ===Chinese music=== The Hua Yue Tuan (华乐团), or "Chinese orchestra," is made up of traditional Chinese musical instruments and some Western instruments. The music itself combines western polyphony with Chinese melodies and scales. Although the bulk of its repertoire consists of music originated from Hong Kong, Taiwan and China, many local Chinese orchestras also regularly perform Malay folk tunes with various local composers making a definite effort to absorb elements of surrounding musical cultures, especially Malay, into their compositions. In Malaysia, Chinese orchestras exist nationwide in urban areas which have large concentrations of Chinese Malaysians. Sponsored largely by various Chinese organisations including schools, clan associations and Buddhist societies, a typical orchestra consists of between 12 and 50 members. The orchestra is usually made up of four sections: bowed string instruments, plucked strings, the wind section, and percussion. Also commonly found are percussion troupes with drums, gongs and cymbals that provide rhythm for performances of Lion Dance. There is no lack of virtuoso performers in the Chinese classical tradition in Malaysia. Advanced training is however not presently available with most Malaysian virtuoso musicians obtaining their advanced training either in China or Singapore. Various professional and semi-professional Chinese orchestras are in existence. Malaysian western trained classical conductors are employed full-time. Much of the music played is imported from China. There are however some accomplished Malaysian composers for this medium such as Saw Boon Kiat and Chew Hee Chiat. There has been a local Malaysian Chinese recording industries since the 1960s with generations of Chinese singers involved in Mandopop music. In the 1960s singers such as Poon Sow Keng (潘秀瓊) achieved notable success in the region, and in the 1970s and 80s, Malaysian Chinese pop singers such as Wong Shiau Chuen, Lan Yin, Donny Yap, and Lee Yee were popular. In more recent times, popular singers include Eric Moo, Lee Sin Je, Fish Leong, Z Chen, Penny Tai and Daniel Lee. ===Indian music=== Traditional Indian music may be associated with religious tradition and faith. As its origins in India, there are two systems of traditional or classical Indian music in Malaysia: Carnatic music and Hindustani music. Since Tamils from South India are the predominant group among the Indian population in Malaysia, it is the South Indian Carnatic music which predominates. Simply speaking, Hindustani classical music is more lyric-oriented, while Carnatic classical music emphasises musical structure. Indian classical music as it is performed in Malaysia has remained true to its origin. There is practically no other cultural influence. Other than reflecting Indian life, the purpose of Indian classical music is to refine the soul. The fundamental elements of Carnatic music are the raga and the tala. A raga is a scale of notes, while the tala is the time-measure. A Carnatic music concert usually starts with a composition with lyrical and passages in a particular raga. This will be followed by a few major and subsequently some minor compositions. In Malaysia, traditional and classical Indian music are studied and performed by Malaysians of Indian ethnic origin with material that still comes from India. Musical productions are mainly in the form of dance dramas incorporating instrumental ensemble, vocal music and dance. Musical instruments used in the performances are imported from India. Over the years, Punjabi music has established itself in Malaysia. One example of famous Punjabi music is bhangra. Many Malaysian songs today have the Punjabi influence. For example, the sound of the dhol, an instrument used mainly by the Punjabis, has been incorporated in many Malay, Chinese and Indian songs in Malaysia. ===Indigenous tribal music=== The Orang Asli groups of West Malaysia, Semang, Senoi, and Orang Melayu Asli, have their own musical traditions. The Semang people are nomadic and their musical instruments are disposable and created when needed, and instruments used include nose flute (salet, nabad), Jew's harp and tube zither (kərɑtuŋ) which are also used by the Senoi. Instruments used by the Senoi are more long- lasting and include kərəb (a two-string chordophone). The Orang Melayu Asli however have closer contact with Malay and Chinese populations and used a wider range of musical instruments ranging from thigh xylophone (kongkong) to violin. The instruments may be used for shamanistic purposes such as singing and trance-dancing ceremonies, and healing rituals. A number of ethnic groups such as the various Dayak tribes (e.g. Iban, Murut), Kadazan, and Bajau are found in Sabah and Sarawak. The music of these people include vocal music for epics and narratives; songs for life-cycle events and rituals associated with religion, healing, growing rice, hunting game, and waging war; songs for dancing and community entertainment; as well as a wide variety of instrumental music. Instruments used include drums, gongs, flutes, zithers, xylophones, and Jew's harps, of which the bronze gongs are the most significant. Ensembles of gongs of various sizes are played to welcome guests and in ceremonies and dances. A well-known instrument in Sarawak is the , a plucked lute of the Kayan and Kenyah people which is used for entertainment and dancing. Other instruments include the xylophone , bamboo flutes (), and sets of bamboo tubes called togunggak which were formerly played in headhunting ceremonies of the Murut. ===World music=== Ethnic music has also found a new and vigorous following, with world music festivals like the Rainforest World Music Festival, held annually since 1998 in a scenic open-air setting in Sarawak. The first Malaysian "ethnic fusion" group to play on this international platform was Akar Umbi - comprising Temuan ceremonial singer Minah Angong (1930–1999), Antares and Rafique Rashid. Unfortunately, the charismatic Minah Angong (better known as Mak Minah) died just three weeks after winning over the hearts of a whole new audience at the RWMF 1999. This left Akar Umbi with only one posthumously released CD to its name ('Songs of the Dragon,' Magick River, 2002). Private companies like Trident Entertainment have begun to invest in the production, distribution and promotion of the "ethnic fringe" in Malaysian music. ==Classical music== Within Malaysia, the largest performing arts venue is the Petronas Philharmonic Hall. The resident orchestra is the Malaysian Philharmonic Orchestra (MPO). Malay popular music is a combination of the music from all ethnicities in the country. The Malaysian government has taken steps in controlling what music is available in Malaysia; rap music has been criticised, heavy metal has been limited, and foreign bands must submit a copy of a recent concert before playing in Malaysia. It is believed that this music is a bad influence on youth. ===Fusion music=== In the field of Malaysian contemporary music a number of composers have gained international recognition, for example composers Chong Kee Yong, Dr Tazul Izan Tajuddin, Yii Kah Hoe, Saidah Rastam, Adeline Wong and others, encompassing a diverse range of styles and aesthetics. ==Pop== Malaysia's pop music scene developed from traditional social dance and entertainment music such as asli, inang, joget, dondang sayang, zapin and masri, which were adapted to Anglo-American dance band arrangement by Bangsawan troupes in the 1920s and 1930s. The Bangsawan troupes are in fact a type of Malaysian opera influenced by Indian opera at first known as Wayang Parsi (Persia) which was started by rich Persians residing in India. They portrayed stories from diverse groups such as Indian, Western, Islamic, Chinese, Indonesian and Malay. Music, dance, and acting with costumes are used in performance depending on the stories told. The musicians were mostly local Malays, Filipinos and Guanis (descendants from Goa in India). One of the earliest modern Malay pop songs was "Tudung Periok", sung by Momo Latif, who recorded it in 1930. In the 1950s, P. Ramlee became the most popular Malay singer and composer with a range of slow ballads such as "Azizah", "Dendang Perantau" and the evergreen "Di Mana Kan Ku Cari Ganti". In the 1960s, a genre of pop music influenced by The Beatles and other British rock and roll bands called 'Pop Yeh-yeh' appeared in Malaysia. The term "pop yeh-yeh" was taken from a line from the popular Beatles song, "She Loves You" ("she loves you, yeah-yeah-yeah"). In the 1960s and 1970s, a modified rock combo called kugiran (an abbreviation of "kumpulan gitar rancak", meaning rhythmic guitar bands) was also common, and was often used to accompany singers. In the mid-1990s, Dangdut experienced a resurgence after lying dormant since the early 1980s with the debut of Amelina. Her least successful album sold in the 100,000s, a feat that is yet to be repeated in the 2010s. Composer Ruslan Mamat , who pioneered the modern Dangdut, credited Ace of Base for the tempo reference. Contemporary pop music exchanges between Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and Brunei are normal since the Malay language is widely spoken in all four countries. ==Hip Hop== KRU is the most successful Hip Hop dance group in Malaysia. After bringing Rap music to the masses in 1982, they established their own record label creating the first Malaysian girl group Feminin and R&B; crooners Indigo. Feminin debuted at RTM Eid ul-Fitr special in 1993 marking the start of the 80s girls group era. SonaOne is a Malaysian rapper with notable songs like "I don't care" and "No More" ==Rock== Malaysian rock reached its peak in the 80s and early 90s with the local adaptation of a fusion of blues rock and ballad. The popularity even reached the neighbouring country of Indonesia. Awie is a Malaysian rock singer. Awie was extremely popular in 1990s == Other music genres represented in Malaysia == * Indie rock * Modern rock * Punk rock * Pop punk * Ska punk * Ska * Metal * Nu metal * Death metal * Experimental * Emo * Electronica * Power pop * Hardcore punk * Alternative * Gothic Metal * Reggae * Funk * Industrial ==See also== * Anugerah Industri Muzik * Anugerah Juara Lagu * Recording Industry Association of Malaysia ==References== * Munan, Heidi. "Music at the Crossroads". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, pp 175–182. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. . ==External links== * The traditional music of Malaysia * Malaysian Composers' Homepage |
The following is a list of Christmas television specials partly or completely originating in the U.S. ==Christmas-related films and specials== Dates and networks shown correspond to the special's first telecast. * 12 Tiny Christmas Tales (December 7, 2001, Cartoon Network) * Aliens First Christmas (1991, Disney Channel) * Amahl and the Night Visitors (1951, NBC) (most of the 1951 cast members stayed with this production until 1963) * Amahl and the Night Visitors (1963, NBC) (all-new production) * Amahl and the Night Visitors (1978, NBC) (all-new production) * Babes in Toyland (1950) * Babes in Toyland (1954) * Babes in Toyland (1960) * Babes in Toyland (1986, NBC) * The Balloonatiks: Christmas Without a Claus (December 14, 1996, FOX) * B.C.: A Special Christmas (1981, HBO) * The Bear Who Slept Through Christmas (1973, NBC) * The Bears Who Saved Christmas (1994, syndication) * Beebo Saves Christmas (December 1, 2021, UPN) * The Bell Telephone Hour Christmas specials (1959–1968, NBC) * Benji's Very Own Christmas Story (1978, ABC) * The Berenstain Bears' Christmas Tree (1979, NBC) * The Best Christmas Pageant Ever (December 5, 1983, HBO) * Bluetoes The Christmas Elf (1988) * The Cabbage Patch Kids' First Christmas (1984, ABC) * Charlie's Christmas Secret (December 20, 1984, syndication) * A Chipmunk Christmas (December 14, 1981, NBC) * Christopher the Christmas Tree (December 24, 1993, FOX) * A Christmas Adventure (1991, syndication) * A Christmas Calendar (1987, PBS) * A Christmas Carol (1954, CBS) * A Christmas Carol (1971, ABC) * A Christmas Carol (1984, CBS) * A Christmas Carol (1999, TNT) * Christmas Every Day (1996, The Family Channel) * Christmas In Rockefeller Center (1998, NBC) * Christmas in Tattertown (1988, Nickelodeon) * Christmas Is (1970, syndication) * The Christmas Tree (1991, USA Network) * The City That Forgot About Christmas (1974, syndication) * A Claymation Christmas Celebration (1987, CBS) * CMA Country Christmas (2009–present, ABC) * A Cool Like That Christmas (December 23, 1993, FOX) * Deck the Halls (1994, syndication) * Deck the Halls with Wacky Walls (1983, NBC) * Donner (2001, ABC Family) * Edith Ann's Christmas (Just Say Noël) (December 14, 1996, ABC) * Elf: Buddy's Musical Christmas (December 16, 2014, NBC) * The Enchanted Nutcracker (1961, ABC) * A Family Circus Christmas (1979, NBC) * Father Christmas and the Missing Reindeer (1998) * Felix The Cat Saves Christmas (2004) * A Garfield Christmas (1987, CBS) * The Ghosts of Christmas Eve (1999, Fox Family) * The Glo-Friends Save Christmas (1985, syndication) * Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer (2000, The WB) * The Great Christmas Light Fight (a recurring reality series) (2013–present, ABC) * The Guardians of the Galaxy Holiday Special (2022, Disney+) * Gwen Stefani's You Make It Feel Like Christmas (2017, NBC) * The Happy Elf (2005, NBC) * A Hollywood Hounds Christmas (1994, syndication) * The House Without a Christmas Tree (1972, CBS) * How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (1966, CBS) * How Murray Saved Christmas (December 5, 2014, NBC) * Ice Age: A Mammoth Christmas (November 24, 2011, FOX) * In the Nick of Time (1991, NBC) * It's Christmas, Dr. Joe! (2004, syndication) * It's a SpongeBob Christmas! (2012, CBS) * Jingle Bell Rap (1991, syndication) * Jingle Bell Rock (1995) * John Grin's Christmas (1986, ABC) * Jolly Old St. Nicholas (1994, syndication) * The Little Rascals Christmas Special (1979, NBC) * Little Spirit: Christmas in New York (December 10, 2008, NBC) * The Littlest Angel (1969) * Lollipop Dragon: The Great Christmas Race (1985) * A Merry Mirthworm Christmas (1987, Showtime) * Milroy: Santa's Misfit Mutt (1987) * Mister Magoo's Christmas Carol (1962, NBC) * The Moo Family Holiday Hoe-Down (1992) * A Mouse, a Mystery and Me (1987, NBC) * My Christmas Special (2009, PBS) * The Nativity (1952, CBS) * Nick & Noel (1993) * The Night B4 Christmas (2003) * The Night Before Christmas (1968, syndicated) * The Night the Animals Talked (1970, ABC) * Noël (1992, NBC) * The Nutcracker (1958, CBS) (presented on Playhouse 90) * The Nutcracker (1965, CBS) (German-American co-production, with changed plotline) * The Nutcracker (Baryshnikov version) (1977, CBS) * The Nutcracker (2011, PBS) (presented on Live from Lincoln Center) * Nutcracker on Ice (several versions) * The Nuttiest Nutcracker (1999, CBS) * O Christmas Tree (1994) * Olive, the Other Reindeer (1999, FOX) * Online Adventures of Ozzie the Elf (1997) * Phineas and Ferb Christmas Vacation! (2009, Disney Channel) * The Pink Panther in: A Pink Christmas (1978, ABC) * P.J.'s Unfunnybunny Christmas (1993, ABC) * The Poky Little Puppy's First Christmas (1992) * The Promise (1963) * Raggedy Ann and Andy in The Great Santa Claus Caper (1978/CBS) * Reindeer In Here (2022, CBS) * Roxanne's Best Christmas Ever (1998) * Santa and the Three Bears (1970, syndication) * Santa Claus and the Magic Drum (1996) * The Santa Claus Brothers (December 14, 2001, Disney Channel) * Santa Mouse and the Ratdeer (2000, Fox Family) * Santa's Christmas Crash (1995) * Santa's First Christmas (1992) * Santa's Last Christmas (1999) * Santa's Pocket Watch (1980) * Santa's Magic Toy Bag (1983, Showtime) * Santabear's First Christmas (1986, ABC) * Santabear's High Flying Adventure (1987, CBS) * Santa vs. the Snowman (1997, ABC) * Simple Gifts: Six Episodes for Christmas (1977) * Snowden's Christmas (1999) * A Snow White Christmas (1980, CBS) * A Solid Gold Christmas (1982, syndication) * The Spirit of Christmas (1953) * The Stableboy's Christmas (1979, syndication) * A Star for Jeremy (1982) * The Stingiest Man in Town (1956, NBC) * The Story of Santa Claus (1998, CBS) * The Soulmates in the Gift of Light (1991) * Timothy Tweedle: The First Christmas Elf (December 25, 2000, Toon Disney) * The Tiny Tree (December 14, 1975, NBC) * Tom and Jerry in A Cat and Mouse Christmas (1977, ABC) * Tom and Jerry: Santa's Little Helpers (2014) * The Trolls and the Christmas Express (1981, HBO) * Twas the Night Before Christmas (1977, ABC) * The Twelve Days of Christmas (1993, NBC) * A Very Boy Band Holiday (2021, ABC) * A Very Merry Cricket (December 14, 1973, ABC) * A Very Pink Christmas (2011) * A Very Retail Christmas (December 24, 1990, NBC) * The Ugly Duckling's Christmas Wish (1996, syndication) * Up on the Housetop (1992, syndication) * We Wish You a Merry Christmas (1994, syndication) * A Wish for Wings That Work (1991, CBS) * The Wish That Changed Christmas (1991, CBS) * Where's Waldo? The Merry X-mas Mix Up! (1992) * Why the Bears Dance on Christmas Eve (December 12, 1977, ABC) * The Wonderful World of Disney: Magical Holiday Celebration (2016, ABC) * Yes, Virginia, There is a Santa Claus (1974, ABC) * Ziggy's Gift (1982, ABC) * The Zoomer Crew's First Christmas (2000) ==Franchises and groupings== ===Rankin/Bass=== * Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer (1964/NBC; has aired on CBS since 1972) * Cricket on the Hearth (1967/NBC) * The Little Drummer Boy (1968/NBC) * Frosty the Snowman (1969/CBS) * Santa Claus Is Comin' to Town (1970/ABC) * Festival of Family Classics: "A Christmas Tree" (1972/syndication) * Twas the Night Before Christmas (1974/CBS) * The Year Without a Santa Claus (1974/ABC) * The First Christmas: The Story of the First Christmas Snow (1975/NBC) * Frosty's Winter Wonderland (1976/ABC) * Rudolph's Shiny New Year (1976/ABC) * The Little Drummer Boy, Book II (1976/NBC) * Nestor, the Long-Eared Christmas Donkey (1977/ABC) * The Stingiest Man in Town (1978/ABC) * Jack Frost (1979/NBC) * Rudolph and Frosty's Christmas in July (1979/ABC) * Pinocchio's Christmas (1980/ABC) * The Leprechauns' Christmas Gold (1981/ABC) * The Life and Adventures of Santa Claus (1985/CBS) * Frosty Returns (1992/CBS) * Santa, Baby! (2001/FOX) * The Legend of Frosty the Snowman (2004) * A Miser Brothers' Christmas (2008/ABC Family) ===Charlie Brown / Peanuts=== * A Charlie Brown Christmas (1965/CBS) * It's Christmastime Again, Charlie Brown (1992/CBS) * Charlie Brown's Christmas Tales (2002/ABC) * I Want a Dog for Christmas, Charlie Brown (2003/ABC) ===Walt Disney=== * From All of Us to All of You (1958/ABC) * A Magical Disney Christmas (1981/CBS) * A Disney Christmas Gift (1982/CBS) * A Goof Troop Christmas (1992 & 1993/ABC) * Prep & Landing (2009/ABC) * Prep & Landing: Operation: Secret Santa (2010/ABC) * Prep & Landing: Naughty vs. Nice (2011/ABC) ====Mickey Mouse==== * Mickey's Christmas Carol (1983) * Mickey Mouse Works: "The Nutcracker" (1999/ABC) * Mickey Mouse Works: "Mickey's Christmas Chaos" (2000/ABC) * House of Mouse: "Clarabelle's Christmas List" (2002/Toon Disney) * House of Mouse: "Pete's Christmas Caper" (2002/Toon Disney) * Duck the Halls: A Mickey Mouse Christmas Special (2016/Disney Channel) * Mickey and Minnie Wish Upon a Christmas (2021/Disney Junior) * Mickey Saves Christmas (2022/Disney Junior) ====Winnie the Pooh==== * Welcome to Pooh Corner: "Christmas at Pooh Corner" (1983/Disney Channel) * Welcome to Pooh Corner: "Christmas is for Sharing" (1984/Disney Channel) * Winnie the Pooh and Christmas Too (1991/ABC) ====Pixar==== * Toy Story That Time Forgot (2014/ABC) ===Hanna-Barbera=== * A Christmas Story (1972/syndication) * Silent Night, Holy Night (1976/syndication) * Casper's First Christmas (1979/NBC) * Christmas Comes to Pac-Land (1982/ABC) * The Little Troll Prince (1987/syndication) * The Town Santa Forgot (1993/NBC) ====The Flintstones==== * The Flintstones: "Christmas Flintstone" (1964/ABC) * A Flintstone Christmas (1977/NBC) * A Flintstone Family Christmas (1993/ABC) * A Flintstones Christmas Carol (1994/ABC) ====The Smurfs==== *The Smurfs' Christmas Special (1982/NBC) * 'Tis the Season to Be Smurfy (1987/NBC) * The Smurfs: A Christmas Carol (2011) ====Yogi Bear==== * Yogi's First Christmas (1980/syndication) * Yogi Bear's All Star Comedy Christmas Caper (1982/CBS) * * ===Jim Henson / The Muppets / Sesame Street=== * The Great Santa Claus Switch (1970/CBS) * Emmet Otter's Jug-Band Christmas (1977/HBO) * Christmas Eve on Sesame Street (1978/PBS) * A Special Sesame Street Christmas (1978/CBS) * John Denver and the Muppets: A Christmas Together (1979/ABC) * The Christmas Toy (1986/ABC) * A Muppet Family Christmas (1987/ABC) * Mr. Willowby's Christmas Tree (1995/CBS) * Elmo Saves Christmas (1996/PBS) * It's a Very Merry Muppet Christmas Movie (2002/NBC) * A Sesame Street Christmas Carol (2006/PBS) * Elmo's Christmas Countdown (2007/ABC) * A Muppet Christmas: Letters to Santa (2008/NBC) * Lady Gaga and the Muppets Holiday Spectacular (2013/ABC) * Once Upon a Sesame Street Christmas (2016/HBO) ===DreamWorks Animation=== * Joseph King of Dreams (2000) * Shrek the Halls (2007/ABC) * Merry Madagascar (2009/NBC) * Kung Fu Panda Holiday (2010/NBC) * Trolls Holiday (2017/NBC) * How to Train Your Dragon: Homecoming (2019/NBC) ===Looney Tunes=== * Bugs Bunny's Looney Christmas Tales (1979/CBS) * Bah, Humduck! A Looney Tunes Christmas (2006) ===Chucklewood Critters=== * The Christmas Tree Train (1983, syndication) * T'was the Day Before Christmas (1993, syndication) ===Davey and Goliath=== * Davey and Goliath: Christmas Lost and Found (1965/Syndication) * Davey and Goliath's Snowboard Christmas (2004/Hallmark Channel) ===Precious Moments, Inc.=== * Timmy's Gift: A Precious Moments Christmas (1991, NBC) * Timmy's Special Delivery: A Precious Moments Christmas (1993) ==Celebrity-hosted and variety shows== This list includes U.K. productions shown in the U.S. * The George Burns Early, Early, Early Christmas Special (1981) * The Captain and Tennille Christmas Show (1976) * Jackie DeShannon: What the World Needs Now (1978) * Michael Jackson: Beat It (1982) * Taylor Swift: Shake It Off (2014) * Elton John: Crocodile Rock (1973) * Elton John: I'm Still Standing (1983) * Tom Jones: What's New Pussycat (1963) * Carly Rae Jepsen: Call Me Maybe (2012) * Selena Gomez: Come & Get It (2013) * Journey: Don't Stop Believing (1981) * Lady Gaga: Applause (2013) * The Johnny Cash Christmas Special (1976–1979) * Kelly Clarkson: Kelly Clarkson Presents: When Christmas Comes Around (2021, NBC) * Kelly Clarkson: Kelly Clarkson's Cautionary Christmas Music Tale (2013/NBC) * A Colbert Christmas: The Greatest Gift of All (2008/Comedy Central) * CMA Country Christmas (2010–present) * Mac Davis: I Believe in Christmas (1977) * John Denver's Rocky Mountain Christmas (with The Muppets) (1975) * John Denver: Montana Christmas Skies (1991) * Jeff Dunham's Very Special Christmas Special (2008/Comedy Central) * Dave Foley's The True Meaning of Christmas Specials * Freddie the Freeloader's Christmas Dinner (1981/HBO) * The Judy Garland Christmas Show (1963) * Paul Lynde: 'Twas the Night Before Christmas (1977) * Darci Lynne: A Hometown Christmas (2018) * The Mitzi Gaynor Christmas Show (1967) * Rich Little's Christmas Carol (1979/HBO) * Dolly Parton: Home For Christmas (1990) * Luther Vandross: This is Christmas (1996) ===Julie Andrews=== * Merry Christmas... with Love, Julie (1979) * Julie Andrews: The Sound of Christmas (1987) ===The Carpenters=== * The Carpenters at Christmas (1977) * The Carpenters: A Christmas Portrait (1978) ===Kathie Lee Gifford=== * Kathie Lee Gifford: Looking for Christmas (1994) * Kathie Lee Gifford: Home for Christmas (1995) * Kathie Lee Gifford: Just in Time for Christmas (1996) * Kathie Lee Gifford: We Need a Little Christmas (1997) * Kathie Lee Gifford: Christmas Every Day (1998) ===Jackie Gleason=== * Jackie Gleason's Honeymooners Christmas (1978/CBS) * The Honeymooners Christmas Special (1977) ===Amy Grant=== * Headin' Home For The Holidays (1986/NBC) * A Christmas To Remember (1999) ===The Osmonds=== * The Osmond Family Christmas Special (1976/ABC) * The Osmond Family Christmas Special (1977) * The Donny and Marie Christmas Special (1977/ABC) * The Osmond Family Christmas Special (1978/ABC) * The Donny and Marie Christmas Special (1979/ABC) * The Osmond Family Christmas Special (1980/NBC) * Marie Osmond's Merry Christmas (1986) ===Andy Williams=== *The Andy Williams Christmas Special (1964) *The Andy Williams Christmas Special (1965) *The Andy Williams Christmas Special (1966) *The Andy Williams Christmas Special (1967) *The Andy Williams Christmas Special (1968) *The Andy Williams Christmas Special (1969) *The Andy Williams Christmas Special (1970) *The Andy Williams Christmas Special (1971) *The Andy Williams Christmas Special (1973) * The Andy Williams Christmas Show (1974) * Andy Williams' Early New England Christmas (1982) *Andy Williams Christmas from Washington (1983) * Andy Williams and the NBC Kids Search for Santa (NBC/1985) * The Andy Williams Christmas Show (1994) * The Daily Show Andy Williams Christmas Special (1997) * Happy Holidays: The Best of the Andy Williams Christmas Specials (2001) ===Bob Hope=== * The Bob Hope Christmas Special (1953, 1968, 1970, 1980, 1981) * The Bob Hope Christmas Show (1965, 1985) * The Bob Hope Vietnam Christmas Show (1966) * The Bob Hope Christmas Special: Around the World with the USO (1969) * The Bob Hope Vietnam Christmas Show (1971) * The Bob Hope All Star Christmas Comedy Special (1977) * Bob Hope's USO Christmas in Beirut (1984) * Bob Hope Winterfest Christmas Show (1987) * Bob Hope's USO Christmas from the Persian Gulf: Around the World in Eight Days (1987) * Bob Hope's Jolly Christmas Show (1988) * Bob Hope's Christmas Special from Waikoloa, Hawaii (1989) * Bob Hope's Christmas Cheer from Saudi Arabia (1991) * Hope for the Holidays - A Bob Hope Christmas (1993) ===Bing Crosby=== * Happy Holidays with Frank and Bing starring Frank Sinatra and Bing Crosby (1957) * The Bing Crosby Christmas Show (1961, 1962, 1965) * Christmas with Andre, Bing, and Mary (1962) * The Hollywood Palace with Bing Crosby (1965, 1966, 1967, 1968) * Bing and Carol Together Again for the First Time (1969) Bing Crosby, with Carol Burnett * Goldilocks (1969) Bing Crosby with Kathryn Crosby, Mary Frances Crosby and Nathaniel Crosby along with Avery Schreiber and Paul Winchell * Bing Crosby's Christmas Show (1970) * Bing Crosby and the Sounds of Christmas (1971) * A Christmas with the Bing Crosbys (1972) * Bing Crosby's Sun Valley Christmas Show (1973) * A Christmas with the Bing Crosbys (1974) * Merry Christmas, Fred, from the Crosbys (1975) Bing Crosby, with Fred Astaire * The Bing Crosby White Christmas Special (1976) * Bing Crosby's Merrie Olde Christmas (1977) with David Bowie, Twiggy, and Ron Moody * The Christmas Years (1978) tribute program ===Dean Martin=== * Dean Martin's California Christmas (1975) * Dean Martin's Christmas in California (1977, 1979) * Dean Martin Christmas Special (1980) * Dean Martin's Christmas at Sea World (1981) ===Perry Como=== This is only a partial list of Perry Como Christmas programs. He would always include a Christmas-themed program every year while his television series was on the air. * Perry Como's Christmas In New York (1959) * The Perry Como Holiday Special (1967) * Christmas At The Hollywood Palace (1969) * Perry Como's Winter Show (1971) * The Perry Como Winter Show (1972, 1973) * Perry Como's Christmas Show (1974) * Perry Como's Christmas In Mexico (1975) * Perry Como's Christmas In Austria (1976) * Perry Como's Olde Englishe Christmas (1977) * Perry Como's Early American Christmas (1978) * Perry Como's Christmas In New Mexico (1979) * Perry Como's Christmas In The Holy Land (1980) * Perry Como's French-Canadian Christmas (1981) * Perry Como's Christmas In Paris (1982) * Perry Como's Christmas In New York (1983) * Perry Como's Christmas In London (1984) * Perry Como's Christmas In Hawaii (1985) * Perry Como's Christmas In San Antonio (1986) * Perry Como's Irish Christmas (1994) ===Mariah Carey=== * Mariah Carey: Merry Christmas to You (2010, ABC) * Mariah Carey's Merriest Christmas (2015, Hallmark Channel) * Mariah Carey's Magical Christmas Special (2020, Apple TV+) ==Television series-related== Specials based on a television series but which were not a regular time-slot episode. * A Colbert Christmas: The Greatest Gift of All! (2008/Comedy Central) * Care Bears Nutcracker Suite (1988/Disney Channel; Canadian production) * He-Man and She-Ra: A Christmas Special (1985/syndication) * Inspector Gadget Saves Christmas (1992/NBC) * The Munsters' Scary Little Christmas (1996/FOX) * A Pinky and the Brain Christmas (1995/The WB) * Pee-wee's Playhouse Christmas Special (1988/CBS) * Puff the Magic Dragon Christmas (1980/CBS) * Dragon Tales Merry Christmas (2006/PBS) * Shining Time Station: 'Tis a Gift (1990/PBS) * Strawberry Shortcake's Berry Merry Christmas (2003) * A Very Merry Curb Appeal ==See also== * Christmas in the media * List of Christmas television specials * List of United States Christmas television episodes * List of A Christmas Carol adaptations * List of Christmas films * Christmas music * Santa Claus in film * List of Halloween television specials * List of Thanksgiving television specials ==References== Christmas television specials Category:Lists of television specials United States television Category:Christmas in the United States |
{{Infobox settlement |official_name = Penny, British Columbia |other_name = |native_name = |nickname = |settlement_type = Locality |motto = |image_skyline = |imagesize = |image_caption = |image_flag = |flag_size = |image_seal = |seal_size = |image_shield = |shield_size = |city_logo = |citylogo_size = |image_map = |mapsize = |map_caption = |image_map1 = |mapsize1 = |map_caption1 = | pushpin_map = Canada British Columbia | pushpin_label_position = none | pushpin_map_alt = | pushpin_mapsize = | pushpin_map_caption = Location of Penny in British Columbia |subdivision_type = Country |subdivision_name = Canada |subdivision_type1 = Province |subdivision_name1 = British Columbia |subdivision_type2 = Land District |subdivision_name2 = Cariboo |subdivision_type3 = Regional District |subdivision_name3 = Fraser-Fort George |subdivision_type4 = Geographic Region |subdivision_name4 = Robson Valley |government_footnotes = |government_type = |leader_title = |leader_name = |leader_title1 = |leader_name1 = |leader_title2 = |leader_name2 = |leader_title3 = |leader_name3 = |leader_title4 = |leader_name4 = |established_title = |established_date = |established_title2 = |established_date2 = |established_title3 = |established_date3 = |area_magnitude = |unit_pref = |area_footnotes = |area_total_km2 = |area_land_km2 = |area_water_km2 = |area_total_sq_mi = |area_land_sq_mi = |area_water_sq_mi = |area_water_percent = |area_urban_km2 = |area_urban_sq_mi = |area_metro_km2 = |area_metro_sq_mi = |area_blank1_title = |area_blank1_km2 = |area_blank1_sq_mi = |population_as_of = |population_footnotes = |population_note = |population_total = |population_density_km2 = |population_density_sq_mi = |population_metro = |population_density_metro_km2 = |population_density_metro_sq_mi = |population_urban = |population_density_urban_km2 = |population_density_urban_sq_mi = |population_blank1_title = |population_blank1 = |population_density_blank1_km2 = |population_density_blank1_sq_mi = |timezone = |utc_offset = |timezone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = |coordinates = |elevation_footnotes = |elevation_m = 632 |elevation_ft = 2073 |postal_code_type = |postal_code = |area_code = 250, 778, 236, & 672 |blank_name = |blank_info = |blank1_name = |blank1_info = |website = |footnotes = }} Penny, between Longworth and Dome Creek on the northeast side of the Fraser River in central British Columbia, offers an access point for outdoor recreational activities.Prince George Citizen, 17 Jul 2010 With a community hall and 11 permanent residents,Clarence & Olga Boudreau recollections, Dec 2019 the 40 plus houses are mainly absentee owned, but are occupied seasonally. No utilities infrastructure exists. Prior to the post office permanently closing on 31 December 2013, the community was the only one in Canada that still relied upon the railway for its postal service. ==Transportation== A trackside signpost marks the flag stop for Via Rail's Jasper – Prince Rupert train. The immediate Via Rail stops are Longworth to the northwest and Bend to the southeast. ==History== ===Railway=== Penny lies at mile 69.5, Fraser Subdivision. Previously designated as Mile 159 during the line's construction, it was the area headquarters for Foley, Welch and Stewart, the prime contractor.Fort George Herald, 17 May 1913Diary of Ada Adelia Sykes The Siems-Carey headquarters,Fort George Herald, 21 Jun 1913 and a work camp existed at Mile 160. Mr. Flannigan, a contractor at this camp, who considered all the camps maintained exceptional sanitary conditions, complained of IWW agitators seeking better wages and camp conditions.Fort George Herald, 12 Apr 1913 The government sanitary inspector, who described camp conditions as fair, destroyed 20,000 lbs. of beef at about Mile 160, and bacon unfit for human consumption at other camps. He advised contractors to stop dumping garbage into the Fraser River.Fort George Herald, 31 May 1913 Soon after, typhoid and diphtheria cases filled the medical outpost. In one 10-day period, the facility treated five victims of dump-car accidents, and the latest patient from Camp 162 had been cut in two.Fort George Herald, 7 Jun 1913 The Miles 160 and 162 camps were both large, and a hospital was mentioned at Mile 160. The true location of the hospital was likely Mile 73 (formerly around Mile 162.5). Not a planned station on the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway (the Canadian National Railway after nationalization), Penny remained absent from the 1916 timetable. Exclusion from the 1919 and 1921 Official Guides probably reflects that only the employee timetables initially listed it as a footnote. Mention in the 1918 BC towns directory, and on a c.1919 map, suggest a 1917 or 1918 opening date for the station. The settlement developed between Lindup to its northwest, and Guilford to its southeast. The name, a surname that emerged by the beginning of the 13th century, was selected for unknown reasons.Prince George Citizen, 27 Jan 1984 (44) Commonly claimed as an English place name on the list prepared by Josiah Wedgwood (submitted at the request of William P. Hinton, the railway's general manager),Prince George Citizen, 27 May 1957 no such location existed in the United Kingdom. Furthermore, the name Penny, in use by 1914, predated the station by at least three years. Formerly it was known just as the Engineers' Camp. Trains sometimes struck straying livestock,Prince George Citizen, 15 Jun 1944 but slowed to a crawl if sighted in time.Prince George Citizen, 25 Apr 2000 A passenger shelter likely existed prior to replacement in 1927 by a converted section tool house from Miworth. In 1947, the latter burned to the ground. Transported the by railway flatcar,Prince George Citizen: 4 Sep 1947, 16 Oct 1947 & 8 Jul 1989 Lindup exchanged its standard-design Plan 100-152 (Bohi's Type E) station building for Penny's Plan 110-101 converted sectionmen's bunkhouse. The CNR appointed the first station agent at this time. A burned out journal box on a freight car immobilized a train at Penny for seven hours in 1955.Prince George Citizen, 1 Sep 1955 During the 1960s, 18 cars derailed from an eastbound 98-car freight train in the vicinity, which delayed the westbound passenger train for three hours.Prince George Citizen: 14 & 15 Dec 1961 In another incident, a head-on collision with a bull moose, just outside Penny, derailed 23 cars of a westbound 50-car freight train.Prince George Citizen, 17 Jan 1967 In 1970, CNR closed its section shop.Prince George Citizen, 24 Jun 1970 Isolated communities, like Penny, suffered when the Prince George–McBride way freight ceased operations in 1977.Prince George Citizen, 25 Jul 1977 The next year, Penny was one of the 11 communities between Prince Rupert and the Alberta border, where the CNR replaced its agent-operator positionPrince George Citizen: 2 & 8 Aug 1978 with a resident serving as CN Express agent.Prince George Citizen: 3 Oct 1978 & 13 Mar 1980 The deep snow of the 1981/82 winter near Penny caused hundreds of collisions between moose and trains.Prince George Citizen: 15 & 17 Sep 1982 By this time, the station was boarded up apart from a small waiting room.Prince George Citizen, 23 Jan 1985 In 1988, an ice bridge was built across the Fraser River to carry the station by flatbed truck to its new home, the Prince George Railway & Forestry Museum.Prince George Citizen: 11 & 12 Feb 1988 Using a raft 18 months earlier, volunteers transported a heritage railway speeder shed and tool shed from Penny to that site.Prince George Citizen: 19 & 21 Jul 1986 The remaining passenger shelter was removed in 1996.Prince George Free Press, 21 Jan 1996 Service c.1917–c.1919 c.1920–c.1921 c.1921–c.1924 c.1924–1931 1932–1942 1943–1977 1977–c.1989 c.1990–present 1920 Timetable. Bulkley Valley Museum. p. 8. 1922 Timetable. Northern BC Archives. p. 8.1923 Timetable. p. 70. 1925 Timetable. p. 105. Prince George Citizen: 12 & 19 Nov 19311932 Timetable. p. 58.1933 Timetable. Northern BC Archives. p. 8.1935 Timetable. p. 60.1942 Timetable. p. 58. 1943 Timetable. Northern BC Archives. p. 9.1945 Timetable. p. 61.1949 Timetable. p. 59.1960 Timetable. Northern BC Archives. pp. 21–22 1964 Timetable. Northern BC Archives. p. 441965 Timetable. Northern BC Archives. pp. 25–261967 Timetable. Northern BC Archives. p. 381968 Timetable. Northern BC Archives. pp. 25–261972 Timetable. Northern BC Archives. pp. 25–261973 Timetable. Northern BC Archives. p. 18 1990 Timetable. Northern BC Archives. pp. 95–971992 Timetable. Northern BC Archives. pp. 103–105Recent timetables Passenger Flag stop probably Flag stop Flag stop Regular stop Regular stop Regular stop Flag stop Way freight Flag stop probably Flag stop probably Regular stop Regular stop Regular stop Regular stop ===Map=== ===Hunting & trapping=== Trapper Fred Rankin (1879–1964), a keen astronomer and resident 1939–1964, who arrived in the district in 1910, had a cabin near the creek bearing his name west of Red Mountain Creek). Resident Charles Hartsell (1862–1937)Prince George Citizen, 27 May 1937 was possibly the companion who mistook him for a moose and accidentally shot him in the arm a few miles from Penny in 1919.Prince George Citizen, 8 Oct 1919 Onufry Lewoniuk (c.1904–1933), who was staying with the pair while trapping and hunting at Slim Lake about southwest of Penny, died of exposure to the cold at the lake edge.Prince George Citizen, 4 Jan 1934 John (Jack) Evans (1866–1948), a homesteader, had trapline through Penny in 1912/13.Prince George Citizen, 9 Aug 1995 He paddled and poled to Tête Jaune in 1897, continued to Fort George in 1905, and later settled near Penny.Prince George Citizen, 9 Feb 1939 A regular contributor to the Red Cross,Prince George Citizen: 30 Jul 1942, 12 Nov 1942, 14 Jan 1943, 11 Mar 1943, 20 May 1943, 15 Jul 1943, 19 Aug 1943, 7 Oct 1943, 17 Feb 1944, 25 May 1944, 20 Jul 1944, 12 Oct 1944, 21 Dec 1944, 22 Feb 1945, 5 & 26 Apr 1945, & 7 Mar 1946 he lived alone in his cabin, which was about upstream and across the river. Famed for his horticulture, he was especially popular with the local children for his candy treats.Prince George Citizen: 10 Jan 1946, 15 Jan 1948, 22 Jan 1948, & 12 Feb 1948 Benjamin (Ben) (1883–1955) & Adelia (Ada) (1886–1977) Sykes had relocated from Slim Creek by 1918. Their children were Bessie (1906–43), David (1909–31), Alice (c.1911–2003), Mary (1913–?), Thelma (1915–?), Marjory (1918–?), Leona (1922–80), and Faye Lucille (c.1923–2003). When the family left in 1924, the school closed owing to insufficient pupils. By 1921, the recognized guides for big game hunters in the Penny area were B. T. Sykes,Prince George Citizen, 12 Oct 1920 C. Hartsell and J. R. Norboe (c.1853–1921) (Narboe alternate spelling).Prince George Citizen, 13 Sep 1921 Ben had guided with John Norboe,Prince George Citizen, 3 Sep 1919 who died of a seizure in Nels Pedersen's house . John's brother Mac drowned that year at Eaglet Lake, but was misreported as Slim Lake.Prince George Citizen, 18 Jan 1921 ===Forestry=== A. Roy Spurr (1885–1954), who arrived at the Tête Jaune railhead in 1911, was a fur trader, who operated a store, café and accommodation, and provided a bookkeeping service, at camps during the railway construction. Using his savings, he opened a sawmill at Penny in 1917,Fort George Herald: 9 Nov 1912 & 13 Sep 1913Prince George Citizen, 16 Aug 1954 later buying out his partners. The mill lay south of the village on the riverbank. As early as the 1920s, fellow lumber operators recognized his sawmilling and business expertise and sought his advice. Spurr's Red Mountain Lumber Co and the Penny Lumber Co. were both in operation by 1918,Prince George Citizen: 2, 16 & 23 Aug 1918; & 1 May 1924 but a later misconception that the former opened years later possibly inspired the questionable claim that Spurr also had an ownership interest in the latter. In bankruptcy by 1921,Prince George Citizen: 7 & 11 Jan 1921; & 1, 8, 15 & 22 Mar 1921 the assets of the Penny Lumber were acquired by company president, George H. Lipsett (1866–1955).Prince George Citizen, 1 May 1924 Located south of the CNR track on Rankin Creek, it operated as Penny Lumber,Prince George Citizen: 30 Aug 1921 & 28 Oct 1921 and then as G.H. Lipsett Lumber,Prince George Citizen, 3 Jun 1926 until fire totally destroyed the mill in 1926.Prince George Citizen, 10 Jun 1926 The narrow strip of accessible spruce forest bordering the railway that stretched some east of Prince George was known as the East Line. In the 1920s, with logging limited to the winter and fall seasons to facilitate the hauling of logs over snow and ice, loggers were transient. However, year round work existed in sawmill towns such as Giscome, Aleza Lake, Hutton, Penny, and Longworth. Injuries and death were common in sawmills and logging camps. Sawyer Laughlin McKenzie (1856–1923) was killed when a saw severed his body from head to hips at the Red Mountain Lumber Co.Prince George Citizen, 19 Jul 1923 The proceeds from selling Red Mountain Lumber Co. during the 1928Prince George Citizen, 8 Nov 1928 boom year provided Spurr with the funds to acquire other mills at bargain prices during the Great Depression. The purchasers, who were owners of Cranbrook Sawmills, dismantled their mill at Otway, and either sold or relocated the machinery to Penny.Prince George Citizen, 2 May 1988(56) Like other sawmills during 1930–32, the Penny mill, then owned by the Joseph Campbell and John (Jack) Myers (1881–1960) partnership,Prince George Citizen, 2 May 1988(57) scarcely operated. In 1932, fire completely destroyed the sawmill and yard lumber.Prince George Citizen, 25 Aug 1932 At the time, Newlands, Snowshoe and Sinclair Mills were the only ones sawing, the latter having a big logging camp at Penny.Prince George Citizen, 11 Aug 1932 During the 1920s, W. Langmuir was the district forester.Prince George Citizen, 17 Feb 1922 The forest ranger, residing in Penny for the Penny Ranger District covered an area that stretched from Dewey to Rider. His dispersed field staff,Prince George Citizen: 26 Aug 1937, 27 Apr 1944 & 26 May 1949 which were seasonal from spring to fall, travelled by boat or speeder. In 1948, two forestry speeders carrying 17 men to a forest fire at Loos collided near Bend. While the two most seriously injured went by freight train to Prince George, an amphibian plane later landed on the river at Penny to fly five of the less seriously injured for medical treatment.Prince George Citizen, 24 Jun 1948 The ranger position was eliminated in the mid-1960s.Prince George Citizen, 9 Oct 1964 In 1933 Myers bought out his partner, and the following year rebuilt the Red Mountain Lumber Co. mill.Prince George Citizen, 10 May 1934 In 1940, the 50,000-foot per shift capacity sawmill was again destroyed by fire, but the planing mill and processed lumber piles escaped conflagration.Prince George Citizen, 12 Sep 1940 Fulfilling his prior commitment,Prince George Citizen, 29 Aug 1940 Myers sold the mill to John F. McMillan and C. Earl Jaeck (1904–52), formerly at Bend,Prince George Citizen, 21 Nov 1940 who changed the name to the Penny Sawmills. Jaeck died in a train/truck collision.Prince George Citizen, 28 Apr 1952 In 1941, Elizabeth (1906–91) (né Coats of Longworth, C. Earl Jaeck's cousin) & Rory (Roy) R.M. McGillivray (1903–94), formerly at Bend,Prince George Citizen, 8 Jun 1994 relocated with children S.T. Michael (1930–2015) and Barbara (1935–2015),Prince George Citizen: 16 Jul 1942, 11 Mar 2015 & 8 Jan 2016 when Roy became general manager at the Penny mill. Elizabeth headed the local Red Cross fundraising effort during World War II.Prince George Citizen: 4 Jun 1942 & 18 Jan 1945 In 1942, a new dry kiln was installed,Prince George Citizen, 21 May 1942 and several new homes and bunkhouses were constructed on the mill site to accommodate the demand from running two shifts.Prince George Citizen, 27 Aug 1942 Since the homes mostly lacked indoor plumbing, outhouses were the norm and water came from a tap at the end of the road. The following year, fire destroyed the planing mill boiler room,Prince George Citizen, 22 Jul 1943 putting it out of operation for 6 weeks.Prince George Citizen, 9 Sep 1943 This may have been the occasion when a passing CNR locomotive rescued part of the building.Prince George Citizen, 27 Jan 1984 (40) In 1945, labour shortages closed one logging camp.Prince George Citizen, 30 Aug 1945 The company name changed again to Standard Tie and Timber, when Standard Forest Products acquired the mill in late 1945 or early 1946.Prince George Citizen, 22 Aug 1946 After an absence, Roy McGillivray returnedPrince George Citizen: 3 Jan 1946 & 17 Apr 1947 as general manager.Prince George Citizen: 28 Oct 1948, 9 Aug 1951 & 27 Nov 1952 The family relocated to Prince George in 1953.Prince George Citizen: 21 Mar 1929, 28 May 1953, & 22 Jan 1991 On cremation, Roy's ashes were scattered in the Fraser at Penny. In 1947, the large bunkhouse was constructed at Penny.Prince George Citizen, 12 Jun 1947 The following year, the mill burned down,Prince George Citizen, 7 Oct 1948 and a portable mill set up at the mouth of the Red Mountain Creek was used until the old mill was rebuilt.Prince George Citizen: 16 Dec 1948 & 3 Mar 1949 In 1952, renamed as the Penny Spruce Mills,Prince George Citizen, 3 Mar 1952 the Totem Pole group, controlled by the Thurston family, purchased the operations, which included the bunkhouse and 35 family residences.Prince George Citizen, 27 Nov 1952 Leboe Bros. of Crescent Spur provided mainly fir logs from the Goat River area, which were floated down the Fraser to the mill. The mill, which employed about 120 during summer and 45 in winter, plus 40 at the logging camps, was one of the hardest hit by the strike of 1953.Prince George Citizen, 22 Oct 1953 In 1955, the mill cookhouse burned to the ground.Prince George Citizen, 29 Sep 1955 Closed in 1958, after the Bank of Montreal called the operating loan, the 100,000-foot capacity sawmill, steam and diesel power plants, 78-man bunkhouse, cookhouse, company houses, machine shop, garage, tractor house and various equipment were soon auctioned by court order.Prince George Citizen, 16 Oct 1959 During the 1940s–50s, as many as three sawmills operated in the area.Prince George Citizen, 2 May 1985 The main mill, bought by Eagle Lake Lumber of Giscome, was renamed Penny Forest Products,Prince George Citizen: 12 Apr 1961 & 24 May 1961 and continued as a much smaller operation. In 1963, fire destroyed the mill and powerhouse, with only part of the trimmer left standing.Prince George Citizen, 22 Mar 1963 Fire damage and outdated equipment made the investment in a rebuild unrealistic. Subsequently, Gordon Geddes ran portable mills until all sawmilling activity ceased in 1965.Prince George Citizen, 19 Aug 1995 Northwood inherited the defunct Penny mill when it acquired the Eagle Lake mill in 1966.Prince George Citizen: 10 Aug 1973 & 30 Jun 1988 Long abandoned, the beehive burner, one of the largest in BC's history, still stands.Prince George Citizen, 25 Aug 1995 The back-to-the-land movement peaked in the 1970s, with two tree planting companies and fire suppression crews based in Penny. The movement largely comprised hippies, many U.S. draft dodgers, who temporarily settled along the East Line. In addition to occupying vacant houses, a commune existed by the river, which locals called "Buffalo Wallow". ===Community=== Population estimates were 25 (Rev. W.J. Patton)Prince George Citizen, 26 Aug 1958 and 50–85 (Wrigley) for 1918, 200 by 1920, 100 by 1928, 100 by 1934, 203 for 1943 and 1944, and 200 for 1948.Prince George Citizen, 17 Oct 1946 The population peaked in 1957/58 at 675, which included the logging camps. Commonly, the postmaster in such towns was also a storeowner. Nels Pedersen (c.1885–?), the first postmaster 1916–19, ran a general store 1914–27 as a sole proprietorship or in partnership as Johnston & Pedersen.Prince George Citizen: 8 Oct 1920, 18 Jan 1921, 30 Oct 1924 & 17 Jul 1941 Thomas B. (1877–1952) & Betty Fae (c.1885–1945) Wall were storeowners,Prince George Citizen, 14 Feb 1922Prince George Leader, 8 Mar 1923 and she was postmaster 1919–25. William Birt and Joseph Melling purchased this store, with Birt as postmaster 1926–28. Samuel (Sam) (1895–1940) & Annie (1890–1931) Michaylenko, who arrived as the CNR section foreman around 1919–20, operated a store 1929–31, and apparently applied to be postmaster. Their children were Nettie (1921–?), William (Bill) (1923–58),Prince George Citizen, 11 Jun 1958 Helen (1925–?),Prince George Citizen: 4 Jan 1945 & 12 Jul 1951 Joseph (Joe) (1926–99),Prince George Citizen: 4 Oct 1945 & 9 Jun 1999 Florence (1928–?),Prince George Citizen: 22 Aug 1946 & 5 Mar 1953 Jessie (1930–?), and Magdelina (1931–?). When Annie died, Sam assumed responsibility for the children, except Magdelina, whom the Hinsbergers adopted. When Sam died,Prince George Citizen, 23 May 1940 Nettie cared for her siblings.Prince George Citizen, 6 Nov 1941 On adulthood, the children left Penny. Siblings Ole (1882–1956), Halvor (1891–1973),Prince George Citizen, 31 Oct 1973 and Ingeborg L. (1884–1952)Prince George Citizen, 26 Jun 1952 Mellos relocated from neighbouring Guilford in 1927. While the brothers developed a farm,Prince George Citizen: 22 & 29 Aug 1929, 5 Sep 1929, & 5 Oct 1933 Ingeborg purchased the Pedersen general store, and was postmaster 1929–38. In 1929, Halvor Mellos formed the Mellos & Johnson Logging Co. Halvor, who became Ingeborg's business partner, was postmaster 1938–48. Together, they purchased the Bert and Melling store and sold their original property. In 1932, Halvor marriedPrince George Citizen, 14 Jul 1932 Anna Marie Haugen (1908–2008), who arrived in 1930. They raised their own daughter, Katherine, and niece Kathleen Johnson, after the death of Ole's wife Emma (c.1897–1942).Prince George Citizen: 12 Nov 1942, 10 Dec 1953 & 6 Oct 1955 A 1936 fire destroyed their hotel and store. Recently constructed and equipped with all modern conveniences, it was the most popular accommodation between Longworth and McBride.Prince George Citizen, 30 Jul 1936 Their private hydro plant supplied electricity,Prince George Citizen, 15 Jun 1933 and unlike most properties relying upon wells, they had running water. Buying the bunkhouse buildings at the abandoned relief camp , and transporting the wood by flatcar, Halvor rebuilt his house, storage and general store. For many years, Anna Mellos managed their rooming house close to the store, which catered to short-term stays. After selling the store, Halvor performed odd jobs in the community. On Katherine's marriage to Jack Clements in 1953, the couple remained in Prince George.Prince George Citizen: 10 Dec 1953 & 18 Nov 1954 Although Kathleen married William Isfan at Penny in 1955, the couple were never residents.Prince George Citizen: 6 Oct 1955 & 24 Jan 1957 Anna resided in Penny 1930–95. In 1935, the widowed Victor Mellows (1898–1994), his mother Anna (1862–1943),Prince George Citizen, 19 Aug 1943 and three sons Arne, Ivar and Oscar settled in Penny. Victor initially farmed, then worked at the sawmill. After Ivar and Oscar had left, Victor relocated in 1956.Prince George Citizen: 19 Mar 1953, 25 Mar 1954, 29 Mar 1956, 26 Apr 1956 & 30 Jul 1994 Returning from World War II,Prince George Citizen, 4 Oct 1945 Arne Mellows marriedPrince George Citizen, 5 Sep 1946 Carrie Benson (1923–2012) from Bend.Prince George Citizen, 12 Dec 2012 Their children raised in Penny were Karen,Prince George Citizen, 15 Mar 1951 Lloyd,Prince George Citizen, 14 May 1953 and Craig.Prince George Citizen, 10 Jan 1955 In 1948, Arne, and brother- in-law Carl A. Benson (1928–2015) from Bend,Prince George Citizen, 4 Dec 2015 bought the Mellos' store, trading as Penny Merchants,Prince George Citizen, 27 May 1948 and then as Penny Mercantile Co.Prince George Citizen, 26 May 1960 The following year, Carl sold his share to Oscar. Two years later, Arne installed a gas pump for the increasing number of vehicles.Prince George Citizen, 12 Jul 1951 Formerly, fuel came by rail in barrels. Arne was postmaster 1948–65, at which time the store closed permanently, and the family departed for Prince George.Prince George Citizen: 21 Jul 1986 & 12 Dec 2012 Jack Taylor opened a coffee shop in his pool hall,Prince George Citizen, 10 May 1951 and sold the business to Mr. & Mrs. C. Kirkwood.Prince George Citizen: 6 Mar 1952 & 12 May 1952 Philippe (1900–84)Prince George Citizen, 16 Jan 1984 & Anna (1905–83)Prince George Citizen, 4 Feb 1983 Michaud, who resided 1952–61, opened the Dew Drop Inn, a coffee shop, poolroom and accommodation for boarders. Their children were Roland, Emile, René, Gisele, Madeleine, Fernande (c.1936–2008), Gilberte, Philip, Lorraine (1942– ), Louis, Louise, and Jeannie. Emile, who married Helen Bechtel,Prince George Citizen, 6 Sep 1951 raised three children there.Prince George Citizen: 17 Jul 1952 & 14 May 1956 He stayed 1946–60Prince George Citizen, 26 Sep 1960 and subsequently remarried. Other adult siblings came and went.Prince George Citizen, 19 Jul 1956 Fernande (Fern) marriedPrince George Citizen, 2 Jul 1953 Mike Saiko (1927–98) a local,Prince George Citizen: 13 & 27 May 1948, 28 Jul 1949, 13 Apr 1950, 22 Jun 1950, 23 Nov 1950, 14 Dec 1950, 18 Feb 1952, 19 Jan 1956 & 18 Mar 1957 and their daughter was born in Penny. Gilberte married James (Jim) Kruger,Prince George Citizen, 30 Sep 1954 and moved away.Prince George Citizen: 19 Jul 1956 & 25 Apr 1957 René, who played violin, suffered work and sports injuries.Prince George Citizen: 6 Mar 1952 & 19 Mar 1953 Coming and going, he married Teena Teichroeb in 1959. Lorraine married Richmond Lozeau,Prince George Citizen, 8 Sep 1959 and moved away. Philip (Phil), who played guitar and sang,Prince George Citizen, 22 Apr 1954 remained longer in Penny. Gisele married Bertil Stavely (c.1934–2014), and their three children were born while at Penny. Philippe, Anna and their three youngest left in 1961. The first school, held in an old bunkhouse behind the sawmill, opened in 1920 or 1921, with Miss H. Thomas (possibly 1903–?) filling in until the arrival of Mrs. L.O. Cameron as the inaugural teacher. Owing to low student numbers, it closed 1925–29. A one-room school was built as a replacement in 1930. To facilitate a second teacher,Prince George Citizen, 12 Aug 1943 it was remodelled as two classrooms in 1943.Prince George Citizen: 15 Jul 1943 & 19 Aug 1943 The following year, a teacherage was built on the school grounds,Prince George Citizen, 14 Sep 1944 with propane lighting added in 1955.Prince George Citizen, 8 Dec 1955 The last of the three facilities, a two-room school opened for the 1953/54 year,Prince George Citizen, 24 Sep 1953 with propane lighting added in 1954.Prince George Citizen, 2 Dec 1954 The former building was moved off the grounds.Prince George Citizen, 20 Oct 1955 The school closed for six years during the 1970s, but students taking correspondence courses continued to use a classroom.Prince George Citizen: 19 May 1972 & 16 Feb 1977 It reopened in 1977 with 13 students.Prince George Citizen, 16 Sep 1977 Enrolment for 1945–50 in Grades 1–9 was 27–32, 1953–60 in Grades 1–8 was 31–51, 1963–70 in Grades 1–7 was 6–34, 1970–78 in Grades K–7 was 7–13,Prince George Citizen: 2 Sep 1960 & 23 Oct 1963 and 1981–84 in Grades K–7 was 10–12.Prince George Citizen: 4 Sep 1981, 20 Oct 1982, 21 Apr 1983 & 25 Oct 1984 Having only seven students, the school closed permanently in 1985,Prince George Citizen, 22 May 1985 with the building ultimately removed. The community club, formed in 1932,Prince George Citizen, 23 Jun 1932 held functions for nine years in the sawmill cookhouse. The community hall was built in 1941.Prince George Citizen: 18 Sep 1941; & 4 & 25 Dec 1941 The building, severely damaged by heavy snow in 1946,Prince George Citizen, 7 Mar 1946 was repaired and an electrical generator installed two years later. The hall hosted country artists, professional entertainers, movie screenings and many weddings.Prince George Citizen: 7 Oct 1948, 21 Sep 1950, 26 Jul 1951, 15 Nov 1951, 22 May 1952, 9 Sep 1954 & 25 Jul 1977 John E. (1906–87) & Jean (1909–96)Prince George Citizen, 2 Apr 1996 Humphreys arrived in late 1946 or early 1947. To fill individual customer orders, John, as shipper, coordinated product through the planer mill and into boxcars for delivery. Their children were John A. (1932–2006),Prince George Citizen, 13 Oct 2016 Jean (1933–2002),Prince George Citizen, 9 Mar 2002 James (Jim) (1940–2011),Prince George Citizen, 16 Mar 2011 and Jerry (1945– ).Prince George Citizen, 21 Jan 1954 John Jr. married Margaret Boudreau. Jean Jr. left,Prince George Citizen, 24 Apr 1952 trained as a nurse,Prince George Citizen: 30 Dec 1952, 7 Apr 1953, 27 May 1954 & 30 May 1955 and married Arne May.Prince George Citizen, 29 Dec 1959 John Sr. rented and showed movies in the community hall. The Friday night screenings were weekly in the summer and biweekly in the winter.Prince George Citizen: 12 Aug 1948, 26 Jan 1950, 1 Sep 1955, 9 Jan 1956, & 12 Feb 1987 Admission was 50 cents. Active in the social life,Prince George Citizen: 11 May 1950, 9 Aug 1951, 7 Aug 1952, 28 May 1953, 26 Apr 1956, & 2 May 1957 Jean Sr., a registered nurse,Prince George Citizen, 9 Sep 1948 delivered 14 of the community babies. On buying the Dome Creek store, they left in 1957 .Prince George Citizen: 27 Jun 1957 & 12 Feb 1987 After boarding away for high school,Prince George Citizen: 28 Oct 1954, 21 Apr 1955, 22 Dec 1955, 5 Apr 1956 & 25 Apr 1957 Jim joined his parents at Dome Creek.Prince George Citizen: 18 Jun 1958 & 22 Oct 1958 Badminton was popular.Prince George Citizen: 25 Dec 1941, 10 Jan 1946, 7 Mar 1946, 20 May 1948, 16 Sep 1948 & 3 Nov 1949 The hall was a venue for community dances during World War II,Prince George Citizen: 25 Dec 1941, 5 Feb 1942, 2 Apr 1942, 14 May 1942, 3 Jun 1943, 9 Dec 1943, 6 Jan 1944, 6 Jul 1944, 26 Oct 1944, 4 & 21 Dec 1944, 22 Mar 1945 & 24 May 1945 when many were in aid of the Red Cross.Prince George Citizen: 16 & 23 Apr 1942, 4 Jun 1942, 16 Jul 1942, 25 Mar 1943, 23 Mar 1944, 20 Jul 1944 & 5 Jul 1945 The post-war dancesPrince George Citizen: 7 Mar 1946, 16 May 1946, 31 Jul 1947, 13 Nov 1947, 20 & 27 May 1948, 8 Jul 1948, 16 Sep 1948, 6 Jan 1949, 3 & 24 Mar 1949, 2 Jun 1949, 13 Oct 1949, 6 Jul 1950, 14 Dec 1950, 11 Jan 1951, 22 Feb 1951, 6 Sep 1951, 8 Nov 1951, 7 Jan 1954, 13 Jan 1955, 2 Jun 1955 & 28 Mar 1957 often attracted visitors from surrounding communities.Prince George Citizen: 6 Sep 1945, 18 Jul 1946, 5 Sep 1946, 4 Sep 1947, 15 Jan 1948, 5 & 26 Aug 1948, & 14 Jul 1955, The hall, falling into disuse during the 1960s, was renovated in 1971 and used for badminton during the 1970s–1980s. In his role as rector of All Saints Anglican, McBride, Rev. Duncan Cameron regularly conducted Sunday evening services in the Penny schoolhouse,Prince George Citizen: 27 Mar 1947; 1 May 1947; 12 Jun 1947 (Bishop); 24 Jul 1947; 21 Aug 1947; 16 Oct 1947; 13 Nov 1947; 15 Jan 1948; 12 & 26 Feb 1948; 22 Apr 1948, 27 May 1948; 3 & 17 Jun 1948; 8 Jul 1948; 23 Sep 1948; 7 & 21 Oct 1948; 4 & 18 Nov 1948; 2, 16 & 30 Dec 1948; 27 Jan 1949; 10 & 24 Feb 1949; 3, 10 & 24 Mar 1949; 7 & 21 Apr 1949; 5 & 19 May 1949; 9 Jun 1949; 20 Oct 1949; 17 Nov 1949; 1, 15 & 29 Dec 1949; 12 Jan 1950; 16 Feb 1950; 16, 23 & 30 Mar 1950; 13 & 27 Apr 1950; 4 May 1950; 8 & 15 Jun 1950; 27 Jul 1950; 19 Oct 1950; 9 Nov 1950; 11 & 25 Jan 1951; 8 Feb 1951; 29 Mar 1951; 12 & 26 Apr 1951; 3 & 24 May 1951; & 23 Aug 1951; as did his predecessor, Rev. J.J. Cowan, each month.Prince George Citizen: 3 Nov 1938; & 2 & 30 Oct 1941 A Sunday school commenced in 1946.Prince George Citizen, 15 Aug 1946 St. Paul's United Church, McBride, also held evening services in the Penny school.Prince George Citizen: 24 Jun 1948, 8 Jul 1948, 7 Oct 1954, 6 Oct 1955, 1 Mar 1956, 29 Nov 1956 & 28 Mar 1957 The priest came from Giscome each month to St. James Catholic Church, which opened in 1954. Formerly, their services were conducted in the school,Prince George Citizen: 24 Jun 1948 & 2 Jul 1953 with Catholic, Anglican and United alternating weeks. The deconsecrated Catholic building became a residence. When the mill closed, most of the population left. Some abandoned their privately owned houses, which had become worthless. The Penny cemetery, 200–300 feet along the side road where the boat ramp road makes a right angle bend, is on land provided by Halvor Mellos. Volunteer male labour produced the coffins and dug the graves, and the women prepared the bodies. A homecoming reunion for former residents occurred August 18–20, 1995,Prince George Citizen: 9, 19 & 21 Aug 1995 for which the book covering the community's history was compiled.Prince George Citizen, 5 Feb 1996 At the time, the permanent population of 11 was meagre in relation to the 36 dwellings.Prince George Citizen, 22 Oct 1999 ===Boudreau family=== Joseph (Joe) (1889–1969) & Bessie (1894–1983) Boudreau arrived in 1923. They built a house on their preemption in 1928. Joe was a trapper and logger,Prince George Citizen: 19 Aug 1995 who could play the violin. Bessie, an avid gardener, who delivered many of the community's babies,Prince George Citizen, 26 Aug 1983 could play the piano, flute and harp. Their children were M. Isabelle (1923–2001),Prince George Citizen, 11 Apr 2001 Eveline (1925–98),Prince George Citizen, 24 Nov 1998 Joseph E. (Joe Jr.) (1929–91),Prince George Citizen, 28 May 1991 Clarence (1931– ),Prince George Citizen, 16 Feb 2016 E. Jack (1933–2018),Prince George Citizen, 25 Jan 2018 Margaret (1934– ), and June. The family made their own entertainment, singing and playing musical instruments, and the community attended these gatherings at their place. M. Isabelle left, but returned for her wedding to Peter Motiuk (1920–88).Prince George Citizen: 19 Nov 1951 & 17 Aug 1988 Never residing as a couple in Penny, their children were Patricia (Pat) and Cary. Isabelle provided a home away from home to family members who came to Prince George for high school. Eveline marriedPrince George Citizen, 21 Mar 1946 resident Jack McKinley (1924–2017),Prince George Citizen, 10 May 2017 a talented Prince George piano player. They supplied the music for many events.Prince George Citizen: 8 Apr 1948, 8 Jul 1948, 26 Aug 1948, 2 Dec 1948, 30 Mar 1950, 28 May 1953, 18 Feb 1954, 9 Jun 2016 & 13 Oct 2016 Their children raised in Penny were Gail,Prince George Citizen: 3 Apr 1947 & 11 May 1950 Barry,Prince George Citizen, 25 Aug 1949 and Rocky L.,Prince George Citizen, 7 Jun 1956 with Melody and Charlene born after the family left in 1956.Prince George Citizen: 21 Jun 1956 & 9 Jun 2016 Josie married William F. (Bud) Proctor in 1946. Months earlier, Bud, a local logger, suffered a skull fracture when struck by a falling tree.Prince George Citizen, 3 Jan 1946 Josie and daughter SandraPrince George Citizen, 19 Dec 1946 spent part of 1947 with Bud in Merritt.Prince George Citizen: 17 Jul 1947 & 13 Nov 1947 Josie returned to Penny prior to the birth of son Dwayne.Prince George Citizen: 15 Jan 1948 & 12 Feb 1948 Tragically, 20-month-old Sandra, died of accidental ingestion of gasoline. Janet A.Prince George Citizen: 28 Apr 1949 & 9 Jun 1949 and J. MarkPrince George Citizen, 7 Jul 1955 were born subsequently. In 1956, Josie left permanently to work in Prince George.Prince George Citizen, 3 May 1956 Remarried,Prince George Citizen, 2 May 1957 she and Marcien Fisher, of Penny,Prince George Citizen: 19 & 26 Oct 1950, 9 Nov 1950, 17 Jul 1952, 2 Jul 1953 & 30 Sep 1954 had three children.Prince George Citizen: 3 Mar 1960, 21 Mar 1963 & 5 May 1966 Joe Jr. married Edith (Penny) Lammle (1934–2011)Prince George Citizen, 9 Nov 2011 at Penny.Prince George Citizen, 21 Sep 1950 Their children raised there were Rhoda,Prince George Citizen, 17 Jul 1952 Donna (1953–2009),Prince George Citizen: 14 Dec 1953 & 9 Nov 2011 Judy,Prince George Citizen, 27 Feb 1956 and William. Joe, a sawfiler then millwright, departed with his family to pursue other work opportunities. Clarence married Olga Horn (1932– ),Prince George Citizen: 26 Jul 1951 & 16 Feb 2016 one of the two teachers who had arrived for the 1950/51 school year.Prince George Citizen, 21 Dec 1950 Their children Dan,Prince George Citizen: 6 Mar 1952 & 24 Sep 1953 Diane Louise (1954–2009),Prince George Citizen: 21 Oct 1954, 19 Aug 1995 & 28 Dec 2009 Larry,Prince George Citizen, 15 Nov 1956 Maxine, and Jenny, attended the Penny school, as well as three of the grandchildren. Dan has authored five books, When 15, Clarence joined his father and older brother in driving their horse team that hauled logs for milling. In 1956, he bought a Caterpillar D6 to clear their land for potato farming.Prince George Citizen: 17 May 1956 & 16 May 1957 When cattle ranching proved unprofitable, he focused on logging, land clearing and snowplowing. He was fire warden for many years, and ran (1980–1996)Prince George Citizen, 19 Feb 2013 the salmon hatchery (1980–2006) located on their property.Prince George Citizen: 25 May 1985, 10 Apr 1987 & 16 Feb 2016 In retirement, he voluntarily maintained the Longworth–Penny road with his Cat D6, and remained a resident for nearly 80 years. During the 1970s, when the school closed temporarily, Olga supervised the correspondence course children.Prince George Citizen, 24 Jun1970 Although away from teaching while raising her children, she did substitute when needed. She worked in, and did the bookkeeping for, the hatchery. She also kept a large garden and canned the produce. They acquired their first electricity generator in 1982. Diane Louise is the most recent burial at the cemetery. Clarence, having resided for 80 years, the couple left in 2011. E. Jack and ex-wife, Andreen E. Spoklie (1942–2015), had two children, Kelly and Kim.,Prince George Citizen, 20 Oct 2015 Jack worked various jobs in the mill and in driving logs down the river. In 1967, residents protested the closure of their post-office and it reopened after six weeks.Prince George Citizen: 30 Jun 1967, 7 Jul 1967 & 24 Aug 1967 Jack was postmaster 1967–76,Prince George Citizen, 21 Aug 1967 chair of the citizens committee,Prince George Citizen, 22 Sep 1970 and remained a resident.Prince George Citizen, 19 Sep 1977 He left in 1976. He finished his career elsewhere as a licensed scaler, an industrial first-aid attendant, and forest firefighter mostly with the Ministry of Forests. In 1999 on retirement, he wrote the first of his 10 published books on the region's history and personalities. Margaret married loggerPrince George Citizen, 3 Feb 1955 John A. Humphreys.Prince George Citizen, 19 Nov 1951 Their children were David J., James (Jim) C.,Prince George Citizen: 6 Feb 1956 & 7 Jun 1956 and Allan. By 16, Margaret could harness and work her father's horse team. Starting work at 15, John spent about 15 years at the lumber camps or the mill. The family left in 1965. June Boudreau worked briefly in Prince George, before marrying William (Bill) Benedict (1928–2013), and having children JuliePrince George Citizen, 30 Jul 1958 (died of SIDS at six months), Shirley (Allannah), Darlene, and Wayne. The Penny station was busy for most of Bill's tenure as CNR station agent 1954–65, but the family departed after sawmilling activity ceased. In 1993, he returned to live in Penny for a number of years, and his ashes were spread at the cemetery. Remarried, June Vandermark has been a prolific writer of letters to the editor, which criticize mainline religious,Prince George Citizen: 27 Mar 1986, 18 Sep 1986, 24 Jul 1997, 12 Jan 1999, 19 Aug 2000, 15 & 21 Dec 2000, 21 Jul 2001, 8 Aug 2002, 27 Jan 2010, 1 & 2 Feb 2010, 20 Oct 2010, 30 Nov 2010, 27 Sep 2011, 27 Aug 2012, 25 Nov 2015 & 19 Apr 2016, environmental,Prince George Citizen: 30 Nov 1985, 21 Jan 1991 & 21 Jan 2002 and sundry matters.Prince George Citizen: 1 Feb 1983, 24 Jul 1984, 24 Jun 1985, 22 Jul 1993, 31 Jan 1994, 6 Mar 1995 & 23 Feb 2000 ===Pastor family, scouts, guides & polio outbreak=== Joseph Pastor (1896–1982)Prince George Citizen, 22 Nov 1982 settled in 1934. His wife Mary (1900–84), and children Mary E. (1920–86), Theresa (Terry) M. (1921–84), and Joseph (Joe) (1925–2006), joined him from Hungary.Prince George Citizen: 22 Nov 1982 & 10 Apr 1984 Although he worked in the sawmillPrince George Citizen, 27 Jan 1944 during the earlier years, the farmPrince George Citizen: 3 Oct 1940, 10 Sep 1942, 1 Apr 1948, 27 Mar 1947, 19 May 1955, 17 Jun 1957, 12 Dec 1957 & 4 Aug 1959 was his primary involvement. Mary Sr. delivered milk, cream, butter and cheese to residents. On retiring in 1973, they left.Prince George Citizen, 21 Jun 1979 Joseph was also a hunting guide, who had been shot during World War I and the bullet was removed from his elbow in 1944.Prince George Citizen, 23 Mar 1944 His Hungarian friend, Joseph Kobra (1902–65), a sometime Penny resident since the 1940s,Prince George Citizen: 2 Nov 1944, 26 Jul 1945 & 4 Apr 1957Boudreau, Clarence & Olga. (2003). Into the Mists of Time. Self- published. p. 59 followed him from Lindup, remaining in the Penny/Lindup area for 40 years.Prince George Citizen, 29 Jan 1965 In 1937, Mary married Gustof (Gus) Frenkel (1905–83), but they never resided as a couple in Penny. Their children were John, Margaret, Sheila and Marie.Prince George Citizen: 14 Oct 1937, 15 Nov 1983, 30 Dec 1986 & 7 Apr 2016 In 1943, Terry married J. Earl Lousier (1924–2011).Prince George Citizen: 4 Nov 1943, 9 Dec 1943, 28 Aug 1984 & 26 Feb 2011 Initially a sawmill blade tooth setter, Earl became a sawyer after two years. Danny, their son, was born in Penny,Prince George Citizen, 31 Aug 1944 with Theresa (Terry) Ann, Bonita (Bonnie), and Lorraine born after the family left in 1952.Prince George Citizen, 21 Feb 1952 During the mid-1940s, a Scout troop and Wolf Cub pack operated. Charles (Charlie) Adcock, the CNR section foreman, was scoutmaster, and Earl Lousier was his assistant. Thurston Berg led the Cubs.Prince George Citizen: 31 May 1945, 14 & 21 Jun 1945, 2 Aug 1945, 8 Nov 1945, 3 Jan 1946 & 7 Mar 1946 On Charlie's transfer, Larry Willington became scoutmaster and Alice Sinclair had taken charge of the cubs,Prince George Citizen, 1 May 1947 but these activities soon folded.Prince George Citizen, 9 Oct 1952 In 1946, Joe Jr. marriedPrince George Citizen, 8 Aug 1946 Marie Jopp (1924–2014). Joe, who played trumpet at the dances, months earlier had lost two toes in a logging accident. Marie was one of the two teachers for the 1944/45 to 1946/47 school years, after which she was available as a substitute.Prince George Citizen: 5 Jul 1945 & 18 Sep 1947 During the mid-to-late 1940s, she led the Girl Guides,Prince George Citizen: 21 Jun 1945 & 15 May 1947 who were involved in a range of events.Prince George Citizen: 5 Apr 1945, 24 & 31 May 1945, 5 Jul 1945, 16 Aug 1945, 7 Mar 1946, 7 Aug 1947 & 12 Feb 1948 In 1950, Marie was briefly confined to hospital in Prince George with suspected polio,Prince George Citizen, 16 Oct 1950 before convalescing at home.Prince George Citizen, 9 Nov 1950 Their children raised in Penny were Gary (1948– ),Prince George Citizen, 5 Feb 1948 Richard (Ritchie) (1949–2004),Prince George Citizen, 17 Nov 1949 Shirley (1961– ),Prince George Citizen, 16 Aug 1951 Stewart (1953–93),Prince George Citizen: 15 Jun 1953 & 1 Jun 1993 and Terry-Lynn (1955– ),Prince George Citizen, 10 Feb 1955 with Ronnie born after the family left in 1955.Prince George Citizen, 1 Dec 1955 In 1952, Mrs. R. Clark and Mrs. A. Ward are recorded as teachers for the Girl Guides and Brownies,Prince George Citizen, 30 Dec 1952 the latter company having been recently organized, but these groups are not mentioned after 1953.Prince George Citizen: 19 Mar 1953 & 27 Apr 1953 John Kuz (1913–50) was the only Penny resident to die of polio. He had arrived in Penny in 1937, where his wife Anne (probably 1917–2003) and baby Harold (probably 1937–2016) soon joined them. They were active in community life,Prince George Citizen: 4 Jun 1942, 1 Jul 1943, 24 May 1945, 17 Oct 1946 & 3 Nov 1949 and their subsequent children raised in Penny were Leona (1939– ),Prince George Citizen, 8 Jun 1939 M. Elaine (1943– ),Prince George Citizen, 4 Mar 1943 and John (1949– ). Initially a logger, John Sr. became a mill labourer, oiler, and finally millwright, where in 1943 he lost three toes in a mill accident.Prince George Citizen, 18 Jun 1942 In 1949, a 12-foot fall required a hospital visit.Prince George Citizen, 7 Jul 1949 On John's death in hospital at Prince George, public functions in Penny were cancelled and the school closed as a precaution, which was repeated during another polio outbreak two years later.Prince George Citizen, 3 Nov 1952 The community collected almost $1,100 for the family,Prince George Citizen, 19 Oct 1950 who left in 1951. ===Riggs & Finer families=== In 1928, widower Frederick (Dick) R. Finer (1884–1952) arrived in Penny. The following year, his children Mabel (1914–2007), Irene (1916–2002), and Allen (1918–2010), joined him. Mabel married Wilbert (Bert) Riggs (1912–99) of Longworth in 1932, where they homesteaded, before residing off and on in Penny from 1936. Bert was a logger, sawmill worker, and with Mabel, ran their small farm. In 1937, Irene Finer left and marriedPrince George Citizen, 14 Oct 1937 N. Wilfrid Appleyard (c.1901–?). Allen R. Finer enlisted during World War II,Prince George Citizen: 6 Nov 1941 & 4 Jun 1942 was wounded,Prince George Citizen: 21 Oct 1943 & 18 Nov 1943 married,Prince George Citizen, 13 Sep 1945 and settled in Vancouver.Prince George Citizen: 18 Oct 1945 & 24 Jul 1947 His father soon followed.Prince George Citizen, 12 Jun 1952 In 1942, the Riggs resettled in Penny.Prince George Citizen, 4 Jun 1942 Their children were Clarence (1933–45), Lelia, Keith (1937– ),Prince George Citizen, 19 Aug 1937 Patricia (Pat) (1945– ),Prince George Citizen, 26 Apr 1945 and Juanita (Nita) (1947– ).Prince George Citizen, 17 Apr 1947 Clarence drowned at Guilford Lumber mill.Prince George Citizen, 19 Jul 1945 Mabel Riggs operated an iced confectionary booth from her front porch during the summertime.Prince George Citizen, 5 Aug 1948 Bert Riggs was hospitalized several times,Prince George Citizen: 11 Dec 1947, 7 Sep 1950 & 6 Mar 1952 being evacuated by amphibian plane on one occasion.Prince George Citizen, 25 Jun 1951 After relocating to and from Prince George for a couple of years,Prince George Citizen: 28 Aug 1952, 24 Dec 1953 & 18 Feb 1954 the family, except Lelia,Prince George Citizen: 14 Oct 1954, 18 Nov 1954, 24 Mar 1955, 21 Jul 1955 & 5 Apr 1956 returned.Prince George Citizen, 6 May 1954 Keith left for work,Prince George Citizen, 5 Jul 1956 and Lelia I. married Lawrence B. Tindill. (1927–2003). Bert relocated for work in 1958, and Mabel, Pat and Nita joined him in 1963.Prince George Citizen, 21 Jan 1999 Nita married David Solecki,Prince George Citizen, 6 Nov 1968 and Pat married Cornelius Evert (Casey) Van Beek.Prince George Citizen, 21 Nov 1968 ===Crime, calamity & safety measures=== During the 1927 forest fire, women and children were temporarily evacuated by special train to Dome Creek. A sudden death in 1934 prompted an investigative visit by the coroner and a constable from Prince George.Prince George Citizen, 8 Nov 1934 Logger G. Edward Hooker (1915–36), formerly at Bend, slipped and drowned while breaking up a logjam. His body was found over seven months later downriver at Sinclair Mills.Prince George Citizen, 13 May 1937 In 1944 and 1945, the police arrested the offenders responsible for break and entries at the store.Prince George Citizen: 27 Jan 1944, 3 Feb 1944 & 3 May 1945 A rolling log fatally crushed William Gorrick (1915–48). Although limited mentions of houses burning to the ground,Prince George Citizen, 8 Jun 1950 it was likely a common occurrence. In 1957, safecrackers stole $4,000 in cash from the store.Prince George Citizen: 25 & 28 Oct 1957 While hunting near Penny, Kalman Malzsencizky mistook his friend, Bela Bill Cservenka (1927–65), for a moose and fatally shot him. First aid was administered immediately and after a boat trip back to the Pastor farm, where the victim died four hours after the incident.Prince George Citizen: 12 Oct 1965, & 19 & 21 Jan 1966 At his trial, Malzsencizky pleaded guilty to criminal negligence.Prince George Citizen, 12 May 1966 Schervenka's widow was awarded $60,719 in damages under the provincial Families Compensation Act.Prince George Citizen, 27 Feb 1968 A self-inflicted rifle wound took a hunter's life on the access road.Prince George Citizen, 25 Aug 1994 In 1975, Imre Sorban fired shots at a boatload of people on the outskirts of Penny, forced another woman into a car, and later shot out two tires on the vehicle before he was subdued. Another victim sustained leg wounds from a shotgun blast. Midway through his trial, Sorban pleaded guilty to charges of carrying an offensive weapon and illegally confining another person.Prince George Citizen: 3 Oct 1975; & 2 & 3 Dec 1976 When ice jams upstream and downstream blocked the river during the 1980/81 winter, owners could not reach their cars parked on the west bank, and flooding submerged 13 vehicles and carried off several boats.Prince George Citizen: 19 & 22 Dec 1980 Though the townsite on higher ground was safe, houses in low-lying areas were flooded.Prince George Citizen, 18 Dec 1980 ===Relief programs during the Great Depression=== The Aleza Lake to Tête Jaune highway-construction relief project began in 1931. The seven camps between Aleza Lake and McBride housed 500 workers. Discontent in the camps prompted demands for increased wages, and strike action occurred in April and July 1932, at which time the workers departed for Prince George. In August 1932, the province redirected the men to these isolated locations, now designated as non-work relief camps. Camp 88, Penny,Prince George Citizen, 19 Oct 1933 was the largest of the group. On 19 November 1932, a physical confrontation with the camp foreman led to his replacement and a police investigation.Prince George Citizen, 24 Nov 1932 On 25 November 1932, police arrested three agitators from the camp for travelling without railway tickets and they received one-month prison sentences. By month end, the camp held its full complement of 108 men. The camp closed in October 1933. The Penny location at about Mile 72 occupied the former GTP construction camp (formerly about Mile 162). In 1934, Edward (Ed) V. (1888–1951) & Elsie (1904–95) Chambers moved from Lindup to the camp, where Ed was employed, and by 1936, he worked at a logging camp across the river. Their children were D. Bernice (c.1923–?), James (Jim) (1924–?), Marie (possibly 1926–2010), Lillian Jean (c.1928–2002),Prince George Citizen, 13 Nov 2002 Charles Lindburgh (Lindy) (1929–79), M. Jean (1930–2012), and Bette. The family settled in Penny just before World War II, with the children spending varying periods of their adult lives there. Ed remained until his death, and Elsie stayed.Prince George Citizen, 15 May 1955 Bernice married Len Gagnon (1909–59), who worked in the sawmill.Prince George Citizen: 17 Apr 1941, 27 Aug 1942, 15 Apr 1943, 28 Sep 1944, 13 Sep 1945, 11 Apr 1946, 3 Apr 1947, 6 May 1948, 30 Mar 1950, 16 Aug 1951, 19 Jun 1952, 2 Mar 1953, 18 Feb 1954, 16 Sep 1954, & 5 & 19 May 1955 James (Jim) E. enlisted 1942–46,Prince George Citizen, 3 Oct 1946 married Marion Hooker (1924–2002) of Bend, and settled in Vancouver.Prince George Citizen, 26 Sep 1946 Marie moved to Jasper,Prince George Citizen, 24 Jun 1943 and enlisted 1944–46. She lived in Vancouver and married J. McNeil.Prince George Citizen, 17 Jul 1947 Lillian Jean enlisted 1944–45, married Chester Whelen (c.1921–2012), and settled in Alberta,Prince George Citizen: 22 Aug 1946, 11 Dec 1947, 22 Jan 1948 & 26 Feb 1948 but later married Michael Kosteck. Lindy remained based in Penny,Prince George Citizen: 8 Apr 1954, 2 May 1957 & 11 Jul 1967 married Alice Taylor, but later moved.Prince George Citizen, 10 Aug 1979 M. Jean married local Charles (Charlie) F. Benton.Prince George Citizen: 7 Oct 1948, 11 May 1950, 10 Jan 1952 & 8 Apr 1954 Bette left for Vancouver and married.Prince George Citizen, 10 Jan 1952 ===Roads=== In 1947, Standard Tie and Timber graded a road through the town. By 1951, there were 21 cars in the community, but still only one mile of road.Prince George Citizen, 9 Aug 1951 When Highway 16, linking Prince George and McBride, opened in 1969,Prince George Citizen, 22 May 1969 many residents parked their vehicles on the opposite bank of the Fraser River. In winter, the frozen river could usually be crossed by an ice bridge,Prince George Citizen: 5 Mar 1980 & 30 Dec 1986 but if the weather was unusually mild, the train provided the only access.Prince George Citizen, 23 Feb 1990 A proposal for a reaction ferry or bridge access divided the community.Prince George Citizen: 30 & 31 Jan 1980; 1, 7 18 & 29 Feb 1980; 5 Mar 1980; & 14 Jan 1981 In 1995, volunteers upgraded a logging road, and for the next 20 years, maintained this only road access to the community.Prince George Citizen: 9 Aug 1995 & 19 Feb 2013 In 2017, the province agreed to maintain the private road to Longworth for two years.Prince George Citizen, 12 Apr 2017 A replacement contract is under consideration. ===Electricity, broadcast transmissions & communications devices=== From 1929, the CNR telephone lines opened for public usage, linking Dome Creek with Prince George.Prince George Citizen, 20 Jun 1929 Fifty years later, the CN lines from Giscome still served Penny's crank-style phonesPrince George Citizen: 8 Aug 1978 & 22 Dec 1980 on a party line. In the 1990s, the service continued to be erratic, because Telus could not justify the cost of dedicated lines for so few customers.Prince George Citizen: 9 Aug 1995 & 22 Oct 1999 Using a 150-foot wire strung between two 50-foot poles as an aerial, predominantly battery-powered radios received better reception from certain stations in Calgary or the U.S. west coast. Some places had diesel or alternately powered generators.Prince George Citizen, 23 Mar 1950 Otherwise, oil or gas lamps provided light and wood-burning stoves heat. Around 1950, the sawmill wired and supplied electricity to many company houses, which ceased when the mill closed. There are no BC Hydro transmission lines. A new transmitter, installed by CKPG-TV on Mount Tabor in 1964, provided reception as far southeast as Longworth & Penny.Prince George Citizen: 27 Oct 1964 & 7 Dec 1964 Completed in 2014, the Telus cell tower near Dome Creek also serves over of Highway 16 between Penny and Dome Mountain. == Footnotes == ==References== * * * * * * * * * * * * * Category:Robson Valley Category:Populated places in the Regional District of Fraser-Fort George Category:Populated places on the Fraser River Category:Unincorporated settlements in British Columbia Category:Grand Trunk Pacific Railway stations |
The Battle of Cochin, sometimes referred as the Second Siege of Cochin, was a series of confrontations, between March and July 1504, fought on land and sea, principally between the Portuguese garrison at Cochin, allied to the Trimumpara Raja, and the armies of the Zamorin of Calicut and vassal Malabari states. The celebrated heroics of the tiny Portuguese garrison, led by Duarte Pacheco Pereira, fended off an invading army several hundred times bigger. It proved a humiliating defeat for the Zamorin of Calicut. He not only failed to conquer Cochin, but his inability to crush the tiny opposition undermined the faith of his vassals and allies. The Zamorin lost much of his traditional authority over the Malabar states of India in the aftermath. The preservation of Cochin secured the continued presence of the Portuguese in India. ==Background== Since the fragmentation of the Chera state in the 10th century, the ruler of the city-state of Calicut (Port.Calecute; now, Kozhikode), known as the Zamorin (Samoothiri Raja, 'Lord of the Sea') had been generally recognized as overlord by most of the small states on the Malabar Coast of India. Under the Zamorin's rule, Calicut grew as a commercial city, emerging as the major entrepot of the Kerala pepper trade and the principal emporium for other spices shipped from further east (see spice trade). In the opening journey of the Portuguese to India in 1498, Vasco da Gama immediately made his way to Calicut and tried to secure a commercial treaty with the Zamorin. Unimpressed by Gama, the elderly Zamorin allowed the Portuguese to buy spices on Calicut's markets, but refused to accord them any greater privileges. The follow-up expedition of Pedro Álvares Cabral (2nd India Armada, 1500) arrived better prepared. The old Zamorin having died in the interim, Cabral negotiated a treaty with the new Zamorin, and a Portuguese factory was opened in Calicut. But within a couple of months, quarrels erupted between Portuguese agents and established Arab traders in the city, in which the Zamorin refused to intervene. In December 1500, a riot was raised and the factory in Calicut was overrun and numerous Portuguese massacred. Blaming the Zamorin for the incident, Cabral demanded that the Zamorin compensate them for their losses and expel all Arab traders from the city. When the Zamorin refused, Cabral bombarded the city of Calicut. Thus began the war between Portugal and Calicut. The Portuguese quickly found local allies among some of the city- states on the Malabar coast which had long grated under Calicut's dominance. Cochin (Cochim, Kochi), Cannanore (Canonor, Kannur) and Quilon (Coulão, Kollam) opened their ports and invited the Portuguese. The succeeding Portuguese armadas to India took to routinely bombarding Calicut, preying on her ships, and driving commercial traffic away from the city. The Zamorin quickly learned that there was little point challenging the Portuguese fleets at seaLopes (1504 p. 185) refers to 1502 letters from the Zamorin to his vassals explaining how in the naval engagement against João da Nova's little fleet in 1501 the Calicut navy was "unable to do them any harm, and thus did not think it appropriate to expose themselves again" – the technological gap in ships and cannon was just too great – but on land the difference was not nearly as lopsided. The Portuguese presence in India consisted only of a handful of commercial agents, after all. The Portuguese had come for spices. The Zamorin calculated that if he could exert his traditional authority over the Malabar states and close off access to spices, the Portuguese would either leave or be forced to negotiate terms and make a sensible peace.Logan (1887: p. 310). That meant trying to force his enemy kingdoms of Cochin, Cannanore and Quilon into shutting their markets to the Portuguese.Thomé Lopes (1504: p. 185) refers to the 1502 letters sent out by the Zamorin of Calicut to Cochin and other Malabari lords urging them join in a general anti-Portuguese boycott, to make sure the Portuguese found "no spices in all of India at any price" ("não lhes darem especiarias em toda an India por preço alguem"). In principle, the Zamorin's plan was sound. The Portuguese had antagonised some of the residents of the Malabar coast. Their fleets had left a brutish calling card, made absurd demands upon the rulers, disrupted trade and daily life all along the coast. It should not have been too difficult to prevail upon the Malabari cities to participate in a general boycott of Portuguese trade, at least temporarily. But the Cochin rejected Zamorin's unreasonable demands.Thomé Lopes (1504: p. 185) refers to the Trimumpara Raja of Cochin's reply to the Zamorin's letter, that he "had already negotiated a peace and very advantageous trade with the Portuguese, and for that reason would do nothing contrary to it." ("ja tinha ajustado paz e commercio mui vantajosamente com os Portuguezes, e por isso nada podia fazer em contrario.") === First siege of Cochin (1503) === The city of Cochin (Cochim, Kochi) was a growing commercial town perched on the edge of the Vembanad lagoon. The ruling Hindu prince, Unni Goda Varma, the Trimumpara Raja of Cochin, was not secure in his own position. Formally, he was a minor prince, subsidiary to senior family members across the lagoon at Edapalli (Repelim), the official overlords of the lagoon. Indeed, it is quite probable Trimumpara was in the midst of a family quarrel and originally sought out the Portuguese alliance to strengthen his own position against his relatives.The status of the Trimumpara Raja remains a little unclear. According to Dames (1918: p. 86n), the formal ruler of Cochin was the king of Edapalli, across the lagoon on the mainland, that the Cochinese peninsula (with capital at Perumpadappu) had at some point been detached as an appanage for a son, who, in turn, had detached the northern tip, Cochin city proper, for another son. These appanages were not supposed to be permanent fiefs, but rather to serve as temporary 'training' grounds for princely heirs before they moved up in succession order. In other words, the ruler of Cochin was the second heir of Edapalli. Upon the death of the ruler of Edapalli, the first heir was supposed to leave the peninsula and take up his duties in Edapalli, and the second heir move from Cochin to Perumpadappu, and assign Cochin to his own successor (the new second heir). It seems the Portuguese arrived at a time when the princely heirs were somewhat at odds with each other (Cochin's rising prosperity possibly encouraged its prince's assertiveness). Nonetheless, it is only afterwards, under Portuguese protection, that the ruler of Cochin finally became a proper king (i.e. the Edapalli throne moved to Cochin). Sentiment among the Cochinese population was largely against the Portuguese. Cochin was not self-sufficient in food, and the people had suffered much from the general disruption of trade along the Malabar coast. Moreover, Cochin had a significant Muslim population – both expatriate Arabs and local Mappilas – and the Portuguese had made no secret of their hostility towards them. Yet these were usually the very traders upon whom the city's subsistence depended. The Cochinese population did not, could not, see the point of the current state of affairs. Sensing the resentment, Trimumpara Raja had the Portuguese factor Diogo Fernandes Correia and his assistants, Lourenço Moreno and Álvaro Vaz, stay at his own palace, and ensured they were always escorted by loyal guards when walking around the city's markets. But the Zamorin's influence over the Kerala hinterlands had dried up much of Cochin's pepper supply. The Portuguese factors were disappointed at the spare findings on Cochin's spice markets, and the Trimumpara Raja was painfully aware of their increasing interest in other more promising cities, notably Quilon. If the Portuguese abandoned Cochin, the Trimumpara would have nothing to show for his pains. thumb|250px|16th century Portuguese depiction of a Malabarese Nair warrior The Trimumpara's advisors argued against the Portuguese alliance, and urged him to pursue a reconciliation with the Zamorin. They warned him that the continued loyalty of the Cochinese Nairs could not be taken for granted in the event of a war. Nonetheless, the Trimumpara Raja refused to abandon the Portuguese. In March, 1503, as soon as the Portuguese fleet (4th Armada) had set sail back to Lisbon, the Zamorin decided to intimidate his enemy into compliance. The Portuguese had left a small coastal patrol behind, to help defend Cochin. But the patrol's commander, Vicente Sodré dismissed the rumors of the Zamorin's military preparations and decided to take his patrol to cruise the mouth of the Red Sea. They did not return until the end of the summer. In April, the Zamorin led a large Calicut army of some 50,000 troops against Cochin. Along the way, he was to be joined by allied Malabari lords, notably the rulers of Edapalli. The Trimumpara's son Narayan rushed with a force of 5,500 Cochinese troops to block the passage of the Calicut army over a ford near Edapalli (Repelim). Narayan valiantly repelled two Calicut assaults, but eventually the Zamorin's agents, by bribery and subterfuge, managed to detach many of the Cochinese Nairs from the frontline. In the next assault, Narayan was overwhelmed and killed, along with his remaining forces. Narayan's brave stand gave his father and his Portuguese guests enough time to flee Cochin across the water to Vypin island (Vaipim) with a small core of loyal guards. The Zamorin seized Cochin city and demanded Trimumpara hand over the Portuguese agents, but the king refused. Vypin's natural defenses and the worsening weather prevented the launching of an assault against the island. The frustrated Zamorin limited himself to burning the city of Cochin and vowed to return after the weather improved. [Before burning down Cochin, the Zamorin of Calicut removed an ancient sacred stone, upon which the old Chera Kings of Malabar were traditionally ceremonially esconsed as lords of the sea and overlords of all the Malabari states. The sacred stone had originally been housed at the ancient Malabari capital of Cranganore, but had since been moved to Cochin. The Zamorin now moved it once more, to Edapalli.Whiteway (1899: p. 95, 251)] The main Calicut army returned that same August, and once again Trimumpara Raja and the Portuguese agents were holed up in Vypin. The Zamorin and his Malabari allies were in the process of preparing assault boats against the island, when they spotted six armed Portuguese ships under Francisco de Albuquerque – the vanguard of the arriving 5th Armada – racing towards Cochin. The allied Malabari armies began to melt away immediately. The Zamorin reluctantly dismantled the siege and returned to Calicut. === Preparations === Cochin had been saved in the nick of time, but the Zamorin's armies were sure to return next Spring, as soon as the 5th Armada left. So the Portuguese immediately set about making preparations for Cochin's defense in the fleet's absence. In the first order of business, a squadron of Portuguese ships did a tour of the Vembanad lagoon, punishing the local princelets who had given their support to the Zamorin's siege. Notable in this campaign was the Portuguese brutal sack of Edapalli, razing the city, with great bloodshed. Smaller towns and villages either met a similar fate, or quickly switched their allegiance over to Cochin. In this manner, the Trimumpara Raja of Cochin was forcibly imposed by Portuguese arms as the overlord of the Vembanad lagoon.According to Dames (1918), by the complicated rules of succession, Trimumpara Raja should have actually moved to Edapalli, the formal seat of the lord of the lagoon, and assigned the government of Cochin city to his successor. But the Portuguese insisted he remain in Cochin himself. As a result, this date (1503) usually marks the beginning of the foundation of Kingdom of Cochin proper. On the other hand, some sources note that the Trimumpara Raja abdicated around this time or soon after the battle, and his successor (apparently a nephew), also named Unni Goda Varda (Candagora), became the king of Cochin. If true, this may not necessarily be an abdication as normally understood, but simply a faithful following of the succession rules – the old Trimumpara may have indeed 'moved' to Edapalli (i.e. taken up that title formally, and officially assigned Cochin to his successor, the new Trimumpara). It was the successor, not the original (and still-living) Trimumpara, that was crowned by Francisco de Almeida in late 1505 with a golden crown as "King of Cochin". In the meantime, the Portuguese commanders persuaded Trimumpara Raja to allow them to erect a fortress on the edge of the Cochinese peninsula (an area now known as Fort Kochi), just a little to the west of the old city of Cochin proper (around what is now Mattancherry). Fort Manuel de Cochim, as it was named, was the first Portuguese fort in Asia. Built from local coconut palm timber supplied by the Trimumpara himself, the fort was completed in a couple of months. As soon at it was finished, the Portuguese fleet commander Afonso de Albuquerque, against all odds, suddenly agreed to a peace treaty with the Zamorin of Calicut. It was probably a cynical move on both sides – no one really expected the peace to hold, but it bought them a little time. For a few weeks, the Portuguese could finish their defenses, the Zamorin could prepare his forces, without being molested by the other. But the peace was soon broken again in a skirmish over the delivery of a spice shipment in Cranganore.Logan (1887, p. 310) In late January, 1504, Albuquerque's 5th Armada finally departed Cochin. They left behind a small garrison of around 150 armed Portuguese troops (some say only 130 or less The discrepancy in numbers may have to do with the fact that Pacheco was also saddled with all the sick and injured Portuguese crew members who could not make the return journey. While the total may be 150, able-bodied men might be closer to the lower number. (Day, 1863: p. 92)) in Fort Manuel of Cochin, under the command of the knight Duarte Pacheco Pereira. Pacheco was also given three ships – one carrack (the nau Concepção under Diogo Pereira) and two caravels (the Garrida of Pêro Rafael, and another of unknown name under Diogo Pires (or Peres)). [Note: It is possible that this 'Diogo Pereira' is none other than Diogo Fernandes Pereira the lost captain of the third squadron of the 5th Armada, who had discovered Socotra and wintered there, and set on a solo crossed of the Indian Ocean around this time. If so, then the nau Concepção might be his ship.]Alas lists of the 5th Armada do not give the name of Diogo Fernandes Pereira's original ship. Albuquerque's Commentaries (p. 16) insist he left Duarte Pacheco the nau Concepção (Pacheco's own ship, the Espírito Santo, evidently returned with Albuquerque). However, it is possible that Albuquerque left merely two caravels and simply gave Duarte Pacheco the authority to exert command over whatever naus of the lost Third Squadron showed up in India; and Diogo Fernandes Pereira just arrived from Socotra shortly after with the Concepção. But this is purely speculative. 'Diogo Pereira' could be someone else altogether. Intelligence networks in south India were such that both the Zamorin and the Trimumpara knew each other's every movement (the element of surprise was never really an exploitable tactic on the Malabar coast). And, sure enough, news soon arrived of the assembly of a large invasion army in Calicut. Unlike the previous one, this army was better equipped. The Zamorin had received a large contingent of firearms (arquebuses and/or muskets) from the Turks. Two Venetian agents that had secretly come to India with the 4th Armada had been busy helping Calicut forge better artillery. At least five European large cannons were ready, as well as a couple hundred smaller boat guns. Notices had been sent to the Zamorin's allies – the lords (Kaimals) of Edapalli, Cranganore, Kottakkal, Kingdom of Tanur (Vettath raja of Vettattnad), Beypore, Chaliyam, Pariyapuram etc. – to prepare their auxiliary forces.The auxiliaries of the Zamorin of Calicut named by João de Barros (Vol. 2, p. 140) include the kings and lords of Tanore (Kingdom of Tanur or Vettattnad), Bespur (Beypore) Cucurão ("by the Western Ghats", Kottakal?), Cotugão ("between Cannanore and Calicut"), Curim ("between Ponnani and Cranganore"), Repelim (Edapalli), Crangalor (Cranganore), Chaliao (Chaliyam), Parapuram (Pariyapuram?), Banala Carij (?), and several other large regional lords and 'near-kings'. News of the size and arms of the Zamorin's alerted Cochin. Cochin had lost a battle during the previous year's siege. Although, in his new position as lord of the Vembanad backwaters, the Trimumpara Raja could, notionally, call on 30,000 troops from around the lagoon, at most 8,000 might respond to his call, the remainder being "actively or passively hostile."Bell (1917: 84); Whiteway (1899: p. 97). According to João de Barros (Dec. I, Lib 7, c. 7, vol. 2, p. 139) the nominal vassals of Cochin included the lords of Paliporte (Pallipuram), Balurt (Palluruthy?), Bagadarij (?), Porca (Purakkad),Mangate (Alengad), Cambalão (Kumbalam), Cherij (Cherai) and Vaipij (Vypin). All but Vypin seem to have abandoned him. Rumors soon spread through Cochin that the Portuguese garrison had no intention to stay, that ships were being prepared to evacuate the Portuguese to Cannanore or Quilon the moment the Zamorin's army arrived, and leave the Cochinese to bear the brunt of the assault. The population of Cochin began to evacuate the city. Trimumpara Raja himself began to waver, his advisors urging him to seek out a reconciliation with the Zamorin before it was too late. Duarte Pacheco's first order of business was to stiffen Trimumpara Raja's resolve, persuading him that the Portuguese were there to stay. Remembering how the Portuguese coastal patrol of Vicente Sodré had abandoned them during last year's siege, the Trimumpara had ample reason to doubt Pacheco's word. But he also knew his fate was fatally tied to the Portuguese. Shaking off his misgivings, he placed the defense of the city in their hands. Trimumpara issued edicts forbidding anybody to leave Cochin on the penalty of death, and ordering his own officials and soldiers to treat an order from Duarte Pacheco as if it were his own. Of particular concern was the Muslim merchant community in Cochin. The Portuguese had made no secret of their hostility and regarded them suspiciously as a 'fifth column' for the Zamorin. But Cochin was dependent upon their trade for their food supply and should the siege be prolonged, the fate of the city would be in their hands. Duarte Pacheco went out of his way to secure their cooperation. He addressed an assembly the leading Muslim merchants of Cochin, promising that no harm would come to them. He co-opted a few of their leaders (notably, a certain Muhammad Marakkar) and, just in case, held some leading Muslim families hostage, shipping them over the outlet under guard to Vypin island for the duration of the hostilities.Whiteway (1899: 98) Large stores of foodstuffs (rice, sugar, etc.) were also stockpiled in Vypin in case the Zamorin's agents set fire to the city or it had to be evacuated.Correia (p. 427) In prelude, Duarte Pacheco launched a few minor raids on some small settlements around Edapalli, which sided with the Zamorin. Their strategic value was minor – it was more a show of force and bravado, to inculcate confidence in the Cochin population that the Portuguese were itching for a fight. (However, it seems that these raids may have damaged one of the two Portuguese caravels, making it unavailable for the upcoming confrontation). == Pass of Cambalão == From intelligence networks, Duarte Pacheco Pereira received the details of the Zamorin's armed forces and, more importantly, their movements. The Zamorin himself was leading a 57,000 strong army of Calicut (some cite 84,000, which may or may not include auxiliaries;Matthew (1997) although certainly most of these were very lightly armed, at best.Whiteway (1899: p. 98)). The Zamorin's army was bringing the five European large guns, cast by the two Venetian engineers, and nearly 300 smaller Indian guns. The army was assembled near Cranganore, and were to march south along the east bank of the Vembanad lagoon, and cross the fording passage by Kumbalam (Cambalão). The ford was said to be a mere 100 m wide, waist-deep, and passable at all tides, so the vast Calicut army would not need to go through the complicated, disorderly process of loading and unloading ferry-boats. The Calicut fleet was composed of 160 vessels – about 76 of which were parausOsório (p. 278) (a sail-and-oar-powered Malabari warship, often compared by European writers to a fusta or galiotMatthew (1997: p. 23)). Each parau was armed with two bombards, five muskets and 25 archers.Saraiva (1849: p. 132); Matthew (1997: p. 13) The remaining boats were smaller, some 54 catures (a smaller version of the parau) and 30 tones (canoes), each mounted with a cannon, and 16 soldiers.,Osório (p. 278) estimates that the Calicut fleet carried 12,000 men. That is, separately from the 57,000 infantry. Faria e Sousa argues the fleet carried only 4,000. The fleet was under the command of the Zamorin's nephew (and heir of Calicut), Naubea Daring (Naubeadarim), with the lord (Kaimal) Elcanol of Edapalli as second-in-command. The fleet was to slip into the Vembanad lagoon via the outlet near Cranganore and then sail down the lagoon, accompanying and protecting the infantry. Being fully informed of the Zamorin's plans, Duarte Pacheco Pereira determined that the Portuguese-Cochinese forces needed to block the passage of the army at Kumbalam ford (Passo de Cambalão). That meant distributing his forces carefully. He placed the factor Diogo Fernandes Correia and his two assistants, Lourenço Moreno and Álvaro Vaz, with 39 men at Fort Manuel. The large nau Concepção was loaded with 25 men, artillery and five expert gunners, and placed under the command of Diogo Pereira (possibly Diogo Fernandes Pereira?) and instructed to remain close to the Fort and defend Cochin city (it would simultaneously guard the Vembanad outlet and prevent Calicut ships from slipping through there). Duarte Pacheco placed 26 men in one of the caravels under the command of Pêro Rafael. The other caravel still under repair, Pacheco commandeered two Malabarese bateis (comparable to pinnaces), placing one (with 23 men) under Diogo Pires, and the other (with 22 men) under himself.Faria e Sousa, p. 61 Each batel was armed with four swivel guns. These three vessels would try to hold Kumbalam ford. Cochinese workers had produced a collection of tower shields (paveses), thick wooden planks, two fingers thick, which were mounted all along the sides of the caravel and bateis as makeshift crenellations to protect the crew from missile fire. Rope nets were hung across the masts and sacks filled with cotton were placed throughout the ship's deck, and hung all along the sides, to protect the ships from cannonballs.Osório (p. 278) claims the Calicut paraus, at the urging of the Venetian agents, had also been reinforced with cotton sacks. Boatloads of good hard stone had been shipped down from Anjediva island to be carved by Cochinese workers into cannonballs for the Portuguese guns.Correia (p. 427) Cochinese workers had also been quietly producing a large number of 3.5-metre- tall (12 ft) poles, sharpened at one end, hardened by fire on the other, with pre-cut grooves to allow them to be snapped tight with crosspoles.Whiteway (1899: 93); Correia (p. 427) The bulk of his army having deserted, Trimumpara Raja of Cochin was left with less than 5,000 troops. He assigned around 500 Nairs to join Duarte Pacheco's little fleet at Kumbalam pass, retaining the remainder to protect the city. Navigating carefully through the thin brackish narrows and straits of Vembanad lake, Duarte Pacheco's three ships (and accompanying Cochinese boats) arrived at the Kumbalam ford, a mere 100 m of shallow water. Pacheco ordered the long sharpened poles drilled deep mid- channel and across the length of the ford, a makeshift stockade to block the passage of the infantry. He subsequently ordered the ships tied to each other, and to the banks (with iron cords, so that they could not be easily cut and set adrift). The ships were set with the broadsides facing the shores. === Location of the pass === The exact location of the Passe de Cambalão, the fording point where Duarte Pacheco Pereira made his stand, is uncertain and disputed in various sources. Portuguese Cambalão is probably modern Kumbalam on the elongated islands in the middle-southern part of the Vembanad lagoon – that is below Cochin city. However, some historians (e.g. Logan (1887), Whiteway (1894), Monteiro (1989)) suggest the Portuguese made their stand much further north, at the ford of Edapalli (Portuguese Repelim), the same pass which Narayan fruitlessly tried to hold the previous year.Day (1863: p. 92) wants to place the pass at "Chetwye" (Chettuva), about 40 miles north of Cochin, which is highly improbable. That would place the battle well above Calicut's assembly point at Cranganore. There are reasons to justify either location and doubt the other. If Kumbalam was indeed the passage, that would suggest the Zamorin's army marched all down the east coast of the lagoon unchallenged. That is not necessarily unlikely. The passage across Kumbalam islands certainly makes a narrow passage for the troops to ford across to the Cochinese peninsula and march calmly up behind Cochin city. The problem is that it also means that the Zamorin's fleet sailed the entire length of the lagoon, from the environs of Cranganore down to Kumbalam – that is, their fleet sailed past Cochin without making a lunge at it or being challenged. And that is unlikely, especially as the Portuguese kept their nau on guard before the city. As a result, the alternative theory, that the Portuguese held their position at Edapalli ford makes more sense. The name was simply misunderstood – they were blocking the road to Kumbalam, not at Kumbalam. But Edapalli pass brings up other inconsistencies – in particular, later in the campaign, the Zamorin sent part of his army to try a different pass to Palurte, which is almost certainly Palluruthy, again south of Cochin. If they were encamped by Kumbalam, it makes perfect sense – the Zamorin just needed to go back a few steps. But if they were held up at Edapalli ford, that detachment would have had to go across the very pass the Portuguese were holding. If they circumvented it, they would come up below them, which then brings up the question why not attack the Portuguese pass from both sides and finish off the story there? It is possible that Palurte is misidentified, that it is not Pallurthy, but somewhere else (Logan et al. suggest 'Valanjaca', but where that also uncertain.) If the Zamorin was held at Edapalli ford, crossing the lagoon there would have gotten them only to Vypin island, which would not necessarily be a grave concern for the Portuguese, since that would not place them within marching range of Cochin. A third possibility is that Cambalão is actually Kumbalangy and not Kumbalam – that is the peninsula directly south of Cochin. That means the Calicut army marched much further south, taking a long loop around the southern end of the Vembanad lagoon through the very southerly 'lands of Porquá'(Purakkad) (or possibly cut across at Perumbalam) and then marched north through Kumbalangy. The main reasons to contemplate this southern position are: (1) It is practically a continuous land march – if the Zamorin wanted to avoid ferry boats for his huge army, taking the long loop under the Vembanad lake was the least water-clogged option (2) it places the Portuguese position closer to Cochin – more precisely, the Zamorin would be one ford away from the Cochinese land mass, thus making it a more critical point to hold for the Portuguese; (3) Kumbalangy has Aroor to the east, which might be what the Portuguese called Arraul island, with an alternate passage to Cochin that is somewhat pointing through Palluruthy; (4) the southerly loop route to Kumbalangy passes through or near the lands of Udayamperoor (Diamper), Perumbalam (Primbalão) and/or the very southerly lands of Purakkad (Porquá), whose lords were known to have defected from Cochin to Calicut before the battle.e.g. Correia (p. 482) The drawbacks to Kumbalangy is the idea of the Calicut fleet sailing there passes even closer to Cochin than before; Aroor does not really point to Palluruthy, and it is difficult visualize where Palignard ford would have been by comparison. (A slight variation has the ford somewhere along what is now the narrow peninsula between Kumbalangy and Kochi – that is, there might have been a tiny strait and ford somewhere there, long since disappeared. That would open the possibility that the Calicut fleet actually did not sail into the Vembanad lagoon at all, but actually sailed down the outside of it, through the Arabian Sea alone.) === First assault === Duarte Pacheco did not have to wait long before the massive army of the Zamorin of Calicut appeared at Kumbalam ford. The army is said to have moved in and deployed their positions on the banks during the night, without anyone quite seeing them until the dawn of 31 March (Palm Sunday).Dates vary in the chronicles and histories. Some writers (e.g. Logan, 1887: p. 310) date the first assault as early as 16 March, the date given by Góis (p. 112) for Pacheco setting out for the ford. But that is a mistake, as Góis also says that 16 May was the 'Friday before Palm Sunday' – but Palm Sunday in 1504 landed on 31 March, not the 18th. We are following the dating in Castanheda (p. 196) here, which is also followed by Whiteway (1899:99–100) and others. The sudden sight, in the early morning light, of the Zamorin's massive army of 84,000 on the banks, already arrayed, in their magnificent arms with flags flying, and guns in position, was a startling sight to the defenders. The intimidating blare of the trumpets and war cries of such a massive army was too much for some of the defenders to bear. The final act in this terrifying prelude was the sudden appearance of the Calicut fleet, 160 armed ships, behind the strait's bend.Saraiva, (1849: p. 133) Nerves cracked before this display. Some Cochinese boats started sneaking away, others followed, and soon mass panic set in. The Cochinese boats, with their 500 Nairs, were soon all fleeing back to Cochin. Only the three anchored ships, with 90 or so Portuguese (plus two Cochinese officialsThe two Cochinese were named Frangor and Candagor in Osorio (p. 279), to which Góis (p. 111) adds they were lords of Palurte and Arraul and treasurers (vedores) of the Trimumpara Raja. They remained with the Portuguese throughout the encounter.) remained to face the Zamorin's army and fleet. For Duarte Pacheco, the most immediate worry was the five Venetian guns on the shore. Most of the Indian guns were said to have about the 'range and strength of an arm-thrown stone', which posed little threat to the cotton-reinforced ships. But the Venetian guns could sink them at distance. Pacheco directed all his fire immediately upon those guns, scattering the battery crews, and kept intermittent fire focused on them to prevent them reforming. Fire was also directed at Calicut hatchet-crews which had ventured into the ford to attempt to chop down the ford-blocking stockade. While this was going on, the Calicut fleet began to advance on the Portuguese position. But the very narrowness of the channel chosen by Pacheco had been fortuitous. It did not allow the large Calicut fleet to spread out on a broad front. Instead, they had to approach the anchored Portuguese with a very narrow front. This pitted the three Portuguese ships against only a dozen or so paraus at a time, something the superior Portuguese firepower might handle. The first wave was the most difficult – some 20 boats, tightly tied to each other, advanced together, constituting some 40 bombards and 100 muskets, plus innumerable bowmen. But the tower shields and cotton sacks on the Portuguese ships worked wonders, cushioning the missiles and allowing the Portuguese crossbowmen, musketeers and gunners to pick off the gunners and musketeers on the Malabari boats, which had little or no protection. After a few volleys, four boats were half-sunk, the rest sufficiently damaged or covered in enough dead & wounded to be unable to proceed, and began to retire. They were followed by a second wave of around a dozen boats. But this met much the same fate. Then a third, fourth and fifth, each faring no better. Indeed, it only got easier for the Portuguese, as the sunk, damaged and retiring paraus of earlier waves formed river obstacles (and a demoralizing sight) for the next. By midday, the Calicut fleet commanders realized this was not working, and ordered a retreat. Throughout all this, the Zamorin's army assembled on the shores had been largely ineffective. The tower shields and nets had fended off most of their constant missile fire. Fire had to be occasionally directed to the shore, to ensure the Italian gun batteries remained out of commission and that the hatchet squads did not reach the ford's stockade. It was a humiliating morning for the Zamorin. Chroniclers report that, in this first encounter, the Calicut army and fleet suffered some 1,300 dead, while the Portuguese suffered not a single loss. === Second assault === A week elapsed until the second assault on the Kumblam ford, on 7 April (Easter Sunday).Logan (1887) dates it at 25 March; Whiteway (1899: p. 100) says the second assault was on 5 April, (Good Friday). Again we follow Castanheda (p. 200) here, who says it was Easter Sunday. During this interim, the caravel of Diogo Pires that had been under repair was back in shape and joined the squad at Kumbalam ford. The nau Concepção remained as sentinel before Cochin city. The Zamorin had also been busy repairing his ships and raising more troops. This time he had decided on a diversionary tactic. While the main Calicut fleet (some 150 boats) headed towards Kumbalam, a fleet of around 70 Calicut paraus would head towards Cochin city itself and engage the nau Concepção. The point was to force Duarte Pacheco's little squad to abandon Kumbalam to rescue Cochin city, thus leaving the Kumbalam ford open for his army to cross. As soon as he heard of this (through usual intelligence channels), the Trimumpara Raja of Cochin immediately dispatched a message to Duarte Pacheco begging him to return. Pacheco shrugged off the request at first. But around 9 AM, with the tide falling and the wind in his favor, Duarte Pacheco decided that the elements might allow him to take up the appeal. Taking one caravel and one batel, and leaving the remaining pair behind to hold the ford, Pacheco raced up towards Cochin. He arrived just as the nau Concepção was in the process of desperately fending off a heavy assault by the Calicut squad. Seeing Pacheco's two ships coming in from the rear, the Calicut squad realized they were about to be trapped in the crossfire and quickly broke off the engagement and retired. Pacheco did not pause for greetings or inquiries, but immediately turned his boats around and raced back to the Kumbalam pass. The high tide was coming in and the wind was changing. He arrived back at Kumbalam ford just in time to anchor himself in with the others and prepare to meet the bulk of the Calicut fleet, now bearing down on the ford. The same scene was played out as the week before – Calicut paraus forced to advance in small narrow waves, etc. And it was just as fruitless. After losing around 19 ships to heavy damage and some 290 dead, the Calicut admiral called off the attack. The diversionary gambit had failed. === Third assault === The next day, rather than resting and recuperating, Duarte Pacheco launched a surprise attack on some small villages on nearby islands, which were said to have furtively supplied paraus to the Calicut fleet. The value of the target itself was not much. Its principal purpose was to unsettle the Zamorin's army psychologically, reminding them that despite all the terrible fighting and casualties of the previous day, the Portuguese were still unscathed and in fresh fighting form. The day after that (Tuesday, 9 April), the Zamorin decided on a new tactic. There would be no more impetuous fleet attacks. The fleet was ordered to hold back until Portuguese ships were sunk or severely damaged by shore cannon. To this end, the Calicut batteries carefully positioned and shielded their Venetian cannons. The battle opened with a barrage from land on the Portuguese ships. But while the Venetian guns had the range to hit the ships, the relatively inexperienced battery crews did not have the aim – certainly not from that distance. Duarte Pacheco apprised the situation quickly, and forbade the ships from firing back. His intention was to give the Calicut battery crews confidence and induce them to move their guns forward for better aim (and expose themselves). Pacheco's ruse worked better than he expected. As the guns on the Portuguese ships fell silent, and they just sat there quietly, allowing themselves to be fired upon from land without firing back, the Calicut captains were quick to conclude that the Portuguese must have run out of ammunition. At this point, the Zamorin's cautious plan broke down. Not only did the cannon batteries begin to move out of their shielded positions, the Calicut fleet which had been idling at the mouth of the strait, warily watching the Portuguese, decided this was a golden opportunity. With Portuguese guns out of ammunition, it would be a simple matter for the paraus to rush, grapple, board and overwhelm the Portuguese with their numbers. They impetuously launched themselves downriver towards the Portuguese squad. Duarte Pacheco held fire until the first wave of paraus came close enough, then launched a barrage at point blank range, sinking eight paraus in one massive volley of cannon and musket fire, causing an extraordinary number of casualties. The first wave was broken, but the remainder of the paraus had moved too far forward to pull back now. The very thing the Zamorin had wanted to avoid, was now too late – the fleet was engaging. And it played out as before – small fruitless waves after waves of paraus, broken successively and calmly by Portuguese gunfire. The Venetian gun batteries, now unwisely forward and exposed, were silenced by occasional direct fire on the battery crews. By noon, however, one of the Portuguese bateis had caught fire, forcing the crew to divide their attentions. The next wave of Calicut paraus concentrated all their efforts on it, hoping to permanently take at least one of the four Portuguese platforms out of commission. But the crew managed to put out the fire, and fend off the attack. By the end of the day, the Calicut fleet retired, having lost 22 paraus and some 600 dead. Despite the exhaustion of the crews, Pacheco ordered his two bateis to give a brief pursuit on the retreating fleet. A little along the way, the bateis disembarked some soldiers near Edapalli, burned down two small villages, and defeated the guard a local lord had rushed to save them. Despite all this action, the Portuguese, again, suffered not a single death, just a few injured. The Zamorin was demoralized after this assault, and is said to have retired into his tents, in a melancholic mood. Already after the second assault, the Zamorin is said to have realized the pointlessness of repeated attacks on the Kumbalam ford, and had even half-made up his mind to dissolve the campaign and start peace negotiations, rather than subject himself to further humiliations. But he was urged on by his noble captains to give it another try, to restore his honor and keep the faith of his vassals. But now these very same captains, by their impetuosity, had delivered him a third defeat. == Passes of Palignar and Palurte == The Zamorin was disposed to call off the campaign, if not for the pressure of his commanders, who proposed to abandon Kumbalam and try to reach Cochin via two passages further north – Palignar and Palurte. === Location of the passes === 330px|thumb|Conjectural map showing several possible positions of the passes of 'Palignar' and 'Palurte' held by the Portuguese in May–June, 1504. Again highly conjectural. Dark green = one possible hypothesis of position; Light green: another hypothesis of positions. Also shows implied route of redeployment by the army of Calicut from their original position at 'Cambalão'. Palurte is almost definitely Palluruthy, south of Cochin. The location of Palignar (alternatively given as Palinhar, Palinhard, Palignard, Pallinganad, Palimbão) is Panangad an island east of Kumbalam, south of Ernakulam, studded in the Vambanad River. All we know of Palignar is that it is a league or half-league from Palurte (either to the north or south – surprisingly unclear in the chronicles). 'Palignar' (or similar-sounding counterparts) is not easily found in usual geographies of the Kerala backwaters.'Palinhar' in Góis (p. 115), and Castanheda (p. 228); 'Palignar' in Osório (p. 287), 'Palimbão' in Correia (p. 474), 'Palinhard' in Saraiva (1849: p. 138), 'Palignard' in Danvers (1894: p. 109), 'Palinganad' in Matthew (1997: p. 21); Whiteway (1899: p. 100) and Logan (1887: p. 310), both of whom placed the 'Kumbalam ford' at Edapalli, identify the alternative pass as 'Valanjaca'. The chronicles suggest that the passages went via the island of Arraul (or Darraul or Arrail). This could be a reference to Aroor, a southerly peninsula, that indeed might be crossed north towards Palluruthy. Of course, this would require us to consider the location of the original 'Cambalão' to be Kumbalangy (rather than Kumbalam). This is not outlandish – as Aroor is indeed behind Kumbalangy and it does accord with occasional suggestions (e.g. Castanheda, p. 228) that the main encampment of the Zamorin's army between these assaults were in the 'lands of Porquá' (probably Purakkad, thus a reference to the southern end of the Vembanad lagoon). However, picking Aroor as 'Arraul' does not really seem to give us an intuitive idea of where Palignar & Palurte might be relative to each other. Geographies of Kerala backwaters show there are plenty of places with'Aroor'/'Aryoor'- sounding names in the region. And in the documents we have of the Trimumpara's title, he cites his lordship of Arraul as third in importance (after Cochin and Vypin), suggesting it should not be obscure or a great distance away.e.g. Doc. 8 in Duarte Pacheco Pereira (1509: p.xix) Moreover, there are suggestions (e.g. Castanheda, pp. 224, 227) that the fighting was very close to Cochin city and Fort Manuel. Finally, some of the chronicles suggest that the route via Arraul was a rather direct passage to Cochin city – indeed, the very passage taken by the Zamorin's armies in the first siege of 1503.Góis (p. 115); Saraiva (1849: p. 138) As a result, one probable hypothesis is that Arraul island might be modern Willingdon Island in Kochi harbor (or rather underlying island located there previously, as most of Willingdon was artificially created in the 1920s). Thus 'Palignar' and 'Palurte' were passes through it that entered directly onto the landmass where Cochin city sits. However, all this is speculative conjecture. There is no agreement among chronicles, scholars or historians on any of these locations. === Redeployment to Arraul === Chroniclers claim that Palignar (Panangad)-Palurte (Palluruthi) crossings via Arraul (Aroor) island were available and unprotected during the Kumbalam ford attacks, but that the Zamorin never attempted them because the Kumbalam destination, once fixed, "became a point of honor" to adhere to. Moreover, the northerly passages were covered by dense forests and thickets unsuitable for the easy passage of his large army.Gois, ibid. But the biggest drawback is that they were not easily passed – that is, Palignar was only fordable on foot at low tide, whereas Palurte required ferry boats. But such considerations were now set aside. The principal advantage of the Arraul passages is that they were two – that is, that the Portuguese would not be able to defend both Palignar and Palurte simultaneously. In late April, the Zamorin lifted his camp at Kumbalam and began to withdraw – seemingly back to Calicut. But Duarte Pacheco Pereira soon received notice that Zamorin's army was in fact heading to the Palignar- Palurte passes, and that advanced troops of the Zamorin, some 500 Nairs, were already on Arraul island, cutting down thickets to ease the passage of the army. Pacheco rushed with a couple of boats up to Arraul, while the Trimumpara Raja dispatched an army of some 200 Cochinese Nairs from Cochin city to join him there.Osorio, p. 288 Pacheco took command of them, divided them into two columns, one under himself another under Pêro Rafael, and drove the thicket- cutters back.Góis (p. 115) Duarte Pacheco set about organizing his position before the arrival of the rest of the Calicut army, estimated to be but a mere one day way. His caravels could only go as far as Palurte ferry – lack of water depth prevented the caravels from advancing beyond that. So Pacheco ordered the two caravels (under Pêro Rafael and Diogo Pires) to anchor in at Palurte with iron cords, while he proceeded with the two smaller bateis on to Palignar ford. At Palignar, Duarte Pacheco anchored both his bateis on the bank, placing them under the command Simão de Andrade and Cristóvão JusarteGóis (p. 116) [Note: Correa (p. 402) calls the latter "Jusarte Pacheco" or "Lisuarte Pacheco", and identifies him as the son of Duarte Pacheco]. The near bank of the ford was to be held by a 600-strong force of Cochinese Nairs dispatched by the Trimumpara Raja, under the command of his nephew and heir, Unni Goda Varda (Candagorae.g. Osório, p. 293). The factor's assistant, Lourenço Moreno, apparently bored of Fort Manuel and wanting some action, showed up at the ford and was assigned to either take command of a land entrenchment or aboard some Cochinese canoes. But perhaps the most critical step, Duarte Pacheco ordered the troops and crews to clear the opposite banks of vegetation, so as to deprive enemy archers and cannons any form of protective cover.Osorio, p. 289; Góis, p. 116 The critical key to Duarte Pacheco's defense was the tides. Although forced to defend two passages, he realized he did not have to defend them both at once. Palignar ford could only be crossed on foot at low tide, during which time the water at Palurte is too shallow for the Zamorin's ships and ferry boats to move. At high tide, boats could move at Palurte, but the infantry could not ford at Palignar. So Duarte Pacheco calculated he could shuttle himself and some of his forces back and forth via shallow launches between the two passes – reinforcing the Nairs and bateis at Palignar in low tide, and then slip down the strait to help the caravels at Palurte at high tide. === Fourth assault === The vanguard of the Zamorin's army, some 15,000 infantry led by Prince Naubeadarim, arrived at Palignar ford a day or two after the skirmish at Arraul. Around the same time, the Calicut fleet, some 250 vessels under lord Ercanol of Edapalli, reached the environs of Palurte. Naubeadrim set himself to seize control of the ford with his army, leaving Ercanol to dislodge the two caravels at Palurte. The attack began at dawn of 1 May.Again, date given by Castanheda (p. 208). As the tide was high during the morning, Palignar was impassable to Naubeadarim's infantry, so Pacheco left the bateis with only a small crew under the command of Andrade and Jusarte, and rushed most of his forces on longboats down to Palurte. A contingent of Cochinese Nairs accompanied Pacheco, although the bulk stayed with prince Candagora at the near side of the Palignar ford. The clearing of the vegetation on the opposite banks immediately paid off as, upon reaching Palurte, Pacheco easily noticed a number of Calicut cannons being rolled into position, aiming to sink the anchored caravels. Duarte Pacheco ordered concentrated fire from the ships on their position, scattering the Calicut artillery crews. He then landed a Portuguese-Cochinese assault force on the beach, who rushed up to finish off the lingering Calicut crews and dragged away or spiked the abandoned Calicut cannons. The cannon threat nullified, the troops returned to the caravels to face the arriving Calicut fleet. The strait at Palurte was not as narrow as it had been at Kumbalam, allowing the admiral Elcanol of Edapalli to send in a substantial first wave, a broad front of 40 paraus, tied across, against the caravels. But the speed of Portuguese gunners decimated the advancing fleet. A second wave of nearly the same size was sent after it, but it was also repulsed. By then, the tide had begun to fall, and the Calicut paraus began having trouble moving in the obstacle-ridden shallow waters of Palurte, so the Calicut admiral Ercanol ordered the fleet to retire. News quickly arrived that the Calicut infantry of Naubeadarim was getting ready to wade the passage at Palignar. Duarte Pacheco and his troops went back on their longboats. The tide low enough, Naubeadarim's infantry column launched their assault to gain the ford. But they were unable to make much headway or reach the opposite back, held back by the rapid and heavy gunfire from the bateis and incessant missile fire from the Cochinese Nairs on the bank. After two heavy-fought but fruitless assaults, the tide began rising again, and Naubeadarim ordered the column to retire. In this first encounter, Calicut is said to have lost some 1,000 men and a few ships. The disgusted Zamorin arrived on the scene with the rest of his army soon after, and upbraided both Naubeadarim and Elcanol for what he believed was cowardice in calling premature retreats. The day's fight at Palignar and Palurte was probably the heaviest the Portuguese had yet faced. They had little time to prepare proper defenses and were lucky to get away with it. The Portuguese were exhausted and suffered many injured (but still no deaths, according to the chroniclers). Had the Zamorin renewed the assault the next day, his forces might very well have taken the ford. But as luck would have it, torrential downpours prevented resumption of operations, followed quickly by a devastating epidemic of cholera that swept through the Calicut camp. This gave the Portuguese and Cochin allies about a week to rest, recuperate and prepare. === Fifth assault === Duarte Pacheco used the cholera- induced break from the fighting to repair his ships and strengthen his position at Palignar ford. A strong stockade (palisade with ramparts) was erected on the near bank. Sharpened poles, burnt at one end and tied down to each other, were lodged deep into the mud throughout the ford, to severely complicate the infantry's passage. [In more detail, Saraiva (1849: p. 140) describes them as flat boards covered in upturned sharp metal spikes and large nails laid across bottom of the Palignar ford to impale the feet of the wading soldiers; he introduced the poles to serve a double role – as anchors to prevent the planks from floating away or being removed, and as stilts to hold up the planks and prevent them from sinking into the soft river mud.] The cholera epidemic had taken a heavy toll on the Zamorin's army – more than 10,000 men were lost. The success of the resistance had also brought back some of the old Cochinese vassals who had earlier abandoned the Trimumpara Raja. According to Correia (p. 482), these were the lords (Kaimals) of Mangate (Alengad), Primbalão (Perumbalam) and Diamper (Udayamperoor). Their return was welcome less for any concrete help they might give, and more because they deprived the Zamorin of possible reinforcements. Around 6 May (date uncertain),Castanheda (p. 216), one of the few to provide a date for this assault, says this was launched on "Thursday the 6th or 7th of May". However, in 1504, 6 May landed on a Monday, Thursday was the 9th. However, June 6th was indeed a Thursday. If Castanheda indeed mistook the name of the month, that implies the cholera epidemic delayed fighting by a whole month, rather than just a week. That is not implausible for an epidemic of these proportions. Moreover, it corresponds to those who report the next assault after this one to have been in late June. the Zamorin launched his biggest assault yet, concentrating all his forces on gaining the ford at Palignar. It was spearheaded by some 4,000 men with 30 brass cannons, brought forth to sink the bateis. Then came the vanguard column, some 12,000 men under Prince Naubeadarim. Ercanol of Edapalli commanded a column of the same size, and the Zamorin himself brought up the rear with some 15,000, including specialized hatchet crews (some 400) to clear the passages and chop down the stockade. At that point, the Portuguese had a mere 40 men on the bateis at Palignar, and only some 200 Cochinese troops at the ford palisade. [Apparently, the Nairs of the Cochinese vassal lord of Mangate (Alangad), assigned to man the palisade, unexpectedly abandoned their posts during the night, leaving only this small number behind. Pacheco dispatched an urgent message to prince Candagora back in Cochin, to rush in reinforcements, but the message did not get conveyed on time.Castanheda (p. 216)] The assault on Palignar began with a cannonade duel between the Calicut artillery on land and the bateis. The Portuguese artillery got the better of it, and the Calicut batteries were dispersed. But by this time, however, the tide was low, and the bateis, now scraping the riverbed, not easily manoeuvrable into optimal firing positions. The Zamorin gave the order to advance, and Calicut infantry poured into the Palignar ford, to regain the other bank. The spiked planks had their intended effect – the front lines slowed down to watch their step, the rear lines shoved them from behind, and the Calicut army clustered up into a concentrated mob. Portuguese cannons directed their fire on this dense human mass, causing horrific numbers of casualties in the Calicut ranks. Nonetheless, urged on by their officers, the Calicut infantry kept pressing forward. Pêro Rafael directed some of the fire to assassinate the Zamorin himself, and a cannonball landed near enough to his person to cut two of the nobles standing near him to pieces.According to Osório, p. 301; Castanheda says it was Duarte Pacheco who directed the fire. The blood-covered Zamorin was hurried off the field by his guard, leaving the rest of the assault to Naubeadarim and Ercanol. Enraged at the assassination attempt, Naubeadarim rallied the Calicut troops and pressed forward furiously. Painfully working over the impaling spikes, the vanguard finally reached the palisade on the Cochinese bank. It is said that the Cochinese troops manning the ramparts fell back or fled their positions, and the few Portuguese stationed there were given up for lost. But by this time the tide had begun to rise again, and the bateis were dislodged from the mud and freely manoeuvrable once more. The bateis rushed forward, straight into the ford, and with concentrated fire, broke up the heavy assault on the palisade. Then crossing the ford back and forth with near-point blank cannon, forced the Calicut troops back on to the banks to retreat to the tree line. After nine hours of intense fighting, the high tide was back and the assault was over. The Zamorin's army had failed once again. Duarte Pacheco was furious with the Cochinese troops who abandoned the palisade ramparts in the heat of the battle, and even more furious with the troops of the vassal lord of Mangate who had deserted their posts before the fight even began. But Trimumpara Raja sadly reminded him of the general faithlessness of all his vassals, and assured Pacheco that it would not happen again, that his heir, the prince Cadangora, would move to the ford permanently, and supervise the maintenance of the stockade. It is said that sometime during this encounter a detachment of around 2,000 Calicut Nairs, using a different little-used passage (or perhaps landed by paraus), managed to circumvent and land behind Portuguese lines. The Nairs were making their way to launch a surprise attack on the ford from the rear, when some local Cochinese peasants working in the rice fields, plucked up their courage and attacked the detachment with their spades, seeing them off rather quickly. Allegedly, the Indian caste system played a significant role, the Nairs fearing defilement by low caste peasants more than any injury from the agricultural implements they were wielding.Correia (p. 469); Whiteway (1899: p. 101); Castanheda (pp. 228-29) places this story sometime in the long interlude after the assault; others have placed it during the episode of the thicket-cutters at Arraul. Pacheco, disgusted with his own Cochinese Nairs, is said to have tried to persuade the Trimumpara Raja to promote these brave peasants to Nairs and assign them to the palisade. The King gave him a lengthy lecture on the intricacies of the caste system. === Plots and skirmishes === The depressed Zamorin had no stomach for another failure in the field and dismissed ideas of a renewed direct assault. Delay was also forced by a renewed breakout of the cholera epidemic. Instead, there were just a series of underhanded plots and occasional skirmishes seeking to weaken or draw out the Portuguese position at the passes. As usual, intelligence networks in south India ensured most of the Zamorin's plots were leaked. Already earlier, the Zamorin's agents had induced a conspiracy by some Cochinese Nairs to assassinate Duarte Pacheco. The plot was uncovered, and Pacheco had two of them flogged and hanged. (This caused some consternation in Cochinese ranks, as while the execution was acceptable, the flogging of a Nair was a grievous insult to the noble caste. Not wishing to provoke trouble among the Nairs, Duarte Pacheco handed the remaining conspirators over to the Trimumpara Raja to do with them as he will.Day (1863: 93); Góis (p. 123) places this event towards the end, after the sixth assault.) During this interlude, the Zamorin's advisors devised a new plan to have agents infiltrate Cochin and bribe victuallers to poison the food and water being sent out to the troops at Palignar ford. But as usual, the plot was leaked. To ensure themselves, new wells were dug on the beaches at Palignar on a daily basis, and victuallers, vendors and transporters were forced to taste their own food at every stage before being distributed to the army. The Zamorin's advisors kept concocting more plots – an uprising in Cochin, then a plan to send in boats under the cover of night to Cochin and set the city on fire, then to sneak baskets of venomous cobras aboard the Portuguese ships, etc. But all these plots were quickly foiled by leaked intelligence. In one of the more infamous instances (reported by Correia, pp. 474–75), the Zamorin determined on a night attack. The troops were to cross a ford near Palurte, hitherto unutilized because it was within shot range of the anchored Portuguese caravels. But at night, the caravels would not see them and the troops could wade across. That evening, two Calicut armies set out – the vanguard to go first, and give a torch signal to the second army to advance after they had crossed the ford. But as usual, Pacheco got wind of the plan. And not long after the vanguard started their march, Pacheco gave the pre-arranged torch signal himself and got the second army to advance prematurely. The vanguard, thinking they were being ambushed from behind by a Cochinese column, turned around and attacked the second army. In the dark of the night, the two armies of Calicut did not notice they were fighting each other! Danvers (1894:112); Whiteway (1899: 100) and Bell (1917: p. 95) During the interlude, Pacheco repeatedly launched his own excursions to harass the Calicut encampment and raid supporting villages. On one of these excursions, Pacheco is said to have been ambushed and surrounded by a Calicut fleet of some 54 paraus, but managed to defeat them.Osório, p. 305 === Sixth assault === Preparations for a new assault on Palignar ford began sometime in late May (or possibly June.Castanheda (p. 243) and Góis (p. 121) date this assault on Ascension Day (thus 17 May 1504); others have place it more towards the middle or end of June.) 30,000 troops were assembled for the new assault on Palignar. The artillery was moved into pre-prepared trench-lines, where the batteries would be better shielded from Portuguese return-fire. Against Palurte, Elacanol of Edapalli repaired and prepared the fleet anew – the vanguard led by 110 well- armed and well-shielded paraus, tied together, followed by some 100 boat transports, packed with soldiers for the grapple.Danvers, 1894: p. 112 There were a few innovations – firstly, a series of fire-boats (brulotes), loaded with incendiary material, were prepared, intended to be sent into the Portuguese caravels. Then, most peculiar of all, a series of 'floating castles' (invented by a certain 'Cogeale', an 'Arab of Edapalli' Gois, p. 121; Castanheda, p. 236; Osório, p. 306). Essentially, a 'floating castle' was a wooden siege tower, about 18 hands tall, with heavily reinforced sides, capable of carrying 40 armed men, mounted on two paraus lashed together. There were eight such castles, mounted on 16 boats, tied to each other, forming a single imposing line. As usual, Duarte Pacheco was aware of all these preparations, and had himself taken counter-measures. Against the fire-boats, he ordered the construction of a wide raft (mounted with masts), which he anchored firmly across the strait. Hearing of the floating castles, he ordered the erection of wooden structures on the prows of his caravels, to match the height of the Calicut castles.Osório (p. 308); Góis (p. 121) Candagora, prince and heir of Cochin, presented himself with one thousand of the best Cochinese Nairs at Palignar ford. The two bateis at Palignar were, as usual, under the command of Cristóvão Jusarte and Simão de Andrade, while Lourenço Moreno, the factor's assistant, was placed in command of some Cochinese boats.Osório, p. 311; Correia claims Moreno was placed in charge of an entrenchment on land. On the dawn of the day of the attack, the Zamorin's infantry began their march towards Palignar. To taunt the sea-king, Pacheco sailed in a boat up to the tip of Arraul island and landed with a small squad to engage in a skirmish with the advance squads of the Calicut army. The irritated Zamorin redirected a large detachment of his forces after him. Pacheco just climbed back on his boat and sailed away.Osório (p. 308) The tide being high, the battle began at Palurte, where the caravels were anchored. The Calicut fire ships were the first to be launched – but they were caught by the anchored raft and burned harmlessly. The row of floating castles were then launched against the caravels. This proved more difficult, as their reinforced sides seemed to resist all the cannon fire the Portuguese had to offer. The situation seemed bleak and Duarte Pacheco is said to have desperately uttered his famous line: "Lord, don't make me pay for my sins just yet", before focusing concentrated heavy fire on the nearest approaching castle and finally breaking its sides. A second soon followed, and the whole apparatus began to drag and fragment, the paraus to sink. [According to Correia (p. 487) Pacheco is said to have offered a bounty of 100 cruzados to any sailor who dared swim out with a torch and set fire to the paraus underneath the castles.] While the caravels at Palurt were thus engaged, the tide had come down and the Zamorin's infantry marched on Palignar ford. Incessant gunfire from the two bateis, joined by continuous missile fire from the Cochinese on the palisade ramparts and in the launches, mowed down line after line of Calicut infantry as they stepped into the ford. The assault was repelled, until the high tide returned and forced the armies of Calicut to end the attempted crossing. According to Osório (p. 311), the army of Calicut suffered more casualties on this day than any other; the Portuguese still had no deaths, only wounded. The victory over the Zamorin's greatest assault yet was greeted with great festivities in Cochin. === Seventh assault and end === thumb|350px|Duarte Pacheco's seventh and final victory over the Zamorin (1840 lithograph) The chronicles are generally scant on details of the subsequent events. It seems the Zamorin ordered a couple of more assaults on the Portuguese positions, one of which used the same floating castles (now repaired), but to no avail. In these assaults, the Zamorin had less troops – depleted by disease and desertion – and, with less enthusiasm and energy, the attacks were largely desultory. By now, the monsoon season had begun to turn, and the heavier rains and winds were working against the Zamorin's army – rain spread disease and complicated movement, water levels were higher at the passages, sailing the paraus more difficult. Moreover, one by one, the vassals of Calicut were sneaking away from the Zamorin's camp. It was generally anticipated that a new Portuguese armada would be arriving in August. Many of the Zamorin's vassals, having lost hope of seizing Cochin by then, figured it was best to negotiate their own peace terms with the Trimumphara Raja before the Portuguese arrived, lest their dominions be slated for vengeful punitive raids. The last of the vassals to make a separate peace with Cochin was the lord Elcanol of Edapalli himself. Finally, on 24 June 1504 (Nativity of St. John),Góis, p. 123 the Zamorin of Calicut decided he had enough, and abdicated his throne, passing it on to his nephew and heir, Naubeadaraim (the general who had led the Calicut infantry), and retired to a temple, dedicating himself to religious life. But the tired Zamorin was lured by the chiding of his own mother to emerge from the temple and organize one last assault.Osório (p. 312), Góis (p. 123) But after that failed to go anywhere, the Zamorin returned to religious seclusion permanently. The army of Calicut retired from the shores of the Vembanad lagoon around 3 July. === Aftermath === Immediately after the Zamorin withdrew his forces from the vicinity of Cochin (some say early August, 1504), Duarte Pacheco Pereira, set sail with his caravels out of Cochin for Quilon. There were rumors that Arab traders in the city had raised a conspiracy or riot and attacked the Portuguese factory there, killing at least one Portuguese agent. Almeida captured a squad of Arab merchant ships and exacted his revenge on them. Pacheco was still settling matters in Quilon when the 6th Portuguese India armada, under the command of Lopo Soares de Albergaria reached Cochin in September 1504. Duarte Pacheco returned to Cochin in late September or October to meet him there. In October, Pacheco participated in a pre-emptive Portuguese-Cochinese raid on Cranganore, where it was said the (new) Zamorin was re-assembling his army, to attack Cochin again after the 6th Armada left in January. The razing of Cranganore and the subsequent defection of the ruler of Tanur, one of the Zamorin's most important vassals, rolled the Calicut frontline north, and placed the Vembanad lagoon out of the reach of the Zamorin's army and fleet. It put an end to any prospect of the Zamorin of Calicut attacking Cochin again via the Kerala backwaters. == Assessment == Overall, the Battle of Cochin lasted some five months – from March to July, with most of the assaults concentrated in early April and early May. The Zamorin's army, which started out at more than 60,000 strong, had suffered heavy casualties: 19,000 had died, over 5,000 in fighting and 13,000 to disease.Danvers (1894: p. 114). Osório (p. 313) says 19,000, Góis (p. 123) 18,000 (with breakdown) and Correia (p. 489) 20,000. Wounded were innumerable, ship losses numerous. There are no reported deaths of any of the Portuguese defenders – although many were wounded. Casualties among the Cochinese allies are unknown, but they were also probably not that high, given the few numbers that were actually committed to battle. The battle of Cochin transformed the political landscape of Kerala. The Zamorin of Calicut was humiliated. His mighty army and fleet was unable to crush a minuscule garrison of 150 Portuguese allied with Cochin. By the end, the Zamorin lost most of the authority and fear in which he had been previously held throughout the Malabar Coast, while the Trimumpara Raja had gone from weak king to acknowledged king of the Vembanad lagoon. The Portuguese, led by Duarte Pacheco Pereira succeeded by a combination of clever positioning, individual heroics and a lot of luck. The Zamorin had demonstrated a bit of resourcefulness and innovation of his own – no two attacks were the same – but failed nonetheless. Ultimately it was probably the role of intelligence networks of Cochin that proved the critical difference. The Portuguese were fully informed of everything that was going on in the enemy camp, all the way to strategies and plots hatched secretly inside the Zamorin's tent. The Portuguese, by contrast, tended to keep their own counsel, the Zamorin's spies could only see, but not hear, what the Portuguese were up to. Pereira may have also been the first person to have done a scientific study of the relationship between tides and lunar phases, and this allowed him to predict when each ford would be passable and to shuttle his few forces accordingly to meet points of attack. For the Portuguese, it was a 'close-run thing'. Had Cochin fallen to the Zamorin, it was likely Cannanore and Quilon would have fallen suit (indeed, talks were already in progress for that eventuality). The Portuguese would lose their foothold in India, and unlikely to recover it easily – the Zamorin could use Fort Manuel to keep the future Portuguese armadas at bay. The Portuguese would likely be forced to sue for peace on the Zamorin's terms. The Trimumpara Raja came out the great victor. His stubbornness in maintaining the Portuguese alliance, which everyone had advised him against and which, at the beginning of the year, seemed to seal his doom, had paid off. His debt to the Portuguese was immense, but to none so great as to Duarte Pacheco himself, to whom he had, in the course of the desperate battle, become affectionately attached. === Rewards of Duarte Pacheco === In the aftermath of the battle, in his capacity as King of Cochin, the Trimumpara Raja gave Duarte Pacheco Pereira a personal grant of arms, described as a red shield ("for the immense blood of the Calicut which he shed in this war"), with five golden crowns in saltire ("for the five kings he defeated") and a white bordure with blue waves, charged with eight wooden castles in green, each mounted on two ships ("for the two times he defeated these eight castles"). Around the shield, are seven pennants, three red, two white, two blue ("for the seven assaults led by the King of Calecut in person and the seven flags of these colors and shapes he seized"), and an open silver helm, mantled in gold and red, and for crest a castle topped with a red pennant (for Cochin?).Doc. 8 in Duarte Pacheco Pereira (1509: p.xix) Duarte Pacheco Pereira was relieved as commander of Fort Manuel of Cochin by Manuel Teles de Vasconcelos, and set to return to Portugal with the 6th Armada in January 1505. The Trimumpara Raja is said to have been beside himself with tears at Duarte Pacheco's departure, and pleaded endlessly with the admiral Lopo Soares de Albergaria to allow him to stay. Bowing to inevitability, the Trimumpara Raja offered Duarte Pacheco a substantial cargo of black pepper as a personal reward for his services. Knowing how the Trimumpara Raja had been impoverished by the war, Duarte Pacheco declined the offer. Duarte Pacheco Pereira was given a hero's welcome back in Lisbon, receiving a grand reception and royal pension from King Manuel I of Portugal and public festivities were held in his honor. In 1505, the first Portuguese vice-roy D. Francisco de Almeida arrived in India with a golden crown sent by King Manuel I of Portugal to reward the steadfastness of the Trimumpara Raja of Cochin in his Portuguese alliance. But the old Trimumpara Raja had abdicated by this time and taken up a life of religious devotion; it was his heir, Candagora, who was crowned in a solemn ceremony by Almeida as 'King of Cochin'. === Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis === During the lulls in the fighting at the Battle of Cochin, Duarte Pacheco Pereira spent much time making cosmographic observations and taking notes. Upon his return to Lisbon in 1505, Duarte Pacheco would compile these notes into his famous book, Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis, finished in 1509. It is one of the first roteiros (nautical rutters) giving precise instructions and references for future navigators on the India run. Of particular importance was the careful notes Duarte Pacheco took on the timing of the tides, which played such a critical importance in the course of the Battle of Cochin. Pacheco is said to have been the first to notice their connection to the moon and establish rules for predicting the progress of tides by reference to lunar observations. He also sifted through his data to correct and improve astronomical observations (notably correcting the average daily deviation of the moon from the sun) and constructing nautical measurements to be used by future Portuguese navigators.(Matthew, 1988 p. 30) === Later representations === The story of the Battle of Cochin is related by the Portuguese poet Luís de Camões in his 1572 epic poem Os Lusíadas. At the opening of Canto X, the sea-nymph Thetis relates to the admiral Vasco da Gama her prophecy about the Battle of Cochin (Canto X, Stanzas 12-21). Camões places this battle at the forefront, the first significant event involving the Portuguese in India after Gama's voyage. He showers Duarte Pacheco Pereira with superlatives, "the strongest of the strong", the "Lusitan Achilles", and describes some of the more memorable incidents and details of the battle.In English translation, see W.J. Mickle, 1776, The Lusiad, or the discovery of India, an epic poem,p. 420, T.M. Musgrave, 1826, The Lusiad, an epic poem p. 365, R.F. Burton, 1880, The Lusiads, vol. 2, p. 367, and J.J. Aubertin (bilingual) 1878-84, The Lusiads of Camoens, vol.2 p. 201 Thetis also darkly predicts Duarte Pacheco's future travails upon his return to Portugal, bewailing the ingratitude of King Manuel I of Portugal, that although Pacheco "gave [him] a wealthy kingdom", he was granted no high rewards, and instead hints at the courtly intrigues and charges that led to his arrest later in life.(St. 22-25). == References == == Sources == === Chronicles === * João de Barros (1552–59) Décadas da Ásia: Dos feitos, que os Portuguezes fizeram no descubrimento, e conquista, dos mares, e terras do Oriente.. [Dec. I, Lib 7.] *Fernão Lopes de Castanheda (1551–1560) História do descobrimento & conquista da Índia pelos portugueses [1833 edition] * Gaspar Correia (c. 1550s) Lendas da Índia, first pub. 1858-64, in Lisbon: Academia Real das Sciencias. * Manuel de Faria e Sousa (1666–75) Asia Portuguesa, 3 vols. *Damião de Góis (1566–67) Crónica do Felicíssimo Rei D. Manuel * Thomé Lopes "Navegação as Indias Orientaes, escrita em Portuguez por Thomé Lopes, traduzida da lingua Portugueza para a Italiana, e novamente do Italiano para o Portuguez", trans. 1812 into Portuguese, by Academia Real das Sciencias in Collecção de noticias para a historia e geografia das nações ultramarinas: que vivem nos dominios portuguezes, ou lhes são visinhas, Vol. 2, Pt. 5 *Jerónimo Osório (1586) De rebus Emmanuelis, 1804 trans. Da Vida e Feitos d'El Rei D. Manuel, Lisbon: Impressão Regia. *Duarte Pacheco Pereira (c. 1509) Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis online === Secondary === * Bell, A.F. (1917) "Duarte Pacheco Pereira, 1465–1533", Portuguese Portraits, Oxford: Blackwell * Dames, M.L. (1918) "Introduction" in An Account Of The Countries Bordering On The Indian Ocean And Their Inhabitants, Vol. 1 (Engl. transl. of Livro de Duarte de Barbosa), 2005 reprint, New Delhi: Asian Education Services. * Danvers, F.C. (1894) The Portuguese in India, being a history of the rise and decline of their eastern empire. 2 vols, London: Allen. * Day, F. (1863) The Land of the Permauls, or, Cochin, its past and its present. Madras: Adelphi. * Logan, W. (1887) Malabar Manual, 2004 reprint, New Delhi: Asian Education Services. * Mathew, K.N. (1988) History of the Portuguese Navigation in India. New Delhi: Mittal. * Mathew, K.S. (1997) "Indian Naval Encounters with the Portuguese: Strengths and weaknesses", in Kurup, editor, India's Naval Traditions, New Delhi: Northern Book Centre. * Monteiro, S. (1989) Batalhas e Combates da Marinha Portuguesa, Vol. 1 (1139–1521) Lisbon: Sa da Costa. * Saraiva, F. S.L. (1849) Os Portuguezes em Africa, Asia, America, e Occeania, Vol. 2, Lisbon: Borges. * Whiteway, R. S. (1899) The Rise of Portuguese Power in India, 1497–1550. Westminster: Constable. Category:Portuguese India Armadas Category:1504 in Portuguese India Cochin Cochin Cochin (1504) Cochin (1504) Category:History of Kochi Category:Maritime history of Portugal Category:Portuguese in Kerala Category:1503 in India Category:1500s in Portuguese India Category:1504 in India |
Fra' Jean "Parisot" de la Valette (4 February 1495[?] – 21 August 1568) was a French nobleman and 49th Grand Master of the Order of Malta, from 21 August 1557 to his death in 1568. As a Knight Hospitaller, joining the order in the Langue de Provence, he fought with distinction against the Turks at Rhodes. As Grand Master, Valette became the Order's hero and most illustrious leader, commanding the resistance against the Ottomans at the Great Siege of Malta in 1565, sometimes regarded as one of the greatest sieges of all time. The foundation stone of Valletta was laid by Grandmaster La Valette in 1566. He did not live to see Valletta completed, as he died in 1568 and was succeeded by Grandmaster Pierre de Monte. ==Early life== He was born into the noble La Valette family in Quercy, South-western France, which had been an important family in France for many generations, various members having participated in the Crusades. Jean Parisot's grandfather, Bernard de La Valette, was a Knight and King's Orderly, and his father Guillot was a Chevalier de France. Jean Parisot was a distant cousin (through their mutual ancestor Almaric, Seigneur de Parisot) of Jean Louis de Nogaret de La Valette, first Duke of Épernon. Although his birth year is usually given as 1494, both chroniclers of the Great Siege of Malta, Francisco Balbi di Correggio and Hipolito Sans, say he was 67 at the time, thereby implying that he was born in 1498. In his history of the Order of St. John, the 18th-century historian Abbe Vertot (whose history is largely based on - but often contradicted - the earlier one of Giacomo Bosio) indicates that La Valette was indeed the same age as both Suleiman I and Kızılahmedli Mustafa Pasha (the commander of the Ottoman land forces), which would mean that he was actually 70 years old at the time of the siege. ==Early career and rise within the Order== La Valette joined the Order when he was 20 years old in around 1514, and he never returned to France or his family estates from that day on. Jean de La Valette was present during the Great Siege of Rhodes in 1522, and accompanied Grand Master Philippe Villiers de L'Isle-Adam, after the Order's expulsion from Rhodes by the Ottoman Turks under Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. After the loss of Rhodes, the Order was granted the Maltese Islands and Tripoli by Emperor Charles V. In 1538 he was imprisoned in the Gozo prison for four months after attacking a man. In 1541 La Valette was involved in a naval battle against Abd-ur-Rahman Kust Aly, in which he was wounded and his galley, the San Giovanni, was captured. La Valette was taken as a galley slave for a year by Barbary pirates under the command of Turgut Reis but was later freed during an exchange of prisoners. In 1546 La Valette became Governor of Tripoli, where he tried to restore order within the vulnerable city. In 1554 he was elected Captain General of the Order's galleys. This was a great honour to the Langue of Provence, as throughout most of the Order's history, the position of Grand Admiral was usually held by a Knight Grand Cross of the Italian Langue. In that capacity, he won a name that stood conspicuous in that age of great sea captains, and was held in the same regard as the Chevalier Mathurin Romegas - one of the greatest Christian maritime commanders of the age. In fact both sides had extremely talented sailors. If La Valette, Romegas and Juan de Austria could be considered the best commanders that the Christian forces could bring to the sea, the forces of Islam were able to call on the equally outstanding maritime and leadership skills of admirals such as Barbarossa and Dragut. La Valette was described by Abbe de Branthome as being a "very handsome man, speaking several languages fluently including Italian, Spanish, Greek, Arabic and Turkish." ==Grandmastership== thumb|Coat of arms of La Valette as Grandmaster In 1557, upon the death of Grand Master Claude de la Sengle, the Knights, mindful of the attack that was sure to come, elected La Valette to be Grand Master. In 1560 he formed an alliance with the Habsburg Empire to reconquer Tripoli, but the expedition resulted in a Christian defeat at the Battle of Djerba. Despite this the Order's galleys were able to rescue several other Christian vessels, and later on in his reign, La Valette greatly strengthened the Order's navy. ===Great Siege of Malta=== He organised the defence of Malta, fought during the siege, and successfully repulsed the Turks at the Great Siege of Malta in 1565. During the siege the vastly outnumbered Christians held out for over 3 months against an Ottoman force containing no less than 30,000 soldiers, including the Janissaries, as well as the Sultan's fleet of some 193 ships. The battle saw the fall of Fort St. Elmo after about a month of fierce fighting, but the Order managed to hold out in Birgu and Senglea until a relief force arrived. Ottoman specialist engineers had originally assessed the fortification of Saint Elmo, from local informants and conducting reconnoitring missions, saying it would fall in three days. Knight Commander Le Sande, who had sailed from Sicily with reinforcements, ordered a general charge from the Maltese hills toward the end of the siege. They attacked the Ottoman forces until the Ottoman forces retreated to the sea, and at that point the sea had completely changed colour to red (from the sheer volume of blood lost). It was at that point the Ottoman forces boarded their ships, directed their course back to Constantinople. Whilst shaping course back to Constantinople they momentarily contemplated counterattacking. However, they had lost too many men, supplies, and the morale at that point to launch any substantial counterattack. During the first days after the siege a Maltese soldier sitting around a campfire at night began to frame the words of a song which would later become famous in the Mediterranean: And from her ramparts a voice replied: As a result of the Order's victory La Valette gained much prestige in Europe, but he declined the offer of a cardinal's hat in order to maintain independence from the papacy. This has been attributed to his sense of modesty and his humility as a warrior monk. ==Building of Valletta and death== After the great siege, he commissioned the construction of the new city of Valletta in 1566, laying the first stone with his own hands. This took place on the slopes of Mount Sciberras, where the flower of the Turkish army had died whilst trying to storm Fort Saint Elmo, which the Turks thought would fall within three or four days, but which, due to the bravery of the defenders, held out for 30 days. The city named after its founder - Humilissima Civitas Vallettae - became known as the most aristocratic and exclusive fortress in Europe - a city most often referred to as "Superbissima" - the "Most Proud". Valletta remains the Maltese capital to this day. La Valette suffered a stroke while praying in a chapel and died soon after on 21 August 1568, exactly eleven years after he became Grandmaster. La Valette never saw the completed city of Valletta. His tomb (in the form of a sarcophagus) can be found in the Crypt of the Conventual Church of the Order (now St. John's Co-Cathedral), situated within the walls of Valletta. The inscription on his tomb, which was composed by his Latin Secretary, Sir Oliver Starkey, the last Knight of the English Langue at the time of the Great Siege, states in Latin: ==Personal life== La Valette has been referred to as one who never broke his vows, but it has been claimed that he had a mistress while in Rhodes called Catherine nicknamed Greque (Greek), and that he had an illegitimate son from her who was called Barthélemy de La Valette. Documentary evidence has been found by Bonello that proves Barthélemy was legitimatized in 1568 by a decree of King Charles IX of France. Claims have also been put forth that La Valette had at least another daughter, Isabella Guasconi, after a presumed affair with the wife of a Rhodiot nobleman of Florentine descent. Isabella later married a Florentine gentleman Stefano Buonaccorsi, but he murdered her on 31 July 1568, some time after their marriage. After the murder, Buonaccorsi escaped the islands with Isabella's wealth and was never heard from again. ==Legacy== thumb|Pjazza Jean de Valette, Valletta. La Valette is well known for being the Grandmaster who won the Great Siege and founded Valletta. A street in the town of Naxxar as well as the flagship of Virtu Ferries are both named after him. La Valette was also featured on Maltese stamps, coins, banknotes and telecards a number of times. ===Jean de Valette Square=== In 2012, a square was inaugurated in Valletta named Pjazza Jean de La Valette which also features a statue of the Grandmaster. The statue is 2.5m high and was cast in bronze by the local sculptor Joseph Chetcuti. In the statue, La Valette is shown in armour and holding Valletta's plan in one hand and a sword in the other.Rix, Juliet (2015). Malta and Gozo. Bradt Travel Guides. . p. 118. left|thumb|The new square in Valletta named after the Grandmaster uses the name de Valette instead of de La Valette thumb|right|La Valette For many years, the widely accepted version of the Grandmaster's surname was de La Valette. However, during the unveiling of the statue at Pjazza Jean de Valette in November 2012, judge and historian Giovanni Bonello stated that the Grandmaster always signed his name as de Valette without the La. A week later, Désireé von la Valette Saint Georges, a descendant of the Grandmaster, stated that the family name was de la Valette not de Valette and since then, a dispute has started as to what his name actually was. Members of the various branches of the Valette family actually used both versions at the time, but the Grandmaster himself never used the La. In fact, all 138 coins and 19 medals minted by the Order during de Valette's reign show the names de Valette, de Valetta or just Valette. Bonello additionally stated that the La possibly originated since the city of Valletta was commonly called La Valletta, so people started including the La and sometimes the double l in the Grandmaster's name. It is worth noting that an interesting development had occurred in 1539 when de Vallette was some 45 years old and already in Malta. It was then that Francis I, seeing the wide linguistic disparity in the use of various Romance and Germanic languages in France, enacted the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts which prescribed the use of standard French, mostly as spoken in northern France and in the Paris area where the langues d'oui prevailed. The name de Valette is now used in Malta, although many still refer to him as de La Valette due to the collective memory. The Order's successor, the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, call the Grandmaster Fra' Jean de La Vallette-Parisot. ==In literature== Due to his key role in holding Malta during the siege of 1565, de Valette has appeared as a main and supporting character in several works of literature: *Angels in Iron is a 1997 pseudo- historic novel by Nicholas Prata; De Valette is the main character.Angels in Iron *Ironfire: An Epic Novel of War and Love is a 2005 adventure novel by David Ball. De Valette is a supporting character.Ironfire by David Ball *The Religion: A Novel (2007) - by Tim Willocks De Valette is a supporting character. *The Course of Fortune (2015) - by Tony Rothman de Valette is a supporting character, with surname name de Valette and portrayed according to recent historical evidence. *Eight Pointed Cross is a 2011 historic epic by Marthese Fenech. Valette is a supporting character. *Valette is featured prominently in Marthese Fenech's second novel, Falcon's Shadow, (2020) book two in Fenech's Siege of Malta trilogy. *The Great Siege is a 1961 historic account of the 1565 siege, as drawn from historic documents. * Πανάκεια (2008) / Panacea, a Greek adventure novel by Παναγιώτης Κονιδάρης. De Valette is a supporting character. ==Further reading== *Hat and dagger in Birgu ==See also== *Great Siege of Malta *Valletta *Knights Hospitaller == External links == * Coins of Grandmaster Jean Parisot de Valette * Catholic Encyclopedia article * Vallette Family Tree == References == Notes Category:1495 births Category:1568 deaths Category:Knights of Malta Category:French Roman Catholics Category:Grand Masters of the Knights Hospitaller Category:16th-century French people Category:16th-century Roman Catholics Category:Burials at Saint John's Co-Cathedral Category:Governors of Tripoli, Libya Category:Slaves from the Ottoman Empire Category:Galley slaves |
Food Network Star is a reality television series that premiered June 5, 2005. It was produced by CBS EYEtoo Productions for seasons 1–8 and by Triage Entertainment for subsequent seasons. It airs on the Food Network in the United States. Prior to season seven, the series was known as The Next Food Network Star. ==Season One== ===Summary=== The first season of The Next Food Network Star series was taped in February 2005, and was composed of five episodes in June 2005. Chicago area caterers Dan Smith and Steve McDonagh emerged as the winners, and went on to host a show called Party Line with Dan & Steve, now titled Party Line with The Hearty Boys, which premiered on September 18, 2005. The runner-up, Deborah Fewell, was chosen to host a special on food at beaches, Surf N Turf, which aired in June 2006. Michael Thomas was the recurring chef on The Tyra Banks Show. Susannah Locketti made an appearance on The Tony Danza Show, and is also an on-air chef for Publix grocery stores in the southern United States. ===Contestants=== Name Age Hometown Place Dan Smith & Steve McDonagh 42 and 40 Bellmore, NY and Wayne, NJ Winners Deborah Fewell 32 Los Angeles Runner-up Hans Rueffert 32 Jasper, GA 3rd Susannah Locketti 33 Plymouth, MA 4th Eric Warren 52 Los Angeles 5th Michael Thomas 36 Venice, CA 6th Harmony Marceau 30 New York City, NY 7th Brook Harlan 24 Columbia, MO 8th ==Season Two== ===Summary=== The second season of The Next Food Network Star series was taped in December 2005 and began airing in March 2006. Guy Fieri was announced as the winner on April 23, 2006, beating Reggie Southerland. Fieri has achieved considerable success and a Daytime Emmy at Food Network since his victory, and is still regularly on air as of November 2021. Guy's Big Bite premiered in June 2006 and aired for 13 seasons until December 2016. Fieri's second series, Diners, Drive-Ins and Dives, premiered in April 2007 and has aired for 33 seasons, being the recipient of several Primetime Emmy Award nominations. He went on to the series, Ultimate Recipe Showdown, premiering February 17, 2008, and Guy Off The Hook on September 14, 2008. His reality competition Guy's Grocery Games debuted in October 2013 and has aired for 29 seasons. Fourth-place contestant Nathan Lyon began hosting his own series, A Lyon In the Kitchen, on the Discovery Health Channel in March 2007. Four of the seasons cast members along with Fieri reunited on Season 10 episode 4 of Guy’s Grocery Games which aired on July 24, 2016. ===Contestants=== Name Age Hometown Culinary P.O.V. Eliminated Guy Fieri 38 Ferndale, CA "Off the Hook" California Cuisine Winner Reggie Southerland 39 Los Angeles Modern Soul Food Runner-up Carissa Seward 33 San Diego, CA Simple Food for Entertaining Week 6 Nathan Lyon 35 Los Angeles Healthy and Seasonal Food Week 5 Andrew Schumacher 26 Brooklyn, NY Cooking Techniques Week 4 Evette Rodriguez 35 Port St. Lucie, FL Latin Cuisine Week 3 Elizabeth Raynor 32 Sausalito, CA Simple Mediterranean Cuisine Week 2 Jess Dang 24 Menlo Park, CA Asian Cuisine Week 1 ==Season Three== ===Summary=== The third season began on June 3, 2007, and the winner was announced on Sunday, July 22. In season 3, judges sent 1 or 2 contestants home weekly. Once the field was down to 2 final contestants, the viewers picked the winner. Marc Summers (host of the first 2 seasons) only returned for this season's finale. Bobby Flay would host subsequent season finales. During the season, the contestants lived in a shared house in New York City. The contestants' challenges included cooking concession food for an NBA game (with guest Darryl Dawkins) to a mini version of Food Network's Iron Chef America (with guest judges Bobby Flay and Cat Cora). The Selection Committee consisted of Food Network executives Bob Tuschman and Susie Fogelson along with one guest. Guest judges included Alton Brown, Giada De Laurentiis, Duff Goldman, season two winner Guy Fieri, and Robert Irvine. Paula Deen and Rachael Ray participated in contestant challenges, and Bobby Flay also played a role in the guidance and selection process. Amy Finley was chosen by America as The Next Food Network Star on July 22, 2007. Her new show The Gourmet Next Door premiered on October 14, 2007 and ran for six episodes. Finley later declined to continue with the series, citing relocation to France for family reasons. Among the contestants this season was former child actress Colombe Jacobsen-Derstine, best known for her appearances in the Mighty Ducks film franchise. ===Contestants=== Name Age Hometown Occupation Eliminated Amy Finley 33 San Diego, CA Stay-at-Home Mom Winner1 Rory Schepisi 31 Vega, TX Restaurateur Runner-Up Joshua Adam "JAG" Garcia 25 Havelock, NC Chef-de-Cuisine Withdrew1 Paul McCullough 36 Los Angeles Caterer Week 6 Adrien Sharp 29 Jackson, MI Local Cooking Show Host Week 5 Michael Salmon 53 Brooklyn, NY Director of Operations for Macy's Week 4 Tommy Grella, Jr. 34 Methuen, MA Self-Taught Chef Week 3 Colombe Jacobsen-Derstine 29 New York, NY Former Child Actress Week 3 Nikki Shaw 38 Oakland, CA Caterer Week 2 Patrick Rolfe 33 Seattle, WA Chef Week 1 Vivien Cunha 40 Hermosa Beach, CA Caterer Week 1 : Amy Finley was eliminated Week 7, and the original finalists were Rory Schepisi and Joshua "JAG" Garcia. After the final elimination episode was aired, evidence came to light that JAG had lied about both his culinary training and his military service, representing both as more extensive than they actually were. Food Network allowed him to withdraw from the competition and reinstated Amy Finley, who was voted The Next Food Network Star. ==Season Four== ===Summary=== Season four of The Next Food Network Star premiered on Sunday, June 1, 2008. Food Network executives Bob Tuschman and Susie Fogelson are joined by Bobby Flay as the selection committee for this season. Each new episode aired on Sundays at 10:00 PM EDT. For this season, the viewers no longer received the chance to vote for the winner; producers instead made the final decision. This led to an error by FoodNetwork.com, which briefly posted the winning moment video on their website three days before the finale aired. The winner for the fourth season was Aaron McCargo Jr. His winning show idea, Big Daddy's House, first aired August 3, 2008. Finalist Adam Gertler was hired to host a Food Network show called Will Work for Food, which debuted on January 19, 2009 and was cancelled after one season. He hosted the Food Network show Kid in a Candy Store, which aired two seasons. Kelsey Nixon co- hosted a web show on food2.com (a Food Network sister site aka Cooking Channel) and also appeared in the premiere of Chefs vs. City in 2009. In 2010, Gertler and Nixon became co-hosts of The Next Food Network Star After Party, a half-hour recap/interview show following that night's episode of Star, on Cooking Channel. Nixon stars in Kelsey's Essentials, a program on kitchen and cooking basics for The Cooking Channel that ran November, 2010–2013. ===Contestants=== Name Age Hometown Occupation Eliminated Aaron McCargo Jr. 36 Camden, NJ Chef Winner Adam Gertler 30 Philadelphia, PA Food Server Runner-Up Lisa Garza 32 Dallas, TX Restaurateur/Designer Runner-Up Kelsey Nixon 23 North Ogden, UT Assistant Culinary Director Week 7 Shane Lyons 20 Colorado Springs, CO Private Chef and actor Week 6 Jennifer Cochrane 32 Woonsocket, RI Chef Week 5 Nipa Bhatt 35 Victoria, MN Marketing Manager Week 4 Jeffrey Vaden 43 White Plains, NY Food Service Management Week 3 Kevin Roberts 39 San Diego, CA Radio Talk Show Host/Restaurant Owner/Author Week 2 Cory Kahaney 45 New York, NY Stand-up Comedian Week 1 ==Season Five== ===Summary=== Season five of The Next Food Network Star premiered on June 7, 2009. Food Network executives Bob Tuschman and Susie Fogelson were joined by Bobby Flay as the Selection Committee for this season, which was filmed early 2009 in New York, New York and Miami, Florida. Melissa D'Arabian was declared the winner on August 2, 2009 with the title for her show being Ten Dollar Dinners. Her show premiered on August 9, 2009. On August 17, 2009, Food Network announced Jeffrey Saad would return in a series of online videos based on his pilot, now called "The Spice Smuggler." The program premiered with four -minute videos featuring one spice and a recipe incorporating it. Saad was named the national representative for the American Egg Board. In November, 2010, Saad debuted in a new show for The Cooking Channel titled United Tastes of America, which explores multiple aspects of traditional American food. Finalist Debbie Lee has carried her "Seoul to Soul" concept to the streets of L.A., opening a lunch truck, Ahn-Joo, featuring a range of Korean food. ===Contestants=== Name Age Hometown Occupation Culinary P.O.V. Eliminated Melissa d'Arabian 40 Keller, TX Stay-At-Home Mom "Kitchen Survival Guide" Winner Jeffrey Saad 42 Los Angeles, California Restaurateur/Food Consultant/Recipe Developer/Chef "Ingredient Smuggler" Runner-Up Debbie Lee 39 West Hollywood, California Restaurant Consultant "From Seoul to Soul" Week 8 Jamika Pessoa 30 Atlanta, Georgia Personal Chef/Businesswoman Caribbean Cuisine Week 7 Michael Proietti 28 City Island, NY Executive Chef "Global A Go-Go" Week 6 Katie Cavuto 30 Philadelphia, PA Personal Chef & Dietician Healthy and Green Cuisine Week 5 Teddy Folkman 33 Alexandria, VA Restaurant Owner/Executive Chef "Gourmet Bar Food" Week 4 Eddie Gilbert 30 Los Angeles Apprentice Chef "Modernized Traditional Food" Week 3 Brett August 33 New York, New York Executive Sous Chef Italian-American Cuisine Week 2 Jen Isham 30 Orlando, FL Sales Manager "Housewife 2.0" Week 1 ==Season Six== ===Summary=== The sixth season of the series premiered on Sunday, June 6, 2010. Food Network executives Bob Tuschman and Susie Fogelson were again joined by Bobby Flay as judges; in addition, Giada De Laurentiis served as an on-set mentor. On July 17, 2010, a post- competition recap and discussion show premiered on The Cooking Channel. Shows were filmed in Los Angeles, California and New York, New York. On August 15, 2010, Aarti Sequeira was declared the winner, and her new show Aarti Party premiered on Sunday, August 22, 2010 and features American style cuisine with unique Indian flair. Season 2 of Aarti Party premiered that December. The Food Network also signed runner-up Tom Pizzica to host a new show called Outrageous Food, which premiered in November 2010. The last new episodes of Aarti Party aired in mid-2013. ===Contestants=== Name Age Hometown Occupation Culinary P.O.V. Eliminated Aarti Sequeira 31 Los Angeles, California Food Blogger "Aarti Paarti" Winner Herb Mesa 41 Atlanta, Georgia Personal Trainer/Personal Chef "Cooking Con Sabor" Runner-Up Tom Pizzica 32 San Francisco, CA Unemployed Chef "Big Chef" Runner-Up Aria Kagan 30 Hollywood, FL Private Chef "Family Style" Week 9 Brad Sorenson 25 Austin, Texas Professional Chef "Pro"/"Culinary Quest" Week 8 Serena Palumbo 31 New York, New York Attorney "Serena's Trattoria" Week 7 Brianna Jenkins 30 Atlanta, Georgia Caterer "Sexy and Fabulous Flavors" Week 6 Paul Young 32 Chicago, IL Waiter "Blue-Collar Dollar" Week 5 Darrell "DAS" Smith 28 Los Angeles High School Culinary Teacher "Food is the Life of the Party" Week 4 Dzintra Dzenis 44 Austin, TX Private Cooking Instructor Week 3 Doreen Fang 38 Los Angeles Caterer/Cooking Instructor "Simply Complex" Week 2 Alexis Hernandez 40 Clarksville, IN Part-time food Writer Week 1 ==Season Seven== ===Summary=== For the seventh season, the reality television series was renamed, after the first episode, Food Network Star, dropping the word "Next". It premiered Sunday, June 5, 2011. Food Network executives Bob Tuschman and Susie Fogelson were joined again by Bobby Flay and Giada De Laurentiis as the judges for this season. The series was filmed in Los Angeles, California and New York, New York. Season seven winner Jeff Mauro's show "Sandwich King" premiered on Sunday, August 21, 2011. In spring 2013, Jeff hosted $24 in 24, a show in which he went to several cities and ate an entire day's worth of meals on 24 dollars. Mauro is currently a co- host on "The Kitchen", airing Saturday mornings on Food Network with cohosts Sunny Anderson, Katie Lee and Geoffrey Zakarian. ===Contestants=== Name Age Hometown Occupation Culinary P.O.V. Eliminated Jeff Mauro 32 Chicago, IL Corporate Chef "Sandwich King" Winner Susie Jimenez 31 Carbondale, CO Catering Company Owner "Spice It Up" Runner-Up Vic "Vegas" Moea 36 Brooklyn, NY Executive Chef "Mama's Boy" Week 11 Mary Beth Albright 38 Washington, DC Food Writer and Blogger "Sunday Supper" Week 10 Whitney Chen 28 New York, NY Chef "Four Star Flair" Week 9 Jyll Everman 31 Glendora, CA Caterer "Jyllicious Bites" Week 8 Penny Davidi 39 Los Angeles Restaurant Owner "Stilettos in the Kitchen"/"Middle Eastern Mama" Week 7 Chris Nirschel 28 Hoboken, NJ Sous Chef "On the Line" Week 7 Orchid Paulmeier 38 Bluffton, SC Restaurant Owner "Asian Persuasion" Week 6 Justin Davis 31 Minneapolis, MN Food Blogger "The Flavor Factory" Week 5 Justin Balmes 32 Marietta, GA Fishmonger/ Butcher "Kitchen Workshop" Week 4 Alicia Sanchez 33 New York, NY Young Adult Culinary Teacher "Alicia's Guilty Pleasures" Week 3 Katy Clark 34 Long Beach, CA Food and Fitness Company Operator "Simply Fabulous" Week 2 Juba Kali 29 New Orleans, LA Research Chef "Cuisine Made Simply" Week 2 Howie Drummond 40 Highlands Ranch, CO Radio Host "Basic and Delicious" Week 1 ==Season Eight== ===Summary=== Season 8 started May 13, 2012. For season 8, the format changed, with the contestants divided into three five-member teams, each coached by a Food Network host, either Bobby Flay, Alton Brown, or Giada De Laurentiis. Coaches worked with the teams as they prepared for and completed their tasks. The winner's coach would also be the producer of the winner's show. Each week, a winning team was selected, and one member of the teams that did not win was up for elimination in a new feature called Producers' Challenge. Each challenge was hosted by current Food Network personalities. The final winner was decided by an audience vote cast on foodnetwork.com between July 15–17, 2012 and the winner was announced on July 22, 2012. The winner was Justin Warner, who hosted a one-hour special on The Food Network, but did not have a series produced. He has become a blogger on foodnetwork.com, makes appearances at Food Network events, and is an active Twitter presence. ===Coaches=== * Alton Brown – host of Good Eats, Iron Chef America, The Next Iron Chef, and Cutthroat Kitchen. * Bobby Flay – host of Grill It! with Bobby Flay, Throwdown! with Bobby Flay. Co-host of season 3 of Worst Cooks in America and Iron Chef on Iron Chef America * Giada De Laurentiis – host of Everyday Italian, Giada at Home and Giada in Italy. ===Contestants=== Name Age Hometown Occupation Culinary P.O.V. Team Eliminated Justin Warner 27 Brooklyn, NY Chef and Restaurant Owner "Rebel with a Culinary Cause" Team Alton Winner Michele Ragussis 42 Brooklyn, NYWhy New England - Chef on a Pier. Retrieved October 20, 2012. Executive Chef "My New England" Team Bobby Runner-Up Yvan Lemoine 30 New York City Bartender and Cook for the French Consulate "Family Style" Team Giada Runner-Up Martie Duncan 50 Retrieved October 20, 2012. Birmingham, AL Blogger and Party Planner "Martie with the Party" Team Alton Runner-Up Philip "Ippy" Aiona 23 Kamuela, HI Executive Chef "Voyage to Paradise" Team Giada Week 10 Nikki Martin 31 West Hollywood, CA Private Chef, Food and Beverage Consultant "The Grill Next Door" Team Bobby Week 10 Martita Jara 35 San Diego, CA Self-Taught Chef "Martita's Mesa" Team Giada Week 9 Malcolm Mitchell 41 Washington, DC Private Chef "Simple and Soulful" Team Bobby Week 8 Emily Ellyn 29 Orlando, FL College Student "Cooking Retro Rad" Team Alton Week 7 Linkie Marais 28 North Attleborough, MA Cake Baker "Dessert Queen" Team Giada Week 6 Judson Allen 30 Chicago, IL Catering Company Owner "Weight Loss Journey" Team Alton Week 5 Eric Lee 44 Petaluma, CA Winery Executive Chef "Handcrafted in Wine Country" Team Bobby Week 4 Josh Lyons 42 Jupiter, FL Restaurant Consultant and Sushi Chef "Wok and Roll" Team Giada Week 3 Kara Sigle 31 Chicago, IL Catering Company Owner "Nostalgic Cooking with a Twist" Team Bobby Week 2 Cristie Schoen 35 New Orleans, LA Caterer "Healthy and Delicious" Team Alton Week 1 ==Season Nine== ===Summary=== Season 9 started on June 2, 2013. For season 9, Alton Brown, Bobby Flay, and Giada De Laurentiis mentored and judged twelve Food Network Star competitors, although the contestants were not divided into teams as in season 8. Many of this season's contestants had previously appeared on other Food Network shows. The winner was Damaris Phillips, decided by an audience vote cast on foodnetwork.com and announced live on August 11, 2013. Phillips hosted the Food Network show Southern at Heart for five seasons from 2013 to 2016. In 2018, she began co-hosting The Bobby and Damaris Show on Food Network with Bobby Flay. Phillips also cohosted "Southern and Hungry" with auto racing analyst Rutledge Wood in 2017. ===Contestants=== Name Age Hometown Occupation Culinary P.O.V. Eliminated Damaris Phillips 30 Louisville, KY Culinary Teacher "Modern Southern Food" Winner Rodney Henry 47 Baltimore, MD Pie Shop Owner "Pie Style" Runner-up Russell Jackson 49 San Francisco, CA Underground Chef "Seven Culinary Sins" Runner-up Stacey Poon-Kinney 34 San Diego, CA Restaurant Owner "Vintage with a Modern Twist" Week 10 Nikki Dinki 29 New York, NY Food Blogger/Online Host "Semi-Vegetarian" / "Meat on the Side" Week 9 Connie "Lovely" Jackson 27 Los Angeles Caterer "Party on a Plate" Week 4 & Week 8 (Winner of Star Salvation) Chad Rosenthal 37 Ambler, PA Restaurant Owner "Jewish BBQ Guy" Week 7 Chris Hodgson 26 Cleveland, OH Chef/Restaurateur "Compassion for Food" Week 6 Viet Pham 33 Salt Lake City, UT Chef/Restaurant Owner "The American Dream" Week 5 Danushka Lysek 37 New York, NY Private Chef/Model "Your Private Chef" Week 3 Andres Guillama 26 Waynesville, NC Childhood Obesity Prevention Coach "Teaching Men to Cook" Week 2 Daniela Perez-Reyes 28 Haleiwa, HI Bartender/Caterer "Peruvian Princess" Week 1 ==Season Ten== The winner was Lenny McNab, decided by an audience vote cast on foodnetwork.com and announced live on August 10, 2014. It is the last season to date where the finale aired live—all subsequent season finales would be filmed months in advance prior to airing. ===Contestants=== Name Age Hometown Occupation Culinary P.O.V. Eliminated Lenny McNab 42 De Beque, CO Executive Chef Gourmet Cowboy Winner Luca Della Casa 38 San Antonio, TX (Originally from Turin, Italy) Restaurateur Luca's Feast Episode 2 (Winner of Star Salvation) Runner-up Nicole Gaffney 29 Atlantic City, New Jersey Private Chef Coastal Cuisine Runner-up Sarah Penrod 30 League City, TX Private Chef Devoted to Date Night/Texas Cuisine Episode 10 Loreal Gavin 26 Indianapolis, IN Butcher Butcher Babe Episode 9 Emma Frisch 30 Ithaca, NY Farmer Farm-to-Table Episode 8 Chris Kyler 32 Stafford, VA Caterer elevating classics Episode 7 Reuben Ruiz 27 Miami, FL Restaurant Owner Flavors of Miami Episode 6 Christopher Lynch 39 New Orleans, LA Executive Chef New Orleans Inspired Episode 5 Aryen Moore-Alston 31 Memphis, TN Home Cook International Cuisine Made Easy Episode 4 Kenny Lao 36 New York, NY Food Truck Chef Fast-Casual Episode 3 Donna Sonkin Shaw 42 New York, NY Nutritionist Healthy Comfort Food Episode 1 ==Season Eleven== Beginning with this season, Alton Brown no longer appeared as a judge. The winner was Eddie Jackson, an ex NFL player and MasterChef (American season 4) contestant. ===Contestants=== Name Age Hometown Occupation Culinary P.O.V. Eliminated Eddie Jackson 34 Houston, TX Food Truck Owner Caribbean Winner Jay Ducote 33 Baton Rouge, LA Radio Host Louisiana Runner up Dominick "Dom" Tesoriero 31 Staten Island, NY Food Truck Owner Italian Week 8 (Winner of Star Salvation; returned for semi- final) Runner up Arnold Myint 38 Nashville, TN Restaurant Owner Effortless Home Entertainment Week 10 Alex McCoy 31 Washington, D.C. Chef, Restaurant Owner Fusion Sandwiches Week 9 Michelle Karam 39 Santa Barbara, CA Food Blogger Mediterranean Week 7 (withdrew) Emilia Cirker 36 Reston, VA Culinary Instructor Spice Class Week 6 Rue Rusike 26 Brooklyn, NY Private Chef South African Week 5 Rosa Graziano 38 Los Angeles Food Truck Owner Southern Italian Week 4 Sita Lewis 47 New York, NY Culinary Instructor Italian Soul Week 3 Matthew Grunwald 22 Scottsdale, AZ Restaurant Chef Hashtag Week 2 Christina Fitzgerald 29 St. Louis, MO Executive Chef Around The World Week 1 ==Season Twelve== Martita Jara originally competed in the eighth season of the series; she returned after winning the pre-season competition Comeback Kitchen. ===Contestants=== Name Age Hometown Occupation Eliminated Tregaye Fraser 31 Atlanta, Georgia Caterer Winner Jernard Wells 37 Atlanta, Georgia Executive chef Runner-up Damiano Carrara 30 Moorpark, California Pastry chef Runner-up Yaku Moton-Spruill 33 San Francisco, California Basketball player, sous chef Week 4 / Week 10 Ana Quincoces 49 Coral Gables, Florida Cookbook writer, attorney Week 9 Erin Campbell 24 Woodbury, Minnesota Baker Week 8 Joy Thompson 40 Thomasville, North Carolina Baker, restaurateur Week 7 Rob Burmeister 45 Staten Island, New York School lunch administrator Week 6 Monterey Salka 26 Nashville, Tennessee Caterer Week 5 Martita Jara 39 San Diego, California Home cook Week 3 Aaron Crumbaugh 36 Spokane, Washington Caterer Week 2 Melissa Pfeister 34 Los Angeles, California Basketball player Week 2 Havird Usry 28 Augusta, Georgia Restaurateur Week 1 ==Season Thirteen== Matthew Grunwald originally competed in season 11. He returned for a second chance after winning the Comeback Kitchen competition. ===Contestants=== Name Age Hometown Occupation Eliminated Jason Smith 39 Grayson, Kentucky Cafeteria manager Winner Rusty Hamlin 42 Atlanta, Georgia Executive chef Runner-up Cory Bahr 40 Monroe, Louisiana Chef Runner-up Matthew Grunwald 24 Scottsdale, Arizona Restaurant chef Week 10 Amy Pottinger 32 Honolulu, Hawaii Food blogger Week 9 David Rose 35 Atlanta, Georgia Caterer Week 7 Addie Gundry 30 Lake Forest, Illinois Cookbook author; chef Week 6 Caodan Tran 29 Dallas, Texas Personal chef Week 5 Trace Barnett 27 Brilliant, Alabama Food blogger Week 4 Suzanne Lossia 42 Chicago, Illinois Personal chef Week 3 Toya Boudy 34 New Orleans, Louisiana Personal chef Week 2 Nancy Manlove 65 Texas City, Texas Chef Week 2 Blake Baldwin 30 Flemington, New Jersey Marketing manager; home cook Week 1 ==Season Fourteen== ===Contestants=== This season features Manny Washington and Katie Dixon from MasterChef (American season 7) and Palak Patel who beats Bobby Flay. Amy Pottinger originally competed in season 13. She returned for a second chance after winning the Comeback Kitchen competition, along with Adam Gertler, who originally competed in season four. Name Age Hometown Occupation Eliminated Christian Petroni 34 Port Chester, New York Chef Winner Jess Tom 34 Princeton, New Jersey Food Novelist Winner Manny Washington 30 Orlando, Florida Firehouse cook Runner-up Amy Pottinger 33 Honolulu, Hawaii Food Blogger Week 8 Palak Patel 38 New York, New York Personal chef Week 7 Katie Dixon 35 Hattiesburg, Mississippi Private chef Week 6 Harrison Bader 26 Los Angeles, California Personal chef Week 4 Adam Gertler 40 Los Angeles, California Chef, TV Personality, Actor, Podcaster Week 4 Rebekah Lingenfelser 34 Savannah, Georgia Marketing and Public Relations director Week 3 Samone Lett 46 Sanford, Florida Personal chef and caterer Week 2 Jason Goldstein 40 New York, New York Chiropractor; culinary teacher Week 1 Chris Valdes 26 Miami, Florida Caterer Week 1 ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== * * Category:2005 American television series debuts Category:2000s American reality television series Category:2010s American reality television series Category:English-language television shows Category:Food Network original programming Category:Television series by CBS Studios Category:2018 American television series endings |
While the English language lacks distinct inflections for mood, an English subjunctive is recognized in most grammars. Definition and scope of the concept vary widely across the literature, but it is generally associated with the description of something other than apparent reality. Traditionally, the term is applied loosely to cases in which one might expect a subjunctive form in related languages, especially Old English and Latin. This includes conditional clauses, wishes, and reported speech. Modern descriptive grammars limit the term to cases in which some grammatical marking can be observed, nevertheless coming to varying definitions. In particular, The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language narrows the definition further so that the usage of were, as in "I wish she were here", traditionally known as the "past subjunctive", is instead called irrealis. According to this narrow definition, the subjunctive is a grammatical construction recognizable by its use of the bare form of a verb in a finite clause that describes a non-actual scenario. For instance, "It's essential _that he be here_ " uses the subjunctive mood while "It's essential _that he is here_ " does not. ==Grammatical composition== The English subjunctive is realized as a finite but tenseless clause. Subjunctive clauses use a bare or plain verb form, which lacks any inflection. For instance, a subjunctive clause would use the verb form "be" rather than "am/is/are" and "arrive" rather than "arrives", regardless of the person and number of the subject.Rodney Huddleston. "The verb." Pp. 77–78, 83, 87–88. Chapter 3 of . : (1) Subjunctive clauses: :: a. It's crucial _that he be here by noon_ :: b. It's vital _that he arrive on time_ English does not have a distinct subjunctive verb form, since the bare verb form is not exclusively subjunctive. It is also used in other constructions, such as imperatives and infinitivals.Rodney Huddleston. "The verb." Pp. 77, 83. Chapter 3 of . : (2) Imperative: :: a. _Be_ here by noon! :: b. _Arrive_ on time! For almost all verbs, the bare form is syncretic with the present tense form used in all persons except the third person singular.Rodney Huddleston. "The verb." Pp. 84–85. Chapter 3 of . : (3) Present Indicative: I always _arrive_ on time. One exception to this generalization is the defective verb beware, which has no indicative form.Sylvia Chalker, Edmund Weiner, The Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994; ), p. 105. Another is be, whose bare form is not syncretic with any of its indicative forms:Rodney Huddleston. "The verb." P. 77\. Chapter 3 of . : (4) Present Indicative: :: a. I _am_ … :: b. She _is_ … :: c. You/we/they _are_ … === Finiteness === Subjunctive clauses are considered finite since they have obligatory subjects, alternate with tensed forms, and are often introduced by the complementizer that.Rodney Huddleston. "The verb." P. 90\. Chapter 3 of . === Triggering contexts === Subjunctive clauses most commonly appear as clausal complements of non-veridical operators. The most common use of the English subjunctive is the mandative or jussive subjunctive,Quirk, Randolph; Greenbaum, Sidney; Leech, Geoffrey; Svartik, Jan (1985). A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. Longman. . which is optionally used in the clausal complements of some predicates whose meanings involve obligation.Rodney Huddleston. "Content clauses and reported speech." Pp. 995–996. Chapter 11 of . : (5) Mandative subjunctive: :: a. I insist _that he leave us alone._ :: b. We demand _that it be done tomorrow._ :: c. It's preferable _that you not publish the story._ :: d. My recommendation is _that they not be punished._ The following pair illustrates the semantic contribution of the subjunctive mandative. The subjunctive example unambiguously expresses a desire for a future situation, whereas the non- subjunctive (indicative) example is potentially ambiguous, either (i) expressing a desire to change the addressee's beliefs about the current situation, or (ii) as a "covert mandative", having the same meaning as the subjunctive mandative.Rodney Huddleston. "Content clauses and reported speech." Pp. 995–999. Chapter 11 of . : (6) Subjunctive mandative compared: :: a. Subjunctive mandative: I insist that Andrea _be_ here. :: b. Indicative (whether non-mandative or covert mandative): I insist that Andrea _is_ here. The subjunctive is thus not the only means of marking an embedded clause as mandative: examples can be ambiguous between mandative and non-mandative interpretations, and dialects vary in their use of the subjunctive. In particular, the subjunctive is more widely used in American English than in British English. (The covert mandative is very unusual in American English.Rodney Huddleston. "Content clauses and reported speech." P. 995\. Chapter 11 of .Göran Kjellmer, "The revived subjunctive", p. 250; chap. 13 of .) Use of the subjunctive mandative increased during the 20th century in American, British, and Australian English.Göran Kjellmer, "The revived subjunctive", p. 246–256; chap. 13 of .William J. Crawford, "The mandative subjunctive", p. 257–276; chap. 14 of .Pam Peters, "The survival of the subjunctive: Evidence of its use in Australia and elsewhere," English World- Wide 19 (1998): 87–103. . The subjunctive is occasionally found in clauses expressing a probable condition, such as If I be found guilty… (more common is am or should be; for more information see English conditional sentences). This usage is mostly old-fashioned or formal,Anita Mittwoch, Rodney Huddleston and Peter Collins. "The clause: Adjuncts." Pp. 745\. Chapter 8 of . although it is found in some common fixed expressions such as if need be.Renaat Declerck, Susan Reed. Conditionals: A Comprehensive Empirical Analysis. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2001. ). P. 197. Somewhat more common is the use after whether in the exhaustive conditional construction: "He must be tended with the same care, whether he be friend or foe."Geneva Convention no. I of August 12, 1949, for the amelioration of the condition of the wounded and sick in armed forces in the field, chapter 2. In The Geneva Conventions of August 12, 1949: Analysis for the use of National Red Cross Societies (Geneva: International Committee of the Red Cross, 1950), vol. 1, p. 4. In both of these uses, it is possible to invert subject and verb and omit the subordinator. Analogous uses are occasionally found after other words, such as unless, until, whoever, wherever: :(7) :: a. Your purpose, then, plainly stated, is that you will destroy the Government, unless you be allowed to construe and enforce the Constitution as you please, on all points in dispute between you and us.Abraham Lincoln, Cooper Union speech, 1860. :: b. Whoever he be, he shall not go unpunished.George M. Jones, L. E. Horning, and John D. Morrow. A High School English Grammar. Toronto and London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1922. P. 133 (exercise 86, item 11). In most of the above examples a construction with should can be used as an alternative: "I insist that he should leave now" etc. This "should mandative" was the most common kind of mandative at the start of the 20th century, not only in British English but also in American English. However, in American English its use decreased rapidly in the early 20th century and it had become very unusual by the 21st; in British English its use also decreased, but later and not so drastically.Göran Kjellmer, "The revived subjunctive", p. 247; chap. 13 of . Kjellmer cites Gerd Övergaard, The Mandative Subjunctive in American and British English in the 20th Century Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, Studia Anglistica Upsaliensia, 94 (Uppsala: Academiae Upsaliensis, 1995; ). The subjunctive is not generally used after verbs such as hope and expect. The subjunctive can also be used in clauses with the conjunction lest, which generally expresses a potential adverse event:Rodney Huddleston. "Content clauses and reported speech." P. 1000\. Chapter 11 of . :(8) :: a. I am running faster lest she catch me (i.e., "in order that she not catch me") :: b. I was worried lest she catch me (i.e., "that she might catch me") Subjunctive clauses can occasionally occur unembedded, with the force of a wish or a third person imperative (and such forms can alternatively be analyzed as imperatives). This is most common nowadays in formulaic remnants of archaic optative constructions, such as "(God) bless you", "God save the Queen", "heaven forbid", "peace be with you" (any of which can instead start with may: "May God bless you", etc.); "long live…"; "truth be told", "so be it", "suffice it to say", "woe betide…", and more.Rodney Huddleston. "Clause type and illocutionary force." P. 944\. Chapter 10 of . == Variant terminology and misconceptions == The term "subjunctive" has been extended to other grammatical phenomena in English which do not comprise a natural class. Traditional grammars of English sometimes apply the term to verb forms used in subjunctive clauses, regardless of their other uses.Rodney Huddleston. "The verb." P. 83\. Chapter 3 of . Some traditional grammars refer to non-factual instances of irrealis "were" as "past subjunctives".Rodney Huddleston. "The verb." Pp. 87–88. Chapter 3 of . So do modern descriptive grammars, while noting that the "past" is misleading as it does not correspond to tense, using the traditionalist term only to differentiate it from the "present subjunctive" discussed in this article. The term "subjunctive" is sometimes extended further to describe any grammatical reflection of modal remoteness or counterfactuality. For instance, conditionals with a counterfactual or modally remote meaning are sometimes referred to as "subjunctive conditionals", even by those who acknowledge it as a misnomer.See for instance: *"Because subjunctive and indicative are the terms used in the philosophical literature on conditionals and because we will refer to that literature in the course of this paper, I have decided to keep these terms in the present discussion ... however, it would be wrong to believe that mood choice is a necessary component of the semantic contrast between indicative and subjunctive conditionals." Michela Ippolito. "On the Semantic Composition of Subjunctive Conditionals" (PDF). 2002. *"The terminology is of course linguistically inept ([since] the morphological marking is one of tense and aspect, not of indicative vs. subjunctive mood), but it is so deeply entrenched that it would be foolish not to use it." Kai von Fintel, "Conditionals" (PDF); chapter 59 of Klaus von Heusinger, Claudia Maienborn and Paul Portner (eds.), Semantics: An international handbook of meaning, vol. 2 (Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft 33.2), pp. 1515–1538. Berlin/Boston: de Gruyter Mouton. . *"the use of past tense to indicate unreality, as is done in English, is common crosslinguistically, and it is a mistake to confuse this correlation of form and function with the subjunctive mood." Paul Portner. Modality. Oxford Surveys in Semantics and Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. . The English subjunctive is the subject of many common misconceptions, such as that it is a tense, that its use is decreasing when it is in fact increasing, and that it is necessary or sufficient for counterfactuality in conditionals.Rodney Huddleston. "Content clauses and reported speech." Pp. 999–1000. Chapter 11 of .von Fintel, Kai; Iatridou, Sabine (2020). Prolegomena to a Theory of X-Marking. Manuscript. Writing in the Chronicle of Higher Education, Geoff Pullum argued that mention of the subjunctive is often used as a status symbol: > Virtually none of the things people believe about the subjunctive or its > status in English are true. Most purists who witter on about it couldn’t > actually pass a test on distinguishing subjunctive from nonsubjunctive > clauses to save their sorry asterisks. But then they don’t have to: Merely > mentioning the subjunctive approvingly and urging that it be taught is > enough to establish one’s credentials as a better class of person. ==Historical change== Old English had a morphological subjunctive, which was lost by the time of Shakespeare.The Cambridge history of the English language. Richard M. Hogg, Roger Lass, Norman Francis Blake, Suzanne Romaine, R. W. Burchfield, John Algeo. (2000). The syntactic subjunctive of Modern English was more widely used in the past than it is today.Stein, Dieter. "The expression of deontic and epistemic modality and the subjunctive: ". Studies in Early Modern English, edited by Dieter Kastovsky, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011, pp. 403-412. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110879599.403 Examples of subjunctive uses in archaic modern English: * I will not let thee go, except [=unless] thou bless me. (King James Bible, Genesis 32:26) * Murder, though it have no tongue, will speak. (Shakespeare, Hamlet) Older forms of modern English also make greater use of subject–auxiliary inversion in subjunctive clauses: *Should you feel hungry, … (equivalent to If you (should) feel hungry) *Be he called on by God, … (equivalent to "If he be (i.e. If he is) called on by God, …") *Be they friend or foe, … (equivalent to "(No matter) whether they be friend or foe, …") *Be it ever so humble, there's no place like home (from "Home! Sweet Home!"; meaning "even though") Some examples of this sort survive in common usage as set expressions: * "come what may" * "God forbid" * "so be it" * "so help me God" * "be that as it may" == See also == *Habitual be == Notes== == References== == Bibliography == * * * * Category:Grammatical moods Subjunctive |
thumb|737-300 Combi interior Combi aircraft in commercial aviation are aircraft that can be used to carry either passengers as an airliner, or cargo as a freighter, and may have a partition in the aircraft cabin to allow both uses at the same time in a mixed passenger/freight combination. The name combi comes from the word combination. The concept previously existed in railroading, as a passenger car that contained a separate compartment for mail and/or baggage. Combi aircraft typically feature an oversized cargo door, as well as tracks on the cabin floor to allow the seats to be added or removed quickly. Typically, configured for both passenger and cargo duty, the passenger compartment is pressurized to a higher pressure, to prevent potential fumes from cargo entering the passenger area. == Airlines == ===Northwest Airlines=== In 1963, Northwest Airlines operated a domestic and International routing with a Douglas DC-7C four engine propeller aircraft between New York Idlewild Airport (which would subsequently be renamed JFK Airport) and Tokyo that was configured to transport a mixed passenger/cargo load. The round trip routing for this flight which was operated once a week was New York-Chicago-Seattle-Anchorage-Tokyo. The DC-7C was configured with all economy seating in the passenger cabin.http://www.timetableimages.com; Northwest Airlines March 1, 1963 system timetable, pages 8 & 14 By 1966, Northwest was operating jet combi service with Boeing 707-320C aircraft between the U.S. and Asia.http://www.timetableimages.com, March 1, 1966 Northwest Airlines system timetable ===Braniff International=== In 1968, Braniff International was flying Boeing 727-100QC ("Quick Change") jetliners in a configuration that facilitated the transportation of palletized freight containers as well as 51 passengers in an all-economy-class cabin in scheduled airline operations.http://www.timetableimages.com, Braniff International July 1, 1968 system timetable, page 30 According to a Braniff system timetable dated July 1, 1968, the airline was operating weekday "red eye flights" with round trip services at night with its B727 combi aircraft on the following routings: New York (JFK) - Washington, D.C. (IAD) - Nashville (BNA) - Memphis (MEM) - Dallas Love Field (DAL); Seattle (SEA) - Portland (PDX) - Dallas Love Field (DAL); and Denver (DEN) - Dallas Love Field (DAL). The freight pallets were loaded in the front section of the aircraft by forklift via a large cargo door located on the side of the fuselage aft of the flight deck while passengers boarded and deplaned via the integral air stairs located at the rear underneath the trijet's engines. These aircraft could also be quickly changed to fly either all cargo or all passenger operations and Braniff flew the B727QC in both configurations besides operating in a mixed passenger/freight combi mode. ===Continental Micronesia=== An additional U.S. operator of the Boeing 727-100 Combi was Continental Micronesia (known as "Air Mike") which in 1983 operated mixed passenger/freight flights with the aircraft between Honolulu and Guam on its "Island Hopper" service.http://www.departedflights.com, July 1, 1983 Worldwide Edition, Official Airline Guide (OAG), Guam & Honolulu flight schedules for Continental Micronesia One such 727 combi service operated by Continental Micronesia was flight 562 which departed Guam every Tuesday at 3:30pm and then arrived in Honolulu at 7:41am the next morning with en route stops being made at such Pacific island destinations as Truk, Pohnpei (formerly Ponape), Kwajalein, Majuro and Johnston Island. ===LAN-Chile=== LAN-Chile (now LATAM Chile) was operating Boeing 727-100 combi service between the U.S. and Latin America three times a week in 1970 with service from New York City John F. Kennedy Airport (JFK) and Miami (MIA).http://www.timetableimages.com, Oct. 25, 1970 LAN-Chile system timetable According to its October 25, 1970 system timetable, 727 combi routings operated by LAN-Chile included New York JFK - Miami - Cali, Colombia - Guayaquil, Ecuador - Lima, Peru - Santiago, Chile - Buenos Aires, Argentina - Montevideo, Uruguay as well as New York JFK - Miami - Panama City, Panama - Cali, Colombia - Lima, Peru - Santiago, Chile - Buenos Aires, Argentina - Montevideo, Uruguay and New York JFK - Miami - Panama City, Panama - Guayaquil, Ecuador - Lima, Peru - Santiago, Chile - Buenos Aires, Argentina. ===Royal Brunei Airlines=== In 1983, Asian operator Royal Brunei Airlines operated nonstop combi service with the Boeing 737-200QC between its home base of Bandar Seri Begawan in Brunei and Bangkok, Hong Kong and Singapore.http://www.departedflights.com, July 1, 1983 Worldwide Edition, Official Airline Guide (OAG), Bandar Seri Begawan flight schedules ===KLM=== KLM Royal Dutch Airlines is a long time combi user. According to the May 15, 1971 KLM system timetable, the airline operated Douglas DC-8 combi jetliners in mixed passenger/freight services between its hub located at the Amsterdam Schiphol Airport (AMS) and the following destinations: Amman, Anchorage, Bangkok, Brazzaville, Chicago O'Hare Airport, Houston Intercontinental Airport, Jakarta, Johannesburg, Kuala Lumpur, Mexico City, Montreal, New York City JFK Airport, Singapore, Teheran, Tokyo, Tripoli and Zurich.http://www.timetableimages.com, May 15, 1971 KLM system timetable, Freight Services KLM's DC-8 combi aircraft featured all coach service with no first class cabin. KLM retired its last 747-400M in 2020. ===Air France and Lufthansa=== Other European airlines operating combi aircraft in the past included Air France and Lufthansa which both operated Boeing 747 combis. According to the Official Airline Guide (OAG), during the early 1980s Air France flew 747 combi service between France and destinations in Africa, Asia, Canada, Mexico, the Mideast, South America and the U.S. including Anchorage, Chicago O'Hare Airport, Houston Intercontinental Airport and Los Angeles while Lufthansa operated 747 combis between Germany and destinations in Africa, Asia, Australia, the Mideast, South America and the U.S. including Anchorage, Boston, Dallas/Fort Worth, Los Angeles, New York JFK Airport, Philadelphia, San Francisco and San Juan.http://www.departedflights.com, July 1, 1983 Official Airline Guide (OAG) Worldwide Edition, Frankfurt & Paris flight schedules In both cases, Anchorage was used as a technical stop by the Air France and Lufthansa combi services on the polar route between Europe and Japan. ===Other combi aircraft operators=== A number of other airlines also flew Boeing 747 combis during the 1980s including Air Canada, Air Gabon, Air India (Boeing 747-300 combi version), Alitalia, Avianca, CAAC Airlines, Cameroon Airlines, China Airlines, El Al, Iberia Airlines, Iraqi Airways, Pakistan International Airlines, Qantas, Royal Jordanian Airlines, Sabena, EVA AIR, South African Airways, Swissair, UTA and Varig.http://www.departedflights.com, July 1, 1983 & Jan. 9, 1989 Official Airline Guide (OAG) Worldwide Editions Air Canada also earlier operated Douglas DC-8 combi aircraft. In addition, Sabena was operating McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30 combis at this time as well.http://www.departedflights.com, July 1, 1983 Official Airline Guide (OAG) Worldwide Edition There was also a combi version of the successor to the DC-10 being the McDonnell Douglas MD-11C which was operated by Alitalia. Uganda Airlines operated Boeing 707 combi aircraft. During the early 1990s, Garuda Indonesia Airlines was operating Boeing 747 combis between Jakarta and Los Angeles via Honolulu.Oct. 1, 1993 OAG Desktop Flight Guide, Worldwide Edition Alaska Airlines also flew the 737-400 combi on a multi-stop "milk run" route from Anchorage to Ketchikan to Wrangell to Petersburg to Seattle and then back to Anchorage as well as on other routes in Alaska. Some now defunct airlines from embattled nations flew combi aircraft. Air Rhodesia had a Boeing 720 combi that it operated when Rhodesia was a nation, acquired in 1967 and flown till shortly after the dissolution of the nation and state airline. It was sold to South African Airways which because of the apartheid regime flew a number of combi aircraft."Airline History From 1996". Sky Host. 11 April 1996. Retrieved 11 December 2011. One of the most infamous of these flights was South African Airways Flight 295, a Boeing 747 combi named Helderberg. This was a scheduled commercial flight from Taiwan to South Africa that suffered a catastrophic in- flight fire in the cargo area and crashed into the Indian Ocean east of Mauritius on 28 November 1987, killing everyone on board.Cheney, Daniel I. (2010). Lessons Learned from Transport Airplane Accidents (PDF). Sixth Triennial International Fire and Cabin Safety Research Conference. Atlantic City: Federal Aviation Administration Air Vietnam (the official state airline of South Vietnam) possessed at least one Boeing 727-100 combi that it had obtained from Continental Air Services (CASI), a subsidiary airline of Continental Airlines set up to provide operations and airlift support in Southeast Asia, in the mid-1960s. Under this agreement, CASI would share passengers and cargo routes with Air Vietnam on certain domestic and international routes."World Airline Directory". Flight International. 10 April 1969. 557 During the Fall of Saigon it was destroyed during shelling of Tan Son Nhat International Airport.Accounts of Operation Frequent Wind can be found in Spencer (s.v. "FREQUENT WIND, Operation"), Todd (346-387), and Isaacs. Two airlines based in Iceland also operated combi aircraft: Icelandair flying Boeing 727-100 and Boeing 737-200 combis, and Eagle Air (Iceland) flying Boeing 737-200 combis.http://www.departedflights.com, July 1, 1983 Official Airline Guide (OAG), Reykjavik-Keflavik International Airport flight schedules Both air carriers operated their Boeing combi jets on flights between Iceland and western Europe. Air Marshall Islands was a somewhat exotic combi aircraft operator flying a Douglas DC-8-62CF jetliner in mixed passenger/freight operations. According to the Official Airline Guide (OAG), Air Marshall Islands was operating a DC-8 combi on scheduled services linking Honolulu with the Pacific islands of Kwajalein and Majuro during the early 1990s.Official Airline Guide, October 1993 edition, flight schedules for Kwajalein (KWA) and Majuro (MAJ) Air Marshall Islands is still currently in existence flying regional turboprops but no longer operates combi jet aircraft. Alaska Airlines was a long time combi operator flying various Boeing jet models in combi configuration (see below). There were several other combi aircraft operators as well in Alaska in the past including MarkAir with Boeing 737-200s and de Havilland Canada DHC-7 Dash 7s, Reeve Aleutian Airways with Boeing 727-100 jets and Lockheed L-188 Electra turboprops, Western Airlines with Lockheed L-188 Electras and Wien Air Alaska with Boeing 737-200s and Fairchild F-27B turboprops. Wien was the launch customer for the combi version of the B737-200 while Wien predecessor Northern Consolidated Airlines was the first operator of the Fairchild F-27B which was combi version of the Fairchild Hiller FH-227. A number of airlines in Canada also flew combi aircraft besides Air Canada and its Douglas DC-8 and Boeing 747 combi services including First Air with Boeing 727-100 and 727-200 jetliners in addition to Hawker Siddeley HS 748 turboprops. First Air continues to operate combi aircraft at the present time including Boeing 737-200 and 737-400 jetliners as well as the ATR 42 turboprop. Two other current combi operators in Canada are Air North operating the Boeing 737-200 jet and Hawker Siddeley HS 748 turboprop, and Canadian North flying Boeing 737-200 jets and de Havilland Canada DHC-8-100 Dash 8 turboprop aircraft. Other combi operators in Canada in the past included CP Air and Pacific Western with both airlines flying Boeing 727-100 and Boeing 737-200 combi aircraft as well as Nordair operating Boeing 737-200 combi aircraft. In 2008 Aviation Traders designed a Boeing 757-200 combi aircraft leased from Astraeus Airlines for the heavy metal band Iron Maiden. The front of the aircraft was configured for passengers, with the rear holding six tonnes of cargo consisting of Iron Maiden's equipment for their tour. The band supported their most recent tour with a Boeing 747-400 leased from Air Atlanta Icelandic. ===Conversions=== Nowadays, many airlines have converted their combis into full passenger service or full freighter service for the potential of more profitable operations. ===Alaska Airlines combi service=== Alaska Airlines operated converted narrow body Boeing 737-400 combis that were previously flown in full passenger configuration. According to the Alaska Airlines website, the airline was operating several Boeing 737-400 combi aircraft with each jetliner configured with 72 passenger seats in the coach compartment. The airline then announced the retirement of these aircraft with the last combi flight scheduled for October 18, 2017. On that date, Alaska Airlines flight 66 was the airline's last scheduled combi flight with the Boeing 737-400 (N764AS) operating a routing of Anchorage (ANC) - Cordova (CDV) - Yakutat (YAK) - Juneau (JNU) - Seattle (SEA).http://www.flightaware.com N764AS The 737-400 aircraft replaced Boeing 737-200 combis that were formerly operated by Alaska Airlines, which was the only major U.S. air carrier still flying scheduled combi operations domestically with service between Seattle and Alaska and also between Anchorage, Fairbanks and remote destinations in Alaska.http://www.alaskaair.com, Flight Information, Downloadable Timetables Alaska Airlines previously operated Boeing 727-100C aircraft which were also capable of combi operationshttp://www.airliners.net, photos of Alaska Airlines Boeing 727-100C aircraft and has now added Boeing 737-700 freighter all-cargo aircraft to its fleet which have replaced its Boeing 737-400 combi aircraft. == Notable combi passenger aircraft == * ATR 42-300 * Boeing 707-320C * Boeing 727-100C (including the B727-100QC "Quick Change" model) * Boeing 727-200 (formerly operated by First Air in Canada) * Boeing 737-200C (including the B737-200QC "Quick Change" model) * Boeing 737-400C * Boeing 737-700C * Boeing 747-200M * Boeing 747-300M * Boeing 747-400M * Boeing 757-200 * Convair CV-240 * de Havilland Canada DHC-7 Dash 7 * de Havilland Canada DHC-8-100 and Q400 Dash 8 * Douglas DC-7C * Douglas DC-8CF * Fairchild F-27B * Hawker Siddeley HS 748 * Lockheed L-188 Electra * McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30 Combi * McDonnell Douglas MD-11 Combi ==See also== * Preighter * Bruck * Combine car == References == Category:Aircraft by type |
The Alien Registration Act, popularly known as the Smith Act, 76th United States Congress, 3d session, ch. 439, , is a United States federal statute that was enacted on June 28, 1940. It set criminal penalties for advocating the overthrow of the U.S. government by force or violence, and required all non-citizen adult residents to register with the federal government. Approximately 215 people were indicted under the legislation, including alleged communists and socialists. Prosecutions under the Smith Act continued until a series of U.S. Supreme Court decisions in 1957 reversed a number of convictions under the Act as being unconstitutional. The law has been amended several times. ==Legislative history== The U.S. government has attempted on several occasions to regulate speech in wartime, beginning with the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798. During and following World War I, a series of statutes addressed a complex of concerns that included enemy espionage and disruption, anti-war activism, and the radical ideologies of anarchism and Bolshevism, all identified with immigrant communities. Congressional investigations of 'extremist' organizations in 1935 resulted in calls for the renewal of those statutes. The Foreign Agents Registration Act of 1938 addressed a particular concern but not the general problem. Steele, Richard W., Free Speech in the Good War (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), pp.39-42. As U.S. involvement in World War II seemed ever more likely, the possibility of betrayal from within gained currency. The Spanish Civil War had given this possibility a name, a "fifth column", and the popular press in the U.S. blamed internal subversion for the fall of France to the Nazis in just six weeks in May and June 1940.Steele, Free Speech, pp.74-5. Patriotic organizations and the popular press raised alarms and provided examples. In July 1940, Time magazine called fifth-column talk a "national phenomenon".Steele, Free Speech, pp.75-6. In the late 1930s, several legislative proposals tried to address sedition itself and the underlying concern with the presence of large numbers of non- citizens, including citizens of countries with which the U.S. might soon be at war. An omnibus bill that included several measures died in 1939, but the Senate Judiciary Committee revived it in May 1940. It drew some of its language from statutes recently passed at the state level, and combined anti- alien and anti-sedition sections with language crafted specifically to help the government in its attempts to deport Australian-born union leader Harry Bridges. With little debate, the House of Representatives approved it by a vote of 382 to 4, with 45 not voting, on June 22, 1940, the day the French signed an armistice with Germany. The Senate did not take a recorded vote.Steele, Free Speech, p.81. It was signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on June 28, 1940. The Act is referred to by the name of its principal author, Rep. Howard W. Smith (Democrat-Virginia), a leader of the anti-labor bloc in Congress.Grantham, Dewey. The South in Modern America: A Region at Odds (Fayetteville, AR: University of Arkansas Press, 2001), p.18. A few weeks later, The New York Times discussed the context in which the alien registration provisions were included and the Act passed:The New York Times: Delbert Clark, "Aliens to Begin Registering Tuesday", August 25, 1940, accessed June 27, 2012 Also in June, the President transferred the Immigration and Naturalization Service from the Department of Labor to the Department of Justice (DOJ), demonstrating that the federal government viewed its alien population as a security concern as war grew more likely. In mid-August, officials of the DOJ held a two-day conference with state officials they called "Law Enforcement Problems of National Defense". Attorney General Jackson and FBI Director Hoover delineated the proper roles for federal and state authorities with respect to seditious activities. They successfully forestalled state regulation of aliens and found state officials receptive to their arguments that states needed to prevent vigilantism and protect aliens, while trusting federal authorities to use the Smith Act to deal with espionage and "fifth column" activities.Steele, Free Speech, pp.80-3; The New York Times: Frederick R. Barkley, "Crime Parley Puts Spy Issue up to FBI", August 7, 1940, accessed July 7, 2012 On October 13, 1941, the 77th United States Congress amended the Smith Act, authorizing a criminal offense for the unlawful reproduction of alien registration receipt cards. ==Provisions== Title I. Subversive activities. The Smith Act set federal criminal penalties that included fines or imprisonment for as long as twenty years, and denied all employment by the federal government for five years following a conviction for anyone who: The Smith Act's prohibition of proselytizing on behalf of revolution repeated language found in previous statutes. It went beyond earlier legislation in outlawing action to "organize any society, group, or assembly" that works toward that end and then extended that prohibition to "membership" or "affiliation"—a term it did not define—with such a group. Title II. Deportation. Because the Supreme Court in Kessler v. Strecker (1939) held that the Immigration Act of 1918 allowed the deportation of an alien only if his membership in a group advocating the violent overthrow of the government had not ceased,Steele, Free Speech, 102–03 the Smith Act allowed for the deportation of any alien who "at the time of entering the United States, or ... at any time thereafter" was a member of or affiliated with such an organization.Section 23 The Smith Act expanded the grounds for deporting aliens to include weapons violations and abetting illegal immigration. It added heroin to the category of drug violations. Title III. Alien registration. The Smith Act required aliens applying for visas to register and be fingerprinted. Every other alien resident of the United States: Registration would be under oath and include: Guardians had to register minors, who had to register in person and be fingerprinted within 30 days of their fourteenth birthday. Post offices were designated as the location for registering and fingerprinting. Aliens were to notify the government if their residence changed, and to confirm their residence every three months. Penalties included fines up to $1000 and up to six months imprisonment. ==Alien registration== Registrations began on August 27, 1940, and the newly created Alien Registration Division of the Immigration and Naturalization Service planned to register between three and three-and-a-half million people at 45,000 post offices by December 26, after which those not registered became subject to the Smith Act's penalties. The Division held the view that registration benefited the alien, who "is now safeguarded from bigoted persecution". The alien was to bring a completed form to a post office and be fingerprinted. Registration cards would be delivered by mail and would serve "in the nature of protection of the alien later runs afoul of the police" . The details required for registration had been expanded since the passage of the Act to include race, employer's name and address, relatives in the U.S., organization memberships, application for citizenship, and military service record for the U.S. or any other country. Solicitor General Francis Biddle had responsibility for the Division, which was headed by Earl G. Harrison during its first six months."Resigns Alien Registry Post". The New York Times. January 22, 1941. Accessed June 27, 2012. In a radio address meant to reassure aliens, Biddle said: "It was not the intention of Congress to start a witch hunt or a program of persecution." Calling it a "patriotic duty", he said:"Alien Registration Lauded by Lehman". The New York Times. August 25, 1940. Accessed June 27, 2012. As registration began, New York's liberal Gov. Herbert Lehman said the process was "designed to protect the loyal aliens" and urged cooperation. Others like New York Mayor Fiorello La Guardia explained that fingerprinting, though associated with criminal prosecutions, implied no "stigma". He issued a proclamation that said: "Fingerprinting is not degrading or humiliating. It is the most modern and scientific means of accurate identification." He and his staff had there fingerprints taken on the first day of registration. Government efforts to encourage registration asked citizens to participate:"Alien Registration Required". American Journal of Nursing 40(9). September 1940. p 985. The number registered passed 4.7 million by January 1941."Alien Total So Far Put at 4,741,971". The New York Times. January 13, 1941. Accessed June 27, 2012. After the U.S. declared war in 1941, federal authorities used data gathered from alien registrations to identify citizens of enemy nations and take 2,971 of them into custody by the end of the year.Robert F. Whitney (January 4, 1942). "Only 2,971 Enemy Aliens are Held". The New York Times. Accessed June 27, 2012. A different set of requirements was imposed during the war on enemy aliens, citizens of nations with which the U.S. was at war,"Biddle Warns Aliens to Register by Today". The New York Times. February 28, 1942. Accessed June 29, 2012. by presidential proclamations of January 14, 1942,"Brief Overview of the World War II Enemy Alien Control Program". National Archives. Accessed July 7, 2012. Each of three proclamations named a different enemy nation. without reference to the Smith Act. In December 1950, following an Immigration and Naturalization Service hearing, Claudia Jones, a citizen of Trinidad, was ordered deported from the U.S. for violating the McCarran Act as an alien (non-U.S. citizen) who had joined the Communist Party (CPUSA). The evidence of her party membership included information she provided when completing her Alien Registration form on December 24, 1940."Ouster Ordered of Claudia Jones". The New York Times. December 22, 1950. Accessed June 27, 2012. ==Legal proceedings== ===Harry Bridges=== The Smith Act was written so that federal authorities could deport radical labor organizer Harry Bridges, an immigrant from Australia. Deportation hearings against Bridges in 1939 found he did not qualify for deportation because he was not currently—as the required—a member of or affiliated with an organization that advocated the overthrow of the government.Steele, Free Speech, 102 The Smith Act allowed deportation of an alien who had been "at any time" since arriving in the U.S. a member of, or affiliated with, such an organization. A second round of deportation hearings ended after ten weeks in June 1941.Steele, "Free Speech, 105, 107-9 In September, the special examiner who led the hearings recommended deportation, but the Board of Immigration Appeals (BIA) reversed that order after finding the government's two key witnesses unreliable.Steel, Free Speech, 208; The New York Times: Frederick R. Barkley, "Bridges is Cleared by Appeals Board", January 6, 1942, accessed June 22, 2012. The special examiner was Charles B. Sears, a distinguished attorney and retired judge. In May 1942, though the Roosevelt administration was now putting its anti-Communist activities on hold in the interest of furthering the Soviet-American alliance, Attorney General Biddle overruled the BIA and ordered Bridges deported.Steele, Free Speech, 208-11; The New York Times: Lewis Wood, "Bridges Ordered Deported at Once", May 29, 1942, accessed June 22, 2012 Bridges appealed and lost in District CourtThe New York Times: Lawrence E. Davies, "Bridges Loses Plea for Habeas Corpus", February 9, 1943, accessed June 22, 2012 and the Court of Appeals,The New York Times: "Denies Rehearing of Bridges' Plea", September 28, 1944, accessed June 22, 2012 but the Supreme Court held 5–3 on June 18, 1945, in the case of Bridges v. Wixon that the government had not proven Bridges was "affiliated" with the CPUSA,Steele, Free Speech, 228 a word it interpreted to require more than "sympathy" or "mere cooperation".FindLaw: Bridges v. Wixon, 326 U.S. 135 (1945), accessed June 22, 2012. Wixon was an official of the Immigration and Naturalization Service. ===Minneapolis 1941=== On June 27, 1941, as part of a campaign to end labor militancy in the defense industry, FBI agents raided the Minneapolis and St. Paul offices of the Socialist Workers Party (SWP),Donna T. Haverty-Stacke, "'Punishment of Mere Political Advocacy': The FBI, Teamsters Local 544, and the Origins of the 1941 Smith Act Case," Journal of American History, vol. 100, no. 1 (June 2013), pg. 71. a Trotskyist splinter party that controlled Local 544 of the Teamsters union though it had fewer than two thousand members in 30 U.S. cities. The union had grown steadily in the late 1930s, had organized federal relief workers and led a strike against the Works Progress Administration (WPA), a New Deal agency.Steele, Free Speech, 130-2 In mid-July, a federal grand jury indicted 29 people, either members of the SWP or Local 544 of the Teamsters union, or both.The New York Times: "29 Reds Indicted in Overthrow Plot", July 16, 1941, accessed June 20, 2012. SWP defendants included James P. Cannon, Carl Skoglund, Farrell Dobbs, Grace Carlson, Harry DeBoer, , Albert Goldman, and twelve other party leaders. Goldman acted as the defendants' lawyer during the trial. The SWP had been influential in Minneapolis since the Teamsters Strike of 1934. It advocated strikes and the continuation of labor union militancy during World War II under its Proletarian Military Policy. An SWP member edited the Northwest Organizer, the weekly newspaper of the Minneapolis Teamsters, and the local union remained militant even as the national union grew more conservative. The CPUSA supported the trial and conviction of Trotskyists under the Smith Act. The defendants were accused of having plotted to overthrow the U.S. government in violation of the newly passed Smith Act and of the Sedition Act of 1861, to enforce which, according to Wallace MG as at March 1920, it seems no serious previous attempt had ever been made. When critics argued that the government should adhere to the doctrine enunciated by Justice Holmes that free speech could only be prosecuted if it presented "a clear and present danger", Attorney General Biddle replied that Congress had considered both that standard and the international situation when writing the Smith Act's proscriptions. At trial, the judge took Biddle's view and refused to instruct the jury in the "clear and present danger" standard as the defendants' attorneys requested.Steele, Free Speech, 134ff., 138 The trial began in Federal District Court in Minneapolis on October 27, 1941. The prosecution presented evidence that the accused had amassed a small arsenal of pistols and rifles and conducted target practices and drills. Some had met with Trotsky in Mexico, and many witnesses testified to their revolutionary rhetoric. The judge ordered that five of the defendants be acquitted on both counts for lack of evidence. After deliberating for 56 hours, the jury found the other 23 defendants (one had committed suicide during the trial) not guilty of violating the 1861 statute by conspiring to overthrow the government by force. The jury found 18 of the defendants guilty of violating the Smith Act either by distributing written material designed to cause insubordination in the armed forces or by advocating the overthrow of the government by force.The New York Times: "18 Guilty of Plot to Disrupt Army, They and 5 Others Freed of Sedition", December 2, 1941, accessed June 20, 2012; Steele, Free Speech, 138-9 The jury recommended leniency.Steele, Free Speech, 138-9 On December 8, 1941, 12 defendants received 16-month sentences and the remaining 11 received 12-months.The New York Times: "18 are Sentenced in Sedition Trial", December 9, 1941, accessed June 20, 2012 Time magazine minimized the danger from the SWP, calling it "a nestful of mice". The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and critics on the left worried that the case created a dangerous precedent.Steele, Free Speech, 139 On appeal, a unanimous three- judge panel of the Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the convictions of the 18. The judges found it unnecessary to consider the "clear and present danger" standard in "situations where the legislative body had outlawed certain utterances".Relying on Gitlow v. New York. Steele, Free Speech, 140 The Supreme Court declined to review the case. Those convicted began to serve their sentences on December 31, 1943. The last of them were released in February 1945. Biddle, in his memoirs published in 1962, regretted having authorized the prosecution.Francis Biddle, In Brief Authority (Doubleday, 1962), 152 ===Nazi sympathizers=== Early in 1942, President Roosevelt, supported by the rest of his Cabinet, urged Attorney General Biddle to prosecute fascist sympathizers and anti-Semites.Steele, Free Speech, 150-1, 155. Those prosecuted under the Espionage Act for encouraging insubordination in the military included Robert Noble, Ellis O. Jones, and William Dudley Pelley. Biddle thought the Smith Act was inadequate, but Congress refused to renew the Sedition Act of 1918 as he asked.Steele, Free Speech, 152-3 In 1942, 16 members of the "Mankind United" semi-religious cult, including founder Arthur Bell, were arrested by the FBI under the act. Although 12 were found guilty, they all won on appeal and none served a jail sentence. Historian Leo P. Ribuffo coined the term "Brown Scare" to cover the events leading up to the Washington 1944 sedition trial. President Roosevelt, who especially held non- interventionist Charles Lindbergh in disdain, had already asked J. Edgar Hoover of the FBI to investigate pro-Nazi individuals back in 1935. The pro- fascist right in the United States collapsed within a year of the attack on Pearl Harbor in the midst of the investigations. ====Crusader White Shirts==== In March 1942, the government charged , founder of the , with violating the Smith Act by attempting to spread dissent in the armed forces.The New York Times: Lewis Wood, "G. W. Christians Accused of Sedition After Writings to Army Camps", March 28, 1942, accessed July 3, 2012 Life had published a photo of Christians in 1939 under the heading "Some of the Voices of Hate".Life, March 6, 1939, 60, available online, accessed July 3, 2012 Christians said he promoted a "human effort monetary system"The New York Times: "Christians Denies 'Plot'", June 3, 1942, accessed July 3, 2012 and supported "a paper and ink revolution for economic liberty". After a four-day trial, he was convicted and sentenced to five years in prison on June 8.The New York Times: "Five-Year Sentence Given to Christians", June 9, 1942, accessed July 3, 2012 ====Washington 1944==== Thirty prominent individuals were indicted in Washington, D.C., in July 1942, accused of violations of the Smith Act, in what became the largest sedition trial in the US. After delays while the government amended the charges and struggled to construct its case, the trial, expanded to 33 defendants, began on April 17, 1944. The defendants were a heterogeneous group that held either isolationist or pro-fascist views. In the case of United States v. McWilliams named after Joe McWilliams, the prosecutor, O. John Rogge, hoped to prove they were Nazi propaganda agents by demonstrating the similarity between their statements and enemy propaganda. The weakness of the government's case, combined with the trial's slow progress in the face of disruption by the defendants, led the press to lose interest.Steele, Free Speech, 224 A mistrial was declared on November 29, 1944, following the death of the trial judge, Edward C. Eicher.Steele, Free Speech, 227 Among the defendants were: George Sylvester Viereck, Lawrence Dennis, Elizabeth Dilling, William Dudley Pelley, Joe McWilliams, Robert Edward Edmondson, James True, Gerald Winrod, William Griffin, Prescott Freese Dennett, and in absentia Ulrich Fleischhauer. Defendant Lawrence Dennis mocked the affair by subtitling his account of the trial The Great Sedition Trial of 1944.Lawrence Dennis and Maximilian St. George, Trial on Trial: The Great Sedition Trial of 1944 (National Civil Rights Committee, 1946) Only Rogge wanted to retry the case to "stop the spread of racial and religious intolerance." Supreme Court decisions since the 1942 indictments made convictions appear ever more unlikely.Schneiderman v. United States (1943), Taylor v. Mississippi (1943), Bridges v. Wixon (1945). Steele, Free Speech, 225, 228 Roger Baldwin of the ACLU campaigned against renewing the prosecutions, securing the endorsement of many of the defendants' ideological opponents, including the American Jewish Committee, while the CPUSA held out for prosecuting them all to the limit. Tom Clark, Biddle's replacement as Attorney General in the Truman administration, vacillated about the case. In October 1946, he fired Rogge in a public dispute about publicizing DOJ information about right-wing activities. With the end of World War II, attention turned from the defeated ideologies of the Axis powers to the threat of Communism, and in December 1946 the government had the charges dismissed.Steele, Free Speech, 229-30 ===Communist Party trials=== After a ten-month trial at the Foley Square Courthouse in Manhattan, eleven leaders of the Communist Party were convicted under the Smith Act in 1949.They included Gil Green, a long-time party leader; Eugene Dennis and Henry Winston, leaders of the national organization; John Gates, editor of the Daily Worker; and Gus Hall, leader of the party in Ohio. Ten defendants received sentences of five years and $10,000 fines. An eleventh defendant, Robert G. Thompson, a distinguished hero of the Second World War, was sentenced to three years in consideration of his military record. The five defense attorneys were cited for contempt of court and given prison sentences. Those convicted appealed the verdicts, and the Supreme Court upheld their convictions in 1951 in Dennis v. United States in a 6–2 decision. Following that decision, the DOJ prosecuted dozens of cases. In total, by May 1956, another 131 communists were indicted, of whom 98 were convicted, nine acquitted, while juries brought no verdict in the other cases.Claudius O. Johnson, "The Status of Freedom of Expression under the Smith Act", Western Political Quarterly, vol. 11, no. 3 (September 1958), 469-70 Other party leaders indicted included Claudia Jones and Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, a founding member of the ACLU who had been expelled in 1940 for being a Communist. Appeals from other trials reached the Supreme Court with varying results. On June 17, 1957, Yates v. United States held unconstitutional the convictions of numerous party leaders in a ruling that distinguished between advocacy of an idea for incitement and the teaching of an idea as a concept. The same day, the Court ruled 6–1 in Watkins v. United States that defendants could use the First Amendment as a defense against "abuses of the legislative process". On June 5, 1961, the Supreme Court upheld by 5–4 the conviction of Junius Scales under the "membership clause" of the Smith Act. Scales began serving a six-year sentence on October 2, 1961. He was released after serving fifteen months when President John F. Kennedy commuted his sentence in 1962.Ari L. Goldman, "Junius Scales, Communist Sent to Prison, Dies at 82", The New York Times, August 7, 2002, accessed April 23, 2011; "Clemency for Scales", The New York Times, December 28, 1962, accessed April 23, 2011 Trials of "second string" communist leaders also occurred in the 1950s, including that of Maurice Braverman. ==See also== * Espionage Act of 1917 * Sedition Act of 1918 * Hatch Act of 1939 * Anti-Propaganda Act of 1940 * McCarthyism * Subversive activities registration ==Footnotes== ==External links== * Text of the Smith Act as passed, 1940 * Maintenance of National Security and the First Amendment, the Smith Act's legal history Category:1940 in American law Category:Anti-communism in the United States Category:Espionage in the United States Category:McCarthyism Category:Political repression in the United States Smith Act Category:United States federal criminal legislation Category:United States federal defense and national security legislation Category:76th United States Congress Category:June 1940 events |
Universal's Halloween Horror Nights (originally Universal Studios Fright Nights in 1991) is an annual Halloween-themed event at Universal Studios theme parks in Orlando, Hollywood, Japan and Singapore. The event was originally named Universal Studios Fright Nights in 1991 and began as a 3-night event at Universal Studios Florida. The following year, it re-branded as Halloween Horror Nights, advertised as the "second annual event". Since then, it evolved into a scare-a-thon event filled with themed haunted houses and scare zones, over the course of select nights from early September until late October/early November. The event was held at Universal Studios Florida from 1991 until 2001, when Halloween Horror Nights moved to Islands of Adventure in 2002. In 2004, a dual-park format was tested, which opened parts of both parks. Since returning to Universal Studios Florida in 2006, the event has been held yearly, with the exception of 2020, when it was canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, making it the first year that Halloween Horror Nights was not held since its inception. The event later resumed with its 30th year in 2021. ==History== thumb|upright|left|Program cover for Fright Nights at Universal Studios Florida in 1991 The event was originally named Universal Studios Fright Nights in 1991 and began as a 3-night event at Universal Studios Florida on October 25, 26, and 31, 1991, with one haunted house, The Dungeon of Terror. From 1991 to 2001, the event was held at Universal Studios Florida. The event was renamed Universal Studios Florida Halloween Horror Nights in 1992 and advertised as the second annual Halloween Horror Nights. There were two haunted houses, with The Dungeon of Terror returning and The People Under The Stairs making its debut in Soundstage 23. The event ran five nights, October 23–24, 29–31. In its third year, the event saw an increase to seven nights and the number of haunted houses increased to three, with the third at the Bates Motel film set. For its fourth year, in 1994, Halloween Horror Nights expanded to an eight-night run with the return of a newly designed Dungeon of Terror haunted house, along with three more haunted houses. In addition to Nazarman's and the Bates Motel film set, the new locations were in the Earthquake overflow queue and the Boneyard. This year also marked the first use of the term "Scaracters", as well as the first official "Ghoul School" for actors participating in the event. Ticket prices increased to $36 this year. Halloween Horror Nights V featured a 12-night run and three haunted houses, one of which was a dual-path house. It was also the first time Universal themed the event around a character, in this case Tales from the Crypts Crypt Keeper. The event was subtitled "The Curse of the Crypt Keeper". thumb|Print ad for Universal's first Halloween effort, at Universal Studios Hollywood in 1986 Universal Studios Hollywood had featured Halloween attractions in 1986 and 1992. Bearing little resemblance to the modern event, the 1986 effort was actually a tram tour, and was marred by the accidental death of a retail employee who, like many employees at the time, had volunteered to perform in the event. The 1992 event was a direct result of the success of Fright Nights at Universal Florida the year before, but was not successful. Halloween Horror Nights officially launched at Universal Studios Hollywood October 9, 1997, running through the 2000 season. From 2001 to 2005, Halloween Horror Nights went on hiatus at Universal Studios Hollywood, then returned in 2006. It has continued yearly since. Between 2007 and 2014, Universal Studios Hollywood made use of Universal's House of Horrors, its permanent haunted attraction, as a part of Halloween Horror Nights, by re- theming it for the event. Back in Florida, Halloween Horror Nights VI through X followed the formula developed for Halloween Horror Nights V in 1995, growing from 15 nights in 1996 to 19 in 2000. There were three haunted houses each year, although from 1998 on, two each year were dual-path houses, for a total of five experiences. One notable change was the first 3-D haunted house, in 1999, in the Nazarman's facade. By 1999, ticket prices were $44. In 2000, Universal launched its first in-house created Icon, Jack the Clown. Because the September 11 attacks occurred so close to Halloween Horror Nights XI, Universal made many changes to tone down the event. Much gore was scrapped from the event, and blood was replaced with green "goop". The names of several houses, scare zones, and shows were changed. The original icon character "Eddie" was scrapped. Edgar Sawyer was conceived as a demented, chainsaw- wielding horror movie buff that had been disfigured by a fire. He was supposed to be a threat to previous icon Jack and the tagline "No more clowning around" was used, and seen on early advertisements and merchandise. Eddie was ultimately removed from the event before it began, although he was still appearing on that year's logo and merchandise with the official "I.C.U." tagline. As a hurried replacement, Jack would return along with a line of merchandise bearing the tagline "Jack's Back." Eddie's back-story was changed, and his name was changed to Eddie Schmidt, Jack's younger brother. The event again ran for 19 days, admission was $48, with five haunted houses. The dual house was in Soundstage 22. Halloween Horror Nights moved to Islands of Adventure in 2002. The Caretaker was not the original icon for Halloween Horror Nights 12 in 2002. Cindy (sometimes spelled "Sindy"), the daughter of mortuary owner Paul Bearer, was originally the icon of the event. In the event's premise, every land would be ruled over by her "playthings". After several child abductions in the area, the Cindy concept was abandoned and her father Paul Bearer changed into Dr. Albert Caine, also known as The Caretaker. Cindy would eventually appear in 2006's "Scream House Resurrection", 2009's "Shadows of the Past" and 2010's "The Orfanage: Ashes to Ashes". Halloween Horror Nights 12, the first to be held at Islands of Adventure, featured five haunted houses, with admission set at $49.95. Halloween Horror Nights 13 again took place at Islands of Adventure. It featured six haunted houses. The Icon was The Director. For Halloween Horror Nights 14 in 2004 the resort experimented with a dual-park format, which connected and utilized parts of both parks. The fourteenth edition featured a mental patient. It ran 18 nights and featured seven haunted houses. Halloween Horror Nights 15 in 2005 ran 19 nights, had seven haunted houses, and an admission of $59.75. This year was the first time an entire alternate reality (Terra Cruentus) was the basis for the entire event. Universal offered backstage tours of the Halloween Horror Nights sets. In 2006, "Horror Comes Home" to the Universal Studios Florida park for its sweet 16 celebration with the four previous icons. Admission was $59.95. It ran 19 nights, featuring seven haunted houses. For Halloween Horror Nights 17 in 2007, Universal Studios acquired the rights to use New Line Cinema's characters Freddy Krueger, Jason Voorhees, and Leatherface for Halloween Horror Nights. There were eight haunted houses. The event ran 23 days, with a ticket price of $64.95. 2008's Reflections of Fear featured a new icon in the form of Dr. Mary Agana, an original take on the Bloody Mary legend. The event revolved around the realm of reflections where Mary dwelled. A musical tribute to The Rocky Horror Picture Show was added for the 18th and 19th installments. 2010 marked the 20th installment of the event at the Orlando park. It was titled "Twenty Years of Fear", and it featured Fear as the event's icon. There were eight haunted houses. The event ran 23 nights and admission was $74.99. 2011 (Halloween Horror Nights 21) and 2012 (Halloween Horror Nights 22): eight and seven haunted houses, respectively; 25 nights and 22 nights, respectively; $81.99 and $88.99. "Roaming hordes" replace scare zones and The Walking Dead arrive as the event icon in 2012. In 2011, Universal Studios Singapore began their Halloween Horror Nights event. There was one haunted house, the event ran seven nights, and admission was S$60.00. Universal Studios Singapore Halloween Horror Nights 2 in 2012, ran seven nights, had three haunted houses, with admission at S68.00. By 2015, Singapore's Halloween Horror Nights 5 had grown to four haunted houses, three of which were designed using local Singaporean horror legends and myths. Singapore's Halloween Horror Nights 6, in 2016, featured five haunted houses, ran 16 nights, with admission at S$69.00. In 2012, Universal Studios Japan joined the Halloween Horror Nights franchise with an event themed to the Biohazard video games (known as Resident Evil in other countries). It ran 36 nights, from September 14 through November 11. Tickets were ¥8,400. By 2015, Universal Studios Japan had increased its "Universal Surprise Halloween at Universal Studios Japan" (which includes Halloween Horror Nights) to 59 days, featuring both daytime and nighttime activities.Universal Surprise Halloween at Universal Studios Japan 2013 Florida's Halloween Horror Nights 23 featured a haunted house based on An American Werewolf in London, another based on The Cabin in the Woods, and a third based on Resident Evil, plus five more, for a total of eight. The Walking Dead continued as the event icon and The Rocky Horror Picture Show Tribute returned. It ran 27 nights. Admission was $91.99. Florida's Halloween Horror Nights 24 in 2014 featured eight haunted houses and a return to the use of scare zones, absent since 2012. Universal again made use of licensed properties from others, including The Walking Dead, Alien vs. Predator, From Dusk till Dawn, Halloween, and The Purge. There were two shows, Bill and Ted and the Rocky Horror Tribute. Halloween Horror Nights 25, in 2015 at Universal Studios Florida, brought back Jack the Clown as the icon along with his icon friends. HHN 25 ran a record 30 nights. HHN 25 featured nine haunted houses, with admission reaching $101.99 during the prime days. Halloween Horror Nights 27 was the final year Bill & Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure was performed at Universal Studios Florida. The show had been running at HHN since 1992. Universal Studios Florida debuted a brand new lagoon show entitled "Halloween Marathon of Mayhem" during HHN 29 that featured "iconic scenes from well known and cult classic horror films and TV shows. Universal Studios Hollywood included Throwback Thursdays as part of Halloween Horror Nights 2019. With a special welcome from Chucky and had Beetlejuice and a live DJ playing 1980s hits. Along with local Los Angeles 80s cover band, Fast Times, performing on select nights for the event. Halloween Horror Nights 30 was initially planned for 2020, but it was cancelled and delayed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic's impact on theme parks. They later decided to feature two of the planned haunted houses as attractions for guests for the initially planned 2020 season. For the Halloween weekend of 2020, the originally planned Beetlejuice house was featured for a limited engagement. In 2020, a limited-edition album, entitled Music of Halloween Horror Nights was made available at the Universal Studios Florida Halloween Horror Nights Tribute Store. The album featured songs created by Midnight Syndicate specifically for Halloween Horror Nights in addition to other tracks that had been used at the event and on the event's websites since 1999. The initial pressing sold out in less than a day.Midnight Syndicate unleashes haunting music for Halloween Horror Nights with plans for possible return to Cedar Point's HalloWeekends in 2021 WKYC, Ryan Haidet, August 26, 2020Limited- edition Music of Halloween Horror Nights vinyl album released Inside Universal, Brian Glenn, August 26, 2020 Subsequent pressings were made available at the event in 2021.Limited Edition Music of Halloween Horror Nights Album Jack the Clown Picture Disc Debuts During Signing Event at Universal Studios Florida WDW News Today, Matthew Soberman, October 6, 2021 ==Event summaries== ===Universal Orlando Resort=== Name Year Icon(s) Haunted House(s) Scare Zone(s) Show(s) Universal Studios Fright Nights 1991 None Dungeon of Terror None Halloween Horror Nights 1992 None None Halloween Horror Nights 1993 None None Halloween Horror Nights 1994 None Horrorwood Halloween Horror Nights V 1995 The Crypt Keeper Halloween Horror Nights VI 1996 The Crypt Keeper Midway of the Bizarre Halloween Horror Nights VII: 1997 None Midway of the Bizarre Halloween Horror Nights VIII: 1998 None Midway of the Bizarre Halloween Horror Nights IX: 1999 None Midway of the Bizarre Halloween Horror Nights X 2000 Jack the Clown Halloween Horror Nights XI 2001 Jack the Clown Halloween Horror Nights 12: 2002 The Caretaker Halloween Horror Nights 13 2003 The Director Halloween Horror Nights 14 2004 None Castle Vampyr Disorientorium Deadtropolis Hellgate Prison Horror in Wax Horror Nights Nightmares Ghost Town Field of Screams The Fright Yard Midway of the Bizarre Point of Evil Bill & Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure Festival of the Dead Parade Halloween Horror Nights 15: 2005 Where Evil Hides Body Collectors Blood Ruins Cold Blind Terror Demon Cantina The Skool Terror Mines Blood Thunder Alley The Cemetery Mines The Fire Pits Terra Guard Run Bill & Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure Terra Throne Halloween Horror Nights: 2006 Scream House: Resurrection All Nite Die-In: Take 2 Psychoscareapy: Maximum Madness Dungeon of Terror: Retold The People Under the Stairs: Under Construction Psycho Path: The Return of Norman Bates Run: Hostile Territory Blood Masquerade Deadtropolis: Zombie Siege Harvest of the Souls Horror Comes Home Bill & Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure The Arrival Sweet 16: The Director's Cut Robosaurus Halloween Horror Nights 17: 2007 Jack's Funhouse in Clown-O-Vision A Nightmare on Elm Street: Dreamwalkers Friday the 13th: Camp Blood The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: Flesh Wounds Dead Silence: The Curse of Mary Shaw PsychoScareapy: Home for the Holidays The Thing: Assimilation Vampyr: Blood Bath Midway of the Bizarre Killer Carnies Motormaniacs Treaks & Foons Troupe Macabe Bill & Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure Jack's Carnival of Carnage The Rocky Horror Picture Show: A Tribute Freak Show Halloween Horror Nights 18: 2008 Bloody Mary Reflections of Fear Body Collectors: Collections of the Past Creatures! Dead Exposure Doomsday The Hallow Interstellar Terror Scary Tales: Once Upon a Nightmare American Gothic Asylum in Wonderland Fractured Tales The Path of the Wicked The Skoolhouse Streets of Blood: Body Collectors Bill & Ted Meet Hellboy The Rocky Horror Picture Show: A Tribute Brian Brushwood Halloween Horror Nights 19: 2009 Silver Screams Saw Chucky: Friends 'til the End The Wolfman Dracula: Legacy in Blood Frankenstein: Creation of the Damned Leave it to Cleaver The Spawning Apocalypse: City of Cannibals Cirque du Freak Containment Horrorwood Die-In Lights, Camera, Hacktion! War of the Living Dead Shadows from the Past Bill & Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure The Rocky Horror Picture Show: A Tribute Halloween Horror Nights XX: 2010 Horror Nights: The Hallow'd Past Catacombs: Black Death Rising Havoc: Dogs of War The Orfanage: Ashes to Ashes ZombieGeddon Hades: The Gates of Ruin PsychoScareapy: Echoes of Shadybrook Legendary Truth: The Wyandot Estate HHN: 20 Years of Fear Fear Revealed Zombie Gras Saws N' Steam The Coven Esqueleto Muerte Bill & Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure Brian Brushwood: Menace and Malice Halloween Horror Nights 21 2011 Lady Luck Nightingales: Blood Prey H.R. Bloodengutz Presents Holidays of Horror Saws N' Steam: Into the Machine The Thing Winter's Night: The Haunting of Hawthorn Cemetery Nevermore: The Madness of Poe The Forsaken The In Between Your Luck Has Run Out Nightmaze Grown Evil Canyon of Dark Souls 7 Acid Assault Bill & Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure Death Drums Halloween Horror Nights 22 2012 None Welcome To Silent Hill The Walking Dead: Dead Inside Alice Cooper: Welcome to My Nightmare Penn & Teller: New(kd) Las Vegas 3-D Universal's House of Horrors Dead End Gothic The Iniquitus Dark Legions: Vampires Dark Legions: Beasts Dark Legions: Warriors Dark Legions: Prisoners Dark Legions: Traditionals Dark Legions: Zombies Bill & Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure 20 Penny Circus: Fully Exposed Halloween Horror Nights 23 2013 None The Cabin in the Woods Evil Dead The Walking Dead: No Safe Haven Urban Legends: La Llorona Afterlife: Death's Vengeance Havoc: Derailed An American Werewolf in London Resident Evil: Escape From Raccoon City The Walking Dead: The Fall of Atlanta The Walking Dead: Woodlands The Walking Dead: Survivor's Camp The Walking Dead: The Farm The Walking Dead: Clear Bill & Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure The Rocky Horror Picture Show: A Tribute Halloween Horror Nights 24 2014 None Halloween The Walking Dead: The End of the Line AVP: Alien vs. Predator From Dusk Till Dawn Dracula Untold: Reign of Blood Dollhouse of the Damned Giggles & Gore Inc. Roanoke: Cannibal Colony The Purge: Anarchy Face Off: In the Flesh Bayou of Blood MASKerade: Unstitched The Rocky Horror Picture Show: A Tribute Bill & Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure Halloween Horror Nights 25 2015 Jack The Clown Freddy vs. Jason Insidious The Walking Dead: The Living and The Dead The Purge An American Werewolf In London Body Collectors: Recollections RUN: Blood, Sweat, and Fears Asylum in Wonderland 3D Jack Presents: 25 Years of Monsters and Mayhem Psychoscareapy: Unleashed Icons: HHN Scary Tales: Screampunk Evil's Roots All Nite Die-In: Double Feature Bill & Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure The Carnage Returns Halloween Horror Nights 26 2016 Chance The Texas Chain Saw Massacre The Exorcist Halloween: Hell Comes To Haddonfield Krampus Tomb of the Ancients Lunatics Playground 3D: You Won't Stand a Chance Ghost Town: The Curse of Lightning Gulch American Horror Story The Repository VR Experience The Walking Dead Survive Or Die: Apocalypse Lair of the Banshee Dead Man's Wharf Vamp '55 A Chance In Hell Bill & Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure Academy Of Villains: House Of Fear Halloween Horror Nights 27 2017 None American Horror Story The Shining Ash vs Evil Dead Saw: The Games of Jigsaw The Horrors of Blumhouse Dead Waters Scarecrow: The Reaping The Fallen HIVE Trick 'r Treat The Purge Altars of Horror Festival of the Deadliest Invasion! Bill & Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure Academy Of Villains: Afterlife Halloween Horror Nights 28 2018 None Stranger Things Dead Exposure: Patient Zero Trick 'r Treat Slaughter Sinema Carnival Graveyard: Rust in Pieces Seeds of Extinction Poltergeist Halloween 4: The Return of Michael Myers The Horrors of Blumhouse: Chapter 2 Scary Tales: Deadly Ever After The Harvest Vamp '85: New Year's Eve Twisted Tradition Revenge of Chucky Killer Klowns from Outer Space Academy of Villains: Cyberpunk Halloween Horror Nights 29 2019 None Stranger Things Nightingales: Blood Pit Universal Monsters Depths of Fear Yeti: Terror of the Yukon Ghostbusters Killer Klowns from Outer Space Us Graveyard Games House of 1000 Corpses Rob Zombie: Hellbilly Deluxe Zombieland: Double Tap Anarch-cade Vanity Ball Vikings Undead Academy of Villains: Altered States Halloween Marathon of Mayhem Cancelled due to delays and restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic. 2020 colspan="4" Halloween Horror Nights 30: 2021 Jack The Clown Beetlejuice Puppet Theatre: Captive Audience The Haunting of Hill House The Texas Chain Saw Massacre Universal Monsters: The Bride of Frankenstein Lives HHN Icons: Captured Welcome to SCarey: Horror in the Heartland Case Files Unearthed: Legendary Truth The Wicked Growth: Realm of the Pumpkin Revenge of the Tooth Fairy Crypt TV 30 Years 30 Fears Seek and Destroy Gorewood Forest Lights, Camera, Hacktion: Eddie's Revenge Marathon of Mayhem: Carnage Factory Halloween Nightmare Fuel Halloween Horror Nights 31: 2022 Pumpkin Lord Universal Monsters: Legends Collide Halloween The Horrors of Blumhouse (feat. Freaky and The Black Phone) The Weeknd: After Hours Nightmare Spirits of the Coven Bugs: Eaten Alive Fiesta de Chupacabras Hellblock Horror Dead Man’s Pier: Winter’s Wake Descendants of Destruction Horrors of Halloween Scarecrow: Cursed Soil Sweet Revenge Graveyard: Deadly Unrest Conjure the Dark Halloween Nightmare Fuel: Wildfire Ghoulish! A Halloween Tale Halloween Horror Nights 32: 2023 Chucky The Last of Us ===Universal Studios Hollywood=== Year Icon Terror Tram Mazes Scare Zones Shows 1986 None The Terror Tram None None Ready for the World "Oh Sheila" 1992 None The Terror Tram Maze of Maniacs Nightmare Alley None Penn & Teller Amazing Falkenstein Dungeon of Terror Tower of Torture Carnival of Carnage Chucky "In-Your-Face" Insults Ghoulia Wild's Roadside Cuisine Death Globe The Wild, Wild, Wild Witch Hunt The Living Deadheads Review Club Fright Burn and Bury Swap Meet Beetlejuice's Graveyard Revue The Voodoo Gurus Zombie Spooktacular Backdraft 1997 None None Area 51 Maze Classic Monster Maze The Crypt Keeper's Film Vault Maze Monsterquarium None Bill and Ted's Halloween Adventure Circus of Horrors Beetlejuice's Rockin' Graveyard Revue Chucky's Insult Emporium Boogie Knights March of the Zombies Creepy Animal Show 1998 None None Alien Assault Classic Creatures Features Clive Barker's FREAKZ Maze The Crypt Keeper's Screaming Room None None 1999 None None Cleaver's Meat Locker Clive Barker's Hell The Mummy Creature Features The Thrilling Chilling World of Rob Zombie None Bill and Ted's Halloween Adventure Chucky's Insult Emporium Animal House of Horrors Carnival of Carnage Rob Zombie presents Bomboras 2000 None None Buffy & Angel: Hellmouth Haunt Clive Barker's Harvest Theatre of Blood The Undertaker: No Mercy Rob Zombie's The House of 1000 Corpses Maze Nightmare Creatures II Bill and Ted's Halloween Adventure Chucky's Insult Emporium Animal House of Horrors Dance Party Carnival of Carnage Z.com present's Bobbing for Maggots 2006 The Director The Director's Cut The Asylum Universal's House of Horrors The Black Death Dawn of the Dead Deadwood Old London Studio Center SlaughterWorld Carnival of Carnage Fear Factor Live: Dead Celebrity Edition The Mutaytor Chucky's Insult Emporium 2007 Jack the Clown Freddy Krueger Leatherface Jason Voorhees Horror Comes Home Universal's House of Horrors A Nightmare on Elm Street: Freddy's Nightmare Friday the 13th: Camp Blood The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: Back in Business The Black Death Deadwood HellBilly Hoedown Haunted London Zombie Invasion Bill and Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure Chucky's Insult Emporium Dark Magic and Dirty Tricks SlaughterWorld 2 2008 Freddy Krueger Jason Voorhees Leatherface The Nightmare Tour A Nightmare on Elm Street: Home Sweet Hell Friday the 13th: Camp Blood The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: Back in Business Universal's House of Horrors: Meet The Strangers The Nightmare Begins... The Black Death The Dead Shall Rise Deadwood The Dark Streets of London Revenge of the Pigs The Strangers Bill and Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure Chucky's Insult Emporium (Got Canceled Half-Way) SlaughterWorld 3 2009 Billy the Puppet Chucky Michael Myers Live or Die Saw: Game Over Chucky's Funhouse Halloween: The Life & Crimes of Michael Myers My Bloody Valentine: Be Mine 4 Ever FREAKZ Let the Games Begin! Meat Market Shaun of the Dead There Will Be Blood Welcome to Hell Bill and Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure The Rocky Horror Picture Show: A Tribute 2010 Freddy Krueger Jason Voorhees Billy the Puppet Chucky's Revenge A Nightmare on Elm Street: Never Sleep Again Friday the 13th: Kill, Jason, Kill Saw: Game On Rob Zombie's House of 1000 Corpses: In 3-D Zombievision Vampyre: Castle of the Undead Nightmarez Klownz La Llorona Lunaticz Freakz Pigz Bill and Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure 2011 Ghostface Scream 4 Your Life The Thing: Assimilation Eli Roth's Hostel: Hunting Season Alice Cooper: Welcome to My Nightmare Rob Zombie's House of 1000 Corpses: In 3D ZombieVision The Wolfman: The Curse of Talbot Hall La Llorona: Villa de Almas Perdidas Scream Zombieville Reaperz Klownz Freakz Bill & Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure 2012 The Walking Dead Invaded by The Walking Dead The Walking Dead: Dead Inside Welcome to Silent Hill Alice Cooper: Goes to Hell 3D Universal Monsters Remix The Texas Chain Saw Massacre: The Saw is the Law La Llorona: La Cazadora de Ninos Toyz Klownz Silent Hill Witchez Bill & Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure 2013 The Walking Dead Invaded by The Walking Dead Evil Dead: Book of the Dead The Walking Dead: No Safe Haven Black Sabbath: 13 3D Insidious: Into The Further Universal Monsters Remix: Resurrection El Cucuy: The Boogeyman The Purge: Survive the Night Curse of Chucky Cirque Du Klownz Scarecrowz The Walking Dead: Dead on Arrival Bill & Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure Chucky's Insult Emporium 2014 The Walking Dead Invaded by The Walking Dead The Walking Dead: End Of The Line Alien vs. Predator From Dusk Till Dawn Dracula Untold: Reign of Blood Face Off: In The Flesh An American Werewolf in London Clowns 3D The Walking Dead: Welcome to Terminus The Purge: Anarchy Mask-a-Raid Dark Christmas Skullz None 2015 The Walking Dead Survive The Purge Crimson Peak: Maze of Madness Insidious: Return to the Further The Walking Dead: Wolves Not Far Halloween: Michael Myers Comes Home This Is The End 3D Alien vs. Predator Exterminatorz Dark Christmas Corpz The Purge: Urban Nightmare Jabbawockeez 2016 Beyond Your Wildest Screams Eli Roth Presents Terror Tram The Exorcist Halloween: Hell Comes To Haddonfield Freddy vs. Jason The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: Blood Brothers Krampus American Horror Story The Walking Dead Attraction The Purge: Election Year Jabbawockeez 2017 The Best Nightmares Never End Titans of Terror Tram: Hosted by Chucky The Shining American Horror Story: Roanoke Ash vs Evil Dead Titans of Terror Saw: The Games of Jigsaw Insidious: Beyond the Further The Horrors of Blumhouse The Walking Dead Attraction Hell-O-Ween Toxic Tunnel Urban Inferno Jabbawockeez 2018 True Fear Comes From Within Terror Tram: Hollywood Harry's Dreadtime Storiez Stranger Things Trick 'r Treat The First Purge Poltergeist Halloween 4: The Return of Michael Myers The Horrors of Blumhouse: Chapter 2 Universal Monsters The Walking Dead Attraction Holidayz in Hell Monster Masquerade Hell's Harvest Toxxic Tunnel Trick 'r Treat Jabbawockeez 2019 Maximum Screamage None Stranger Things Holidayz in Hell Universal Monsters: Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man Ghostbusters Killer Klowns from Outer Space Creepshow Us House of 1000 Corpses The Curse of Pandora's Box The Walking Dead Attraction Fallen Angelz Spirits and Demons of the East Christmas in Hell ToXXXic Tunnel All Hallow's Evil Jabbawockeez 2020 Cancelled due to delays and restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic. colspan="4" 2021 Never Go Alone Terror Tram: The Ultimate Purge The Haunting of Hill House The Texas Chain Saw Massacre Universal Monsters: The Bride of Frankenstein Lives The Exorcist The Curse of Pandora's Box Halloween 4: The Return of Michael Myers AMC's The Walking Dead Universal Monsters: Silver Scream Queenz Chainsaw Rangers Demon City Jabbawockeez 2022 Never Go Alone Terror Tram (feat. Jordan Peele's Us and Nope) Universal Monsters: Legends Collide Halloween The Horrors of Blumhouse (feat. Freaky and The Black Phone) The Weeknd: After Hours Nightmare Scarecrow: The Reaping Killer Klowns from Outer Space La Llorona: The Weeping Woman Universal Horror Hotel El Pueblo del Terror Sideshow Slaughterhouse Clownsawz Jabbawockeez 2023 Never Go Alone Chucky The Last of Us ===Universal Studios Singapore=== Name Year Lead Icons / Theme Other Icons Haunted Houses Scare Zones Shows Special Experiences Halloween Horror Nights 2011 - The Director None - Peranakan Mansion: Vengeance of the Matriarch - Carn-Evil \- Post-Apocalyptic Rage \- The Pestilence \- The Void \- The Edge of Darkness - 44 Sins \- Director's Final Cut None Halloween Horror Nights 2 2012 - The Puppet Master - High Priest \- Doctor Dementia \- The Undertaker - Dungeon of Damnation \- The Insanitarium \- Death Alley - House of Dolls \- Total Lockdown \- Bizarre Bazaar None None Halloween Horror Nights 3 2013 The Evil Sisters \- The Crone of the Forest \- The Daughter of the Undead \- The Maiden of the Opera None - Adrift \- Songs of Death \- House No. 13 - Attack of the Vampires \- Convention of Curses \- Forbidden Forest None None Halloween Horror Nights 4 2014 - The Minister (Jonah Goodwill) None - The L.A.B: Laboratory of Alien Breeding \- Mati Camp \- Jing's Revenge \- Jack's 3-Dementia - Scary Tales \- Canyon of the Cursed \- Demoncracy \- Bogeyman - Jack's Nightmare Circus None Halloween Horror Nights 5 2015 Theme: The Blood Moon - Tok Naga Arang \- Silas the Cult Leader \- Paper Effigy \- Flesh-eating Zombie - True Singapore Ghost Stories: The MRT \- The Tunnel People \- Hell House \- Siloso Gateway Block 50 - CONTermination \- Hungry Ghosts \- The Invaders - Beast Club None Halloween Horror Nights 6 2016 - Lady Death - Pontianak \- Damien Shipman \- Augusta DeFeo \- Hu Li \- Poisoned Teen \- Jack the Clown - Old Changi Hospital \- Bodies of Work \- The Salem Witch House \- Hu Li's Inn \- Hawker Centre Massacre - Suicide Forest \- March of the Dead - Jack's Recurring Nightmare Circus \- Death March None Halloween Horror Nights 7 2017 Theme: The 7 Deadlier Sins - Malice (Malice) \- Raven (Narcissism) \- Empress Qing (Creulty) \- Midnight Man (Manipulation) \- Lord Obsession (Obsession) \- Father Time (Perversion) \- Doctor White (Deception) - Death Mall \- Make the Cut \- Terrorcotta Empress \- Hex \- Inside the Mind - Happy Horror Days \- Pilgrimage of Sin - Laboratorium \- Slice of Life Tour - Zombie Laser Tag Halloween Horror Nights 8 2018 Theme: Infinite Fear - Demogorgon \- Lu Xi Fa \- Pontianak \- Yin Demon \- Lady Oiwa \- Zombie \- Cannibal Chief \- Gaia - Stranger Things \- Killuminati \- Pontianak \- Pagoda of Peril \- The Haunting of Oiwa - Cannibal \- Apocalypse: Earth - Infinite Fear \- DEAD Talk \- Blood and Bones - Zombie Laser Tag Halloween Horror Nights 9 2019 - The Undertaker - Serpentine Spirit \- Ring Leader Rusty \- Langsuir \- Executioner \- Yumi \- Savage - Curse of the Naga \- Twisted Clown University \- The Chalet Hauntings \- Hell Block 9 \- Spirit Dolls - Dead End \- Death Fest - Death Fest LIVE \- Skin & Bones - Halloween Carnival Cancelled due to delays and restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic. 2020 colspan="6" Halloween Horror Nights Exhibition 2021 colspan="6" Halloween Horror Nights 10 2022 - The Killustrator - Sorceress \- The Bitten Zombie \- The Horrorcle \- Pontianak \- The Reaper - Killustrator: The Final Chapter \- Operation: Dead Force \- Hospitality of Horror - Dark Zodiac \- The Hunt for Pontianak - The Silenced Auction - Escape the Breakout \- Die-ning with the Dead \- Monsters & Manifestations Halloween Horror Nights 11 2023 TBA TBA - All of Us Are Dead TBA TBA TBA ===Universal Studios Japan=== Year Houses Scare Zones Attractions & Shows 2012 Jason's Bloody Diner The Mummy Museum II Biohazard/Resident Evil Parade De Carnival Trick or Treat 2013 Sadako Friday the 13th The Mummy Museum III Zombie Street Parade De Carnival 2014 Sadako Friday the 13th Chucky's Horror Factory Zombie Street Biohazard/Resident Evil Parade De Carnival 2015 Sadako A Nightmare on Elm Street Chucky's Horror Factory 2 Alien vs. Predator Zombie Street Biohazard/Resident Evil Parade De Carnival 2016 A Nightmare on Elm Street 2 Chucky's Horror Factory 3 Tatari The Exorcist Trauma 2 Zombie Street J-Horror None 2017 Deadman's Forest Cult of Chucky A Nightmare on Elm Street 3 The Exorcist Trauma 3 Sadako Gakkou no Kaidan Zombie Street Festa de Parade 2018 Insidious: The Last Key Cult of Chucky The Survival-Deadman's Forest 2 Street Zombies SADAKO 2019 Biohazard/Resident Evil Area 51 Cult of Chucky Street Zombies Zombie de Dance SADAKO Space Fantasy: The Ride: The Black Hole 2020 Cancelled due to delays and restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic. colspan="2" 2021 GeGeGe no Kitarō Zombie de Dance Psycho Street Sherlock Holmes: The Cursed Rose Sword 2022 Biohazard: The Extreme Universal Monsters: Legends of Fear Cult of Chucky: Chucky's Hospital Ward of Madness HAMIKUMA Psycho Circus Murderous Monsters Chainsaw Chain-gang Tortured Test-Subjects Gothic Killer Cuties Circus Freaks Atrocious Ancients Sherlock Holmes: The Cursed Rose Sword 2023 TBA TBA TBA ==Event icons== Halloween Horror Nights has amassed a number of lead characters, known as icons. These icons usually have elaborate back-stories that involve the events' themes, houses, or scare zones. Predominantly, they have been used for promotional materials and merchandising. The first unofficial icon was The Crypt Keeper, from the TV series Tales from the Crypt, a series popular at the time of his first event appearance. The Crypt Keeper returned the next year for one of the houses, but was not featured in the advertising campaign. After the Crypt Keeper, the event continued for three years without an icon. In 1999, Imhotep served as Icon. for Halloween Horror Nights X, Jack the Clown was featured as an icon. This represents the first time Universal created an icon in-house. Halloween Horror Nights has had an icon, and in some cases, multiple icons, every year since, excluding Halloween Horror Nights XIV, 22-24 and 27-29. These characters have included Jack the Clown, The Caretaker, The Director, The Storyteller, Bloody Mary, The Usher, Fear, Lady Luck, Chance and The Pumpkin Lord. Chance was the icon for Halloween Horror Nights 2016. She was a new icon but used to serve as a "sidekick" to Jack (though there are rumours that they have a romantic relationship) in his shows (her role and look being inspired by Batman antagonist Harley Quinn). In 2007, for Halloween Horror Nights 17, Universal again licensed intellectual properties from others, in this case New Line Cinema for Freddy Krueger, Jason Voorhees, and Leatherface, however, Jack the Clown was still featured. Jack the Clown returned in 2015 for Halloween Horror Nights XXV followed by Chance in 2016 at Halloween Horror Nights 26. The icons returned in 2021 for HHN 30 in their house, Icons Captured. Set in Fear's Lantern from HHN 20, each had their own special room in the house where they re-enacted famous kills. The final room would feature a different icon who sat in the throne each night. At HHN 31, The Pumpkin Lord served as that year's icon after appearing at HHN 30 in The Wicked Growth: Realm of the Pumpkin house. ==Attractions== ===Haunted houses=== The haunted houses are the main attractions at the event. When the event first started as "Fright Nights" at Universal Studios Florida, there was simply one haunted house: the Dungeon of Terror. As the event progressed through the years, the number has increased to as many as ten different houses, as of Halloween Horror Nights 28 in 2018. The houses are enumerated in the expandable charts above for each park, sorted by year. The event typically averages nine haunted houses along with numerous scare zones. ===Scare zones=== Halloween Horror Nights IV was the first year to introduce a "scare zone", a name given to specific outdoor areas that feature costumed characters that fit the zone's theme with the intent of scaring people who walk through the areas. To get to certain areas of the park, it is necessary to travel through these scare zones. In 2012, Orlando re-envisioned the scare zones as "street experiences," claiming that scare actors were no longer restricted to specific "zones." Instead, there were a number of "hordes" which would change their location in the park every 90 minutes. By 2014, the traditional scare zones returned with The Purge: Anarchy (inspired by the film), Face Off: In the Flesh, Bayou of Blood, and MASKerade: Unstitched. However, Hollywood Horror Nights in California still has specific scare zones, that range in themes. In recent years, Halloween Horror Nights in Orlando has adjusted the locations of its scare zones, forcing attendees to walk through at least one zone when entering the park. While actors cannot touch guests and vice versa, many of them can surround them at one time. Many actors in these areas have props like bats, chainsaws, and fake guns, and can act like they are going to attack guests with their "weapons". Actors are also allowed to chase visitors in and out of the scare zones. From time to time, actors will pose as regular event guests, only to be captured by various hordes, specifically The Purge. ===Entertainment/Shows=== Halloween Horror Nights has featured several live entertainment shows. Recurring shows have included "The Rocky Horror Picture Show A Tribute", "Bill and Ted's Excellent Halloween Adventure", Robosaurus and Academy of Villains. Bill and Ted's show appeared in every Halloween Horror Nights from 1992 until its closure following Halloween Horror Nights 27 in 2017. thumb|left|The Universal Entrance Decorated for Halloween Horror Nights 17 It was "...a scatter-shot mashup of pop culture, popular radio and unexpectedly mature content" according to a review. For the first time, Universal Studios Florida will debut a brand new lagoon show entitled "Halloween Marathon of Mayhem" during HHN 29 that will feature "iconic scenes from top horror films, cult classics and TV shows. ===Rides=== Several theme park rides remain operational during the event. In past event years, some were re-themed for the event such as Kongfrontation becoming Tramway of Doom during Halloween Horror Nights II. Diagon Alley has been open for Halloween Horror Nights since 2015. It was closed-off in 2014 despite opening just a few months earlier and to date it has not been re-themed or had any scare actors present. ==Commercials, media, and awards== Universal's Halloween Horror Nights is known for the dark tone of its advertisements and commercials. A majority of them were directed by Dean Kane. In 2010, the directors of Daybreakers, Michael Spierig and Peter Spierig, directed the commercial for Halloween Horror Nights. Universal Studios Florida has won Amusement Todays Golden Ticket Award for Best Halloween Event 12 of the 14 times it has been awarded, including the last eleven years straight. ==COVID-19 pandemic impact== Due to COVID-19 and its spread to Florida and to California, Universal Orlando announced Halloween Horror Nights' 30th annual event would not be taking place in 2020 as originally planned in Orlando or Hollywood. In a statement "Universal Orlando Resort will be focusing exclusively on operating its theme parks for daytime guests, using the enhanced health and safety procedures already in place," the resort said in a news release Friday morning. "We know this decision will disappoint our fans and guests. We are disappointed, too. But we look forward to creating an amazing event in 2021." However, Universal opted to open the Halloween Horror Nights merchandise store. Universal Orlando did open two haunted houses in the fall of 2020, the "Bride of Frankenstein Lives" house and the "Revenge of the Tooth Fairy" house, in an attempt to lure back park guests but under full COVID restrictions with only three guests per room and distanced accordingly. This was not considered as a true Halloween event as the company simply was testing the procedure for Halloween events as precautions. These houses lasted throughout the season. A third house, based on the film Beetlejuice, opened Halloween weekend. All three were closed November 1. On September 9, Universal Singapore announced that they made a decision to not hold the event that year. ==Incidents== * On October 31, 1986, during the "Fright Nights" event, scare actor Paul Rebalde Brooks, who was supposed to scare the attendees at The Terror Tram (a nighttime version of the Backlot Tour), fell between two of the tram cars and was crushed to death by a tram. Universal Studios Hollywood put Halloween events on hiatus until six years later, when their "Halloween Horror Nights" debuted in 1992. * On October 28, 2015, two guests were arrested and charged with battery for attacking "scare actors" during the Halloween Horror Nights event. At least two scare actors quit after the attacks. ==References== Halloween Horror Nights Universal Orlando Resort Halloween Horror Nights Universal Studios Hollywood Halloween Horror Nights Universal Studios Singapore Category:Universal Studios Hollywood Category:Universal Studios Florida Category:Universal Studios Singapore Category:Universal Studios Japan Category:Islands of Adventure Category:Universal Parks & Resorts attractions by name Category:Halloween events in the United States Category:Haunted attractions (simulated) Category:1991 establishments in Florida |
Ceawlin (also spelled Ceaulin, Caelin and Celin, died ca. 593) was a King of Wessex. He may have been the son of Cynric of Wessex and the grandson of Cerdic of Wessex, whom the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle represents as the leader of the first group of Saxons to come to the land which later became Wessex. Ceawlin was active during the last years of the Anglo-Saxon expansion, with little of southern England remaining in the control of the native Britons by the time of his death. The chronology of Ceawlin's life is highly uncertain. The historical accuracy and dating of many of the events in the later Anglo- Saxon Chronicle have been called into question, and his reign is variously listed as lasting seven, seventeen, or thirty-two years.Stenton, p. 29, accepts the date given for Ceawlin's accession in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle of 560, but Barbara Yorke in her online DNB article on Ceawlin states that his reign seems to have been deliberately lengthened. The Chronicle records several battles of Ceawlin's between the years 556 and 592, including the first record of a battle between different groups of Anglo-Saxons, and indicates that under Ceawlin Wessex acquired significant territory, some of which was later to be lost to other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Ceawlin is also named as one of the eight "bretwaldas", a title given in the Chronicle to eight rulers who had overlordship over southern Britain, although the extent of Ceawlin's control is not known. Ceawlin died in 593, having been deposed the year before, possibly by his successor, Ceol. He is recorded in various sources as having two sons, Cutha and Cuthwine, but the genealogies in which this information is found are known to be unreliable. ==Historical context== The history of the sub-Roman period in Britain is poorly sourced and the subject of a number of important disagreements among historians. It appears, however, that in the fifth century, raids on Britain by continental peoples developed into migrations. The newcomers included Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians. These peoples captured territory in the east and south of England, but at about the end of the fifth century, a British victory at the battle of Mons Badonicus halted the Anglo-Saxon advance for fifty years.Hunter Blair, An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 13–16.Campbell et al., The Anglo- Saxons, p. 23. Near the year 550, however, the British began to lose ground once more, and within twenty-five years, it appears that control of almost all of southern England was in the hands of the invaders.Hunter Blair (Roman Britain, p. 204) gives the twenty-five years from 550 to 575 as the dates of the final conquest. The peace following the battle of Mons Badonicus is attested partly by Gildas, a monk, who wrote De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae or On the Ruin and Conquest of Britain during the middle of the sixth century. This essay is a polemic against corruption and Gildas provides little in the way of names and dates. He appears, however, to state that peace had lasted from the year of his birth to the time he was writing.Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 2–7. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is the other main source that bears on this period, in particular in an entry for the year 827 that records a list of the kings who bore the title "bretwalda", or "Britain- ruler". That list shows a gap in the early sixth century that matches Gildas's version of events.Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, pp. 60–61 Ceawlin's reign belongs to the period of Anglo-Saxon expansion at the end of the sixth century. Though there are many unanswered questions about the chronology and activities of the early West Saxon rulers, it is clear that Ceawlin was one of the key figures in the final Anglo-Saxon conquest of southern Britain.Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, p. 30. ==Early West Saxon sources== The two main written sources for early West Saxon history are the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List. The Chronicle is a set of annals which were compiled near the year 890, during the reign of King Alfred the Great of Wessex.Keynes and Lapidge, Alfred the Great, p. 41. They record earlier material for the older entries, which were assembled from earlier annals that no longer survive, as well as from saga material that might have been transmitted orally.Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, p. xixYorke, Kings and Kingdoms, p. 132. The Chronicle dates the arrival of the future "West Saxons" in Britain to 495, when Cerdic and his son, Cynric, land at Cerdices ora, or Cerdic's shore. Almost twenty annals describing Cerdic's campaigns and those of his descendants appear interspersed through the next hundred years of entries in the Chronicle.Kirby, Earliest English Kings, pp. 50–51.Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, pp. 14–21 Although these annals provide most of what is known about Ceawlin, the historicity of many of the entries is uncertain.Kirby, Earliest English Kings, p. 55 The West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List is a list of rulers of Wessex, including the lengths of their reigns. It survives in several forms, including as a preface to the [B] manuscript of the Chronicle.The Regnal List is now separated from the main body of the Chronicle, and as result the manuscripts are recorded separately in the British Library, as MS Cotton Tiberius A ii, f. 178 (for the Regnal List), and MS Cotton Tiberius A vi, ff. 1–34 (the [B] manuscript of the Chronicle). See Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, p. xxii. See also Lapidge, Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England, p. 388. As with the Chronicle, the list was compiled during the reign of Alfred the Great, and both the list and the Chronicle are influenced by the desire of their writers to use a single line of descent to trace the lineage of the Kings of Wessex through Cerdic to Gewis, the legendary eponymous ancestor of the West Saxons, who is made to descend from Woden. The result served the political purposes of the scribe, but is riddled with contradictions for historians.D.P. Kirby (Earliest English Kings, p. 49) refers to the combination of the Chronicle and the Regnal List as a "political fiction". The contradictions may be seen clearly by calculating dates by different methods from the various sources. The first event in West Saxon history, the date of which can be regarded as reasonably certain, is the baptism of Cynegils, which occurred in the late 630s, perhaps as late as 640. The Chronicle dates Cerdic's arrival to 495, but adding up the lengths of the reigns as given in the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List leads to the conclusion that Cerdic's reign might have started in 532, a difference of 37 years. Neither 495 nor 532 may be treated as reliable; however, the latter date relies on the presumption that the Regnal List is correct in presenting the Kings of Wessex as having succeeded one another, with no omitted kings, and no joint kingships, and that the durations of the reigns are correct as given. None of these presumptions may be made safely. The sources also are inconsistent on the length of Ceawlin's reign. The Chronicle gives it as thirty-two years, from 560 to 592, but the Regnal Lists disagree: different versions give it as seven or seventeen years. A recent detailed study of the Regnal List dates the arrival of the West Saxons in England to 538, and favours seven years as the most likely length of Ceawlin's reign, with dates of 581–588 proposed.Yorke, Kings and Kingdoms, p. 133, citing D.N. Dumville, "The West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List and the chronology of Wessex", 1985. The sources do agree that Ceawlin is the son of Cynric and he usually is named as the father of Cuthwine.See the "Genealogical Tables" in the appendices to Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. There is one discrepancy in this case: the entry for 685 in the [A] version of the Chronicle assigns Ceawlin a son, Cutha, but in the 855 entry in the same manuscript, Cutha is listed as the son of Cuthwine. Cutha also is named as Ceawlin's brother in the [E] and [F] versions of the Chronicle, in the 571 and 568 entries, respectively.Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, pp. 18–19. For tables showing the variations in the Wessex genealogy, see also figures 3 and 4 in Kirby, Earliest English Kings, pp. 223–224. Whether Ceawlin is a descendant of Cerdic is a matter of debate. Subgroupings of different West Saxon lineages give the impression of separate groups, of which Ceawlin's line is one. Some of the problems in the Wessex genealogies may have come about because of efforts to integrate Ceawlin's line with the other lineages: it became very important to the West Saxons to be able to trace the ancestors of their rulers back to Cerdic.Yorke (Kings and Kingdoms, p. 133) gives this argument in some detail. Another reason for doubting the literal nature of these early genealogies is that the etymology of the names of several early members of the dynasty do not appear to be Germanic, as would be expected in the names of leaders of an apparently Anglo-Saxon dynasty. The name Ceawlin has no convincing Old English etymology; it seems more likely to be of British origin."Records of the West Saxon dynasties survive in versions which have been subject to later manipulation, which may make it all the more significant that some of the founding 'Saxon' fathers have British names: Cerdic, Ceawlin, Cenwalh." in: Hills, C., Origins of the English, Duckworth (2003), p. 105. Also "The names Cerdic, Ceawlin and Caedwalla, all in the genealogy of the West Saxon kings, are apparently British." in: Ward-Perkins, B., Why did the Anglo-Saxons not become more British? The English Historical Review 115.462 (June 2000), 513–33: p513. The earliest sources do not use the term "West Saxon". According to Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People, the term is interchangeable with the Gewisse. The term "West Saxon" appears only in the late seventh century, after the reign of Cædwalla.Kirby, Earliest English Kings, pp. 48, 223 ==West Saxon expansion== thumb|right|A map of places mentioned by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in annals relating to Ceawlin; modern versions of the place names are given here, rather than the Anglo-Saxon names used in the chronicle.|alt=A map showing places in central southern England, including Gloucester, Cirencester, Bath, and Aylesbury Ultimately, the kingdom of Wessex occupied the southwest of England, but the initial stages in this expansion are not apparent from the sources. Cerdic's landing, whenever it is to be dated, seems to have been near the Isle of Wight, and the annals record the conquest of the island in 530. In 534, according to the Chronicle, Cerdic died and his son Cynric took the throne; the Chronicle adds that "they gave the Isle of Wight to their nephews, Stuf and Wihtgar".Note that the name "Wight" is derived from the Romano-British "Vectis', not from "Wihtgar"; see Swanton, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, p. 16. These records are in direct conflict with Bede, who states that the Isle of Wight was settled by Jutes, not Saxons; the archaeological record is somewhat in favour of Bede on this.Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 22–23. Subsequent entries in the Chronicle give details of some of the battles by which the West Saxons won their kingdom. Ceawlin's campaigns are not given as near the coast. They range along the Thames Valley and beyond, as far as Surrey in the east and the mouth of the Severn in the west. Ceawlin clearly is part of the West Saxon expansion, but the military history of the period is difficult to understand. In what follows the dates are as given in the Chronicle, although, as noted above, these are earlier than now thought accurate. ===556: === The first record of a battle fought by Ceawlin is in 556, when he and his father, Cynric, fought the native Britons at "", or Bera's Stronghold. This now is identified as Barbury Castle, an Iron Age hill fort in Wiltshire, near Swindon. Cynric would have been king of Wessex at this time.Stenton, Anglo- Saxon England, pp. 26–28. ===568: Wibbandun=== The first battle Ceawlin fought as king is dated by the Chronicle to 568, when he and Cutha fought with Æthelberht, the king of Kent. The entry says "Here Ceawlin and Cutha fought against Aethelberht and drove him into Kent; and they killed two ealdormen, Oslaf and Cnebba, on Wibbandun." The location of "Wibbandun", which can be translated as "Wibba's Mount", has not been identified definitely; it was at one time thought to be Wimbledon, but this now is known to be incorrect.Plummer, Two Saxon Chronicles, vol. 2 p. 16English Place-Name Society (1926), p. xiv, cited in Hodgkins, A History, p. 188 n. 2 David Cooper proposes Wyboston, a small village 8 miles north-east of Bedford on the west bank of the Great Ouse. Wibbandun is often written as Wibba's Dun, which is close phonetically to Wyboston and Æthelberht's dominance, from Kent to the Humber according to Bede, extended across those Anglian territories south of the Wash. It was this region that came under threat from Ceawlin as he looked to establish a defensible boundary on the Great Ouse River in the easternmost part of his territory. In addition, Cnebba, named as slain in this battle, has been associated with Knebworth, which lies 20 miles to the south of Wyboston. Half-a-mile south of Wyboston is a village called Chawston. The origin of the place-name is unknown but might be derived from the Old English Ceawston or Ceawlinston. A defeat at Wyboston for Æthelberht would have damaged his overlord status and diminished his influence over the Anglians. The idea that he was driven or 'pursued' into Kent (depending on which Anglo-Saxon Chronicle translation is preferred) should not be taken literally. Similar phraseology is often found in the Chronicle when one king bests another. A defeat suffered as part of an expedition to help his Anglian clients would have caused Æthelberht to withdraw into Kent to recover.Cooper, David: Badon and the Early Wars for Wessex, circa 500 to 710 (2018: Pen & Sword Books) pp. 168-171. This battle is notable as the first recorded conflict between the invading peoples: previous battles recorded in the Chronicle are between the Anglo-Saxons and the native Britons. There are multiple examples of joint kingship in Anglo- Saxon history, and this may be another: it is not clear what Cutha's relationship to Ceawlin is, but it certainly is possible he was also a king. The annal for 577, below, is another possible example.Yorke, Kings and Kingdoms, pp. 143–144. ===571: Bedcanford=== The annal for 571 reads: "Here Cuthwulf fought against the Britons at Bedcanford, and took four settlements: Limbury and Aylesbury, Benson and Eynsham; and in the same year he passed away." Cuthwulf's relationship with Ceawlin is unknown, but the alliteration common to Anglo-Saxon royal families suggests Cuthwulf may be part of the West Saxon royal line. The location of the battle itself is unidentified. It has been suggested that it was Bedford, but what is known of the early history of Bedford's names does not support this. This battle is of interest because it is surprising that an area so far east should still be in Briton hands this late: there is ample archaeological evidence of early Saxon and Anglian presence in the Midlands, and historians generally have interpreted Gildas's De Excidio as implying that the Britons had lost control of this area by the mid-sixth century. One possible explanation is that this annal records a reconquest of land that was lost to the Britons in the campaigns ending in the battle of Mons Badonicus. ===577: Lower Severn=== The annal for 577 reads "Here Cuthwine and Ceawlin fought against the Britons, and they killed three kings, Coinmail and Condidan and Farinmail, in the place which is called Dyrham, and took three cities: Gloucester and Cirencester and Bath."Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, pp. 18–19 This entry is all that is known of these Briton kings; their names are in an archaic form that makes it very likely that this annal derives from a much older written source. The battle itself has long been regarded as a key moment in the Saxon advance, since in reaching the Bristol Channel, the West Saxons divided the Britons west of the Severn from land communication with those in the peninsula to the south of the Channel.Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, p. 29. Wessex almost certainly lost this territory to Penda of Mercia in 628, when the Chronicle records that "Cynegils and Cwichelm fought against Penda at Cirencester and then came to an agreement."Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, p. 45.Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, pp. 24–25. It is possible that when Ceawlin and Cuthwine took Bath, they found the Roman baths still operating to some extent. Nennius, a ninth-century historian, mentions a "Hot Lake" in the land of the Hwicce, which was along the Severn, and adds "It is surrounded by a wall, made of brick and stone, and men may go there to bathe at any time, and every man can have the kind of bath he likes. If he wants, it will be a cold bath; and if he wants a hot bath, it will be hot". Bede also describes hot baths in the geographical introduction to the Ecclesiastical History in terms very similar to those of Nennius.Campbell et al., The Anglo-Saxons, pp. 40–41. Wansdyke, an early- medieval defensive linear earthwork, runs from south of Bristol to near Marlborough, Wiltshire, passing not far from Bath. It probably was built in the fifth or sixth centuries, perhaps by Ceawlin.Fletcher, Who's Who, pp. 25–26. ===584: Fethan leag=== Ceawlin's last recorded victory is in 584. The entry reads "Here Ceawlin and Cutha fought against the Britons at the place which is named Fethan leag, and Cutha was killed; and Ceawlin took many towns and countless war-loot, and in anger he turned back to his own [territory]." There is a wood named "Fethelée" mentioned in a twelfth-century document that relates to Stoke Lyne, in Oxfordshire, and it now is thought that the battle of Fethan leag must have been fought in this area. The phrase "in anger he turned back to his own" probably indicates that this annal is drawn from saga material, as perhaps are all of the early Wessex annals. It also has been used to argue that perhaps, Ceawlin did not win the battle and that the chronicler chose not to record the outcome fully—a king does not usually come home "in anger" after taking "many towns and countless war-loot". It may be that Ceawlin's overlordship of the southern Britons came to an end with this battle. ==Bretwaldaship== thumb|right|350px|In the entry for 827 in the [C] manuscript of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, listing the eight bretwaldas, Ceawlin's name can be seen in the fifth line, spelled "Ceaulin".|alt=Part of a manuscript page showing eleven lines of lettering in an old style, with a Roman numeral in reddish ink at the start of the first line About 731, Bede, a Northumbrian monk and chronicler, wrote a work called the Ecclesiastical History of the English People. The work was not primarily a secular history, but Bede provides much information about the history of the Anglo-Saxons, including a list early in the history of seven kings who, he said, held "imperium" over the other kingdoms south of the Humber. The usual translation for "imperium" is "overlordship". Bede names Ceawlin as the second on the list, although he spells it "Caelin", and adds that he was "known in the speech of his own people as Ceaulin". Bede also makes it clear that Ceawlin was not a Christian—Bede mentions a later king, Æthelberht of Kent, as "the first to enter the kingdom of heaven".Bede, Ecclesiastical History, II 5, quoted from Sherley-Price's translation, p. 111 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in an entry for the year 827, repeats Bede's list, adds Egbert of Wessex, and also mentions that they were known as "bretwalda", or "Britain-ruler". A great deal of scholarly attention has been given to the meaning of this word. It has been described as a term "of encomiastic poetry",Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 34–35. but there also is evidence that it implied a definite role of military leadership.Kirby, Earliest English Kings, p. 17. Bede says that these kings had authority "south of the Humber", but the span of control, at least of the earlier bretwaldas, likely was less than this.Campbell et al., The Anglo-Saxons, pp. 53–54. In Ceawlin's case the range of control is hard to determine accurately, but Bede's inclusion of Ceawlin in the list of kings who held imperium, and the list of battles he is recorded as having won, indicate an energetic and successful leader who, from a base in the upper Thames valley, dominated much of the surrounding area and held overlordship over the southern Britons for some period. Despite Ceawlin's military successes, the northern conquests he made could not always be retained: Mercia took much of the upper Thames valley, and the north-eastern towns won in 571 were among territory subsequently under the control of Kent and Mercia at different times. Bede's concept of the power of these overlords also must be regarded as the product of his eighth-century viewpoint. When the Ecclesiastical History was written, Æthelbald of Mercia dominated the English south of the Humber, and Bede's view of the earlier kings was doubtless strongly coloured by the state of England at that time. For the earlier bretwaldas, such as Ælle and Ceawlin, there must be some element of anachronism in Bede's description. It also is possible that Bede only meant to refer to power over Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, not the native Britons. Ceawlin is the second king in Bede's list. All the subsequent bretwaldas followed more or less consecutively, but there is a long gap, perhaps fifty years, between Ælle of Sussex, the first bretwalda, and Ceawlin. The lack of gaps between the overlordships of the later bretwaldas has been used to make an argument for Ceawlin's dates matching the later entries in the Chronicle with reasonable accuracy. According to this analysis, the next bretwalda, Æthelberht of Kent, must have been already a dominant king by the time Pope Gregory the Great wrote to him in 601, since Gregory would have not written to an underking. Ceawlin defeated Æthelberht in 568 according to the Chronicle. Æthelberht's dates are a matter of debate, but recent scholarly consensus has his reign starting no earlier than 580. The 568 date for the battle at Wibbandun is thought to be unlikely because of the assertion in various versions of the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List that Ceawlin's reign lasted either seven or seventeen years. If this battle is placed near the year 590, before Æthelberht had established himself as a powerful king, then the subsequent annals relating to Ceawlin's defeat and death may be reasonably close to the correct date. In any case, the battle with Æthelberht is unlikely to have been more than a few years on either side of 590.The argument is made in more detail in Kirby, Earliest English Kings, p. 56. See also pp. 50–51 for a review of the evidence concerning the length of Ceawlin's reign. The gap between Ælle and Ceawlin, on the other hand, has been taken as supporting evidence for the story told by Gildas in De Excidio of a peace lasting a generation or more following a Briton victory at Mons Badonicus.Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, p. 19. Æthelberht of Kent succeeds Ceawlin on the list of bretwaldas, but the reigns may overlap somewhat: recent evaluations give Ceawlin a likely reign of 581–588, and place Æthelberht's accession near to the year 589, but these analyses are no more than scholarly guesses.Kirby (Earliest English Kings, pp. 31–34) provides a very detailed analysis of the chronology of Æthelberht's reign. Ceawlin's eclipse in 592, probably by Ceol, may have been the occasion for Æthelberht to rise to prominence; Æthelberht very likely was the dominant Anglo-Saxon king by 597.Kirby, Earliest English Kings, p. 56. Æthelberht's rise may have been earlier: the 584 annal, even if it records a victory, is the last victory of Ceawlin's in the Chronicle, and the period after that may have been one of Æthelberht's ascent and Ceawlin's decline. ==Wessex at Ceawlin's death== thumb|150px|right|The state of Anglo-Saxon England at Ceawlin's death|alt=A map showing England and Wales, with the locations of Celtic and Anglo-Saxon kingdoms marked, and some towns Ceawlin lost the throne of Wessex in 592. The annal for that year reads, in part: "Here there was great slaughter at Woden's Barrow, and Ceawlin was driven out." Woden's Barrow is a tumulus, now called Adam's Grave, at Alton Priors, Wiltshire. No details of his opponent are given. The medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury, writing in about 1120, says that it was "the Angles and the British conspiring together".Quoted in Plummer, Two Saxon Chronicles, vol. 2 p. 17 Alternatively, it may have been Ceol, who is supposed to have been the next king of Wessex, ruling for six years according to the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Ceawlin died the following year. The relevant part of the annal reads: "Here Ceawlin and Cwichelm and Crida perished." Nothing more is known of Cwichelm and Crida, although they may have been members of the Wessex royal house—their names fit the alliterative pattern common to royal houses of the time.Yorke, Kings and Kingdoms, p. 143 According to the Regnal List, Ceol was a son of Cutha, who was a son of Cynric; and Ceolwulf, his brother, reigned for seventeen years after him. It is possible that some fragmentation of control among the West Saxons occurred at Ceawlin's death: Ceol and Ceolwulf may have been based in Wiltshire, as opposed to the upper Thames valley. This split also may have contributed to Æthelberht's ability to rise to dominance in southern England. The West Saxons remained influential in military terms, however: the Chronicle and Bede record continued military activity against Essex and Sussex within twenty or thirty years of Ceawlin's death. ==See also== * List of monarchs of Wessex ==Notes== ==References== Primary sources * * Secondary sources * * * * (2003 edition: ) * * * * * * * * == External links == * * – separate PASE entry for "Celm" (Celin ?), a variant for Ceawlin found in the genealogical preface of Anglo- Saxon Chronicle texts A and G Category:590s deaths Category:Year of birth unknown Category:Year of death uncertain Category:Anglo-Saxon warriors Category:West Saxon monarchs Category:6th-century English monarchs Category:House of Wessex |
thumb|235px|right|The 18th-century country house ‘Rustenhoven’ at Maartensdijk, formerly the Barometer Museum, about 1995 thumb|235px|right|The water barometer in the central hall of ‘Rustenhoven’ at Maartensdijk, formerly the Barometer Museum, 1995 thumb|235px|right|Entrance of the former Barometer Tower in the Denmark Visitor Centre, Western Australia, 2007 thumb|235px|right|The Bert Bolle Barometer in the former Barometer Tower of the Denmark Visitor Centre, 2007 The Bert Bolle Barometer is a large water barometer. At over 12.5 metres tall, it is recognized as the largest barometer in the world by The International Guinness Book of Records.The Guinness Book of Records 1988, Enfield UK: Guinness Publishing Ltd, p.77. The instrument was created in 1985 in the Netherlands; in 2007 it was reinstalled in the new Visitor Centre of Denmark, Western Australia and was removed from there in 2011. ==History== ===The Netherlands=== The Dutch writer and barometer specialist Bert Bolle (born 1947) designed and built the water barometer in 1985 as the focal point of the Barometer Museum, which he ran with his wife Ethne in the 18th-century country house ‘Rustenhoven’ at Maartensdijk in central Netherlands. In 1978 Bolle wrote a book titled Barometers, which was translated into German and English. In 1983 he wrote a scientific sequel to his first book and developed some modifications of the mercury barometer system. In 1985 Bolle and his wife set up a barometer museum in their country house. Their aim was to create a collection based on loans of barometers from private collectors and museums in the Netherlands. To obtain these loans, a massive publicity campaign was undertaken.Scientific Instrument Society Bulletin No. 10, 1986, p.22. Bolle wanted something to make the museum's launch spectacular, an appliance that would be impressive and definitive which would serve as the centre point of the Barometer Museum. He decided to design and make a water barometer, paying homage to the 17th-century scientists, such as Evangelista Torricelli and Gasparo Berti, who produced some of the first and most crucial vacuum experiments, and created the first water barometers alongside their houses between 1640 and 1660. Bolle's old three-story country house had ample height, the highest point of which was the roof of the main hall: a leaded glass cupola. The apex of the hall was over 12 metres from the hall floor; a perfect environment for such an enormous instrument. Bolle decided to make a construction of four borosilicate glass (e.g. Pyrex) pipes of 90 mm diameter. He fitted the pipes to a nine-metre-long solid oak plank, which was one metre wide at the base. For the top three metres of the barometer, a 25 mm thick polymethylmethacrylate (e.g. Perspex) sheet was used. The reservoir chamber was also made of borosilicate glass; with a diameter of 600 mm the capacity of this reservoir was enough to hold 150 litres of water, which was necessary to make the barometer work properly. The first successful test runs took place in November and December 1985. Bolle designed the top end of the water barometer to be connected to a rotary vane pump, which was governed by timer relays. At ten-minute intervals, the pump evacuated the air from the glass pipe, causing the 12-metre-tall instrument to fill with 55 litres of water within one minute. Visitors were invited to climb the stairs and follow the water to the top, where it started to boil spontaneously (see below). The huge register plate had two scales: centimeters of water and millibar. Water vapour pressure depresses the reading of water barometers, and the magnitude of this error increases with temperature. Thus, a rule of thumb was provided to make a correction for temperature. After a reading period of five minutes, air was admitted to the top area of the pipe. Within a couple of minutes all the water would return to the cistern downstairs, after which the ten-minute pump cycle would start again. Visitors were able to watch a real living instrument the whole day. The instrument proved to be a massive drawcard and appeared several times in the media during the subsequent twelve- year period during which Bolle's Barometer Museum operated.Scientific Instrument Society Bulletin No. 29, June 1991, p.27. In 1998 the museum was closed down.For a list of sources concerning the barometer in the Netherlands (in Dutch), see the Dutch Wiki-article. ===Australia=== Bolle and his wife migrated to Australia in 1999, but the maker didn’t want to part with his creation, so the barometer was brought with them to Australia, where Bolle donated it to the community of Denmark, a small town in Western Australia. The town didn’t have a building high enough to house the enormous instrument, but in 2004 plans were adopted for a new multi-function Visitors Centre, the centre part of which would be The Barometer Tower, built especially for the instrument. The Shire of Denmark made the water barometer a local monument, named The Bert Bolle Barometer. Furthermore, the shire announced that the tower would be dedicated to the water barometer and the history of weather instruments in general and access would be free of charge.Memorandum of Understanding between the Denmark Shire and Bert Bolle, 16.02.2007. In 2007 the Denmark Visitor Centre was finished.“Denmark joins the big league”, Suellen Jerrard, The West Australian, 11.11.2006 p.64. It was officially opened on 10 August by the Minister for Tourism in Western Australia Mrs Sheila McHale.WIN TV News, 13.08.2007, 18.00WST, Denmark Bulletin, Albany Advertiser, Albany Weekender, 16.08.2007. In the Barometer Tower the Bert Bolle Barometer stood on a stainless steel pedestal. The vacuum pump cycle became shorter than it was in the Netherlands; reduced to six minutes from the previous ten. The timer relays had been replaced by a PLC, which now governs a refined and modernized vacuum system with 11 solenoid valves. Operating eight hours per day, seven days a week, the water barometer was constantly ‘on the move’. Visitors could walk up the stairs and take a reading in the Reading Room atop the Tower. At the moment when the water reached its highest possible point in the glass pipe, visitors could witness an interesting physical phenomenon for about a minute. The air pressure above the water had lowered dramatically. Therefore, the evaporation of the water happened so vigorously that the water started to boil spontaneously, although its temperature rarely exceeded 20 °C. This ‘cold boiling’ is contributed to by air bubbles that were formed in the water column. As soon as the pump was disconnected, the evacuating of the pipe stopped and the water level became calm again, enabling people to take a reading. During the time the water level was calm, there was still some turbulence at the surface due to air bubbles rising to the top of the apparatus. Although water vapour pressure depressed the barometers pressure reading, visitors were told how to correct for this error and thus calculate the real air pressure, and could then compare it with the accurate Vaisala digital standard barometer in the Tower. After a reading period of two minutes, air was gradually admitted to the vacuum in the top area of the pipe. Within another two minutes all the water had returned to the reservoir downstairs, after which the six-minute pump cycle of the Bert Bolle Barometer repeated.Description of Barometer operation . Climbing the stairs in the tower, a selection of antique barometers from Europe was displayed, along with five murals depicting the oldest barometer experiments dating from the 17th century. In the Reading Room, tribute was paid to the pioneers of the barometer, the Italian scientists Galileo Galilei and Evangelista Torricelli. On the ground floor, Bolle had created several interesting physical experiments such as the Atmosphere Simulator, in which artificial highs and lows were created. There was also a bell jar showing interesting vacuum experiments with sound and air.“The Big Barometer”, Australian Broadcasting Corporation South Coast, 14.08.2007. Retrieved on 23.06.2009. ===Record=== Australia is known as a country of bizarre records for the sake of tourism, like the Big Banana or the Giant Ram.Australia’s big things. The size of the water barometer in Denmark was, however, a result of necessity, rather than a tourist gimmick. In order to function properly, a water barometer has to be quite large, with greater height producing greater accuracy. The Bert Bolle Barometer is thus a very accurate and genuine working instrument, as well as an impressive monument. ===Recognition=== In April 2008 the Bert Bolle Barometer was listed among the Top Hundred Australian ‘must see’ topics. Australian Traveller magazine revealed a list of 100 Things You Can Only Do In Australia.“Check the forecast on the world’s largest barometer”, Australian Traveller, 26.03.2008. Retrieved on 28.06.2009.“Tourism on a Large Scale in Denmark”, The Albany Advertiser, 01.04.2008. During its first year of its existence, the Denmark Visitor Centre recorded its 100,000th visitor.“A milestone for bureau”, Albany Weekender, 08.08.2008. ===25th anniversary=== In December 2010 the 25th anniversary of the barometer was celebrated. Bolle had written a booklet titled "Weird and Wonderful Weather Predictors", of which 1,000 copies were printed and given to visitors in December as a present. ===The loss of the barometer=== Shortly after the celebration of the 25th anniversary of the Bert Bolle Barometer the Denmark Visitor Centre lost its world attraction. Differences of opinion with the Board of Denmark Tourism Incorporated and the management of the Denmark Visitor Centre about promoting and signposting the water barometer and the Barometer Tower at the Denmark Visitor Centre lay at the bottom of an ongoing conflict.The West Australian from 10.12.2010, Albany Advertiser from 09.11.2010, 07.12.2010, 09.12.2010, Denmark Bulletin from 04.11.2010, 16.12.2010, The Senior from 12.2010, ABC Radio News on 07.12.2010, GWN TV News on 06.12.2010. Eventually Bolle and his wife asked Denmark Council for the barometer to be given back to them, which was unanimously approved on 21 December 2010.December 2010 Council Minutes of Denmark WA . Retrieved on 26.06.2011.The West Australian from 04.01.2011, 06.01.2011, 21.01.2011, Albany Advertiser from 23.12.2010, 21.01.2011, Denmark Bulletin from 06.01.2011, 20.01.2011, 03.02.2011, GWN TV News and WIN TV News on 22.12.2010. The Barometer Tower was dismantled mid February 2011.The West Australian from 17.02.2011, 18.02.2011, Albany Advertiser from 22.02.2011, Denmark Bulletin from 03.03.2011, Post Newspapers from 26.02.2011, GWN TV News on 16.02.2011. ===New location=== Negotiations with a possible future owner of the barometer are in an advanced phase, albeit the location will not be in Denmark anymore. The plan is to house the water barometer in a 6x6 m brick tower with a small meteorological museum attached. ==Copy== The Otto von Guericke Museum in Magdeburg in Germany erected a copy of the water barometer in 1995, after Bolle had been asked for his expertise. The barometer was situated in the centre of a spiral staircase. No attempt was made to outdo Bolle’s record. A narrower pipe was used, made of polycarbonate and the instrument was named the ‘Bert Bolle Wasserbarometer’ after the Dutch record holder.Speech Dr. Manfred Tröger, Otto-von-Guericke-Gesellschaft, p.6, in German. Retrieved on 28.06.2009. ==Labour-intensive== Maintenance is an ongoing concern for the barometer, with one of the major issues being water vapour, which constantly enters the pump and could easily emulsify with the pump oil.Jousten, K., Wutz Handbuch Vakuumtechnik, Wiesbaden De: Vieweg+Teubner, 2006, p.183 et seq., in German. Special provisions are made to prevent this. Since water vapour is extracted continuously, the water level in the reservoir needs to be topped up every day. In addition, the abundance of sunshine in the barometer's environment, combined with the presence of algae in the rainwater that is employed, leads to a risk of algae growing within the water pipe. To address this, the owners have employed chlorine to kill the algae, but the evaporation of the chlorine had to be specifically catered for. Wear and tear also places considerable strain on the vacuum system's vulnerable pump, its 11 solenoid valves and its relays. Finally, the barometer needs to be exclusively filled with pure rainwater, as tap water contains many minerals which may be detrimental to the barometer.A Handbook for the Water Barometer, The Denmark Visitor Centre, 11.12.2008. Because the water barometer has always been treated with great care, the instrument still looks almost new despite its age. A well-considered choice of durable materials like oak and borosilicate glass certainly play an important role in its continued longevity. Other attempts to copy the instrument have floundered due to the use of inferior material, a lack of constant supervision, pollution of the pipe system and other factors reducing durability. ==External links== * The Bert Bolle Barometer in Europe and Australia (English) (German) (Dutch) * The 18th-century country house ‘Rustenhoven’, formerly the Barometer Museum (English) (Dutch) ==References== * Bolle, B. (1982) Barometers. Watford: Argus Books. * Bolle, B. (1983) Barometers in Beeld. Lochem: Tijdstroom. * Bolle, B. (2008) Il Barometro di Bert Bolle, estratto da Torricelliana, Bollettino della Società Torricelliana di Scienze e Lettere, Faenza, No. 59. * Bolle, B. (2010) Weird and Wonderful Weather Predictors, private limited edition. * Flammarion, C. (1888) L’Atmosphère - Météorologie Populaire. Paris: Librairie Hachette et Cie. * Middleton, W.E. Knowles. (1964) The History of the Barometer. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press. Category:Pressure gauges Category:Meteorological instrumentation and equipment Category:Glass applications |
Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury (1400 – 31 December 1460) was a fifteenth-century English northern magnate. He was the eldest son by the second wife of Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland, from whom he inherited vast estates in Yorkshire and the North West of England. He was a loyal Lancastrian for most of his life, serving the king, Henry VI, in France, on the border with Scotland, and in many of the periodic crises of the reign. He finally joined York in his last rebellion in the late 1450s and became a Yorkist leader during the early parts of the Wars of the Roses. This led directly to his death following the Battle of Wakefield in December 1460, when he was captured and subsequently put to death in Pontefract Castle. Salisbury is one of the leading magnates for whom historians lack information regarding his expenditure on annuities while having some idea as to that on retainers. As the historian Michael Hicks has put it, Salisbury attempted to extend the power and influence of his family, not just through the traditional route of marrying his children into local gentry families, but also using contracts and retaining "to bind to him important individuals of rank or domicile naturally beyond his ". Retainers were themselves then able—and expected—to raise their own tenants when required for a lords service; Salisbury relied on this in 1459 when those he summoned could themselves "call on tenants and friends in times of trouble." Tenants in general, argues Hicks, "bulked much larger in noble retinues of war than has been supposed" and themselves bought their household and tenantry with them: "every gentleman had his household and tenants to back him up". Lawyers were particularly useful to a lord, and Salisbury recruited among them heavily; they had a duty to attend his council meetings as well as represent him in court. Hicks identifies different degrees of proximity to the earl through his retaining. Men such as John Conyers, James Strangways and Danby, for example, could be deemed "senior retainers" while others, including Thomas Whitham, John Middleton and John Ireland, would have been considered "lesser officials". They would often join Salisbury on royal commissions, such as in 1440 when William FitzHugh, Christopher Conyers and Robert Danby sat with the earl on an enquiry into a petition from the burgesses of Richmond, North Yorkshire. When the civil wars broke out again in 1459, many of his retainers "rode with Richard Earl of Salisbury and Sir John Neville", his son, to meet Richard, Duke of York at Ludlow Castle. Pollard has identified two broad groups of retainer for Salisbury. Firstly, men who were both geographically close to the nexus of earl's power at Middleham Castle and of social importance in the area—Conyers, FitzRandolph, Metcalfe, Mountford, Routh and Wandesford. Secondly—and to Pollard 'perhaps the more interesting' group—were those retainers of his who lived and operated in what he calls 'enemy territory'. That is, Neville of Brancepeth-controlled estates and those of the Percys. In the former were retainers such as Ralph Pullen and Thomas Lumley in Lower Weardale and Raby. The latter, retained in Percy territory included Robert Ogle of Morpeth, Northumberland, and John Middleton of Belsay. Lords though were not always fighting each other, and at such times their retainers likewise worked together. For example, even though it was little over a month before the Percy–Neville feud broke out into outright violence, in July 1453 James Strangways, Salisbury's man, was sheriff and oversaw the election of two Percy retainers to parliament, and the attestors contained a mix of sympathisers to both. In the 15th century the North of England was effectively divided among four great landholders: between the crown (as duke of Lancaster), the Duke of York, the Percys and the Nevilles, headed by the Earl of Salisbury. Since the first two were absentee landlords, it was the latter pair who had regional political power, and by the 1450s Salisbury was the most powerful of them. Much of Salisbury's power came from his official position as warden of the west March: this effectively allowed him to raise and maintain a private army among the local gentry—"the best natural source of fighting men in the country"—at the crown's expense. Comments Dockray that the earl Salisbury, for their part, was not just a good opposition to them because of his great wealth, attractive though that must have been in terms of his ability to pay fees, but also for his direct contacts with the king's council and the royal family. Salisbury's retainers themselves interconnected, especially in Yorkshire. James Strangways married into the Darcy family, as did John Conyers of Hornby, and Boynton's connection with Fitzhugh probably led to Boynton's appointment as counsel for St Leonard's Hospital, York. Sir John Savile—Sheriff of Yorkshire in 1454—and married Salisbury's retainer Sir Thomas Harrington's daughter. Also, William Fitzhugh's son and heir married Salisbury's daughter Alice, and Sir John Langton, Sheriff of Yorkshire 1424, "had family connections with the Nevilles and Harringtons". Both Stockdale and Boynton, on the other hand, were retained by Salisbury and Lord Fitzhugh, himself retained similarly. Likewise both Pickering and Savile had close connections with York as while being retained by Salisbury. Retained loyalties could be more powerful than presumed loyalties, such as to the crown. Some of the earl's connections may have been highly personal ones, given that in some cases they flourished under Salisbury but did not continue under Warwick. Hicks also notes the difficulties in ascertaining precise relationships, even though it is known they must have existed in great number; after all, he comments, a fragment of the Middleham receiver's roll of 1458–1459 indicates that the massive sum of 20% of income from the honour was spent on fees and retaining. Salisbury's heavy recruitment among Richmondshire families has been called his "Middleham Connection", as they often provided retainers over multiple generations. The Conyers' family tree, for example, argues Horrox, "is virtually a roll-call of the Neville retinue" in the mid-15th century. While some olf these fees were paid for life service, most were pro tempore, yet nonetheless extensive for being so. Another scholar has commented that, although Salisbury "virtually monopolised" the major Duchy of Lancaster offices in the area, "yet evidence to connect any of the West Riding gentry with these lords is embarrassingly slight". Many of Salisbury's retainers and their families flourished under the subsequent Yorkist regime. in July 1462 Walter Strickland, for example, received a general pardon for all offences—up to and including treason and murder—committed under Henry VI. Richard Tunstall, nephew of John, became a squire of the body and later king's carver. Robert Percy became Comptroller of Edward IV's Household, while sons of the Birnands were esquires of the Household and John Pullen was appointed a serjeant of the cellar. ==Salisbury's retaining and timeline of the political context== Image Name Retained/fee'd Notes Ayscough, William Birnand, John, George and William Supported Salisbury's sons in their feud with the Percys; combined actions against Percy manors in 1454 with illegal hunting. Notes Wilcock, "other incidents were a direct result of hatred of Sir William Plumpton", for example in 1457 when John attacked Plumpton with a lance. July 1459 disrupted Knaresborough meeting of Sir William Plumpton, who was attempting to announce a royal proclamation. 18 Sept 1459 mustered at Boroughbridge as part of Salisbury's army that would fight at the Battle of Blore Heath later that month, and all subsequently indicted for being vi et armis insurrexerunt with the earl. Boynton, Sir Christopher 1436 A lawyer. Probably fought with William Lord Fitzhugh's father, Henry, on Henry V's Harfleur campaign. Retained by Fitzhugh and the Prior of Durham, but also close to Salisbury's father, Ralph, Earl of Westmorland at the opening of whose will Boynton attended. Associated with Salisbury from at least 1429, when what Jones and Walker describe as his "reciprocal good lordship" was evidenced by Boynton's promotion to chief justice for Robert Neville in the diocese of Durham. Was retained prior to his departure for France. This was at the height of the Neville–Neville feud, and Boynton's retainer can be explained by his acting as feoffee to Salisbury. In the event of the earl's death in France, the royal council was to transfer the king's interests in his land to Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, Boynton. and other retainers such as Greystoke, Fitzhugh, Christopher Conyers and Robert Constable. In their turn, while Salisbury was abroad, were to pay no revenues from the estates to the king but pay directly to Salisbury. Constable, Robert 1436 Of Flamborough, died 1488. Greater gentry of the East Riding. His family had been closely associated with the Nevilles in Yorkshire. Acted as Salisbury's receiver of estates and as feoffee while the earl was in France. Trustee for Joan's inheritance while Salisbury was in France in the event of her death. Had links to the Percys also, and appears to have stood with them at Heworth in 1453. Responsible for the charge of "old" Lady Roos, Philippa Tiptoft, whose husband—Thomas, Baron Ros—and son were in Scottish exile with Margaret of Anjou from 1461. Left money to pay for prayers for the soul of Countess Alice in his will and a large diamond ring as well as a bequest to Thomas Witham. Worth over £300 p.a. at his death; comments Dockray, "moreover, had managed to pick his way with some skill through the formidable political obstacles posed by the Wars of the Roses". Colt, Thomas Conyers, Sir Christopher 1436 Acted as Salisbury's receiver of estates and feoffee while the earl was in France. Executor of his will. Sued for a general pardon after the Coventry parliament. Conyers, Sir John Son of Sir Christopher Conyers. Described by Keith Dockray as "a tried and trusted Neville partisan", he fought with Salisbury at Blore Heath and was present at Ludford Bridge. Attainted at the 1459 Coventry Parliament, probably for capturing Knaresborough Castle from Plumpton. During the rule of the Yorkists, on 14 October 1460 was commissioned to secure Penrith, Pontefract and Wressle castles. Following Salisbury's death, he transferred his allegiance to Warwick, whose side he took when Warwick fell out with King Edward in the late 1460s. Dacre, Lord Thomas 1435 In perhaps a different aspect of good lordship, Sir Thomas Dacre entered a bid for the wardenship of the West March 'probably with Salisbury's blessing' after Salisbury resigned. Danby, Robert Of Yofford. A lawyer. Delamore, Thomas Thomas de la More 'seems also to have been associated closely enough' with Salisbury to receive preferential treatment at the Exchequer during the earl's Chancellorship. Booth goes as far as to suggest that, taking good lordship to its extremity, Salisbury showed himself to be a 'willing manipulator of the truth' on his servant's behalf. Eure, Robert 1435 Jointly retained by Salisbury and his mother Joan, Countess of Westmorland. Eure was uncle to Henry FitzHugh, 5th Baron FitzHugh, who married Alice Neville. Also appointed steward of the Palatinate of Durham by the bishop, Salisbury's brother Robert. Frank, William Had previously acted as feoffee to Salisbury's father, Ralph, Earl of Westmorland. A prominent member of the local gentry from Kneeton and close associate of Richard Clervaux. Clerk of the honour of Richmondshire in the 1420s. William, Lord Fitzhugh 1436 Acted as feoffee while Salisbury was in France in 1436. Salisbury supported Fitzhugh in the latter's property dispute with John, Lord Scrope of Masham two years later. Attended a Great Council with Salisbury in November 1453 at the height of the feud with the Percy family. Fitzhugh's son and heir married Salisbury's daughter Alice. Greystoke, Ralph, Lord 1447 Indentured at Sheriff Hutton Castle to ride with Salisbury "in time of peace and of war". Although his indenture explicitly exempts him from serving with Salisbury in France. However, he appears to have revowed his loyalty to King Henry in 1459 and fought for the king at Wakefield. Dockray posits that he had "been playing a double game" since Ludford, which would account for his absence from the Battle of Towton and the new King's failure to attaint him at his first parliament later that year. Harrington, Sir Thomas By 1442 Of Hornby. Linked to the Nevilles from birth; his mother was a daughter of Robert Neville of Hornby, a cadet branch. Salisbury's deputy as steward of Blackburn Wapentake by 1442. On 23 July 1455 was elected MP for the West Riding of Yorkshire to attend York's 2nd protectorate parliament, by which time he is a known associate of Salisbury. Sheriff of Yorkshireduring York's second protectorate, 1456. One of Salisbury's councillors who in September 1458 "was sente for to come to Myddleham to Erle of Sarisburie [to] take ful partie with ye ful noble prince the duke of Yorke". Fought for Salisbury at Blore Heath but was captured and imprisoned in Chester Castle. Attainted at Coventry. Appointed to the Yorkist commissions of the peace in July 1460 after their victory at the Battle of Northampton and attainted at Coventry later that year. He appointed Countess Alice and Warwick as supervisors of his will in 1459. Joined York and Salisbury at Sandal Castle by 21 December 1460. Fought and died on 30 December 1460 at the Battle of Wakefield where the Yorkist army went down to a crushing defeat. Harrington, Sir John Son of Sir Thomas Harrington. Fought and captured with him at Blore Heath. Commissioned with Sir John Conyers to secure Penrith, Pontefract and Wressele Castles in October 1460. Fought and died with his father at Wakefield; head set above a York city gate. Hopton, John Originally from Yorkshire; when Hopton was young, "at a crucial moment he had needed a patron, he had turned to his local lord, Richard Neville, earl of Salisbury". A member of the Royal household, he was 'connected over fifty years' with the earl of Salisbury, according to Hicks. Their first connection was probably in 1429, soon after Salisbury's ennoblement, when H and on William Routh placed three disputed manors before him for his arbitration. Although the case dragged on in chancery for another six years, Hopton was eventually victorious. Thirty years later, Routh was also later retained by the earl. Hopton had links to Yorkshire, and in July 1455 he witnessed a charter in favour of John Neville, Salisbury's son. Government suspicion of Hopton's connection with Salisbury may have led to his being removed from the 1459 peace commission. Hotoft, John 1429 Of Warwick and Ware, Hertfordshire. Lazenby, William A lawyer. Louther, Hugh Leading member of Cumberland gentry. Commissioned with Sir John Conyers and Sir John Harrington to secure Penrith, Pontefract and Wressle castles in October 1460. Louther, Richard Joined the Birnands in their actions against the Percys, and in their hunting, in 1454. In July 1459 disrupts Plumpton's Knaresborough meeting with the Birnands. On 18 September 1459, he mustered at Boroughbridge when Salisbury marched his army south. Thomas, Lord Lumley Metcalfe, Miles Retained by the 1450s, received an annual fee of 66s 8d. Received a grant in 1464 for earlier good service "to the king, the king's father Richard, late Duke of York, and the king's uncle Richard, late Earl of Salisbury". Salisbury's patronage enabled hm, notwithstanding humble origins, to become a figure of some significance in the region. Meyring, Sir John Attainted at the Coventry parliament. Middleton, Sir John Probably led the Neville rising in Yorkshire in the summer of 1460, intended to distract attention from the Nevilles' and the Earl of March's landing at Sandwich, Kent. Mountford, Sir John Ally of John Neville during the feud with the Percys; reprimanded, as one of Salisbury's "principal accomplices", by a commission of oyer and terminer in July 1453 for rioting and assaults upon Percy retainers during the two families' feud. Mountford, Sir Thomas Involved in the Percy–Neville feud on Montagu's side, and ordered by the council to "ceasse these riotts and keep our pees". Appointed Justice of the peace for the North Riding following the battle of Northampton, Elected, with Sir James Strangways, as MP for Yorkshire, on 30 July 1460, for York's parliament. Musgrave, Richard 1456 Fees paid out of the lordship of Penrith. Acted as Salisbury's receiver of estates while the earl was in France. Peter Booth has argued that salsibury was not in a strong political position at this time—York's second protectorate had ended and Margaret of Anjou was showing increased animosity to their faction—and this is reflected in indentures such as that with Musgrave, which indicate the limits of the earl's power locally. Musgrave had been associated with the dead Lord Clifford, and Musgrave's indenture with Salisbury contracted that "the said Richard shal not assist the said lordez [Clifford and Dacre] ne neither of them in his person, [nor] his men, with counseil ne otherwise ayenst the seid Erl". Musgrave, on the other hand, wanted assurances thsat he would not be implicated in any future treason of Salisbury's, so he requested that "in case it lust the seid Ric[hard] to labour as a tretour for the wele of any suche matere, the said Erl agreeth him not to take in that bihalve the same Ric[hard] to eny straungenesse or displeasour". Remained loyal to Edward IV and commissioned to hunt down Lancastrian recalcitrants in the north—and in the words of the original commission "for defence against Henry VI and his adherents"—in the early 1460s. Ogle, Sir Robert Raided Dunbar with the earl in 1448 and probably brought a contingent of Salisbury's retainers to the First Battle of St Albans in 1445. Parr, Sir Thomas By 1430 Of Kendal, Westmorland, "probably the most powerful gentry family in the county". On friendly terms with Salisbury since at least 1429. According to Simon Payling, this is dateable to the shenanigans surrounding the election of MPs for that year's parliament, when Parr's name—along with fellow Neville sympathiser Thomas de la More—was entered into the candidates' list instead of the Percy retainers who had actually been elected. This is despite being deputy sheriff to Lord Clifford—a Percy associate—in the county in the 1440s. Feuded with the Percy-adherent Bellingham family through the 1440s, and complained of being assaulted on his way to parliament in 1446, which resulted in an act of parliament condemning Thomas Bellingham. "Yet, despite his Neville sympathies and two decades of mutual support, Parr was cautious. He did not appear among the anti-Somerset partisans at the first battle of St Albans". Summoned to Salisbury's council where it was decided to take York's side, 1459. Steward of Salisbury's brother, George, Lord Latimer's estates in Werstmorland whose estates had been granted to Salisbury in 1449 on account of Latimer's being supposedly idiota by then. Fought at Blore Heath; went to Calais with Salisbury. Described by historian Rosemary Horrox as, by the 1450s, one of Salisbury's leading retainers and probably his highest-profile retainer in Westmorland. Attainted at Coventry in 1459. Married into the Percy-aligned Tunstall family. Joined York and Salisbury at Sandal Castle by 21 December 1460. A "veteran campaigner", He fought for the Yorkists at Wakefield and was reported by many chroniclers of the day to have been killed, but he survived, not dying until November 1461. Unknown if he fought at any of the battles following, but in any case, "He had, however, acquitted himself sufficiently well to carn the new king, Edward IV's, personal gratitude and favour". Percy, Sir Robert Died 1469. Of Scotton, Richmondshire, a remote cadet branch of the main Percy family. Involved in attacks on William Plumpton during the Percy–Neville feud and joined Salisbury's army at Boroughbridge for which he was later indicted the following year. Foraging raids not only weakened his enemy, Plumpton's position, but also enabled him and his cadre to appropriate hundreds of bows that were made in Knaresborough forest for the royal army. Probably a captain of Salisbury's army and responsible for the large contingent of Scotton men who fought. Appointed chief forester of Haverah Park in 1461. Between 1465 and 1467 he complained in chancery that in the last years of the previous reign Plumpton had repeatedly raided his house at Scotton taking goods and animals "of great value", but from which he was prevented from approaching for fear of his life. Also charged that Plumpton attempted to have him beheaded in Pontefract at the same time as Salisbury was executed. Pickering, Sir James Appointed sheriff of the West Riding in 1450, and elected its MP on 23 June 1455, with Thomas Harrington (both of whom were 'openly associated' with Salisbury by then). Was an attestor at York Castle during Strangway's shrievalty in which Percy men were elected; a few months later "he was one of those organizing and leading Neville gangs against Percy retainers". Reprimanded, as one of the earl's "principal accomplices", by a commission of oyer and terminer in July 1453 for rioting and assaults upon Percy retainers during the two families' feud. Following the Battle of St Albans Pickering and Salisbury's son John denounced York's constable of Conisbrough Castle and steward of Hatfield, Sir William Skipwith, whom they claimed had refused to come south with York to fight the king and as a result was dismissed; as a consequence, they were both granted a share of Skipwith's stewardship and constableship. Councillor to York. Elected MP with Thomas Harrington in the factional election of 1455. Member of Salisbury's council, consulted prior to the earl's taking "full partie" with York. Attainted 1459, followed Salisbury into Calais exile with a 500 mark bounty on his head. Joined York and Salisbury at Sandal Castle by 21 December 1460, died at Wakefield. Head set above a York city gate. Pullen, Ralph At least 1456 Of Scotton, near Knaresborough; active in the feud between that town and Ripon over disputed market rights. Involved in attacks on the archbishop of York's bailiff of Ripon, John Walworth—whom Pullen was alleged to have tried to "beate and fley"—in 1440. Led assaults on William Plumpton during the Percy–Neville feud and joined Salisbury's army at Boroughbridge. Important recruiter for Salisbury's army. Granted the Crown manor of Scotton, in the 1450s, under whose control it "became a hotbed for dissent and pro-Neville Yorkist activity". Occupied Knaresborough Castle, with John Mackenfiedl—during which time William Plumpton's younger brother Thomas was assaulted—for Salisbury on 26 September 1459. May have been killed at Blore Heath since his widow, Johanna, was veiled as a nun three months later. Quxley, John Armiger from Durham; executor of Salisbury's father's will. In 1909, Henry Noble MacCracken proposed Quixley as the translator of John Gower's Traité pour essampler les amants marietz, originally in French. Robynson, John An early retainer of Salisbury's, possibly serving in a non-military capacity, being a merchant from Scarborough. If he did of course, as the record of his doing so is his own admission in April 1460 having been arrested by Lord Egremont. He was held in Egremont's Wressle Castle for six weeks until he agreed to pay him £50. Salkend, Sir Richard Probably from the Western March. Saville, John Described by the History of Parliament project as coming into "one of the largest gentry inheritances in the West Riding". Seems to have held office for York in Sandal Castle from at least 1434, when he was charged with false imprisonment of a local man. Served in France with York in 1436 and 1441; knighted—probably by the duke—the following year. Elected MP for Yorkshire in 1450, where his attestors were other Salisbury retainers, John Conyers and James Pickering. Probably marched with York at his abortive attack on the crown at Dartford, as he sued for a pardon later that year. Sheriff of Yorkshire 1454–1455, as part of which office would have played a role in the prosecution of the Earl of Northumberland's younger sons, Thomas Percy, Lord Egremont and Sir Richard Percy, captured after the Battle of Stamford Bridge in October 1454. As sheriff, oversaw the election of two other Neville men, Thomas Harrington and James Pickering. Led a northern force at St Albans in 1455. Fought for Salisbury at Blore Heath. Married the daughter of his fellow retainer Thomas Harrington. Steward of York's Wakefield lordship, a post in which he carried out regular extortion. Attainted in 1459. Probably fought at Wakefield in 1460 and Towton the next year. He does not appear to have been rewarded to the extent he may have expected following Edward IV's accession, receiving few grants or further offices in Yorkshire. He died in 1481 and his effigy in Thornhill church is one of the few in the region to bear a Yorkist livery collar of suns and roses. Scargill, William By 1443 The family was from Scargill, Durham, and were traditionally retainers of John of Gaunt. William ( 1415–1459). Along with Salisbury's wife Alice, acted as executors of Anne, Countess of Cambridge, mother of Richard, Duke of York, in 1446. The same year, probably thanks to Salisbury's influence, he was appointed steward of the lordship of Sherburn. Scargill used a number of the earl's retainers as feoffees that decade, including James Strangways, Christopher Boynton, Thomas Wombwell and William Ayscough. Acted as royal official of several occasions including escheator of Yorkshire in 1424 and many commissions. Witnessed a deed in favour of John, Salisbury's son in July 1455, along with John Hopton. Stapleton, Brian His father had been retained by Henry Bolingbroke, founder of the Lancastrian regime, as Earl of Derby. Of Carlton, d.1466. Responsible for the custody of Henry, Duke of Exeter in July 1454, who had joined the Percys in their feud with the Nevilles and was sentenced to be imprisoned in Pontefract Castle. Stapleton, Sir William Probably from the Western March. Stockdale, Thomas 1421 A lawyer from Pishiobury, Hertfordshire. Exchequer official, he took the muster in 1437 of Robert, Lord Willoughby before his leaving for France. On good relations with both the earls of Westmorland and Percy in the first quarter of the century. Regularly acted as a mainpernor and feoffee to Salisbury; he transacted business for Neville while the latter was still a minor. Retained for a 19-year term although—perhaps indicating his importance to Salisbury, suggests Charles Ross—after his term expired he continued serving the earl for the rest of his life. Due to his work at the exchequer, his primary importance for Salisbury appears to have been making and receiving payments for him. Strangways, Sir James 1446 Originally from Manchester, and legally trained. Retained by indenture in which he reserved his loyaties to not just Salisbury but also to the duchess of Norfolk and the bishop of Durham—Salisbury's elder sister and younger brother, respectively—but the king and Strangways' own family. Acted as Salisbury's receiver of estates while the earl was in France. Strangways' brother Thomas had married Salisbury's sister Katherine, Duchess of Norfolk in 1440, although Thomas was dead by 1443. Was made chief justice to the palatinate of Durham under the episcopacy of Robert Neville; became Lord of the manor of West Harlsey within the bishopric. James Strangways was appointed Salisbury's executor in May 1459. With Thomas Mountford, elected MP for Yorkshire in July 1460. Mistakenly reported to John Paston that Strangways had died fighting for Salisbury at Wakefield. Speaker of the first Yorkist parliament in 1461, his laudatory speech is notable as the longest-recorded extant opening speech of any medieval speaker. Continued in Warwick's service under the new regime. His eldest son Richard married the daughter of Salisbury's brother, William, later Earl of Kent. Strickland, Walter 1448 Upper gentry of Sizergh Castle, Westmorland, also with national interests. Assessed as having an annual income of ￡13 in 1436. Around 1440 he received—and returned—a 1,000-mark reward for slaying the "notorious traitor" Henry Talbot, who had been condemned a traitor by Henry V. He was appointed master of the king's dogs for this service. Strickland was deputy steward of the honour of Kendal when Salisbury received his appointment to steward in 1435, and this presumably accounts for Strickland moving into Salisbury's circle. In 1442, took the muster of John, Lord Talbot, who was travelling urgently to France to reinforce York in Normandy. Another grant within the lordship has been described as illustrating the "carelessness, lack of attention to detail and sheer incompetence [which] were the hallmarks of the king's involvement in government", as it had already been granted to another. Retained by an indenture for life which omitted the common clause requesting him to bring his own men, leaving it to be implied. Could call out 290 tenants for Salisbury's use. Probably intended for use on the West March during times of war with Scotland, as war with Scotland was known to be imminent. Threkald, Sir Henry 1431, 1448 Retained by Salisbury for service on the Western March by indenture in 1431 for service abroad rather than in the north. Tunstall, John Lower gentry. A known Neville man, as a Middleham servant of Salisbury's. Regularly sat on partisan commissions in the north-west with other Salisbury retainers and had been elected MP for Cumberland in 1453 despite having no links to the county. Varney, Ralph Mercer from London. Probably a Neville, rather than York's follower, as he stood mainprise for some of Salisbury's men in 1454. He was also one the delegation sent by the Court of Common Council to oppose Lancastrian requests for assistance from the city in 1460. Vaux, Roland Wandesford, John Of Kirklington. Retained at £4 per annum. Was involved in 'the business of the inheritance of Middleham' during Salisbury's feud with his half-brother. In 1440 he witnessed Salisbury's mother, Joan Beaufort's, will. Married Eleanor, sister of fellow retainer Thomas Mountford. Not retained by Warwick after Salisbury's death. Weltden, Richard Witham, Thomas A lawyer of Cornburgh and according to Hicks "a trusted man of business". Appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer during the 1454 protectorate, while Salisbury was Lord Chancellor, and again—"for life"—during the second protectorate of 1455–1456. However, he was pardoned in December 1459 and kept his position on the North Riding King's Bench. He was confirmed in the post of Chancellor by Edward IV. Left Countess Alice a diamond ring in his will. Executor of Salisbury's will in 1461 and spent the last years of his life in the service of Salisbury's eventual successor in the north, Richard, Duke of Gloucester. Friend and executor to Robert Constable. Womewill, Thomas 1426 Of Pontefract. Associate of Salisbury since at least the 1440s; acted as feoffee for fellow retainer William Scargill in 1448. ==Notes == ==References== ===Works cited === * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Category:Earls of Salisbury (1337 creation) Category:Middle Ages by country Category:Feudalism in England Category:15th-century English people Category:Northern England Category:Affinity (law) Category:People of the Wars of the Roses |
This page details statistics of the Asian Club Championship and AFC Champions League. ==General performances== ===Asian Club Championship and AFC Champions League=== ====Titles by club==== A total of 24 clubs have won the tournament since its 1967 inception, with Al-Hilal being the only team to win it four times. Clubs from ten countries have provided tournament winners. South Korean clubs have been the most successful, winning a total of twelve titles. ====Titles by nation==== Country Winners Runners-up Winning clubs Runners-up 12 7 Pohang Steelers (3) Seongnam FC (2) Suwon Samsung Bluewings (2) Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors (2) Ulsan Hyundai (2) Busan IPark (1) Seongnam FC (2) FC Seoul (2) Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors (1) Yangzee (1) Pohang Steelers (1) 8 4 Urawa Red Diamonds (3) JEF United Chiba (1) Tokyo Verdy (1) Gamba Osaka (1) Júbilo Iwata (1) Kashima Antlers (1) Júbilo Iwata (2) Yokohama F. Marinos (1) Urawa Red Diamonds (1) 6 10 Al-Hilal (4) Al-Ittihad (2) Al-Hilal (5) Al-Ahli (2) Al-Ittihad (1) Al-Nassr (1) Al-Shabab (1) 3 6 Esteghlal (2) PAS Tehran (1) Esteghlal (2) Persepolis (2) Sepahan (1) Zob Ahan (1) 3 2 Guangzhou (2) Liaoning (1) Liaoning (1) Dalian Shide (1) 3 1 Maccabi Tel Aviv (2) Hapoel Tel Aviv (1) Hapoel Tel Aviv (1) 2 1 Al-Sadd (2) Al-Arabi (1) 2 1 Thai Farmers Bank (2) Police Tero (1) 1 3 Al-Ain (1) Al-Ain (2) Shabab Al-Ahli (1) 1 1 Western Sydney Wanderers (1) Adelaide United (1) 0 2 Aliyat Al-Shorta (1) Al-Rasheed (1) 0 1 Selangor (1) 0 1 Oman Club (1) 0 1 Al-Karamah (1) ====Titles by city==== City Winners Runners-up Winning clubs Runners-up Riyadh Al-Hilal (4) Al-Hilal (5), Al-Shabab (1), Al-Nassr (1) Tehran Esteghlal (2), PAS Tehran (1) Esteghlal (2), Persepolis (2) Tel Aviv Maccabi Tel Aviv (2), Hapoel Tel Aviv (1) Hapoel Tel Aviv (1) Pohang Pohang Steelers (3) Pohang Steelers (1) Saitama Urawa Red Diamonds (3) Urawa Red Diamonds (1) Jeddah Al- Ittihad (2) Al-Ahli (2), Al-Ittihad (1) Bangkok Thai Farmers Bank (2) BEC Tero Sasana (1) Doha Al-Sadd (2) Al-Arabi (1) Jeonju Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors (2) Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors (1) Suwon Suwon Samsung Bluewings (2) Ulsan Ulsan Hyundai (2) Guangzhou Guangzhou (2) Iwata Júbilo Iwata (1) Júbilo Iwata (2) Seoul Ilhwa Chunma (1) Yangzee (1), FC Seoul (1) Al Ain Al-Ain (1) Al-Ain (2) Shenyang Liaoning (1) Liaoning (1) Yokohama Furukawa Electric (1) Yokohama F. Marinos (1) Seongnam Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma (1) Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma (1) Sydney Western Sydney Wanderers (1) Busan Daewoo Royals (1) Tokyo Yomiuri (1) Osaka Gamba Osaka (1) Kashima Kashima Antlers (1) Isfahan Sepahan (1), Zob Ahan (1) Baghdad Aliyat Al-Shorta (1), Al-Rasheed (1) Selangor Selangor (1) Muscat Oman Club (1) Dalian Dalian Wanda (1) Anyang Anyang LG Cheetahs (1) Homs Al-Karamah (1) Adelaide Adelaide United (1) Dubai Al-Ahli (1) ===AFC Champions League era=== ====Titles by club==== Performances in the AFC Champions League by club Club Titles Runners-up Seasons won Seasons runner-up Urawa Red Diamonds 3 1 2007, 2017, 2022 2019 Al-Hilal 2 3 2019, 2021 2014, 2017, 2022 Al-Ittihad 2 1 2004, 2005 2009 Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors 2 1 2006, 2016 2011 Ulsan Hyundai 2 0 2012, 2020 Guangzhou 2 0 2013, 2015 Al-Ain 1 2 2003 2005, 2016 Seongnam FC 1 1 2010 2004 Pohang Steelers 1 1 2009 2021 Gamba Osaka 1 0 2008 Al-Sadd 1 0 2011 Western Sydney Wanderers 1 0 2014 Kashima Antlers 1 0 2018 Persepolis 0 2 2018, 2020 Police Tero 0 1 2003 Al-Karamah 0 1 2006 Sepahan 0 1 2007 Adelaide United 0 1 2008 Zob Ahan 0 1 2010 Al-Ahli 0 1 2012 FC Seoul 0 1 2013 Shabab Al-Ahli 0 1 2015 ====Titles by nation==== Country Winners Runners-up Winning clubs Runners-up 6 4 Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors (2) Ulsan Hyundai (2) Pohang Steelers (1) Seongnam FC (1) Seongnam FC (1) FC Seoul (1) Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors (1) Pohang Steelers (1) 5 1 Urawa Red Diamonds (3) Gamba Osaka (1) Kashima Antlers (1) Urawa Red Diamonds (1) 4 5 Al-Ittihad (2) Al-Hilal (2) Al-Hilal (3) Al-Ittihad (1) Al-Ahli (1) 2 0 Guangzhou (2) 1 3 Al-Ain (1) Al-Ain (2) Shabab Al-Ahli (1) 1 1 Western Sydney Wanderers (1) Adelaide United (1) 1 0 Al-Sadd (1) 0 4 Persepolis (2) Sepahan (1) Zob Ahan (1) 0 1 Police Tero (1) 0 1 Al-Karamah (1) ====Titles by city==== City Winners Runners-up Winning clubs Runners-up Saitama Urawa Red Diamonds (3) Urawa Red Diamonds (1) Riyadh Al-Hilal (2) Al-Hilal (3) Jeddah Al-Ittihad (2) Al-Ittihad (1), Al-Ahli (1) Jeonju Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors (2) Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors (1) Ulsan Ulsan Hyundai (2) Guangzhou Guangzhou (2) Al Ain Al- Ain (1) Al-Ain (2) Seongnam Seongnam FC (1) Seongnam FC (1) Pohang Pohang Steelers (1) Pohang Steelers (1) Osaka Gamba Osaka (1) Doha Al-Sadd (1) Sydney Western Sydney Wanderers (1) Kashima Kashima Antlers (1) Isfahan Sepahan (1), Zob Ahan (1) Tehran Persepolis (2) Bangkok Police Tero (1) Homs Al-Karamah (1) Adelaide Adelaide United (1) Seoul FC Seoul (1) Dubai Shabab Al-Ahli (1) == Statistics == === All-time top 25 AFC Champions League rankings === This table includes results beyond group stage of the AFC Champions League through 2002/03 season, therefore: *It does not include the old Asian Club Championship *It does not include qualifying rounds Best Finish Winner Runners-up Semi-finals Quarter-finals Rank Club Years === All-time table by leagues === This table includes results beyond group stage of the AFC Champions League through 2002/03 season (2002–03 AFC Champions League); qualifying rounds are not included. # League Teams Apps === Number of participating clubs of the Champions League era (from 2002–present) === The following table is a list of clubs that have participated in the AFC Champions League (group stage). Nation No. Clubs Seasons China (15) Guangzhou 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022 China (15) Beijing Guoan 2008, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2019, 2020, 2021 China (15) Shandong Taishan 2005, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2019, 2022 China (15) Shanghai Shenhua 2002–03, 2004, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2018, 2020 China (15) Shanghai Port 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020 China (15) Dalian Shide 2002–03, 2004, 2006 China (15) Tianjin Jinmen Tiger 2009, 2011, 2012 China (15) Jiangsu 2013, 2016, 2017 China (15) Changchun Yatai 2008, 2010 China (15) Beijing Renhe 2013, 2014 China (15) Shenzhen 2005 China (15) Henan Songshan Longmen 2010 China (15) Zhejiang Pro 2011 China (15) Guangzhou City 2015 China (15) Tianjin Tianhai 2018 Japan (15) Gamba Osaka 2006, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2021 Japan (15) Kashima Antlers 2002–03, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2019 Japan (15) Kawasaki Frontale 2007, 2009, 2010, 2014, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2021, 2022 Japan (15) Urawa Red Diamonds 2007, 2008, 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2019, 2022 Japan (15) Yokohama F. Marinos 2004, 2005, 2014, 2020, 2022 Japan (15) Sanfrecce Hiroshima 2010, 2013, 2014, 2016, 2019 Japan (15) Nagoya Grampus 2009, 2011, 2012, 2021 Japan (15) Kashiwa Reysol 2012, 2013, 2015, 2018 Japan (15) Cerezo Osaka 2011, 2014, 2018, 2021 Japan (15) FC Tokyo 2012, 2016, 2020 Japan (15) Júbilo Iwata 2004, 2005 Japan (15) Vissel Kobe 2020, 2022 Japan (15) Shimizu S-Pulse 2002–03 Japan (15) Tokyo Verdy 2006 Japan (15) Vegalta Sendai 2013 Iran (13) Sepahan 2004, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2016, 2020, 2022 Iran (13) Esteghlal 2002–03, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021 Iran (13) Persepolis 2002–03, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2015, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021 Iran (13) Zob Ahan 2004, 2010, 2011, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019 Iran (13) Tractor 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2018, 2021 Iran (13) Foolad 2006, 2014, 2015, 2021, 2022 Iran (13) Saba Qom 2006, 2009 Iran (13) Pas 2005 Iran (13) Saipa 2008 Iran (13) Mes Kerman 2010 Iran (13) Naft Tehran 2015 Iran (13) Esteghlal Khuzestan 2017 Iran (13) Shahr Khodro 2020 South Korea (12) Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors 2004, 2006, 2007, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022 South Korea (12) Suwon Samsung Bluewings 2005, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2020 South Korea (12) Ulsan Hyundai 2006, 2009, 2012, 2014, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022 South Korea (12) FC Seoul 2009, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2020 South Korea (12) Pohang Steelers 2008, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2016, 2021 South Korea (12) Seongnam FC 2002–03, 2004, 2007, 2010, 2012, 2015 South Korea (12) Jeonnam Dragons 2007, 2008, 2022 South Korea (12) Jeju United 2011, 2017, 2018 South Korea (12) Daegu FC 2019, 2021, 2022 South Korea (12) Daejeon Hana Citizen 2002–03 South Korea (12) Busan IPark 2005 South Korea (12) Gyeongnam FC 2019 Thailand (11) Buriram United 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019 Thailand (11) Police Tero 2002–03, 2004, 2005 Thailand (11) Krung Thai Bank 2004, 2005, 2008 Thailand (11) Chiangrai United 2020, 2021, 2022 Thailand (11) Muangthong United 2013, 2017 Thailand (11) BG Pathum United 2021, 2022 Thailand (11) Jumpasri United 2002–03 Thailand (11) Bangkok United 2007 Thailand (11) Chonburi 2008 Thailand (11) Port 2021 Thailand (11) Ratchaburi Mitr Phol 2021 United Arab Emirates (10) Al-Ain 2002–03, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020 United Arab Emirates (10) Al-Wahda 2004, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2021 United Arab Emirates (10) Al-Jazira 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2022 United Arab Emirates (10) Shabab Al-Ahli 2005, 2009, 2010, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2020, 2021, 2022 United Arab Emirates (10) Sharjah 2004, 2020, 2021, 2022 United Arab Emirates (10) Al-Wasl 2008, 2018, 2019 United Arab Emirates (10) Al-Shabab 2009, 2012, 2013 United Arab Emirates (10) Al-Nasr 2012, 2013, 2016 United Arab Emirates (10) Emirates 2011 United Arab Emirates (10) Baniyas 2012 Australia (9) Melbourne Victory 2008, 2010, 2011, 2014, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2020 Australia (9) Sydney FC 2007, 2011, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2022 Australia (9) Adelaide United 2007, 2008, 2010, 2012, 2017 Australia (9) Central Coast Mariners 2009, 2012, 2013, 2014 Australia (9) Brisbane Roar 2012, 2015, 2017 Australia (9) Western Sydney Wanderers 2014, 2015, 2017 Australia (9) Newcastle Jets 2009 Australia (9) Perth Glory 2020 Australia (9) Melbourne City 2022 Saudi Arabia (9) Al-Hilal 2002–03, 2004, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2021, 2022 Saudi Arabia (9) Al-Ahli 2005, 2008, 2010, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021 Saudi Arabia (9) Al-Ittihad 2004, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2016, 2019 Saudi Arabia (9) Al-Shabab 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2022 Saudi Arabia (9) Al-Nassr 2011, 2015, 2016, 2019, 2020, 2021 Saudi Arabia (9) Al- Taawoun 2017, 2020, 2022 Saudi Arabia (9) Al-Ettifaq 2009, 2013 Saudi Arabia (9) Al-Fateh 2014, 2017 Saudi Arabia (9) Al-Faisaly 2022 Qatar (8) Al-Sadd 2002–03, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2014, 2015, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022 Qatar (8) Al-Rayyan 2005, 2007, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2021, 2022 Qatar (8) Al-Duhail 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022 Qatar (8) Al-Gharafa 2006, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2018, 2022 Qatar (8) El-Jaish 2013, 2014, 2016 Qatar (8) Qatar SC 2004 Qatar (8) Umm-Salal 2009 Qatar (8) Al-Arabi 2012 Iraq (7) Al- Quwa Al-Jawiya 2004, 2006, 2008, 2021, 2022 Iraq (7) Al-Shorta 2004, 2005, 2020, 2021 Iraq (7) Al-Zawra'a 2005, 2007, 2019 Iraq (7) Al-Talaba 2002–03 Iraq (7) Al-Mina'a 2006 Iraq (7) Al-Najaf 2007 Iraq (7) Erbil 2008 Uzbekistan (7) Pakhtakor 2002–03, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2016, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022 Uzbekistan (7) Bunyodkor 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017 Uzbekistan (7) Nasaf 2012, 2015, 2016, 2018, 2022 Uzbekistan (7) Lokomotiv Tashkent 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019 Uzbekistan (7) Neftchi Farg'ona 2004, 2005, 2007 Uzbekistan (7) Mash'al Mubarek 2006 Uzbekistan (7) AGMK 2021 Vietnam (7) Hoang Anh Gia Lai 2004, 2005, 2022 Vietnam (7) Becamex Binh Duong 2008, 2015, 2016 Vietnam (7) Binh Dinh 2004, 2005 Vietnam (7) Long An 2006, 2007 Vietnam (7) Da Nang 2006 Vietnam (7) Nam Dinh 2008 Vietnam (7) Viettel 2021 Indonesia (6) PSM Makassar 2004, 2005 Indonesia (6) Persik Kediri 2004, 2007 Indonesia (6) Arema 2007, 2011 Indonesia (6) Persebaya Surabaya 2005 Indonesia (6) Sriwijaya 2009 Indonesia (6) Persipura Jayapura 2010 Kuwait (4) Al-Arabi 2004, 2006, 2007 Kuwait (4) Al-Kuwait 2005, 2007, 2008 Kuwait (4) Al-Qadsia 2006, 2008 Kuwait (4) Al-Salmiya 2005 Syria (4) Al-Ittihad 2006, 2007, 2008 Syria (4) Al-Karamah 2006, 2007, 2008 Syria (4) Al-Jaish 2005 Syria (4) Al-Wahda 2005 Singapore (3) Warriors 2009, 2010 Singapore (3) Tampines Rovers 2021 Singapore (3) Lion City Sailors 2022 Hong Kong (2) Kitchee 2018, 2021, 2022 Hong Kong (2) Eastern 2017 Philippines (2) United City 2021, 2022 Philippines (2) Kaya–Iloilo 2021 Turkmenistan (2) Nisa Aşgabat 2002–03 Turkmenistan (2) Ahal 2022 India (2) Goa 2021 India (2) Mumbai City 2022 Malaysia (1) Johor Darul Ta'zim 2019, 2021, 2022 Jordan (1) Al-Wehdat 2021\. 2022 Tajikistan (1) Istiklol 2021, 2022 Year(s) in Bold : Team advanced to the knockout stage. ===Attendance record=== The following table lists 20 matches with the most attendances at AFC Champions League (More than 70,000 attendances). Persepolis has the records of the most attendances (11 matches among 20 matches with the most attendances) and five matches with the most attendances. # Date Home team Score Away team Venue Attendance 1 10 November 2018 Persepolis 0–0 Kashima Antlers Azadi Stadium 100,000 2 19 May 2015 Persepolis 1–0 Al-Hilal Azadi Stadium 100,000 3 6 May 2015 Persepolis 2–1 Bunyodkor Azadi Stadium 100,000 4 8 April 2015 Persepolis 1–0 Al-Nassr Azadi Stadium 100,000 5 17 April 2012 Persepolis 1–1 Al-Gharafa Azadi Stadium 96,200 6 21 August 2013 Esteghlal 1–0 Buriram United Azadi Stadium 95,300 7 27 May 2009 Persepolis 0–1 Bunyodkor Azadi Stadium 95,225 8 12 March 2018 Esteghlal 1–1 Al-Ain Azadi Stadium 90,000 9 2 October 2013 Esteghlal 2–2 FC Seoul Azadi Stadium 88,330 10 11 May 2011 Esteghlal 2–1 Al-Nassr Azadi Stadium 85,422 11 21 March 2012 Persepolis 6–1 Al Shabab Azadi Stadium 82,700 12 23 October 2018 Persepolis 1–1 Al-Sadd Azadi Stadium 81,000 13 9 April 2013 Esteghlal 0–1 Al-Hilal Azadi Stadium 80,350 14 14 May 2018 Persepolis 2–1 Al-Jazira Azadi Stadium 80,000 15 27 August 2018 Esteghlal 1–3 Al-Sadd Azadi Stadium 78,116 16 25 April 2017 Esteghlal 1–1 Al-Ahli Azadi Stadium 76,428 17 15 May 2018 Esteghlal 3–1 Zob Ahan Azadi Stadium 75,680 18 7 February 2017 Esteghlal 0–0 Al-Sadd Azadi Stadium 74,560 19 1 May 2012 Persepolis 0–1 Al-Hilal Azadi Stadium 73,154 20 17 September 2018 Persepolis 3–1 Al-Duhail Azadi Stadium 71,312 == Clubs == ===Performance review (from 2002–03)=== ===By semi-final appearances=== ====Asian Club Championship and AFC Champions League==== The following table is a list of clubs that have participated in the Asian Club Championship and AFC Champions League. Excluding semifinalists from 1987 to 1989–90 seasons. In these seasons, there were no semi-finals as the finalists qualified via a group stage. Team No. Years Al-Hilal 12 1986, 1987, 1991, 1997–98, 1999–2000, 2010, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2019, 2021, 2022 Esteghlal 7 1970, 1971, 1990–91, 1991, 1998–99, 2001–02, 2013 Persepolis 7 1996–97, 1997–98, 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2017, 2018, 2020 Seongnam FC 6 1994–95, 1995, 1996–97, 2004, 2007, 2010 Al-Ittihad 5 2004, 2005, 2009, 2011, 2012 Al-Ain 5 1998–99, 2002–03, 2005, 2014, 2016 Suwon Samsung Bluewings 5 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2001–02, 2011, 2018 Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors 5 2004, 2006, 2011, 2016, 2022 Urawa Red Diamonds 5 2007, 2008, 2017, 2019, 2022 Liaoning 4 1986, 1989–90, 1990–91, 1993–94 FC Seoul 4 2001–02, 2013, 2014, 2016 Al-Sadd 4 1988–89, 2011, 2018, 2019 Pohang Steelers 4 1996–97, 1997–98, 2009, 2021 Ulsan Hyundai 4 2006, 2012, 2020, 2021 Tokyo Verdy 3 1987, 1992–93, 1993–94 Thai Farmers Bank 3 1993–94, 1994–95, 1995 Júbilo Iwata 3 1998–99, 1999–2000, 2000–01 Dalian Shide 3 1997–98, 1998–99, 2002–03 Guangzhou 3 2013, 2015, 2019 Al-Nassr 3 1995, 2020, 2021 Hapoel Tel Aviv 2 1967, 1970 Maccabi Tel Aviv 2 1969, 1971 Pakhtakor 2 2002–03, 2004 Busan IPark 2 1985, 2005 Al-Shabab 2 1992–93, 2010 Al-Ahli 2 1985, 2012 Bunyodkor 2 2008, 2012 Gamba Osaka 2 2008, 2015 Selangor 1 1967 Korea Tungsten FC 1 1967 Yangzee FC 1 1969 Sanfrecce Hiroshima 1 1969 Mysore State 1 1969 PSMS Medan 1 1970 Homenetmen Beirut 1 1970 Aliyat Al-Shorta 1 1971 ROK Army 1 1971 Tiga Berlian 1 1985 Al-Ittihad 1 1985 Al-Talaba 1 1986 JEF United Chiba 1 1986 Al-Rasheed 1 1988–89 Mohun Bagan 1 1988–89 Yokohama F. Marinos 1 1989–90 April 25 1 1990–91 Madura United 1 1990–91 Al-Shabab 1 1991 Al-Rayyan 1 1991 Al-Wasl 1 1992–93 PAS Tehran 1 1992–93 Oman Club 1 1993–94 Al-Arabi 1 1994–95 Neftchy Farg'ona 1 1994–95 Saipa 1 1995 Al-Zawraa 1 1996–97 Irtysh 1 2000–01 Nasaf 1 2001–02 Police Tero 1 2002–03 Shenzhen 1 2005 Al-Qadisiya 1 2006 Al- Karamah 1 2006 Al-Wahda 1 2007 Sepahan 1 2007 Adelaide United 1 2008 Umm-Salal 1 2009 Nagoya Grampus 1 2009 Zob Ahan 1 2010 Kashiwa Reysol 1 2013 Western Sydney Wanderers 1 2014 Shabab Al-Ahli 1 2015 El-Jaish 1 2016 Shanghai Port 1 2017 Kashima Antlers 1 2018 Vissel Kobe 1 2020 Al-Duhail 1 2022 Year(s) in Bold: Team was finalist ====AFC Champions League era==== Team No. Years Al- Hilal 7 2010, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2019, 2021, 2022 Al-Ittihad 5 2004, 2005, 2009, 2011, 2012 Urawa Red Diamonds 5 2007, 2008, 2017, 2019, 2022 Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors 5 2004, 2006, 2011, 2016, 2022 Al-Ain 4 2003, 2005, 2014, 2016 Seongnam FC 3 2004, 2007, 2010 Ulsan Hyundai 3 2006, 2012, 2020 FC Seoul 3 2013, 2014, 2016 Al-Sadd 3 2011, 2018, 2019 Guangzhou 3 2013, 2015, 2019 Persepolis 3 2017, 2018, 2020 Pakhtakor 2 2003, 2004 Gamba Osaka 2 2008, 2015 Bunyodkor 2 2008, 2012 Suwon Samsung Bluewings 2 2011, 2018 Police Tero 1 2003 Dalian Shide 1 2003 Shenzhen 1 2005 Busan IPark 1 2005 Al-Qadisiya 1 2006 Al- Karamah 1 2006 Al-Wahda 1 2007 Sepahan 1 2007 Adelaide United 1 2008 Nagoya Grampus 1 2009 Pohang Steelers 1 2009 Umm-Salal 1 2009 Zob Ahan 1 2010 Al- Shabab 1 2010 Al-Ahli 1 2012 Esteghlal 1 2013 Kashiwa Reysol 1 2013 Western Sydney Wanderers 1 2014 Shabab Al-Ahli 1 2015 El-Jaish 1 2016 Shanghai Port 1 2017 Kashima Antlers 1 2018 Al-Nassr 1 2020 Vissel Kobe 1 2020 Al Duhail 1 2022 Year(s) in Bold: Team was finalist ===Unbeaten sides=== Four sides have been undefeated in multiple seasons: * Al-Hilal (1991–92 and 1999–2000) * Esteghlal (1970 and 1990–91) * Maccabi Tel Aviv (1969 and 1971) * Ulsan Hyundai: (2012) and 2020) Ten other teams have been undefeated in a single season: * Al-Ittihad (2005) * Daewoo Royals (1985) * Furukawa Electric (1986–87) * Gamba Osaka (2008) * Hapoel Tel Aviv (1967) * Ilhwa Chunma (1995) * Liaoning (1989–90) * Suwon Samsung Bluewings (2001–02) * Thai Farmers Bank (1993–94) * Urawa Red Diamonds (2007) ===Consecutive participations=== * Al- Hilal have the record number of consecutive participations in the AFC Champions League with 12 Times since 2009 . ===Biggest wins=== *The following teams won a single match with goal difference of 6 or more in the AFC Champions League era: Date Team win Score Team lose Venue 11 May 2004 Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma 15–0 Persik Kediri Seongnam Stadium 22 March 2006 Gamba Osaka 15–0 Da Nang Osaka Expo '70 Stadium 9 February 2016 FC Tokyo 9–0 Chonburi Ajinomoto Stadium 9 March 2010 Changchun Yatai 9–0 Persipura Jayapura Changchun City Stadium 1 July 2021 Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors 9–0 Tampines Rovers Lokomotiv Stadium 9 April 2008 Krung Thai Bank 9–1 Nam Dinh Chulalongkorn University Sports Stadium 12 March 2008 Kashima Antlers 9–1 Krung Thai Bank Chulalongkorn University Sports Stadium 9 March 2005 Busan I'Park 8–0 Bình Ðịnh Busan Asiad Stadium 14 April 2010 Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors 8–0 Persipura Jayapura Jeonju World Cup Stadium 29 June 2021 Kawasaki Frontale 8–0 United City Lokomotiv Stadium 18 April 2022 Kawasaki Frontale 8–0 Guangzhou Tan Sri Dato' Haji Hassan Yunos Stadium ===Biggest two-legged wins=== The following teams won two-legged matches with goal difference of 5 or more in the knock- out rounds of AFC Champions League era: Round Team win Score Team lose 2004 Quarterfinal Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma 11–2 Sharjah 2013 Semifinal Guangzhou Evergrande 8–1 Kashiwa Reysol 2005 Semifinal Al-Ittihad 7–0 Busan I'Park 2006 Quarterfinal Ulsan Hyundai Horang-i 7–0 Al Shabab 2005 Semifinal Al Ain 6–0 Shenzhen Jianlibao 2005 Quarterfinal Al-Ittihad 8–3 Shandong Luneng 2009 Semifinal Al-Ittihad 8–3 Nagoya Grampus 2018 Round of 16 Al-Duhail 8–3 Al-Ain 2017 Round of 16 Kawasaki Frontale 7–2 Muangthong United 2013 Quarterfinal Guangzhou Evergrande 6–1 Lekhwiya 2008 Final Gamba Osaka 5–0 Adelaide United 2012 Quarterfinal Ulsan Hyundai 5–0 Al-Hilal 2016 Quarterfinal Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors 5–0 Shanghai SIPG 2018 Quarterfinal Kashima Antlers 5–0 Tianjin Quanjian ===Group stage records=== ==== Goalscoring and conceding ==== *Most goals scored in a group stage: 28 **Kashima Antlers (2008) *Fewest goals scored in a group stage: 0 **Tokyo Verdy (2006) **Shahr Khodro (2020) **Ratchaburi Mitr Phol (2021) **Guangzhou (2022) *Fewest goals conceded in a group stage: 0 **Pakhtakor (2002–03) **Al-Wahda (2004) **Busan IPark (2005) **Ulsan Hyundai (2006) *Most goals conceded in a group stage: 29 **Persipura Jayapura (2010) *Highest goal difference in a group stage: +25 **Busan IPark (2005) **Kashima Antlers (2008) *Lowest goal difference in a group stage: –26 **Da Nang (2006) **Tampines Rovers (2021) ====Advancing past the group stage==== * Al-Hilal holds the record for the most consecutive seasons advancing past the group stage with 9 from 2009 to 2017. == Players == === All-time appearances === Player Club(s) Apps Huang Bowen Beijing Guoan Guangzhou Evergrande Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors Mohammad Al-Shalhoub Al-Hilal Gao Lin Shanghai Shenhua Guangzhou Evergrande Feng Xiaoting Guangzhou Evergrande Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors Abdullah Al-Zori Al-Hilal Saud Kariri Al-Ittihad Al-Hilal Zheng Zhi Shandong Luneng Guangzhou Evergrande Zeng Cheng Persebaya Surabaya Henan Jianye Guangzhou Evergrande Lee Dong-gook Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors Zhang Linpeng Guangzhou Evergrande Kwoun Sun-tae Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors Kashima Antlers Dejan Damjanović FC Seoul Beijing Guoan Suwon Samsung Bluewings Jalal Hosseini Saipa Sepahan Persepolis Shinzo Koroki Kashima Antlers Urawa Red Diamonds Ibrahim Diaky Al-Ain Al-Jazira Khalid Eisa Al-Jazira Al-Ain Yasser Al-Qahtani Al-Hilal Mohamed Abdulrahman Al-Ain Omar Abdulrahman Al-Ain Yasuhito Endō Gamba Osaka Mehdi Rahmati Sepahan Esteghlal Mohanad Salem Al-Ain Elkeson Guangzhou Evergrande Shanghai SIPG Nasser Al-Shamrani Al-Shabab Al-Hilal Al-Ain Mitsuo Ogasawara Kashima Antlers === Winning the Trophy === List of players with more than one title Player Number of titles Club(s) An Ik-soo 3 1995 for Ilhwa Chunma, 1996-97 and 1997-98 for Pohang Steelers Kwoun Sun-tae 3 2018 for Kashima Antlers, 2016 and 2006 for Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors Jung Seung- hyun 2 2020 for Ulsan Hyundai, 2018 for Kashima Antlers Yuki Abe Tadaaki Hirakawa 2 2017 and 2007 for Urawa Red Diamonds Kim Shin-wook Lee Ho 2 2016 for Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors, 2012 for Ulsan Hyundai Shin Hyung- min 2 2016 for Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors, 2009 for Pohang Steelers Elkeson Feng Xiaoting Huang Bowen Kim Young-gwon Li Shuai Liao Lisheng Rong Hao Gao Lin Zeng Cheng Zhang Linpeng Zhao Xuri Zheng Long Zheng Zhi 2 2015 and 2013 for Guangzhou Evergrande Namkung Do 2 2010 for Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma,2009 for Pohang Steelers Mohammed Noor Ahmed Dokhi Hamzah Idris Saud Kariri Tcheco Redha Tukar Manaf Abushgeer Osama Al-Muwallad Hamad Al-Montashari 2 2005 and 2004 for Al-Ittihad Abdullah Al-Mayouf Salman Al-Faraj Abdullah Otayf Mohammed Al-Breik Yasser Al-Shahrani Salem Al-Dawsari Saleh Al-Shehri Bafétimbi Gomis Ali Al Bulaihi Nasser Al-Dawsari André Carrillo Jang Hyun-soo Mohamed Kanno Mohammed Jahfali Amiri Kurdi 2 2019 and 2021 for Al-Hilal === Goalscoring === ==== All-time top goalscorers ==== Rank Player Club(s) Goals 1 Dejan Damjanović FC Seoul Beijing Guoan Suwon Samsung Bluewings Kitchee SC 42 2 Lee Dong-Gook Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors 37 3 Nasser Al-Shamrani Al-Shabab Al-Hilal Al-Ittihad Al-Ain 32 4 Elkeson Guangzhou Evergrande Shanghai SIPG 30 5 Shinzo Koroki Kashima Antlers Urawa Red Diamonds 27 6 Ricardo Goulart Guangzhou Evergrande 25 Abderrazak Hamdallah Al-Rayyan Al Nassr Omar Al Somah Al Ahli 9 Leandro Gamba Osaka Al-Sadd Al-Rayyan Kashiwa Reysol 24 10 Baghdad Bounedjah Al-Sadd 21 11 Muriqui Guangzhou Evergrande Al-Sadd 20 Asamoah Gyan Al-Ain Al-Ahli Shanghai SIPG Youssef El-Arabi Al-Hilal Al-Duhail Kim Shin-wook Ulsan Hyundai Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors Shanghai Shenhua Bafétimbi Gomis Al Hilal Romarinho Al Jazira El Jaish Al-Ittihad 17 Hulk Shanghai Port 19 Mohammed Noor Al-Ittihad 19 Edgar Daegu FC 18 Yasser Al-Qahtani Al Hilal Omar Abdulrahman Al Hilal 20 Kim Do-hoon Seongnam FC Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors 17 Arash Borhani Esteghlal Gao Lin Guangzhou Anvarjon Soliev Pakhtakor Tashkent FC Bunyodkor Rodrigo Tabata Al-Sadd Al-Rayyan Naif Hazazi Al Shabab Al-Ittihad Salem Al-Dawsari Al Hilal 27 Nam Tae-hee Al-Sadd Al-Duhail 16 Ali Mabkhout Al Jazira Youssef Msakni Al-Duhail ==== Top scorer awards ==== The top scorer award is for the player who amassed the most goals in the tournament, excluding the qualifying rounds. Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma, Gamba Osaka, Guangzhou Evergrande and Al-Hilal are the clubs to have received the most awards with 2 each: *Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma **Kim Do-hoon in 2004 **Mota in 2007 *Gamba Osaka **Magno Alves in 2006 **Leandro in 2009 *Guangzhou Evergrande **Muriqui in 2013 **Ricardo Goulart in 2015 *Al-Hilal **Omar Kharbin in 2017 **Bafétimbi Gomis in 2019 ==== Hat-tricks ==== The first hat- trick of the AFC Champions League era was scored by Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma's Kim Do-hoon against Osotsapa on 9 March 2003. Both Adriano and Ricardo Goulart have scored three hat-tricks in the competition. =====List of hat-tricks===== Player For Against Result Date Kim Do-hoon Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma Osotsapa 6–0 9 March 2003 Hao Haidong4 Dalian Shide Osotsapa 7–1 12 March 2003 Patrick Suffo Al-Hilal Esteghlal 3–2 12 March 2003 Kiatisuk Senamuang Hoang Anh Gia Lai PSM Makassar 5–1 11 February 2004 Kim Yeon-gun Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors BEC Tero Sasana 4–0 7 April 2004 Edu Sales Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors BEC Tero Sasana 4–0 20 April 2004 Marzouk Al-Otaibi Al-Ittihad Sepahan 4–0 20 April 2004 Jasenko Sabitović4 Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma Persik Kediri 15–0 11 May 2004 Denis Laktionov4 Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma Persik Kediri 15–0 11 May 2004 Kim Do-hoon Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma Persik Kediri 15–0 11 May 2004 Mohamed Al-Zeno Al-Jaish Al-Zawraa 5–1 5 April 2005 Mohsen Bayatinia PAS Tehran Al-Salmiya 5–1 6 April 2005 Rasoul Khatibi Sepahan Al-Wahda 3–1 6 April 2005 Zheng Zhi Shandong Luneng PSM Makassar 6–1 20 April 2005 Onyekachi Nwoha Al-Ain Shenzhen Jianlibao 6–0 28 September 2005 Fernandinho4 Gamba Osaka Da Nang 15–0 22 March 2006 Magno Alves4 Gamba Osaka Da Nang 15–0 22 March 2006 Gao Lin Shanghai Shenhua Dong Tam Long An 4–2 3 May 2006 A'ala Hubail Al-Gharafa Al-Wahda 5–3 17 May 2006 Diego Alonso Shanghai Shenhua Persik Kediri 6–0 23 May 2007 Travis Dodd Adelaide United Dong Tam Long An 3–0 23 May 2007 Marquinhos Kashima Antlers Krung Thai Bank 9–1 12 March 2008 Koné Kassim4 Krung Thai Bank Nam Dinh 9–1 9 April 2008 Nantawat Tansopa Krung Thai Bank Nam Dinh 9–1 9 April 2008 Nantawat Tansopa4 Krung Thai Bank Beijing Guoan 5–3 21 May 2008 Tiago Beijing Guoan Krung Thai Bank 3–5 21 May 2008 Luay Salah Erbil Al-Qadsia 4–2 21 May 2008 José Luis Villanueva Bunyodkor Saipa 5–1 24 September 2008 Leandro Gamba Osaka FC Seoul 4–2 17 April 2009 Araújo Al-Gharafa Persepolis 5–1 21 April 2009 Prince Tagoe Al-Ettifaq Al-Shabab 4–1 21 April 2009 Dejan Damjanović FC Seoul Sriwijaya 5–1 5 May 2009 Denilson Pohang Steelers Central Coast Mariners 3–2 5 May 2009 Naif Hazazi Al-Ittihad Umm-Salal 7–0 19 May 2009 Choi Hyo-jin Pohang Steelers Newcastle Jets 6–0 24 June 2009 Mohammed Noor Al- Ittihad Nagoya Grampus 6–2 21 October 2009 Krunoslav Lovrek Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors Persipura Jayapura 4–1 23 February 2010 Gao Jian Changchun Yatai Persipura Jayapura 9–0 9 March 2010 Johnny Woodly Changchun Yatai Persipura Jayapura 9–0 9 March 2010 Leandro Al-Sadd Al-Ahli 5–0 10 March 2010 Shoki Hirai Gamba Osaka Singapore Armed Force 4–2 23 March 2010 Odil Ahmedov Pakhtakor Al-Ain 3–2 13 April 2010 Araújo Al-Gharafa Al-Jazira 4–2 14 April 2010 Sim Woo-yeon Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors Persipura Jayapura 8–0 14 April 2010 Ha Tae-goon Suwon Samsung Bluewings Shanghai Shenhua 4–0 16 March 2011 Younis Mahmoud Al-Gharafa Al-Jazira 5–2 4 May 2011 Krunoslav Lovrek Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors Arema 6–0 10 May 2011 Lee Dong-gook4 Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors Cerezo Osaka 6–1 27 September 2011 Éamon Zayed Persepolis Al Shabab 6–1 21 March 2012 Ricardo Oliveira Al-Jazira Nasaf 4–1 2 May 2012 Ricardo Oliveira4 Al-Jazira Al-Rayyan 4–3 16 May 2012 Yoo Byung-soo4 Al-Hilal Baniyas 7–1 23 May 2012 Wagner Ribeiro El-Jaish Al-Jazira 3–0 24 April 2013 Nasser Al-Shamrani Al- Hilal Al-Sadd 5–0 1 April 2014 Chimba Foolad Al-Fateh 5–1 23 April 2014 Ricardo Goulart Guangzhou Evergrande Western Sydney Wanderers 3–2 4 March 2015 Diogo Buriram United Guangzhou R&F; 5–0 6 May 2015 Adriano4 FC Seoul Buriram United 6–0 23 February 2016 Adriano FC Seoul Sanfrecce Hiroshima 4–1 1 March 2016 Mehdi Taremi Persepolis Al-Wahda 4–2 8 May 2017 Ricardo Goulart Guangzhou Evergrande Shanghai SIPG 5–1 12 September 2017 Omar Kharbin Al-Hilal Persepolis 4–0 26 September 2017 Adriano Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors Kitchee 6–0 20 February 2018 Kim Shin-wook Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors Tianjin Quanjian 6–3 6 March 2018 Ricardo Goulart4 Guangzhou Evergrande Jeju United 5–3 6 March 2018 Mame Baba Thiam Esteghlal Zob Ahan 3–1 15 May 2018 Cédric Bakambu Beijing Guoan Buriram United 3–1 9 April 2019 Leonardo4 Al-Wahda Al-Rayyan 4–3 22 April 2019 Oscar Shanghai SIPG Ulsan Hyundai 5–0 21 May 2019 Bafétimbi Gomis Al-Hilal Al-Ahli 4–2 6 August 2019 Welliton Sharjah Al-Taawoun 6–0 Al-Duhail Esteghlal 4–3 Gustavo4 Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors Tampines Rovers 9–0 Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors Tampines Rovers 9–0 1 July 2021 Kawasaki Frontale United City 8–0 Gamba Osaka Tampines Rovers 8–1 Kawasaki Frontale Daegu FC 3–1 Nagoya Grampus Daegu FC 4–2 Al-Duhail Pakhtakor 3–2 Daegu FC Shandong Taishan 7–0 Johor Darul Ta'zim Guangzhou 5–0 Al Shabab Mumbai City 6–0 Ahal Al-Gharafa 4–2 4 Al-Hilal Al-Duhail 7–0 * 4 Player scored 4 goals ==Managers== == See also == * Australian clubs in the AFC Champions League * Chinese clubs in the AFC Champions League * Indian football clubs in Asian competitions * Indonesian football clubs in Asian competitions * Iranian clubs in the AFC Champions League * Iraqi clubs in the AFC Champions League * Japanese clubs in the AFC Champions League * Myanmar clubs in the AFC Champions League * Qatari clubs in the AFC Champions League * Saudi Arabian clubs in the AFC Champions League * South Korean clubs in the AFC Champions League * Thai clubs in the AFC Champions League * Vietnamese clubs in the AFC Champions League * Vietnamese football clubs in the AFC Cup * Pakistani football clubs in Asian competitions * Turkish football clubs in European competitions ==References== ==External links== * The-afc.com Statistics Category:AFC Champions League records and statistics |
Typhoon Saomai, known in the Philippines as Typhoon Osang, was a long-tracked and intense tropical cyclone that brought flooding rainfall in Japan and the Korean Peninsula in September 2000\. The torrential precipitation in Japan was considered some of the worst in the past century. Saomai, the second strongest typhoon in the western Pacific in 2000, developed from an area of disturbed weather in open sea on August 31\. The system was initially quick to intensify, reaching an initial peak intensity as a typhoon on September 4\. Wind shear caused a hiatus in Saomai's strengthening phase, and as a result Saomai weakened back to a tropical storm as it tracked northwest for the next few days. On September 9, the system regained typhoon intensity and began to rapidly intensify, reaching peak intensity on September 10 with maximum sustained winds of . Over the ensuing two days Saomai would weaken slightly before making landfall on Okinawa Island. The typhoon later entered the East China Sea, where it recurved towards the northeast before making landfall on South Korea as a severe tropical storm, later transitioning into an extratropical cyclone on September 16\. Saomai's remnants would move into Russia before dissipating three days later. As a developing typhoon, the outer rainbands of Saomai affected the Mariana Islands, causing moderate damage. Localized power outages were reported, and damage totaled to US$650,000. Even before Saomai made landfall on Okinawa, the typhoon caused rough seas off the coast of Japan that resulted in several shipping incidents. Concurrently, the approach of a front into the country interacted with the typhoon, resulting in unprecedented rainfalls in Japan. Due to the floods, approximately 400,000 people were evacuated in three prefectures. In Nagoya, observed rainfall totals were the highest since records began in 1891. Despite making landfall on Okinawa, damage was not as severe, though several landslides and strong winds were reported. Overall, damage in Japan and its outlying islands totaled JP¥24.8 billion (US$223 million) and eleven fatalities were reported. As Saomai tracked near China, its outer rainbands and strong waves prompted the evacuation of 20,000 people and caused record high stream heights. In South Korea, eight people were killed and damage figures equated to US$71 million. Widespread power outages took a toll on as many as 422,000 homes and heavy rains flooded numerous fields of crops. Minor damage occurred in North Korea, though the damage wrought by Typhoon Prapiroon earlier in the month was exacerbated by Saomai's impacts. In Russia, where the typhoon made landfall as an extratropical storm, nine people were killed due to car accidents spurred by rainfall caused by the Saomai. Overall, Saomai's effects resulted in the death of 28 people and roughly US$6.3 billion in damage. ==Meteorological history== Typhoon Saomai emerged from an area of convection that developed well east of Guam in late-August. Though the disturbance was associated with a low-pressure area, the circulation center was too weak to support persistent shower activity. Despite the satellite presentation, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) classified the system as a tropical depression at 1800 UTC on August 31. Over the next few days, the system organized and curved towards the west from its initial northerly track. At 1200 UTC on September 2, the JMA upgraded the small depression to tropical storm intensity. Within Saomai, convection deepened near the center, signifying continued intensification. A cold central dense overcast eventually developed, and at 1200 UTC the next day, Saomai became a severe tropical storm. Early on September 4, the tropical cyclone intensified further into a typhoon. At the time, Saomai was still well northeast of Guam. Upon reaching typhoon strength, Saomai attained an initial peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of . Shortly after, despite the fact that a primitive eye had begun to develop, wind shear increased, shearing the storm's convection away. As a result, the JMA downgraded Saomai below typhoon strength on September 5, and at roughly the same time a subtropical ridge to the storm's southeast steered Saomai southward. This break in the storm's westerly course was short lived, and early on September 6, Saomai assumed its previous heading. Over time the shearing conditions gradually abated, and rainbanding about the cyclone was showing signs of organization and strengthening. On September 8, Saomai finally re-developed a central dense overcast, prompting the JMA to upgrade the tropical storm back to typhoon intensity at 0000 UTC the following day. Back in favorable conditions, the typhoon entered a phase of rapid intensification beginning six hours later. During this period a well-defined eye developed, and the storm's eyewall significantly intensified. At 1200 UTC on September 10, Saomai reached its peak intensity with sustained winds estimated at and a minimum barometric pressure of 925 mbar (hPa; 27.32 inHg). The intense typhoon held this intensity for approximately nine hours before it began to weaken. Following peak intensity, Saomai's eye became cloud-filled, and the storm began to develop concentric eyewalls. Shortly after 1000 UTC on September 12, the typhoon made landfall on central Okinawa, Japan with sustained winds of and a pressure of . Saomai quickly passed over the island, and concurrently its weakening phase came to a halt. After tracking into the East China Sea, the typhoon began to track towards the northeast in response to a mid-latitude trough. At its westernmost point along its track, Saomai was located approximately east of Wenzhou, China. Atmospheric conditions became increasingly more hostile as Saomai tracked northeast, and the typhoon became elongated and ragged in appearance. At 1200 UTC on September 15, Saomai was downgraded to severe tropical storm intensity as the cyclone began to undergo extratropical transition. At around 2030 UTC that day, Saomai made its final landfall as a tropical system west of Pusan, South Korea; after emerging into the Yellow Sea the storm was declared extratropical at 0600 UTC the next day. These remnants later tracked inland near Vladivostok, Russia before dissipating on September 19. ==Preparations, impact, and aftermath== ===Northern Mariana Islands and Guam=== Early in Saomai's developmental history, the rainbands associated with the storm dropped heavy rain across the Northern Mariana Islands. Schools across the archipelago nation were closed, and ferry service between Saipan and Tinian was cancelled. Reports of flooding were widespread, including in Saipan. In Tianan, some banana trees were damaged by the storm's affects. Damage from the islands amounted to US$650,000, with $600,000 to infrastructure. The presence of the nearby tropical cyclone caused the delaying of two flights and the cancellation of another at Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport. On Guam, the United States Navy ordered the release of ships from the local harbor. There, peaked at over a 24-hour period at Piti. At the National Weather Service office in Tiyan, a gauge observed of rain. Gusty winds were also associated with Saomai's outer rainbands, with gusts peaking at a measured on September 4\. The winds caused power outage in localized areas and downed two telephone poles. Severe flooding occurred in Merizo after a storm drain became clogged with debris, inundating six houses. ===Japan=== thumb|Typhoon Saomai nearing Okinawa on September 12 On September 10, rough seas caused by Saomai capsized a fishing boat off of Shizuoka Prefecture, causing one person to go missing. Another occupant of the boat was rescued three hours after the sinking by police helicopter. The waves also caused a dozen containers from the South Korean Heunga Nagoya to fall into the sea off the coast of Susami and Wakayama Prefecture. Off of Oita Prefecture, the waves were the impetus for red tides, resulting in significant marine loss. The approach of the typhoon towards Okinawa coincided with the approach of a weather front over mainland Japan, resulting in prolonged rainfall over the mainland. The rains caused extensive flooding, prompting the Cabinet of Japan to make reassurances in the repair of the ensuing damage. Rail service along the Tōkaidō Shinkansen between Tokyo and Osaka was suspended for more than 18 hours at one point, the longest delay to be enforced in the rail's service history. As a result, 50,000 passengers were forced to wait out the storm in the line's stopped trains. Toyota closed 24 of its manufacturing plants, resulting in the incompletion of 10,000 vehicles. Similarly, Mitsubishi stopped production at two of its facilities in Nagoya. Japan Airlines, All Nippon Airways, and Japan Air System cancelled a combined 114 flights, which adversely affected about 21,000 people. Across the country, rainfall peaked at in Miyagawa, Mie; the same station also recorded of rain in a single 24-hour period. As a result of the flooding in Mie, 2,819 homes were inundated and 25 landslides occurred. Several buildings succumbed to the water and thus collapsed. Extensive power outage occurred in Kagoshima Prefecture, affecting approximately 4,500 households. In addition, the heavy rains caused damage to agriculture, including sugar cane crops. Damage in the prefecture totaled . Similar effects were felt across Kyushu. Several flights into Nagasaki Prefecture were cancelled; the rains there also caused agricultural damage totaling JP¥99 million (US$900,000). Flooding also occurred on Shikoku, where rainfall totals peaked at in Funato, Kōchi. Severe damage occurred elsewhere in Kōchi, where combined forestry and agricultural damage figures reached JP¥2.1 billion (US$19 million). In Tokushima Prefecture, several landslides occurred, disrupting transportation routes. Record rainfall was observed in Aichi Prefecture, with of rain in Tokai and of rain in Nagoya in a span of a single day; both observations were the highest since records began in 1891. Due to the threat of landslides in Nagoya, the municipal government ordered the evacuation of 140,000 families. In the ward of Nakagawa-ku, two rivers overflowed their banks and over-topped the surrounding embankment. Two tornadoes occurred in the prefecture, with one striking Mihama and another striking Minamichita; the former tornado injured 22 people, of which two were hospitalized. Another 41,000 families encompassing 400,000 people were evacuated across Aichi, Gifu, and Mie prefectures as a precautionary measure. Damage in Okinawa, the site of Saomai's first landfall, was considerable but not unprecedented. On September 10, the provincial government established a disaster warning headquarters on Daito Island to more efficiently deal with the typhoon's effects. Rainfall peaked on Mount Yonaha, where a station recorded of rain. During the storm, 31 roads sustained damage and 26 landslides occurred. Damage in Okinawa Prefecture reached JP¥636 million (US$6 million). Overall, Saomai caused the destruction of 609 homes and the inundation of 70,017 others in Japan. Damage costs in the country totaled JP¥24.8 billion (US$223 million). Eleven people were killed and 103 others suffered injury. At the height of the storm, over 17,000 people had been displaced in emergency shelters. ===Korean peninsula=== As Saomai approached South Korea, the typhoon forced the cancellation of flights beginning on September 12. Four airports had their air service suspended. Other suspensions of transportation included the refuge of 362 fishing boats in ports and the closure of 10 national parks and 43 mountain paths. As a result, about 16,600 campers and hikers were evacuated to safer areas. As a result of the inclement weather, the operation of 149 passenger ships were cancelled. On September 13, the Korea Meteorological Administration (KMA) issued a typhoon warning for waters south of South Korea and Jeju Province. The administration anticipated heavy rainfall, though not as much as what had taken place in Japan. Offshore, an Indonesian freighter with 39 crewmen became stranded by the typhoon in waters south of Pusan. The crew were rescued by maritime police, but 270 tons of oil spilled into the ocean from a broken oil container. thumb|left|Damage at Uljin In South Korea, the northern and southern Gyeongsang provinces were the most heavily impacted. At least of paddy fields were flooded. Heavy rains caused the Nakdong River to breach a section of embankment, prompting the evacuation of 100 families. Flood warnings were issued by the KMA on sections of the river for the first time in 2000. In South Gyeongsang, an electricity pylon collapsed, cutting power supply to about 700 houses. Strong winds uprooted trees and destroyed homes and fishing boats in Pusan. Countrywide, losses were initially estimated at KR₩20 billion (US$18 million), though these figures later rose to US$71 million. As a result of Saomai, eight people were killed, and 411 others were displaced. More than 600 buildings were either inundated or destroyed entirely. At the height of the storm, roughly 422,000 households were without power, primarily in northern and southern Gyeongsang provinces. Relatively minor damage occurred in North Korea, previously impacted by Typhoon Prapiroon earlier in September. Rainfall peaked at in Kaesong. Saomai somewhat exacerbated the unprecedented damage caused by Prapiroon, and damaged maize crops which were set to be harvested in the coming weeks. ===Elsewhere=== At its closest approach to China, Saomai generated high waves that coincided with high tide, resulting in extensive damage. In preparation for the storm, schools in Ningbo were forced to close, and ferry service was discontinued. Over 20,000 people were evacuated by the Chinese government onto higher land. The most severely affected Chinese province was Zhejiang. A station in Dinghai District observed of rain in 18 hours, equivalent to more than half of that station's monthly average. In Zhoushan, 20,000 hectares of farmland were inundated and 2,500 homes collapsed. Off the island, ten fishing boats collided, and another oil tanker capsized. Areas in Gaoting were submerged under as much as of water. Off the coast, 225 boats and 130 piers were damaged. In Shanghai, 20 streets were flooded and hundreds of homes were flooded with water. At nearby Hongqiao Airport, an Airbus A340 bound for Paris slipped off the runway. Though no people were injured, the airport was closed for eight hours. The typhoon also caused the Huangpu River to rise to its third highest level in recorded history. Despite being a much weaker storm upon impacting Russia, Saomai's rains flooded coal retrieval sites, cutting down on electric power supplies in Primorsky Krai. Due to the shortages, electric power was transferred there from other surrounding areas. Furthermore, a 50 percent decrease in electricity output was documented at the local power station in Luchegorsk. To the south, an overflowing of the Kazachka River prompted the evacuation of over 60 people. Overall, 55 automobile accidents occurred in eastern Russia, leading to nine fatalities and 76 people injured. ==See also== *Tropical cyclones in 2000 *Typhoon Rusa (2002) *Typhoon Maemi (2003) *Typhoon Nari (2007) *Typhoon Hinnamnor (2022) ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== *JMA General Information of Typhoon Saomai (0014) from Digital Typhoon *JMA Best Track Data (Graphics) of Typhoon Saomai (0014) *JMA Best Track Data (Text) *JTWC Best Track Data of Super Typhoon 22W (Saomai) *22W.SAOMAI from the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory Category:Typhoons in Japan Category:Typhoons in South Korea Category:Typhoons in North Korea Category:2000 Pacific typhoon season Category:2000 in Japan Category:2000 in South Korea Category:2000 in North Korea Category:Typhoons Saomai Category:2000 disasters in Asia |
The Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex is the visitor center at NASA's Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida. It features exhibits and displays, historic spacecraft and memorabilia, shows, two IMAX theaters, and a range of bus tours of the spaceport. The "Space Shuttle Atlantis" exhibit contains the Atlantis orbiter and the Shuttle Launch Experience, a simulated ride into space. The center also provides astronaut training experiences, including a multi-axial chair and Mars Base simulator. The visitor complex also has daily presentations from a veteran NASA astronaut. A bus tour, included with admission, encompasses the separate Apollo/Saturn V Center. There were 1.7 million visitors to the visitor complex in 2016. ==History== left|thumb|A small trailer served as the Visitors Information Center in the early 1960s The complex had its beginning in 1963 when NASA Administrator James Webb established self-guided tours where the public could drive along a predetermined route through the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station and a small trailer containing simple displays on card tables. An estimated 100,000 visitors went through that first year. As the American space program's popularity grew with the Mercury Program and Alan Shepard's historic launch, large numbers of press and public flocked to the Cape Canaveral area to get a close up view. Webb was urged by U.S. Rep. Olin Teague of Texas to create a visitors' program. By 1964, more than 250,000 self-guided car tours, permitted between 1 and 4 pm. ET on Sundays, were seen at Kennedy Space Center (KSC). left|thumb|241x241px|self-guided tour from the 1960s|alt=In 1965, KSC Director Kurt H. Debus was authorized to spend $2 million on a full-scale visitor center, covering 42 acres. Spaceport USA, as it was soon titled, hosted 500,000 visitors in 1967, its first year, and one million by 1969. Ten- thousand visitors toured the center on December 24, 1968, following the Apollo 8 orbit of the Moon. thumb|Bus tours were operated by TWA in the mid 1960s|alt= Beginning July 22, 1966, public tours were offered on 40-passenger busses. Operated by TWA, a 1.5-hour tour that included the Vehicle Assembly Building and a 3-hour tour including launch facilities were available. Tickets ranged from $0.50 for children 12 and under to $2.50 for adults for the longer tour. More than 1,500 people toured that first day and additional busses were quickly added to the fleet of former Greyhound busses. TWA continued operating tours through at least the bicentennial celebrations in 1976. left|thumb|Visitor Information Complex, 1969 As NASA neared the Moon, popularity grew. By 1969, the visitor center was the second most visited Florida attraction, behind Tampa's Busch Gardens. Even during the gap between the Apollo and Space Shuttle programs, attendance remained at over one million guests and it ranked as the fifth most popular tourist attraction in Florida. When nearby Walt Disney World opened in 1971, visitor center attendance increased by 30%, but the public was often disappointed by the comparative lack of polish at KSC's tourist facilities. Existing displays were largely made up of trade show exhibits donated by NASA contractors. Later that year, a $2.3 million upgrade of the visitor complex began with added focus on the benefits of space exploration along with the existing focus on human space exploration. thumb|Visitor Complex in 1998 In 1995, Delaware North Companies was selected to operate the visitor center. Between 1995 and 2007, the visitors center went through many changes, including the improvement of restaurants, retail shops, buses, and new exhibits. It is also when the visitor complex got its current name, Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex. Since then, the facility has been entirely self-supporting and receives no taxpayer or government funding. Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex was voted the 8th best museum in the United States by Trip Advisor in 2016. The Visitor Complex has had a visitation increase in the 2010's, in part due to the addition of the Space Shuttle Atlantis on display, the decreasing popularity of nearby SeaWorld due to changing attitudes to welfare of animals in captivity as KSC was considered an alternative, and the increasing interest in STEM fields for children. NASA renewed the contract with Delaware North Companies through 2028. ==Attractions== thumb|Entrance to Kennedy Space Center, the John F. Kennedy memorial and a Space Shuttle stack in the background Included in the base admission is tour-bus transportation to Launch Complex 39 and the surrounding KSC property, and the Apollo/Saturn V Center. Previously, it used to include admission to the Astronaut Hall of Fame, to the west. That building is now closed and the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame resides in a new exhibit at the visitor complex, Heroes & Legends. The Apollo/Saturn V Center, located north inside NASA's gates, is a large museum built around its centerpiece exhibit, a restored Saturn V launch vehicle, and features other space related exhibits, including an Apollo capsule. Two theaters allow the visitor to relive parts of the Apollo program. One simulates the environment inside an Apollo firing room during an Apollo launch, and another simulates the Apollo 11 Moon landing. The tour formerly included the Space Station Processing Facility (SSPF) where modules for the International Space Station were tested. The Visitor Complex includes two facilities run by the Astronauts Memorial Foundation. The most visible of these is the Space Mirror Memorial, also known as the Astronaut Memorial, a huge black granite mirror through- engraved with the names of all astronauts who died in the line of duty. Elsewhere on the Visitor Complex grounds is the foundation's Center for Space Education, which includes a resource center for teachers, among other facilities; and the Kurt Debus Conference Center. Heroes & Legends, which replaced the previous Early Space Exploration exhibit, houses the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame and several displays of artifacts. Among them is the Gemini 9A spacecraft, as well as a recreation of the Mercury Control Center using consoles and furniture relocated from the original building at Cape Canaveral Space Force Station. These were previously housed in the Mercury Mission Control facility, which was on the National Register of Historic Places, but it was demolished in May 2010 due to concerns about asbestos and the estimated $5-million cost to renovate the building after 40 years of exposure to salt air.Mercury Control building thumb|Atlantis display === Space Shuttle Atlantis === In 2010, the center announced a US$100 million plan to house a retired Space Shuttle orbiter in a 10-story facility. On April 12, 2011, the 30th anniversary of the launch of STS-1, NASA announced that Space Shuttle Atlantis would be provided to the visitors center for display after its last flight on STS-135 and subsequent decommissioning. The exhibit officially opened on June 29, 2013, offering a nearly 360° view of the shuttle. Atlantis is positioned at a 43.21° angle with the payload bay doors open; a view only previously seen in space. The exhibit also includes a life sized replica of the Hubble Space Telescope, the Shuttle program's astrovan, Dr. Maxime Faget's Shuttle prototype from 1969, a large-scale slide mimicking the 22° slope of a Space Shuttle when landing, numerous astronaut training and Shuttle simulators, and other displays about life in space. On the ground level is the "Forever Remembered" exhibit, commemorating the 14 astronauts lost in both Space Shuttle Challenger and Space Shuttle Columbia disasters. "Forever Remembered" includes personal artifacts from the astronauts, two recovered pieces of the Shuttles, footage of the physical and emotional recovery, and the return to flight. This exhibit replaced the Space Shuttle Explorer which was a full-scale, high-fidelity replica of the Space Shuttle which visitors were able to board. Explorer was removed from the KSC Visitor Center on December 11, 2011, and relocated to the Vehicle Assembly Building's turn basin dock adjacent to the Launch Complex 39 Press Site. The vehicle remained at the turn basin until 2012, when it was moved to the Space Center Houston. === Shuttle Launch Experience === thumb|upright=1.0|left|The Space Shuttle Launch Simulation Facility building exterior The Shuttle Launch Experience, designed by Bob Rogers and the design team BRC Imagination Arts, opened May 25, 2007. The attraction puts guests through a simulated Shuttle launch. Delaware North Companies invested six years and US$60 million into the attraction. Astronauts, NASA experts and attraction-industry leaders were consulted during development. The attraction is housed in a building that holds four simulators, each accommodating 44 people. Former Shuttle commander and then NASA Administrator Charles F. Bolden narrates the simulation and hosts the prerecorded pre-show. In the attraction's early years, guests would enter from the outside and exit into a gift shop before heading back out to the Visitor Complex. In 2013, however, the attraction was later made part of the exhibit for the Space Shuttle Atlantis, with the former gift shop space being used for several simulators that allowed guests to try their hand at landing and docking the Space Shuttle. === Heroes & Legends === The United States Astronaut Hall of Fame is now located in Heroes & Legends, which replaced the previous Early Space Exploration exhibit inside the visitor complex's main entrance. The US$20 million exhibit, which opened in 2016, focuses on America's first astronauts and nine characteristics of a hero. Each characteristic features astronaut artifacts and multimedia relevant to that characteristic. Key artifacts include the 1966 Gemini 9A capsule flown by Thomas P. Stafford and Eugene Cernan, the original NASA emblem from the Mercury Control Center (1959), the control center from Project Mercury (remaining from Early Space Exploration), Mercury Redstone rocket MR-6 (likely intended for Deke Slayton), and Wally Schirra's 1962 Sigma 7 capsule. There are also artifacts from specific astronauts, such as Gus Grissom's suborbital flight suit from July 21, 1961. Heroes & Legends also holds the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame, displaying the inducted men and women. In the center of the hall is an interactive kiosk with an inductee database, a mission index, and a virtual photo opportunity with the Mercury 7 astronauts. The Boeing company is the title sponsor of Heroes & Legends, which marked the first time the visitor complex entered an agreement with a corporate sponsor in more than 50 years. ==== U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame ==== The United States Astronaut Hall of Fame, located inside the Heroes & Legends building, is included with visitor complex daily admission. The Hall of Fame was previously owned and operated by the U.S. Space Camp Foundation, but was purchased at auction by Delaware North Park Services in September 2002 on behalf of NASA. The building was renamed the ATX Center and houses educational programs including Camp Kennedy Space Center and the Astronaut Training Experience. === Rocket Garden === The Rocket Garden is located inside the front entrance, beyond Heroes & Legends.It is an outdoor display of historic rockets that put Americans and satellites in space. Visitors can walk up to and around the base of the rockets. All of the rockets in the garden are legitimate rockets with the exception of the Mercury-Atlas, which is a re-creation replica. The Mercury-Redstone, Mercury- Atlas, and Titan II rockets launched astronauts and the Juno I, Juno II, Thor- Delta, and Atlas-Agena rockets launched satellites from Cape Canaveral. These are mounted upright whereas the largest rocket, a Saturn IB, is mounted on its side. Saturn IB rockets launched Apollo Command/Service Modules into Earth orbit for Apollo, Skylab, and the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project. The Saturn IB was restored in 2018.Collect Space In March 2021, a Delta II launch vehicle was added to the Rocket Garden. The Juno I on display is painted with serial number "UE", a reference to the vehicle that launched the first U.S. satellite, Explorer 1. A Juno II launched the first American probe to escape Earth's gravity and fly past the Moon. Atlas-Agena rockets launched early probes to the Moon, Venus, and Mars, as well as the Agena target vehicles used in rendezvous and docking by Gemini spacecraft — a necessary technique for the following Apollo missions. The Thor-Delta was one of the most reliable and frequently used launch vehicles. The Titan II on display is a refurbished Air Force ICBM with a replica Gemini spacecraft, painted to resemble the Gemini 3 booster. It was rescued from the Arizona Boneyard and erected in 2010 to replace a deteriorating mockup composed of two first stages which had been on display for more than 20 years.Pearlman, Robert Z. "Gemini-Titan Rocket Rises Again at Kennedy Space Center" (September 24, 2010) space.com Retrieved September 25, 2010 The Saturn IB on display is SA-209 which was designated for a possible Skylab Rescue mission. The garden also features mock-ups of capsules from the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs that visitors can get in. An F-1 rocket engine that powered the first stage of the Saturn V is also on display. Free guided tours of the garden are available daily. In June 2019, visitor complex official Therrin Protze offered placement of a Falcon 9 or Falcon Heavy booster in the garden to SpaceX: "We have the space available and the capability to make it happen". SpaceX chief executive Elon Musk responded expressing interest in the offer. ==== Rocket Garden gallery ==== File:F-1 rocket engine at KSC.jpg|F-1 rocket engine for the Saturn V File:Saturn IB at KSC.jpg|Saturn IB (SA-209) File:KSC Visitors Center rocket garden.JPG|KSC rocket garden (l-r): Mercury-Atlas, Atlas-Agena, Mercury-Redstone, Thor-Able, Juno II, Juno I-Explorer 1 === Gateway === Subtitled "The Deep Space Launch Complex", this attraction opened in the Spring of 2022 and showcases hardware focused on future exploration. Items on display include a Falcon Heavy booster, the Exploration Flight Test-1 capsule, prototypes of other spacecraft considered for flight, and interactive exhibits related to trips beyond the moon. The facility hosts a rotating set of three shows devoted to topics such as extra-solar planets, Mars or recent discoveries in deep space. === Apollo/Saturn V Center === thumb|upright=1.0|right|Aerial view of the Apollo/Saturn V Center from 1998 thumb|upright=1.0|right|alt=Saturn V on display|The Saturn V launch vehicle is displayed horizontally, its engines at the left and the command module at its top on the right. Above it hangs large circular logos of each of the Apollo missions. thumb|upright=1.0|right|Rear view of Saturn V at the Apollo/Saturn V Center|alt=The Saturn V rocket engines. The Apollo/Saturn V Center is located north-northwest of Launch Complex 39 on the Kennedy Parkway N near the Shuttle Landing Facility and is only accessible to visitors by bus tours from the Visitors Complex. The center, which opened December 17, 1996, was designed by Bob Rogers and the design team BRC Imagination Arts, for NASA and Delaware North Companies. The opening of the exhibit was historic for NASA as it was the first large exhibit to be opened inside a restricted area, only accessible by Kennedy Space Center tour buses. The 100,000-square-foot facility was built to house a restored Saturn V launch vehicle and features other exhibits related to the Apollo program. Until the structure was built, the Saturn V was displayed horizontally for many years outdoors just south of the Vehicle Assembly Building and tour buses brought visitors to it. Other exhibits include the Apollo 14 command module Kitty Hawk, which carried Alan Shepard, Stuart Roosa, and Edgar Mitchell to the Moon in 1971 and orbited it 34 times, during which Shepard and Mitchell made the third crewed lunar landing;NASA Apollo 14 page an unused Apollo command and service module Skylab Rescue (CSM-119), and an unused Lunar Module (LM-9). CSM-119 was designated for a possible Skylab rescue mission and as a backup for the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project. LM-9 was originally scheduled to be used on Apollo 15, but when missions after Apollo 17 were canceled, a later LM (LM-10) was used instead. Also on display is a slice of Moon rock that visitors can touch. Other exhibits include a replica of the Lunar Roving Vehicle, a variety of space suits including Alan Shepard's Apollo 14 extravehicular suit, a piece of Apollo 13's Lunar Module returned by the astronauts, lunar samples from Apollo 15 and Apollo 17, and a large cut- away scale model of the Saturn V. Two theaters allow visitors to relive parts of the Apollo program – one simulates the environment inside an Apollo-era firing room during the launch of Apollo 8 and the other simulates the Apollo 11 landing. In January 2017, "Ad Astra Per Aspera – A Rough Road Leads to the Stars" opened in the Apollo/Saturn V Center to commemorate the fallen astronauts of Apollo 1. The permanent tribute showcases personal memorabilia from the three astronauts, with photos and video from their professional and personal lives. The exhibit also displays the charred three-section Block I hatch from the fire, and a redesigned Block II hatch. The Block II hatch flew on all following Apollo missions that could open quicker in the event of an emergency. ==== Apollo/Saturn V Center gallery ==== File:Apollo Saturn V Center Logo.jpg|Center emblem File:Apollo 14 CM Saturn V Centre.JPG|Apollo 14 Command Module Kitty Hawk File:Apollo Lunar Module 9.jpg|Apollo Lunar Module (LM-9) File:LunarRoverKSC.jpg|Lunar Roving Vehicle test car File:SaturnVcenterControlCenterSim.jpg|Launch control mock-up File:SaturnVcenterAstronautVan.JPG|Apollo astronaut van File:Apollo 1 tribute exhibit KSC 2019.jpg|"Ad Astra Per Aspera – A Rough Road Leads to the Stars" === Journey to Mars: Explorers Wanted === In 2010, the attraction Exploration Space; Explorers Wanted, also designed by BRC Imagination Arts, functioned as part immersive experience, and part futuristic recruitment center. It is now known as Journey to Mars: Explorers Wanted with a focus on Mars exploration. The attraction, which employs large-scale video projections, dimensional exhibits and interactive experiences, is designed to immerse visitors into the adventure and unsolved challenges of future space exploration. The exhibit includes orbital docketing and lunar landing simulators, a full-sized development model of a crew vehicle, a model of a space exploration vehicle, and models of the Mars rover family: Curiosity, Spirit, Opportunity, and Sojourner. === NASA Now === NASA Now is an exhibit that has a revolving display of spacecraft from NASA and its commercial partners. NASA Now, as of summer 2017, has the space-flown Orion EFT-1 designed for NASA's Space Launch System (SLS) and a scale model of an SLS launch vehicle. There is also a full- scale model of the crew vehicle CST-100 Starliner by Boeing. SpaceX's space- flown COTS-2 Dragon capsule, which is the first commercial vehicle to dock with the International Space Station (ISS), is also featured. A pressure vessel for CST-100 Starliner, a scale model of the Dream Chaser cargo vehicle from Sierra Nevada Corporation, a scale model of United Launch Alliance's Atlas V launch vehicle, and a Vector-R rocket from Vector Space Systems are also all in the exhibit. NASA Now is located inside the IMAX theater. === Space Mirror Memorial === The Space Mirror Memorial, also known as the Astronaut Memorial, is maintained by the Astronauts Memorial Foundation and is located behind the IMAX theater on the grounds of the main Visitor Complex. It honors NASA astronauts along with several military and civilian astronauts who have died in the line of duty. === Planet Play === The Planet Play attraction is a multi-story, highly immersive play structure geared towards children between the ages of 2-12. It opened to the public on 1 January 2021, and features various amenities such as climbing structures, slides, interactive games, and light projections, with the intention of educating children on some of the technologies used in space exploration. === Step. Power. Launch. === Step. Power. Launch. is an attraction where visitors jump on pressure pads to power up a rocket on a screen. There are 3 sections: Earth, Moon And Mars. When the rocket is completely fueled up, smoke begins to spew from beneath the screen and a launch sequence is shown. === 3D IMAX Theater (Planet Play building) === This 3D IMAX theater, located inside the Planet Play building, shows two films: Journey to Space and Asteroid Hunters. === Robot Scouts (closed) === In 1999, the attraction "Robot Scouts" opened as a walk-through exhibit highlighting NASA's unmanned planetary robot probes. The attraction, designed originally by award-winning experience designer Bob Rogers (designer) and the design team BRC Imagination Arts, explores how robots help to pave the way for human spaceflight. During their visit, guests were guided through the attraction by a robot named StarQuester 2000, who explained to them the mission of the "Robot Scouts: Trailblazers for Human Exploration", with the help of the other then-active robots, including the Voyagers, the Vikings, Cassini, and even the Hubble Space Telescope. The experience culminated in a visit to a diorama of a Mars base, which even included a simulated Martian sunset. The attraction is now closed, and replaced by a new more enhanced and activity-packed scout program. === Early Space Exploration (closed) === In 1996, "Early Space Exploration" opened as an exhibit at the Kennedy Space Center in the far corner of the Rocket Garden near where the Visitor Complex's current entrance is now. As its name suggests, this exhibit celebrates the early years of American space exploration, with TVs displaying news broadcasts from the 1960s that described the events of certain flights as well as other memorabilia commemorating the time. The exhibit also featured the actual consoles from the Mercury Mission Control Center. This exhibit was closed in 2014 and transformed into Heroes & Legends, with many of the items from the original Astronaut Hall of Fame relocated to here. The Mercury Mission Control Consoles were also kept from the aforementioned exhibit. == Special events and programs == The Visitors Complex also hosts special ticketed events run by Delaware North. Naturalization ceremonies have been conducted in the Rocket Garden. Space shuttle launch viewing was offered and now rocket launch viewing, from the visitor complex, offering close views of the launch pads. The U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame hosts a yearly induction ceremony. The Astronaut Training Experience is also offered by Delaware North at the Astronaut Training Experience Center with several full-sized mock-ups of the space shuttle, Mission Control and training hardware. The complex also runs week-long accredited day camps for children in grades 2–9. The visitor complex offers events all year, ranging from astronaut presentations and signing opportunities, special guest appearances, and anniversary celebrations. The music video for "Walking on the Moon" by The Police was shot at the Kennedy Space Center on 23 October 1979. It features the band members miming to the track amidst spacecraft displays, interspersed with NASA footage. Stewart Copeland strikes his drumsticks on a Saturn V Moon rocket. Also, the music video for the 1992 Eurodance song "Rhythm is a Dancer" by Snap! was filmed at Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex's rocket garden. == See also == * Air Force Space and Missile Museum * Cape Canaveral Space Force Station * United States Astronaut Hall of Fame == References == == External links == * * Podcast Episode About the Design and Visitor Experience Considerations of the Space Shuttle Atlantis Exhibit Category:Kennedy Space Center Category:Buildings and structures in Merritt Island, Florida Category:Landmarks in Florida Category:Space Shuttle tourist attractions Category:Museums in Brevard County, Florida Category:Aerospace museums in Florida Category:Tourist attractions in Greater Orlando Category:NASA visitor centers Category:1967 establishments in Florida Category:History of spaceflight Category:Outer space in amusement parks |
The Shankill Road () is one of the main roads leading through West Belfast, in Northern Ireland. It runs through the working-class, predominantly loyalist, area known as the Shankill. The road stretches westwards for about from central Belfast and is lined, to an extent, by shops. The residents live in the many streets which branch off the main road. The area along the Shankill Road forms part of the Court district electoral area. In Ulster-Scots it is known as either Auld Kirk Gate ("Old Church Way"), or as Auld Kirk Raa ("Old Church Road"). In Irish, it is known as "" ("the road of the old church"). ==History== thumb|Shankill Graveyard, the site of the old church, as it looked in 1915. The first Shankill residents lived at the bottom of what is now known as Glencairn: a small settlement of ancient people inhabited a ring fort, built where the Ballygomartin and Forth rivers meet. A settlement around the point at which the Shankill Road becomes the Woodvale Road, at the junction with Cambrai Street, was known as Shankill from the Irish Seanchill meaning "old church". Believed to date back to 455 AD, it was known as the "Church of St Patrick of the White Ford" and in time had six smaller churches, known as "alterages", attached to it across the west bank of the River Lagan. The church was an important site of pilgrimage and it is likely that the ford of the River Farset, which later became the core of Belfast, was important because of its site on the pilgrimage route. It was in ruins by the 17th century and had disappeared entirely by the 19th, leaving only its graveyard. Its font, an ancient bullaun stone, resides at St Matthew's on Woodvale Road, and is said to hold the power to heal warts. As a paved road the Shankill dates back to around the sixteenth century as at the time it was part of the main road to Antrim, a role now filled by the A6. The lower sections of the Shankill Road were in former times the edge of Belfast with both Boundary Street on the lower Shankill and Townsend Street in the middle Shankill taking their names from the fact that at the time they were built they marked the approximate end of Belfast. The area expanded greatly in the mid to late 19th century with the growth of the linen industry. Many of the streets in the Shankill area, such as Leopold Street, Cambrai Street and Brussels Street, were named after places and people connected with Belgium or Flanders, where the flax from which the linen was woven was grown. The linen industry, along with others that had previously been successful in the area, declined in the mid-20th century leading to high unemployment levels. The Harland and Wolff shipyard was also a traditional employer for the area, and it too has seen its workforce numbers decline in recent years. The area was also a regular scene of rioting in the nineteenth century, often of a sectarian nature after Irish Catholic areas on the Falls Road and Ardoyne emerged along with the city's prosperity. One such riot occurred on 9 June 1886 following the defeat of the Government of Ireland Bill 1886, when a crowd of around 2,000 locals clashed with the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) who were attempting to stop the mob from looting a liquor store. Local law enforcement officers had to barricade themselves in Bower's Hill barracks where a long siege followed. Bower's Hill was a name applied to the area of the road between Agnes Street and Crimea Street. The West Belfast Division of the original Ulster Volunteer Force organised on the Shankill and drilled in Glencairn and some of its members saw service in the First World War with the 36th (Ulster) Division. A garden of remembrance beside the Shankill Graveyard and a mural on Conway Street commemorate those who fought in the war. Recruitment was also high during the Second World War and that conflict saw damage occur to the Shankill Road as part of the Belfast Blitz when a Luftwaffe bomb hit a shelter on Percy Street, killing many people. The site of the destruction was visited by the Duke and Duchess of Gloucester soon after the attack. ===The Troubles=== thumb|200px|UVF mural in the Shankill. During the Troubles, the Shankill was a centre of loyalist activity. The modern Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) had its genesis on the Shankill and its first attack occurred on the road on 7 May 1966 when a group of UVF men led by Gusty Spence petrol bombed a Catholic- owned pub. Fire also engulfed the house next door, killing seventy-seven-year- old Protestant widow, Matilda Gould, who lived there. This was followed on 27 May by the murder of John Scullion, a Catholic, as he walked home from a pub. On 26 June a Catholic civilian, Peter Ward, a native of the Republic of Ireland, was killed and two others wounded as they left a pub on the Shankill's Malvern Street. Shortly after this attack, Spence and three others were arrested and later convicted. The UVF continued to be active on the Shankill throughout the Troubles, most notoriously with the Shankill Butchers led by Lenny Murphy, as well as the likes of William Marchant and Frankie Curry, the latter a member of the Red Hand Commando. thumb|200px|left|UDA mural in the Shankill (removed June 2006). Similarly, the Ulster Defence Association, established in September 1971, began on the Shankill when vigilante groups such John McKeague's Shankill Defence Association and the Woodvale Defence Association merged into a larger structure. Under the leadership of Charles Harding Smith and Andy Tyrie, the Shankill Road became the centre of UDA activity, with the movement establishing its headquarters on the road. Leading members such as James Craig, Davy Payne and Tommy Lyttle made their homes in the area. The Shankill was covered by the West Belfast Battalion of the UDA, which was divided into three companies: A (Glencairn and Highfield), B (middle Shankill), and C (lower Shankill). During the 1990s, C Company under Johnny Adair became one of the most active units in the UDA, with gunmen such as Stephen McKeag responsible for several murders. C Company would later feud with both the UVF and the rest of the UDA until 2003 when they were forced out. Following the exile of Adair and his supporters, as well as the murder of Alan McCullough, the lower Shankill UDA was once again brought into line with the rest of the movement under former Adair supporter Mo Courtney. thumb|right|Scene of the Shankill Road bombing, as of 2011. The Greater Shankill and its residents were also subjected to a number of bombings and shootings by Irish republican paramilitaries. During 1971 two pub bombings took place on the Shankill, one in May at the Mountainview Tavern, at which several people were injured, and a second at the Four Step Inn in September, which resulted in two deaths. A further bomb exploded at the Balmoral Furnishing Company on 11 December that same year, resulting in four deaths, including two infants. Another pub attack followed on 13 August 1975 when the IRA opened fire on patrons outside the Bayardo Bar and then left a bomb inside the crowded bar area, killing four civilians and one UVF member. Brendan McFarlane was given a life sentence for his part in the attack. The Shankill Road bombing occurred on 23 October 1993. A bomb exploded in Frizzell's Fish Shop, below the UDA's Shankill headquarters. The bomb exploded prematurely as it was being planted. Nine people were killed in addition to one of the bombers, Thomas Begley. None of the loyalist paramilitaries targeted were hurt, as they had postponed a planned meeting. Begley's accomplice, Sean Kelly, survived and was imprisoned. ==Areas of the Shankill Road== ===Lower Shankill=== thumb|200px|Jackie Coulter, commemorated on a mural on Hopewell Crescent. The Shankill Road begins at Peter's Hill, a road that flows from North Street in Belfast city centre and quickly merges into the Shankill itself at the Westlink. Peter's Hill is adjacent to Carrick Hill, a small nationalist area to the north of the city centre. The area of housing on the lower Shankill around Agnes Street was known colloquially as "The Hammer", one of a number of nicknames applied to districts that included "the Nick". The Hammer name is recalled in the Hammer Sports Complex, the home ground of amateur football side Shankill United F.C. The Lower Shankill has been redeveloped in recent years although during the 1960s the housing was ranked as the worst in Belfast. A Lower Shankill Community Association is active in the area whilst the Shankill Leisure Centre is also located here. The Shankill Women's Centre, a women's educational initiative established by May Blood (now Baroness Blood) in 1987, is also located on the lower Shankill. George McWhirter, a writer and first Poet Laureate of Vancouver, B.C., Canada, also came from the area originally. thumb|left|180px|The "Diamond Jubilee Bar", a popular UDA haunt. Several streets link the Shankill Road to the neighbouring Crumlin Road with the area around North Boundary Street formerly the stronghold of Johnny Adair's C Company. Several members of C Company who have died are commemorated on murals around the area, notably Stephen McKeag, William "Bucky" McCullough, who was killed by the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) in 1981 as part of a series of tit for tat murders between that group and the UDA and Jackie Coulter, killed by the UVF during a loyalist feud in 2000. The Shankill theoretically links to the neighbouring Falls Road at a few locations although most of these exits are blocked by peace lines. The entrance at Northumberland Street is sometimes open although it has lockable gates at the midpoint. The Lower Shankill is home to many loyalist pubs, the most notable being the "Royal Bar", associated with the UVF, and the "Diamond Jubilee" – a UDA haunt which became notorious as the main meeting place of "C Company" during the early 1990s. The "Long Bar" and the "Windsor Bar", both frequented by the UVF in the 1970s, have since vanished. According to investigative journalist Martin Dillon, the latter was used a centre of operations for a UVF platoon led by Anthony "Chuck" Berry. ===Middle and upper Shankill=== Although there is no precise dividing line between the Lower, Middle and Upper Shankill locally it is usually said that the lower Shankill ends at Agnes Street. The area was redeveloped some time before the lower Shankill leading to feelings locally that those in the upper part of the road were better off compared to the "Apaches" of the lower Shankill as they were colloquially known. A number of Protestant churches are situated in this area including the West Kirk Presbyterian Church, the Shankill Methodist church and the independent Church of God. The West Belfast Orange Hall is located near the top of the road. This building, which houses the No. 9 District Orange Lodge, has been revamped by Belfast City Council. The same is true of the nearby Shankill Cemetery, a small graveyard that has received burials for around 1000 years. The graveyard is noted for a statue of Queen Victoria as well as the adjacent memorial to the members of the 36th Ulster Division who died at the Battle of the Somme. Amongst those buried in the Shankill Graveyard is Rev Isaac Nelson, a Presbyterian minister who was also active in nationalist politics. Nelson lived at Sugarfield House on the Shankill, which has since given its name to Sugarfield Street. Also buried here is 2nd Private W.A. Sterling on 5 November 1918 at the age of 14. The area includes Lanark Way, one of the few direct links to the neighbouring nationalist areas, which leads directly to the Springfield Road (although the street is gated close to the Springfield Road end and these are locked at night). A regular route for UDA gunmen seeking access to the Falls during the Troubles, it was dubbed the "Yellow Brick Road" by Stephen McKeag and his men. A number of pubs frequented by UVF members were located in the area. These included the "Berlin Arms" at the Shankill and Berlin Street junction, and the "Bayardo", which was situated on the corner of Shankill and Aberdeen Street. The pub was close to "The Eagle" where the UVF "Brigade Staff" had their headquarters in rooms above a chip shop bearing the same name at the Shankill and Spiers Place junction. The "Brown Bear" pub which loyalist Lenny Murphy used as his headquarters to direct his notorious murder gang – the Shankill Butchers – was located on the corner of the Upper Shankill and Mountjoy Street. The pub, which went out of business, has since been demolished. Another drinking den in the area used by Murphy and his gang was the "Lawnbrook Social Club" in Centurion Street. The "Rex Bar" on the middle Shankill is one of the oldest pubs on the Shankill Road and frequented by members of the UVF. This bar was attacked by members of the UDA's C Company in 2000 to launch a loyalist feud between the two groups. ===Greater Shankill=== The term, "Greater Shankill", is used by a number of groups active in the area, most notably the Greater Shankill Partnership, to refer to both the Shankill Road and the unionist/loyalist areas that surround it. The main areas identified within this area are Woodvale, Glencairn, and Highfield. The Greater Shankill as a whole has a population of around 22,000. ====Woodvale==== The Woodvale area begins after Lanark Way, when the road changes from Shankill Road to Woodvale Road. As well as extensive housing the Woodvale area contains the Woodvale Presbyterian Church, which building on the corner of the Woodvale and Ballygomartin Roads dates back to 1899. The area takes its name from Woodvale Park, a public gardens and sports area that was opened in 1888. Also found locally is St. Matthew's Church of Ireland, which was rebuilt in 1872 and is named after the original church which had sat in the grounds of the Shankill graveyard. The architecture of this church is called trefoil, which means it is built in the shape of a shamrock. The oldest stone in the Shankill graveyard was known locally as the "Bullaun Stone" and was traditionally said to cure warts if the affected area were rubbed on the stone. It was removed to the grounds of St Matthews in 1911.Hamitlon, p. 1 ====Glencairn==== thumb|Ballygomartin Road, as viewed from Springmartin Road, showing its largely rural nature. Glencairn is an area based around the Ballygomartin Road, which runs off the Woodvale Road, as well the Forthriver Road. It is bordered by the Crumlin Road. As well as a large housing estate the area also includes Glencairn Park, a large woodland area at the bottom of Divis Mountain. Previously the estate of the Cunningham family the area was open to the public in 1962. The park features Fernhill House, the ancestral family home, which was not only used by Edward Carson to drill his Ulster Volunteers but was also the setting for the announcement of the Combined Loyalist Military Command (CLMC) ceasefire on 13 October 1994. It subsequently became a museum but closed down in late 2010-early 2011. A further area of housing, known as the Lyndhurst area after a number of local streets, lies to the west of Glencairn Park (with the Glencairn estate to the east of the woodland area). The Ballygomartin Road extends as far as the Upper Whiterock Road although after Springmartin the area is mainly countryside. The estate was the scene of the killings of two prominent loyalists. In 1982 Lenny Murphy was shot and killed by the Provisional IRA close to his girlfriend's house on the estate. In 2001 William Stobie was killed by members of the UDA, a group to which Stobie had formerly belonged, after intimating that he would testify at a public inquiry into the death of Pat Finucane. Stobie's killing, which occurred near his home on Forthriver Road, was publicly claimed by the Red Hand Defenders, a cover name used by various loyalist groups on ceasefire. ====Highfield==== thumb|left|170px|The Springmartin barrier, with New Barnsley Police Station at one end. Highfield is a housing estate situated around the West Circular and Springmartin Roads, both of which run off the Ballygomartin Road. Highfield comes close to the nationalist Springfield Road and there is limited access between the two areas through West Circular and Springmartin. Due to its location parts of the area are sometimes known as the Springmartin estate. Highfield is seen as an enclave and has been the scene of sectarian tension. As a consequence the Springmartin Road is home to an peace line that runs for the length of the road from the junction with the Springfield Road until near that with the Ballygomartin Road. In May 1972 the area was the scene of a two-day gun battle between republican and loyalist paramilitaries and the British Army. The peace line ensured that such open conflict was not repeated later in the Troubles. ==Politics== The Shankill has been traditionally unionist and loyalist, albeit with some strength also held by the labour movement. Belfast Shankill, covering the north-west part of the Shankill Road, was established as a constituency of the Parliament of Northern Ireland in 1929 and existed until the body was abolished in 1973. During that time the seat was held by three men, Tommy Henderson (1929–1953), Henry Holmes (1953–1960) and Desmond Boal (1960–1973). Of these only Holmes belonged to the mainstream Ulster Unionist Party for the entirety of his career with Boal a sometime member who also designated as both independent Unionist and Democratic Unionist Party and Henderson always an independent who for a time was part of the Independent Unionist Association. Henderson was a native of Dundee Street on the Shankill. A Belfast Shankill constituency also returned a member to the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 1918–1922, with Labour Unionist Samuel McGuffin holding the seat. The areas south of the road were covered by the Belfast Woodvale seat at Westminster and a seat of the same name at Stormont. Robert John Lynn of the Irish Unionist Alliance represented the seat at Westminster for the entirety of its existence (1918–1922). The Stormont seat was held by John William Nixon (independent Unionist) from 1929 to 1950, Ulster Unionists Robert Harcourt (1950–1955) and Neville Martin (1955–1958), Billy Boyd of the Northern Ireland Labour Party until 1965 then finally John McQuade, who was variously Ulster Unionist, independent Unionist and Democratic Unionist until the seat was abolished in 1972. The Shankill is currently part of the Belfast West constituencies for the Northern Ireland Assembly and Westminster. At the Assembly the Shankill is represented by four Sinn Féin MLAs and one from the People Before Profit Alliance. At Westminster, since 1966, when the seat was lost by the last sitting unionist member Jim Kilfedder, it has also always had a nationalist or republican MP. The abstentionist policy of Sinn Féin MP Gerry Adams, who was West Belfast's MP until his resignation in 2011, led to an attempted legal challenge by local councillor Frank McCoubrey who argued that Shankill residents were being denied their right to representation. The case was not a success. On Belfast City Council the Greater Shankill area is covered by the Court electoral area. At the 2019 election the six councillors elected were Frank McCoubrey, Brian Kingston and Nicola Verner of the Democratic Unionist Party, Claire Canavan and Tina Black of Sinn Fein and the Progressive Unionist Party's Billy Hutchinson. Robert McCartney, who led his own UK Unionist Party and represented North Down at Westminster, is also originally from the Shankill. ==Education== Secondary schools serving the Shankill area include the Belfast Boys' Model School and Belfast Model School for Girls due to their location in the Ballysillan area of the neighbouring Crumlin Road. Pupils from the area also attend Hazelwood College or Malone College which are both integrated schools, as well as Victoria College and the Royal Belfast Academical Institution both of which are grammar schools. Prior to its closure, and before several changes of name, Cairnmartin Secondary School also served the greater Shankill area. Famous pupils include footballer Norman Whiteside and boxer Wayne McCullough. The school, by then known as Mount Gilbert Community College, closed permanently in 2007 after a fall in pupil numbers. Primary schools in the greater Shankill area included Forth River Primary School on the Ballygomartin Road. Established in 1841, the original building was cramped and inspection reports over the years commented on the high standard of teaching despite the inadequacy of the building. During the 1980s and 1990s, closure and amalgamation were both suggested and vehemently opposed by everyone connected with the school. Ultimately a new £1.4m state-of-the-art school was announced as a replacement for the old building and this new school, which is on the adjacent Cairnmartin Road, was officially opened by Prince Andrew, Duke of York in 2005. Others primary schools in the area include three on the Shankill Road itself in Glenwood Primary School, established in 1981, Edenbrooke Primary School on Tennent Street and Malvern Primary School as well as Black Mountain Primary School and Springhill Primary School on Springmartin Road. ==Sport== thumb|Boxing mural, Hopewell Crescent. Wayne McCullough, a gold medalist at the Commonwealth Games and a world champion in the Bantamweight division and an olympic silver medalist at the 1992 Summer Olympics representing Ireland is a native of the Shankill. He is one of a number of boxers from the area to be featured on a mural on Gardiner Street celebrating the area's strong heritage in boxing. The image has since been moved to Hopewell Crescent. McCullough trained in the Albert Foundry boxing club, located in the Highfield estate where he grew up. Other locals to make an impact in the sport have included Jimmy Warnock, a boxer from the 1930s who beat world champion Benny Lynch twice, and his brother Billy. Football is also a popular sport in the area with local teams including Shankill United, Albert Foundry, who play on the West Circular Road, Lower Shankill, who share the Hammer ground with United and Woodvale who won the Junior Cup in 2011. All four clubs are members of the Northern Amateur Football League. The main club in the area however is Linfield with a Linfield superstore trading on the Shankill Road despite the club being based on the Lisburn Road in south Belfast. A Linfield Supporters and Social Club is situated on Crimea Street. An Ulster Rangers social club is also open on the road, with the Glasgow team widely supported amongst Northern Irish Protestants. Norman Whiteside, the ex-Northern Ireland and Manchester United midfielder, lived on the Shankill. Whiteside also lends his name to the Norman Whiteside Sports Facility, a community sports area used by Woodvale F.C. The facility is located on Sydney Street West between the Shankill and the neighbouring Crumlin Road. George O'Boyle, who had a long career in Scottish football, is also a Shankill native. The Ballygomartin Road is also home to a cricket ground of the same name which in 2005 hosted a List-A match between Canada and Namibia in the 2005 ICC Trophy. The ground is the home of Woodvale Cricket Club, established in 1887. ==Transport== Although the Shankill Road initially grew as part of the main road to Antrim, it is no longer part of any wider network linking Belfast to neighbouring towns, with its peripheral roads all either terminating in the mountains or linking to the Springfield Road. Belfast was served by a network of trams in the first half of the 20th century and the Shankill was the last part of the city to see this service removed in the 1950s. Public transport is now provided by the Metro arm of Translink with the Shankill forming the eleventh of the company's twelve corridors. Buses link Belfast City Centre to the estates at the top of the Shankill as well as the Ballysillan area of the Crumlin Road. ==Employment== * Mackie International was once at the heart of Belfast industry, employing thousands of men and women. ==Shankill graveyard== The Shankill Graveyard is one of the oldest cemeteries in the Greater Belfast Area. It was used for active burials for more than 1,000 years, but is no longer an active burial site. George McAuley who died in 1685 has one of oldest legible headstones in the cemetery. ==Notable residents== Name Area Association with the greater Shankill Norman Whiteside Footballer Born Wayne McCullough Boxing Born George O'Boyle Football Born Davy Larmour Boxer Born George McCartney Footballer Born Phil Gray Footballer Born Kirk Hunter Footballer Born Marco McCullough Boxer Born Jimmy Warnock Boxer Born Tommy Waite Boxer Born Jimmy Warnock Boxer Born Terry Bradley Artist Born Billy Ferguson Footballer Born Billy Hull Activist Born May Blood, Baroness Blood Activist Born John MacQuade Politician Born Jack Higgins Author Lived Isaac Nelson Clergy Nelson Memorial Church, Shankill Road Amy Carmichael Missionary Established a mission on Belfast's Shankill Road Hugh Smyth Politician Born Billy Hutchinson Politician Born James Mackie & Sons Business Business Tommy Henderson Politician Born William Conor Artist Greater Shankill Area Desmond Boal Politician Lived Robert McCartney (Northern Irish politician) Politician Born Bernard McQuirt - Victoria Cross Soldier Lived Thomas Paul Burgess Author Born ==References== Notes Bibliography * * * * ==External links== * * * * *Shankill Area Social History (SASH) Category:Streets in Belfast Category:Roads in Northern Ireland |
How the Grinch Stole Christmas (also known as Dr. Seuss' How the Grinch Stole Christmas, and The Grinch) is a 2000 American Christmas fantasy comedy film directed by Ron Howard, who also produced with Brian Grazer, from a screenplay written by Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman. The film was based on Dr. Seuss's 1957 children's book of the same name, as the first Dr. Seuss book to be adapted into a full-length feature film and the first of only two live- action Dr. Seuss films, followed by The Cat in the Hat in 2003. This was also the second adaptation of the book, after the 1966 animated TV special of the same name. Narrated by Anthony Hopkins, it stars Jim Carrey as the eponymous character, with Taylor Momsen, Jeffrey Tambor, Christine Baranski, Bill Irwin and Molly Shannon in supporting roles. The film centers on the Grinch, a misanthropic green creature who lives in a cave on nearby Mount Crumpit and despises the celebrations, as he attempts to sabotage their holiday plans in Whoville. Produced by Imagine Entertainment, How the Grinch Stole Christmas was released by Universal Pictures in the United States on November 17, 2000. It received mixed reviews from critics, though Jim Carrey's performance received praise. The film spent four weeks as the #1 film in the United States and grossed $345.8 million worldwide, making it the sixth-highest grossing film of 2000. At the time, it also became the second-highest-grossing holiday film of all time, behind Home Alone (1990), until both films were surpassed in 2018 by the third film adaptation of the story. It won the Academy Award for Best Makeup, being nominated for Best Art Direction and Best Costume Design. ==Plot== As the inhabitants of Whoville are getting ready for Christmas, the Grinch, a misanthropic green creature who lives in a cave on nearby Mount Crumpit, despises the celebrations and attempts to sabotage their holiday plans. Six-year-old Cindy Lou Who believes that everyone is too focused on gifts and festivities and not enough on personal relationships. She encounters the Grinch at the post office, where he is scrambling the delivery of Christmas cards and packages. Surprised by his sinister appearance, Cindy falls into the giant mail-sorting machine and gets stuck, but the Grinch grudgingly saves her. This convinces her that he cannot be as completely evil as the townsfolk believe, and she starts researching his past, learning how he came to be such an angry, plotting recluse. The Grinch arrived in Whoville as a baby and was adopted by two women. In school, the timid Grinch was infatuated with Martha May Whovier, a girl in his class who secretly reciprocated his feelings. However, classmate Augustus MayWho bullied him, jealous that Martha liked Grinch and not him. That Christmas, the young Grinch made an angel as a gift for Martha, but accidentally cut his face while trying to shave when MayWho mockingly suggested he had a beard. When MayWho, the teacher, and the rest of the class saw his cut face the next day, all but Martha laughed at him. This causes Grinch to lose his temper, declare his hatred for Christmas, and flee to Mount Crumpit, where he has lived a solitary, scheming life ever since. Cindy nominates the Grinch as the town's Holiday Cheermeister, outraging MayWho, who is now the mayor. She climbs Mount Crumpit to invite the Grinch to the celebration, and he eventually accepts, realizing he could potentially encounter Martha there, now the Lou Whos' neighbor, and finally upset MayWho. As Cheermeister, he participates in various events and begins enjoying himself, until MayWho gives him an electric razor as a gift, reminding him of his childhood humiliation. MayWho then offers Martha a new car while publicly proposing to her. Enraged, the Grinch snaps and berates both the people's materialism and love for Christmas. He shaves MayWho's head, burns down the town's Christmas tree with a makeshift flamethrower (the Whos have a backup tree, however) and goes on a rampage before returning home. Disgusted with the festivities, the Grinch vows to crush the town's spirit by stealing all of their presents, decorations and food while they sleep. He disguises himself as Santa Claus and his pet dog Max as a reindeer, and descends into Whoville on a hi-tech sleigh. The first house he enters is Cindy's, and when she catches him stealing their tree, he lies to her to facilitate his escape. He singlehandedly strips the entire town of Christmas cheer, stuffing everything into a giant sack, then climbs back to the summit of Mount Crumpit to hurl the sack off of the mountain. Awakening on Christmas morning, the people are horrified to discover the theft, and MayWho blames Cindy for enabling the Grinch to ruin the town's spirit. However, her cheerful father, postmaster Lou Lou Who, defends her, declaring that she has tried to tell them that Christmas is not about decorations and gifts, but about spending time with family and friends. The townsfolk agree, join hands, and begin Christmas carolling. Just as he is about to push the sack off the top of Mount Crumpit, the Grinch hears the people singing; realising he has failed to prevent the festivities, he understands the true meaning of Christmas. As he breaks down in tears, the sleigh full of gifts, Christmas trees and decorations begins to slide over the edge of the cliff, along with Cindy, who has climbed aboard to spend Christmas with him. After saving the loaded sleigh and Cindy, they ride down the mountain to return everything. He apologizes for his scheme and surrenders to the police, who accept his apology and deny MayWho's demand to arrest and pepper spray him. Realising MayWho's cruelty, Martha returns his engagement ring and declares her love for the Grinch. Later, the reformed Grinch invites the townsfolk over for the Christmas feast, where he personally carves the Roast Beast himself in his cave. ==Cast== * Jim Carrey as the Grinch, a bad-tempered, devious and misanthropic green-furred creature who despises Christmas and the Whos of Whoville. Before Carrey was cast as the Grinch, Jack Nicholson, Robin Williams, Dustin Hoffman, Nicolas Cage, Tom Hanks, Tim Curry and Eddie Murphy were all considered. ** Josh Ryan Evans as the eight-year-old Grinch (his final film role before his death in 2002). * Taylor Momsen as Cindy Lou Who (in the film, she is six years old, while in the 1957 book and the 1966 TV special she is "no more than two") * Jeffrey Tambor as Mayor Augustus MayWho, Whoville's arrogant and judgmental mayor ** Ben Bookbinder as eight-year-old Augustus MayWho, who bullies Grinch as an attempt to get Martha to notice him instead. * Christine Baranski as the grown-up Martha May Whovier, who is mutually in love with the Grinch. Mayor Augustus Maywho also has feelings for her, but Martha does not like him because of his arrogance. ** Landry Allbright as 8-year-old Martha May Whovier, who shows affection for the Grinch and dislikes when kids at school pick on him. * Bill Irwin as Louie Lou Who, Cindy's father * Molly Shannon as Betty Lou Who, Cindy's mother * Anthony Hopkins as the narrator * Kelley as Max, the Grinch's pet dog and sole companion ** Frank Welker performs the vocal effects for Max. Welker had previously provided the vocal effects for Max in The Grinch Grinches the Cat in the Hat. * Clint Howard as Whobris, the mayor's sycophantic aide and servant ** Reid Kirchenbauer as eight-year-old Whobris * Mindy Sterling as Clarnella Who, one of the Grinch's adoptive mothers * Rachel Winfree as Rose Who, the Grinch's other adoptive mother * Jeremy Howard as Drew Lou Who, one of the mischievous sons of Louie and Betty and brother of Cindy * T. J. Thyne as Stu Lou Who, the other mischievous son and brother of Cindy * Jim Meskimen as Officer Wholihan, the chief of police * Mary Stein as Miss Rue Who, the Grinch's school teacher who later becomes Cindy's teacher * Deep Roy as Post Office Clerk * Rance Howard as Elderly Timekeeper * Verne Troyer as Band Member * Bryce Dallas Howard as Surprised Who == Production == Before his death in 1991, Dr. Seuss refused offers to sell the film rights to his books. After his death, his widow Audrey Geisel agreed to several merchandising deals, including clothing lines, accessories and CDs. In July 1998, her agents announced via letter that she would auction the film rights of How the Grinch Stole Christmas. To pitch their ideas to Geisel, the suitors had to be willing to pay $5 million, 4% of the box-office gross, 50% of the merchandising revenue and music-related material, and 70% of the income from book tie-ins. The letter also stated that "any actor submitted for the Grinch must be of comparable stature to Jack Nicholson, Jim Carrey, Robin Williams and Dustin Hoffman." Additionally, it was stipulated that the estate would not consider a director or writer who had not earned at least $1 million on a previous picture. 20th Century Fox pitched its version with director Tom Shadyac and producers Dave Phillips and John Davis in attendance, with Nicholson in mind to play the Grinch. The Farrelly brothers and John Hughes pitched their own versions. Universal Pictures held its presentation with Brian Grazer and Gary Ross in attendance. Geisel refused each offer. Grazer then enlisted his producing partner Ron Howard to help with the negotiations. At the time, Howard was developing a film adaptation of The Sea-Wolf. Despite being an avid fan of the animated Grinch special, he did not express interest in a live- action version. However, Grazer talked him into traveling to Geisel's residence for the pitch meeting. While studying the book, Howard became interested in the character Cindy Lou Who, and pitched a film in which she would have a larger role, as well as a materialistic representation of the Whos and an expanded backstory for the Grinch. In September 1998, Howard signed to direct and co-produce the film, with Jim Carrey in the lead role. It was also reported that Universal Pictures paid $9 million for the film rights for Grinch and Oh, the Places You'll Go! to Geisel. Before Howard signed on, Tim Burton was asked to direct, but turned it down due to a scheduling conflict with Sleepy Hollow. Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman (of both Who Framed Roger Rabbit and Doc Hollywood fame) wrote the final screenplay after eight drafts, but Geisel also had veto power over the script. She objected to several of its jokes and sexual innuendos, including one about a family who did not have a Christmas tree or presents, jokingly called the "Who-steins"; and the placement of a stuffed trophy of the Cat in the Hat on the Grinch's wall. Alec Berg, David Mandel and Jeff Schaffer (who were also writers on the television series Seinfeld) did an uncredited rewrite. Principal photography took place from September 1999 to January 2000. Geisel visited the set in October. Most of the Whoville set was built on the Universal Studios Backlot, behind the Bates Motel set from Psycho. Rick Baker designed and created the prosthetic makeup for Carrey and the rest of the cast. It took a number of tests, and ultimately Carrey admiring a photo of Baker in his first test makeup, for the decision to use Baker's original design. The Grinch suit was covered in yak hair, dyed green, and sewed onto a spandex suit. Application of the makeup took up to two and a half hours; after one such session, a frustrated Carrey kicked a hole in the wall of his trailer. Carrey's makeup artist Kazu Hiro recounted, "On set, [Carrey] was really mean to everybody, and at the beginning of the production they couldn't finish. After two weeks we only could finish three days' worth of shooting schedule, because suddenly he would just disappear, and when he came back, everything was ripped apart. We couldn't shoot anything." Hiro left the production until Baker and Howard had a discussion with Carrey on how important he was to the project. Carrey agreed to keep his anger in check and Hiro returned. Josh Ryan Evans, who played the eight-year old Grinch, wore the same style of makeup and bodysuit Carrey wore. In total, Carrey spent 92 days in the Grinch make-up and became adept at remaining calm during its application. Most of the appliances the actors wore were noses that connected to an upper lip along with some dentures, ears and wigs. ==Music== ===Soundtrack=== The soundtrack for the album was released on November 7, 2000. It features a collection of music performed by several artists, including Busta Rhymes, Faith Hill, Eels, Smash Mouth, and NSYNC. An expanded edition of the soundtrack featuring more cues from Horner's score was released on November 1, 2022 on La-La Land Records. All song lengths via Apple Music. ==Release== ===Theatrical=== How the Grinch Stole Christmas was released by Universal Pictures in the United States on November 17, 2000. ===Television=== It premiered on television on ABC on November 25, 2004 and aired there until 2014 (with the exception of 2009). From 2010–14, it was coupled with the animated television special. It currently airs annually on Freeform's (formerly ABC Family) 25 Days of Christmas. The American television airings include deleted footage which was not included on the original, theatrical, or VHS/DVD releases. The scenes include Cindy's dad maxing out his credit card on Christmas gifts, Cindy asking her dad who the Grinch was before heading off to school, Lou visiting Cindy being made to stay after school after mentioning the Grinch, extended scenes of the post office, the Grinch in his cave, Cindy inviting the Grinch to the Christmas party, Martha May and Betty Lou competing in the Christmas Lights Contest, the Grinch trying out different outfits to wear at the Christmas party, the Grinch drinking eggnog, the Whos passing out gifts to each other, and Cindy's family getting ready for Christmas morning at night. Since 2015 (like the 1966 cartoon), it has aired on NBC during Christmas night after the animated television special. It was not aired in 2022 due to an NFL game between the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and the Arizona Cardinals. It aired on FX to promote the television broadcast premiere of the 2018 animated film in 2020. ===Marketing=== In the summer of 2000, a trailer for How the Grinch Stole Christmas premiered in theaters. It was hooked up to screenings of Mission: Impossible 2, in which Paramount Pictures agreed to screen the trailer if Universal included a trailer to a Paramount film in front of Nutty Professor II: The Klumps. The next trailer debuted on October 6, 2000 with the release of Meet the Parents. Meanwhile, Toys "R" Us began promoting the film, transforming their locations into Whobilation Headquarters with the most aggressive visual merchandising display in the company's history. Shoppers would be wowed from the moment they entered the store by the unbelievable displays and visual elements featuring the Grinch. The Herald Square location in New York City featured floor-to-ceiling themed window graphics of the film's main characters. Moreover, the entrances featured 3D film characters at numerous stores. Wendy's would even begin selling kids meal toys at their restaurants. Other promotional partners included Kellogg's, Nabisco, Hershey's, Visa, Coca-Cola and United States Postal Service. To coincide with the release of the film, Universal Studios Hollywood and Universal's Islands of Adventure began hosting a holiday event called Grinchmas. ===Home media=== The film was released on VHS and DVD on November 20, 2001. Within its first week of release, the film sold a combined total of 8.5 million home video units, selling 3 million DVD copies and 4 million VHS copies, making it the best-selling holiday home video title at the time. It would go on to join Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace, Shrek and The Mummy Returns as one of the only four films to sell more than 2 million DVD copies during their opening weeks. Overall, it was ranked as the second-highest opening week home video sales for any live-action film, after Titanic. In December 2001, Variety reported that it was the second biggest selling home video release of 2001, selling 16.9 million copies and earning $296 million in sales revenue. A Blu- ray/DVD combo pack was released on October 13, 2009, then later given a separate Blu-ray release on October 13, 2015. It was also remastered in 4K and released on Ultra HD Blu-ray on October 17, 2017. ==Reception== ===Box office=== How the Grinch Stole Christmas grossed $260 million domestically and $85.1 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $345.1 million, becoming the sixth highest-grossing film of 2000. In the United States, the film opened at #1 on its opening day, making $15.6 million, with a weekend gross of $55.1 million, for an average of $17,615 from 3,127 theaters. Upon its release, it had the sixth-highest three-day opening weekend of any film, behind Toy Story 2, X-Men, Mission: Impossible 2, Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace and The Lost World: Jurassic Park. Moreover, the film surpassed Batman Forever to achieve the largest opening weekend for a Jim Carrey film. How the Grinch Sole Christmas had the biggest opening weekend for a Ron Howard film, smashing the previous record held by Ransom. It was the first non-Disney film to win the Thanksgiving weekend box office since Mrs. Doubtfire in 1993. It held the record for the highest opening weekend for a Christmas-themed film for 18 years, until the 2018 film version of The Grinch surpassed it with $67.6 million. In its second weekend, the film grossed $52.1 million, dropping only 5.1%, setting a new record for highest-grossing second weekend for any film at the time, beating The Phantom Menace. It stayed at the top of the box office for four weekends until it was overtaken by What Women Want and Dude, Where's My Car? in mid-December. How the Grinch Stole Christmas continued to draw holiday crowds while defeating another family-oriented film, The Emperor's New Groove. By this point, it surpassed Mission: Impossible 2 to become the year's top-grossing film. The film closed on March 1, 2001, with a final domestic gross of $260,044,825. Box Office Mojo estimates that it sold over 48.1 million tickets in North America. ===Critical response=== On Rotten Tomatoes, How the Grinch Stole Christmas holds an approval rating of based on reviews and an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, "Jim Carrey shines as the Grinch. Unfortunately, it's not enough to save this movie. You'd be better off watching the TV cartoon." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 46 out of 100 based on 29 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale. thumb|Despite the mixed reception, Jim Carrey's performance as the title character received praise from critics and audiences. Roger Ebert gave the film two out of four stars, referring to it as "a dank, eerie, weird movie about a sour creature" and said, "There should be ... a jollier production design and a brighter look overall ... It's just not much fun." Ebert observed that Carrey "works as hard as an actor has ever worked in a movie, to small avail". Nevertheless, he decided that "adults may appreciate Carrey's remarkable performance in an intellectual sort of way and give him points for what was obviously a supreme effort". Paul Clinton of CNN declared that Carrey "was born to play this role" and noted that "Carrey carries nearly every scene. In fact, if he's not in the scene, there is no scene." Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly began his review of the film analyzing the Grinch's "mischievously divided, now-I'm-calm/ now-I'm-a-raving- sarcastic-PSYCH-o! personality" and summed up Carrey's Grinch as "a slobby, self-loathing elitist ruled by the secret fear that he's always being left out of things." Gleiberman expressed surprise at "how affecting Carrey makes the Grinch's ultimate big-hearted turnaround, as Carrey the actor sneaks up on Carrey the wild-man dervish. In whichever mode, he carreys the movie." Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle said, "Nobody could play the Grinch better than Jim Carrey, whose rubbery antics and maniacal sense of mischief are so well suited to How the Grinch Stole Christmas. Dr. Seuss himself might have turned to Carrey as a model for the classic curmudgeon had the actor been around in 1957." However, he wondered why Carrey "made himself sound like Sean Connery" and warned that the character's intensity may frighten small children. James Berardinelli of ReelViews wrote that Carrey's "off-the-wall performance is reminiscent of what he accomplished in The Mask, except that here he never allows the special effects to upstage him. Carrey's Grinch is a combination of Seuss's creation and Carrey's personality, with a voice that sounds far more like a weird amalgamation of Sean Connery and Jim Backus (Bond meets Magoo!) than it does Karloff." He concluded that Carrey "brings animation to the live action, and, surrounded by glittering, fantastical sets and computer-spun special effects, Carrey enables Ron Howard's version of the classic story to come across as more of a welcome endeavor than a pointless re-tread." Some reviews were more polarized. Stephanie Zacharek of Salon in a generally negative review of the film, wrote that "Carrey pulls off an admirable impersonation of an animated figure ... It's fine as mimicry goes – but mimicry isn't the best playground for comic genius. Shouldn't we be asking more of a man who's very likely the most gifted comic actor of his generation?" She concluded that in spite of "a few terrific ad-libs ... his jokes come off as nothing more than a desperate effort to inject some offbeat humor into an otherwise numbingly unhip, nonsensical and just plain dull story". Todd McCarthy of Variety wrote, "Carrey tries out all sorts of intonations, vocal pitches and delivery styles, his tough guy posturing reminding at times of Cagney and his sibilant S's recalling Bogart. His antic gesturing and face-making hit the mark at times, but at other moments seem arbitrary and scattershot. Furthermore, his free-flowing tirades, full of catch-all allusions and references, are pitched for adult appreciation and look destined to sail right over the heads of pre-teens." ===Accolades=== Award Category Recipient Result Academy Awards Best Art Direction Michael Corenblith and Merideth Boswell Best Costume Design Rita Ryack Best Makeup Rick Baker and Gail Rowell-Ryan Golden Globe Awards Best Actor – Musical or Comedy Jim Carrey Kids' Choice Awards Favorite Movie Kids' Choice Awards Favorite Movie Actor Jim Carrey MTV Movie Awards Best Villain Golden Raspberry Awards Worst Remake or Sequel Golden Raspberry Awards Worst Screenplay Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman Stinkers Bad Movie Awards Worst Supporting Actress Taylor Momsen Stinkers Bad Movie Awards Worst Song or Song Performance "Christmas, Why Can't I Find You?" by Taylor Momsen Stinkers Bad Movie Awards Worst On-Screen Hairstyle Taylor Momsen Saturn Awards Best Fantasy Film Best Director Ron Howard Best Actor Jim Carrey Best Performance by a Younger Actor Taylor Momsen Best Costume Rita Ryack, David Page Best Music James Horner Best Make-Up Rick Baker and Gail Rowell-Ryan Best Special Effects ==See also== * Grinch * The Grinch (film) * The Grinch (video game) * List of Christmas films ==References== ==External links== * * * * * Category:2000s American films Category:2000 films Category:2000 comedy films Category:2000 fantasy films Category:2000s Christmas comedy films Category:2000s children's fantasy films Category:2000s children's comedy films Category:2000s English-language films Category:2000s fantasy comedy films Category:American films with live action and animation Category:American Christmas comedy films Category:American children's fantasy films Category:American children's comedy films Category:American fantasy comedy films Category:American films about revenge Category:Children's Christmas films Category:Films about orphans Category:Films about bullying Category:Films about consumerism Category:Films based on children's books Category:Films based on works by Dr. Seuss Category:Films directed by Ron Howard Category:Films produced by Ron Howard Category:Films produced by Brian Grazer Category:Films with screenplays by Jeffrey Price and Peter S. Seaman Category:Films scored by James Horner Category:Films shot in Los Angeles County, California Category:Films shot in Utah Category:Films that won the Academy Award for Best Makeup Category:The Grinch (franchise) Category:Imagine Entertainment films Category:Universal Pictures films Category:English-language Christmas comedy films |
The following is a list of notable deaths in November 2012. Entries for each day are listed _alphabetically_ by surname. A typical entry lists information in the following sequence: *Name, age, country of citizenship and reason for notability, established cause of death, reference. ==November 2012== ===1=== *Mary Applebey, 96, English civil servant and mental health campaigner, fall. *Brad Armstrong, 50, American professional wrestler (WWE, WCW, NWA, SMW).Robert James obituary *John Lee Armstrong, 79, American football player and coach. *Chen Zude, 68, Chinese Go player, cancer. *Chong Chee Kin, 39, Singaporean journalist, heart failure.Former Straits Times journalist died of heart failure *Mir Abdolrez Daryabeigi, 82, Iranian artist.Biography : Abdolreza Daryabeigi *Stan Enebo, 87, American politician and electrician. *Agustín García Calvo, 86, Spanish academic, respiratory failure.El escritor García Calvo recibe sepultura en Zamora en un acto sencillo *Geoffrey Lofthouse, Baron Lofthouse of Pontefract, 86, British politician, MP for Pontefract and Castleford (1978–1997).Former MP dies *Jan Louwers, 82, Dutch footballer (FC Eindhoven).Eindhovens voetbalicoon Jan Louwers (82) overleden *Mitch Lucker, 28, American musician and singer (Suicide Silence), traffic collision.Mitch Lucker Dead: Suicide Silence Frontman Killed In Motorcycle Crash *Pascual Pérez, 55, Dominican baseball player (Atlanta Braves, Montreal Expos), bludgeoning.Dominican Republic police arrest trio for killing of Pascual Perez *Omry Ronen, 75, Ukrainian-born American Slavist, stroke.Скончался филолог Омри Ронен *Jonathan Street, 69, British novelist and public relations executive, fall.Jonathan Street: Healthcare PR expert and author *Edwin Q. White, 90, American journalist, Saigon bureau chief for the Associated Press (1965–1975), heart failure.Edwin Q. White, former AP Saigon chief, dies ===2=== *Shreeram Shankar Abhyankar, 82, Indian mathematician.Shreeram S. Abhyankar obituary at legacy.com *Annette Baier, 83, New Zealand philosopher.University Times obituary for Annette Baier *Herman Bank, 96, American mechanical engineer (JPL).Herman Bank dies at 96; JPL engineer designed collapsible surfboard *Milt Campbell, 78, American Olympic gold medal-winning (1956) decathlete, prostate cancer and diabetes.Milt Campbell, the greatest athlete in New Jersey history, dies at 78 *David L. Cornwell, 67, American politician, U.S. Representative from Indiana (1977–1979), kidney cancer.Former 8th District Congressman David Cornwell dies at Maryland home *Peter B. Dews, 89–90, American psychologist and pharmacologist. *Robert Morton Duncan, 85, American federal judge (Armed Forces Court of Appeals, Southern Ohio District Court).Ohio's first black Supreme Court justice dies at 85 *Dusty Ellis, 59, American whistleblower, cancer. *Joe Ginsberg, 86, American baseball player (Chicago White Sox, Cleveland Indians, Detroit Tigers).Joe Ginsberg, 86, catcher for the 1962 New York Mets *Han Suyin, 95, Chinese-born British writer (A Many-Splendoured Thing).Chinese-born writer Han Suyin dies *Emilio Homps, 98, Argentine Olympic silver medal-winning (1948) sailor.Falleció un histórico olímpico *Just A Dash, 35, Australian Thoroughbred racehorse, winner of the 1981 Melbourne Cup and Adelaide Cup, euthanized.Cup winner Just A Dash dead at 35 *Hans Lindgren, 80, Swedish actor.Skådespelaren Hans Lindgren död *Mohammed Rafeh, 30, Syrian actor, shot.Bab al-Hara actor murdered for alleged pro-regime activity *Pino Rauti, 85, Italian politician.E' morto Pino Rauti ex segretario Msi *János Rózsás, 86, Hungarian writer.Meghalt Rózsás János író *Ken Stephinson, 79, British television director and producer.Ken Stephinson dies *John C. Tyson, 86, American judge (Alabama Court of Criminal Appeals), natural causes.Former Alabama criminal appeals Judge Tyson dies *Roger Wood, 87, Belgian-born American editor and journalist (Daily Express, New York Post), cancer.Former NY Post editor Roger Wood dies *Kinjarapu Yerran Naidu, 55, Indian politician, MP for Srikakulam (1996–2009), traffic collision.TDP leader Yerran Naidu dies in road accident ===3=== *Carmélia Alves, 89, Brazilian baião singer, multiple organ seizure.Brazil's "Queen of Baiao" Carmelia Alves Dies at 89 *Hans Henrik Andersen, 75, Danish nuclear physicist.Hans Henrik Andersen *Sattar Beheshti, 34–35, Iranian blogger. *Marie Bell, 90, New Zealand educationalist. *Anne- Lise Berntsen, 69, Norwegian soprano singer.Anne-Lise Berntsen er død *Odd Børretzen, 85, Norwegian author and singer, pneumonia.Odd Børretzen er død *George Chesterton, 90, British cricketer.Deaths: George Chesterton *Duke Vin, 84, Jamaican-born British disk jockey and sound system operator.Unsung: Duke Vin: sound system pioneer *Franz Dumont, 67, German historian. *Tommy Godwin, 91, British Olympic bronze medal-winning (1948) track cyclist.Obituary: Tommy Godwin 1920-2012 *Evelyn Byrd Harrison, 82, American classical scholar and archaeologist.In Memoriam: Evelyn Byrd Harrison [1920 – 2012] *Mükerrem Hiç, 83, Turkish academic and politician. *Greg King, 43, New Zealand lawyer, suicide.High-profile New Zealand lawyer Greg King found dead *Thomas K. McCraw, 72, American scholar (Harvard University) and author (Prophets of Regulation).HBS History Professor Dies *Kailashpati Mishra, 89, Indian politician, Governor of Gujarat and Rajasthan (2003–04), asthma.BJP leader Kailashpati Mishra passes away *Eugenija Pleškytė, 74, Lithuanian actress.Mirė lietuvių teatro ir kino aktorė Eugenija Pleškytė *Charles Schwartz, Jr., 90, American senior federal judge (US District Court of Eastern Louisiana).Charles Schwartz Jr., a federal judge for a quarter-century, dies *Ingegerd Troedsson, 83, Swedish politician, MP for Uppsala County (1974–1994), first female Speaker of the Riksdag (1991–1994).Ingegerd Troedsson död *Vasily Vladimirov, 89, Russian mathematician.Памяти академика Владимирова Василия Сергеевича ===4=== *Anne-Marie Albiach, 75, French poet and translator, following a long illness.Anne-Marie Albiach, figure de la poésie française contemporaine *Mildred Vorpahl Baass, 95, American poet, Poet Laureate of Texas (1993–1995).Poet laureate Mildred Vorpahl Baass dies at 95 *Akhtaruzzaman Chowdhury Babu, 67, Bangladeshi politician, kidney disease.Akhtaruzzaman Babu MP dies *Pier Cesare Bori, 75, Italian professor. *J. H. Burns, 90, Scottish historian. *Fabio Castillo Figueroa, 91, Salvadoran politician. *Ted Curson, 77, American jazz trumpeter, heart attack.Pori Jazzin legenda Ted Curson kuoli *Jim Durham, 65, American sportscaster, heart attack.Jim Durham, voice of NBA on ESPN Radio, dies *Samuel S. Freedman, 85, American politician (Connecticut House, 1972–1978), judge (Connecticut Superior Court, 1978–2010); professor (Quinnipiac).Westport, Connecticut's 24-hours News and Information Source *Mike L. Fry, 61, American businessman and entertainer, immune disorder.View Michael Fry obituary *Dan Gavriliu, 97, Romanian surgeon. *Beverley Goodway, 69, British glamour photographer, prostate cancer.Beverley Goodway *Frances Hashimoto, 69, American businesswoman and civic leader, inventor of mochi ice cream, lung cancer.MIKAWAYA CEO HASHIMOTO PASSES AT 69 *Marit Henie, 87, Norwegian Olympic (1948) figure skater. *Eiji Hosoya, 67, Japanese businessman, Chairman of Resona Holdings.Resona Chairman Hosoya, Who Led Bank's Revival, Dies at 67 *Jane Holtz Kay, 74, American architecture and urban design critic and author.Jane Holtz Kay, architecture critic and author *Peter O'Donohue, 89, Australian VFL football player (Hawthorn).Official AFL Website of the Hawthorn Football Club *Reg Pickett, 85, English footballer (Portsmouth, Ipswich Town).Pompey title winner passes away *Kirk Reeves, 56, American street entertainer, suicide by gunshot.Portland police confirm that street performer Kirk Reeves was found dead Sunday of a self-inflicted gunshot wound *David Resnick, 88, Brazilian-born Israeli architect and town planner.Architect David Resnick dead at 88 *Jacob Sahaya Kumar Aruni, 38, Indian restaurateur and television show host, heart attack.Chef Jacob Sahaya Kumar Aruni dies of heart attack in Chennai *Glen Morgan Williams, 92, American senior federal judge, Western District Court of Virginia (1976–2010).Glen Morgan Williams *Verle Wright Jr., 84, American Olympic sports shooter.Verle Franklin Wright, Jr. ===5=== *Assem Salam, 87–88, Lebanese civil engineer. *Umesh Chandra Banerjee, 74, Indian judge.Justice (retired) Umesh C Banerjee passes away *Bernard Bierman, 104, American composer.Tin Pan Alley Composer Bernie Bierman Dies At 104 *Joseph Oliver Bowers, 102, Dominican-born Antiguan Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Accra, Ghana (1953–1971), and Saint John's – Basseterre (1971–1981).Bishop Oliver Bowers Dies *Olympe Bradna, 92, French-born American dancer and actress (College Holiday, Souls at Sea, The Night of Nights).Antoinette Olympe (Bradna) Wilhoit obituary *Julia Britton, 98, Australian playwright. *Charles V. Bush, 72, American air force officer, first African American to graduate from the US Air Force Academy, colon cancer. *Elliott Carter, 103, American composer, natural causes.Composer Elliott Carter dies at 103 *Frank Cope, 83, English weightlifter.1954 Athletes *Paul L. Douglas, 85, American lawyer and politician. *James R. Dumpson, 103, American public servant, Commissioner of the New York City Department of Welfare (1959–1965), stroke.James R. Dumpson, a Defender of the Poor, Dies at 103 *Leonardo Favio, 74, Argentine singer, actor, and film director (Chronicle of a Boy Alone, Juan Moreira, Nazareno Cruz and the Wolf), polyneuritis melaminosa and HCV.Leonardo Favio, Argentine film director, dies aged 74 *Bob Kaplan, 75, Canadian politician, oversaw creation of CSIS, Solicitor General (1980–1984), MP for Don Valley (1968–1972) and York Centre (1974–1993), cancer.CSIS creator Robert Kaplan dead at 75 after battle with cancer *Razaullah Khan, 75, Pakistani cricketer.Razaullah Khan *Reis Leming, 81, American George Medal-winning airman.Reis Leming *Margaret Nichols, 82, American animator and executive of I.A.T.S.E.American animator Margaret Nichols Dies at 82 *Louis Pienaar, 86, South African lawyer and diplomat, Administrator-General of Namibia (1985–1990).Mixed reactions to Louis Pienaar's death *Keith Ripley, 77, English footballer.Keith Ripley *Sikandar Sanam, 48, Pakistani actor and comedian, liver cancer.Noted comedian Sikandar Sanam passes away *Stalking Cat, 54, American body modifier.Stalking Cat confirmed dead at 54 *Jimmy Stephen, 90, Scottish footballer. *Bertram Wyatt- Brown, 80, American historian and author, pulmonary fibrosis.Bertram Wyatt- Brown, acclaimed historian ===6=== *Larry Alexander, 62, American politician, member of the Massachusetts House (1979–1990).Former state rep Alexander dies *Aloysius Balina, 67, Tanzanian Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Geita (1984–1997) and Shinyanga (since 1997), liver cancer.Askofu Balina kuzikwa Shinyanga *Hetty Blok, 92, Dutch actress, comedian, singer and director.Hetty 'Zuster Klivia' Blok overleden *Ron Braden, 64, American football and baseball coach.Ronald Edmond Braden *Joel Connable, 39, American journalist, diabetic seizure.Miami Herald *Charles Delporte, 83, Belgian painter and sculptor.L'artiste carolo Charles Delporte est décédé *Bo Dickinson, 77, American football player. *Clive Dunn, 92, British actor (Dad's Army) and singer ("Grandad"), complications following operation.Dad's Army actor Clive Dunn dies aged 92 *Samuel Guo Chuan-zhen, 94, Chinese Roman Catholic prelate, Auxiliary Bishop of Jinan (1997–2000).Samuel Guo Chuan-zhen *Vladimír Jiránek, 74, Czech cartoonist and animator.Cartoonist, animator Vladimír Jiránek dies *Theodore T. Jones, 68, American judge, NY Court of Appeals (since 2007), apparent heart attack.State high court judge dies of heart attack *Carmen Martínez Sierra, 108, Spanish actress.Carmen Martínez Sierra fallece a los 108 años *Ernest Mateen, 46, American boxer, shot.Cops: Wife kills former pro boxer in self-defense *Maxim of Bulgaria, 98, Bulgarian Orthodox hierarch, Patriarch of All Bulgaria (since 1971), heart ailment.Bulgarian Orthodox Patriarch Maxim Dies at 98 *Panbanisha, 26, American bonobo involved in language studies (Great Ape Trust), common cold.Famed 'talking' ape dies at Iowa sanctuary, others sick *Ivor Powell, 96, Welsh footballer (Queens Park Rangers, Aston Villa) and coach (Carlisle United, Team Bath).Former Wales midfielder Ivor Powell has died aged 96. *Frank J. Prial, 82, American journalist and wine critic (The New York Times), complications of prostate cancer.Frank J. Prial, 82, wine columnist for New York Times *Damaskinos Roumeliotis, 92, Greek Orthodox hierarch, Metropolitan of Maronia and Komotini (1974–2012), multiple organ failure. *Bohdan Tsap, 71, Ukrainian footballer and youth football trainer.Скончался директор СДЮШОР Карпат Богдан Цап *Carmen Warschaw, 95, American politician and philanthropist, natural causes.Carmen Warschaw, Calif. Democratic leader and philanthropist, dies ===7=== *Carmen Basilio, 85, American dual world champion boxer, pneumonia.Boxing Hall of Famer Carmen Basilio dies at age 85 *Ray Beckwith, 100, South Australian wine chemist. *Aleksandr Berkutov, 80, Russian Olympic gold medal-winning (1956, 1960) rower.Скончался советский олимпийский чемпион А.Беркутов: Другие виды *Heinz-Jürgen Blome, 65, German footballer (VfL Bochum). *Murray Byrne, 84, Australian politician, member of the Victorian Legislative Council for Ballarat Province (1958–1976).Parliament of Victoria *Henry Colman, 89, American producer and screenwriter. *Alan Coxon, 82, English cricketer.Alan Coxon dies *Ellen Douglas, 91, American writer, heart failure.Ellen Douglas, Novelist of Southern Life, Dies at 91 *Kevin O'Donnell, Jr., 61, American science fiction author, lung cancer.Memorial Obituaries O'Donnell Jr., Kevin *David Olive, 75, British theoretical physicist. *Glenys Page, 72, New Zealand cricketer.ESPNcricinfo profile of Glenys Page *Sandy Pearson, 94, Australian major general, Commander of the 1st Australian Task Force (1968–1969).Vale: Major General 'Sandy' Pearson *Frank Peppiatt, 85, Canadian-born American television writer and producer, co- creator of Hee Haw, bladder cancer.Hee Haw' co-creator Frank Peppiatt dies *Richard Robbins, 71, American musician and score writer (Howards End, Remains of the Day, A Room with a View), Parkinson's disease.Richard Robbins Dies *Darrell Royal, 88, American football coach (University of Texas), Alzheimer's disease.Ex-University of Texas football coach Royal dies in Austin, age 88; had Alzheimer's disease *Arthur K. Snyder, 79, American politician, Los Angeles City Councilman (1967–1985).Former Councilman Art Snyder, a City Hall 'character,' dead at 79 *Elliott Stein, 83, American film critic and historian. ===8=== *Péricles Azambuja, 85, Brazilian historian, writer and journalist. *Lucille Bliss, 96, American voice actress (Crusader Rabbit, The Smurfs, Invader Zim), natural causes.The Smurfs Star Lucille Bliss Dies *Robert McCallum Blumenthal, 81, American mathematician. *Herbert Carter, 93, American pilot (Tuskegee Airmen).Tuskegee Airman retired Lt. Col. Herbert Carter died today, reports state *György Danis, 67, Hungarian politician.Elhunyt Danis György *Bruce Evans, 87, Australian politician, member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly for Gippsland East (1961-1992). *Bobby Gilfillan, 74, Scottish footballer (Doncaster Rovers), prostate cancer. *Gerard Gramse, 68, Polish sprinter.Zmarł Gerard Gramse *Roger Hammond, 76, British actor (The King's Speech, Around the World in 80 Days), cancer.Roger Hammond obituary *Cornel Lucas, 92, British photographer.Cornel Lucas dies *Lee MacPhail, 95, American baseball Hall of Fame general manager (Baltimore Orioles, New York Yankees), American League President (1973–1984), natural causes.Lee MacPhail dies at 95; former American League president and Hall of Fame member *Pete Namlook, 51, German electronic musician, producer and composer, founder of FAX music label, heart attack.RIP Pete Namlook *Patrick Francis Sheehan, 80, Irish-born Nigerian Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Yola (1970–1996) and Kano (1996–2008).Bishop Patrick Francis Sheehan *Robert Swenning, 88, American figure skater.Robert J. Swenning ===9=== *Pirkko Aro, 89, Finnish journalist and politician. *John Attenborough, 84, English businessman, brother of Richard Attenborough and David Attenborough.John Attenborough, youngest brother of David and Richard Attenborough *Leaford Bearskin, 91, American tribal leader, Chief of the Wyandotte Nation (1983–2011).Wyandotte Chief Bearskin dies *Roger Blais, 95, Canadian film director and producer. *Aïssatou Boiro, 57–58, Guinean civil servant, murdered. *William Brandon Lacy Campos, 35, African American poet, HIV and gay rights activist.Activist Brandon Lacy Campos Dead at 35 *Nora Bustamante Luciani, 88, Venezuelan physician, historian, writer and intellectual. *Milan Čič, 80, Slovak lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the Slovak Socialist Republic (1989–1990), complications from a stroke.First Post-Revolution PM Milan Cic Dies (80) *Iurie Darie, 83, Romanian actor (A Bomb Was Stolen), complications from a stroke.Iurie Darie A Murit *Joseph D. Early, 79, American politician, member of the House of Representatives from Massachusetts (1975–1993).Former Congressman Joseph Early dies *Valerie Eliot, 86, British editor, widow of T. S. Eliot.The Second Mrs. Eliot *Isaac Fadoyebo, 86, Nigerian soldier. *Harold Gould, 88, American baseball player (Philadelphia Stars).Former Negro League pitcher Gould passes away *Major Harris, 65, American R&B; singer ("Love Won't Let Me Wait"), member of The Delfonics, heart and lung failure.Philly sound' R&B; singer Major Harris dies at 65 *Bobbi Jordan, 75, American actress (General Hospital, Mame), heart attack.Actress Bobbi Jordan Dies at 75 *Will van Kralingen, 61, Dutch actress (Havinck, Temmink: The Ultimate Fight), cancer.Actrice Will van kralingen (61) overleden *Herbie Kronowitz, 89, American boxer.Boxer Herbie Kronowitz dies (1923-2012) *Helen Mussallem, 97, Canadian nurse.Association of Registered Nurses of British Columbia notice of death of Helen Mussallem *Sergey Nikolsky, 107, Russian mathematician.9 ноября на 108-м году жизни скончался выдающийся российский математик Сергей Никольский *Billy O'Brien, 83, American politician, member of the Virginia House (1974–1992).Joseph W. O'Brien, Jr. Obituary *Bernard Perera, 56, Sri Lankan cricketer.Former SL first-class batsman Bernard Perera dies *Paul Petrie, 84, American poet and academic.Paul J. Petrie Obituary *Pat Renella, 83, American actor (Bullitt, General Hospital, The New Phil Silvers Show).Pat Renella, Who Played a Bad Guy in 'Bullitt', Dies at 83 *Jim Sinclair, 79, Canadian non-status Indian aboriginal activist and politician, cancer.Jim Sinclair, towering figure in Aboriginal history, dies at 79 *Malcolm Smith, 80, South African cricketer.Malcolm Smith *James L. Stone, 89, American army officer and prisoner of war, recipient of the Medal of Honor.Medal of Honor Recipient James L. Stone Passes Away at 89 *Bill Tarmey, 71, British actor (Coronation Street), heart attack.Bill Tarmey, Coronation Street star, dies *Hubert Zimmermann, 71, French computer scientist.INRIA Alumni ===10=== *Witkop Badenhorst, 71–72, South African Army general, pneumonia and heart failure.Witkop Badenhorst sterf *Robert Carter, 102, British Royal Air Force officer.Air Commodore Robert Carter *Isabel Coe, 61, Australian rights activists. *John Louis Coffey, 90, American federal judge (U.S. 7th Circuit Court of Appeals).Courtroom revealed the passionate side of Judge Coffey *Eric Day, 91, English footballer (Southampton F.C.). *Eric Devenport, 86, British Anglican prelate, Bishop of Dunwich (1980–1992). *Stuart Freedman, 68, American physicist.Biographical Memoirs *Kekoo Gandhy, 92, Indian art gallerist, art collector and art connoisseur, pancreatic cancer. *Gilbert Geis, 87, American criminologist. *Wilhelm Hennis, 89, German political scientist.Politikwissenschaftler Wilhelm Hennis gestorben *Sándor Kiss, 71, Hungarian Olympic gymnast.Sandor Kiss *Marian Lines, 78, British writer and actress.Lives Remembered: Marian Lines *Mitsuko Mori, 92, Japanese actress, heart failure.Actress Mitsuko Mori dies of heart failure at 92 *Mynavathi, 78, Indian actress, cardiac arrest.Actor Mynavathi passes away *Ricky Naputi, 39, Guamanian obese man, heaviest in world.World's fattest man, Ricky Naputi, ate himself to death at almost 900 pounds *Alexander Perepilichny, 44, Russian businessman and whistleblower.Russian whistleblower Alexander Perepilichnyy was warned his name was on gang hit list *Piet van Zeil, 85, Dutch politician, State Secretary for Economic Affairs (1981–1986) and Social Affairs (1982), Mayor of Heerlen (1986–1992).Oud-KVP- en CDA- politicus Piet van Zeil overleden ===11=== *Lam Adesina, 73, Nigerian politician, Governor of Oyo State (1999–2003).Nigeria: Alhaji Lam Adesina dies at 73 *Edith Anrep, 100, Swedish lawyer and feminist. *Joe Egan, 93, British rugby league footballer.Joe Egan, the great Wigan hooker, has died at age 93 *Tomaž Ertl, 79, Slovenian communist-era politician.Tomaž Ertl, Last Communist-Era Interior Minister, Dies *Alex Esclamado, 84, Filipino-born American media and civic leader, pneumonia.Alex Esclamado, Filipino Media Pioneer and Community Advocate, Dies at 84 *David Gwynne-James, 75, Welsh first-class cricketer, British Army officer and military historian, head injuries sustained after a heart attack.Welsh Army veteran robbed as he lay dying after a heart attack *Iqbal Haider, 67, Pakistani politician, Law Minister (1993–1994), lung disease.Former PPP law minister Iqbal Haider passes away *Sir Rex Hunt, 86, British diplomat and colonial administrator, Governor of the Falkland Islands (1980–1982, 1982–1985).Sir Rex Hunt Falklands Governor during the Argentine invasion dies *Farish Jenkins, 72, American palaeontologist, complications of pneumonia.Farish Jenkins *Jalal Mansouri, 82, Iranian Olympic weightlifter.جلال منصوری، پیشکسوت وزنهبرداری درگذشت *Victor Mees, 85, Belgian footballer (Royal Antwerp F.C.).Vic Mees, Soulier d'Or 1956 et Diable Rouge à 68 reprises, est mort *Patricia Monaghan, 66, American author.Mourning author Patricia Monaghan (1946–2012) *Ilya Oleynikov, 65, Russian comedian and actor, cardiovascular disease.Vladimir Putin condoles native Ilya Oleynikov *Johnny Prescott, 74, English boxer.'Playboy' Brummie boxer Johnny Prescott dies at 74 *Harry Wayland Randall, 96, American World War II veteran and war photographer.Harry Wayland Randall (1915-2012) *Tarachand Sahu, 65, Indian politician, MP for Durg (1996–2009), multiple organ failure.CSM President Tarachand Sahu passes away *Hal Ziegler, 80, American politician, member of the Michigan House (1966–1974), Michigan Senate (1975–1978), heart attack.Former Jackson-area lawmaker Hal Ziegler dies at 80, remembered for his never-ending love of politics ===12=== *Charles Kofi Agbenaza, 80–81, Ghanaian politician. *Coty Beavers, 28, American murder victim, shot. *Arthur Bialas, 81, German footballer.F.C. Hansa Rostock E.V. *Marshall Bouldin III, 89, American portrait painter.Porrtait artist Bouldin III dies *Dave Cahill, 71, American football player. *Robert J. Cotter, 69, American chemist and mass spectrometrist, heart failure.Robert J. Cotter, Johns Hopkins medical school professor *Angela Cropper, 66, Trinidadian diplomat and politician.Angela Cropper, 66, passes away in UK *Anthony di Bonaventura, 83, American pianist and academic.Boston University Mourns the Passing of Anthony di Bonaventura, School of Music Professor and Legendary Pianist, Boston University *Bob French, 74, American jazz musician and radio show host, dementia and diabetes.Bob French, longtime Original Tuxedo Jazz Band leader and WWOZ deejay, has died *Hans Hammarskiöld, 87, Swedish photographer, after a brief illness.Fotografen Hans Hammarskiöld död *Alan Hopkins, 86, British politician, complications following a heart operation.Alan Hopkins *Michel Hrynchyshyn, 83, Canadian-born French Ukrainian Catholic hierarch, Apostolic Exarch in France, Benelux and Switzerland (1982–2012).Помер єпископ УГКЦ Михаїл (Гринчишин) *Harry McShane, 92, Scottish footballer.Harry McShane: 1950s Manchester United stalwart *Mario Murillo, 85, Costa Rican footballer.Ayer fue sepultado Mario Murillo *Sergio Oliva, 71, Cuban-born American bodybuilder, Mr. Olympia (1967–1969).Retired Chicago cop, former champion bodybuilder dies *Fred Ridgeway, 59, English actor, motor neurone disease.Fred Ridgeway obituary *Daniel Stern, 78, American psychiatrist, heart failure.È morto lo psicanalista Daniel Stern *Ronald Stretton, 82, English Olympic bronze medal-winning (1952) track cyclist. *Willis Whitfield, 92, American physicist and inventor (Cleanroom).Willis Whitfield, Inventor of Clean Room That Purges Tiny Particles, Dies at 92 *John Winter, 82, British architect, respiratory failure.Veteran Modernist John Winter dies at age 82 *Wilbur Woo, 96, Chinese-born American politician and community leader, complications from stroke and pneumonia.Wilbur K. Woo dies at 96; a leader of L.A.'s Chinese community *Walt Zeboski, 83, American photographer (Associated Press), pneumonia.Walt Zeboski Photographer who chronicled Ronald Reagan's 1980 presidential campaign ===13=== *Murray Arnold, 74, American basketball coach (Chattanooga Mocs, Perth Wildcats), cancer.Ex- Mocs coach Arnold dies at 74 *Will Barnet, 101, American painter.Will Barnet painter dies *Naima Bayari, Moroccan Muay Thai kickboxer, gas leak. *Bryce Bayer, 83, American scientist (Bayer filter).Bryce Bayer, Kodak scientist who created ubiquitous Bayer Filter for color digital imaging, has passed away *Ray Carter, 79, English cricketer. *Erazm Ciołek, 75, Polish photojournalist.Zmarł fotograf Solidarności *Kenneth Cragg, 99, British Anglican priest and scholar.Bishop Kenneth Cragg Remembered *Robert Shirley, 13th Earl Ferrers, 83, British peer, Deputy Leader of the House of Lords (1979–1983, 1988–1997).Earl Ferrers *Jack Gilbert, 87, American poet, pneumonia with complications from Alzheimer's disease.Poet Jack Gilbert dies *Milan Horálek, 80, Czech economist and politician, Minister of Labour and Social Affairs (1990–1992).Ve věku 80 let zemřel bývalý ministr Milan Horálek *John Kelly, 82, Irish Olympic racewalker.John Kelly *Manuel Peña Escontrela, 46, Spanish footballer (Real Zaragoza, Real Valladolid), cancer. *John Sheridan, 78, English rugby league footballer (Castleford).Former Doncaster Dons boss John Sheridan will be missed *Yao Defen, 40, Chinese record holder, world's tallest woman.皖籍"世界第一女巨人"姚德芬去世|女性|半岛网 *Ray Zone, 65, American cinema historian, adaptor and 3D expert, heart attack.Ray Zone, the '3D King of Hollywood,' Dies at 65 ===14=== *Alex Alves, 37, Brazilian footballer (Hertha BSC), leukemia.Alex Alves, ex-Palmeiras e Cruzeiro, morre no interior de São Paulo *Enrique Beech, 92, Filipino Olympic shooter.Beech, 92 *Harold G. Christensen, 86, American attorney, cancer. *William Cusano, 69, Italian-born Canadian politician, complications from surgery. *Brian Davies, 82, Australian rugby league footballer.Qld rugby league legend Brian Davies has passed away *Martin Fay, 76, Irish musician (The Chieftains).Co-founder of Chieftains dies, aged 76 *Wendell Garrett, 83, American historian, appraiser on Antiques Roadshow, natural causes.Roadshow' personality dead at 83 *Joe Gilliam, Sr., 89, American football coach (Tennessee State).Ex-TSU coach Joe Gilliam Sr. dies *Daniel Goodman, 67, American ecologist and biologist, complications from surgery. *Norman Greenwood, 87, Australian-born British chemist.Chemist Norman Greenwood dies *Gail Harris, 81, American baseball player (New York Giants, Detroit Tigers).Boyd Gail Harris, Jr. obituary *Ramon Torres Hernandez, 41, American serial killer, execution by lethal injection.Texas executes man who abducted, murdered single mother *Ahmed Jabari, 52, Palestinian military leader (Hamas), airstrike.IDF kills top Hamas commander *Lucien Laferte, 93, Canadian ski jumper.LAFERTÉ, Lucien 1919-2012 *Bertram McLean, 64, Jamaican musician.Ranchie' McLean is dead *Paddy Meegan, 90, Irish football player (Meath GAA).Death of Paddy Meegan *Luíz Eugênio Pérez, 84, Brazilian Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Jales (1970–1981) and Jaboticabal (1981–2003), complications following surgery.Bispo emérito de Jaboticabal morre aos 84 anos após cirurgia *Olusola Saraki, 79, Nigerian politician.Olusola Saraki dies at 79 *Stanley Smith, 75, English rugby league footballer.Devastated Widow Of Former Rugby League Player Appeals For His Ex Colleagues To Help Investigation *Adrián Silva Moreno, 34, Mexican journalist, shot.Crime reporter shot dead in Tehuacán, as reign of violence and impunity continues ===15=== *Théophile Abega, 58, Cameroonian footballer (Canon Yaoundé, Toulouse F.C.), cardiac arrest.Former African Footballer of the Year Abega dies aged 58 *Kader Bhayat, 76, Mauritian lawyer and politician. *Luis Carreira, 35, Portuguese motorcycle racer, race collision.Portuguese motorcycle racer Luis Carreira has died *Harry Christiani, 87, Guyanese cricketer. *Harvey Tristan Cropper, 81, American painter, cancer. *Pete Eneh, Nigerian actor, after leg amputation. *María Santos Gorrostieta Salazar, 36, Mexican politician, Mayor of Tiquicheo (2008–2011), beating and stabbing.The Economist *Khin Maung Toe, 62, Burmese singer–songwriter, cancer.Stereo Era's Singer-Songwriter Khin Maung Toe Passes Away *Josef Kloimstein, 84, Austrian Olympic silver (1960) and bronze (1956) medal-winning rower.Ruder-Legende Josef Kloimstein gestorben *Maleli Kunavore, 29, Fijian rugby player (Toulouse), cardiac arrest.Kunavore passes away *Moosa Mangera, 67, South African cricketer.Moosa Mangera *Gerrit Oosting, 71, Dutch politician.Gerrit Oosting (71) overleden *K. C. Pant, 81, Indian politician, Minister of Defence (1987–1989), heart attack.Former Defence Minister KC Pant dead *David Oliver Relin, 49, American journalist and author, suicide by blunt force head injury.David Oliver Relin, Co-Author of 'Three Cups of Tea', Dies at 49 *José Song Sui-Wan, 71, Chinese-born Brazilian Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of São Gabriel da Cachoeira (2002–2009), Parkinson's disease and liver tumor.Bishop José Song Sui-Wan, S.D.B. † *Frode Thingnæs, 72, Norwegian jazz musician ("The First Day of Love", "Mata Hari"), complications from a heart attack.Frode Thingnæs er død *William Turnbull, 90, Scottish artist.William Turnbull, Scottish artist, dies at the age of 90 ===16=== *Stuart Babbage, 96, Australian Anglican priest, Dean of Sydney (1947-1953) and Melbourne (1953-1962).A Tribute to Rev Dr Canon Stuart Barton Babbage AM *Leo Blair, 89, British academic.Tony Blair's father Leo dies at the age of 89 *David Bolt, 84, English novelist and literary agent.[Science Fiction and Fantasy Literature, Volume 2] *Alby Broadby, 95, Australian politician, member (1968–1988) and President (1984–1988) of the Tasmanian Legislative Council.Death of A. J. Broadby *Eric Burgin, 88, British cricketer (Yorkshire).Eric Burgin obit *Fernando Casanova, 86, Mexican actor, prostate cancer. *John Chapman, 82, Australian evangelist, multiple organ failure.Evangelist John Chapman is home at last *Luis de los Cobos, 85, Spanish composer.Valladolid composer Luis de los Cobos dies in Switzerland *Louis Tom Dragna, 92, Italian-American mobster.Louis T. Dragna Death Record *Subhash Dutta, 82, Bangladeshi filmmaker, heart disease.Subhash Dutta passes away *Patrick Edlinger, 52, French climber, fall.Patrick Edlinger est mort *Kayode Eso, 87, Nigerian jurist. *Jefferson Kaye, 75, American radio, television, and film announcer, cancer.Former WBZ DJ Jeff "Jefferson" Kaye has passed away *Aliu Mahama, 66, Ghanaian politician, Vice President (2001–2009), complications from a stroke.Former Vice President Aliu Mahama Dies *Hubert Meyer, 98, German army officer.Nota de Falecimento: Hubert Meyer *Helen Milliken, 89, American First Lady of Michigan (1969–1983), ovarian cancer.Helen Milliken, former Michigan first lady, dies at 89 *James W. Moseley, 81, American ufologist.Remembering Jim Moseley (1931-2012), the Voltaire of American Ufology *Eliyahu Nawi, 92, Israeli politician and jurist, Mayor of Beersheba (1963–1986).Longest-serving mayor of Beersheba, dies at 92 *Bob Scott, 91, New Zealand rugby union player.Tributes paid to All Blacks great Scott *Bob Wiggins, 79, American Negro American League baseball outfielder.Outfielder, passed up by Sox, made his mark in the old Negro Leagues ===17=== *Sushila Adivarekar, 89, Indian politician.Rajya Sabha *Nina Aleshina, 88, Russian architect. *Ingrid Bruce, 72, Swedish engineer. *Ponty Chadha, 55, Indian businessman, shot.Ponty Chadha, brother killed in shooting at farmhouse in south Delhi *Armand Desmet, 81, Belgian professional cyclist.Cyclisme - l'ancien lieutenant de Rik Van Looy Armand Desmet décède à l'âge de 81 ans *Branko Elsner, 82, Slovenian footballer and coach.Branko Elsner tot: Trauer um "echten Sir" *Richard Felt, 79, American football player (New York Titans, Boston Patriots), natural causes.Dick Felt obituary *Bonnie Lynn Fields, 68, American actress (Angel in My Pocket, Bye Bye Birdie, Funny Girl) and Mouseketeer, throat cancer.Bonnie Lynn Fields dies at 68; former Mouseketeer *Kathleen Fowler, 87, Australian military officer. *Christian Godefroy, 64, French author. *Lea Gottlieb, 94, Israeli fashion designer.Lea Gottlieb, queen of Israeli fashion, dies at 94 *Henryk Grzybowski, 78, Polish footballer (Legia Warsaw).Zmarł Henryk Grzybowski *Katherine Kath, 92, French ballerina turned actress.Notice of death of Katherine Kath at IMDb *Robert Lin, 70, Chinese-born American professor and experimental physicist, stroke.Robert Lin, UC Berkeley pioneer in experimental space physics, dies at 70 *Arnaud Maggs, 86, Canadian artist and photographer.Toronto photographer Arnaud Maggs dies at 86 *Eduardo Morales Miranda, 102, Chilean educator, co- founder of the Universidad Austral de Chile.Universidad Austral de duelo por muerte de su rector fundador *Cliff Pilkey, 90, Canadian politician and trade union leader.Cliff Pilkey, champion of Canada's progressive labour legislation, dies at 90 *Freddy Schmidt, 96, American baseball player (St. Louis Cardinals, Philadelphia Phillies, Chicago Cubs).Phillies oldest alum, pitcher Schmidt, passes away *Billy Scott, 70, American singer, pancreatic and liver cancer.Billy Scott Dead: R&B; Singer Dies at 70 *David Speer, 61, American businessman, CEO of Illinois Tool Works, cancer.ITW chief David Speer patient leader everyone liked *Bal Thackeray, 86, Indian politician, cardio- respiratory arrest.Shiv Sena chief Bal Thackeray, champion of Maharashtra's cause, dies at 86 *Margaret Yorke, 88, British crime fiction writer.In Memoriam: Margaret Yorke ===18=== *Graham Anderson, 83, British-born Canadian heraldic scholar and officer of arms. *Emilio Aragón Bermúdez, 83, Spanish clown, accordionist, and singer.Fallece 'Miliki' a los 83 años *Alan Barblett, 83, Australian Olympic hockey player.Alan Barblett *Burke Deadrich, 67, American wrestler. *Elena Donaldson-Akhmilovskaya, 55, Russian-born American chess grandmaster, brain cancer.Elena Akhmilovskaya Donaldson, Chess Champ in U.S.S.R. and U.S., Dies at 55 *David Eaton, 78, South African cricketer.David Eaton *Stan Greig, 82, Scottish pianist, drummer, and bandleader, Parkinson's disease.Stan Greig obituary * Phoebe Hearst Cooke, 85, American businesswoman (Hearst Corporation) and philanthropist, pneumonia.Phoebe Hearst Cooke, Granddaughter of William Randolph Hearst, Dies at 85 *Francis D. Imbuga, 65, Kenyan playwright and academic, stroke.Curtains fall on playwright Imbuga *Ian Kirkpatrick, 82, South African rugby union player and coach. *Neva Jane Langley, 79, American beauty pageant queen, Miss America (1953), cancer.Former Miss America Neva Fickling dies from cancer *Sir Philip Ledger, 74, British classical musician and academic.Sir Philip Ledger dies *William McCarthy, Baron McCarthy, 87, British politician and life peer.Lord McCarthy *Kenny Morgans, 73, Welsh footballer (Manchester United), Munich air disaster survivor.Kenny Morgans passes away *Kyrillos Oikonomopoulos, 82, Cypriot-born Zimbabwean Orthodox hierarch, Metropolitan of Zimbabwe (2001–2002).Εκοιμήθη ο Μητροπολίτης Ναυκράτιδος κυρός Κύριλλος *Ed Richards, 83, American Olympic fencer (1964).Olympian and USA Fencing Hall of Fame Member Ed Richards passes away *Helmut Sonnenfeldt, 86, German-born American foreign policy official, Alzheimer's disease.Helmut Sonnenfeldt, top adviser to Kissinger, dies at 86 *Don R. Swanson, 88, American information scientist.Don R. Swanson, information science pioneer, dead at 88 ===19=== *James Bassham, 89, American scientist.James Bassham's obituary *David G. Cantor, 76–77, American mathematician.In Memoriam: David G. Cantor Professor of Mathematics, 1935 - 2012 *Ken Charlton, 89, Australian rugby league footballer. *John Cooper, 90, Australian cricketer. *Omar Abdallah Dakhqan, Jordanian politician, Agriculture Minister.Former agriculture minister Omar Dakhqan passes away *Bill Durkin, 90, American basketball player. *John Hefin, 71, Welsh television director and producer (Pobol y Cwm, The Life and Times of David Lloyd George), cancer.John Hefin: TV director and ex-BBC Wales drama head dies *Viter Juste, 87, Haitian-born American community leader, coined the term "Little Haiti", dementia and diabetes.Viter Juste, Haitian community pioneer and leader, dies at 87 *Magnus Lindgren, 30, Swedish chef, traffic collision.Celebrity chef identifies taxi victims *Hannie Lips, 88, Dutch television announcer. *Shiro Miya, 69, Japanese enka singer.「女のみち」ぴんからトリオの宮史郎さん死去 ６９歳 *Pete La Roca, 74, American jazz drummer, lung cancer.Drummer & Composer Pete La Roca Dies at 74 *Joe Riordan, 82, Australian politician, member of the House of Representatives for Phillip (1972–1975), Minister for Housing and Construction (1975).Parliament pauses to remember Labor great *Warren Rudman, 82, American politician, Senator from New Hampshire (1980–1993), lymphoma.Former U.S. Sen. Warren Rudman, a Nashua native, died Monday night *Boris Strugatsky, 79, Russian science fiction author, pneumonia.Лента новостей - Умер писатель-фантаст Борис Стругацкий *George D. Weber, 87, American politician, member of the Missouri House of Representatives (1965–1967), lymphoma.George 'Boots' Weber dies; perennial political candidate ===20=== *Kaspars Astašenko, 37, Latvian ice hockey player (Tampa Bay Lightning).Miris hokejists Kaspars Astašenko *Pedro Bantigue y Natividad, 92, Filipino Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of San Pablo (1967–1995), internal bleeding. *Jersey Bridgeman, 6, American murder victim, strangulation. *David C. Copley, 60, American publishing heir (Copley Press) and socialite, apparent heart attack.Prominent local publishing heir dead after wrecking car *Michael Dunford, 68, English musician. *Louis O. Giuffrida, 92, American army general, Director of Federal Emergency Management Agency (1981–1985).Louis O. Giuffrida obituary *Redd Griffin, 73, American politician, member of Illinois General Assembly (1980–1983).Longtime Oak Park resident Redd Griffin dies *William Grut, 98, Swedish Olympic gold medal- winning (1948) modern pentathlete.Willie Grut passes Away *Gary Ingham, 48, English footballer (Doncaster Rovers). *Ivan Kušan, 80, Croatian writer.Književnik Ivan Kušan preminuo u 80. godini *David O'Brien Martin, 68, American politician, member of the House of Representatives from New York (1981–1993), cancer.Former Congressman David Martin Dies *Flora Martirosian, 55, Armenian singer, complications following gall bladder surgery.Famed singer Flora Martirosyan dies at 55 *Mike Ryan, 77, Irish-born American soccer coach and first head coach of the US women's national team, aplastic anemia.Mike Ryan, Seattle soccer pioneer, dies at 77 ===21=== *Stephen Abrams, 74, American-born British drug policy activist.Pot in Hyde Park and the death of Stephen Abrams *Berthold Albrecht, 58, German businessman.Berthold Albrecht dead: Aldi heir who helped build the company's position of global dominance *Mladen Bašić, 95, Croat pianist and conductor.Umro poznati dirigent Mladen Bašić *Roland Baudric, 87, French wrestler. *Dann Cahn, 89, American film and television editor (I Love Lucy), natural causes. *Charles Denman, 5th Baron Denman, 96, British businessman and peer.Lord Denman: Businessman and philanthropist *Nick Discepola, 62, Italian-born Canadian politician, MP for Vaudreuil (1993–1997) and Vaudreuil-Soulanges (1997–2004), pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor.Former MP and Kirkland mayor Nick Discepola dead at 62 *Harold Fiskari, 84, Canadian ice hockey player.["Hal Fiskari", Society for International Hockey Research Database, accessed August 4, 2015.] *Mr. Food, 81, American television chef (Mr. Food), pancreatic cancer.TV chef Art Ginsburg — Mr. Food — dies at 81 *Șerban Ionescu, 62, Romanian actor, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. *Ajmal Kasab, 25, Pakistani gunman involved in 2008 Mumbai attacks, execution by hanging.India executes Mumbai gunman Hasab *Ernesto McCausland, 51, Colombian journalist and filmmaker, cancer.Ernesto McCausland, homenajeado por EL HERALDO *Vladka Meed, 90, Polish Jewish resistance member (Warsaw Ghetto Uprising survivor), Alzheimer's disease.Vladka Meed, courier for the Jewish resistance during WWII, dies at 90 *Edwarda O'Bara, 59, American medical patient, died after 42 years in a diabetic coma.Edwarda O'Bara, who spent 4 decades in a coma, dies at 59 *Nedu Onyeuku, 29, Nigerian basketball player, shot.Nigerian basketball player shot dead in US *Austin Peralta, 22, American jazz musician and composer.Obituary: Austin Peralta, 1990–2012 *Deborah Raffin, 59, American actress (Once Is Not Enough, Death Wish 3, 7th Heaven), leukemia.Deborah Raffin, actress and audiobook entrepreneur, dies at 59 *Stein Schjærven, 78, Norwegian marketing agent.Stein Schjærven *Rashid Sharafetdinov, 69, Russian Olympic long-distance runner.Ушел из жизни Рашид Шарафетдинов *Eugene Smith, 94, American pilot (Tuskegee Airmen) and attorney. *Algirdas Šocikas, 84, Lithuanian Olympic boxer.Mirė legendinis Lietuvos boksininkas A.Šocikas *Emily Squires, 71, American television director (Sesame Street) and scriptwriter (Guiding Light, As the World Turns).Emily Squires, Emmy-Winning Director of 'Sesame Street', Dies at 71 *Mack B. Stokes, 100, American bishop in the United Methodist Church.Bishop Mack B. Stokes *Wang Houjun, 69, Chinese footballer (Shanghai Shenhua) and coach (Shanghai Pudong), uremia.上海队前主帅王后军去世 曾任国足队长被称小诸葛 ===22=== *Frank Barsalona, 74, American talent agent and concert promoter, Alzheimer's disease.Legendary concert promoter Frank Barsalona passes away *Peter Bennett, 77, American music promoter, heart attack. *Bob Burtwell, 85, Canadian Olympic basketball player.Bob Burtwell *Pearl Laska Chamberlain, 103, American aviator.Pearl Laska obituary *John Earl Coleman, 82, American Vipassana meditation teacher.Momentum Vitae *Bryce Courtenay, 79, South African-born Australian novelist (The Power of One), stomach cancer.Power of One author Bryce Courtenay dead at 79 *Weldon Drew, 77, American basketball coach, automobile accident. *Raimund Krauth, 59, German footballer (Eintracht Frankfurt, Karlsruher SC).Raimund Krauth verstorben *Bennie McRae, 72, American football player (Chicago Bears).Former Bear McRae passes away *Yashar Nuri, 60, Azerbaijani actor.Famous Azerbaijani actor died *P. Govinda Pillai, 86, Indian politician.Kerala CPM leader P. Govindapillai passes away *Fahimeh Rastkar, 80, Iranian actress and voice dubbing artist, Alzheimer's disease. *Ken Rowe, 78, American baseball player (Baltimore Orioles, Los Angeles Dodgers), pneumonia.Tribe signs utility player; long time coach dies *Lyubov Sadchikova, 61, Russian Olympic speed skater.В Смоленске оборвалась жизнь легенды конькобежного спорта *Mel Shaw, 97, American design artist (Fantasia, Bambi, The Fox and the Hound, The Lion King), heart failure.Disney design artist Mel Shaw dies at 97 *K. H. Ting, 97, Chinese Anglican bishop.Kuang-hsun Ting dies at 97; leader of Protestant church in China *Jan Trefulka, 83, Czech writer and dissident, signatory of the Charter 77, renal failure and pneumonia.Czech dissident writer Jan Trefulka dies ===23=== *Veerapandy S. Arumugam, 75, Indian politician, respiratory failure.Former DMK minister Veerapandi Arumugam passes away *Sava Babić, 78, Serbian writer, poet, translator and university professor. *John Bara, 85, American politician. *José Luis Borau, 83, Spanish filmmaker, throat cancer.José Luis Borau, Spanish Filmmaker, dead at 83 *Noel Botham, 72, British journalist and author. *Peter Dawson, 66, English cricketer.Peter Dawson *Akkamma Devi, 94, Indian politician, MP for Nilgiris (1962–1967), first Badaga woman to graduate from college.Former Congress MP Akkamma Devi passes away *Chuck Diering, 89, American baseball player (St. Louis Cardinals), cerebral hemorrhage.Former Cardinals outfielder Chuck Diering dies *Gray Foy, 90, American artist. *Go Native, 9, Irish Thoroughbred racehorse, winner of the 2009 Fighting Fifth Hurdle and Christmas Hurdle.Meade 'devastated' after Go Native suffers fatal injury *Lawrence Guyot, 73, American civil rights activist, heart disease and diabetes.Civil Rights Activist Lawrence Guyot Succumbs at 73 *Larry Hagman, 81, American actor (Dallas, I Dream of Jeannie, Nixon), complications from throat cancer.Larry Hagman dead at 81, portrayed notorious TV villain J.R. Ewing *Diana, Lady Isaac, 91, English-born New Zealand environmentalist and arts patron.Environmentalist Diana, Lady Isaac dies *John Kemeny, 87, Hungarian-born Canadian film producer (The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz, Atlantic City), cancer.John Kemeny, forgotten giant of Canadian film, dies at 87 *Tadeusz Kwapień, 89, Polish cross country skier.Odszedł Tadeusz Kwapień *Alfonso Montemayor, 90, Mexican footballer (Club León).Alfonso Montemayor 'El Capi' fallece a los 90 años *Giuseppe Nahmad, 80, Syrian art dealer.Art dealer who bought and sold with immaculate timing *Adolph Peschke, 98, American outdoorsman, author and project designer in the Boy Scouts of America.Adolph E. Peschke Obituary *Nelson Prudêncio, 68, Brazilian Olympic silver (1968) and bronze (1972) medal-winning triple jumper, complications from lung cancer.Brazilian Olympic medalist Nelson Prudencio dies *Goffredo Stabellini, 87, Italian footballer. *Robert O. Swados, 93, American attorney and businessman.Robert O. Swados, who helped bring the Sabres to Buffalo, is dead at 93 *Hal Trosky, Jr., 76, American baseball player (Chicago White Sox), lung cancer.Former White Sox pitcher Hal Trosky Jr. dies ===24=== *Marcel Beaudry, 79, Canadian lawyer, politician and public official, cancer. *Héctor Camacho, 50, Puerto Rican former triple world champion boxer, injuries from gunshot.Hector 'Macho' Camacho removed from life support, dies at 50 *Alec Campbell, 80, British-born Botswanan archaeologist and historian, leukemia.The Monitor, History legend Alec Campbell dies *Ian Campbell, 79, British folk musician (Ian Campbell Folk Group), cancer.Ian Campbell dies *Ardeshir Cowasjee, 86, Pakistani newspaper columnist (Dawn), chest ailment.Veteran Pakistani columnist Cowasjee passes away at 86 *G. Edward Haynsworth, 90, American Episcopal prelate, missionary to Nicaragua.George Edward Haynsworth, retired Nicaragua missionary bishop dies *Antoine Kohn, 79, Luxembourgian football player and manager.Spitz Kohn overleden *Tony Leblanc, 90, Spanish actor, heart attack.Un ataque al corazón noquea al gran Tony Leblanc *Shawn Little, 48, Canadian politician, heart failure.Controversial former Ottawa councillor Shawn Little dead at 48 *Frank Pittman, 77, American psychiatrist and author (Private Lies: Infidelity and Betrayal of Intimacy), cancer.Psychiatrist known for quick wit, therapy insights *Joan Shepherd, 88, British athlete. *Chris Stamp, 70, British music producer and manager (The Who), cancer.Chris Stamp, Who Helped Launch The Who, Jimi Hendrix, Dead at 70 *Jimmy Stewart, 73, American baseball player (Chicago Cubs, Cincinnati Reds, Houston Astros).APSU baseball great Jimmy Stewart dies *Moniek Toebosch, 64, Dutch actress, artist and musician, enthusasia.Toebosch, Monique Pauline Maria Josephine (1948–2012) *Nicholas Turro, 74, American chemist, pancreatic cancer.Nicholas Turro Dies At 74 *Ernie Warlick, 80, American football player (Buffalo Bills, Calgary Stampeders).Former Buffalo Bills TE Ernie Warlick dies at 80 ===25=== *Juan Carlos Calderón, 74, Spanish composer and conductor. *Earl Carroll, 75, American singer (The Cadillacs, The Coasters), complications of a stroke and diabetes.Singer Earl Carroll Dies *Clifford Digre, 89, American entrepreneur. *Guilherme Espírito Santo, 93, Portuguese footballer and athlete. *Simeon ten Holt, 89, Dutch contemporary classical composer.Simeon ten Holt (89) overleden *Lars Hörmander, 81, Swedish mathematician.In Memoriam of Lars Hörmander *Hans Kuhn, 92, Swiss physical chemist.Trauer um Max-Planck-Direktor Hans Kuhn *Bert Linnecor, 78, English footballer.Tributes to an Imps stalwart *Luo Yang, 51, Chinese engineer, developer of the Shenyang J-15 program, heart attack.China praises engineer in aircraft carrier program *Mark Meier, 86, American glaciologist and academic.Boulder's Mark F. Meier, pioneer of glacial melt study, dies *Juan Pereda, 81, Bolivian military leader, President (1978). *Tom Robinson, 74, Bahamian Olympic sprinter (1956, 1960, 1964, 1968).Tom Robinson, four-time Olympic sprinter for the Bahamas, dies at 74 *Roy Thomas Severn, 83, British civil engineer.Professor Roy Severn *Dave Sexton, 82, English footballer and manager (Chelsea, Manchester United).Former Chelsea manager Dave Sexton dies, aged 82 *Dinah Sheridan, 92, English actress (The Railway Children).Actress Dinah Sheridan dies at 92 *Martin Smyth, 76, Irish Olympic boxer.Martin Smyth *Lary J. Swoboda, 73, American politician, member of Wisconsin State Assembly (1970–1994), heart attack.Lary Swoboda obituary *Jim Temp, 79, American football player (Green Bay Packers), heart disease.La Crosse native, former Packer Temp dies at age 79 *Carlisle Towery, 92, American basketball player (Fort Wayne Zollner Pistons). ===26=== *Celso Ad. Castillo, 69, Filipino director and actor, cardiac arrest.Acclaimed director Celso Ad. Castillo dies, 69 *Theo Brandmüller, 64, German composer.Komponist, Organist und Hochschullehrer: Theo Brandmüller ist tot *Jim Brewington, 73, American football player.http://fredericksburg.com/News/FLS/2012/122012/12012012/740442/ *Paul Neeley Brown, 86, American senior judge of the District Court for the Eastern District of Texas.Obituaries *Denis Haynes, 88, English cricketer (Staffordshire).Denis Marshall Haynes obituary *Bill Hollar, 74, American racing driver.racing-reference.info *Edward R. Kirkland, 89, American politician.Edward Romph Kirkland *Joe Kulbacki, 74, American football player (Buffalo Bills). *Mike Kume, 86, American Major League Baseball player.John "Mike" Kume, Sr *Peter Marsh, 64, Australian paralympian.Vale Peter Marsh *Joseph Murray, 93, American doctor and Nobel laureate (1990), performed first kidney transplantation, hemorrhagic stroke.Dr. Joseph E. Murray, who performed first successful organ transplant, dies at 93 *Peter C. Myers, 81, American politician, member of the Missouri House of Representatives (1998–2006), Deputy Secretary of the USDA (1982–1989).Former Missouri Lawmaker Peter Myers Dead At 81 *P. K. Venukuttan Nair, 81, Indian actor (Oolkatal, Swapnadanam).Theatre personality Venukuttan Nair passes away *M. C. Nambudiripad, 93, Indian science writer.Chitrabhanu Namboodiripad passes away *Kuno Pajula, 88, Estonian Evangelical Lutheran prelate, Archbishop (1987–1994).Suri peapiiskop emeeritus Kuno Pajula *Martin Richards, 80, American Broadway and film producer (Chicago, La Cage aux Folles), cancer.Marty Richards, Tony-Winning Broadway and Film Producer, Dies at 80 *Buddy Roberts, 67, American professional wrestler, member of the Fabulous Freebirds, pneumonia.Fabulous Freebirds Member Buddy Roberts Passes Away At Age 65 *César Sánchez, 77, Bolivian footballer. *David Schwendeman, 87, American taxidermist (American Museum of Natural History).David Schwendeman, Museum Taxidermist, Dies at 87 *Hans Jørgen Walle-Hansen, 100, Norwegian businessman.Vår kjære far, svigerfar, bestefar og oldefar Hans-Jørgen Kåre Strugstad Walle-Hansen *Richard Wilkins, 59, American lawyer.Richard G. Wilkins Obituary ===27=== *Maddela Abel, 88, Indian political scientist. *Mickey Baker, 87, American guitarist (Mickey & Sylvia) and songwriter ("Love Is Strange"), heart and kidney failure.Décès du guitariste de jazz Mickey Baker *Viacheslav Belavkin, 66, Russian-British mathematician. *Gilbert Clements, 84, Canadian politician, Lieutenant Governor of Prince Edward Island (1995–2001).Former lieutenant-governor of P.E.I., Gilbert Clements, dies at age 84 *Pat Connolly, 84, Canadian sports broadcaster, throat cancer and melanoma.Pat Connolly, iconic sports broadcaster, dead at 84 *Theophilus Danzy, 82, American football coach. *Jim Davis, 84, American politician, member of the Indiana House of Representatives (1982–1998).Jim Davis, longtime Frankfort politician, dies at 84 *Ab Fafié, 71, Dutch footballer and coach.Former Dutch coach Fafie dies *Érik Izraelewicz, 58, French media executive (Le Monde), heart attack.Le Monde director Erik Izraelewicz dead at 58 *Pascal Kalemba, 33, Congolese footballer.Ex-DRC goalkeeper Kalemba dies *Bob Kellett, 84, English film and television director.Obituary: Bob Kellett *Ladislas Kijno, 91, Polish-born French painter.Le peintre engagé Ladislas Kijno s'est éteint *Jorma Limmonen, 78, Finnish Olympic boxer. *Marvin Miller, 95, American union leader, executive director of the Major League Baseball Players Association (1966–1982), liver cancer.Marvin Miller, the first executive director of the Major League Baseball Players Association, dead at 95 after year-long battle with cancer *Herbert Oberhofer, 57, Austrian footballer (Admira Wacker).Admira Legende Herbert Oberhofer verstorben! *Chris Odera, 48, Kenyan Olympic boxer, kidney failure.Kenyan Boxer Dies in Germany, Family Appeals for Help *Lennart Samuelsson, 88, Swedish footballer.Lennart Samuelsson avliden *Assane Seck, 93, Senegalese politician, Foreign Minister (1973–1978).Décèdé hier à Dakar: Le Pr. Assane Seck sera inhumé à Marsassoum *Bennie Turner, 64, American politician and lawyer, member of the Mississippi State Senate (since 1992), brain cancer.Sen. Bennie Turner dies in Jackson, MS *Jack Wishna, 54, American businessman, suicide by carbon monoxide poisoning.Who Is Jack Wishna? Vegas Bigshot A Suicide ===28=== *Evelyn Ackerman, 88, American industrial designer. *Ahmed bin Hamed al Hamed, 82–83, UAE's politician. *Knut Ahnlund, 89, Swedish literary historian, writer, member of the Swedish Academy.Akademiledamoten Knut Ahnlund död *Shahid Akbar, 54, Indian cricketer, multiple organ failure.Syed Shahid Akbar dies at 54 *Sir William Bulmer, 92, British businessman, Lord Lieutenant of West Yorkshire (1978–1985).Sir William Bulmer *Gloria Davy, 81, American opera singer.Gloria Davy, first African-American to Sing Aida at the Met, Dies at 81 *José Maria Fidélis dos Santos, 68, Brazilian footballer (Bangu Atlético Clube), cancer.Ex-lateral da Seleção, Fidélis morre vítima de câncer no estômago *Jerry Finkelstein, 96, American media mogul and businessman (The Hill, New York Law Journal).Jerry Finkelstein, New York Power Broker, Dies at 96 *Jakes Gerwel, 66, South African academic and corporate executive, complications following heart surgery.Prof Jakes Gerwel passes away *Tom Hardman, 21, English cricketer.Ex-Lancashire cricketer Tom Hardman, 21, found dead at house in Leeds *Ray Heffner, 87, American academic, president of Brown University (1966–1969).Ray Heffner *James Day Hodgson, 96, American politician, Secretary of Labor (1970–1974) and Ambassador to Japan (1974–1977).Hodgson, former Secretary of Labor, dies at Malibu home *Jerry D. Mahlman, 72, American meteorologist.Jerry Mahlman obituary *Philip Mastin, 82, American politician, member of Michigan House of Representatives (1970–1976) and the Michigan Senate (1983), first Michigan Senator to be recalled.Philip Mastin obituary *Cosimo Nocera, 74, Italian footballer (Foggia Calcio).E' morto Cosimo Vittorio Nocera, il più grande goleador del Foggia *Don Rhymer, 51, American film (Big Momma's House, Surf's Up, Rio) and television writer (Evening Shade), complications of head and neck cancer.PASSINGS: Zig Ziglar, Don Rhymer, David Courtney *Spain Rodriguez, 72, American underground cartoonist, cancer.Spain Rodriguez: Zap Comix artist dies *Albie Thoms, 71, Australian film director, writer, and producer.Champion of film as art pushed boundaries *Franco Ventriglia, 90, American opera singer.Francis "Franco" Ventriglia obituary *Zig Ziglar, 86, American author and motivational speaker, pneumonia.Motivational speaker Zig Ziglar dies at 86 ===29=== *Velia Abdel- Huda, 96, Egyptian art historian and socialite. *Joelmir Beting, 75, Brazilian journalist and writer, stroke.Morre aos 75 anos o jornalista Joelmir Beting *Eldon Edge, 86, American politician. *Maddalena Fagandini, 83, British electronic musician and television producer.Maddalena Fagandini obituary *Bo Lozoff, 65, American writer and interfaith humanitarian, traffic collision.Musician, lava lover Bo Lozoff killed in Puna crash *Susan Luckey, 74, American actress (The Music Man, Carousel), natural causes.The Music Man Actress Susan Luckey Dies at Age 74 *Sherab Palden Beru, 100 or 101, Tibetan thangka artist.Kagyu Samye Ling - News of Sherab Palden Beru *Marie-Jacques Perrier, 88, French singer and fashion journalist.Jacotte Perrier *Merv Pregulman, 90, American football player (Green Bay Packers, Detroit Lions, New York Bulldogs), steel executive and philanthropist.Former Siskin CEO Merv Pregulman passes away *Klaus Schütz, 86, German politician, Mayor of West Berlin (1967–1977), President of the Bundesrat (1967–1968).Früherer Regierender Bürgermeister: Berlin trauert um Klaus Schütz *Werner Seibold, 64, German Olympic bronze medallist sport shooter (1976).Werner Seibold's obituary *Joyce Spiliotis, 65, American politician, member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (since 2003), cancer.Joyce Spiliotis dies at 65 *Benjamin Tatar, 82, American actor (The Wind and the Lion, The Piano Lesson), chronic pulmonary disease.Benjamin Tatar: Jackie Gleason's aide, lived with Ava Gardner *Ronald Frank Thiemann, 66, American professor and author, pancreatic cancer.Ronald F. Thiemann Dies at 66 *Zora Wolfová, 84, Czech translator. *Cuthbert Woodroffe, 94, Barbadian prelate, Primate of the West Indies (1980–1986).Arch Bishop Cuthbert Woodroffe Passes ===30=== *Rogelio Álvarez, 74, Cuban-born American baseball player (Cincinnati Reds), complications of kidney disease.El béisbol cubano está de luto por la muerte de Rogelio Álvarez *Mario Ardizzon, 74, Italian footballer.È morto Mario Ardizzon bandiera del Venezia *Barry Berkus, 77, American architect, author and art collector. *Lars-Gunnar Björklund, 75, Swedish radio and TV journalist. *Rick Blackburn, 70, American music executive.Retired Record Executive Rick Blackburn Dead at 70 *Roman Butenko, 32, Ukrainian football player, car crash. *Gregory S. Clark, 65, American politician. *Kélétigui Diabaté, 81, Malian musician. *Dolores Donlon, 92, American model and actress. *Jacqueline Duc, 90, French actress. *Jamelle Folsom, 85, American First Lady of Alabama (1948–1951, 1955–1959), mother of Jim Folsom, Jr., cancer.Former Ala. first lady Jamelle Folsom dies at 85 *Stephen Gray, 89, English musical administrator, managed the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic.Stephen Gray, who managed the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic, dies at 89 *I. K. Gujral, 92, Indian politician, Prime Minister (1997–1998), multiple organ failure.Former Prime Minister IK Gujral dies at age 92 *Munir Malik, 78, Pakistani cricketer.Munir Malik dies, aged 78 *Dolores Mantez, 76, British television actress (UFO).R.I.P. Dolores Mantez *Jeff Millar, 70, American film critic (Houston Chronicle) and comic strip writer (Tank McNamara), bile duct cancer.Jeff Millar, Chronicle reviewer and comic strip writer, dies at 70 *Susil Moonesinghe, 82, Sri Lankan politician and diplomat.Susil Moonesinghe is no more *Homer R. Warner, 90, American cardiologist, father of medical informatics, complications of pancreatitis.Utah's Homer Warner dies *Athar Zaidi, 66, Pakistani Test cricket umpire.Athar Zaidi ==References== *2012-11 11 |
Harris Scarfe is an Australian retailer that sells bed linen, kitchenware, homewares, electrical appliances and apparel. It was founded in 1849 in Adelaide, South Australia and has more than 50 stores nationally. In 2015, ownership of Harris Scarfe was transferred to Steinhoff Asia Pacific, an international retail and manufacturing conglomerate listed on the Frankfurt stock exchange. In December 2017, Steinhoff’s was accused of overstating its profits and the share price dropped by 90% The company then entered a period of intense asset sell off, which resulted in Harris Scarfe being sold to Allegro private equity group in December 2019. Shortly after, Allegro put Harris Scarfe and its related entities into administration. Spotlight Group then bought the business out of administration in April 2020. ==History== ===Early history=== thumb|Harris, Scarfe advert October 1881 Harris Scarfe traces its history to 10 February 1849, when George Peter Harris and John C. Lanyon, arrived in Adelaide, South Australia on the ship Candahar and established a hardware and ironmongery business on Hindley Street. Lanyon left the partnership on 22 February 1855 and returned to London, where he opened a buying house for Geo. P. Harris and other businesses in South Australia. Additional partners, George Scarfe and Richard Smith, joined the business in 1866 and the business name "Geo. P. Harris, Scarfe & Co." was adopted in December that year. They had premises on the east side of Gawler Place, midway between Rundle and Grenfell streets, where Allan's building now stands (58-60 Gawler Place). A new four-storey building, on a freehold property between Rundle and Grenfell streets, was erected behind their old (leased) property in 1929. Harris Scarfe grew to become a major supplier of a broad range of household, agricultural and industrial items. Besides conducting its retailing businesses, Harris Scarfe manufactured leather goods, including saddlery and luggage, as part of a wholesaling operation. Notably, during World War II, when the Federal Government enforced price controls, it used the Harris Scarfe catalogue as the price guide. ===Rainbow Cycles=== Rainbow bicycles, mostly made in South Australia by Harris Scarfe, were sold in their stores in both South Australia and, through a partnership with Sandovers, in Western Australia. They were first marketed in Western Australian stores in 1934. In 1936 sponsored rider Billy Read crossed Australia on a Rainbow, and in the 1940s and 1950s Sandovers were an enthusiastic sponsor of local road and track cyclists. Most of the bikes were low priced utility models, however sponsored riders in Perth were sent to Aussie Cycles by the Rainbow coach Ossie Prowse, where they would be measured for custom built Aussie bikes finished with Rainbow branding. ===1970s–1980s=== In 1971, Baradeen Quest, a subsidiary of Investment & Merchant Finance Corporation (IMFC) made a successful takeover bid for Harris Scarfe, which was listed on the Australian Securities Exchange at the time. Charles Davis Limited, a listed Tasmanian company controlled by Donald Trescowthick, acquired control of Harris Scarfe in 1976. Trescowthick focused Harris Scarfe's activities on its retailing business, developing a full line department store model, while the industrial products outlet at Mile End evolved to become Harris Scarfe Industrial (trading as Harrys Hardware), a large hardware retailing business. There were multiple small adjacent shops such as paint, power tools, garden. The success of Harry's led Harris Scarfe's parent company, Charles Davis Limited, to acquire other hardware retailers, including Lloyd's in South Australia, Campbell's in Queensland, and McEwans in Victoria and New South Wales. In 1989, these hardware businesses were sold in a management buyout, and acquired by Bunnings in 1993. ===1990s=== In the 1990s, Harris Scarfe entered an era of unprecedented national growth. It expanded beyond its large department store in Rundle Mall into smaller format suburban and regional shopping stores. Harris Scarfe also acquired full-line department store sites from other retailers who were rationalising their store networks including David Jones (Cairns, Townsville and Macarthur Square NSW), Myer (Colonnades), John Martin's (Arndale and Elizabeth), Stirlings in Western Australia (Albany, Bunbury and Geraldton), FitzGerald's in Tasmania and Melbourne (Hobart, Moonah, Eastlands, New Norfolk, Launceston, Ulverstone, Devonport, Burnie and Forest Hill) and Centre Fair (Shepparton). By 1995, Harris Scarfe had become Australia's third largest department store retailer, with 38 stores, and trading in all states of Australia. The company ran into trouble during the late 1990s due to rising debts and management issues. In April 2001, the business was placed in receivership. Unsecured creditors were owed $93 million, and the company was $50 million in debt. In June 2002, the company's former chief financial officer, Alan Hodgson, was sentenced to six years in jail, on multiple counts that included giving false information to the Australian Securities Exchange, (ASX) and failing to act honestly as a company officer. ===2000s=== In 2001, Harris Scarfe listed on the ASX. In the same year, the company fell $160 million into debt, resulting in the owners, the Trescowthick family, losing $31.5 million. The government initially considered pressing charges against chairman Adam Trescowthick, but later dropped the case. In 2002, the company started a revitalization program. The store network was remodeled with new products, layouts and new branding. As a result, Harris Scarfe soon began to enjoy record growth. By 2007, Sydney-based Momentum Private Equity acquired an $80 million majority stake in the company. Over a six-month period at the end of 2003, Harris Scarfe made certain representations on a number of items in its catalogues in relation to pricing. Harris Scarfe admitted to the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission (ACCC) that representations in its promotional advertising may have misled consumers. Again in 2007 Harris Scarfe was investigated by the Australian consumer watchdog who sued the department store in the Australian Federal Court over allegedly false promotions for its sales in October 2006. The ACCC alleged that the advertising was misleading because Harris Scarfe was not offering what it advertised: # A discount off all goods in its stores. # A minimum of 20% off all goods in its stores. The ACCC also alleged that the catalogue included images of products under banners stating a specific discount when some of those goods were not discounted by the stated percentage. In 2009, the Federal Court, Adelaide has declared that Harris Scarfe Australia Pty Ltd misled consumers by representing in a catalogue that certain advertised items were discounted by a specific amount when in fact they were discounted by less than that amount, or were not discounted at all. Harris Scarfe CEO, Robert Atkins, was sacked for gross misconduct from the top post at Harris Scarfe in March 2009 after eight years at the helm of the department store. He played a significant role in the restructuring of retail trading hours in South Australia and in the revitalization of the state's premium retail precinct as chairman of the Rundle Mall Management Authority. Robert Atkins died in January 2010. After Robert Atkins' dismissal from Harris Scarfe, Joe Barberis was named managing director of the retailer in February 2009 until September 2014. Graham Dean, previously Myer group general manager of Electrical, was named CEO of Harris Scarfe. ===2010s=== In 2012, Momentum Capital sold the business to Pepkor, a South African private equity firm. That year, Kyly Clarke also became the face of Harris Scarfe's fashion home brand 'Boutique@hs'. In 2014, Steinhoff Asia Pacific (later renamed Greenlit Brands) acquired Pepkor and this included Harris Scarfe. In January 2014, General Manager of Harris Scarfe Daniel Nikoleaff was demoted to Area Manager of South Australia. Nikoleaff was replaced by Rebecca Peterson previously CEO of the Lovisa jewellery stores. In October 2013, Harris Scarfe officially launched Simply Vera, by Vera Wang which is designed by Vera Wang who is based in New York City. The collection comprises a range of contemporary women's fashion, accessories, bed and bath collections and home fragrances. Harris Scarfe's home brand 'Bulls Head' jeans were found to have azo dyes classed as carcinogens in the pocket linings. The jeans were recalled in July 2015. In 2017, Harris Scarfe also collaborated with Shaynna Blaze, an interior designer from The Block on bed linens, homewares, accessories and apparel. In October 2017, just before the Steinhoff corruption scandal unfolded, Steinhoff International appointed former The Good Guys boss Michael Ford, to oversee its Australasian operation. He had left behind a retailer that had to be significantly restructured due to cash flow problems and a lack of stock in the business. British fashion brand Debenhams granted exclusivity to Harris Scarfe for their launch in Australia in February 2017. The arrangement was short lived and Harris Scarfe parted ways with Debenhams in November 2019. Harris Scarfe's relationship with Debenhams "played a key role in the insolvency of Harris Scarfe which would fall into administration in December 2020." During April 2018, they launched a new collection with Jamie Durie, TV personality The Outdoor Room named Jamie Durie by Ardor which is a casual bed linen product range. Channel Seven Morning Show presenter Kylie Gillies was named Harris Scarfe's fashion ambassador in August 2018. In December 2019, parent company Greenlit Brands sold both Harris Scarfe and Best & Less to Australian private equity firm Allegro Funds. On 11 December 2019, Harris Scarfe under General Manager Rebecca Peterson, entered voluntary administration, with Deloitte Restructuring Services partners taking over management of the business. The retailer reported $380 million in annual sales earlier in the year. At the time, Harris Scarfe had 66 stores employing 1800 staff. In response, the Shop, Distributive and Allied Employees Association labour union said that they would be filing a complaint with the Fair Work Commission because they were not informed in advance. Deloitte claims Harris Scarfe has "more than sufficient" assets to pay all staff entitlements. ===2020s=== In January 2020, Harris Scarfe announced it would close 21 of its 65 stores, resulting in the loss of 440 jobs. 1380 staff would remain in the 44 stores still in operation. The closures consist of one in South Australia (flagship) and in the Australian Capital Territory, two in Western Australia, three in Victoria, six in Queensland, and eight in New South Wales. As of 2 February 2020, 20 stores have closed, with the store in Earlville, Cairns, being spared from closure, leaving 45 stores, being three in Australian Capital Territory, three in Queensland, five in Tasmania, five in New South Wales, eight in South Australia and 21 in Victoria. During this time Harris Scarfe's credit card services and interest free offers were no longer honored or available. On 3 March 2020, it was announced that Spotlight Group will purchase the remaining stores. On 31 March 2020 Harris Scarfe laid off a further 59 staff, announced the day after Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison announced the national JobKeeper Scheme. Deloitte, which acted as Harris Scarfe's receiver, expects the sale to be finalised just after Easter. Staff were initially told the redundancies were being made due to the current economic conditions and COVID-19 crisis. This was later backtracked to claim the redundancies were part of the sale process. And that, while Harris Scarfe will be applying for the Government's JobKeeper initiative to support remaining staff, those let go on 'restructuring' grounds may not be supported under the payment scheme. Harris Scarfe HR Lauren Barry told media that she was "happy to send redundant workers to Centrelink with a letter provided" by the collapsing company On 3 April 2020, Smart Company reported Harris Scarfe was being investigated by the retail union for possibly breaching the Fair Work Act and treating their staff unfairly. The Mercury newspaper in Tasmania reported on 7 April 2020, Harris Scarfe's newly renovated Hobart store would be closing. The Australian Financial Review reported on 8 April 2020 that Harris Scarfe was still in the red despite the Spotlight deal. On 9 April 2020 Channel News added "Several appliance and CE distributors are set to only get between 1.3¢ and 20.5¢ in the dollar under a proposed deed of company arrangement for the failed Harris Scarfe, Allegro the Company who owned the stores for only three weeks will get $70M...The Australian Financial Review reported that the receivers blamed Harris Scarfe’s collapse on loss-making stores, most of which opened between 2014 and 2019, and the retailer’s inability to access funding after the sale to Allegro, which is the first ranking secured creditor and will receive a return of almost $70 million." On 24 April 2020, The Herald Sun reported Harris Scarfe became insolvent the moment private equity firm Allegro Funds took control of the struggling department store chain. Days later Channel News had spoken to unhappy suppliers who were allegedly ripped off and believe the company's collapse was an orchestrated con. Channel News in a follow up reported Harris Scarfe had illegally traded insolvent during December 2019. Commercial Real Estate reported on 28 April 2020 that Harris Scarfe's new owner Spotlight refused to pay its monthly rent for all stores. They were unwilling to work with landlords, demanding a 50% reduction on all rent. Spotlight also had yet to pay $50 million for the newly acquired Harris Scarfe. Former Queensland Premier Campbell Newman described Spotlight's actions as: "unconscionable conduct ... Many landlords have received 'take it or leave it' letters proposing significant rent concessions or outright rent waivers. Landlords are reporting that they have been threatened and pressured to accept ... At the same time, many of these companies have actually seen improved sales turnover." Mr Newman said. As of April 2020, approximately 1200 staff remain. In July 2020, The Fair Work Commission ruled the Shop, Distributive and Allied Employees Association (SDA Union) knowingly acted against the best interests of former Harris Scarfe employees when it decided to hold off filing unfair dismissal claims on their behalf within the required 21 days. Without informing the employees, the SDA's national executive opted against filing their claims after being told by the Harris Scarfe administrator the legal challenges would jeopardize a looming sale of the fallen department store chain, which continued to employ 1200 workers. The Retail and Fast Food Workers Union said: "It will come as no surprise that the SDA sold out unfairly sacked Harris Scarfe workers to keep in favour with the boss and keep those payroll deductions flowing. Today the Fair Work Commission found: "Rather than take any step to deal with the obvious conflict of interest, Mr Griffin did nothing, and worse still, did not inform the Applicant that the SDA had made a deliberate decision, contrary to her interests, not to lodge the application within the 21 day period." Smart Company reported on 31 July that Harris Scarfe had been hiring new staff shortly after Harris Scarfe made redundancies in March. "On May 5, five weeks to the day after the redundancies, Harris Scarfe’s area manager (Daniel Nikoleaff) for South Australia and Tasmania instructed store managers via email to refrain from hiring new staff in stores where team members had been made redundant. They were told the general manager of operations (Rebecca Peterson) would advise when hiring in these stores would resume, and it wasn’t long before that began happening." Harris Scarfe refused to comment on the redundancies and still cannot provide a reason for the redundancies, although the SDA insinuates it was a condition of sale to Spotlight. In February 2021 Harris Scarfe's creditors learned that their dividend of between 1.3 cents and 20.5 cents in the dollar they were scheduled to receive in July 2020 had been delayed for a second time. The Australian Financial Review was told by suppliers that they were asked to increase the amount of stock deliveries in the weeks leading up to Harris Scarfe's collapse. Several of Harris Scarfe's suppliers are owed in excess of $1million. Despite having a record year in sales since Spotlight acquired Harris Scarfe, in February 2021 the Australian Financial Review reported Harris Scarfe still owed their suppliers up to $236 million. It was also reported that Spotlight had been charging suppliers a 10 per cent fee on late orders amid the global crisis. ==Store formats== Harris Scarfe lifestyle and homewares stores sell a full range of bed linen, homewares, cookware, manchester, apparel, electrical appliances, kitchen appliances, menswear, womenswear, intimates, sportswear, travel and outdoor. Harris Scarfe stores are located across Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania and Victoria. There are currently 52 Harris Scarfe stores. The retailer has also entered Western Australia three times, but has pulled out. Harris Scarfe Home stores sell homewares including bed linen, homewares, cookware, kitchen appliances, electrical goods, personal care and bathroom electrical. Harris Scarfe Home stores are located across New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania and Victoria. There are currently 11 Harris Scarfe Home stores. == Product categories == Harris Scarfe stores sell the following products: * Bed Linen & Manchester – bedding, linen, towels, manchester, pillows, decorative cushions * Homewares – crockery, cutlery, glassware, food preparation * Kitchenware and Cookware – cook sets, fry pans, cast iron * Personal Care & Bathroom Electrical – hairdryers, shavers * Kitchen Appliances – kettles, toasters, food processors, blenders * Electrical Appliances - heaters, fans, cookers, grills, toasters * Clothing and Apparel - womenswear, underwear, bras, and menswear * Travel – luggage, accessories ===Exclusive brands=== *Smith + Nobel — Harris Scarfe's budget "home" brand. *Miguel Maestre - celebrity style within Smith + Nobel *Jayson Brunsdon - apparel, manchester and homewares *Jane Lamerton - apparel, manchester and homewares *Chyka - apparel, manchester and homewares *Shayna Blaze — homewares collection from Australian designer Shaynna Blaze. *MOZI — Australian-designed homewares. ==See also== *Department stores around the world ==References== ==External links== Category:Companies based in Melbourne Category:Companies formerly listed on the Australian Securities Exchange Category:1849 establishments in Australia Category:Australian companies established in 1849 Category:Retail companies established in 1849 Category:Department stores of Australia Category:Clothing retailers of Australia |
Chikungunya is an infection caused by the Chikungunya virus (CHIKV). Symptoms include fever and joint pains. These typically occur two to twelve days after exposure. Other symptoms may include headache, muscle pain, joint swelling, and a rash. Symptoms usually improve within a week; however, occasionally the joint pain may last for months or years. The risk of death is around 1 in 1,000. The very young, old, and those with other health problems are at risk of more severe disease. The virus is spread between people by two types of mosquitos: Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti. They mainly bite during the day. The virus may circulate within a number of animals including birds and rodents. Diagnosis is by either testing the blood for the virus's RNA or antibodies to the virus. The symptoms can be mistaken for those of dengue fever and Zika fever. It is believed most people become immune after a single infection. The best means of prevention is overall mosquito control and the avoidance of bites in areas where the disease is common. This may be partly achieved by decreasing mosquito access to water and with the use of insect repellent and mosquito nets. There is no vaccine and no specific treatment as of 2016. Recommendations include rest, fluids, and medications to help with fever and joint pain. While the disease typically occurs in Africa and Asia, outbreaks have been reported in Europe and the Americas since the 2000s. In 2014 more than a million suspected cases occurred. In 2014 it was occurring in Florida in the continental United States but as of 2016 there were no further locally acquired cases. The disease was first identified in 1952 in Tanzania. The term is from the Kimakonde language and means "to become contorted". ==Signs and symptoms== Around 85% of people infected with Chikungunya virus experience symptoms, typically beginning with a sudden high fever above . The fever is soon followed by severe muscle and joint pain. Pain usually affects multiple joints in the arms and legs, and is symmetric – i.e. if one elbow is affected, the other is as well. People with Chikungunya also frequently experience headache, back pain, nausea, and fatigue. Around half of those affected develop a rash, with reddening and sometimes small bumps on the palms, foot soles, torso, and face. For some, the rash remains constrained to a small part of the body; for others, the rash can be extensive, covering more than 90% of the skin. Some people experience gastrointestinal issues, with abdominal pain and vomiting. Others experience eye problems, namely sensitivity to light, conjunctivitis, and pain behind the eye. This first set of symptoms – called the "acute phase" of Chikungunya – lasts around a week, after which most symptoms resolve on their own. Many people continue to have symptoms after the "acute phase" resolves, termed the "post-acute phase" for symptoms lasting three weeks to three months, and the "chronic stage" for symptoms lasting longer than three months. In both cases, the lasting symptoms tend to be joint pains: arthritis, tenosynovitis, and/or bursitis. If the affected person had pre-existing joint issues, these tend to worsen. Overuse of a joint can result in painful swelling, stiffness, nerve damage, and neuropathic pain. Typically the joint pain improves with time; however, the chronic stage can last anywhere from a few months to several years. Joint pain is reported in 87–98% of cases, and nearly always occurs in more than one joint, though joint swelling is uncommon. Typically the affected joints are located in both arms and legs. Joints are more likely to be affected if they have previously been damaged by disorders such as arthritis. Pain most commonly occurs in peripheral joints, such as the wrists, ankles, and joints of the hands and feet as well as some of the larger joints, typically the shoulders, elbows and knees. Pain may also occur in the muscles or ligaments. In more than half of cases, normal activity is limited by significant fatigue and pain. Infrequently, inflammation of the eyes may occur in the form of iridocyclitis, or uveitis, and retinal lesions may occur. Temporary damage to the liver may occur. People with Chikungunya occasionally develop neurologic disorders, most frequently swelling or degeneration of the brain, inflammation or degeneration of the myelin sheaths around neurons, Guillain–Barré syndrome, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, hypotonia (in newborns), and issues with visual processing. In particularly rare cases, people may develop behavioral changes, seizures, irritation of the cerebellum or meninges, oculomotor nerve palsy, or paralysis of the eye muscles. Newborns are susceptible to particularly severe effects of Chikungunya infection. Signs of infection typically begin with fever, rash, and swelling in the extremities. Around half of newborns have a mild case of the disease that resolves on its own; the other half have severe disease with inflammation of the brain and seizures. In severe cases, affected newborns may also have issues with bleeding and bloodflow, and problems with heart function. In addition to newborns, the elderly, and those with diabetes, heart disease, liver and kidney diseases, and human immunodeficiency virus infection tend to have more severe cases of Chikungunya. Around 1 to 5 in 1,000 people with symptomatic Chikungunya die of the disease. ==Cause== ===Virology=== Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), is a member of the genus Alphavirus, and family Togaviridae. It was first isolated in 1953 in Tanzania and is an RNA virus with a positive-sense single-stranded genome of about 11.6kb. It is a member of the Semliki Forest virus complex and is closely related to Ross River virus, O'nyong'nyong virus, and Semliki Forest virus. Because it is transmitted by arthropods, namely mosquitoes, it can also be referred to as an arbovirus (arthropod-borne virus). In the United States, it is classified as a category B priority pathogen, and work requires biosafety level III precautions. ===Transmission=== Chikungunya is generally transmitted from mosquitoes to humans. Less common modes of transmission include vertical transmission, which is transmission from mother to child during pregnancy or at birth. Transmission via infected blood products and through organ donation is also theoretically possible during times of outbreak, though no cases have yet been documented. The incubation period ranges from one to twelve days, and is most typically three to seven. Chikungunya is related to mosquitoes, their environments, and human behavior. The adaptation of mosquitoes to the changing climate of North Africa around 5,000 years ago made them seek out environments where humans stored water. Human habitation and the mosquitoes' environments were then very closely connected. During periods of epidemics humans are the reservoir of the virus. Because high amounts of virus are present in the blood in the beginning of acute infection, the virus can be spread from a viremic human to a mosquito, and back to a human. During other times, monkeys, birds and other vertebrates have served as reservoirs. Three genotypes of this virus have been described, each with a distinct genotype and antigenic character: West African, East/Central/South African, and Asian genotypes. The Asian lineage originated in 1952 and has subsequently split into two lineages – India (Indian Ocean Lineage) and South East Asian clades. This virus was first reported in the Americas in 2014. Phylogenetic investigations have shown that there are two strains in Brazil – the Asian and East/Central/South African types – and that the Asian strain arrived in the Caribbean (most likely from Oceania) in about March 2013. The rate of molecular evolution was estimated to have a mean rate of 5 × 10−4 substitutions per site per year (95% higher probability density 2.9–7.9 × 10−4). Chikungunya is spread through bites from Aedes mosquitoes, and the species A. aegypti was identified as the most common vector, though the virus has recently been associated with many other species, including A. albopictus. Research by the Pasteur Institute in Paris has suggested Chikungunya virus strains in the 2005-2006 Reunion Island outbreak incurred a mutation that facilitated transmission by the Asian tiger mosquito (A. albopictus). Other species potentially able to transmit Chikungunya virus include Ae. furcifer-taylori, Ae. africanus, and Ae. luteocephalus. ==Mechanism== Chikungunya virus is passed to humans when a bite from an infected mosquito breaks the skin and introduces the virus into the body. The pathogenesis of chikungunya infection in humans is still poorly understood, despite recent outbreaks. It appears that in vitro, Chikungunya virus is able to replicate in human epithelial and endothelial cells, primary fibroblasts, and monocyte-derived macrophages. Viral replication is highly cytopathic, but susceptible to type-I and -II interferon. In vivo, in studies using living cells, chikungunya virus appears to replicate in fibroblasts, skeletal muscle progenitor cells, and myofibers. The type-1 interferon response seems to play an important role in the host's response to chikungunya infection. Upon infection with chikungunya, the host's fibroblasts produce type-1 alpha and beta interferon (IFN-α and IFN-β). In mouse studies, deficiencies in INF-1 in mice exposed to the virus cause increased morbidity and mortality. The chikungunya-specific upstream components of the type-1 interferon pathway involved in the host's response to chikungunya infection are still unknown. Nonetheless, mouse studies suggest that IPS-1 is an important factor, and that IRF3 and IRF7 are important in an age-dependent manner. Mouse studies also suggest that chikungunya evades host defenses and counters the type-I interferon response by producing NS2, a nonstructural protein that degrades RBP1 and turns off the host cell's ability to transcribe DNA. NS2 interferes with the JAK-STAT signaling pathway and prevents STAT from becoming phosphorylated. In the acute phase of chikungunya, the virus is typically present in the areas where symptoms present, specifically skeletal muscles, and joints. In the chronic phase, it is suggested that viral persistence (the inability of the body to entirely rid itself of the virus), lack of clearance of the antigen, or both, contribute to joint pain. The inflammation response during both the acute and chronic phase of the disease results in part from interactions between the virus and monocytes and macrophages. Chikungunya virus disease in humans is associated with elevated serum levels of specific cytokines and chemokines. High levels of specific cytokines have been linked to more severe acute disease: interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-1β, RANTES, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1), monokine induced by gamma interferon (MIG), and interferon gamma-induced protein 10 (IP-10). Cytokines may also contribute to chronic Chikungunya virus disease, as persistent joint pain has been associated with elevated levels of IL-6 and granulocyte-macrophage colony- stimulating factor (GM-CSF). In those with chronic symptoms, a mild elevation of C-reactive protein (CRP) has been observed, suggesting ongoing chronic inflammation. However, there is little evidence linking chronic Chikungunya virus disease and the development of autoimmunity.Tanay A. Chikungunya virus and autoimmunity. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2017 Jul;29(4):389-393. doi: 10.1097/BOR.0000000000000396. PMID 28376065. ===Viral replication=== thumbnail|right|Transmission electron micrograph of Chikungunya virus particles The virus consists of four nonstructural proteins and three structural proteins. The structural proteins are the capsid and two envelope glycoproteins: E1 and E2, which form heterodimeric spikes on the viron surface. E2 binds to cellular receptors in order to enter the host cell through receptor-mediated endocytosis. E1 contains a fusion peptide which, when exposed to the acidity of the endosome in eukaryotic cells, dissociates from E2 and initiates membrane fusion that allows the release of nucleocapsids into the host cytoplasm, promoting infection. The mature virion contains 240 heterodimeric spikes of E2/E1, which after release, bud on the surface of the infected cell, where they are released by exocytosis to infect other cells. ==Diagnosis== Chikungunya is diagnosed on the basis of clinical, epidemiological, and laboratory criteria. Clinically, acute onset of high fever and severe joint pain would lead to suspicion of chikungunya. Epidemiological criteria consist of whether the individual has traveled to or spent time in an area in which chikungunya is present within the last twelve days (i.e.) the potential incubation period). Laboratory criteria include a decreased lymphocyte count consistent with viremia. However a definitive laboratory diagnosis can be accomplished through viral isolation, RT-PCR, or serological diagnosis. The differential diagnosis may include other mosquito- borne diseases, such as dengue or malaria, or other infections such as influenza. Chronic recurrent polyarthralgia occurs in at least 20% of chikungunya patients one year after infection, whereas such symptoms are uncommon in dengue. Virus isolation provides the most definitive diagnosis, but takes one to two weeks for completion and must be carried out in biosafety level III laboratories. The technique involves exposing specific cell lines to samples from whole blood and identifying Chikungunya virus-specific responses. RT-PCR using nested primer pairs is used to amplify several chikungunya- specific genes from whole blood, generating thousands to millions of copies of the genes in order to identify them. RT-PCR can also be used to quantify the viral load in the blood. Using RT-PCR, diagnostic results can be available in one to two days. Serological diagnosis requires a larger amount of blood than the other methods, and uses an ELISA assay to measure chikungunya-specific IgM levels in the blood serum. One advantage offered by serological diagnosis is that serum IgM is detectable from 5 days to months after the onset of symptoms, but drawbacks are that results may require two to three days, and false positives can occur with infection due to other related viruses, such as o'nyong'nyong virus and Semliki Forest virus. Presently, there is no specific way to test for chronic signs and symptoms associated with Chikungunya fever although nonspecific laboratory findings such as C reactive protein and elevated cytokines can correlate with disease activity. ==Prevention== thumb|A. aegypti mosquito biting a person Because no approved vaccine exists, the most effective means of prevention are protection against contact with the disease-carrying mosquitoes and controlling mosquito populations by limiting their habitat. Mosquito control focuses on eliminating the standing water where mosquitos lay eggs and develop as larva; if elimination of the standing water is not possible, insecticides or biological control agents can be added. Methods of protection against contact with mosquitos include using insect repellents with substances such as DEET, icaridin, PMD (p-menthane-3,8-diol, a substance derived from the lemon eucalyptus tree), or ethyl butylacetylaminopropionate (IR3535). However, increasing insecticide resistance presents a challenge to chemical control methods. Wearing bite- proof long sleeves and trousers also offers protection, and garments can be treated with pyrethroids, a class of insecticides that often has repellent properties. Vaporized pyrethroids (for example in mosquito coils) are also insect repellents. As infected mosquitoes often feed and rest inside homes, securing screens on windows and doors will help to keep mosquitoes out of the house. In the case of the day-active A. aegypti and A. albopictus, however, this will have only a limited effect, since many contacts between the mosquitoes and humans occur outdoors. ===Vaccine=== , no approved vaccines are available. A phase-II vaccine trial used a live, attenuated virus, to develop viral resistance in 98% of those tested after 28 days and 85% still showed resistance after one year. However, 8% of people reported transient joint pain, and attenuation was found to be due to only two mutations in the E2 glycoprotein. Alternative vaccine strategies have been developed, and show efficacy in mouse models. In August 2014 researchers at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases in the USA were testing an experimental vaccine which uses virus-like particles (VLPs) instead of attenuated virus. All the 25 people participated in this phase 1 trial developed strong immune responses. As of 2015, a phase 2 trial was planned, using 400 adults aged 18 to 60 and to take place at 6 locations in the Caribbean. Even with a vaccine, mosquito population control and bite prevention will be necessary to control chikungunya disease. In 2021, two vaccine manufacturers, one in France, the other in the United States, reported successful completion of Phase II clinical trials. ==Treatment== Currently, no specific treatment for chikungunya is available. Supportive care is recommended, and symptomatic treatment of fever and joint swelling includes the use of nonsteroidal anti- inflammatory drugs such as naproxen, non-aspirin analgesics such as paracetamol (acetaminophen) and fluids. Aspirin is not recommended due to the increased risk of bleeding. Despite anti-inflammatory effects, corticosteroids are not recommended during the acute phase of disease, as they may cause immunosuppression and worsen infection. Passive immunotherapy has potential benefit in treatment of chikungunya. Studies in animals using passive immunotherapy have been effective, and clinical studies using passive immunotherapy in those particularly vulnerable to severe infection are currently in progress. Passive immunotherapy involves administration of anti- CHIKV hyperimmune human intravenous antibodies (immunoglobulins) to those exposed to a high risk of chikungunya infection. No antiviral treatment for Chikungunya virus is currently available, though testing has shown several medications to be effective in vitro. ===Chronic arthritis=== In those who have more than two weeks of arthritis, ribavirin may be useful. The effect of chloroquine is not clear. It does not appear to help acute disease, but tentative evidence indicates it might help those with chronic arthritis. Steroids do not appear to be an effective treatment. NSAIDs and simple analgesics can be used to provide partial symptom relief in most cases. Methotrexate, a drug used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, has been shown to have benefit in treating inflammatory polyarthritis resulting from chikungunya, though the drug mechanism for improving viral arthritis is unclear. ==Prognosis== The mortality rate of chikungunya is slightly less than 1 in 1000. Those over the age of 65, neonates, and those with underlying chronic medical problems are most likely to have severe complications. Neonates are vulnerable as it is possible to vertically transmit chikungunya from mother to infant during delivery, which results in high rates of morbidity, as infants lack fully developed immune systems. The likelihood of prolonged symptoms or chronic joint pain is increased with increased age and prior rheumatological disease. ==Epidemiology== thumb|upright=1.3|Dark green denotes countries with current or previous local transmission of CHIKV, per CDC as of Sept 17, 2019. thumb|upright=1.3|A. albopictus distribution as of December 2007 Dark blue: Native range Teal: introduced Historically, chikungunya has been present mostly in the developing world. The disease causes an estimated 3 million infections each year. Epidemics in the Indian Ocean, Pacific Islands, and in the Americas, continue to change the distribution of the disease. In Africa, chikungunya is spread by a sylvatic cycle in which the virus largely cycles between other non-human primates, small mammals, and mosquitos between human outbreaks. During outbreaks, due to the high concentration of virus in the blood of those in the acute phase of infection, the virus can circulate from humans to mosquitoes and back to humans. The transmission of the pathogen between humans and mosquitoes that exist in urban environments was established on multiple occasions from strains occurring on the eastern half of Africa in non-human primate hosts. This emergence and spread beyond Africa may have started as early as the 18th century. Currently, available data does not indicate whether the introduction of chikungunya into Asia occurred in the 19th century or more recently, but this epidemic Asian strain causes outbreaks in India and continues to circulate in Southeast Asia. In Africa, outbreaks were typically tied to heavy rainfall causing increased mosquito population. In recent outbreaks in urban centers, the virus has spread by circulating between humans and mosquitoes. Global rates of chikungunya infection are variable, depending on outbreaks. When chikungunya was first identified in 1952, it had a low- level circulation in West Africa, with infection rates linked to rainfall. Beginning in the 1960s, periodic outbreaks were documented in Asia and Africa. However, since 2005, following several decades of relative inactivity, chikungunya has re-emerged and caused large outbreaks in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. In India, for instance, chikungunya re-appeared following 32 years of absence of viral activity. Outbreaks have occurred in Europe, the Caribbean, and South America, areas in which chikungunya was not previously transmitted. Local transmission has also occurred in the United States and Australia, countries in which the virus was previously unknown. In 2005, an outbreak on the island of Réunion was the largest then documented, with an estimated 266,000 cases on an island with a population of approximately 770,000. In a 2006 outbreak, India reported 1.25 million suspected cases. Chikungunya was introduced to the Americas in 2013, first detected on the French island of Saint Martin, and for the next two years in the Americas, 1,118,763 suspected cases and 24,682 confirmed cases were reported by the PAHO. An analysis of the genetic code of Chikungunya virus suggests that the increased severity of the 2005–present outbreak may be due to a change in the genetic sequence which altered the E1 segment of the virus' viral coat protein, a variant called E1-A226V. This mutation potentially allows the virus to multiply more easily in mosquito cells. The change allows the virus to use the Asian tiger mosquito (an invasive species) as a vector in addition to the more strictly tropical main vector, Aedes aegypti. Enhanced transmission of Chikungunya virus by A. albopictus could mean an increased risk for outbreaks in other areas where the Asian tiger mosquito is present. A albopictus is an invasive species which has spread through Europe, the Americas, the Caribbean, Africa and the Middle East. After the detection of zika virus in Brazil in April 2015, the first ever in the Western Hemisphere, it is now thought some chikungunya and dengue cases could in fact be zika virus cases or coinfections. ==History== The word 'chikungunya' is believed to have been derived from a description in the Makonde language, meaning "that which bends up", of the contorted posture of people affected with the severe joint pain and arthritic symptoms associated with this disease. The disease was first described by Marion Robinson and W.H.R. Lumsden in 1955, following an outbreak in 1952 on the Makonde Plateau, along the border between Mozambique and Tanganyika (the mainland part of modern-day Tanzania). According to the initial 1955 report about the epidemiology of the disease, the term 'chikungunya' is derived from the Makonde root verb kungunyala, meaning to dry up or become contorted. In concurrent research, Robinson glossed the Makonde term more specifically as "that which bends up". Subsequent authors apparently overlooked the references to the Makonde language and assumed the term to have been derived from Swahili, the lingua franca of the region. The erroneous attribution to Swahili has been repeated in numerous print sources. Erroneous spellings of the name of the disease are also in common use. Since its discovery in Tanganyika, Africa, in 1952, Chikungunya virus outbreaks have occurred occasionally in Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia, but recent outbreaks have spread the disease over a wider range. The first recorded outbreak of this disease may have been in 1779. This is in agreement with the molecular genetics evidence that suggests it evolved around the year 1700. ==Research== Chikungunya is one of more than a dozen agents researched as a potential biological weapon."Chemical and Biological Weapons: Possession and Programs Past and Present ", James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, Middlebury College, 9 April 2002, accessed 18 June 2014. This disease is part of the group of neglected tropical diseases. ==See also== * Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations * Epidemiology of chikungunya == References == ===Works cited=== * * == External links == * Chikungunya fact sheet—from the World Health Organization (WHO) * Chikungunya outbreaks—from the World Health Organization (WHO) * Togaviridae—from the Virus Pathogen Database and Analysis Resource (ViPR) * * Chikungunya in Cuba * Chikungunya: The key role of "innate immunity" Category:Biological weapons Category:Health disasters in India Category:Tropical diseases |
The following is a list of featured characters on The Mary Tyler Moore Show. ==Main characters== ===Mary Richards=== Mary Richards (Mary Tyler Moore) is a single native Minnesotan who moves to Minneapolis in 1970 at age 30 and becomes associate producer of WJM-TV's Six O'Clock News. Her sincere, kind demeanor often acts as a foil for the personalities of her co-workers and friends. ===Lou Grant=== Lou Grant (Edward Asner) is the producer (later executive producer) of the news. His tough, grumpy demeanor initially hides the kind-hearted nature gradually revealed as the series progresses. He is referred to as "Lou" by everyone, including Mary's friends, with the exception of Mary herself, who can rarely bring herself to call him by his first name rather than "Mr. Grant". He is married to Edie, but during the run of the show they separate and divorce. ===Murray Slaughter=== Murray Slaughter (Gavin MacLeod) is the head writer at fictional television station WJM-TV in Minneapolis, Minnesota. He is assigned to write the news stories for the station's nightly news broadcast, and makes frequent quips about Ted Baxter's mangling of his news copy, and Sue Ann Nivens' aggressive, man-hungry attitude. Murray and Mary are the only characters to appear in every episode of the series. Murray is happily married to Marie (Joyce Bulifant) and has several daughters. In the show's later years, he and Marie adopt a Vietnamese son. Although a happy family man, Murray is forever in love with Mary Richards, who is, in his words, "Absolutely terrific". He is protective of her and always concerned for her happiness and well-being. At one point, when Murray truly believes he is in love with Mary in a real way, Marie thinks he is going to leave the family. Mary explains to Marie that she thinks of Murray as a best friend, which helps things settle down. In a season three episode, it is revealed that Murray is a compulsive gambler. When a snowstorm necessitates the cancellation of a Las Vegas getaway, Lou arranges a poker game which Murray reluctantly joins. Murray tries to write a novel; despite failing, he never gives up. Murray, along with Mary, Lou Grant, and putative nemesis Sue Ann Nivens are fired from WJM-TV to boost sagging news ratings. Ironically, Ted, the one most responsible for the dismal ratings, is retained. ===Ted Baxter=== Ted Baxter (Ted Knight) is the dim-witted, vain, and miserly anchorman of the Six O'Clock News. He frequently makes mistakes and is oblivious to the actual nature of the topics covered on the show but, to cover for tormenting insecurity, he postures as the country's best news journalist. He is often criticized by others, especially Murray and Lou, for his many shortcomings, but is never fired from his position. Initially a comic buffoon in the series, Ted's better nature is gradually revealed as the series unfolds, helped along by his sweet, seemingly vapid but frequently perceptive wife Georgette. ===Rhoda Morgenstern=== Rhoda Morgenstern (Valerie Harper) (1970–1974) (Season 1–4, 6 & 7 Guest) is Mary's best friend and upstairs neighbor. She works as a window dresser, first at the fictional Bloomfield's Department Store, and later at Hempel's Department Store. Though insecure about her appearance, she is also outgoing and sardonic, often making wisecracks, frequently at her own expense. Like Mary, Rhoda is single. She dates frequently, often joking about her disastrous dates. Rhoda moves to New York City and falls in love after the fourth season, leading to the spinoff series, Rhoda. ===Phyllis Lindstrom=== Phyllis Lindstrom (Cloris Leachman) (1970–1975) (Season 1–5, 7 Guest) is Mary's snobbish friend and neighbor. Phyllis is a recurring character appearing in many episodes of the first two seasons, after which her appearances decline in frequency. She is married to unseen character Lars, a dermatologist, and has a precocious daughter, Bess (Lisa Gerritsen). Phyllis is controlling, egotistical and often arrogant. She is actively involved in groups and clubs and is a political activist and a supporter of Women's Liberation. Rhoda and Phyllis are usually at odds and often trade insults. After appearing in three episodes of season five, Phyllis moves to spin-off Phyllis. In that series it is explained Phyllis has been widowed. Discovering that her husband had virtually no assets and that she must support herself, Phyllis returns to her home town of San Francisco. ===Sue Ann Nivens=== Sue Ann Nivens (Betty White) (1973–1977) (Season 4–7), is the host of WJM's The Happy Homemaker show. While her demeanor is superficially cheerful, she makes judgmental comments about Mary, exchanges personal insults with Murray, and uses many sexual double entendres, especially around Lou, to whom she is strongly attracted. ==Recurring characters== *Georgette Franklin Baxter is played by Georgia Engel. Georgette is the somewhat ditzy girlfriend (and later wife) of stentorian news anchor Ted Baxter (played by Ted Knight). Mary Tyler Moore described her as a cross between Stan Laurel and Marilyn Monroe."She Even Gets Laughs on Her Straight Lines", TV Guide, Dec. 1973. She and Mary get along fantastically, and she helps fill the void that Phyllis Lindstrom and Rhoda leave in Mary's life when they leave for San Francisco and New York City, respectively. :Georgette first appears as a guest at one of Mary Richards' parties. She works as a window dresser at Hempel's Department Store in Minneapolis, Minnesota, along with Rhoda Morgenstern. Later, she works for a car rental service as a Golden Girl, and for Rhoda selling plants. :Georgette is devoted to Ted, and they eventually marry in Mary's apartment. They adopt a child named David (Robbie Rist), and later, Georgette gives birth to a girl named Mary Lou, also in Mary's apartment. *Edie Grant (née McKenzie) (Priscilla Morrill) is the wife of Lou Grant. She and Lou have been married for many years and have children, but in the 1971 episode "The Boss Isn't Coming to Dinner", marital difficulties lead to Lou and Edie separating. Though they reunite by the end of the episode, they again separate during The Mary Tyler Moore Show's fourth season, with the marriage ending soon thereafter. In a later season, Edie is remarried to Howard Gordon, and asks Lou and Mary to attend her wedding. Lou holds his peace and they part friends. Even when Lou lives in Los Angeles, he and Edie keep in touch because their grown daughters remain a common bond between them. In the Lou Grant series, Edie is revealed to be Roman Catholic and of Ukrainian heritage. *Gordon Howard, better known as Gordy, is played by actor John Amos. Gordy is the weather reporter on the nightly WJM-TV newscast. Affable, intelligent and professional, Gordy is the polar opposite of Ted. In 1973, Gordy leaves WJM, and eventually lands a job as host of a New York City talk show. Ted thinks this would be a great chance for him to become a national name, and wheedles Gordy to allow him to take part; but Gordy, although Ted's friend, is also wise to his ways, and gently refuses. After that, Gordy returns to New York and reaps success. :The producers introduced Gordy as a weatherman because of the dearth of black weathermen at that time. In several early episodes, the character of Gordy remarks, "Why does everyone think I'm the sportscaster?" Amos left the show for a starring role on Good Times. He later appeared as a guest star in an episode in 1977. *Bess Lindstrom is portrayed on both The Mary Tyler Moore Show and Phyllis by actress Lisa Gerritsen. Bess is the daughter and only child of Phyllis Lindstrom and late husband Lars. Bess helps her mother decorate the new apartment that Mary Richards moves into. Much to her mother's horror, Bess bonds well with Rhoda Morgenstern, calling her "Aunt Rhoda" (to which her mother invariably replies, "She's not your aunt"). Bess also bonds with Mary, an old friend of her mother's. She refers to Phyllis by her first name rather than with a motherly endearment. :Bess is featured more prominently on the spin-off show, Phyllis. By this time, Bess is in high school. She and her mother move to her mother's hometown, San Francisco, after her father dies. While Bess' step great-grandmother "Mother Dexter" despises Phyllis, she gets along beautifully with Bess. Near the end of the series, Bess marries Mark Valenti (Craig Wasson), the nephew of Phyllis' boss, City Supervisor Carmen Valenti, and the couple are expecting a baby. *Florence Meredith, best known as Aunt Flo (actually a distant older cousin of Mary Richards), is played on a recurring basis by actress Eileen Heckart. She is a straight-shooting newspaper columnist and winner of over sixteen journalism awards. She makes infrequent visits to Minneapolis and also battles Mary's boss, Lou Grant. Although Flo and Lou clash, there's a spark between them and they have a brief fling. Flo later makes an appearance on Lou Grant, covering the same political campaign as Tribune reporter Billie Newman. *Martin and Ida Morgenstern are portrayed on both The Mary Tyler Moore Show and Rhoda by veteran actors Harold Gould and Nancy Walker, respectively. They are the parents of Rhoda Morgenstern. Ida is portrayed as a stereotypical overbearing Jewish mother, whereas Martin is somewhat calmer and more even-keeled. While Rhoda is living in Minneapolis, Ida occasionally visits. When Rhoda moves back to New York, she initially stays with her mother in the Bronx. During the run of Rhoda, Martin and Ida separate when Martin goes off to find himself, pursuing a long- shelved dream of becoming a lounge singer. Toward the end of Rhoda's run, Martin returns and attempts to win Ida back, though this remains unresolved when the series ends. *Dottie and Walter Richards are Mary's parents. Dottie is played by veteran actress Nanette Fabray and Walter is played by Bill Quinn. Their first appearance is in 1972, two years after Mary leaves her fiancé and moved to Minneapolis. Her parents move to Minneapolis to be near Mary, though Mary and her mother, in particular, have a bit of trouble learning to relate to one another, now that Mary is an adult. The couple make a handful of appearances on the series that season before disappearing without explanation. *Marie Slaughter is played by Joyce Bulifant. Marie is the wife of newswriter Murray Slaughter and a homemaker. She and Murray have three daughters; they adopt a Vietnamese son toward the end of the series. *Joe Warner is played by actor Ted Bessell. He becomes Mary's boyfriend during season six, appearing in two episodes. Prior to appearing on Mary Tyler Moore, he is best known for portraying Donald Hollinger, Marlo Thomas' boyfriend on the sitcom That Girl. *Bill, Mary's ex-boyfriend. A doctor, whom Mary dated throughout his med school and residency, after which he broke things off with her. He appears only in the pilot, in which he attempts to reestablish their relationship, and is played by Angus Duncan. *Howard and Paul Arnell are brothers both played by actor Richard Schaal. Howard appears in several season one episodes as an old boyfriend of Mary's. She broke up with him because of his obsession with her and overall overbearing nature. He appears at Mary's high school reunion, and also attends an impromptu cocktail party thrown by Mary and Rhoda. Mary also briefly dates Howard's much more low-key brother Paul, whose company she enjoys a bit more, but Howard and Paul's parents (Mary Jackson and Henry Jones) seem to favor Howard, and feel that Mary is being disloyal by dating Paul. *Andy Rivers is played by actor John Gabriel. Andy is WJM's sports reporter, hired by Mary. He appears in five episodes in seasons four and five. He occasionally dates Mary. *Dan Whitfield is played by actor Michael Tolan. Dan teaches an evening journalism class that Mary and Rhoda enroll in. He occasionally dates Mary. *Charlene McGuire is a lounge singer who occasionally dates Lou Grant. Charlene is played by Sheree North and in one episode by Janis Paige. *Armond Lynton, played by Jack De Mave, is Rhoda's "date" (along with his wife Nancy) for an evening get-together accompanying Mary in the second episode of the series. He returns in the second season, recently divorced from Nancy, after responding to a chain letter sent by Mary. *Pete is played by actor and cameraman J. Benjamin Chulay A.C.E. Pete is the blond-haired fellow in the background on certain episodes. He has small speaking appearances in two 1973-1974 episodes. *Rayette is played by Beverly Sanders. She is a waitress in a restaurant where Mary occasionally has lunch. ==References== * Mary Tyler Moore Mary Tyler Moore |
Pierrot lunaire: rondels bergamasques (Moonstruck Pierrot: bergamask rondels) is a cycle of fifty poems published in 1884 by the Belgian poet Albert Giraud (born Emile Albert Kayenbergh), who is usually associated with the Symbolist Movement. The protagonist of the cycle is Pierrot, the comic servant of the Italian Commedia dell'Arte and, later, of Parisian boulevard pantomime.For Pierrot's general history, see Storey (1978). The early 19th-century Romantics, Théophile Gautier most notably, had been drawn to the figure by his Chaplinesque pluckiness and pathos,Storey (1978), pp. 93–110. and by the end of the century, especially in the hands of the Symbolists and Decadents, Pierrot had evolved into an alter-ego of the artist, particularly of the so- called poète maudit.Lehmann; Palacio; Storey (1985), pp. 297–304. He became the subject of numerous compositions, theatrical, literary, musical, and graphic. Giraud's collection is remarkable in several respects. It is among the most dense and imaginatively sustained works in the Pierrot canon, eclipsing by the sheer number of its poems Jules Laforgue's celebrated Imitation of Our Lady the Moon (1886).On Laforgue, see Lehmann; Palacio; Storey (1978), pp. 139–55. Its poems have been set to music by an unusually high number of composers (see Settings in various media below), including one, Arnold Schoenberg, who derived from it one of the landmark masterpieces of the 20th century. Finally, it is noteworthy for the number of themes of the fin- de-siècle—which is to say, of Symbolism, the Decadence, and early Modernism—that it elaborates within the tight confines of Giraud's verse form:For a full discussion of these themes, see Jean Pierrot. *the growing materialism and vulgarity of late-19th-century life, and the artist's flight into an interior world; *the quest of that artist for a purity and untrammeled freedom of the soul, often through a derangement of the senses (advocated most famously by Arthur Rimbaud) via the ecstasy of music or drugs like alcohol; *the deconstruction of romantic love, inspired in part by a skepticism à la Arthur Schopenhauer and a growing scientific candor (which will result in Krafft-Ebing's Psychopathia Sexualis of 1886) about sex; *the dogging of young genius by disease, especially consumption, leading to the facile equation (elaborated notoriously in the Degeneration of Max Nordau) of modern art with degeneracy; *the assumption of a religious burden by the modern artist, and his or her consequent ascension as prophet; *the transmutation of art into a hermeticism (vide Stéphane Mallarmé, T.S. Eliot, James Joyce, Rainer Maria Rilke) through which it can be enriched with sacred value, spared the gaze of the philistine, and engaged with the dissonant incongruities of modern life: Giraud's poems are non-linear fragments shored against Pierrot's ruins; *and yet finally: an undermining of the whole enterprise by self-mockery and irony, calling the high creative project (and the motives of the artist indulging in it) in doubt. ==Verse form, style, and structure== Each of Giraud's poems is a rondel, a form he admired in the work of the Parnassians, especially of Théodore de Banville.Kreuiter, p. 59. (It is a "bergamask" rondel, not only because the jagged progress of the poems recalls the eponymous rustic dance, but also because 19th-century admirers of the Commedia dell'Arte characters [or "masks"] often associated them with the Italian town of Bergamo,As Giraud himself does, throughout the poems: see "To my Bergamask Cousin" (#13), "Spleen" (#15), "Perfumes of Bergamo" (#35), and "Pierrot's Departure" (#36). from which Harlequin is said to have hailed.) Unlike many of the Symbolist poets (though certainly not all: Verlaine, Mallarmé, even the early Rimbaud and Laforgue, worked comfortably within strict forms), Giraud was committed to traditional techniques and structures as opposed to the comparatively amorphous constraints of free verse. He exclaimed to his friend Emile Verhaeren, after reading the latter's Les Moines (The Monks), "What I disapprove of with horror, what angers and irritates me is your improvising disdain for verse form, your profound and vertiginous ignorance of prosody and language."Cited in Kreuiter, p. 61, n. 34. Such an attitude leads the critic Robert Vilain to conclude that, while Giraud shared "the Symbolists' concern for the careful, suggestive use of language and the power of the imagination to penetrate beyond the surface tension of the here-and-now", he was equally committed to a Parnassian aesthetic."Pierrot lunaire: Cyclic Coherence in Giraud and Schoenberg", in Delaere and Herman, p. 130. He adheres to the sparer of the rondel forms, concluding each poem with a quintet rather than a sestet and working within rather strictly observed eight-syllable lines. As is customary, each poem is restricted to two rhymes alone, one masculine, the other feminine, resulting in a scheme of ABba abAB abbaA, in which the capital letters represent the refrains, or repeated lines. Within this austere structure, however, the language is—to use Vilain's words—"suggestive" and the imaginative penetration beneath the "here-and-now" daring and provocative. Like Laforgue after him, Giraud uses neologisms ("Bourrèle!" ["Executioner!" or "Torturer!"]),Not found with this spelling in any dictionary, the word is apparently, as Kreuiter notes (p. 100), a fusion of the verb "bourreler" (to torment or torture) and the noun "bourreau" (executioner or torturer). unusual word choices ("patte" [which usually means "paw"] for Pierrot's foot), and ambiguities ("Arlequin porte un arc-en-ciel", meaning "Harlequin bears [or carries or wears] a rainbow")These last two examples are also discussed by Kreuiter, pp. 104, 76. to enrich the fantastic atmosphere of the poems. His syntax is sometimes elliptical or fractured, as in the first line of the cycle: "Je rêve un théâtre de chambre" ("I dream a chamber theater"), instead of the usual "Je rêve d'un théâtre de chambre".Noted by Kreuiter, p. 69. And the imagery, especially in the similes, traffics often in the jarringly unexpected. Sometimes it is lyrically tender (clouds are "like splendid fins/Of chameleonic fish of the sky" [12: "The Clouds"]);Henceforth all titles in parentheses (or, as here, brackets) refer to the poems in Giraud (1884); numbers that precede them indicate their placement in the cycle. sometimes it is shockingly brutal (Pierrot's thought of his "last mistress", the gallows, "is like a nail/That drunkenness drives into his head" [17: "The Gallows' Song"]). At its most dreamlike, it has a disturbing obscurity of reference ("sinister"—and unexplained—"black butterflies" swarm in the sky and blot out the sun [19: "Black Butterflies"]); at times it suspends all laws of materiality (a moonbeam penetrates the "varnished case" of a violin to caress its "soul" with its "irony"—"like a luminous white bow" [32: "Lunar Violin"]). The result is Dalí-esque: a series of sharply etched transcriptions of proto- Surreal visions.The composer Roger Marsh (2007b) writes that, "Reading poems about heads being drilled with cranium drillers [45: "Cruel Pierrot"] and omelettes being thrown into the night sky [7: "Lyrical Cuisine"], one could be forgiven for assuming that Giraud was associated with the Dadaists or Surrealists, but they were not to emerge for another thirty years" (p. 6). "With its Baroque intensity of detail and its fin de siècle aura", as Giraud's American translator writes, "Pierrot Lunaire is a work not to be forgotten."Richter, pp. xxix–xxx. Because the rondel is such a tightly "closed" form, each poem seems to stand as an independent unit, isolated from the other poems around it. Giraud heightens this sense of disconnection by eschewing sustained narrative, presenting Pierrot's situation as a series of stark vignettes. Sometimes these vignettes are clustered rather coherently (as in those dealing with Pierrot-as-modern-Christ—27: "The Church", 28: "Evocation", 29: "Red Mass", and 30: "The Crosses"),As Marsh (2007a) puts it, "There is no single narrative, but rather...a number of mini-narratives..." (p. 110). But to go on to say, as he does, that the poems within these "mini- narratives" form "a logical sequence" (p. 110) seems to strain the meaning of "logical". but, more often than not, they seem random in their placement (and thus may be explained, at least in part, Schoenberg's not scrupling to change their order in his song-cycle).Marsh (2007a) is in complete disagreement on this point. "As poetic cycles go," he writes, "Pierrot Lunaire has more coherence and narrative structure than most" (p. 110). But the narrative structure that he proceeds to trace (pp. 110–116) seems often to be imposed on the poems (see note 18 below). The effect of all these structural and stylistic techniques is both comic and unsettling, as the poem "Disappointment" (4: "Déconvenue") suggests: The scene is completely without context: the poem that precedes it, 3: "Pierrot-Dandy", is about Pierrot's making up his face with moonlight;But he is not said to be doing so in readiness "to meet his guests", as Marsh has it (2007a), p. 110; he is not given any motive for painting his face. This is one example of many that could be cited of Marsh's tendency to generate narrative where Giraud provides none—and even may be said to be actively suppressing it. the poem that follows it, 5: "Moon over the Wash-House", identifies the moon as a washerwoman. Nowhere else in the cycle is this party revisited; it is impossible, therefore, to understand the import of the gathering or the identity of the guests. (Are the "Gilles" among the guests? or are they part of the entertainment? Is it Pierrot who has whimsically stolen away the viands? or is it stingy Cassander?) The frozen gestures ("their forks in their fists"), the air of blank incomprehension (shared as much by the reader as by the guests), the finicking nicety of the language ("elytra" [pl. of "elytron" = "wing- case"]) all contribute to the ambiguous black comedy of the poem. ==Synopsis== In a familiar dichotomy of the Symbolists, Pierrot lunaire occupies a divided space: a public realm, over which the sun presides, and a private realm, dominated by the moon.In Giraud's playlet Pierrot Narcisse (1887), Pierrot explains to Eliane that "there are two races" of men—"one enamored of activity and reality" and "entranced/By the splendid banality of life"; the other a "race of dreamers, of visionaries" who are "born under Saturn's sign". He concludes: "The one comes from the sun, the other from the moon;/And you would be doing better to unite the antelope with the shark/Than the sons of Pierrot with the daughters of Harlequin": in Giraud (1898), p. 223; tr. Storey (1978), p. 137, n. 17. The waking, sunlit world, populated by Pierrot's Commedia dell'Arte companions, is marked by deformity, degeneracy, avarice, and lust. Its Crispins are "ugly", and its Columbine "arches her back", apparently in expectation of sexual pleasure (1: "Theater"). The meretriciously multicolored Harlequin—"shining like a solar spectrum" (11: "Harlequin")—is an "artificial serpent" whose "essential goal" is "falsehood and deceit" (8: "Harlequinade"). An old serving-woman connives in his scheming by accepting a bribe to procure Columbine's favors (11: "Harlequin"). These puppets live under a sky swarming with "sinister black butterflies" that "seek blood to drink", having "extinguished the sun's glory" with their wings (19: "Black Butterflies"). The sun itself is nearing the end of that glory: at its setting it seems like a Roman reveler, "full of disgust", who slits his wrists and empties his blood into "filthy sewers" (20: "Sunset"). It is a "great sun of despair" (33: "The Storks"). Pierrot is of the dreaming, moonlit world. His is an enchanted interior space, in which sequestered violins are caressed by moonbeams, thereby setting their souls, "full of silence and harmony", thrumming (32: "Lunar Violin"). He lives there as an aloof isolato,Pierrot appears with companions (not counting the moon) in only two poems—with brigand tipplers in 14 ("Pierrot the Thief") and with Harlequin and Columbine in 48 ("Supper on the Water"). Cassander also puts in an appearance with Pierrot, but as a victim only, not a companion: Pierrot dreamily draws a bow over his belly, like a viola, in 6 ("Pierrot's Serenade"); he knocks him out with a rope in 37 ("Pantomime") and bores a smoking-hole in his skull in 45 ("Cruel Pierrot"). encountering in a "sparkling polar icicle" a "Pierrot in disguise" (9: "Polar Pierrot") and seeking, "all along the Lethe", not Columbine the fickle woman but her ethereal floral namesakes—"pale flowers of moonbeams/Like roses of light" (10: "To Columbine"). The moon is, aptly, a "pale washerwoman" (5: "Moon over the Wash-House") whose ablutions minister chiefly to the mind. For Pierrot has lost the happy enchantments of the past: the moribund pantomimic world seems "absurd and sweet, like a lie" (37: "Pantomime"), and the "soul" of its old comedies, to which he sometimes mentally propels himself, with an imaginary oar of moonlight (36: "Pierrot's Departure"), is "like a soft crystal sigh" bemoaning its own extinction (34: "Nostalgia"). Now, at the end of the century, Pierrot resides in a "sad mental desert" (34: "Nostalgia"). He is bored and splenetic: "His strange, mad gaiety/Has flown away, like a white bird" (15: "Spleen"). Too often the moon seems like a "nocturnal consumptive" tossing about on the "black pillow of the skies", deceiving the "carefree lover passing by" into mistaking for "graceful rays/[Its] white and melancholy blood" (21: "Sick Moon"). When Pierrot cannot find relief in her customary magic—in the "strange absinthe" of her beams, this "wine that we drink with our eyes" (16: "Moon-Drunk")—he takes pleasure in tormenting his enemies: he makes music by drawing a bow across Cassander's pot-belly (6: "Pierrot's Serenade"); he bores a hole in his skull as a bowl for his pipe (45: "Cruel Pierrot"). (Cassander is a target because he is an "academician" [37: "Pantomime"], a dry-as-dust guardian of the Law.) Madness seems to be lurking at Pierrot's elbow, as when he makes up his face with moonlight (3: "Pierrot- Dandy"), then spends an evening trying to brush a spot of it from his black jacket (38: "Moon-Brusher"). At his most despairing, he is visited by thoughts of his "last mistress"—the gallows (17: "The Song of the Gallows"),Pierrot's relationship with the gallows, like his relationship with the moon, has its origin in folk verse. In a newspaper review of 1847, Gautier noted that French schoolboys have long inscribed their books with "a mysterious hieroglyphic representing a Pierrot hanged on a gibbet, beneath which one reads, as a kind of admonition, this meaningful legend in macaronic Latin": "Aspice Pierrot pendu/Quod librum n'a pas rendu;/Si Pierrot librum reddidisset/Pierrot pendu non fuisset [Behold Pierrot hanged/For not having returned a book;/If Pierrot had returned the book/He would not have been hanged]": tr. Storey (1985), pp. 113–114. at the end of whose rope he dangles in "his white Moon robe" (18: "Suicide"). That the moon, indeed, seems to connive in his extinction is suggested by its sometime appearance as "a white saber/On a somber cushion of watered silk" that threatens to come whistling down on Pierrot's neck (24: "Decapitation"). His consolation is that the art in which he resides will have eternal life: "Beautiful verses are great crosses/On which red Poets bleed" (30: "The Crosses"). The old succor of religion is replaced by that of poetry, but at a cost—and with a difference. What is summoned to "the altar of [these] verses" is not the gentle Mary but the "Madonna of Hysteria", who holds out "to the incredulous universe/[Her] Son, with his limbs already green,/His flesh sagging and decayed" (28: "Evocation"). To the assembled faithful, Pierrot offers his heart: "Like a red and horrible Host/For the cruel Eucharist" (29: "Red Mass"). The new Lamb of God is a consumptive, his Word a confession of both self-sacrifice and impotence. And yet, for all the harshness of this portrait, the tone of the poems lightens considerably towards the end of the cycle. The dance of a "fine pink dust" on the horizon announces the sunrise in poem 41 ("Pink Dust"); Pierrot joins Harlequin and Columbine for a sumptuous repast in poem 48 ("Supper on the Water"); and in one of the last vignettes in which Pierrot appears, he is the possessor of a "bright and joyous lantern" (44: "The Lantern"), marking a turn from the dark Symbolist world to the light. ==The poet and Pierrot== Giraud's imagined identification of himself with his protagonist is complete; it is, in fact, often difficult to determine whether the subject of a given poem is Pierrot or Giraud.Jean de Palacio writes that, "While Pierrot is not confused with the writing 'I,' he shares with him a privileged rapport and is most often the 'I's' double" (p. 27). (To distinguish a "narrator" here is probably to make too nice a distinction.) The "I" that makes occasional appearances claims relation to Pierrot "through the Moon"; he lives, like Pierrot, "by sticking out. . ./[His] bleeding tongue at the Law" (13: "To my Bergamask Cousin"). Also like Pierrot, he "discovers drunken landscapes" in absinthe (22: "Absinthe") and savors the "morbid and mournful charm"—"Like a bloody drop of spittle/From a consumptive's mouth"—of melancholy music (26: "Chopin Waltz"). Both are nostalgic for Pierrot's past, that "adorable snow" of yesteryear, when the zanni of the old comedies was a "lyre-bearer,/Healer of wounded spirits" (31: "Plea"). And both are staunch in their commitment to an anti- materialistic idealism, Giraud seeing in the whiteness of Pierrot—and of snow, swans, and lilies—a "scorn of unworthy things" and a "disgust for weak hearts" (40: "Sacred Whitenesses"). Art they hold in worshipful regard: Giraud's book, his "poem", is "a ray of moonlight stoppered up/In a beautiful flagon of Bohemian glass" (50: "Bohemian Crystal"). But, paradoxically, both, as artists, are self-estranged: ironically, the interior quest for "sacred whitenesses", for a purity of soul, is synonymous with the assumption of a falsehood, a mask—one of theatrically clownish extravagance that borders on madness and fatal excess. In 39: "The Alphabet", an apparent anomaly in the cycle, in which Giraud imagines himself as Harlequin,He does so apparently because Harlequin, in his multicolored costume, is traditionally regarded as chameleonic. not Pierrot, the poet recalls dreaming, as a child, of "a multicolored alphabet,/In which each letter was a mask", a dream that agitates his "foolish heart" today. It is a revealing confession: an admission that the agents of his creations as an artist, the alphabet, are ideally not agents of self-expression but of self-fabrication under the mask of an Other. And this Other—Pierrot—is himself a fabrication, a mercurial puppet in a "chamber theater" of the mind (1: "Theater"). Pierrot lunaire offers a performance, not an expression, of the selfPalacio notes that, "[a]t the moment when the poet Albert Giraud ... puts distance between himself and Pierrot, he assimilates himself to him all the more strongly by stealing his origins, his costume, and the essence of his poetry" (p. 28). This view is in sharp contrast with that of Vilain, who argues that Giraud ends his cycle with an air of "solidly founded self-possession" (in Delaere and Herman, p. 131).—a fact in which much of its "modernity" resides. ==Settings in various media== In 1892, the poet and dramatist Otto Erich Hartleben published a German translation of Pierrot lunaire; he retained the rondel form of the poems, but he attempted no rhymes, altered line lengths, and made other substantive changes. Some commentators see his versions as improvements on the originals, although recent criticism has shifted somewhat in Giraud's favor.Marsh (2007b) quotes Charles Rosen on Giraud the poet ("justly forgotten") and Susan Youens on the poems ("pallid pastels", providing a mere "draft" for Hartleben's "finished work"), then rejoins with some heat: "This is grossly unfair and demonstrably wrong" (p. 9). For a full assessment, see the Delaere and Herman collection. However their respective merits will eventually be judged, it was Hartleben's versions that first drew composers to the poems and that provide the texts for almost all of the early settings we have. The bullet-point that follows lists early 20th-century musical settings chronologically and notes the number of poems that were set by each composer (all, except Prohaska's, are in the Hartleben translations) and for which instruments. *Pfohl, Ferdinand: 5 poems ("Moon- rondels, fantastic scenes from 'Pierrot Lunaire'") for voice and piano (1891);Although Hartleben's translations did not appear in print until 1892, they were familiar earlier to the literary community through his readings: Marsh (2007a), p. 107. Marschalk, Max: 5 poems for voice and piano (1901); Vrieslander, Otto: 50 poems for voice and piano (46 in 1905, the remainder in 1911); Graener, Paul: 3 poems for voice and piano (c. 1908); Marx, Joseph: 4 poems for voice and piano (1909; 1 of 4, "Valse de Chopin", reset for voice, piano, and string quartet in 1917); Schoenberg, Arnold: 21 poems for speaking voice, piano, flute (also piccolo), clarinet (also bass clarinet), violin (also viola), and violoncello (1912); Kowalski, Max: 12 poems for voice and piano (1913); Prohaska, Carl: 6 poems for voice and piano (1920); Lothar, Mark: 1 poem for voice and piano (1921)."Appendix: Musical Pierrots around 1900" in Brinkmann, pp. 163ff. All of Schoenberg's settings and several by Vrieslander and Kowalski are gathered in the Musicaphon CD Pierrot: Ein Clown hinter den Masken der Musik/Pierrot: A Clown behind the Masks of Music (M 56837, 2001). (The collection also includes five Songs of Pierrot [1911] by Eduard Künneke, set to poems by Arthur Kahane.) ===Arnold Schoenberg and Pierrot lunaire=== The most famous and important of these settings is Schoenberg's atonal Thrice-Seven Poems from Albert Giraud's "Pierrot lunaire", scored for what is now known as the Pierrot ensemble and a Sprechstimme voice. "For all the rough critical ride Schoenberg's compositions have received in general," writes the musicologist Jonathan Dunsby, "Pierrot lunaire has come to be regarded since its first performance in 1912 as a masterpiece." And he continues: > Wherever we look in the history of its reception, whether in general > histories of the modern period, in more ephemeral press response, in the > comments of musical leaders like Stravinsky or Boulez, in pedagogical > sources or in specialized research studies, the overwhelming reaction to > Pierrot has been an awestruck veneration of its originality.Dunsby, p. 1. The most obvious manifestation of that originality is the Sprechstimme required of its vocalist, and among those who have met its challenges should be mentioned Albertine Zehme (who commissioned the work and performed, dressed as Columbine, in its first productions), Bethany Beardslee, Jan DeGaetani, and Christine Schäfer. As an homage to Schoenberg, the English composers Peter Maxwell Davies and Harrison Birtwistle founded The Pierrot Players in 1967; they performed under that name until 1970.Hall, pp. 72-77. The similarly inspired Pierrot Lunaire Ensemble Wien, founded in Vienna by flautist Silvia Gelos and pianist Gustavo Balanesco, is still performing internationally. In 1987, the Arnold Schoenberg Institute in Los Angeles commissioned the settings of the remaining twenty-nine poems that Schoenberg had neglected, utilizing the Pierrot ensemble (Sprechstimme optional), by sixteen American composers—Milton Babbitt, Leslie Bassett, Susan Morton Blaustein, Paul Cooper, Miriam Gideon, John Harbison, Donald Harris, Richard Hoffmann, Karl Kohn, William Kraft, Ursula Mamlok, Stephen L. Mosko, Marc Neikrug, Mel Powell, Roger Reynolds, and Leonard Rosenman. The settings were given their premieres between 1988 and 1990 in four concerts sponsored by the Institute.The Harris and Kraft cycles have been recorded and released on CD. (The director of the Institute, Leonard Stein, added a setting of his own to the final concert of the project.)Daniel Cariaga, "First eight premieres of 'Pierrot Project'", Los Angeles Times, February 5, 1988; Martin Bernheimer, "'Pierrot' sequels via Schoenberg Institute", Los Angeles Times, November 9, 1988; Gregg Wager, "Nine premieres in third 'Pierrot Project' concert", Los Angeles Times, January 27, 1989; Timothy Mangan, "Final installment of Pierrot Project at USC", Los Angeles Times, January 27, 1990. Schoenberg's Pierrot has kindled inspiration not only among fellow composers but also among choreographers and singer- performers. Dancers who have staged Pierrot lunaire include the Russian-born American Adolph Bolm (1926), the American Glen Tetley (1962), the German Marco Goecke (2010) and the French Kader Belarbi (2011). Also, the avant-garde Triadic Ballet (1923) by Oskar Schlemmer and Paul Hindemith was inspired by Schoenberg's song-cycle. The theatrical/operatic possibilities of Schoenberg's score have been realized by at least two major ensembles: the Opera Quotannis, which staged a version of Pierrot lunaire (with singer Christine Schadeberg) at the New School for Social Research in 1995 and, more recently, the internationally acclaimed contemporary music sextet eighth blackbird, which premiered a "cabaret opera" dramatizing the Schoenberg cycle in 2009. Its percussionist, Matthew Duvall, played Pierrot, and, in addition to the remaining five musicians and a singer/speaker, Lucy Shelton, the production included a dancer, Elyssa Dole. The work, which was toured in 2012 to mark the centennial of Schoenberg's composition of Pierrot lunaire, was conceived, directed, and choreographed by Mark DeChiazza. In the summer of 2014, the freelance curator Niamh White, composer Ewan Campbell, and pianist Alex Wilson founded the British arts collective The Pierrot Project in an attempt "to create events that combined both music and art, and to establish opportunities for talented young artists and musicians to work together in unique, informal settings for large cross-arts audiences.""The Pierrot Studio", n.p. The first of its events unfolded in the fall of that same year, when the music group Dr. K Sextet, which had been born at London's Royal College of Music in 2009, performed extracts from Pierrot lunaire, accompanied by an exhibition of artworks responding to each of its three sections (October 2014); mounted a "Pierrot-Kabarett" featuring new settings of Schoenberg's Brettl-Lieder (January 2015); and offered original interpretive responses to the central "dark" section of Pierrot lunaire (April 2015).Antonia Couling, "After Arnold|Dr K Sextet", Classical Music, April 2, 2015. Subsequently, the Project commissioned artists Tim A. Shaw, Jörg Obergfell, and Sara Naim to work with composers Ewan Campbell, Stef Conner, and Chris Roe to create "collaborative works that explore Schönberg's life, mind and work, for an exclusive 2 week showing at Display Gallery in London: 5th-17th February 2016," preceded by a February 4 concert by the Dr. K Sextet, which performed among the resulting installations."The Pierrot Studio", n.p. Known as The Pierrot Studio, this new project was staged in a "psychic, virtual or imagined" recreation of Schoenberg's own studio, furnished with "re-imaginings of Schönberg's 'miusical' sketches and painted self portraits.""The Pierrot Studio", n.p. The programs included an abstract light-and-sound "rendering of Schönberg's moonscape in Pierrot Lunaire" and "a series of masks and musical motives" conjuring up "the various archetypal Pierrot characters.""The Pierrot Studio", n.p. Schoenberg has attracted at least one prominent parodist: in 1924, Hanns Eisler, a student of Schoenberg, published Palmström (Studies on 12-tone Rows), in which a Sprechstimme vocalist, singing texts by Christian Morgenstern, parodies the musical lines of Pierrot to the accompaniment of flute (or piccolo), clarinet, violin (or viola), and violoncello. ===Re-enter Giraud: the French poems renascent=== Beginning in the early 1980s, scholars and musicians began to take a fresh look at Giraud's original texts, thereby initiating an implicit interrogation of the superiority of the Hartleben translations. Two works are especially illustrative of this development. The first, the volume Pierrot Lunaire, of 1982, is a retranslation of the Hartleben versions back into French by the poets Michel Butor and Michel Launay, who conclude their work with poems of their own inspired by Giraud. The second, Variations: Beyond Pierrot (1995), is a work by the American composer Larry Austin. Each of its three ten-minute sections features a Sprechstimme soprano who sings fragments of Schoenberg's 21 selections accompanied by flute, clarinet, violin, cello, and piano. She sometimes renders those fragments in Giraud's original French, sometimes in Hartleben's German, at other times in English and Japanese. Drawing upon live computer- processed sound and computer-processed prerecorded tape, the composition attempts (in Austin's words) to go "beyond Schoenberg's musical melodrama" to create a "multi-lingual dream of the essences of the poems".Quoted in Richter, p. xxix. In 2001 and 2002, the British composer Roger Marsh set all fifty of the original French poems for a (mostly) a cappella group of singers. Sometimes they sing in French accompanied by a narrator, whose English translations are woven into the music; sometimes they sing in both French and English; sometimes they speak the poems in both languages (in various combinations). The few songs entirely in French are intended to be glossed by action in performance. Instruments occasionally brought in, usually solo, are violin, cello, piano, organ, chimes, and beatbox. The English texts were derived from literal translations of Giraud's poems by Kay Bourlier.See Marsh (2007b), "The Translations", p. 18, as well as the notes on the individual tracks, pp. 3–5. Giraud's original texts (and apparently one of Hartleben's) also stand behind the Seven Pierrot Miniatures (2010) by the Scottish composer Helen Grime, though hers cannot be called "settings", since voice and words are absent. The seven poems she selected—12: "The Clouds", 2: "Decor", 22: "Absinthe", 18: "Suicide", 27: "The Church", 20: "Sunset", and "The Harp",Not in Giraud's cycle, "Die Harfe" is probably an original poem by Hartleben; see Richter's commentary, p. xxiii, and Marsh's note in (2007a), p. 107, n. 30. It is translated in Richter, p. 102. none used by Schoenberg—were merely "points of departure" for her suite for mixed ensemble.Helen Grime, Programme Note. ===Beyond both Giraud and Hartleben: Pierrot lunaire reimagined=== In 2013, the Arab-American composer Mohammed Fairouz set the poet Wayne Koestenbaum's ten Pierrot Lunaire poems (2006)From Koestenbaum's collection Best-Selling Jewish Porn Films (New York: Turtle Point Press, 2006).—all original in content, though retaining titles from the Giraud/Schoenberg cycles—to a theatrical score for tenor and the Pierrot ensemble. In these new settings, Pierrot, "erotomane, cinéaste, clown, troubadour, analysand, synaesthete", goes wandering "through circles of a moonlit inferno, where he confronts shadows of charmed, histrionic luminaries", including Susan Sontag, Virginia Woolf, Patty Duke, Mae West, and Diana Vreeland.Wayne Koestenbaum, quoted in Mohammed Fairouz, Pierrot Lunaire, Huffington Post, July 24, 2013. The painters Paul Klee, Federico García Lorca, Theodor Werner, Marc Chagall, Markus Lüpertz, and Fernando Botero have all produced a Pierrot Lunaire (in 1924, 1928, 1942, 1969, 1984, and 2007, respectively). The British writer Helen Stevenson published a Chinese-box-like, postmodern set of variations on Giraud's poems in her 1995 novel Pierrot Lunaire,The would-be artist of that novel, Talbot Hardy, muses at one point that there must be "an original Pierrot Lunaire somewhere, of which they were making more and more perfect copies all the time" (p. 203). The student of postmodernism will rightly be suspicious of that "perfect". and Bruce LaBruce released his Canadian/German film Pierrot Lunaire, a gender-bending interpretation of the Schoenberg cycle, in 2014. Pierrot Lunaire is also a familiar figure in postmodern popular art: like the American experimental/drone music artist John DeNizio,Pierrot Lunaire Albums. Brazilian, Italian, and Russian rock groups have called themselves Pierrot Lunaire.The Russian group is always referred to in English as The Moon Pierrot, but the Russian name (Лунный Пъеро) is translated more accurately as "Pierrot Lunaire". The Soft Machine, a British group, included the song "Thank You Pierrot Lunaire" in its 1969 album Volume Two; the Scottish musician Momus included the track "Pierrot Lunaire" in his 2003 album Oskar Tennis Champion; and the avant-pop star Björk, known for her interest in avant-garde music, performed Schoenberg's Pierrot Lunaire at the 1996 Verbier Festival with Kent Nagano conducting. In 2011, the French graphic novelist Antoine Dodé published the first volume of his projected trilogy, Pierrot Lunaire, and in issue #676 of DC Comics, Batman R.I.P.: Midnight in the House of Hurt (2008), Batman acquired a new nemesis, who shadowed him--and plotted against Robin, the Boy Wonder--for ten more issues: his name was Pierrot Lunaire. ==Notes== ==References== *Brinkmann, Reinhold (1997). "The fool as paradigm: Schoenberg's Pierrot Lunaire and the modern artist". In * * *Giraud, Albert (1884). Pierrot lunaire: rondels bergamasques. Comprising pp. 73–176 of following entry, Héros et Pierrots. *Giraud, Albert (1898). Héros et Pierrots. Paris: Librairie Fischbacher. * *Kreuiter, Allison Dorothy (2007). Morphing moonlight: gender, masks and carnival mayhem. The figure of Pierrot in Giraud, Ensor, Dowson and Beardsley. Unpub. doc. diss., University of the Free State. *Lehmann, A.G. (1967). "Pierrot and fin de siècle". In Romantic mythologies, ed. Ian Fletcher. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. *Marsh, Roger (2007a). "'A multicoloured alphabet': rediscovering Albert Giraud's Pierrot Lunaire". Twentieth-Century Music, 4:1 (March): 97–121. *Marsh, Roger (2007b). Booklet accompanying CDs: Roger Marsh—Albert Giraud's Pierrot lunaire, fifty rondels bergamasques. With The Hilliard Ensemble, Red Byrd, Juice, Ebor Singers & Paul Gameson director, Linda Hirst, Joe Marsh narrator. NMC Recordings: Cat. No. NMC D127. * * * * * * Category:1884 books Category:French poems Category:Commedia dell'arte male characters |
Sergiu Florin Nicolaescu (; 13 April 1930 - 3 January 2013) was a Romanian film director, actor and politician. He was best known for his historical films, such as Mihai Viteazul (1970, released in English both under the equivalent title Michael the Brave and also as The Last Crusade), Dacii (1966, Les Guerriers), Războiul Independenței (1977, War of Independence), as well as for his series of thrillers that take place in the interwar Kingdom of Romania, such as Un comisar acuză (1973, A Police Inspector Calls). Joanna Pacuła starred in his film Ultima noapte de dragoste (The Last Night of Love) in 1980 before eventually emigrating to the United States, where he went on to a very successful career. == Early life and education == Nicolaescu was born in Târgu Jiu, Gorj County, but grew up in Timișoara, where his family moved when he was 5 years old. He graduated from the Politehnica University of Bucharest as a mechanical engineer. After graduation he started to work as a camera operator. He was hard-working, well-organized, curious, intelligent and keen of learning. During these years he acquired many of the skills that have proved so useful when making his later movies. ==Film director, writer and actor== Nicolaescu was considered during his lifetime, as he is now, the most popular, loved and prolific Romanian movie director. His overwhelming film career spanning 55 years, leaves us today his legacy of some 60 movies, for the making of which he used to act at times, simultaneously, as film director, as an actor, and the writer/screenplayer. In his native Romania he is remembered as a superstar for his patriotism, the high praise he gained as a film director, and his charismatic and strong personality. Nicolaescu's debut as a director was in 1962 with the short film Scoicile nu au vorbit niciodată (Shells Have Never Spoken). His first feature film was the 1967 French- Romanian co-production Dacii (Les Guerriers). The film was entered into the 5th Moscow International Film Festival. Nicolaescu continued his film-making career by both directing a large number of movies and starring in many of his own films. His 1971 film Mihai Viteazul was entered into the 7th Moscow International Film Festival. As an anecdotal detail, in Steven Spielberg's E.T. The Extraterrestrial (original version only), the young boy Elliott watches this movie on TV – Mihai Viteazul in the US version – the scene with the battle of Calugareni. His 1976 film The Doom was entered into the 10th Moscow International Film Festival. Mihai Viteazul (Michael the Brave) ruled the Romanian-speaking principalities (Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania), a union he accomplished under his reign for a very brief period (1600–1601). It was initially planned that Sergiu Nicolaescu would produce Mihai Viteazul with Hollywood superstars playing the lead characters. The communist authorities of the time drastically ruled for an all Romanian cast. The obstacle, eventually, was circumvented by means of casting, in the lead role of Mihai Viteazul the actor Amza Pellea, who achieved a masterful rendition of the hero. Sergiu Nicolaescu was able, throughout his career, to select the best actors available for the characters they had to portray. Most of Nicolaescu's films are built around figures and events in Romanian history, and although showing superior mastery, in the (imposed) realistic approach they somewhat follow the patterns of historical movies from the Communist governed countries. During the Communist period, some of these movies were seen as ground-breaking through either their way of publicly presenting Romanian history, or the masterful depiction of the heroical dimension of its history. For instance, the movie "Războiul independenţei" was the first picture made during the Communist-era in Romania to describe a King of Romania (namely Carol I) in a positive fashion. On the other hand, Mircea (1989, also known as Proud Heritage) was considered by some critics as being a less artistically fulfilled endeavour. Nevertheless, Mircea was officially blocked from distribution, until the Romanian Revolution of 1989 ("All I've done was to present a different state leader than Nicolae Ceaușescu. He understood and stopped the movie [from premiere]"). Yet, when Mircea was finally released to the public the film was very well appreciated. thumb|Sergiu Nicolaescu at the premiere of Carol I thumb|Sergiu Nicolaescu at the premiere of Last corrupt in Romania Nicolaescu produced impeccable renderings of the historical battles and costumes. For example, through his reenactments of the Battle of Călugăreni in Mihai Viteazul and both the Crusade of Nicopole and the Battle of Rovine in Mircea, Nicolaescu shows a brilliant command of his craft, masterfully directing a huge acting crew (actors, extras, etc.) towards the rendering of accurate details, by these means forging widely successful movies. For instance, when making Mihai Viteazul, Nicolaescu successfully managed a 5,000-member crew, actors and extras and, despite the obvious technical limitations of the communication means in the 1970s (no mobile phones were available at that time, for instance), he imposed a strict discipline during filming of every cannon fire and every attack scene, thus helping everything to fall in place under his unique order. His movie Mihai Viteazul was considered the best of the Romanian historical movies and is one of the most appreciated world-wide of this kind (for example, considering imdb ratings) . The film was released in 1970 in Romania, and worldwide by Columbia Pictures as The Last Crusade. A TV sequence in Steven Spielberg's "E.T." (original, uncut version) show images from "Mihai Viteazul" (scenes with the Battle of Călugăreni). While creating such historical movies he was supported by the Romanian Ministry of Defence with large numbers of extras and war equipment. He documented his historical movies meticulously, to this end seeking the advice of military consultants and distinguished historians of the Romanian Academy. Regardless these films have aesthetic qualities too, and are the expression of Sergiu Nicolaescu's vision as both a film director and a writer. His 1985 film The Ring was entered into the 14th Moscow International Film Festival. For this movie, Nicolaescu performed a very intensive boxing training with a former European boxing champion. The intensity of his training for this movie was similar to what the Romania's Olympic boxing team at that moment performed. At that time Nicolaescu was 50 years old and its boxing matches and the hits during this movie are real and against strong opponents. His huge work capacity was widely admired by his colleagues and crew. Another merit of his filmmaking is considered to come from his taking huge - yet, still well-calculated - risks while filming. For instance, for the war scenes, he used real dynamite and as well as real blood. In such situations there was always a high likeliness of the actors or the camera operators being afraid to fulfill their tasks. It was a big merit of Sergiu Nicolaescu that, for all difficult or very risky tasks, he was able to show in detail to any actor or camera operator exactly what they had to do before they did it. In such circumstances, during his 50 years career as film director and actor, Nicolaescu experienced several accidents or illness: still he went on performing and finished his movie projects with courage and sometimes at great personal cost (e.g., while producing Mihai Viteazul). After Mircea, Nicolaescu expands on historical themes, directing films that shed positive light on Ion Antonescu, Romania's Axis-aligned dictator in the World War II period (his Începutul adevărului, also known as Oglinda), or glorified the World War I heroine Ecaterina Teodoroiu (Triunghiul morţii, also known as Triangle of Death). thumb|left|Sergiu Nicolaescu and Prince Paul An accomplished battle scenes director, Sergiu Nicolaescu, as legend has it, would have been able to film some 70–80 meters of useful shots in the same amount of time that the average director would need in order to produce 12–15 meters. Although his last films were not as popular as his earlier productions, he continued to direct new films, such as Orient Express (2004) or Cincisprezece (2005), a love story set during the Romanian Revolution of 1989, Supravietuitorul (2008), Carol I (2009) and Poker (2010). When asked to nominate three movies he made that he most liked, Nicolaescu chose Mihai Viteazul (also known as Michael the Brave), Osanda (also known as The Doom) and Atunci i-am condamnat pe toti la moarte (also known as Then I Sentenced Them All to Death). ==Politician== Nicolaescu started his political career during the 1989 Romanian Revolution. At the time the Revolution took place he was very well known and respected for his films, in Romania. He participated actively at the Romanian Revolution and his appearance and speech during the Revolution brought about coherence and clarity to the people who listened. In December 1989 he was received with a standing ovation (his name) from the crowd of hundreds of thousands of Romanians gathered in the heart of Bucharest after Nicolae Ceaușescu left power on 22 December 1989. He called for calm, and asked the crowd to listen to and support Ion Iliescu. Nicolaescu went on to play an important political role during the Revolution and was elected to the Romanian Senate in 1992 as a member of the Romanian Social Democratic Party. He left the party in April 2011,"Sergiu Nicolaescu şi-a dat demisia din PSD" ("Sergiu Nicolaescu Resigns from PSD") (in Romanian). Adevărul, 19 April 2011; accessed April 19, 2011 and then rejoined it after only two days. "Sergiu Nicolaescu s-a întors în PSD: 'Bună ziua, mă iertați!'" ("Sergiu Nicolaescu Returns to PSD: 'Hello, Forgive Me!'") , Jurnalul Național, 20 April 2011; accessed January 3, 2013 In 2005 Nicolaescu declared in an interview that he was not happy with his decision of going into politics. He felt that the politics took too much from his precious time and because of that he was not able to do as many films as before the Revolution. ==Personal life== ===Sports and personal life=== Nicolaescu said that as a young boy, he practiced many sports like athletics, equestrianism, boxing, shooting, and rugby. According to the public information available, Nicolaescu was a very active person and he had a very disciplined lifestyle. Every day, even when he was 80 years old, he spent at least one hour doing physical activity (gymnastics, etc.). Although he was never a very passionate football fan, Nicolaescu stated in a 2011 interview for the Romanian daily sports newspaper Gazeta Sporturilor that capital-based team Steaua București was the dearest to him throughout time, even though he played rugby at Dinamo București. "Am fost rugbyst la Dinamo, dar ţineam cu Steaua" (I was a rugby player at Dinamo, but I liked Steaua"), Gazeta Sporturilor, 4 October 2011; accessed January 3, 2013 He explained this by saying that he liked the former Steaua legends Gheorghe Hagi, László Bölöni and Dan Petrescu more than Dinamo's players. Nicolaescu declared in the same interview that he also liked Ripensia Timișoara and Universitatea Craiova in their glory days, but not as much as Steaua. Nicolaescu was married three times. He did not have children and this was his main regret. ===Failing health and death=== Nicolaescu had been diagnosed since 2000 with diverticulitis, a benign and chronic digestive condition that was acting up every couple of years. In January 2008 he underwent brain surgery twice due to an accident. At that time, he was 78 years old. The doctors did not give him any chance for success because at the time of his first brain operation he was completely paralyzed. He had to learn how to walk, speak and write again, and he successfully managed to do it after 3 months of intense physiotherapy and neurological exercise. Nevertheless, after this brain surgeries he said he changed dramatically: he started feeling his age and he started changing his behaviour (more impatient and irritable). In his last years the health problems made his life difficult. Yet he continued directing, acting and planning new films. He maintained intact his huge passion for filmmaking until the end of his life. On 26 December 2012 he was admitted with atrial fibrillation and a traumatised thorax with pulmonary contusion to the Elias Hospital in Bucharest. He complained of pain in the lower abdomen and loss of appetite. After the clinical examination, the doctors concluded that he was suffering from an acute episode of diverticulitis, and he received treatment for this condition. During the treatment, Nicolaescu's condition improved, but the intestinal transit was not functional and the blood work was still unsatisfactory. The doctors opted for an exploratory laparoscopy, which led to the discovery of an acute perforated appendicitis complicated with peritonitis. After undergoing surgery, Nicolaescu developed respiratory complications, leading to acute respiratory failure within 48 hours. He entered into cardiac arrest on 3 January 2013, and could not be resuscitated by the hospital staff. He was pronounced dead at 8:20 AM GMT+2. His body was cremated on 5 January 2013, according to his wishes. ==Feature films== ===Director=== *Dacii (1966) *Kampf um Rom (1968, directed by Robert Siodmak, Second unit director) *Leatherstocking Tales (co-directors Pierre Gaspard-Huit and Jean Dréville, TV miniseries, 1968) #The Deerslayer #The Last of the Mohicans #Adventures in Ontario Lacul din Ontario Das Fort am Biberfluß #The Prairie *Michael the Brave (1971) *Then I Sentenced Them All to Death (1972) *Cu mâinile curate (1972) * The Sea-Wolf (co-director Wolfgang Staudte, TV miniseries, 1972) *A Police Superintendent Accuses (1973) *Ultimul cartuș (1973) *Nemuritorii (1974) * (co-directors Gilles Grangier and Claude Desailly, TV miniseries, 1975) * (1975) * (co-director Wolfgang Staudte, TV miniseries, 1975) *The Punishment (1976) *Războiul independenţei (Pentru patrie) (co-directors Doru Năstase, Gh. Vitanidis) (1977) *Accident (1977) *Revenge (1978) *Uncle Marin, the Billionaire (1979) *Mihail, câine de circ (1979) *The last night of love (ro) (1980) *Capcana mercenarilor (1981) * (1981) * (1982) * Guillaume le Conquérant William the Conqueror (co-director Gilles Grangier, TV miniseries, 1982) * (1983) *The Ring (1984) * (1984) *Ciuleandra (1985) * (1985) *The Last Assault (1985) * (TV miniseries, 1987) *Mircea (1989) * (1990) *Începutul adevărului (1994) * (1996) * (1999) *Orient Express (2004) * (2005) * (2008) *Carol I (2009) * (2010) * (2012) ===Actor=== *Dacii (1966) – Marcus – Roman Centurion *Michael the Brave (1971) – Ottoman Vizier Selim Pasha *Then I Sentenced Them All to Death (1972) – von Eck *Cu mâinile curate (1972) – Tudor Miclovan *Felix și Otilia (1972) – Pascalopol *A Police Superintendent Accuses (1973) – Tudor Moldovan *Ultimul cartuș (1973) – Comisarul Miclovan *Dragostea începe vineri (1974) *Nemuritorii (1974) – Captain Andrei *The Doom (1976) – Prosecutor Tudor Marian *Roscovanul (1976) – sentinela la Scoala de Correctie *Zile fierbinti (1976) – *Accident (1977) – Maiorul Petria *Pentru patrie (1977) – King Carol of Romania *Revenge (1978) – Tudor Moldovan *Drumuri în cumpana (1978) – Dobre *Mihail, câine de circ (1979) *The last night of love (ro) (1980) – Lawyer / Major Nicolau *Capcana mercenarilor (1981) – * (1981) – Comisarul Moldovan *Wilhelm Cuceritorul (1982) * (1982) – Filip * (1983) – col. Andrei Petria *The Ring (1984) – Tudor Andrei * (1985) *The Last Assault (1985) – General Marinescu *Mircea (1989) – King Mircea the Elder * (1990) – Capt. Gorun *Începutul adevărului (1994) * (1999) – General Averescu *Orient Express (2004) – Andrei Morudzi *Poveste de cartier (2008) - Aristide * (2008) – Comisarul *Carol I (2009) – Carol I *Lupu (2013) – The old man (final film role) ==References== ==External links== *Official website * * Interview Sergiu Nicolaescu * Interview audio Sergiu Nicolaescu Category:1930 births Category:2013 deaths Category:People from Târgu Jiu Category:Social Democratic Party (Romania) politicians Category:People of the Romanian Revolution Category:Romanian male film actors Category:Romanian film directors Category:Members of the Senate of Romania Category:Politehnica University of Bucharest alumni |
300px|thumb|Image from an active millimeter wave body scanner A full-body scanner is a device that detects objects on or inside a person's body for security screening purposes, without physically removing clothes or making physical contact. Unlike metal detectors, full-body scanners can detect non- metal objects, which became an increasing concern after various airliner bombing attempts in the 2000s and some scanners can also detect swallowed items or hidden in body cavities of a person. Starting in 2007, full-body scanners started supplementing metal detectors at airports and train stations in many countries. Three distinct technologies have been used in practice: * Millimeter wave scanners use non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation similar to that used by wireless data transmitters, in the extremely high frequency (EHF) radio band (which is a lower frequency than visible light). The health risks posed by these machines are still being studied, and the evidence is mixed, though millimeter wave scanners do not generate ionizing radiation. * X-ray- based scanners ** Backscatter X-ray scanners use low dose radiation for detecting suspicious metallic and non-metallic objects hidden under clothing or in shoes and in the cavities of the human body. The dosage of radiation received is usually between 0.05 and 0.1 μSv Considerable debate regarding the safety of this method sparked investigations, ultimately leading multiple countries to ban the usage of them. ** Transmission X-ray scanners use higher dosage penetrating radiation which passes through the human body and then is captured by a detector or array of detectors. This type of full body scanners allows to detect objects hidden not only under the clothes, but also inside the human body (for example, drugs carried by drug couriers in the stomach) or in natural cavities. The dosage received is usually not higher than 0.25 μSv and is mainly regulated by the American radiation safety standard for personal search systems using gamma or X-ray radiation * Infra-red thermal conductivity scanners do not use electromagnetic radiation to penetrate the body or clothing, but instead use slight temperature differences on the surface of clothing to detect the presence of foreign objects. Thermal conductivity relies on the ability of contraband hidden under clothing to heat or cool the surface of the clothing faster than the skin surface. Warm air is used to heat up the surface of the clothing. How fast the clothing cools is dependent, in part, on what is beneath it. Items that cool the clothing faster or slower than the surface of the skin will be identified by a thermal image of the clothing. These scanners are less often used compared to X-ray-based and mmWave-based scanners. Passengers and advocates have objected to images of their naked bodies being displayed to screening agents or recorded by the government. Critics have called the imaging virtual strip searches without probable cause, and have suggested they are illegal and violate basic human rights. However, current technology is less intrusive and because of privacy issues most people are allowed to refuse this scan and opt for a traditional pat-down. Depending on the technology used, the operator may see an alternate- wavelength image of the person's naked body, merely a cartoon-like representation of the person with an indicator showing where any suspicious items were detected, or full X-ray image of the person. For privacy and security reasons, the display is generally not visible to other passengers, and in some cases is located in a separate room where the operator cannot see the face of the person being screened. Transmission X-ray scanners claim to be more privacy neutral as there is almost no way to distinguish a person but they also have a software able to hide privacy issues. ==History== The first (ultra-low-dose backscatter X-ray) full body security scanner was developed by Dr. Steven W Smith,Hamilton, John (January 14, 2010) New Airport Body Scans Don't Detect All Weapons. National Public Radio who developed the Secure 1000 whole body scanner in 1992. He subsequently sold the device and associated patents to Rapiscan Systems, who now manufacture and distribute the device. Safety aspects of the Secure 1000 have been assessed in the US by the Food and Drug Administration, the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements and other independent sources since the early 1990s.J. L. McCrohan and K. R. Shelton Waters. Response to UCSF regarding their letter of concern [40], Oct. 2010. http://www.fda.gov/Radiation-EmittingProducts/ RadiationEmittingProductsandProcedures/ SecuritySystems/ucm231857.htm. In 2000 Dr. Vladimir V. Linev within ADANI patented a system for scanning a person, based on transmission (penetrating) X-ray technology, focused on the search for unwanted objects and contraband which was then the base for CONPASS body scanner marketed later. The first millimeter-wave full body scanner was developed at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) in Richland, Washington. The operation is one of the four national laboratories Battelle manages for the U.S. Department of Energy. In the 1990s, they patented their 3-D holographic-imagery technology, with research and development support provided by the TSA and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). In 2002, Silicon Valley startup SafeView, Inc. obtained an exclusive license to PNNL's (background) intellectual property, to commercialize their technology. From 2002 to 2006, SafeView developed a production-ready millimeter body scanner system, and software which included scanner control, algorithms for threat detection and object recognition, as well as techniques to conceal raw images in order to resolve privacy concerns. During this time, SafeView developed foreground IP through several patent applications. By 2006, SafeView's body scanning portals had been installed and trialed at various locations around the globe. They were installed at border crossings in Israel, international airports such as Mexico City and Amsterdam's Schiphol, ferry landings in Singapore, railway stations in the UK, government buildings like The Hague, and commercial buildings in Tokyo. They were also employed to secure soldiers and workers in Iraq's Green Zone. In 2006, SafeView was acquired by L-3 Communications. From 2006 and 2020, L-3 Communications (later L3Harris) continued to make incremental enhancements to their scanner systems, while deploying thousands of units worldwide. In 2020, Leidos acquired L3Harris, which included their body scanner business unit. The first passive, non- radiating full body screening camera device was developed by Lockheed Martin through a sponsorship by the National Institute of Justice (NIJ)'s Office of Science and Technology and the United States Air Force Research Laboratory. Proof of concept was conducted in 1995 through the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). Rights to this technology were subsequently acquired by Brijot Imaging Systems, who further matured a commercial-grade product line and now manufacture, market and support the passive millimeter wave camera devices. ==Usage== thumb|Video from the TSA explaining the procedure Schiphol in the Netherlands was the first airport in the world to implement SafeView's millimeter-wave body scanner on a large scale after a test with flight personnel the previous year. On May 15, 2007, two of 17 purchased security scans were installed. The Italian government had planned to install full-body scanners at all airport and train stations throughout the country, but announced in September 2010 plans to remove the scanners from airports, calling them "slow and ineffective". The European Union currently allows member states to decide whether to implement full body scanners in their countries:Member States must decide on airport body scanners: EC – EU business news. EUbusiness.com (June 16, 2010). Retrieved on September 26, 2010. ===Australia=== In Australia the government has decided a no opt-out policy will be enforced in relation to screening at airports. Persons with medical or physical conditions that prevent them from undertaking a body scan will be offered alternative screening methods suitable to their circumstances. Infants and young children under 140 cm will not be selected to undergo a body scan.Airport Body Scanners—Frequently Asked Questions. Australian Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development Body-scanners are being used at eight of Australia's international airports – Adelaide, Brisbane, Cairns, Darwin, Gold Coast, Melbourne, Perth and Sydney.Body scanners. jetstar.com So far only passengers exiting via international flights are affected. Domestic and international passengers departing Newcastle Port Stephens airport have been subject to body scanning since October 2019. Passengers who refuse a scan may be banned from flying.Puhanic, Andrew. Australia Becomes First to Ban Travelers Who Refuse Naked Body Scanners. theglobalistreport.com The scanners proposed to be used in Australia have shown a high rate of error in testing. Public outrage over the nude images created by the body scanners being collected by policy resulted in a lawsuit in 2010 to stop body scanning. ===Canada=== In Canada, 24 airports currently have these scanners in use, using millimeter-wave technology. Transport Canada notes that "Passengers selected for a secondary search can choose between the full body scanner or a physical search." ===United States=== In the U.S. full-body scanners have been installed at train stations, subways, penitentiaries and airports.Advanced Imaging Technology (AIT). tsa.gov After having previously used X-ray-based scanners the TSA currently uses Millimeter Wave AIT scanners exclusively, which show no identifying characteristics of the person being scanned. Instead, a generic outline of a person is used.AIT: How it Works. U.S. Transportation Security Administration As of December 2015, "While passengers may generally decline AIT screening in favor of physical screening, TSA may direct mandatory AIT screening for some passengers as warranted by security considerations in order to safeguard transportation security."Vaughan, Jill (December 18, 2015) Privacy Impact Assessment: Update for TSA Advanced Imaging Technology. U.S. Department of Homeland Security Regarding privacy concerns the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) has stated in 2010 they "[have] not, will not and the machines cannot store images of passengers at airports". However the TSA later disclosed, in a response to the house chair on homeland security, that its procurement of airport scanners requires manufacturers to include image storage and transmission features but that these features should be disabled before being placed in an airport. The TSA shows 45 individuals have the ability to turn these machines into 'test mode' which enables recording images, but states that they would never do this on a production system.Rossides, Gale D. (February 24, 2010) Letter to Bennie G. Thompson. The US Marshal Service did operate a backscatter machine in a courthouse which records images. However, in a statement they noted that only individuals involved in a test were recorded. A sample of these images was received and disseminated by Gizmodo in 2010, using a Freedom Of Information Request. It is not clear if the US Marshal service has put these new scanning machines, that have recording capabilities, into production. The analyst is in a different room and is not supposed to be able to see the person being scanned by the Backscatter X-ray AIT, but is in contact with other officials who can halt the scanned person if anything suspicious shows up on the scan. US Penitentiary is also constantly purchasing X-ray full body scanners for contraband and weapons detection purposes. The scanners are generally Transmission X-ray scanners since these are the only devices capable of detecting metallic and non-metallic contraband hidden underneath clothing as well as contraband hidden inside body cavities.. U.S. Transportation Security Administration ===United Kingdom=== Civil rights groups in Britain in 2010 argued that the body scanning of children contravened the law relating to child pornography. Passive infra-red scanners have been developed for use in public spaces to collect and analyse natural heat radiation given off by the human body to detect both metallic and non-metallic "threat objects". No external radiation source is used and privacy is preserved as no body details are revealed. Police are conducting a trial of the equipment at London rail stations. === Asia Pacific === During the forecast period of 2020–2025, the Asia–Pacific region is projected to grow at the highest market CAGR (Compound Annual Growth Rate). The growth of this region is possibly due to the high airport investments and improvements in prison systems. China and India are heavily investing in greenfield airport construction. In January 2020, the Indian government decided to equip 84 airports with full-body scanners, which has led the Indian market to grow at a higher rate. ==Controversies== ===Privacy=== Some argue that using a full-body scanner is equivalent to a strip search, and if used without probable cause violates basic human rights."ACLU Backgrounder on Body Scanners and 'Virtual Strip Searches'", American Civil Liberties Union. Aclu.org (January 8, 2010). Retrieved on November 1, 2011.Whole Body Imaging Technology and Body Scanners ("Backscatter" X-ray and Millimeter Wave Screening). EPIC. Retrieved on November 1, 2011. Full-body scanning allows screeners to see the surface of the skin under clothing."Pregnancy intimate piercings genitals – What can the naked scanner really see", Bild (December 31, 2009). Retrieved on September 26, 2010. Prosthetics including breast prostheses and prosthetic testicles may require a potentially embarrassing physical inspection once detected. The scanners can also detect other medical equipment normally hidden, such as colostomy bags and catheters. The transgender community also has privacy concernsWe Do NOT Have All the Same Body Parts and Body Scanners Violates Your Privacy | Airline Reporter | An airline blog on the airline industry. Airline Reporter (August 19, 2010). Retrieved on September 26, 2010. that body scanners could lead to their harassment. In the UK, in 2010, the Equality and Human Rights Commission argued that full-body scanners were a risk to human rights and might be breaking the law.EHRC – Commission issues warning over counter-terrorism measures . Equalityhumanrights.com (February 16, 2010). Retrieved on September 26, 2010.Body scanners 'human rights risk' . Thisislondon.co.uk (January 17, 2010). Retrieved on September 26, 2010. In 2010 the National Human Rights Commission of Korea opposed the use of full- body scanners and recommended that they not be deployed at airports. Opponents in the US argue that full body scanners and the new TSA patdowns are unconstitutional. A comprehensive student note came out in the Fall 2010 issue of the University of Denver Transportation Law Journal arguing that full-body scanners are unconstitutional in the United States because they are (1) too invasive and (2) not effective enough because the process is too inefficient. On July 2, 2010, the Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC) filed a lawsuit to suspend the deployment of full-body scanners at airports in the United States:v. DHS (Suspension of Body Scanner Program). EPIC. Retrieved on September 26, 2010. EPIC claimed at that time that full-body scanners violated the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution because they subject citizens to a virtual strip search without any evidence of wrongdoing."Lawsuit challenges airport full-body scanners", The Boston Globe (August 4, 2010). Retrieved on September 26, 2010. In July 2011, the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit ruled that the use of full body scanners at airport security does not violate the Fourth Amendment. The American Civil Liberties Union, in 2006, called the machines an invasion of privacy: "This doesn't only concern genitals but body size, body shape and other things like evidence of mastectomies, colostomy appliances or catheter tubes. These are very personal things that people have every right to keep private and personal, aside from the modesty consideration of not wanting to be naked.""Airport X-ray labelled strip search"', The Sydney Morning Herald (December 5, 2006). Retrieved on September 26, 2010. In the United States, in 2010 the TSA required that their full-body scanners "allow exporting of image data in real time",Procurement specification for whole body imager devices for checkpoint operations, U.S. Department of Homeland Security and cases of the government's storing of images have been confirmed.McCullagh, Declan. (August 4, 2010) Feds admit storing checkpoint body scan images. News.cnet.com. Retrieved on September 26, 2010. Travelers at U.S. airports have complained that when they opted not to be scanned, they were subjected to a new type of invasive pat-down that one traveler in 2010 described as "probing and pushing ... in my genital area."TSA's Frisky New Pat-Downs. Mother Jones (August 24, 2010). Retrieved on September 26, 2010.Passengers shocked by new touchy-feely TSA screening. BostonHerald.com (August 24, 2010). Retrieved on September 26, 2010. Another traveler in the United States complained in 2010 that the TSA employee "inserted four fingers of both hands inside my trousers and ran his fingers all the way around my waist, his fingers extending at least 2–3 inches below my waistline." In August 2010, it was reported that the United States Marshals Service saved thousands of images from a millimeter wave scanner.'Peep Show Database of American Travelers' – Video – FoxNews.com. Video.foxnews.com. Retrieved on September 26, 2010. TSA – part of the Department of Homeland Security – reiterated that its own scanners do not save images and that the scanners do not have the capability to save images when they are installed in airports.The TSA Blog: TSA Response to "Feds admit storing checkpoint body scan images". Blog.tsa.gov (June 8, 2010). Retrieved on September 26, 2010. However, these statements contradict the TSA's own Procurement Specs which specifically require that the machines have the ability to record and transmit images, even if those features might be initially turned off on delivery. Opponents have also expressed skepticism that if there were a successful terror attack that the machines could not save images for later inspection to find out what went wrong with the scans. On November 16, 2010, 100 of the stored 35,000 body scan images were leaked online and posted by Gizmodo. In November 2010, a female traveler who opted out of a full body scan at Fort Lauderdale International Airport claimed that TSA agents handcuffed her to a chair and ripped up her plane ticket when she asked questions about the new type of invasive pat down she was about to receive. In response, the TSA posted parts of the security camera footage on their blog, though there is no sound in the video and the passenger is not directly in the camera during most of the incident.The TSA Blog: Response to "Female radio host cuffed to chair, ticket ripped up...". Blog.tsa.gov (November 11, 2010). Retrieved on November 1, 2011. In Idaho a bill was introduced in 2011 to prevent the use of full-body scanners as a primary screening method and allow people to request an alternative.Legislature of the State of Idaho, House Bill No. 573 . (PDF) . Retrieved on November 1, 2011. In February 2012 airport employees in Lagos were allegedly discovered wandering away from a cubicle located in a hidden corner on the right side of the screening area to where the 3D full-body scanner monitors are located. At the Dallas Ft. Worth International Airport, TSA complaints have been reported to disproportionally stem from women who felt that they were singled out for repeated screening for the entertainment of male security officers.Security body scans 'cute' mum three times in Dallas airport. NewsComAu (February 15, 2012) A ruling of the European Council in 2013 required that persons analyzing the image shall be in a separate location and the image shall not be linked to the screened person."EU Sets Rules for Full Body Scanners." Air Transport World 49.1 (2012): 18. As of December 15, 2015 the TSA published a new policy which required AIT to be "mandatory" for "some" passengers for "security reasons". However, most individuals in the US can still opt out of the scanner and choose a pat-down if they are uncomfortable going through the scanner. Individuals also have the right to be patted down in a private room and have it witnessed by a person of the individual's choice. thumb|Passive millimeter wave image and subject being screened ===Treatment of minorities=== Current backscatter and millimeter wave scanners installed by the TSA are unable to screen adequately for security threats inside turbans, hijab, burqas, casts, prosthetics and loose clothing. This technology limitation of current scanners often requires these persons to undergo additional screening by hand or other methods and can cause additional delay or feelings of harassment.TRAVEL ADVISORY: Know Your Rights if Asked to Undergo New TSA 'Enhanced Pat-Downs' . CAIR-Chicago. Retrieved on November 1, 2011. According to a manufacturer of the machines, the next generation of backscatter scanners will be able to screen all types of clothing.Tek84 . Tek84 (March 17, 2010). Retrieved on November 1, 2011. These improved scanners have been designed to equalize the screening process for religious minorities. ===Treatment of transgender people=== Current machines installed by the TSA require agents in the US to designate each passenger as either male or female, after which the software compares the passenger's body against a normative body of that sex. Transgender passengers have reported that full body scanners at several U.S. airports have falsely raised alarms based on their anatomy. ===Health concerns=== Health concerns relating to the use of full-body scanning technology are present, especially pertaining to the use of X-ray scanners. The issue is mainly regulated by ANSI 43.17.2009, which limits the dose on a per-person basis. However this 2010-era document is intended to apply primarily in the context of standard civilian-airport security. It is generally not considered applicable to unusual terrorism-threat detection concerns in high-security environments (prisons, special-purpose airports) or military institutions. Nor is ANSI 43.17.2009 considered to be the appropriate standard for highly concealed threats such liquid bombs inside body cavities or swallowed drugs. Due to fundamental physical limitations of how each type of detection technology functions, these highly covert types of threats are impossible to detect by any means other than transmission X-rays. From the perspective of annual dosage, the ANSI 43.17.2009 standard stipulates that a transmission X-ray dosage of 0.25 μSv per scan, in conjunction with an annual total limit at 250 µSv, equates to a per-person maximum of such 1000 scans per year for a civilian-aviation passenger. However, counting all medical X-ray procedures (as a typical person might undergo in an average year), and if the total annual dose of 250 µSv is taken to include all medical-related doses, then the number of flights/scans permitted for that person could be greatly reduced, assuming that transmission-type X-ray technology is used at each security screening that the civil-aviation passenger undergoes. But because the medical X-ray dosages vary tremendously (over several orders of magnitude) depending on the diagnostic procedures that the patient is subjected to, the proportional contribution of airport-security X-raying to the person's total annual dosage cannot be calculated unless an accounting of the medical X-ray dosages is also present. ====Millimeter wave scanners==== Currently adopted millimeter wave scanners operate in the millimeter or sub-terahertz band, using non-ionizing radiation, and have no proven adverse health effects, though no long-term studies have been done. Thomas S. Tenforde, president of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, said in 2010 that millimeter wave scanners are probably within bounds [of standards for safe operation], but there should be an effort to verify that they are safe for frequent use. ====Backscatter X-ray scanners==== In the United States, the FAA Modernization and Reform Act of 2012 required that all full-body scanners operated in airports by the Transportation Security Administration use "Automated Target Recognition" software, which replaces the picture of a nude body with the cartoon-like representation. As a result of this law, all backscatter X-ray machines formerly in use by the Transportation Security Administration were removed from airports by May 2013, since the agency said the vendor (Rapiscan) did not meet their contractual deadline to implement the software.. thumb|Some backscatter technology produces an image that resembles a chalk etching, though other configurations produce much more detailed images, and there is still a possibility that the lower quality images can be easily switched to a higher resolution.[http://www.tsa.gov/approach/tech/ait/how_it_works.shtm TSA: How it Works] . Tsa.gov. Retrieved on November 1, 2011. Several radiation safety authorities including the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, The Health Physics Society, and the American College of Radiology, have stated that they are "not aware of any evidence"ACR Statement on Airport Full-body Scanners and Radiation. Acr.org. Retrieved on November 1, 2011. that full-body scans are unsafe.The TSA Blog: Advanced Imaging Technology: "Radiation Risk Tiny". Blog.tsa.gov. Retrieved on September 26, 2010. However, other radiation authorities, including the International Atomic Energy Agency and Nuclear Energy Agency recommend against using ionizing radiation on certain populations like pregnant women and children,Tirone, Jonathan. (February 5, 2010) Airport Body Scanning Raises Radiation Exposure, Committee Says. Bloomberg. Retrieved on September 26, 2010. and opponents of the devices say that no long-term studies have been done on the health effects of either backscatter X-ray or millimeter wave scanners:Experts call for more study into body scanners. The Globe and Mail (January 7, 2010). Retrieved on September 26, 2010. Richard Morin, a medical physicist at the Mayo Clinic has said that he is not concerned about health effects from backscatter X-ray scanners:Airport Full Body Scanners Pose No Health Threat: Experts . BusinessWeek (January 8, 2010). Retrieved on September 26, 2010. Perhaps the most notable and debated professional opinion in regard to the safety of scanners is the so-called "Holdren Letter" from a number of world-renowned biochemists and biophysics researchers from the University of California to the Assistant to the US President for Science and Technology, Dr. John P. Holdren. The opening paragraph of their letter of concern reads: "We, a number of University of California, San Francisco faculty, are writing—see attached memo—to call your attention to our concerns about the potential serious health risks of the recently adopted whole body back scatter X-ray airport security scanners. This is an urgent situation as these X-ray scanners are rapidly being implemented as a primary screening step for all air travel passengers."Letter from John W. Sedat et al. on the Dangers of TSA Backscatter Scanners. April 6, 2010 Critics of backscatter X-ray scanners, including the head of the Center for Radiological Research at Columbia University, say that the radiation emitted by some full-body scanners is as much as 20 times stronger than officially reported and is not safe to use on large numbers of persons because of an increased risk of cancer to children and at-risk populations. Researchers at the University of California, San Francisco, (UCSF) have argued that the amount of radiation is higher than claimed by the TSA and body scanner manufacturers because the doses were calculated as if distributed throughout the whole body, but the radiation from backscatter X-ray scanners is focused on just the skin and surrounding tissues:Carmichael, Scott. (May 18, 2010) Scientists question safety of airport full body scanners. Gadling.com. Retrieved on September 26, 2010.The risk of 'low dose radiation is controversial'. Radiology.ucsf.edu (February 14, 2010). Retrieved on November 1, 2011. However other professors in the UCSF radiology department disagree, saying that the radiation dose is low. "The conclusions are wrong", Ronald Arenson, professor of radiology, tells SF Weekly of his own institution's letter. "People who are totally unrelated to radiation wrote it. ... It was senior faculty at UCSF. They're smart people and well-intended, but their conclusions, I think, were off-base. They don't understand how radiation translates to an actual dose in the human body". Dr. Steve Smith, inventor of the body scanner in 1991, and president of Tek84, one of the companies that produces the machines, has stated that the concerns of Dr. Brenner and UCSF Scientists regarding the skin dose of backscatter scanners are incorrect. He states the values used for X-ray penetration were incorrectly based on the description of the imaging depth which describes what the instrument sees and is a few mm into the skin and the dosage depth which is deeper. He describes experimental proof that the X-rays have the same properties as any other X-rays and the penetration is correct to be averaged over the whole body. Dr. Smith has provided measured data from an operating body scanner to explain his position.re: Misinformation on airport body scanner radiation safety . A letter to Rush Holt. Tek84. December 2, 2010 In October 2010, The TSA responded to the concerns of UCSF researchers via the White House science advisor.Response to University of California – San Francisco Regarding Their Letter of Concern, October 12, 2010. Fda.gov. Retrieved on November 1, 2011.Backscatter Back-Story | The White House. Whitehouse.gov (November 8, 2010). Retrieved on November 1, 2011. Scanners also concentrate the dose in time, because they deliver a high dose-rate at the moment of exposure. High dose-rate exposure has been shown to cause greater damage than the same radiation dose delivered at lower rates. This raises further questions about comparisons to background radiation. The U.S. TSA has also made public various independent safety assessments of the Secure 1000 Backscatter X-ray Scanner.Memo . (PDF) . tsa.gov.Johns Hopkins Lab Full Report version 1 . (PDF) . Retrieved on November 1, 2011.Johns Hopkins Lab Full Report version 2 . (PDF) . Retrieved on November 1, 2011. Dr. Andrew J. Einstein, director of cardiac CT research at Columbia University, has made the following statements in support of the safety of body scanners: "A passenger would need to be scanned using a backscatter scanner, from both the front and the back, about 200,000 times to receive the amount of radiation equal to one typical CT scan ... Another way to look at this is that if you were scanned with a backscatter scanner every day of your life, you would still only receive a tenth of the dose of a typical CT scan ... By comparison, the amount of radiation from a backscatter scanner is equivalent to about 10 minutes of natural background radiation in the United States ... I believe that the general public has nothing to worry about in terms of the radiation from airline scanning ... For moms-to-be, no evidence supports an increased risk of miscarriage or fetal abnormalities from these scanners ... A pregnant woman will receive much more radiation from cosmic rays she is exposed to while flying than from passing through a scanner in the airport". In May 2010 the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements issued a press release in response to the health risk claims from UCSF and Columbia University (claims of excessive skin dose and risks to large populations vs. individuals). The NCRP claims that cancer risks cited by opponents are completely inaccurate.Structural Shielding Design and Evaluation for Megavoltage Radiotherapy Facilities. (PDF) . Retrieved on September 26, 2010. All the same the Inter-Agency Committee on Radiation Safety which includes the International Atomic Energy Agency, Nuclear Energy Agency and the World Health Organization, reported that, "Pregnant women and children should not be subject to scanning, even though the radiation dose from body scanners is 'extremely small'". It has also been suggested that defects in the machines, damage from normal wear-and-tear, or software errors could focus an intense dose of radiation on just one spot of the body.UCSF letter to Holdren concerning health risks of full body scanner TSA screenings 4-6-2010. Scribd.com. Retrieved on September 26, 2010. Proponents of backscatter X-ray scanners argue that the ANSI N43.17 standard addresses safety requirements and engineering design of the systems to prevent the occurrence of accidental high radiation due to defects and errors in hardware and software. Safety requirements include "fail-safe" controls, multiple overlapping interlocks and engineering design to ensure that failure of any systems result in safe or non-operation of the system to reduce the chance of accidental exposures. Furthermore, TSA requires that certification to the ANSI N43.17 standard is performed by a third party and not by the manufacturer themselves.ANSI N43.17 (2009) section 7.2.1 and 7.2.2ANSI N43.17 (2009) section 8.2.2 and 8.2.7 But there are cases where types of medical scanning machines, operated by trained medical personnel, have malfunctioned, causing serious injury to patients that were scanned. Critics of full-body scanners cite these incidents as examples of how radiation-based scanning machines can overdose people with radiation despite all safety precautions.Jay Stanley: Full Body Scanners: From Airports to the Streets?. Huffingtonpost.com (August 25, 2010). Retrieved on September 26, 2010. In March 2011, it was found that some of the full body scanners in the US were emitting 10 times the normal level of radiation: Contractors charged with routinely examining the scanners submitted reports containing discrepancies, including mathematical miscalculations showing that some of the devices emitted radiation levels 10 times higher than normal:Peter Kant, executive vice president of Rapiscan Systems, said that "In our review of the surveys we found instances where a technician incorrectly did his math and came up with results that showed the radiation readings were off by a factor of 10". The X-rays from backscatter scanners "are a form of ionizing radiation, that is, radiation powerful enough to strip molecules in the body of their electrons, creating charged particles that cause cell damage and are thought to be the mechanism through which radiation causes cancer." Humans are exposed to background radiation every day, anywhere on earth,Calculate Your Radiation Dose | Radiation Protection. US EPA (June 28, 2006). Retrieved on September 26, 2010. and proponents of backscatter X-ray scanners say that the devices expose subjects to levels of radiation equivalent to background radiation. Furthermore, when traveling on an airplane, passengers are exposed to much higher levels of radiation than on earth due to altitude. Proponents say that a backscatter X-ray scan is equivalent to the radiation received during two minutes of flying.TSA: Safety . Tsa.gov. Retrieved on September 26, 2010. The UK Health Protection Agency has also issued a statement that the radiation dose from backscatter scanners is very low and "about the same as one hour of background radiation".Body scanning at airports . HPA. Retrieved on November 1, 2011. The European Commission issued a report stating that backscatter X-ray scanners pose no known health risk, but suggested that backscatter X-ray scanners, which expose people to ionizing radiation, should not be used when millimeter-wave scanners that "have less effects on the human body" are available.Microsoft Word – Ethics Of Body Scanner Policy Report . (PDF) Retrieved on September 26, 2010. Assuming all other conditions equal, there is no reason to adopt X‐ray backscatters, which expose the subject to an additional – although negligible – source of ionizing radiations. Other WBI (Whole Body Imaging) technologies should be preferred for standard use. However, the European Commission's report provides no data substantiating the claim that "all other conditions are equal". One area where backscatter X-ray scanners can provide better performance than millimeter wave scanners, for example, is in the inspection of the shoes, groin and armpit regions of the body.Tek84 . Tek84 (March 17, 2010). Retrieved on September 26, 2010. The European Commission also recommended that alternate screening methods should be "used on pregnant women, babies, children and people with disabilities".Stoller, Gary. (July 13, 2010) Backlash grows against full-body scanners in airports. Travel.usatoday.com. Retrieved on September 26, 2010. In the United States, Senator Susan Collins, Ranking Member of the Senate Homeland Security Committee sent a letter on August 6, 2010, to the Secretary of Homeland Security and Administrator of the TSA, requesting that the TSA "have the Department's Chief Medical Officer, working with independent experts, conduct a review of the health effects of their use for travelers, TSA employees, and airport and airline personnel."United States Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Government Affairs : Press. Hsgac.senate.gov (August 6, 2010). Retrieved on September 26, 2010. The TSA has completed this review. The U.S. government is also supplying higher-radiation through-body X-ray machines to at least two African countries "for the purposes of airport security – the kind that can see through flesh, and which deliver real doses of radiation. The U.S.-supplied scanners have apparently been deployed at one airport in Ghana and four in Nigeria". This has caused some to question how far the U.S. government intends to go with the technology.Stanley, Jay (April 8, 2010) "Is the U.S. Encouraging the Use of Radiation on Africans?". Aclu.org. Retrieved on November 1, 2011. Unions for airline pilots working for American Airlines and US Airways have urged pilots to avoid the full body scanners. ===Child scanning=== There is controversy over full-body scanners in some countries because the machines create images of virtual strip searches on persons under the age of 18 which may violate child pornography laws. In the UK, the scanners may be breaking the Protection of Children Act of 1978 by creating images or pseudo-images of nude children.New scanners break child porn laws | Politics. The Guardian. Retrieved on September 26, 2010.Body Scanners Might Violate U.K. Child-Protection Laws | Threat Level. Wired.com. Retrieved on September 26, 2010. Parents have complained that their young children are being virtually strip searched, sometimes without their parents present."Airport body scanners reveal all, but what about when it's your kid?", St. Petersburg Times. Tampabay.com. Retrieved on September 26, 2010. ===Ineffectiveness=== ==== Backscatter and millimeter ==== Some critics suggest that full-body scanner technology is ineffective for multiple reasons, including that they can easily be bypassed and a study published in the November 2010 edition of the Journal of Transportation Security suggested terrorists might fool the Rapiscan machines and others like it employing the X-ray "backscatter" technique. A terrorist, the report found, could tape a thin film of explosives of about 15–20 centimeters in diameter to the stomach and walk through the machine undetected. Terrorists have already evolved their tactics with the use of surgically implanted bombs or bombs hidden in body cavities.Al Qaeda Bombers Learn from Drug Smugglers. CBS News (September 28, 2009). Retrieved on September 26, 2010. In March 2012, scientist and blogger Jonathan Corbett demonstrated the ineffectiveness of the machines by publishing a viral video showing how he was able to get a metal box through backscatter X-ray and millimeter wave scanners in two US airports. In April 2012, Corbett released a second video interviewing a TSA screener, who described firearms and simulated explosives passing through the scanners during internal testing and training. In another test of the full-body scanners, the machines failed to detect bomb parts hidden around a person's body.Schneier on Security: German TV on the Failure of Full-Body Scanners. Schneier.com. Retrieved on September 26, 2010. And in a different test in 2011, an undercover TSA agent was able to carry a handgun through full body scanners multiple times without the weapon being detected. However, in this case, the TSA agent who was in charge of viewing the scanned images was simply not paying attention. Furthermore, an Israeli airport security expert, Rafi Sela, who helped design security at Ben Gurion International Airport, has said: "I don't know why everybody is running to buy these expensive and useless machines. I can overcome the body scanners with enough explosives to bring down a Boeing 747... That's why we haven't put them in our airport."Levi Julian, Hana (April 25, 2010) Israeli Security Expert to Canada: 'Full Body Scanners Useless'. israelnationalnews.com Again, despite the scanners, the TSA has been unable to stop weapons like box cutters and pistols from being carried onto airplanes. The Australia government has been challenged over the effectiveness and cost of full body scanners by public media to which Australian Transport Minister Anthony Albanese has said he "makes no apologies" for mandating the installation of full body scanners at Australian airports. Two alternatives that have been argued for by experts, such as Prof Chris Mayhew from Birmingham University, are chemical-based scanners and bomb- sniffing dogs.Full-body scanners spark concerns | News. The Engineer (January 5, 2010). Retrieved on September 26, 2010. Others have argued that passenger profiling, as done by Israeli airport security, should replace full body scanners and patdowns. ==== Transmission (penetrating) ==== thumb|190x190px|Artificial Intelligence software detecting objects on the human body X-ray image in transmission (penetrating) body scanner Unlike the above, transmission technology allows to detect objects swallowed or hidden inside the objects. This is the main reason it is commonly used in prisons and jails. However the current technology does not allow the dual-energy body scanning (and detecting the object by its atomic number like it is used in baggage or vehicle X-ray scanners) which could give the image the same detection effectiveness as regular black and white X-ray. This leads to the idea that human-held detection (finding threats by looking at the image and finding non-common to the human body items) is the most effective way to find a contraband. However counting a human factor (fatigue, decreased attention) threats still could be missed. Modern software based on Artificial Intelligence in full body scanners is designed to minimize human faults and rise the detection effectiveness of this method. ===US public opinion=== A Gallup poll given just after the 2009 Christmas Day bombing attempt suggested that 78% of American airline travelers approved of body scanners while 20% disapproved. 51% indicated that they would have some level of discomfort with full-body scans, while 48% said they would not be uncomfortable with the idea.In U.S., Air Travelers Take Body Scans in Stride. Gallup.com. Retrieved on September 26, 2010. The poll was given in the context of the 2009 Christmas Day bombing attempt, and some opponents of full body scanners say that the explosives used in that bombing attempt would not have been detected by full- body scanners.Are planned airport scanners just a scam? – Home News, UK. The Independent (January 3, 2010). Retrieved on September 26, 2010. An ABC/Washington Post poll conducted by Langer Associates and released November 22, 2010, found that 64 percent of Americans favored the full-body X-ray scanners, but that 50 percent think the "enhanced" pat-downs go too far; 37 percent felt so strongly. In addition the poll states opposition is lowest amongst those who fly less than once a year.Silver, Nate (November 22, 2010) New Poll Suggests Shift in Public Views on T.S.A. Procedures. New York Times. As of November 23, 2010 an online poll of 11,817 people on The Consumerist website, 59.41% said they would not fly as a result of the new scans. Additionally, as of November 23, 2010, a poll of MSNBC 8,500 online readers indicated 84.1% believe the new procedures would not increase travel safety. According to a CBS telephone poll of 1,137 people published in November 2010, 81% (+/- 5%) percent of those polled approved TSA's use of full-body scans. ===Full-body scanner lobbyists=== Former Homeland Security secretary Michael Chertoff has been criticized for heavily promoting full-body scanners while not always fully disclosing that he is a lobbyist for one of the companies that makes the machines.Ex-Homeland Security chief head said to abuse public trust by touting body scanners. washingtonpost.com (December 31, 2009). Retrieved on September 26, 2010. Other full-body scanner lobbyists with government connections include:The TSA and the full-body-scanner lobby. Washington Examiner (December 29, 2009). Retrieved on September 26, 2010. * former TSA deputy administrator Tom Blank * former assistant administrator for policy at the TSA, Chad Wolf * Kevin Patrick Kelly, "a former top staffer to Sen. Barbara Mikulski, D-Md., who sits on the Homeland Security Appropriations subcommittee" * Former Senator Al D'Amato ===TSA's expansion of scanning program=== Forbes magazine reported, in March 2011, that: > Newly uncovered documents show that as early as 2008, the Department of > Homeland Security has been planning pilot programs to deploy mobile scanning > units that can be set up at public events and in train stations, along with > mobile x-ray vans capable of scanning pedestrians on city streets. and that the TSA had research proposals to: > bring full-body scanners to train stations, mass transit, and public events. > Contracts included in the EPIC release showed plans to develop long-range > scans that could assess what a subject carried from 30 feet away, along with > studies that involved systems for x-ray scanners mounted in vans and > "covert" scans of pedestrians. ==="No nudity" full-body scanner=== Millimeter-wave scanner software transitioned to featureless male or female 'cartoons' in 2011, in response to widescale privacy concerns. Currently, the millimeter-wave scanner monitor shows a generic cookie-cutter-like outline of a person and highlights potential threats. It is the same image no matter the individual's gender, height, or body type. The scanner software recognizes metallic and non- metallic items hiding under clothing. The machine then processes an image using yellow boxes to point out any areas that may need additional screening. TSA Administrator John Pistole stated that "Our top priority is the safety of the traveling public, and TSA constantly strives to explore and implement new technologies that enhance security and strengthen privacy protections for the traveling public ... This software upgrade enables us to continue providing a high level of security through advanced imaging technology screening, while improving the passenger experience at checkpoints." ==See also== * 3D scanner * 3D body scanning * Explosives trace-detection portal machine (puffer machine) * Full-body CT scan (in medical imaging) ==References== ==External links== *List of American airports that currently/will use Full Body Scanners in their passenger searches *Challenge to Airport Body Scanners *Alternate ways to screen airport passengers without the need of full body scan *National Outcry Over TSA Body Scanners and Invasive Pat-Downs – video report by Democracy Now! *Details about body scanners *How does an X-ray Baggage Scanner Work? Category:Measuring instruments Category:Security technology Category:Crime prevention Category:Child welfare Category:Safety ksh:Bäckskättr |
The following television stations broadcast on digital channel 36 in the United States:FCC TV Query for channel 36 full-power stationsFCC TV Query for channel 36 digital class A stationsFCC TV Query for channel 36 digital low- power stations * K36AB-D in Lawton, Oklahoma * K36AC-D in Yuma, Colorado, on virtual channel 47, which rebroadcasts K21NZ-D * K36AE-D in Clarkdale, Arizona, on virtual channel 10, which rebroadcasts KSAZ-TV * K36AI-D in Parowan/Enoch, etc., Utah * K36AK-D in Blanding/Monticello, Utah, on virtual channel 13, which rebroadcasts KSTU * K36BA-D in Burns, Oregon * K36BQ-D in Pahrump, Nevada * K36BW-D in Thompson Falls, Montana * K36BX-D in Coos Bay, Oregon * K36CA-D in Memphis, Texas * K36CC-D in Tulia, Texas * K36CW-D in Dodson, Montana * K36CX-D in Boulder, Montana * K36DB-CD in Avon/Vail, Colorado, on virtual channel 36 * K36DI-D in Santa Rosa, New Mexico * K36DK-D in Joplin, Montana * K36DP-D in Pendleton, Oregon * K36EW-D in College Place, Washington * K36FF-D in Shurz, Nevada * K36FG-D in Hood River, etc., Oregon, on virtual channel 10, which rebroadcasts KOPB-TV * K36FM-D in Beaver, etc., Utah * K36FQ-D in Wagon Mound, New Mexico * K36FS-D in Randolph, Utah * K36FT-D in Santa Clara, etc., Utah, on virtual channel 11, which rebroadcasts KBYU-TV * K36FZ-D in Meadview, Arizona * K36GJ-D in Agana, Guam * K36GL-D in Lovelock, Nevada * K36GQ-D in Parlin, Colorado, on virtual channel 13, which rebroadcasts K13AV-D * K36GU-D in Rockaway Beach, Oregon, on virtual channel 10, which rebroadcasts KOPB-TV * K36GX-D in Basalt, Colorado * K36HA-D in Elko, Nevada * K36HH-D in Susanville, etc., California * K36HM-D in Fort Dick, California * K36IB-D in Midland, etc., Oregon * K36IF-D in Orangeville, Utah * K36IG-D in Antimony, Utah * K36IH-D in Ignacio, Colorado * K36II-D in Joplin, Missouri * K36IJ-D in Anahola, etc., Hawaii * K36IK-D in Delta/Oak City, etc., Utah * K36IL-D in Hanna & Tabiona, Utah * K36IM-D in Duchesne, etc., Utah, on virtual channel 13, which rebroadcasts KSTU * K36IO-D in Manhattan, Kansas * K36IQ-D in Vernal, etc., Utah, on virtual channel 14, which rebroadcasts KJZZ- TV * K36IR-D in Garrison, etc., Utah * K36IY-D in Weatherford, Oklahoma * K36JB-D in Cripple Creek, Colorado * K36JD-D in Jackson, Wyoming * K36JH-D in Barstow, California, on virtual channel 36 * K36JO-D in Cheyenne, Wyoming * K36JS-D in Grants, New Mexico * K36JT-D in Clear Creek, Utah * K36JV-D in East Price, Utah * K36JW-D in Spring Glen, Utah * K36JX-D in Many Farms, Arizona * K36JZ-D in Roseburg, Oregon * K36KD-D in Tierra Amarilla, New Mexico * K36KE-D in Ardmore, Oklahoma * K36KH-D in Alexandria, Minnesota, on virtual channel 22, which rebroadcasts KAWB * K36KI-D in Fillmore, etc., Utah * K36KN-D in Eureka, Nevada * K36KR-D in Elmo/Big Arm, Montana * K36KW-D in Redwood Falls, Minnesota, on virtual channel 36 * K36KZ-D in Max, Minnesota, on virtual channel 13, which rebroadcasts WIRT-DT * K36LA-D in Kabetogama, Minnesota * K36LB-D in Cheyenne Wells, Colorado * K36LD-D in College Station, Texas * K36LE-D in Manila, etc., Utah * K36LF-D in Taos, New Mexico * K36LU-D in Ely, Nevada * K36LW-D in Williams, Minnesota * K36LX-D in Jacks Cabin, Colorado, on virtual channel 4, which rebroadcasts K04DH-D * K36LZ-D in Garden Valley, Idaho * K36MI-D in Fountain Green, Utah * K36MU-D in Texarkana, Arkansas * K36NB-D in Incline Village, Nevada * K36ND-D in Victoria, Texas * K36NE-D in Las Vegas, Nevada * K36NN-D in West Plains, Missouri * K36NO-D in Alton, etc., Utah * K36NP-D in Baker Valley, Oregon * K36NQ-D in Altus, Oklahoma * K36NR-D in Seiling, Oklahoma * K36NV-D in Strong City, Oklahoma * K36NX-D in Pringle, South Dakota * K36NZ-D in Clarkston, Washington * K36OA-D in Red Lake, Minnesota, on virtual channel 9, which rebroadcasts KAWE * K36OB-D in Verdi, Nevada * K36OD-D in North La Pine, Oregon * K36OE-D in Garfield County, Utah * K36OF-D in Ursine, Nevada * K36OH-D in Fremont, Utah * K36OI-D in Manti/Ephraim, Utah, on virtual channel 30, which rebroadcasts KUCW * K36OJ-D in Rainier, Oregon, on virtual channel 8, which rebroadcasts KGW * K36OM-D in Tropic, Utah * K36ON-D in Escalante, Utah * K36OO-D in Boulder, Utah * K36OP-D in Hanksville, Utah * K36OQ-D in Caineville, Utah * K36OR-D in Logan, Utah * K36OS-D in Whitehall, Montana * K36OT-D in Coalville, Utah * K36OU-D in Mountain View, Wyoming * K36OV-D in Wanship, Utah * K36OW-D in Henefer & Echo, Utah * K36OX-D in Samak, Utah * K36OY-D in Sterling, Colorado, on virtual channel 7, which rebroadcasts KMGH-TV * K36OZ-D in Hakalau, Hawaii * K36PA-D in Kanarraville, etc., Utah * K36PB-D in Lewistown, Montana * K36PC-D in Emery, Utah * K36PD-D in Green River, Utah * K36PE-D in Peach Springs, Arizona * K36PF-D in Ferron, Utah * K36PJ-D in Howard, Montana * K36PK-D in Peoa, etc., Utah * K36PL-D in Park City, Utah, on virtual channel 45 * K36PM-D in Salmon, Idaho * K36PN-D in Beowawe, Nevada * K36PO-D in Winnemucca, Nevada * K36PP-D in Farmington, etc., New Mexico * K36PS-D in Julesburg, Colorado, on virtual channel 7, which rebroadcasts KMGH-TV * K36PT-D in Haxtun, Colorado, on virtual channel 7, which rebroadcasts KMGH-TV * K36PU-D in Pioche, Nevada * K36PV-D in Gallup, New Mexico * K36PW-D in Priest Lake, Idaho * K36PX-D in Caliente, Nevada * K36PY-D in Pagosa Springs, Colorado * K36PZ-D in Big Spring, Texas * K36QA-D in Lufkin, Texas * K36QB-D in Cortez, Colorado * K36QD-D in Omaha, Nebraska * K36QM-D in Iowa, Louisiana * K39CZ-D in Aberdeen, South Dakota * K39JX-D in Livingston, etc., Montana * K45CH-D in Fort Peck, Montana * K47GI-D in Grants Pass, Oregon * K49IG-D in Yreka, California * K50CT-D in Cottage Grove, Oregon * K50HZ-D in Willmar, Minnesota, on virtual channel 9, which rebroadcasts KMSP-TV * KAAL in Austin, Minnesota * KADO-CD in Shreveport, Louisiana * KAJB in Calipatria, California * KASY-TV in Albuquerque, New Mexico * KAZT-CD in Phoenix, Arizona, on virtual channel 7, which rebroadcasts KAZT-TV * KBFK-LP in Bakersfield, California * KBNS-CD in Branson, Missouri * KBSI in Cape Girardeau, Missouri * KBTR-CD in Baton Rouge, Louisiana * KBWU-LD in Richland, etc., Washington * KCBZ-LD in Casper, Wyoming * KCDL-LD in Boise, Idaho * KDOR-TV in Bartlesville, Oklahoma * KDVR in Denver, Colorado, on virtual channel 31 * KEVC-CD in Indio, California * KFFS- CD in Fayetteville, Arkansas * KFPX-TV in Newton, Iowa * KFRE-TV in Sanger, California * KFTH-DT in Alvin, Texas, on virtual channel 67 * KFTU-DT in Douglas, Arizona * KGKM-LD in Columbia, Missouri * KGMM-CD in San Antonio, Texas * KHHI-LD in Honolulu, Hawaii * KHSL-TV in Redding, California * KICU-TV in San Jose, California, on virtual channel 36 * KIDK in Idaho Falls, Idaho * KJTB-LD in Paragould, Arkansas * KJWY-LD in Salem, Oregon, on virtual channel 21, which rebroadcasts KJYY-LD * KKAP in Little Rock, Arkansas * KKAX-LD in Hilltop, Arizona * KKEI-CD in Portland, Oregon, on virtual channel 38, which rebroadcasts KORK-CD * KLGV-LD in Longview, Texas * KLMB-CD in El Dorado, Arkansas * KLML-LD in Grand Junction, Colorado * KMQV-LD in Rochester, Minnesota, on virtual channel 49 * KNBC in Los Angeles, California, on virtual channel 4 * KPWT-LD in Astoria, Oregon * KSBO-CD in San Luis Obispo, California * KSFL-TV in Sioux Falls, South Dakota * KSHB-TV in Kansas City, Missouri, on virtual channel 41 * KSKN in Spokane, Washington * KSKT-CD in San Marcos, California, on virtual channel 43 * KTCW in Roseburg, Oregon * KTFO-CD in Austin, Texas * KTMF-LD in Kalispell, Montana * KTPN-LD in Tyler, Texas * KUEN in Ogden, Utah, on virtual channel 9 * KUIL-LD in Beaumont, Texas * KUOK- CD in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma * KUVE-CD in Tucson, Arizona * KVES-LD in Palm Springs, California * KVLY-TV in Fargo, North Dakota * KWYT-LD in Yakima, Washington * KXTV (DRT) in West Sacramento, California, on virtual channel 10 * KXTX-TV in Dallas, Texas, on virtual channel 39 * KZJO in Seattle, Washington, on virtual channel 22 * KZOD-LD in Odessa, Texas * W24CP-D in Durham, North Carolina, on virtual channel 24 * W36DO-D in Darby, Pennsylvania * W36EA-D in Tallahassee, Florida * W36EC-D in Bartow, Florida, to move to channel 15, on virtual channel 36 * W36EI-D in Wausau, Wisconsin * W36EO-D in La Grange, Georgia * W36EP-D in Yauco, Puerto Rico, to move to channel 35, on virtual channel 36 * W36EQ-D in Liberal, Kansas * W36EX-D in Alton, Illinois, on virtual channel 36 * W36EY-D in Berwick, Pennsylvania * W36FA-D in Hesperia, Michigan * W36FB-D in Biscoe, North Carolina * W36FE-D in Hanover, New Hampshire * W36FH-D in Traverse City, Michigan * W36FJ-D in Sebring, Florida, on virtual channel 44, which rebroadcasts WTOG * W36FK-D in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on virtual channel 46 * W36FM-D in Etna, Maine * WACY-TV in Appleton, Wisconsin * WAQP in Saginaw, Michigan * WASV-LD in Asheville, North Carolina * WAVE in Louisville, Kentucky * WBFT-CD in Sanford, North Carolina, on virtual channel 46 * WBXI-CD in Indianapolis, Indiana, on virtual channel 47 * WBXN-CD in New Orleans, Louisiana * WCAY-CD in Key West, Florida, on virtual channel 36 * WCBS-TV in New York, New York, on virtual channel 2 * WCCU in Urbana, Illinois * WCEA-LD in Boston, Massachusetts, on virtual channel 26 * WCFE-TV in Plattsburgh, New York * WDCA in Washington, D.C., uses WTTG's spectrum, on virtual channel 20 * WDSF-LD in Montgomery, Alabama * WEIN-LD in Evansville, Indiana * WEPX-TV in Greenville, North Carolina * WFSB in Hartford, Connecticut, on virtual channel 3 * WFXB in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina * WFXG in Augusta, Georgia * WFXR in Roanoke, Virginia * WGCB-LD in Hinesville-Richmond, Georgia * WGCW-LD in Albany, Georgia * WGOX-LD in Mobile, Alabama * WGTW-TV in Millville, New Jersey, uses WMGM-TV's spectrum, on virtual channel 48 * WHDO-CD in Orlando, Florida, on virtual channel 38 * WHME-TV in South Bend, Indiana * WIMN-CD in Arecibo, Puerto Rico, on virtual channel 20 * WITF-TV in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania * WIVB-TV in Buffalo, New York, uses WNLO's spectrum * WKAS in Ashland, Kentucky * WKPV in Ponce, Puerto Rico, uses WVOZ-TV's spectrum, on virtual channel 20 * WLEF-TV in Park Falls, Wisconsin * WLOO in Vicksburg, Mississippi * WMAV-TV in Oxford, Mississippi * WMEA-TV in Biddeford, Maine * WMEC in Macomb, Illinois * WMGM-TV in Wildwood, New Jersey, on virtual channel 40 * WMKE-CD in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on virtual channel 21 * WMNT-CD in Toledo, Ohio * WNGN-LD in Troy, New York * WNLO in Buffalo, New York * WODP-LD in Fort Wayne, Indiana * WPMC- CD in Mappsville, Virginia * WPMT in York, Pennsylvania, uses WITF-TV's spectrum. * WPXP-TV in Lake Worth, Florida * WQHS-DT in Cleveland, Ohio, on virtual channel 61 * WQRF-TV in Rockford, Illinois * WRGT-TV in Dayton, Ohio * WRID-LD in Richmond, Virginia * WRJK-LD in Arlington Heights, Illinois * WSES in Tuscaloosa, Alabama * WSPF-CD in St. Petersburg, Florida, on virtual channel 3 * WSPX-TV in Syracuse, New York * WSVF-CD in Harrisonburg, Virginia * WSWB in Scranton, Pennsylvania * WTJX-TV in Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands * WTTG in Washington, D.C., on virtual channel 5 * WTVF in Nashville, Tennessee, on virtual channel 5 * WTVY in Dothan, Alabama * WUFT in Gainesville, Florida * WUNE-TV in Linville, North Carolina, on virtual channel 17 * WUPA in Atlanta, Georgia, on virtual channel 69 * WVLR in Tazewell, Tennessee * WVOZ-TV in Ponce, Puerto Rico, on virtual channel 48 * WWLM-CD in Washington, Pennsylvania, on virtual channel 20 * WXWZ-LD in Guayama, Puerto Rico, on virtual channel 23 * WYCN-LD in Providence, Rhode Island * WYSJ-CD in Yorktown, Virginia * WZDT-LP in Naples, Florida The following stations, which are no longer licensed, formerly broadcast on digital channel 36 in the United States: * K36AF-D in New Castle, Colorado * K36HV-D in Wallowa, Oregon * K36IN-D in Fruitland, etc., Utah * K36KA-D in Rolla, Missouri * K36KL-D in Gruver, Texas * K36MA-D in Perryton, Texas * K36NJ-D in Monett, Missouri * K36OK-D in Granite Falls, Minnesota * K36QI-D in Quartz Creek, etc., Montana * KZMB-LD in Enid, Oklahoma * W36BE-D in State College, Pennsylvania * WCDC-TV in Adams, Massachusetts ==References== 36 digital |
The Lochnagar mine south of the village of La Boisselle in the Somme was an underground explosive charge, secretly planted by the British during the First World War, to be ready for 1 July 1916, the first day on the Somme. The mine was dug by the Tunnelling Companies of the Royal Engineers under a German field fortification known as (Swabian Height). A large crater has survived to the present day and is known as the Lochnagar crater or in French as Trou de mine de La Boisselle. The British named the mine after Lochnagar Street, the trench from which the gallery was driven. The charge at Lochnagar was one of 19 mines that were dug under the German lines on the British section of the Somme front, to assist the infantry advance at the start of the battle. The mine was sprung at on 1 July 1916 and left a crater deep and wide, which was captured and held by British troops. The attack on either flank was defeated by German small arms and artillery fire, except on the extreme right flank and just south of La Boisselle, north of the Lochnagar Crater. The crater has been preserved as a memorial and a religious service is held each 1 July. ==Background== ===1914=== French and German military operations began on the Somme in September 1914. A German advance westwards towards Albert was stopped by the French at La Boisselle and attempts to resume offensive warfare in October failed. Both sides reduced their attacks to local operations or raids and began to fortify their remaining positions with underground works. On 18 December, the French captured the La Boisselle village cemetery at the west end of a German salient and established an advanced post only from the German front line. By 24 December, the French had forced the Germans back from the cemetery and the western area of La Boisselle but their advance was stopped a short distance forward at , in front of German trenches protected by barbed wire. Once the location of a farm and a small number of buildings, became known as (German, shell farm) to the Germans and later as the Glory Hole to the British. On Christmas Day 1914, French engineers sank the first mine shaft at La Boisselle. ===1915=== thumb| thumb| Fighting continued in no man's land at the west end of La Boisselle, where the opposing lines were apart, even during lulls along the rest of the Somme front. On the night of , a German sapper inadvertently broke into a French mine gallery, which he found to have been charged with explosives; a group of volunteers took 45 nerve-racking minutes to dismantle the charge and cut the firing cables. The French mine workings were taken over when the British moved into the Somme front. George Fowke moved the 174th and 183rd Tunnelling Companies into the area; at first the British did not have enough miners to take over the many French shafts; the problem was temporarily solved when the French agreed to leave their engineers at work for several weeks. On 24 July, 174th Tunnelling Company established headquarters at Bray, taking over some 66 shafts at Carnoy, Fricourt, Maricourt and La Boisselle. No man's land just south-west of La Boisselle was very narrow, at one point about wide, and had become pockmarked by many chalk craters. The British formed the 178th and 179th Tunnelling Companies in August, followed by the 185th and 252nd Tunnelling Companies in October. The 181st Tunnelling Company was also present on the Somme. Elaborate precautions were taken to preserve secrecy, since no continuous front line trench ran through the area opposite the west end of La Boisselle and the British front line. The site was defended by posts near the mine shafts. The underground war continued with offensive mining to destroy opposing strong points and defensive mining to destroy tunnels, which were long. Around La Boisselle, the Germans dug defensive transverse tunnels about long, parallel to the front line. On 19 November, the 179th Tunnelling Company commander, Captain Henry Hance, estimated that the Germans were away and ordered the mine chamber to be loaded with of explosives, which was completed by midnight on At the Germans blew the charge, filling the remaining British tunnels with carbon monoxide. The right and left tunnels collapsed and it was later found that the German explosion had detonated the British charge. From April 1915 to January 1916, were sprung around , some loaded with of explosives. ==Prelude== ===1916=== thumb| At the start of the Battle of Albert (1–13 July), the name given by the British to the first two weeks of the Battle of the Somme, La Boisselle stood on the main axis of British attack. Royal Engineer tunnelling companies were to make two contributions to the Allied preparations for the battle, by placing 19 mines of varying sizes beneath the German positions along the front line and by preparing a series of shallow Russian saps from the British front line into no man's land. The saps would be opened at Zero Hour and allow the infantry to attack the German positions from a comparatively short distance. At La Boisselle, four mines were prepared by the Royal Engineers, charges No 2 straight and No 5 right were planted at at the end of galleries dug from Inch Street Trench by the 179th Tunnelling Company, intended to wreck German tunnels and create crater lips to block enfilade fire along no man's land. The Germans in La Boisselle had fortified the cellars of the ruined houses and cratered ground in the vicinity make a direct infantry assault on the village impossible. Y Sap and Lochnagar mines, named after the trenches from which they were dug, were excavated on the north-east and the south-east of La Boisselle, to assist the attack on either side of the German salient in the village.https://lochnagarcrater.org/wp- content/uploads/LaBoisselleMap-Lochnagar-Crater.jpg The 185th Tunnelling Company started work on Lochnagar on 11 November 1915. Two officers and sixteen sappers were killed on 4 February, when the Germans detonated a camouflet near the British three-level mine system, starting from Inch Street, La Boisselle, the deepest level being just above the water table at around . The diggings were handed over to 179th Tunnelling Company in March 1916. thumb| The Lochnagar mine consisted of two chambers with a shared access tunnel. The shaft was sunk in the communication trench called Lochnagar Street. After the Black Watch had arrived at La Boisselle at the end of July 1915, many fortifications, originally dug by the French, had been given Scottish names. The Lochnagar mine probably had the first deep incline shaft, which sloped from to a depth of about see map. The tunnel was begun behind the British front line and away from the German front line. Starting from the inclined shaft, about below ground, a gallery was driven towards the German lines. For silence, the tunnellers used bayonets with spliced handles and worked barefoot on a floor covered with sandbags. Flints were carefully prised out of the chalk and laid on the floor; if the bayonet was manipulated two- handed, an assistant caught the dislodged material. Spoil was placed in sandbags and passed hand-by-hand along a row of miners sitting on the floor and stored along the side of the tunnel, later to be used to tamp the charge. When about from the , the tunnel was branched and the end of each branch was enlarged to form a chamber for the explosives, the chambers being about apart and deep.https://lochnagarcrater.org/wp-content/uploads/Explosive-Chambers.jpg When finished, the access tunnel for the Lochnagar mine was and had been excavated at a rate of about per day, until about long, with the galleries ending beneath the . The mine was loaded with of ammonal in two charges of and . As the chambers were not big enough to hold all the explosive, the tunnels that branched to form the 'Y' were also filled with ammonal. One branch was long and the other long. The tunnels did not quite reach the German front line but the blast would dislodge enough material to form a high rim and bury nearby trenches. The Lochnagar and the Y Sap mines were "overcharged" to ensure that large rims were formed from the disturbed ground. Communication tunnels were also dug for use immediately after the first attack, including a tunnel across no man's land to a point close to the Lochnagar mine, ready to extend to the crater after the detonation as a covered route. The mines were laid without interference by German miners but as the explosives were placed, German miners could be heard below Lochnagar and above the Y Sap mine. An officer wrote ==Battle== ===1 July=== thumb| The four mines at La Boisselle were detonated at on 1 July 1916, the first day on the Somme. The explosion of the Lochnagar mine was initiated by Captain James Young of the 179th Tunnelling Company, who pressed the switches and observed that the firing had been successful. The two charges of the Lochnagar mine created a smooth-sided, flat-bottomed crater in diameter excluding the lip and across the full extent of the lip. It had obliterated between of the German dug-outs, all said to have been full of German troops. The Lochnagar mine, along with Y Sap mine, was the largest mine ever detonated. The sound of the blast was considered the loudest man-made noise in history up to that point, with reports suggesting it was heard in London. They would be surpassed a year later by the mines in the Battle of Messines. The Lochnagar mine lay on the sector assaulted by the Grimsby Chums, a Pals battalion (10th Battalion, The Lincolnshire Regiment). The infantry of the 34th Division, which was composed of Pals battalions from the English provinces, attacked the positions on either side of La Boisselle, of Reserve Infantry Regiment 110 (RIR 110) of the 28th Reserve Division, mainly recruited from Baden. When the main attack began at the Grimsby Chums occupied the crater and began to fortify the eastern lip, which dominated the vicinity; the advance continued to the (Green [second] position), where it was stopped by the 4th Company, RIR 110, which then counter-attacked and forced the British back to the crater. During the day, German artillery fired into Sausage Valley and in the afternoon began systematically to shell areas and then fire bursts of machine-gun fire to catch anyone who moved. German artillery also began to bombard the crater, where wounded and stragglers sought shelter, particularly those from Sausage Valley to the south of the village. British artillery began to fire on the crater, which led to shell bursts on both slopes, leaving the men inside with nowhere to hide. A British aircraft flew low overhead and a soldier waved a dead man's shirt, at which the aeroplane flew away and the British shelling stopped. ====Aerial observation==== The blowing of the Y Sap and Lochnagar mines was witnessed by pilots who were flying over the battlefield to report back on British troop movements. It had been arranged that continuous overlapping patrols would fly throughout the day. 2nd Lieutenant Cecil Lewis (3 Squadron) was warned against flying too close to La Boisselle during his patrol, where two mines were due to go up but watched from a safe distance. Flying up and down the line in a Morane Parasol, he watched from above Thiepval, almost two miles from La Boisselle, and later described the early morning scene in his book Sagittarius Rising (1936 [1977 ed]) thumb|upright=1.2| As aircraft from 3 Squadron flew over the III Corps area, observers reported that the 34th Division had reached Peake Wood on the right flank, increasing the size of the salient which had been driven into the German lines north of Fricourt but that the villages of La Boisselle and Ovillers had not fallen. On 3 July, air observers noted flares lit in the village during the evening, which were used to plot the positions reached by British infantry. A communication tunnel was used to contact troops near the new crater and during the afternoon, troops from the 9th Cheshires of the 19th (Western) Division began to move forward and a doctor was sent from the Field Ambulance during the night. By on 2 July, most of the 9th Cheshires had reached the crater and the German trenches adjacent, from which they repulsed several German counter-attacks during the night and the morning. On the evening of 2 July, the evacuation of wounded began and on 3 July, troops from the crater and the vicinity pushed forward to the south- east, occupying a small area against slight opposition. ==Analysis== Despite their colossal size, the Lochnagar and Y Sap mines failed sufficiently to neutralise the German defences in La Boisselle. The ruined village was meant to be captured in 20 minutes but by the end of the first day on the Somme, the III Corps divisions had suffered more than for no result. At Mash Valley, the attackers lost 5,100 men before noon and at Sausage Valley near the crater of the Lochnagar mine, there were over 6,000 casualties, the highest concentration on the battlefield. The 34th Division in III Corps had suffered the greatest number of casualties of the British divisions engaged on 1 July. ==Commemoration== thumb| William Orpen, an official war artist, saw the mine crater in 1916 while touring the Somme battlefield, collecting subjects for paintings and described a wilderness of chalk dotted with shrapnel. John Masefield also visited the Somme, while preparing The Old Front Line (1917), in which he also described the area around the crater as dazzlingly white and painful to look at. After the war the was built nearby; after the Second World War, many of the smaller craters were filled but the Lochnagar mine crater remained. Attempts to fill it in were resisted and the land was eventually purchased by an Englishman, Richard Dunning to ensure its preservation, after he read The Old Front Line and was inspired to buy a section of the former front line. Dunning made more than about land sales in the 1970s and was sold the crater. The site had been used by cross-country motorbikes and for fly tipping but Dunning erected a memorial cross on the rim of the crater in 1986, using reclaimed timber from a Gateshead church; the cross was struck by lightning shortly after its installation and was repaired with metal banding.Jim Winters - The Somme 1st Volunteer Artillery (Tynemouth) Association The site attracts about a year and there is an annual memorial service on 1 July, to commemorate the detonation of the mine and the British, French and German war dead, when poppy petals are scattered into the crater. Richard Dunning, the owner of the crater, was awarded an MBE in the 2017 New Year Honours for services to First World War remembrance. ==Gallery== Image:Mines and the Bapaume Road, La Boisselle Art.IWMART2962.jpg| Image:The Great Mine, La Boisselle Art.IWMART2379.jpg| Image:A Grave and a Mine Crater at La Boisselle, August 1917 Art.IWMART2378.jpg| Image:La Boisselle mine crater Aug 1916 IWM Q 912.jpg| Image:Troops passing Lochnagar Crater Oct 1916 IWM Q 1479.jpg| Image:La Boisselle crater (1984).JPG|Lochnagar Crater, La Boisselle 1984 Image:Lochnagar Crater Ovillers.JPG| Image:Drone photo of the "Trou de mine".jpg| == See also == * List of the largest artificial non- nuclear explosions * The Battle of the Crater from the American Civil War ==Notes== ==Footnotes== ==Bibliography== Books * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Websites * * * * * == External links == * Simon Jones, The Lochnagar Mine * Lochnagar Crater - The Official Site * Aerial view with front lines * Aerial view of Ovillers-La-Boisselle; the crater of the Lochnagar mine is visible near the bottom * Surface model of the Y Sap, Glory Hole and Lochnagar craters * 360° Panoramic View * La Boisselle Study Group * Ovillers-La-Boisselle photo essay * Grimsby Roll of Honour, 1914–1919 * Reid, P. Lochnagar Crater, La Boisselle * Son of a bus mechanic preserves hallowed crater from WWI Category:Battle of the Somme Category:Tunnel warfare in World War I Category:World War I sites in France Category:Explosions in 1916 Category:Conflicts in 1916 Category:1916 in France Category:Battles of the Western Front (World War I) Category:Battles of World War I involving France Category:Battles of World War I involving Germany Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom Category:Monuments and memorials in Somme (department) Category:World War I memorials |
This article is an index of characters appearing in the plays of William Shakespeare whose names begin with the letters A to K. Characters with names beginning with the letters L to Z may be found here. NOTE: Characters who exist outside Shakespeare are marked "(hist)" where they are historical, and "(myth)" where they are mythical. Where that annotation is a link (e.g. (hist)), it is a link to the page for the historical or mythical figure. The annotation "(fict)" is only used in entries for the English history plays, and indicates a character who is fictional. Contents: A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | Y | Sources | Links __NOTOC__ ==A== * Aaron is an evil Moorish character in Titus Andronicus. He incites most of the other evil characters to do violence against the house of Andronicus. * The Abbott of Westminster (fict) supports Richard and the Bishop of Carlisle in Richard II. * Lord Abergavenny (hist) is Buckingham's son-in-law in Henry VIII. * Abhorson is an executioner in Measure for Measure. * Abraham Slender is a foolish suitor to Anne, and a kinsman of Shallow, in The Merry Wives of Windsor. * Abraham, a Montague servant, fights Sampson and Gregory in the first scene of Romeo and Juliet. Sometimes spelled "Abram". * Achilles (myth) is portrayed as a former hero, who has become lazy and devoted to the love of Patroclus, in Troilus and Cressida. * Adam is a kindly old servant, rumoured to have been played by Shakespeare himself, in As You Like It. * Adrian: ** Adrian is a lord, a follower of Alonso, in The Tempest.Anne Barton (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "The Tempest" ** For Adrian in Coriolanus, see Volsce. * Adriana is the frequently angry wife of Antipholus of Ephesus in The Comedy of Errors. * Don Adriano de Armado is an arrogant Spanish braggart in Love's Labour's Lost. * Aediles (officers attending on the Tribunes) appear in Coriolanus. One is a speaking role. * For Aegeon (or AEgeon or Ægeon) see Egeon. * Aemelia is an abbess in The Comedy of Errors. She proves to be the long-lost wife of Egeon, and the long-lost mother of the Antipholus twins. * Aemilius: ** Aemilius or Emillius is Roman nobleman who acts as ambassador between Saturninus and Lucius in Titus Andronicus. ** Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (hist) is one of the Triumvirs. the three rulers of Rome after Caesar's death, in Julius Caesar and Antony and Cleopatra. * Aeneas (myth) is a Trojan leader in Troilus and Cressida. * For Aenobarbus (or AEnobarbus or Ænobarbus) see Enobarbus. * Agamemnon (myth) is the general leader of the Greek forces, in Troilus and Cressida. * Agrippa: ** Agrippa (hist), a follower of Caesar in Antony and Cleopatra, proposes that the widowed Antony should marry Octavia. ** Menenius Agrippa in Coriolanus is a friend and supporter of Coriolanus in his political struggles. * Sir Andrew Aguecheek is a foolish knight, and suitor to Olivia, in Twelfth Night. * Ajax (myth) is the (sometimes foolish) champion of the Greeks in Troilus and Cressida. * Alarbus is the eldest son of Tamora, sacrificed by Titus' sons, in Titus Andronicus. * The Mayor of St. Albans appears briefly in the "Simpcox" episode in Henry VI, Part 2. * The Duke of Albany is Goneril's husband in King Lear. * Alcibiades (hist) is a soldier who turns renegade when one of his junior officers is sentenced to death, and true friend of Timon in Timon of Athens. * The Duke of Alençon (hist) is one of the French leaders in Henry VI, Part 1. * Alexander: ** Alexander is Cressida's servant in Troilus and Cressida. ** Alexander Court (fict) is a soldier in the English army in Henry V.T. W. Craik (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series) "King Henry V" ** Alexander Iden (hist) kills Jack Cade in Henry VI, Part 2. * Alexas is a follower of Cleopatra, in Antony and Cleopatra. * Alice: ** Alice (fict) gives the French princess Katharine an English lesson in Henry V. ** See also Mistress Ford, whose first name is Alice. * For Aliena see Celia from As You Like It, who calls herself Aliena while in her self-imposed exile in the Forest of Arden. * Alonso is the King of Naples, an enemy to Prospero, in The Tempest. He mourns for his son, Ferdinand, whom he believes is drowned. * Ambassador: ** Some ambassadors from France present Henry with a gift of tennis balls from the Dauphin, in Henry V. ** Some ambassadors from England bring news that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are dead, in Hamlet. ** Several characters act as Ambassadors, including Cornelius (in Hamlet), Lucius (in Cymbeline), Montjoy and Voltemand. ** See also Schoolmaster, in Antony and Cleopatra. * Amiens is a follower of Duke Senior in As You Like It. * For Ancient (in the military sense – a standard-bearer), see Iago and Pistol. * Sir Andrew Aguecheek is a foolish knight, and suitor to Olivia, in Twelfth Night. * Andromache (myth) is Hector's wife in Troilus and Cressida. * Andronicus: ** Marcus Andronicus is the brother of Titus Andronicus. ** Titus Andronicus is the central character of Titus Andronicus. Broken and sent mad by Tamora and her followers, he eventually exacts his revenge by killing her sons, and cooking them for her to eat. ** See also Lavinia, Lucius, Quintus, Martius, Mutius and Young Lucius, members of the Andronicus family in Titus Andronicus. Also Sempronius, Caius and Valentine in the same play are "kinsmen" of the Andronicus house. * Angelica is Juliet Capulet's nurse in Romeo and Juliet. * Angelo: ** Angelo deputises for the Duke during the latter's absence from Vienna, but proves corrupt, seeking the sexual favours of Isabella, in Measure for Measure. ** Angelo is a goldsmith who has been commissioned to make a chain by Antipholus of Ephesus, which he delivers to Antipholus of Syracuse in error. Antipholus of Ephesus later refuses to pay for it, causing much consternation, in The Comedy of Errors. * Angus is a thane in Macbeth. * Anne: ** Anne Bullen (hist), known to history as Anne Boleyn, is a maid of Honour to Katherine and later becomes King Henry's second wife, in Henry VIII. ** Anne Page is the daughter of Master and Mistress Page in The Merry Wives of Windsor. She loves Fenton, but her father wishes her to marry Slender and her mother wishes her to marry Caius. ** Lady Anne (hist) is the widow of Prince Edward, wooed by Richard over the corpse of her late father-in-law (Henry VI) in Richard III. * Antenor is a Trojan leader in Troilus and Cressida. * For Anthony see Antony/Anthony below. * Antigonus is a courtier of Leontes in The Winter's Tale, who takes the infant Perdita to Bohemia. He famously exits, pursued by a bear, which eats him. * Antiochus is king of Antioch in Pericles, Prince of Tyre; he engages in an incestuous relationship with his daughter. He orders the death of Pericles, who has discovered his secret. * Antipholus: ** Antipholus of Ephesus, twin of Antipholus of Syracuse – with whom he is often confused, is a central character in The Comedy of Errors. ** Antipholus of Syracuse, twin of Antipholus of Ephesus – with whom he is often confused, is a central character in The Comedy of Errors. * Antonio: ** Antonio is the title character, although not the central character, of The Merchant of Venice. Shylock claims a pound of his flesh. ** Antonio is the brother of Leonato in Much Ado About Nothing. ** Antonio is a sea captain who rescues, and loves, Sebastian in Twelfth Night. ** Antonio is the brother of Prospero in The Tempest. He conspires with Sebastian to murder Alonzo and Gonzalo. ** Antonio is Proteus' father, in The Two Gentlemen of Verona. * Antony/Anthony: ** For Anthony in Romeo and Juliet see Servingmen. ** Mark Antony (hist) (Often just Antony, and sometimes Marcus Antonius) turns the mob against Caesar's killers and becomes a Triumvir in Julius Caesar. His romance with Cleopatra drives the action of Antony and Cleopatra. ** Sir Anthony Denny (hist) is a minor character in Henry VIII, who brings Cranmer to the King. * Apemantus is a churlish philosopher in Timon of Athens. * Three Apparitions appear to Macbeth with prophecies, in Macbeth. * Apothecary is a small but vital role in Romeo and Juliet. He sells Romeo the poison which ends his life. * For Aragon, see Arragon/Aragon, below. * For Arcas, see Countryman. * Archbishop: ** Archbishop of Canterbury: *** The Archbishop of Canterbury (hist) is an important character in the first act of Henry V. He expounds Henry's claim to the French throne. *** Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury (hist) is a major character in the last act of Henry VIII: hauled before the privy council by his enemies and threatened with imprisonment, but protected by the king. *** See also Cardinal Bourchier, who was Archbishop of Canterbury at the time dramatised in Richard III. ** Archbishop of York: *** The Archbishop of York (1) (hist) is one of the rebel leaders in Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2. *** The Archbishop of York (2) (hist) assists Queen Elizabeth and the little Duke of York to obtain sanctuary in Richard III. * For Archibald, see Earl of Douglas. * Archidamus is a Bohemian lord in The Winter's Tale. * Arcite and Palamon are the title characters of The Two Noble Kinsmen. Their friendship endures even though they engage in a mortal quarrel for the love of Emilia. * Ariel is a spirit, controlled (but eventually freed) by Prospero in The Tempest. * Don Adriano de Armado is an arrogant Spanish braggart in Love's Labour's Lost. * Arragon/Aragon: ** The Prince of Arragon is an unsuccessful suitor to Portia in The Merchant of Venice. ** Queen Katherine of Aragon (hist) is the first wife of King Henry in Henry VIII. She falls from grace, is divorced and dies. ** See also Don Pedro, who is a prince of Arragon. * Artemidorus prepares a scroll warning Julius Caesar of danger, and tries to present it to Caesar in the form of a petition. Caesar refuses to accept it. * Arthur (hist) is a child, the nephew of the king in King John. He persuades Hubert not to put out his eyes, but dies in an attempt to escape captivity. * Arviragus (also known as Cadwal) is the second son of the king in Cymbeline, stolen away in infancy by Morgan, and brought up as Morgan's child. * For Astringer, meaning a keeper of hawks, see Gentleman in All's Well That Ends Well, who is described as the "Astringer to the King" in his entry stage direction. * An Old Athenian in Timon of Athens objects to his daughter's involvement with Lucilius, until Timon offers to endow Lucilius with money to make him her equal. * An attendant on the King of France speaks four words, "I shall, my liege", in All's Well That Ends Well. * Audrey is a country girl who marries Touchstone in As You Like It. * Tullus Aufidius, leader of the Volscians, is the arch-enemy, and briefly the ally, of the title character in Coriolanus. * Aumerle (hist) is a companion of Richard in Richard II. * For Duke of Austria see Limoges. * Autolycus is a rogue, singer, and snapper up of unconsidered trifles in The Winter's Tale. ==B== * Bagot (hist) is a favourite of Richard in Richard II. * Balthasar: ** Balthasar is Romeo's servant in Romeo and Juliet. ** Balthasar is a singer, attending on Don Pedro in Much Ado About Nothing. ** Balthasar is a merchant in The Comedy of Errors. ** Balthasar is a servant of Portia in The Merchant of Venice. ** See also Portia in The Merchant of Venice, who takes the name Balthasar in her disguise as a lawyer from Rome. * Three Bandits in Timon of Athens seek Timon's gold, but he persuades them to give up villainy. * Banquo is a captain in Macbeth who, with Macbeth, meets the three witches and hears their prophecies. He is later murdered on Macbeth's orders, but his ghost haunts Macbeth at a feast. * Baptista Minola is the father of Katherine and Bianca in The Taming of the Shrew. * For Barbary, see Countrywomen. * Bardolph: ** Bardolph (fict) is a follower of Sir John Falstaff in Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2. In The Merry Wives of Windsor he becomes a drawer for the Host of the Garter. He is hanged for stealing a pax in Henry V. ** Lord Bardolph (hist) is a nobleman, one of the Percy faction, in Henry IV, Part 2. * Barnardine is too drunk to consent to be executed, in Measure for Measure. * Barnardo (or Bernardo) and Marcellus are soldiers who invite Horatio to see the ghost of Old Hamlet, in Hamlet. * For Bartholomew, or Barthol'mew, see the Page in the induction to The Taming of the Shrew. * Bassanio, loved by Antonio, is the suitor who wins the heart of Portia in The Merchant of Venice. * Basset (fict) is a follower of the Duke of Somerset, in Henry VI, Part 1. * Bassianus is the younger brother of Saturninus, and is betrothed to Lavinia, in Titus Andronicus. Chiron and Demetrius murder him, laying the blame on Martius and Quintus. * Bastard: ** The Bastard of Orleans (hist) is one of the French leaders in Henry VI, Part 1. ** Philip (the Bastard) Faulconbridge is a central character in King John, the bravest and most articulate of John's supporters. ** Several characters are bastards, most notably Don John and Edmund. * John Bates (fict) is a soldier in the English army in Henry V. * A Bavian (a baboon) is played by one of the Maying entertainers in The Two Noble Kinsmen. * A Bawd and a Pander run the brothel into which Marina is sold, in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. * Beadle: ** A Beadle arrests Doll Tearsheet in Henry IV, Part 2. ** A Beadle whips Simpcox in Henry VI, Part 2. * For Beaufort see Bishop of Winchester. * Beatrice is a central character in Much Ado About Nothing. She falls in love with Benedick. * For Bedford see Prince John of Lancaster, who was the Duke of Bedford. * Belarius (also known as Morgan) steals the two infant princes in Cymbeline, and raises them as his own. * Sir Toby Belch is a drunken knight, and kinsman to Olivia, in Twelfth Night. * Benedick is a central character in Much Ado About Nothing. He falls in love with Beatrice. * Benvolio is a friend and kinsman of Romeo in Romeo and Juliet. * Berkeley: ** Berkeley and Tressell (fict) are the two gentlemen accompanying Lady Anne, and Henry VI's coffin, in Richard III. ** Lord Berkeley (hist) acts as messenger from York to Bolingbroke, in Richard II. * Berowne (hist) is a witty lord of Navarre in Love's Labour's Lost. He breaks his oath by falling in love with Rosaline. * The Duke of Berry (hist) is a French leader in Henry V. * Bertram is the Count of Roussillon in All's Well That Ends Well. He is married, against his will, to Helena. * Bianca: ** Bianca is the younger sister of Katherine in The Taming of the Shrew. She is loved by Gremio and Hortensio, and eventually marries Lucentio. ** Bianca is Michael Cassio's mistress in Othello. * Lord Bigot, together with Salisbury and Pembroke, fear for the life of young Arthur, and later discover his body, in King John. * Biondello is a servant to Lucentio in The Taming of the Shrew. * Bishop (title): ** The Bishop of Carlisle (hist) supports Richard in Richard II. ** Bishop of Ely: *** The Bishop of Ely (1) (hist) conspires with the Archbishop of Canterbury in the opening scene of Henry V. *** The Bishop of Ely (2) (hist) ultimately shows his opposition to Richard, in Richard III. ** The Bishop of Lincoln (hist) speaks in favour of Henry's divorce, in the trial scene of Henry VIII. ** Bishop of Winchester: *** The Bishop of Winchester (hist) (later "the Cardinal") is the chief enemy of Humphrey Duke of Gloucester in Henry VI, Part 1 and Henry VI, Part 2. *** For The Bishop of Winchester in Henry VIII, see Gardiner. * Blanche (hist) is the king's niece in King John, married (by arrangement among the kings, to seal an alliance) to the Dauphin. * Blunt: ** Sir James Blunt is a supporter of Richmond in Richard III. ** Sir John Blunt is a supporter of the king in Henry IV, Part 2. ** Sir Walter Blunt is a soldier and messenger to the king in Henry IV, Part 1. He is killed by Douglas while wearing the king's armour. * The Boatswain is a character in the first and last acts of The Tempest. * Bolingbroke: ** Bolingbroke, later King Henry IV (hist) leads a revolt against King Richard in Richard II. He is the title character of Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2 which chart the rebellions against him by the Percy faction, and his difficult relationship with his eldest son, Hal.P. H. Davison (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Henry IV Part One ** Bolingbroke, with Southwell, Jourdain and Hume, are the supernatural conspirators with Eleanor Duchess of Gloucester in Henry VI, Part 2. * Borachio is a villain, a servant of Don John, in Much Ado About Nothing. * Nick Bottom is a weaver, one of the mechanicals, in A Midsummer Night's Dream. While rehearsing a play, Puck changes Bottom's head for an ass's head. Titania falls in love with him. He plays Pyramus in Pyramus and Thisbe. * Boult is a servant of the Pander and the Bawd in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. He resolves to rape Marina, but is persuaded to help her to leave the brothel, instead. * The Duke of Bourbon (hist) fights on the French side in Henry V. * Cardinal Bourchier (hist) delivers the little Duke of York from sanctuary, and into the hands of Richard and Buckingham, in Richard III. * Boy: ** Boy (hist) in Richard III is the young son of the murdered Clarence (described in one speech as little Ned Plantagenet). ** Boy is young Martius, son of Caius Martius Coriolanus, in Coriolanus. ** The Boy (fict) is a follower of Sir John Falstaff in Henry IV, Part 2 and The Merry Wives of Windsor (in which he is called Robin). He is also a character in Henry V, who goes to war with Pistol, Bardolph and Nym. ** A boy sings the wedding song which opens The Two Noble Kinsmen. ** A boy is a servant of Troilus, in Troilus and Cressida. ** A boy attends on Benedick in Much Ado About Nothing. ** A boy sings a song to Mariana, in Measure for Measure. ** A boy sings "Come, thou monarch of the vine...", in Antony and Cleopatra. ** The Master Gunner's Boy kills Salisbury, in Henry VI, Part 1. * Boyet, a French lord, is the Princess of France's personal assistant, in Love's Labour's Lost. * Brabantio is the father of Desdemona, in Othello. * Brackenbury (hist) is the Lieutenant of the Tower of London in Richard III. * Brandon (hist) arrests Buckingham, in Henry VIII. * The Duke of Britain (hist) is a French leader in Henry V. * For Master Brook see Master Ford, who calls himself Master Brook when he disguises himself to encounter Falstaff. * Brothers: ** The Jailer's Brother accompanies his niece, in her madness, in The Two Noble Kinsmen. ** See Leonatus ** See Stafford's Brother. * Brutus: ** Decius Brutus (hist) is one of the conspirators against Caesar in Julius Caesar. ** Junius Brutus and Sicinius Velutus, two of the tribunes of the people, are the protagonist's chief political enemies in Coriolanus, and prove more effective than his military foes. ** Marcus Brutus (hist) (usually just Brutus) is a central character of Julius Caesar, who conspires against Caesar's life and stabs him. * Buckingham: ** The Duke of Buckingham (1) (hist) is a Lancastrian in Henry VI, Part 2. His death is reported in Henry VI, Part 3. ** The Duke of Buckingham (2) (hist) is a Yorkist in Henry VI, Part 3, and is a co-conspirator with Richard – although he is eventually rejected, then murdered on Richard's orders – in Richard III. ** The Duke of Buckingham (3) (hist), an enemy of Wolsey, falls from grace and is executed by Henry in Henry VIII. * Bullcalf is nearly pressed into military service by Falstaff in Henry IV, Part 2. * Anne Bullen (hist), known to history as Anne Boleyn, is a maid of Honour to Katherine who later becomes King Henry's second wife, in Henry VIII. * Burgundy: ** The Duke of Burgundy (1) (hist) brokers the peace treaty between the kings of France and England in the last act of Henry V. ** The Duke of Burgundy (2) (hist) fights firstly in alliance with the English, and later in alliance with the French, in Henry VI, Part 1. ** The Duke of Burgundy (3) refuses to marry Cordelia without a dowry, in King Lear. * Bushy (hist) is a favourite of Richard in Richard II. * Dick the Butcher (fict) is a follower of Jack Cade in Henry VI, Part 2. * Doctor Butts (hist) is the king's physician in Henry VIII. He alerts the king to Cranmer's humiliation in refused admittance to the council chamber. ==C== * Jack Cade (hist) leads a proletarian rebellion in Henry VI, Part 2. * Cadwal (real name Arviragus) is the second son of the king in Cymbeline, stolen away in infancy by Morgan, and brought up as Morgan's child. * Caesar: ** Julius Caesar (hist) is the title character of Julius Caesar, an Emperor of Rome who is stabbed in the Capitol, on the Ides of March. ** Octavius Caesar (hist) is one of the Triumvirs, the three rulers of Rome after Caesar's death, in Julius Caesar and Antony and Cleopatra. * Caius: ** Caius, Sempronius and Valentine are minor characters, kinsmen and supporters of Titus, in Titus Andronicus. ** Caius Cassius (hist) is a central character in Julius Caesar. He incites the conspiracy against Caesar, and recruits Brutus to the conspirators' ranks. ** Caius Ligarius (hist) is one of the conspirators against Caesar in Julius Caesar. ** Caius Lucius is the Roman ambassador in Cymbeline, and the leader of the Roman forces. ** Caius Martius Coriolanus (hist) is the central character of Coriolanus, who earns the title "Coriolanus" in recognition of his skill at smiting Volscians in Coriolai. ** Doctor Caius (hist-ish) is a French doctor in The Merry Wives of Windsor. He challenges Parson Hugh to a duel. ** See also the Earl of Kent, who calls himself Caius in his disguise as a servant of King Lear. * Calchas, Cressida's father, has defected to the Greeks, and negotiates his daughter's exchange for a Trojan prisoner in Troilus and Cressida. * Caliban, son of the witch Sycorax, is a deformed slave to Prospero in The Tempest. * Calphurnia (hist) is the wife of Caesar, whose dream predicts her husband's death, in Julius Caesar. * For Cambio see Lucentio, who calls himself Cambio in his disguise as a schoolmaster. * The Earl of Cambridge (hist) is one of the three conspirators against the king's life (with Scroop and Grey) in Henry V. * Camillo is a follower of Leontes, ordered to kill Polixines, but who instead warns Polixines of his danger and becomes his companion, in The Winter's Tale. * Cardinal Campeius (hist) is the papal legate at the trial of Katherine, in Henry VIII. * Canidius (hist) is a follower of Antony in Antony and Cleopatra. * Canterbury: ** The Archbishop of Canterbury (hist) is an important character in the first act of Henry V. He expounds Henry's claim to the French throne. ** Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury (hist) is a major character in the last act of Henry VIII: hauled before the privy council by his enemies and threatened with imprisonment, but protected by the king. ** See also Cardinal Bourchier, who was Archbishop of Canterbury at the time dramatised in Richard III. * Caphis is the servant of a Senator in Timon of Athens, sent to collect a debt due from Timon. * For Capilet see the Widow in All's Well That Ends Well, whose surname is Capilet. * Captain: ** A Captain survives the shipwreck at the start of Twelfth Night with Viola, and helps her with her disguise. ** A Captain of the Welsh army brings Richard the bad news that his army, believing him dead, has deserted him, in Richard II. ** A Captain brings Duncan news of Macbeth and Banquo's victories, in the first act of Macbeth. ** A Captain attending on Edgar delivers Lear and Cordelia to be hanged in King Lear. ** A Captain of the Norwegian army explains Fortinbras' mission against the Poles, in Hamlet. ** A Captain in Antony's army is a minor speaking role in Antony and Cleopatra. ** An English Captain witnesses the retreat of the cowardly Fastolfe, in Henry VI, Part 1. ** An English Captain accompanies Lucy on his mission to obtain assistance from the English Lords, in Henry VI, Part 1. ** A French Captain on the walls of Bordeaux defies Talbot, in Henry VI, Part 1. ** A Roman Captain in Cymbeline attends on Lucius. ** Two British Captains in Cymbeline arrest Posthumus, thinking him an enemy. ** Several characters hold (or purport to hold) the rank of captain, including Fluellen, Gower, Jamy, Macmorris and Pistol. ** Several characters are sea captains, including Antonio in Twelfth Night. See also Master. * Capulet: ** Capulet is Juliet's father in Romeo and Juliet. ** Lady Capulet is Juliet's mother in Romeo and Juliet. ** Old Capulet is a minor character – a kinsman of Capulet – in the party scene of Romeo and Juliet. ** See also Juliet and Tybalt. ** Lord Caputius (hist) is an ambassador from the Holy Roman Emperor in Henry VIII. * Cardinal: ** Cardinal Bourchier (hist) delivers the little Duke of York from sanctuary, and into the hands of Richard and Buckingham, in Richard III. ** Cardinal Campeius (hist) is the papal legate at the trial of Katherine, in Henry VIII. ** Cardinal Pandulph (hist) is the Papal legate in King John. He incites the Dauphin against John, but later tries to placate him. ** Cardinal Wolsey (hist) orchestrates the fall from grace of Buckingham and Katherine, but himself falls from grace and dies, in Henry VIII. ** See also the Bishop of Winchester, who becomes a Cardinal in the course of Henry VI, Part 1. * The Bishop of Carlisle (hist) supports Richard in Richard II. * A carpenter and a cobbler are among the crowd of commoners gathered to welcome Caesar home enthusiastically in the opening scene of Julius Caesar. * Casca (hist) is one of the conspirators against Caesar, in Julius Caesar. He has an important role in the early parts of the play, reporting offstage events. * Cassandra (myth) is a prophetess in Troilus and Cressida. * Michael Cassio is a lieutenant in Othello. Iago persuades Othello that Cassio is having an affair with Othello's wife, Desdemona. * Caius Cassius (hist) is a central character in Julius Caesar. He incites the conspiracy against Caesar, and recruits Brutus to the conspirators' ranks. * Catesby (hist) is a double agent – seemingly loyal to Lord Hastings but actually reporting to Buckingham and Richard – in Richard III. * For Catherine see Katherine. * Caithness is a thane in Macbeth. * Simon Catling, Hugh Rebeck and James Soundpost are minor characters, musicians, in Romeo and Juliet. * Young Cato is a soldier of Brutus' and Cassius' party, in Julius Caesar. * Celia is Rosalind's companion and cousin, and is daughter to Duke Frederick in As You Like It. * Ceres (myth) is presented by a masquer in The Tempest. * Cerimon is a lord of Ephesus in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. He opens the chest in which Thaisa had been buried at sea and, being skilled in medicine, he realises that she is not dead and nurses her back to health. * For Cesario see Viola, who calls herself Cesario in her male disguise, and her brother Sebastian who is sometimes called Cesario, being mistaken for his sister. * The Lord Chamberlain, in Henry VIII (hist & hist) is a conflation of two historical Lords Chamberlain, one of them Lord Sandys, who is also a character in the play. * The Lord Chancellor (hist) – historically Sir Thomas More, although not identified as such in the play – is among the Privy Counsellors who accuse Cranmer in Henry VIII. * Charles: ** Charles is a wrestler, defeated by Orlando, in As You Like It. ** The Dauphin, later King Charles VII of France (hist) leads the French forces, with Joan, in Henry VI, Part 1. * Charmian (hist) is the main attendant to Cleopatra in Antony and Cleopatra and dies by snakebite. * Emmanuel the Clerk of Chatham (fict) is murdered by Jack Cade's rebels in Henry VI, Part 2. * Chatillion is an ambassador from France to England in King John. * The Lord Chief Justice (hist) is a dramatic foil to Falstaff in Henry IV, Part 2. * Chiron and Demetrius, are two sons of Tamora in Titus Andronicus. They rape and mutilate Lavinia, and are eventually killed and cooked by Titus, who serves them to Tamora to eat. * Chorus: ** The Chorus speaks the opening prologue in Romeo and Juliet, and a further prologue at the beginning of the second act. ** The Chorus (fict) is the second most major character, after the king himself, in Henry V. He speaks a lengthy prologue to each of the five acts, and an epilogue. ** See also John Gower, Rosalind, Rumour and Time, each of whom act as a chorus in their play. ** See also Prologue. * Christopher: ** Christopher Sly is a drunken tinker in the induction to The Taming of the Shrew. He is gulled into believing he is a lord. ** Christopher Urswick (hist) is a minor character: a priest acting as messenger for Lord Stanley, in Richard III. * Cicero, a senator, hears Casca's account of strange portents, in Julius Caesar. * Metellus Cimber (hist) is one of the conspirators in Julius Caesar. * Cinna: ** Cinna (hist) is one of the conspirators against Caesar in Julius Caesar. ** Cinna is a poet, mistaken for the conspirator Cinna in Julius Caesar. Realising they have the wrong man, the mob "kill him for his bad verses". * Citizen: ** A citizen of Antium briefly meets the disguised Coriolanus, and directs him to Aufidius' house. ** A mob of citizens, seven of them speaking roles, appear both in opposition and in support of the title character in several scenes of Coriolanus. Speaking as one, the mob's speech prefix is Plebeians. ** Three citizens debate the succession of Edward V, in Richard III. ** See also Plebeians. * Clarence: ** George, Duke of Clarence (hist) is the younger brother of Edward and the elder brother of Richard in Henry VI, part 3 and Richard III. He is often known as "perjured Clarence", having broken his oath to Warwick and fighting instead for his brother's faction. He is eventually drowned in a butt of malmesy wine. ** Thomas, Duke of Clarence (hist) is Hal's younger brother, who appears in Henry IV, Part 2 and Henry V. * Claudio: ** Claudio is a friend to Benedick and a follower of Don Pedro, in Much Ado About Nothing. He falls in love with Hero but is persuaded, wrongly, that she has been unfaithful. ** Claudio, brother to Isabella, is sentenced to death for fornication in Measure for Measure. * Claudius: ** Claudius and Varro are guards in Brutus' tent, in Julius Caesar. They do not see Caesar's ghost. ** King Claudius (myth) is the uncle and stepfather of the title character in Hamlet. He has murdered his brother Old Hamlet, has taken over his crown, and has married his queen, Gertrude. * Cleomines is a courtier to Leontes, who, with Dion delivers the oracle from Delphos in The Winter's Tale. * Cleon is governor of Tarsus in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. Pericles brings food to save Cleon's starving people, and later trusts his new-born daughter into Cleon's care. * Cleopatra (hist) is the lover of Antony in Antony and Cleopatra. She commits suicide using a poisonous asp. * Emmanuel the Clerk of Chatham (fict) is murdered by Jack Cade's rebels in Henry VI, Part 2. * Clifford: ** Clifford (sometimes called Young Clifford) (hist) is a staunch Lancastrian, and is the Yorkists most hated enemy — as the killer of Rutland — in Henry VI, Part 2 and Henry VI, Part 3. ** Old Clifford (hist), father of Clifford, is a Lancastrian leader in Henry VI, Part 2. * Clitus is a soldier, a follower of Brutus, in Julius Caesar. He refuses to aid Brutus' suicide. * Cloten, son of the Queen and stepson to the king in Cymbeline, vainly loves Imogen, and eventually resolves to rape her. * Clown: ** The Clown is the good-natured son of the Old Shepherd, gulled by Autolycus, in The Winter's Tale. ** The Clown appears briefly to make fun of the musicians, and later to banter with Desdemona, in Othello. ** The Clown delivers some pigeons, and letters from Titus Andronicus, to Saturninus. He is hanged for his pains. ** The Clown delivers a poisonous asp to Cleopatra in a basket of figs, in Antony and Cleopatra. ** The Clown, also identified as "Pompey" is a servant to Mistress Overdone in Measure for Measure. ** For the two clowns in Hamlet see "Gravedigger". ** For "Clown" in All's Well That Ends Well, see Lavatch. ** See also Touchstone, who is simply called "Clown" until he reaches the Forest of Arden. ** Numerous characters are clowns, or are comic characters originally played by the clowns in Shakespeare's company. ** See also Fool and Shakespearian fool. * A cobbler and a carpenter are among the crowd of commoners gathered to welcome Caesar home enthusiastically in the opening scene of Julius Caesar. * Cobweb is a fairy in A Midsummer Night's Dream. * Sir John Coleville is a rebel captured by Falstaff in Henry IV, Part 2. * Cominius and Titus Lartius are leaders of the Roman forces against the Volscians, in Coriolanus. * Conrade is a villain, a servant of Don John, in Much Ado About Nothing. * "Three or four" Conspirators, three of them speaking roles, conspire with Aufidius, in Coriolanus. * The Constable of France (hist) leads the French forces in Henry V. * Constance (hist) is Arthur's mother in King John: a fierce advocate for her son's right to the English throne. * Corambis is an alternative name for Polonius in Hamlet. He is so named in The First Quarto of Shakespeare's "Hamlet" (1603); occasionally referred to as the "bad quarto". * Cordelia (myth) is the youngest daughter in King Lear. She marries the King of France. At the end of the play she is hanged on Edmund's instructions. * Corin is a kindly shepherd in As You Like It. * Caius Martius Coriolanus (hist) is the central character of Coriolanus, who earns the title "Coriolanus" in recognition of his skill at smiting Volscians in Coriolai. * Cornelius: ** Cornelius and Voltemand are two ambassadors from Claudius to the Norwegian court, in Hamlet. ** Cornelius, a doctor in Cymbeline, provides a fake poison to the Queen, which is later used on Imogen. He also reports the Queen's last words. * The Duke of Cornwall is Regan's husband, who puts out Gloucester's eyes, in King Lear. * For Corporal, see Bardolph and Nym, who hold that rank. * Costard is a clown and country bumkin from Love's Labour's Lost. * Count (title): ** A number of characters have the title Count, including Claudio (from Much Ado About Nothing) and Paris. * Countess (title): ** The Countess of Auvergne tries to entrap Talbot in Henry VI, Part 1. ** The Countess of Rousillon is Bertram's mother, and Helena's protector, in All's Well That Ends Well. ** See also Olivia. * A number of countrymen, together with Gerald, provide Maying entertainment in The Two Noble Kinsmen. Four of them are speaking roles. Three of them are called Arcas, Rycas and Sennois. They may, or may not, include Timothy and the Bavian. * Five countrywomen (called Barbary, Friz, Luce, Maudlin and Nell) dance at the Maying entertainment in The Two Noble Kinsmen. * Alexander Court (fict) is a soldier in the English army in Henry V. * Courtesan: ** A courtesan dines with Antipholus of Ephesus, who finds himself locked out of his own home, in The Comedy of Errors. ** Several characters are courtesans, or are accused of being courtesans, most notably Cressida from Troilus and Cressida. * Crab is Launce's dog, in The Two Gentlemen of Verona. * Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury (hist) is a major character in the last act of Henry VIII: hauled before the privy council by his enemies and threatened with imprisonment, but protected by the king. * Cressida is one of the title characters in Troilus and Cressida. The Trojan prince Troilus falls in love with this young daughter of a Trojan defector. * A crier to the court, and a scribe to the court, are minor roles – but they usually have dramatic impact – in the trial scene of Henry VIII. * Thomas Cromwell (hist) is secretary to Wolsey, and later to the Privy Council, in Henry VIII. * Cupid (myth) reads the prologue to a masque in Timon of Athens. * Curan is minor character, a follower of the Earl of Gloucester, in King Lear. * Curio is an attendant on Orsino in Twelfth Night. * Curtis is a servant of Petruchio in The Taming of the Shrew. * Cymbeline (hist), the title character of Cymbeline, is king of the Britons, and father to Imogen, Guiderus and Arviragus. ==D== * Dardanius is a soldier, a follower of Brutus, in Julius Caesar. He refuses to aid Brutus' suicide. * Daughter: ** The Daughter of Antiochus is a famed beauty, engaged in a secret incestuous relationship with her father, in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. ** The Jailer's Daughter develops an obsessive love for Palamon, and releases him from prison, in The Two Noble Kinsmen. She descends into madness. * Dauphin (sometimes Dolphin in older texts): ** The Dauphin (hist) is Henry's chief enemy in Henry V. ** The Dauphin, later King Charles VII of France (hist) leads the French forces, with Joan, in Henry VI, Part 1. ** See also Lewis. * Davy (fict) is justice Shallow's servant in Henry IV, Part 2. * DeBoys: ** Jaques DeBoys is a brother to Oliver and Orlando in As You Like It. ** See also Oliver and Orlando from As You Like It, whose surname is also DeBoys. * Decius Brutus (hist) is one of the conspirators against Caesar in Julius Caesar. * For Decretas, see Dercetus. * Deiphobus (myth), a brother of Hector and Troilus, is a minor character (with the one line, "It is the Lord Aeneas") in Troilus and Cressida. * Demetrius: ** Demetrius is in love with Hermia at the start of A Midsummer Night's Dream. Later, he loves and marries Helena. ** Demetrius and Chiron, are two sons of Tamora in Titus Andronicus. They rape and mutilate Lavinia, and are eventually killed and cooked by Titus, who serves them to Tamora to eat. ** Demetrius and Philo, Romans following Antony, regret his infatuation with Cleopatra in Antony and Cleopatra. * Dennis is a minor character – a servant to Oliver – in As You Like It. * Sir Anthony Denny (hist) is a minor character in Henry VIII, who brings Cranmer to the King. * Lord Stanley, Earl of Derby (hist) is a military leader who ultimately reveals his loyalty to the Richmond faction, in spite of his son being a hostage to Richard, in Richard III. * Dercetus (hist) is a follower of Antony in Antony and Cleopatra. He informs Caesar of Antony's death. * Desdemona is the protagonist's wife in Othello. He strangles her, in the mistaken belief that she is unfaithful. * Diana: ** Diana is desired by Bertram, and pretends to agree to have sex with him. Instead, under cover of darkness, she exchanges places with Helena, who becomes pregnant with Bertram's child, in All's Well That Ends Well. ** Diana (myth) the goddess of chastity, appears to Perciles in a vision, in Pericles, Prince of Tyre She tells him to visit her temple at Ephesus, leading to his reconciliation with Thaisa there. * Dick: ** Dick the Butcher (fict) is a follower of Jack Cade in Henry VI, Part 2. ** See also Richard. * Diomedes: ** Diomedes is a follower of Cleopatra in Antony and Cleopatra. He informs Antony that Cleopatra is alive, and informs Cleopatra that Antony is dying. ** Diomedes (myth) is one of the Greek leaders in Troilus and Cressida. ** Diomedes' Servant is sent with a message to Cressida, in Troilus and Cressida. * Dion is a courtier to Leontes, who, with Cleomines delivers the oracle from Delphos in The Winter's Tale. * Dionyza, the wife of Cleon of Tarsus, is entrusted with the upbringing of Marina, in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. However, she comes to see Marina as a rival to her own daughter, and orders Leonine to kill Marina. * Doctor (title): ** A Doctor in Cordelia's train tends the mad Lear in King Lear. ** A Doctor suggests that the wooer can cure the Jailer's Daughter's madness by having sex with her while pretending to be Palamon, in The Two Noble Kinsmen. ** Doctor Butts (hist) is the king's physician in Henry VIII. He alerts the king to Cranmer's humiliation in refused admittance to the council chamber. ** Doctor Caius (hist-ish) is a French doctor in The Merry Wives of Windsor. He challenges Parson Hugh to a duel. ** An English Doctor is a minor character in Macbeth. ** A Scottish Doctor witnesses Lady Macbeth sleepwalking in Macbeth. ** See also Pinch in The Comedy of Errors, who is sometimes referred to as "Doctor Pinch". * Dogberry, accompanied by Verges, is a clownish officer of the watch in Much Ado About Nothing. * Dolabella (hist) is a follower of Caesar in Antony and Cleopatra. He tells Cleopatra that Caesar intends to lead her, in triumph, through Rome. * Doll Tearsheet (fict) is a whore, who is emotionally involved with Falstaff, and is later arrested for murder in Henry IV, Part 2. * For Dolphin see Dauphin. * For Domitus see Enobarbus. * Don (title): ** Don John is the bastard brother of Don Pedro, and is the chief villain in Much Ado About Nothing. ** Don Pedro is the prince of Arragon in Much Ado About Nothing. ** Don Adriano de Armado is an arrogant Spanish braggart in Love's Labour's Lost. * Donalbain (hist) is the second son of Duncan in Macbeth. * A Door Keeper (fict) bars the entrance of Cranmer to the council chamber, in Henry VIII. * Dorcas and Mopsa are shepherdesses, usually portrayed as rather tarty, in The Winter's Tale. * Dorset (hist) and Grey (hist), are the two sons of Queen Elizabeth from her first marriage, who are arrested and executed on the orders of Buckingham and Richard in Richard III. * The Earl of Douglas leads the Scottish rebel forces in Henry IV, Part 1. * Dromio: ** Dromio of Ephesus, servant to Antipholus of Ephesus and twin of Dromio of Syracuse – with whom he is often confused, is a central character in The Comedy of Errors. ** Dromio of Syracuse, servant to Antipholus of Syracuse and twin of Dromio of Ephesus – with whom he is often confused, is a central character in The Comedy of Errors. * Duchess (title): ** Duchess of Gloucester: *** The Duchess of Gloucester (hist) is the widow of Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester. His murder (before the play opens) drives much of the action of Richard II. *** Eleanor, Duchess of Gloucester (hist) is the wife of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester in Henry VI, Part 2, in which she dabbles in witchcraft with disastrous results. ** Duchess of York: *** The Duchess of York (1) (unnamed) character in Richard II, a composite of Isabella of Castile, Duchess of York, died 1392, the mother of Aumerle, and Joan Holland, who bore no children *** The Duchess of York (2) (hist) is the wife of Richard, Duke of York (1) in Henry VI, Part 3. She outlives him to mourn the death of two of their sons in Richard III. * Duke (title): ** The Duke of Albany is Goneril's husband in King Lear. ** The Duke of Alençon (hist) is one of the French leaders in Henry VI, Part 1. ** The Duke of Arragon is an unsuccessful suitor to Portia in The Merchant of Venice. ** For Duke of Austria see Limoges. ** For Duke of Bedford see Prince John of Lancaster. ** The Duke of Berry (hist) is a French leader in Henry V. ** The Duke of Bourbon (hist) fights on the French side in Henry V. ** The Duke of Britain (hist) is a French leader in Henry V. ** Duke of Buckingham: *** The Duke of Buckingham (1) (hist) is a Lancastrian in Henry VI, Part 2. His death is reported in Henry VI, Part 3. *** The Duke of Buckingham (2) (hist) is a Yorkist in Henry VI, Part 3, and is a co-conspirator with Richard – although he is eventually rejected, then murdered on Richard's orders – in Richard III. *** The Duke of Buckingham (3) (hist), an enemy of Wolsey, falls from grace and is executed by Henry in Henry VIII. ** Duke of Burgundy: *** The Duke of Burgundy (1) (hist) brokers the peace treaty between the kings of France and England in the last act of Henry V. *** The Duke of Burgundy (2) (hist) fights firstly in alliance with the English, and later in alliance with the French, in Henry VI, Part 1. *** The Duke of Burgundy (3) refuses to marry Cordelia without a dowry, in King Lear. ** Duke of Clarence: *** George, Duke of Clarence (hist) is the younger brother of Edward and the elder brother of Richard in Henry VI, Part 3 and Richard III. He is often known as "perjured Clarence", having broken his oath to Warwick and fighting instead for his brother's faction. He is eventually drowned in a butt of malmesy wine. *** Thomas, Duke of Clarence (hist) is Hal's younger brother, who appears in Henry IV, Part 2 and Henry V. ** The Duke of Cornwall is Regan's husband, who puts out Gloucester's eyes, in King Lear. ** Duke of Exeter: *** The Duke of Exeter (1) (hist) is an uncle of Henry V. He acts as emissary to the French King in Henry V. He has a more choric role in Henry VI, Part 1. *** The Duke of Exeter (2) (hist) is a Lancastrian leader in Henry VI, Part 3. ** The Duke of Florence discusses the progress of the war with the two French Lords, the brothers Dumaine, in All's Well That Ends Well. ** Duke Frederick is the villain (the usurper of Duke Senior) in As You Like It. ** Duke of Gloucester: *** Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (hist) appears as a brother of Hal in Henry IV, Part 2 and Henry V. He is a much more important character as the protector in Henry VI, Part 1 and Henry VI, Part 2, in which he is murdered by his rivals. *** Richard, Duke of Gloucester, later Richard III (hist), brave but evil, is the third son of Richard, Duke of York (1). He is a fairly minor character in Henry VI, Part 2, is more prominent in Henry VI, Part 3, and is the title character – and murderer of many other characters – in Richard III. *** See also Earl of Gloucester. ** Duke of Lancaster: *** John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster (hist), uncle to King Richard and father to Bolingbroke, dies in Richard II, having delivered his famous "This sceptred isle..." speech. *** See also Bolingbroke, son to John of Gaunt, who claims the dukedom of Lancaster on his father's death. ** Duke of Milan *** The Duke of Milan is patron to both Valentine and Proteus, and is the father of Silvia, in The Two Gentlemen of Verona. *** See also Prospero and Antonio from The Tempest, who are dukes of Milan. ** Duke of Norfolk: *** The Duke of Norfolk (hist) is a supporter of the Yorkists in Henry VI, Part 3 and Richard III. *** The Duke of Norfolk (hist & hist) is an associate of Buckingham in Henry VIII. *** Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk (hist) is Bolingbroke's enemy, exiled by Richard, in Richard II. ** The Duke of Orleans (hist) fights on the French side in Henry V. ** Duke Senior is the father of Rosalind. He is the true duke, and has been usurped by his brother, Duke Frederick, at the start of As You Like It. ** Duke of Somerset: *** The Duke of Somerset (1) (hist) is a follower of King Henry in Henry VI, Part 1. *** The Duke of Somerset (2) (hist) appears among the Lancastrian faction in Henry VI, Part 2. His head is carried onstage by Richard (later Richard III) in the opening scene of Henry VI, Part 3. *** The Duke of Somerset (3) (hist and hist) is a conflation by Shakespeare of two historical Dukes of Somerset. He supports both factions at different stages of Henry VI, Part 3. ** Duke of Suffolk: *** The Duke of Suffolk (hist) is a courtier, cynical about the King's relationship with Anne Bullen, in Henry VIII. *** The Duke of Suffolk (William de la Pole) (hist) is a manipulative character, loved by Queen Margaret, in Henry VI, Part 1 and Henry VI, Part 2. ** The Duke of Surrey (hist) accuses Aumerle of plotting Woodstock's death in Richard II. ** Duke of Venice: *** The Duke of Venice tries the case between Shylock and Antonio in The Merchant of Venice. *** The Duke of Venice hears Brabantio's complaint against Othello in Othello. ** For Duke of Vienna see Vincentio in Measure for Measure. ** Duke of York: *** The Duke of York (1) (hist) is the uncle of both Richard and Bolingbroke in Richard II. *** The Duke of York (2) (hist) is a minor character, the leader of the "vaward" in Henry V. (Historically this character is the same person as Aumerle.) *** Richard, Duke of York (1) (hist) is a central character in Henry VI, Part 1, Henry VI, Part 2, and Henry VI, Part 3. He is the Yorkist claimant to the throne of England, in opposition to Henry VI, and he is eventually killed on the orders of Queen Margaret. *** Richard, Duke of York (2) (hist) is the younger of the two princes in the tower, murdered on the orders of Richard in Richard III. ** For The Duke in Measure for Measure, see Vincentio. ** Numerous characters are Dukes, including Antonio (from The Tempest), Orsino, Prospero, Solinus, Theseus and Vincentio (from Measure for Measure). * Dull is a constable in Love's Labour's Lost. * Dumaine: ** Dumaine (hist), with Berowne and Longaville, is one of the three companions of The King of Navarre in Love's Labour's Lost. ** See also the two Lords in All's Well That Ends Well, who are described as the brothers Dumaine. * Duncan (hist) is the king of Scotland, murdered in Macbeth. * A Dutchman, a Frenchman and a Spaniard are guests of Philario, in Cymbeline. ==E== * Earl (title): ** Lord Stanley, Earl of Derby (hist) is a military leader who ultimately reveals his loyalty to the Richmond faction, in spite of his son being a hostage to Richard, in Richard III. ** The Earl of Douglas (hist) leads the Scottish rebel forces in Henry IV, Part 1. ** The Earl of Essex (hist) is a minor character in King John. ** The Earl of Cambridge (hist) is one of the three conspirators against the king's life (with Scroop and Grey) in Henry V. ** The Earl of Gloucester is the father of Edgar and Edmund, who has his eyes put out by the Duke of Cornwall, in King Lear. ** The Earl of Grandpre (hist), a French leader, makes an unduly optimistic speech on the morning of Agincourt, in Henry V. ** The Earl of Huntingdon (hist) is a non-speaking follower of the king in Henry V. ** The Earl of Kent in King Lear is a follower of Lear who evades banishment by disguising himself as a servant, and calling himself Caius. ** Earl of Northumberland: *** The Earl of Northumberland, Henry Percy, (hist) is an important character in Richard II, where he is Bolingbroke's chief ally, and in Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2, in which he leads the rebellion against his former ally, who is now king. *** The Earl of Northumberland (hist) fights for the Lancastrians in Henry VI, Part 3. *** See also Seyward in Macbeth. ** The Earl of Oxford (hist) is a staunch Lancastrian, supporting Henry in Henry VI, Part 3, and Richmond in Richard III. ** Earl of Pembroke: *** The Earl of Pembroke (hist), together with Salisbury and Bigot, fear for the life of young Arthur, and later discover his body, in King John. *** The Earl of Pembroke (hist) is a non-speaking Yorkist in Henry VI, Part 3. ** The Earl of Richmond, later King Henry VII (hist) leads the rebellion against the cruel rule of Richard III, and eventually succeeds him as king. ** Earl Rivers (hist), is the brother to Queen Elizabeth in Richard III. He is arrested and executed on the orders of Richard and Buckingham. ** Earl of Salisbury: *** The Earl of Salisbury (hist) delivers bad news to Constance, in King John. *** The Earl of Salisbury (hist) remains loyal to King Richard in Richard II. *** The Earl of Salisbury (hist) fights for the king in Henry V. He is killed by the Master Gunner's Boy in Henry VI, Part 1. *** The Earl of Salisbury (hist) supports the Yorkists in Henry VI, Part 2. ** Earl of Surrey: *** The Earl of Surrey (hist) is a supporter of the king in Henry IV, Part 2. *** The Earl of Surrey (hist) is a son-in-law of Buckingham in Henry VIII. ** Earl of Warwick: *** The Earl of Warwick (1) (hist) is a supporter of the kings in Henry IV, Part 2 and Henry V. *** The Earl of Warwick (2) (hist) is an important player in the Wars of the Roses, firstly for the Yorkist party, and then for the Lancastrians. He appears in Henry VI, Part 1, Henry VI, Part 2, and Henry VI, Part 3. ** Earl of Westmoreland: *** The Earl of Westmoreland (1) (hist) is one of the leaders of the royal forces in Henry IV, Part 1, Henry IV, Part 2, and Henry V. *** The Earl of Westmoreland (2) (hist) fights for King Henry in Henry VI, Part 3. ** The Earl of Worcester (hist) is the brother of the Earl of Northumberland, and a leader of the rebel forces, in Henry IV, Part 1. * Edgar is the worthy, legitimate son of Gloucester in King Lear. He disguises himself as "Poor Tom". * Edmund: ** Edmund is the bastard son of Gloucester, and the most calculating of the villains, in King Lear. ** Edmund Mortimer (1) (hist) is a claimant to the English throne, and a leader of the rebel forces, in Henry IV, Part 1. ** Edmund Mortimer (2) (hist) explains the Yorkist claim to the crown to Richard Duke of York (1), in Henry VI, Part 1. * Edward: ** Edward later King Edward IV (hist) is the eldest son of Richard, Duke of York (1) in Henry VI, Part 2 and Henry VI, Part 3 – in which he becomes king. He dies in Richard III. ** Prince Edward: *** Prince Edward (hist) is the son of Henry VI, who joins his mother Queen Margaret as a leader of the Lancastrian forces in Henry VI, Part 3. He is killed by the three Yorks (Edward, George and Richard). *** Prince Edward of York later King Edward V (hist) is the eldest son of Edward IV and Queen Elizabeth. He appears in Henry VI, Part 3, and is the elder of the two princes in the tower in Richard III. ** See also Ned. * Egeon is a merchant from Syracuse, father of the Antipholus twins in The Comedy of Errors. He is under Solinus's sentence of death unless he can pay a thousand marks' fine. * Egeus (myth) is the father of Hermia in A Midsummer Night's Dream. He wishes to have her married, against her will, to Demetrius. * Sir Eglamour assists Silvia's escape from her father's palace, in The Two Gentlemen of Verona. * Elbow is a dim-witted constable in Measure for Measure. * Eleanor: ** Eleanor, Duchess of Gloucester (hist) is the wife of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester in Henry VI, Part 2, in which she dabbles in witchcraft with disastrous results. ** Queen Eleanor (hist) is the mother of John in King John. She takes a liking to Philip the Bastard, and recruits him to John's court. ** Duchess of Gloucester (hist) is the widow of Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Woodstock, and uncle to the King in Richard II. Her given name, Eleanor de Bohun, is not mentioned in the play. * Queen Elizabeth (hist) is a suitor to, and then queen to, Edward IV in Henry VI, Part 3 and Richard III. She is a major character in the later play, and a foil to Richard. * Ely: ** The Bishop of Ely (1) (hist) conspires with the Archbishop of Canterbury in the opening scene of Henry V. ** The Bishop of Ely (2) (hist) ultimately shows his opposition to Richard, in Richard III. * Emmanuel the Clerk of Chatham (fict) is murdered by Jack Cade's rebels in Henry VI, Part 2. * Emilia: ** Emilia is the wife of Iago in Othello. She steals Desdemona's handkerchief for Iago. At the end of the play – too late to save Desdemona – she realises Iago's villainy, and exposes him, but is then murdered by him. ** Emilia is Hippolyta's sister in The Two Noble Kinsmen. Both title characters fall in love with her, leading to mortal conflict. ** Emilia is a lady attending on Hermione, both at court and in prison, in The Winter's Tale. ** See also Aemilia. *For Emillius see Aemilius. * An English Doctor is a minor character in Macbeth. * Enobarbus (hist & hist) is a major character in Antony and Cleopatra: a follower of Antony who later abandons him to join Caesar. * Ephesus: ** Antipholus of Ephesus, twin of Antipholus of Syracuse – with whom he is often confused, is a central character in The Comedy of Errors. ** Dromio of Ephesus, servant to Antipholus of Ephesus and twin of Dromio of Syracuse – with whom he is often confused, is a central character in The Comedy of Errors. ** See also Solinus, who is Duke of Ephesus. * Epilogue: ** An Epilogue and a Prologue (possibly the same player) appear in The Two Noble Kinsmen. ** An Epilogue and a Prologue (possibly the same player) appear in Henry VIII. ** An Epilogue (possibly the character Rumour) appears in Henry IV, Part 2. ** A number of characters speak epilogues, including Chorus (in Henry V), Gower, Prospero and Rosalind. ** See also Prologue and Chorus. * Eros is a follower of Antony in Antony and Cleopatra, who kills himself rather than obey Antony's order to kill him. * Sir Thomas Erpingham (hist) is an officer in the English army in Henry V. * Escalus: ** Escalus, Prince of Verona tries to keep the peace between Montague and Capulet, in Romeo and Juliet. ** Escalus is a lord involved in the government of Vienna, in Measure for Measure. * Escanes is a minor character in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. He converses with Helicanus about the strange death of Antiochus and his daughter. * The Earl of Essex (hist) is a minor character in King John. * Sir Hugh Evans is a Welsh priest in The Merry Wives of Windsor. He is challenged to a duel by Caius. He plays a fairy in the final act. * Exeter: ** The Duke of Exeter (1) (hist) is an uncle of Henry V. He acts as emissary to the French King in Henry V. He has a more choric role in Henry VI, Part 1. ** The Duke of Exeter (2) (hist) is a Lancastrian leader in Henry VI, Part 3. * Sir Piers of Exton (fict) murders the deposed King Richard in Richard II. ==F== * Fabian is a servant to Olivia, and one of the conspirators against Malvolio, in Twelfth Night. * A Fairy flirts with Puck in A Midsummer Night's Dream. * Sir John Falstaff (fict, but see Sir John Oldcastle and Sir John Fastolfe) is a central character of Henry IV, Part 1, Henry IV, Part 2, and The Merry Wives of Windsor. In the Henry plays, he is "bad angel" to prince Hal, and is eventually rejected by him. He is the lecherous gull of the title characters in Merry Wives. His death is reported in Henry V, although he is not a character in that play. He is perhaps the most famous supporting role in all of Shakespeare. * Fang is a constable in Henry IV, part 2. * Sir John Fastolfe (hist) is a coward, stripped of his garter in Henry VI, Part 1. * A Father who has killed his son at the Battle of Towton appears in Henry VI, Part 3. See also Son. * Faulconbridge: ** Lady Faulconbridge (fict) confesses to her son, the Bastard, that Richard the Lionheart, and not her husband, was his true father, in King John. ** Philip (the Bastard) Faulconbridge (fict) is a central character in King John, the bravest and most articulate of John's supporters. ** Robert Faulconbridge (fict) is the legitimate brother of the bastard in King John. He inherits his father's property. * Feeble is pressed into military service by Falstaff in Henry IV, Part 2. * Ferdinand: ** Ferdinand is the only son of Alonzo (King of Naples) in The Tempest. Ferdinand falls in love with Miranda, and his love is tested by Prospero. ** See also King of Navarre, whose first name is Ferdinand. * Fenton is a suitor to Anne Page in The Merry Wives of Windsor. * Feste is the clown and musician in Twelfth Night: a foil for Malvolio. * For Fidele see Imogen, who calls herself Fidele when disguised as a boy. * For "First...", see entries under the rest of the character's designation (e.g. Murderer for First Murderer, Player for First Player, etc.). * Three Fishermen befriend the shipwrecked Pericles, at Pentapolis, in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. * Lord Fitzwalter (hist) is among those who challenges Aumerle in Richard II. * Flaminius is a servant of Timon, sent – unsuccessfully – to seek money for his master from Lucullus, in Timon of Athens. * Flavius: ** Flavius is the loyal steward to Timon in Timon of Athens, who tries – and fails – to prevent his master's collapse into poverty. ** Flavius and Marullus are tribunes of the people, dismayed by the enthusiasm of the commoners for the return of Caesar, in the opening scene of Julius Caesar. * Fleance is the son of Banquo in Macbeth. He escapes when his father is murdered. * The Duke of Florence discusses the progress of the war with the two French Lords, the brothers Dumaine, in All's Well That Ends Well. * Florizel is the son of Polixines, and therefore prince of Bohemia, in The Winter's Tale. He elopes with Perdita when his father prevents their marriage. * The Fool is a recurring (though not continuous) character throughout the canon (see: Shakespearian fool): ** The Fool serves as a foil for the King in King Lear. ** A Fool appears briefly in Timon of Athens. ** See also Feste, Touchstone. ** See also Clown. * Fluellen (fict) is a Welsh captain in Henry V. * Francis Flute is a bellows-mender in A Midsummer Night's Dream. He plays Thisbe in Pyramus and Thisbe. * Ford: ** Master Ford is a central character in The Merry Wives of Windsor. He suspects his wife of infidelity with Sir John Falstaff. He tests Falstaff in disguise, calling himself Master Brook. ** Mistress Ford, Alice, wife of Master Ford, is a title character of The Merry Wives of Windsor. She pretends to accept Falstaff's overtures of love to her. * A Forester, a minor character, accompanies the Princess and her ladies in waiting on a shooting expedition in Love's Labour's Lost. * Fortinbras is a prince of Norway in Hamlet. He is a peripheral figure throughout the play, but arrives to take over the throne of Denmark after the death of the Danish royal family in the final act. * France: ** The Constable of France (hist) leads the French forces in Henry V. ** The Dauphin, later King Charles VII of France (hist) leads the French forces, with Joan, in Henry VI, Part 1. ** King of France: *** The King of France (myth) is the husband of Cordelia in King Lear. *** The King of France is cured by Helena, and in recompense he agrees to order Bertram to marry her, in All's Well That Ends Well. *** The King of France (hist) is Henry V's enemy in Henry V. *** King Lewis XI of France (hist), insulted by Edward IV's marriage to Lady Grey, allies himself with Warwick and Margaret in Henry VI, Part 3. *** King Philip of France (hist) allies himself with Constance in support of Arthur's claim, but later makes peace with John in King John. ** The Princess of France (hist) leads a diplomatic mission to Navarre and becomes romantically entangled with the King, in Love's Labour's Lost. ** The Queen of France (hist) appears in the last act of Henry V. * Francis: ** Francis is a confused drawer in Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2. ** Francis Flute is a bellows-mender in A Midsummer Night's Dream. He plays Thisbe in Pyramus and Thisbe. ** Friar Francis presides at the aborted marriage ceremony for Hero and Claudio, in Much Ado About Nothing. * Francisca is a nun, senior to Isabella, in Measure for Measure. * Francisco: ** Francisco is a soldier on watch at Elsinore, who appears briefly in the opening moments of Hamlet. ** Francisco is a lord, a follower of Alonso, in The Tempest. * For Frank see Master Ford, whose first name is Frank. * Duke Frederick is the villain (the usurper of Duke Senior) in As You Like It. * A Frenchman, a Dutchman and a Spaniard are guests of Philario, in Cymbeline. * Friar (title): ** Friar Francis presides at the aborted marriage ceremony for Hero and Claudio, in Much Ado About Nothing. ** Friar John is a minor character, who is unable to deliver a crucial letter from Friar Laurence to Romeo, in Romeo and Juliet. ** Friar Laurence is confessor and confidant to Romeo in Romeo and Juliet. He instigates the unsuccessful plot involving the potion drunk by Juliet. ** Friar Peter assists Isabella and Mariana in the final act of Measure for Measure. ** Friar Thomas leads an order of friars, and assists Vincentio to disguise himself as a friar, in Measure for Measure. ** For The Friar or Friar Lodowick in Measure for Measure, see Vincentio. * Two Friends of the Jailer bring him news of his pardon, in The Two Noble Kinsmen. * For Friz, see Countrywomen. * Froth is a foolish gentleman, among those arrested and brought before Angelo by Elbow, in Measure for Measure. ==G== * Gadshill (fict) is the "setter" of the Gadshill robbery in Henry IV, Part 1. * For Gaius see Caius. * Gallus (hist) is a follower of Caesar in Antony and Cleopatra. * Gaoler: ** A Gaoler has custody of Egeon in The Comedy of Errors. ** Several Gaolers, one a speaking role, guard Mortimer in Henry VI, Part 1. ** See also Jailer. * For Ganymede see Rosalind. * Gardener: ** A gardener (with his men) encounters the Queen in Richard II. ** Two gardener's men, with the gardener, encounter the Queen in Richard II. * Gardiner: ** Gardiner (hist) is the King's secretary, later Bishop of Winchester, and Cranmer's chief enemy, in Henry VIII. ** Gardiner's Page is a minor role in Henry VIII. * Gargrave (hist) fights for the English in France in Henry VI, Part 1. * The Host of the Garter is the practical-joking innkeeper in The Merry Wives of Windsor. * John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster (hist), uncle to King Richard and father to Bolingbroke, dies in Richard II, having delivered his famous "This sceptred isle..." speech. * Gentleman: ** A gentleman discusses the plight of mad Ophelia with Horatio in Hamlet. ** A gentleman agrees to present Helena's petition to the King of France, in the last act of All's Well That Ends Well. ** A gentleman reports the arrival of knights to battle for the love of Emilia, in The Two Noble Kinsmen. ** Two gentlemen (fict) are ransomed for a thousand crowns each in Henry VI, Part 2. ** Two gentlemen open the action of Cymbeline, explaining the backstory. ** Two gentlemen of Ephesus witness Cerimon's discovery of Thaisa, in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. ** Two gentlemen of Mytilene are converted from lives of debauchery by Marina's preaching, in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. ** Two gentlemen (fict) are mid-sized roles in Henry VIII. Their conversations perform a choric function at the execution of Buckingham and (together with a third gentleman) at the coronation of Anne Bullen. ** "Two or three" gentlemen of Tyre, one a speaking role, appear in the shipboard reconciliation scene between Pericles and Marina in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. ** Four gentlemen, with Montano, witness the dispersal of the Turkish fleet and Othello's arrival at Cyprus in Othello. ** A number of gentlemen (possibly three, although it impossible to know for certain how Shakespeare intended them to be doubled) are speaking roles in King Lear. * Gentlewoman: ** A Gentlewoman attending on Lady Macbeth witnesses her sleepwalking, with the Scottish Doctor, in Macbeth. ** A Gentlewoman attends on Virgilia, in Coriolanus * George: ** George (fict) is a follower of Jack Cade in Henry VI, Part 2. ** George, Duke of Clarence (hist) is the younger brother of Edward and the elder brother of Richard in Henry VI, Part 3 and Richard III. He is often known as "purjured Clarence", having broken his oath to Warwick and fighting instead for his brother's faction. He is eventually drowned in a butt of malmesy wine. ** George Seacoal is a member of the Watch in Much Ado About Nothing. ** See also Master Page, whose first name is George. * Gerald is a pedantic schoolmaster, who leads the Maying entertainments in The Two Noble Kinsmen. * Queen Gertrude is the protagonist's mother in Hamlet. She has married Claudius. * Ghost. The following characters appear as Ghosts. See the entries under their character name: ** Banquo ** Julius Caesar ** Old Hamlet ** in Cymbeline: *** Sicilius Leonantus *** The Mother of Posthumus *** Two brothers of Posthumus ** and in Richard III: *** Dorset *** The Duke of Buckingham (2) *** Earl Rivers *** George, Duke of Clarence *** Grey *** Henry VI *** Lady Anne *** Lord Hastings *** Prince Edward *** Prince Edward of York *** Richard Duke of York (2) ** Antigonus in The Winter's Tale reports seeing the ghost of Hermione in a dream. ** For "Ghost characters" in the other sense – characters mentioned in stage directions but having no lines and playing no part in the action – see Ghost character. Ghost characters in that sense are not listed on this page. * Girl (hist) in Richard III is the young daughter of the murdered Clarence. * Glansdale (fict) fights for the English in France in Henry VI, Part 1. * Owen Glendower (hist), a warrior and magician who tries the patience of Hotspur, leads the Welsh forces in the rebellion in Henry IV, Part 1. * Gloucester: ** The Duchess of Gloucester (hist) is the widow of Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester. His murder (before the play opens) drives much of the action of Richard II. ** The Earl of Gloucester is the father of Edgar and Edmund, who has his eyes put out by the Duke of Cornwall, in King Lear. ** Eleanor, Duchess of Gloucester (hist) is the wife of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester in Henry VI, Part 2, in which she dabbles in witchcraft with disastrous results. ** Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (hist) appears as a brother of Hal in Henry IV, Part 2 and Henry V. He is a much more important character as the protector in Henry VI, Part 1 and Henry VI, Part 2, in which he is murdered by his rivals. ** Richard, Duke of Gloucester, later Richard III (hist), brave but evil, is the third son of Richard, Duke of York (1). He is a fairly minor character in Henry VI, Part 2, is more prominent in Henry VI, Part 3, and is the title character – and murderer of many other characters – in Richard III. * Gobbo: ** Launcelot Gobbo is a clown in The Merchant of Venice, a servant to Shylock, and later to Lorenzo. ** Old Gobbo, the blind old father of Launcelot Gobbo, is a clown in The Merchant of Venice. * Goneril is the cruel eldest daughter in King Lear. She is married to the Duke of Albany. * Gonzalo is a courtier to Alonzo in The Tempest. * For Robin Goodfellow see Puck. * Matthew Gough (hist) is an enemy of Jack Cade's rebels in Henry VI, Part 2. * Governor: ** The Governor of Harfleur (hist) surrenders to Henry V. ** The Governor of Paris has an oath of allegiance administered to him by Gloucester (but has no lines of his own) in Henry VI, Part 1. * Gower: ** Gower (fict) is a messenger to the Lord Chief Justice in Henry IV, Part 2. ** Gower (fict) is an English captain in Henry V. ** John Gower (hist) is the "Presenter", or narrator, of Pericles, Prince of Tyre. * The Earl of Grandpre (hist), a French leader, makes an unduly optimistic speech on the morning of Agincourt, in Henry V. * Gratiano: ** Gratiano is a hot-headed friend of Antonio and Bassanio in The Merchant of Venice. He marries Narissa. ** Gratiano is Brabantio's brother in Othello. * Gravedigger. The First Gravedigger and the Second Gravedigger are clowns in Hamlet. Hamlet's conversation with the First Gravedigger over Yorick's skull is possibly the most famous scene in Shakespeare. * Green (hist) is a favourite of Richard in Richard II. * Gregory and Sampson, two men of the Capulet household, open the main action of Romeo and Juliet with their aggressive and lecherous banter. * Gremio is an elderly suitor to Bianca in The Taming of the Shrew. * Grey: ** Grey (hist) and Dorset (hist) are the two sons of Queen Elizabeth from her first marriage, who are arrested and executed on the orders of Buckingham and Richard in Richard III. ** Sir Thomas Grey (hist) is one of the three conspirators against the king's life (with Cambridge and Scroop) in Henry V. ** For Lady Grey see Queen Elizabeth. * Griffith (hist) is a gentleman usher to Katherine, in Henry VIII. * A groom of the King's stable (fict) visits the imprisoned Richard at Pontefract in Richard II. * Grumio is a servant to Petruchio in The Taming of the Shrew. * Guard/Guardsman: ** Several Guards (two of them minor speaking roles), together with Dercetus, discover the mortally wounded Antony in Antony and Cleopatra. ** Two Guards (or Guardsmen) keep an unsuccessful suicide watch over Cleopatra, in Antony and Cleopatra. * Guiderius (also known as Polydore) is the true heir of the kingdom in Cymbeline, stolen away in infancy by Morgan, and brought up as Morgan's child. * Guildenstern and Rosencrantz, in Hamlet, are two former friends of the prince, invited to the Danish court to spy on him. They eventually accompany Hamlet towards England, but he escapes while they continue with the journey, to their deaths. * Sir Henry Guildford (hist) welcomes guests to Cardinal Wolsey's party, in Henry VIII. * Gunner: ** The Master Gunner of Orleans leaves his boy in charge of the artillery, in Henry VI, Part 1. ** The Master Gunner's Boy kills Salisbury, in Henry VI, Part 1. * James Gurney (fict) is a servant of Lady Faulconbridge, in King John. ==H== [[File:Edwin Booth Hamlet.jpg|thumb|Edwin Booth (1833–1894), as Hamlet, c. 1870. Booth is in the position on the throne where he is said to have begun the monologue: To be or not to be, that is the question. (Hamlet, Act III, Scene 1, line 64).Based on the description in the Library of Congress for this photo, labeled: "Edwin Booth [as] Hamlet 'to be or not to be, that is the question', CALL NUMBER: LOT 13714, no. 125 (H) [P&P;]."]] * A Haberdasher is verbally abused by Petruchio in The Taming of the Shrew. * Hal, later King Henry V (sometimes called The Prince of Wales, Prince Henry or just Harry) (hist) is a central character in Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2 and is the title character of Henry V. He has a closer relationship with Falstaff than with his father (Henry IV), but he eventually ascends the throne, rejects Falstaff, and leads the English to victory at Agincourt. * Hamlet: ** Prince Hamlet (myth) is the central character of Hamlet. He is a prince of Denmark, called on to avenge his father's (Old Hamlet's) murder by Claudius. ** Old Hamlet (myth) is the father of the protagonist in Hamlet. His ghost appears to exhort Hamlet to revenge Old Hamlet's murder by Claudius. * Harcourt is a messenger to the king in Henry IV, Part 2. * The Governor of Harfleur (hist) surrenders to Henry in Henry V. * Harry: ** Hotspur or Harry Percy (hist), brave and chivalrous but hot-headed and sometimes comical, is an important foil to Hal, and leader of the rebel forces, in Henry IV, Part 1. ** See also Hal, Bolingbroke. ** See also "Henry". * Hastings: ** Hastings Pursuivant is a minor character who meets his namesake, Lord Hastings, in Richard III. ** Lord Hastings (hist) is the prime minister, beheaded on Richard's orders in Richard III. * For Hecat see Hecate. * Hecate is a leader of the witches in Macbeth. * Hector (myth), son of Priam, is the Trojans' champion in Troilus and Cressida. * Helen: ** Helen (myth), the mythological Helen of Troy, is the wife of Menelaus who has been stolen away by Paris, and is thefore the cause of the wars fought in Troilus and Cressida. ** Helen is a lady attending on Imogen in Cymbeline. ** See also Nell. ** See also Helena. * Helena: ** Helena, the ward of the Countess of Rousillon, is the central character of All's Well That Ends Well. She is married to Bertram against his will, but she eventually wins his love. ** Helena, formerly loved by Demetrius, has been rejected by him at the start of A Midsummer Night's Dream. * Helenus (myth) is a priest, and brother of Hector and Troilus. He is a minor character in Troilus and Cressida. * Helicanus is a lord in Pericles, trusted with the government of Tyre during Pericles' absences. * Henry: ** Bolingbroke, later King Henry IV (hist) leads a revolt against King Richard in Richard II. He is the title character of Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2, which chart the rebellions against him by the Percy faction, and his difficult relationship with his eldest son, Hal. ** Hal, later King Henry V (sometimes called The Prince of Wales, Prince Henry or just Harry) (hist) is a central character in Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2 and is the title character of Henry V. ** King Henry VI (hist), the title character of Henry VI, Part 1, Henry VI, Part 2, and Henry VI, Part 3, is a weak and ineffectual king, and the plays chart the rebellions against him, leading to his overthrow and murder.Edward Burns (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series) "King Henry VI Part 1"Andrew S. Cairncross (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (2nd series) "King Henry VI Part 3" ** The Earl of Richmond, later King Henry VII (hist) leads the rebellion against the cruel rule of Richard III, and eventually succeeds him as king. ** King Henry VIII (hist) is the central character of the play Henry VIII, portrayed as a wise and strong ruler. ** The Earl of Northumberland, Henry Percy, (hist) is an important character in Richard II, where he is Bolingbroke's chief ally, and in Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2, in which he leads the rebellion against his former ally, who is now king. ** Prince Henry (hist) appears towards the end of King John, as successor to the title character. ** Sir Henry Guildford (hist) welcomes guests to Cardinal Wolsey's party, in Henry VIII. ** See also Hotspur (whose real name is Henry Percy). ** See also "Harry" * Herald: ** A Herald calls for a champion to face Edmund in King Lear. ** A Herald brings news to Theseus of noble prisoners taken in battle, including the title characters of The Two Noble Kinsmen. ** A Herald announces victory celebrations in Othello. ** A Herald announces Coriolanus' return to Rome in Coriolanus. ** Two Heralds one French, one English, claim victory before the walls of Angers in King John. Neither of them persuades Hubert. * Sir Walter Herbert is a follower of Richmond in Richard III. * Hermia loves Lysander, and is loved by Demetrius, at the start of A Midsummer Night's Dream. * Hermione is the wife of Leontes in The Winter's Tale. She suffers as a result of his mistaken belief in her infidelity. At the end of the play she appears to return from the dead, having appeared as a statue. * Hero falls in love with Claudio in Much Ado About Nothing. She is wronged by Don John and Borachio, and is abandoned at the altar, and left for dead, by Claudio. * Hippolyta (myth) is a leader of the Amazons, who is the bride of Theseus in A Midsummer Night's Dream and The Two Noble Kinsmen. * Holofernes is a pedantic schoolmaster in Love's Labour's Lost. He plays Judas Maccabeus in the Pageant of the Nine Worthies. * Horatio is a student, and a friend and confidant of the protagonist in Hamlet. * Thomas Horner (fict) fights a duel with his apprentice Peter Thump in Henry VI, Part 2. * Hortensio is a friend to Petruchio and suitor to Bianca in The Taming of the Shrew. He disguises himself as a music teacher in order to pursue Bianca, but ultimately loses her and marries a rich widow. * Hortensius is a servant, sent to extract payment of a debt from Timon in Timon of Athens. * Host: ** The Host of the Garter is the practical-joking innkeeper in The Merry Wives of Windsor. ** The Host of Julia's lodgings brings the disguised Julia into Proteus' company, in The Two Gentlemen of Verona. * Hostess: ** The Hostess of an alehouse throws out the unruly Sly, amidst an argument about broken glasses in the induction to The Taming of the Shrew. ** See also Mistress Quickly, who is often referred to as "hostess". * For Hostilius in Timon of Athens, see Strangers. * Hotspur or Harry Percy (hist), brave and chivalrous but hot-headed and sometimes comical, is an important foil to Hal, and leader of the rebel forces, in Henry IV, Part 1. * Hubert (hist) is a henchman of the king in King John. He resolves to put out Arthur's eyes, on John's orders, but eventually relents. * Hugh: ** Hugh Oatcake is a member of the Watch in Much Ado About Nothing. ** Hugh Rebeck, Simon Catling and James Soundpost are minor characters, musicians, in Romeo and Juliet. ** Sir Hugh Evans is a Welsh priest in The Merry Wives of Windsor. He is challenged to a duel by Caius. He plays a fairy in the final act. ** Sir Hugh Mortimer (hist) is an uncle of Richard Duke of York (1) in Henry VI, Part 3. * Hume, with Southwell, Jourdain and Bolingbroke, are the supernatural conspirators with Eleanor Duchess of Gloucester in Henry VI, Part 2. * Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (hist) appears as a brother of Hal in Henry IV, Part 2 and Henry V. He is a much more important character as the protector in Henry VI, Part 1 and Henry VI, Part 2, in which he is murdered by his rivals. * The Earl of Huntingdon (hist) is a non-speaking follower of the king in Henry V. * Several Huntsmen, two of whom are speaking roles, accompany the Lord in the induction to The Taming of the Shrew. * Hymen (myth), the Greek god of marriage, is a character in As You Like It, and is a non-speaking role in the opening scene of The Two Noble Kinsmen. ==I== * For Iachimo see Jachimo. * Iago is the villain (and the main character, measured by the number of lines spoken) of Othello. * Alexander Iden (hist) kills Jack Cade in Henry VI, Part 2. * Imogen is the daughter of the king in Cymbeline. Her husband, Posthumus, wrongly believes she has been unfaithful and orders her killed. * Iras is an attendant on Cleopatra, in Antony and Cleopatra. She dies following a kiss from Cleopatra. * Iris (myth) is depicted by a masquer in The Tempest. * Isabella (sometimes addressed as Isabel) is the virtuous central female character in Measure for Measure: a novice nun who pleads to Angelo for the life of her brother Claudio. * For Isidore's Servant, see servant. ==J== * Jachimo is a villain in Cymbeline. He persuades Posthumus, wrongly, that he has slept with Posthumus' wife, Imogen. * Jack: ** Jack Cade (hist) leads a proletarian rebellion in Henry VI, Part 2. ** See also John: especially Sir John Falstaff, who is often addressed as Jack. * Jacquenetta is described as a light wench, and is the love interest of many comic characters in Love's Labour's Lost. * Jailer: ** Two Jailers guard the imprisoned Posthumus in Cymbeline. ** A Jailer keeps Palamon and Arcite in custody in The Two Noble Kinsmen. ** The Jailer's Brother accompanies his niece in her madness, in The Two Noble Kinsmen. ** The Jailer's Daughter develops an obsessive love for Palamon, and releases him from prison, in The Two Noble Kinsmen. She descends into madness. ** A sympathetic Jailer guards and commiserates with Antonio in The Merchant of Venice. ** See also Gaoler. * Jaques : ** Jaques is a melancholy lord in As You Like It. ** Jaques DeBoys is a brother to Oliver and Orlando in As You Like It. * James: ** James Gurney (fict) is a servant of Lady Faulconbridge, in King John. ** James Soundpost, Simon Catling and Hugh Rebeck are minor characters, musicians, in Romeo and Juliet. ** Sir James Blunt is a supporter of Richmond in Richard III. ** Sir James Tyrrell (hist) is employed to murder the princes in the tower in Richard III. * Jamy (fict) is a Scottish captain in Henry V. * Jane Nightwork (fict) is a married libertine, presumably, remembered wistfully by Shallow and Falstaff in Henry IV, Part 2. * Jessica is Shylock's daughter in The Merchant of Venice. She elopes with Lorenzo and converts to Christianity. * A Jeweller sells a jewel to Timon in Timon of Athens. * Joan la Pucelle (hist), better known to history as Joan of Arc, leads the Dauphin's forces against Talbot and the English in Henry VI, Part 1. Shakespeare presents her as an adulteress who fakes pregnancy in order to avoid being burnt at the stake. * John: ** Don John is the bastard brother of Don Pedro, and is the chief villain in Much Ado About Nothing. ** Friar John is a minor character, who is unable to deliver a crucial letter from Friar Laurence to Romeo, in Romeo and Juliet. ** John is a servingman of Mistress Ford: he carries Falstaff to Datchet Mead in a buck- basket, in The Merry Wives of Windsor. ** John Bates (fict) is a soldier the English army in Henry V. ** John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster (hist) is uncle to King Richard and father to Bolingbroke in Richard II. ** John Gower (hist) is the "Presenter", or narrator, of Pericles, Prince of Tyre. ** John Rugby is a servant to Caius in The Merry Wives of Windsor. ** John Talbot is the son of Sir John Talbot. They die together bravely in battle in Henry VI, Part 1. ** King John (hist) is the title character of King John: a king whose throne is under threat from the claim of his young nephew, Arthur. ** Prince John of Lancaster (hist) is the younger brother of Prince Hal in Henry IV, Part 1, Henry IV, Part 2, and Henry V. He is also the Duke of Bedford who is Regent of France in Henry VI, Part 1. ** Sir John Blunt is a supporter of the king in Henry IV, Part 2. ** Sir John Coleville is a rebel captured by Falstaff in Henry IV, Part 2. ** Sir John Falstaff (fict, but see Sir John Oldcastle and Sir John Fastolfe) is a central character of Henry IV, Part 1, Henry IV, Part 2, and The Merry Wives of Windsor. In the Henry plays, he is "bad angel" to prince Hal, and is eventually rejected by him. He is the lecherous gull of the title characters in Merry Wives. His death is reported in Henry V, although he is not a character in that play. He is (with Hamlet) one of the two most significant roles in Shakespeare. ** Sir John Fastolfe (hist) is a coward, stripped of his garter in Henry VI, Part 1. ** Sir John Montgomery (historically Thomas Montgomery) is a minor Yorkist character in Henry VI, Part 3. ** Sir John Mortimer (hist) is an uncle of Richard Duke of York (1) in Henry VI, Part 3. ** Sir John Stanley supervises Eleanor's penance in Henry VI, Part 2. ** Sir John Talbot (hist) is the leader of the English forces in France, and therefore the chief enemy of Joan, in Henry VI, Part 1. * Joseph is a servant of Petruchio in The Taming of the Shrew. * Jourdain, with Southwell, Hume and Bolingbroke, are the supernatural conspirators with Eleanor Duchess of Gloucester in Henry VI, Part 2. * Julia is the faithful lover of Proteus, who follows him disguised as a young man and is dismayed to discover his infatuation with Silvia, in The Two Gentlemen of Verona. * Juliet: ** Juliet is a title character in Romeo and Juliet. The daughter of Capulet, she falls in love with Romeo, the son of her father's enemy Montague, with tragic results. ** Juliet, lover of Claudio, becomes pregnant by him, leading to his death sentence, which begins the action of Measure for Measure. * Julius Caesar (hist) is the title character of Julius Caesar, an Emperor of Rome who is stabbed in the Capitol, on the Ides of March. * Junius Brutus and Sicinius Velutus, two of the tribunes of the people, are the hero's chief political enemies in Coriolanus, and prove more effective than his military foes. * Juno (myth) is presented by a masquer in The Tempest. * Jupiter (myth) hears the pleas of the ghosts of Posthumus' family, in Cymbeline. * Justice (title): ** A Justice is a minor role in the trial of Froth and Pompey, in Measure for Measure. ** The Lord Chief Justice (hist) is a dramatic foil to Falstaff in Henry IV, Part 2. ** Justice Shallow (fict) is an elderly landowner in Henry IV, Part 2 and The Merry Wives of Windsor. ** Justice Silence (fict) is an elderly friend of Justice Shallow in Henry IV, Part 2. ==K== * Kate: ** Kate Keepdown is a whore in Measure for Measure. ** See also Lady Percy. ** See also Katherine. * Katharine/Katherine: ** Katharine (hist) is the French princess who marries Henry V. ** Katharine is a lady attending on the Princess of France, in Love's Labour's Lost. She becomes emotionally attached to Dumaine. ** Katherine (sometimes "Kate" or "Katerina Minola") is the "shrew" from the title of The Taming of the Shrew, who is "tamed" by Petruchio. ** Queen Katherine of Aragon (hist) is the first wife of King Henry in Henry VIII. She falls from grace, is divorced and dies. ** See also Kate. * Keeper: ** A door keeper (fict) bars the entrance of Cranmer to the council chamber, in Henry VIII. ** A keeper (fict) gives Piers of Exton access to the imprisoned Richard in Richard II. ** Two keepers (fict) arrest the fugitive Henry in Henry VI, Part 3. * The Earl of Kent is a follower of the King in King Lear who evades banishment by disguising himself as a servant, and calling himself Caius. * King (title): ** First Player or Player King leads the company which visits Elsinore in Hamlet. He reads an excerpt as Priam, and plays the king in The Mousetrap. ** King Claudius is the uncle and stepfather of the prince in Hamlet. He has murdered his brother Old Hamlet, has taken over his crown, and has married his queen, Gertrude. ** King of France: *** The King of France (fict) is the husband of Cordelia in King Lear. *** The King of France is cured by Helena, and in recompense he agrees to order Bertram to marry her, in All's Well That Ends Well. *** The King of France (hist) is Henry's enemy in Henry V. *** The Dauphin, later King Charles VII of France (hist) leads the French forces, with Joan, in Henry VI, Part 1. *** King Lewis XI of France (hist), insulted by Edward IV's marriage to Lady Grey, allies himself with Warwick and Margaret in Henry VI, Part 3. *** King Philip of France (hist) allies himself with Constance in support of Arthur's claim, but later makes peace with John in King John. ** King Edward: *** Edward later King Edward IV (hist) is the eldest son of Richard, Duke of York (1) in Henry VI, Part 2 and Henry VI, Part 3 – in which he becomes king. He dies in Richard III. *** Prince Edward of York later King Edward V (hist) is the eldest son of Edward IV and Queen Elizabeth. He appears in Henry VI, Part 3, and is the elder of the two princes in the tower in Richard III. ** For King Hamlet see Old Hamlet. ** King Henry: *** Bolingbroke, later King Henry IV (hist) leads a revolt against King Richard in Richard II. He is the title character of Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2 which chart the rebellions against him by the Percy faction, and his difficult relationship with his eldest son, Hal. *** Hal, later King Henry V (sometimes called The Prince of Wales, Prince Henry or just Harry) (hist) is a central character in Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2 and is the title character of Henry V. He has a closer relationship with Falstaff than with his father (Henry IV), but he eventually ascends the throne, rejects Falstaff, and leads the English to victory at Agincourt. *** King Henry VI (hist), the title character of Henry VI, Part 1, Henry VI, Part 2, and Henry VI, Part 3, is a weak and ineffectual king, and the plays chart the rebellions against him, leading to his overthrow and murder. *** The Earl of Richmond, later King Henry VII (hist) leads the rebellion against the cruel rule of Richard III, and eventually succeeds him as king. *** King Henry VIII (hist) is the central character of the play Henry VIII, portrayed as a wise and strong ruler. ** King John (hist) is the title character of King John: a king whose throne is under threat from the claim of his young nephew, Arthur. ** King Lear is the central character of King Lear. He divides his kingdom among his two elder daughters, is rejected by them, runs mad, and dies. ** The King of Navarre (hist) and his three noble companions, Berowne, Dumaine, and Longaville, vow to study and fast for three years, at the outset of Love's Labour's Lost. ** King Richard: *** King Richard II (hist) is the title character of Richard II: a king who is deposed and eventually murdered. *** Richard, Duke of Gloucester, later King Richard III (hist), brave but evil, is the third son of Richard, Duke of York (1). He is a fairly minor character in Henry VI, Part 2, is more prominent in Henry VI, Part 3, and is the title character in Richard III. ** For King of Sparta see Menelaus. ** For King of Troy see Priam. ** A number of characters are kings, including Alonso, Antiochus, Leontes, Oberon, Polixines and Simonides. * Knight: ** Five knights, plus Pericles himself, compete in a tournament for the love of Thaisa, in Pericles, Prince of Tyre. ** Six knights, three of them attending Palamon, and three attending Arcite, appear in The Two Noble Kinsmen. Palamon's knights are speaking roles. ** A hundred knights, three of whom are speaking parts, and most of whom will inevitably be spoken of but never seen in performance, are followers of Lear in King Lear. ==References== ==Bibliography== ===Sources cited=== * ===General references=== * Anne Barton (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "The Tempest" * Edward Burns (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series) "King Henry VI Part 1" * Andrew S. Cairncross (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (2nd series) "King Henry VI Part 3" * John D. Cox and Eric Rasmussen (eds.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series) "King Henry VI Part 3" * T. W. Craik (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series) "King Henry V" * P. H. Davison (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Henry IV Part One" * P. H. Davison (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Henry IV Part Two" * Philip Edwards (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Pericles" * Bertrand Evans (ed.) The Signet Classic "The Two Gentlemen of Verona" * Barbara Everett (ed.) Penguin Shakespeare "All's Well That Ends Well" * R. A. Foakes (ed.) Penguin Shakespeare "Much Ado About Nothing" * R. A. Foakes (ed.) Penguin Shakespeare "Troilus and Cressida" * Charles R. Forker (ed.) The Adren Shakespeare (3rd series) "King Richard II" * Antony Hammond (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (2nd series) "King Richard III" * Robert B. Heilman (ed.) The Signet Classic "The Taming of the Shrew" * G.R. Hibbard (ed.) Penguin Shakespeare "Coriolanus" * G. R. Hibbard (ed.) Penguin Shakespeare "Timon of Athens" * E. A. J. Honigman (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Richard III" * E. A. J. Honigman (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (2nd series) "King John" * A. R. Humphreys (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (2nd series) "King Henry IV Part 1" * A. R. Humphreys (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (2nd series) "King Henry IV Part 2" * G. K. Hunter (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Macbeth" * G. K. Hunter (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "King Lear" * David Scott Kastan (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series) "King Henry IV Part 1" * John Kerrigan (ed.) Penguin Shakespeare "Love's Labour's Lost" * Ronald Knowles (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series) "King Henry VI Part II" * M. M. Mahood (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Twelfth Night" * Sonia Massai (ed.) Penguin Shakespeare "Titus Andronicus" * Gordon McMullan (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series) "King Henry VIII" * Giorgio Melchiori (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series) "The Merry Wives of Windsor" * E. Moelwyn Merchant (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "The Merchant of Venice" * Kenneth Muir (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Othello" * Kenneth Muir (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (2nd series) "Macbeth" * J. M. Nosworthy (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Measure for Measure" * H. J. Oliver (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "As You Like It" * John Pitcher (ed.) Penguin Shakespeare "Cymbeline" * Lois Potter (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series) "The Two Noble Kinsmen" * Norman Sanders (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Julius Caesar" * Ernest Schanzer (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "The Winter's Tale" * T. J. B. Spencer (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Romeo and Juliet" * T. J. B. Spencer (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "Hamlet" * Peter Ure (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (2nd series) "King Richard II" * Virginia Mason Vaughan and Alden T. Vaughan (eds.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series) "The Tempest" * Stanley Wells (ed.) Penguin Shakespeare "The Comedy of Errors" * Stanley Wells (ed.) New Penguin Shakespeare "A Midsummer Night's Dream" * John Wilders (ed.) The Arden Shakespeare (3rd Series) "Antony and Cleopatra" ==External links== * Open Source Shakespeare character list: counting the number of lines for each character. * Shakespearean characters: A-K Category:Lists of theatre characters Category:Lists of literary characters by writers |
TheatreWorks (Silicon Valley) is a non-profit, professional theater company based in Palo Alto, California. Over its five decade history the company has produced more than 400 shows. ==1970s== === 1970 season === Title Notes Popcorn World Premiere ===1971 season=== Title Notes Garden of Delights World Premiere Triad World Premiere Elements World Premiere Dreameaters World Premiere The Bungleberry Statement World Premiere Adventures Underground World Premiere ===1972 season=== Title Notes Gramdu World Premiere Bits World Premiere A New Song World Premiere Garden of Delights (Revival) Theatre of Marvels World Premiere The Children's Crusade World Premiere Collaboration World Premiere The Comedy of Errors ===1973–1974 season=== Title Notes Celebration (musical) Cry, Wolf World Premiere Odd Bodkins World Premiere An Italian Straw Hat As You Like It The Theatre of Marvels World Premiere Odd Bodkins (Revival) Cabaret Sideshow World Premiere Sliding Down the Rainbow World Premiere ===1974–1975 season=== Title Notes Spoon River Anthology A Man's A Man (Musical) World Premiere Chantecler (Musical) World Premiere The Country Wife (Musical) World Premiere The Tempest Theatre of Marvels World Premiere Under Milk Wood Sideshow II Memyself the Wicked Elf World Premiere ===1975–1976 season=== Title Notes Jacques Brel is Alive and Well and Living in Paris The Hostage Story Theatre (Musical) World Premiere Don Juan (Musical) World Premiere Romeo and Juliet Everyman (Musical) World Premiere Macbeth The Zoo Story The World of Carl Sandburg ===1976–1977 season=== Title Notes Berlin to Broadway with Kurt Weill Ah, Wilderness! The Gibson Girl World Premiere Thieves Carnival Two Gentlemen of Verona Godspell Kennedy's Children She Stoops to Conquer ===1977–1978 season=== Title Notes The Fantasticks The Mound Builders Northern California or West Coast Premiere The Robber Bridegroom Northern California or West Coast Premiere Much Ado About Nothing Scapino The Crucible Oliver! Twelfth Night The Goodbye People Northern California or West Coast Premiere ===1978–1979 season=== Title Notes Carnival The Misanthrope The Servant of Two Masters (Musical) World Premiere Vanities The Merchant of Venice Hold Me! Voices The Wizard of Oz The Tavern Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead Uncommon Women and Others ===1979–1980 season=== Title Notes The Country Wife (Revival) Charley's Aunt Side by Side by Sondheim The Taming of the Shrew The Time of Your Life The Comedy of Errors (Musical) World Premiere Cold Storage Northern California or West Coast Premiere La Ronde ==1980s== ===1980–1981 season=== Title Notes Working Northern California or West Coast Premiere Misalliance We're in the Money Northern California or West Coast Premiere A Midsummer Night's Dream Hamlet Festival Northern California or West Coast Premiere Salt Lake City Skyline Northern California or West Coast Premiere Sly Fox ===1981–1982 season=== Title Notes Man of La Mancha The Fireworks Rag World Premiere Whose Life Is It Anyway Northern California or West Coast Premiere The Merry Wives of Windsor On Golden Pond Northern California or West Coast Premiere Down River Northern California or West Coast Premiere Pippin Da Night of the Iguana ===1982–1983 season=== Title Notes Company Ain't Misbehavin' To Grandmother's House We Go Northern California or West Coast Premiere As You Like It Strider Northern California or West Coast Premiere Oliver! The Woolgatherer Northern California or West Coast Premiere The Great White Hope ===1983–1984 season=== Title Notes A Little Night Music The Belle of Bourbon Street World Premiere They're Playing Our Song Cyrano de Bergerac Spokesong Oliver! (Revival) Children of a Lesser God All's Fair Northern California or West Coast Premiere Through the Wilderness to the Stars World Premiere ===1984–1985 season=== Title Notes On the Razzle Northern California or West Coast Premiere Catsplay Northern California or West Coast Premiere Eubie Romeo and Juliet Tintypes Oliver! (Revival) The Elephant Man A Life Northern California or West Coast Premiere Saturday, Sunday, Monday Northern California or West Coast Premiere ===1985–1986 season=== Title Venue Notes ...And A Nightingale Sang Northern California or West Coast Premiere Baby Lucie Stern Theatre Northern California or West Coast Premiere Foxfire Twelfth Night Lucie Stern Fire Circle Anything for a Laugh Burgess Theater World Premiere Oliver! (Revival) Lucie Stern Theatre Baby (Revival) Lucie Stern Theatre Duet For One Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere "Master Harold"...and the Boys Merrily We Roll Along Lucie Stern Theatre Northern California or West Coast Premiere Lu Ann Hampton Laverty Oberlander Burgess Theater Catchpenny Twist Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere ===1986–1987 season=== Title Venue Notes Little Shop of Horrors Lucie Stern Theatre Home Isn't It Romantic Northern California or West Coast Premiere Talking With... Stage II Much Ado About Nothing Lucie Stern Fire Circle Brighton Beach Memoirs Oliver! (Revival) Lucie Stern Theatre 84 Charing Cross Road Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere Casualties Burgess Theater World Premiere Sunday in the Park with George Lucie Stern Theatre Taking Steps Northern California or West Coast Premiere ===1987–1988 season=== Title Venue Notes A...My Name is Alice Stage II You Can't Take It With You Lucie Stern Fire Circle The Rink Lucie Stern Theatre Northern California or West Coast Premiere The Learned Ladies Lucie Stern Theatre Benefactors Lucie Stern Theatre The Mystery of Edwin Drood Burgess Theater Cat's-paw Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere Peter Pan! Lucie Stern Theatre Eleemosynary Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere Rough Crossing Northern California or West Coast Premiere Pacific Overtures Lucie Stern Theatre In the Sweet Bye & Bye Northern California or West Coast Premiere ===1988–1989 season=== Title Venue Notes Pump Boys and Dinettes Stage II Two Gentlemen of Verona Lucie Stern Theatre Stepping Out Northern California or West Coast Premiere Dreamgirls Lucie Stern Theatre T Bone N Weasel Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere The Front Page Burgess Theater Peter Pan! (Revival) Lucie Stern Theatre Ma Rainey's Black Bottom Rags Northern California or West Coast Premiere The Boys Next Door Northern California or West Coast Premiere ===1989–1990 season=== Title Venue Notes Candide A Walk in the Woods Northern California or West Coast Premiere The Tempest The Voice of the Prairie Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere Broadway Bound Fraulein Dora Stage II World Premiere Oliver! (Revival) Tea No Way To Treat A Lady Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere Big River I'm Not Rappaport Our Lady of the Desert Stage II World Premiere ==1990s== ===1990–1991 season=== The Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts opened in 1991, with TheatreWorks producing 5 shows in the venue. The company also built their own black box theatre at the Cubberley Community Center in Palo Alto. Title Venue Notes Galileo Northern California or West Coast Premiere My Children! My Africa! Northern California or West Coast Premiere The Miser Lady Day at Emerson's Bar and Grill Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere Brilliant Traces Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere Emerald City Northern California or West Coast Premiere Into the Woods De Donde Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere Steel Magnolias Rashomon Vital Signs Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere Go Down Garvey Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts World Premiere ===1991–1992 season=== Title Venue Notes The Good Doctor Miami Lights Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Northern California or West Coast Premiere O Pioneers! Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Northern California or West Coast Premiere Hi-Hat Hattie! Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere Les Liaisons Dangereuses Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Peter Pan! (Revival) A Rosen by Any Other Name Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Northern California or West Coast Premiere Interpreters Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere Sweeney Todd Talk-Story Stage II World Premiere Shakin' the Mess Outta Misery Northern California or West Coast Premiere New Business Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere ===1992–1993 season=== Title Venue Notes Prelude to a Kiss The Human Comedy Northern California or West Coast Premiere M. Butterfly Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Love Letters Stage II God's Hands Stage II World Premiere Jar the Floor Northern California or West Coast Premiere Into the Woods (Revival) A Normal Life Northern California or West Coast Premiere Theme and Variations Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere Once on This Island Mrs. Klein Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere The Royal Hunt of the Sun Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Our Lady of the Tortilla Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere ===1993–1994 season=== Title Venue Notes La Bête Northern California or West Coast Premiere The Heidi Chronicles Northern California or West Coast Premiere Josephine Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts World Premiere Sparks Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere The Skin of Our Teeth Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Almost September Northern California or West Coast Premiere Marvin's Room Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Northern California or West Coast Premiere Tiny Tim is Dead Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere The World Goes 'Round Scotland Road Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere Honor Song for Crazy Horse Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts World Premiere A Small Delegation Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere ===1994–1995 season=== Title Venue Notes Ain't Misbehavin' Ah, Wilderness! A...My Name is Still Alice Stage II Nagasaki Dust Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Northern California or West Coast Premiere The Old Boy Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere Into the Woods (Revival)'' As You Like It Conversations with My Father Northern California or West Coast Premiere The Lady from Havana Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere The Secret Garden ===1995–1996 season=== Title Venue Notes If We Are Women Northern California or West Coast Premiere She Loves Me Broken Eggs Stage II Someone Who'll Watch Over Me Northern California or West Coast Premiere Tapestry, A Musical Revue of the Music of Carole King Stage II Northern California or West Coast Premiere The Man Who Came to Dinner Under Milk Wood Two Trains Running Wrong For Each Other Regional Premiere Passion Northern California or West Coast Premiere ===1996–1997 season=== Title Notes Equus Sweet & Hot: The Songs of Harold Arlen Northern California or West Coast Premiere You Never Can Tell Cabaret Holiday Memories Northern California or West Coast Premiere Voir Dire Northern California or West Coast Premiere Another Midsummer Night Northern California or West Coast Premiere Camping With Henry and Tom Northern California or West Coast Premiere ===1997–1998 season=== Title Notes Heart Land World Premiere Once in a Lifetime Blues for an Alabama Sky Northern California or West Coast Premiere Kiss of the Spider Woman Moon Over Buffalo Northern California or West Coast Premiere The Night of the Iguana Putting It Together Northern California or West Coast Premiere Romeo & Juliet ===1998–1999 season=== Title Notes Talley's Folly Raisin An American Daughter Northern California or West Coast Premiere Side Show Regional Premiere Present Laughter Amadeus Psychopathia Sexualis Northern California or West Coast Premiere The Joy Luck Club Northern California or West Coast Premiere ===1999–2000 season=== Title Venue Notes Sunday in the Park with George Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts As Bees in Honey Drown Northern California or West Coast Premiere Pride's Crossing Northern California or West Coast Premiere Violet Northern California or West Coast Premiere You Can't Take It With You Everything's Ducky Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts World Premiere Fences The Cripple of Inishmaan Northern California or West Coast Premiere ==2000s== ===2000–2001 season=== Title Venue Dates Notes Gypsy The Old Settler Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts July 22 – August 20, 2000 Northern California or West Coast Premiere Master Class Grapes of Wrath (play) Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts October 11 – November 5, 2000 Triumph of Love Northern California or West Coast Premiere The Last Night of Ballyhoo Northern California or West Coast Premiere Far East Northern California or West Coast Premiere Floyd Collins Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts April 11 – May 6, 2001 Northern California or West Coast Premiere ===2001–2002 season=== Title Venue Dates Notes Summer of '42 Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts June 23 – July 15, 2001 World Premiere Over the River and Through the Woods Lucie Stern Theatre Northern California or West Coast Premiere Pacific Overtures Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Spinning Into Butter Northern California or West Coast Premiere Charley's Aunt Old Money Northern California or West Coast Premiere Oo-Bla-Dee Northern California or West Coast Premiere Kept Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts April 13 – May 5, 2002 World Premiere ===2002–2003 season=== Title Venue Dates Notes Smokey Joe's Cafe Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts June 19 – July 14, 2002 Be Aggressive Lucie Stern Theatre July 17 – August 18, 2002 Northern California or West Coast Premiere Ragtime Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts September 4–29, 2002 The Syringa Tree Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts October 9 – November 3, 2002 Northern California or West Coast Premiere On Golden Pond Lucie Stern Theatre December 4, 2002 – January 5, 2003 Book of Days Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts January 15 – February 9, 2003 Northern California or West Coast Premiere The Legacy Codes Lucie Stern Theatre March 5 – April 6, 2003 World Premiere Jane Eyre (musical) Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts April 9 – May 4, 2003 Northern California or West Coast Premiere ===2003–2004 season=== Title Venue Dates Notes Proof (play) Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts June 21 – July 13, 2003 Bat Boy: The Musical Lucie Stern Theatre July 19 – August 10, 2003 Northern California or West Coast Premiere Nickel and Dimed Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts September 3–28, 2003 Northern California or West Coast Premiere A Little Night Music Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts October 11 – November 8, 2003 The Fourth Wall Lucie Stern Theatre Northern California or West Coast Premiere Memphis (musical) Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts January 21 – February 15, 2004 World Premiere All My Sons Lucie Stern Theatre My Antonia Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts April 3–25, 2004 World Premiere ===2004–2005 season=== Title Venue Dates Notes Arcadia Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Red Lucie Stern Theatre Northern California or West Coast Premiere A Little Princess Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts World Premiere Living Out Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts September 29 – October 31, 2004 Northern California or West Coast Premiere Striking 12 Lucie Stern Theatre December 1, 2004 – January 6, 2005 Northern California or West Coast Premiere Shakespeare in Hollywood Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts January 15 – February 13, 2005 Northern California or West Coast Premiere Vincent in Brixton Lucie Stern Theatre Northern California or West Coast Premiere Crowns Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Northern California or West Coast Premiere ===2005–2006 season=== Title Venue Dates Notes Dolly West's Kitchen Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Regional Premiere Harold & Maude: The Musical Lucie Stern Theatre Northern California or West Coast Premiere Intimate Apparel Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Northern California or West Coast Premiere Baby Taj Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts World Premiere Into the Woods Lucie Stern Theatre The Clean House Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Northern California or West Coast Premiere Anna in the Tropics Lucie Stern Theatre March 8 – April 2, 2006 Northern California or West Coast Premiere The Sisters Rosensweig Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts March 30 – April 30, 2006 ===2006–2007 season=== Title Venue Dates Notes Vanities, A New Musical Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts June 24 – July 16, 2006 World Premiere Brooklyn Boy Lucie Stern Theatre July 22 – August 11, 2006 Northern California or West Coast Premiere M. Butterfly Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts August 26 – September 17, 2006 Dessa Rose Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts October 4–29, 2006 Northern California or West Coast Premiere The Learned Ladies of Park Avenue Lucie Stern Theatre November 29 – December 31, 2006 Northern California or West Coast Premiere Ambition Facing West Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts January 20 – February 11, 2007 Northern California or West Coast Premiere Trying Lucie Stern Theatre March 7 – April 1, 2007 Northern California or West Coast Premiere Merrily We Roll Along (musical) Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts April 7–29, 2007 ===2007–2008 season=== Title Venue Dates Notes The Elephant Man Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts June 20 – July 15, 2007 Theophilus North Lucie Stern Theatre July 21 – August 12, 2007 Regional Premiere Emma Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts August 22 – September 16, 2007 World Premiere Golda's Balcony Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts October 3–28, 2007 Twelfth Night Lucie Stern Theatre November 28 – December 23, 2007 Third Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts January 16 – February 10, 2008 Regional Premiere Southern Comforts Lucie Stern Theatre March 8–30, 2008 Regional Premiere Caroline, Or Change Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts April 2–27, 2008 ===2008–2009 season=== Title Venue Dates Notes Snapshots Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts June 18 – July 13, 2008 Northern California or West Coast Premiere Doubt: A Parable Lucie Stern Theatre July 16 – August 18, 2008 Grey Gardens (musical) Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts August 20 – September 14, 2008 Northern California or West Coast Premiere Radio Golf Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts October 8 – November 8, 2008 Regional Premiere Long Story Short Lucie Stern Theatre December 3–28, 2008 World Premiere Twentieth Century (play) Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts January 14 – February 8, 2009 Regional Premiere It Ain't Nothin' But the Blues Lucie Stern Theatre March 11 – April 5, 2009 Regional Premiere Distracted Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts April 1–26, 2009 Regional Premiere ===2009–2010 season=== Title Venue Dates Notes Tinyard Hill Lucie Stern Theatre July 15 – August 16, 2009 World Premiere Yellow Face Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts August 26 – September 20, 2009 Regional Premiere The Chosen Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts October 7 – November 8, 2009 A Civil War Christmas Lucie Stern Theatre December 2–27, 2009 West Coast Premiere Daddy Long Legs Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts January 20 – February 14, 2010 World Premiere Sunsets and Margaritas Lucie Stern Theatre March 10 – April 4, 2010 West Coast Premiere To Kill A Mockingbird Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts April 7 – May 2, 2010 Opus Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts June 2–27, 2010 Regional Premiere ==2010s== ===2010–2011 season=== Title Venue Dates Notes Auctioning the Ainsleys Lucie Stern Theatre July 14 – August 8, 2010 World Premiere The Light in the Piazza Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts August 25 – September 19, 2010 Superior Donuts Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts October 6–31, 2010 Regional Premiere A Christmas Memory Lucie Stern Theatre December 1–26, 2010 World Premiere The 39 Steps Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts January 19 – February 20, 2011 The North Pool Lucie Stern Theatre March 9 – April 3, 2011 World Premiere Snow Falling on Cedars Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts March 30 – April 24, 2011 Regional Premiere [title of show] Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts June 1–26, 2011 Regional Premiere ===2011–2012 season=== Title Venue Dates Notes Fly By Night Lucie Stern Theatre July 13 – August 13, 2011 World Premiere Sense and Sensibility Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts August 24 – September 18, 2011 American Premiere Clementine in the Lower 9 Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts October 5–30, 2011 World Premiere The Secret Garden (musical) Lucie Stern Theatre November 30 – December 31, 2011 The Pitmen Painters Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts January 18 – February 12, 2012 West Coast Premiere Now Circa Then Lucie Stern Theatre March 7 – April 1, 2012 West Coast Premiere Of Mice and Men Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts April 4–29, 2012 Wheelhouse Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts June 6 – July 1, 2012 World Premiere ===2012–2013 season=== Title Venue Dates Notes Upright Grand Lucie Stern Theatre July 11 – August 5, 2012 World Premiere Time Stands Still Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts August 22 – September 16, 2012 Regional Premiere 33 Variations Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts October 3–28, 2012 Regional Premiere Big River Lucie Stern Theatre November 28 – December 30, 2012 Somewhere Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts January 16 – February 10, 2013 Regional Premiere The Mountaintop Lucie Stern Theatre March 6 – April 7, 2013 West Coast Premiere Being Earnest Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts April 3–28, 2013 World Premiere Wild with Happy Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts June 5 – June 30, 2013 West Coast Premiere ===2013–2014 season=== Title Venue Dates Notes The Loudest Man on Earth Lucie Stern Theatre July 10 – August 4, 2013 World Premiere Other Desert Cities Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts August 21 – September 15, 2013 Regional Premiere Warrior Class Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts October 9 – November 3, 2013 California Premiere Little Women Lucie Stern Theatre December 4, 2013 – January 4, 2014 Silent Sky Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts January 15 – February 9, 2014 Regional Premiere Once on This Island Lucie Stern Theatre March 5–30, 2014 The Hound of the Baskervilles Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts April 2–27, 2014 Regional Premiere Marry Me a Little Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts June 4 – June 29, 2014 ===2014–2015 season=== Title Venue Dates Notes The Great Pretender Lucie Stern Theatre July 9 – August 3, 2014 World Premiere Water by the Spoonful Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts August 20 – September 14, 2014 Regional Premiere Sweeney Todd Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts October 8 – November 2, 2014 Peter and the Starcatcher Lucie Stern Theatre December 3, 2014 – January 3, 2015 2 Pianos 4 Hands Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts January 14 – February 8, 2015 The Lake Effect Lucie Stern Theatre March 4 – March 29, 2015 West Coast Premiere Fire on the Mountain Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts April 1 – April 26, 2015 Regional Premiere Fallen Angels Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts June 3 – June 28, 2015 ===2015–2016 season=== Title Venue Dates Notes Triangle Lucie Stern Theatre World Premiere The Country House Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Regional Premiere Proof (play) Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Jane Austen's Emma Lucie Stern Theatre Hershey Felder as Irving Berlin Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Tokyo Fish Story Lucie Stern Theatre West Coast Premiere Cyrano Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Regional Premiere The Velocity of Autumn Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts ===2016–2017 season=== Title Venue Dates Notes Confederates Lucie Stern Theatre World Premiere The Life of the Party Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Regional Premiere Outside Mullingar Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Daddy Long Legs Lucie Stern Theatre Crimes of the Heart Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Calligraphy Lucie Stern Theatre West Coast Premiere Rags Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts Hershey Felder, BEETHOVEN Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts ===2017–2018 season=== Title Venue Dates Notes The Four Immigrants: An American Musical Manga Lucie Stern Theatre July 12 – August 6, 2017 World Premiere Constellations Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts August 23 – September 17, 2017 Regional Premiere The Prince of Egypt Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts October 6 – November 5, 2017 Around the World in 80 Days Lucie Stern Theatre November 19 – December 23, 2017 Our Great Tchaikovsky Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts January 10 – February 4, 2018 Regional Premiere Skeleton Crew Lucie Stern Theatre March 7 – April 1, 2018 California Premiere The Bridges of Madison County Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts April 4 – April 29, 2018 Regional Premiere FINKS Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts June 6 – July 1, 2018 California Premiere ===2018–2019 season=== Title Venue Dates Notes Hold These Truths Lucie Stern Theatre July 11 – August 5, 2018 Northern California Premiere Native Gardens Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts August 22 – September 16, 2018 Regional Premiere Fun Home Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts October 3–28, 2018 Tuck Everlasting Lucie Stern Theatre November 28 – December 30, 2018 Regional Premiere Frost/Nixon Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts January 16 – February 10, 2019 Marie and Rosetta Lucie Stern Theatre March 6–31, 2019 West Coast Premiere Hershey Felder: A Paris Love Story Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts April 3 – May 5, 2019 World Premiere Archduke Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts June 5–30, 2019 Northern California Premiere ===2019-2020 season=== Title Venue Dates Notes The Language Archive Lucie Stern Theatre July 10 – August 4, 2019 The 39 Steps Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts August 21 – September 22, 2019 Mark Twain's River of Song Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts October 2–27, 2019 West Coast Premiere Pride and Prejudice Lucie Stern Theatre December 4, 2019 – January 4, 2020 World Premiere The Pianist of Willesden Lane Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts January 15 – February 16, 2020 They Promised Her the Moon Lucie Stern Theatre March 4–11, 2020 Northern California Premiere ===2021-2022 season=== Title Venue Dates Notes Lizard Boy Mountain View Center for the Performing Arts September 28, 2021 - October 31, 2021 It's a Wonderful Life: A Live Radio Play Lucie Stern Theatre December 1–26, 2021 Hershey Felder as Monsieur Chopin January 19, 2022—February 13, 2022 Sense and Sensibility March 2, 2022—March 27, 2022 Gem of the Ocean April 6, 2022—May 1, 2022 Ragtime June 1, 2022—June 26, 2022 Queen June 29, 2022—July 24, 2022 Nan and the Lower Body July 13, 2022—August 7, 2022 Category:League of Resident Theatres Category:Lists of plays Category:Theatre companies in California Category:Theatre company production histories |
The Metra Electric District is an electrified commuter rail line owned and operated by Metra which connects Millennium Station (formerly Randolph Street Station), in downtown Chicago, with the city's southern suburbs. As of 2018, it is the fifth busiest of Metra's 11 lines, after the BNSF, UP-NW, UP-N, and UP-W Lines with nearly 7.7 million annual riders. While Metra does not explicitly refer to any of its lines by color, the timetable accents for the Metra Electric District are printed in bright "Panama orange" to reflect the line's origins with the Illinois Central Railroad (IC) and its Panama Limited passenger train. Apart from the spots where its tracks run parallel to other main lines, it is the only Metra line running entirely on dedicated passenger tracks, with no freight trains operating anywhere on the actual route itself (the only exceptions perhaps being occasional work or repair trains). The line is the only one in the Metra system with more than one station in Downtown Chicago, and also has the highest number of stations (49) of any Metra line. It is the only Metra line powered by overhead lines, the only line with high- level platforms, and the only line with three service branches. Trains operate on . The main line north of is shared with the Northern Indiana Commuter Transportation District (NICTD)'s South Shore Line, an electric interurban line through northern Indiana to South Bend. Per a longstanding non-compete agreement, South Shore trains stopping at stations shared with the Electric District only pick up passengers heading eastbound (outbound from Chicago) and only discharge passengers heading westbound (inbound to the city). As of May 2022, the station is closed for reconstruction until summer 2023, with passengers being encouraged to use or stations as alternate options. ==Service== The Electric District has more frequent service than any other Metra line. , Metra operates 127 trains (62 inbound and 65 outbound) on the line on weekdays. On the main line, 27 inbound trains originate from , four from , and three from , while three outbound trains terminate at Kensington/115th Street, four at Homewood, and the remaining 26 at University Park. There are also 20 inbound and 22 outbound trains on the branch, as well as eight inbound and 10 outbound trains on the branch (one outbound train to Blue Island, No. 245, originates from Kensington/115th Street, not ). On Saturdays, Metra operates 41 roundtrip trains on the line, including 21 on the main line to University Park, 16 trains on the South Chicago branch, and four on the Blue Island branch. On Sunday and holidays, Metra operates 22 trains on the line, with 12 roundtrips operating on the main line to University Park and 10 trains operating on the South Chicago branch. Service on the Blue Island branch is suspended during these times. The stretch of the line from Millennium Station to 55th-56th-57th Street is the most heavily traveled section on the entire Metra system. The Metra Electric District has the best on-time performance of all Metra lines, averaging only one late train a month in 2014. ==History== ===Steam era=== The line was built by the Illinois Central Railroad, one of the first commuter services outside the major metropolitan areas of the northeastern United States. It opened on July 21, 1856 between the IC's then-downtown station, Great Central Station, (now Millennium Station) and Hyde Park. Part of the line was elevated for the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Jackson Park. The line predates the 1871 Great Chicago Fire, and ran on a trestle just offshore in Lake Michigan. After the fire, remains of buildings destroyed by the fire were dumped into the lake, creating landfill that forms the foundation of Grant Park, which the Metra Electric District runs through. Two branches were added: from Brookdale southeast to South Chicago in the early 1880s, and from Kensington southwest to Blue Island in the early 1890s, both later electrified along with the main line. When the IC moved its intercity operations to Central Station in 1893, it built Randolph Street Terminal on the former site of Great Central to handle its growing commuter operations. ===Electrical IC era=== By the early 20th century the IC operated up to 300 steam trains each day. In 1919, the IC and the Chicago city government collaborated to build a berm from the far south suburb of Homewood into the city. They also dug a trench from the near south side into the city proper, eliminating all grade crossings on the main line except one just south of the Richton Park station. The University Park extension required the line to cross a very long private driveway. The South Chicago branch runs at grade, crossing many city streets. The grade crossing elimination project was followed by electrification. The IC electrified the commuter tracks in 1926, from downtown to Matteson. In addition to the removal of all grade crossings, the tracks were separated from, and moved to the west side of, the two freight and inter-city tracks. At McCormick Place just south of downtown Chicago, the two non-electrified tracks to Central Station crossed over the new electric alignment. The electric tracks continued north to Randolph Street Terminal. The "IC Electric" was once Chicago's busiest suburban railroad, and carried a great deal of traffic within the city as well as to suburban communities. The three lines carried 26 million passengers in 1927, the first full year of electrified operation. Ridership rose to 35 million in 1929, and reached an all-time peak of 47 million in 1946. Service was extended southward from Matteson to Richton Park, a new station at the south end of the coach storage yard, in 1946. The main line had six tracks between Roosevelt Road (Central Station) and 53rd Street (reduced to four in 1962), four to 111th Street, then two. The South Chicago branch is double tracked, and the Blue Island branch has a single track with a passing siding at West Pullman. ====1972 collision==== The Illinois Central Gulf commuter rail crash, the worst rail accident in Chicago history, occurred on October 30, 1972. A commuter train made up of new lightweight bi-level Highliner cars, inbound to Randolph Street Station during the morning rush hour, overshot the 27th Street platform and backed up into the station. The bi-level train had already tripped the signals to green for the next train, an older, heavy steel single-level express train. As the bi-level train was backing up at , it was struck by the single-level train at full speed. The single-level train telescoped the bi-level train, killing 45 passengers and injuring hundreds more, primarily in the bi-level train. A major contributing factor was that Illinois Central Gulf used a dark gray color scheme on the front ends of the Highliner fleet, which was very difficult to see on the cloudy morning of the accident. After the accident the ends of all of the ICG 1926 heavyweight still in use and Highliner MU fleet were partially painted with bright orange added for additional visibility. ===RTA era=== thumb|left|Monroe Street, to the south of which (lower left) the Metra tracks emerge from the tunnel into Millennium Station. In 1976 the Regional Transportation Authority signed a contract with Illinois Central Gulf to fund its commuter service. The next year an extension of was built to the current terminal at University Park (originally named Park Forest South). On May 1, 1987 Metra bought the line and its branches for $28 million ($ adjusted for inflation). The line is now operated by Northeast Illinois Regional Commuter Rail Corporation, Metra's operating subsidiary. Two inter-city freight tracks retained by the ICG are now part of the Canadian National Railway, used by Amtrak's City of New Orleans, Illini and Saluki trains. From 1988 onward, Randolph Street Terminal was under near-perpetual construction. The construction of Millennium Park moved the station completely underground, and in 2005 it was renamed Millennium Station. The Metra Electric is the only line on the Metra system in which all stations (except 18th and 47th Streets, both flag stops) have ticket vending machines. The machines originally sold magnetically encoded tickets which unlocked the turnstiles. People with paper tickets or weekend passes, on reduced fares or who had trouble with the vending machines had to use a blue or orange pal phone to contact an operator who would unlock the turnstiles. Complaints from passengers who missed their trains caused Metra to remove the turnstiles in November 2003. The main line and South Chicago branch run daily, but the Blue Island Branch does not operate on Sundays or holidays. A unique feature of the Metra Electric schedule is the similarity of the weekday and Saturday timetables. Many express trains run throughout the day in both directions. On other Metra lines, express service operates exclusively during the morning and afternoon rush hours. It is the only Metra line where all trackage is used exclusively for commuter service. Freight trains and Amtrak trains run on a pair of adjacent tracks owned by the Canadian National Railroad. Off-peak and Saturday service is frequent, while Sunday service operates hourly north of 63rd Street and every 2 hours south of 63rd. On January 4, 2021, fares on the Metra Electric line, along with the Rock Island line, were cut in half for all passengers. ==Potential expansion or service alterations== The proposed Gold Line, derived from the earlier and more extensive Gray Line plan would have the Electric District operate more like a rapid transit line, by running trains more frequently (every ten minutes between 6am and midnight) with reduced-fare transfers to CTA buses and trains. Unlike the current service, which bypasses many stations to reach suburban stations more quickly, it would make all stops within the city. It would run from Millennium Station to South Chicago (93rd Street) at an estimated cost at $160 million. Since the Gold Line was proposed, the idea of providing rapid transit service along Chicago's south lakefront has gained considerable support from neighborhoods along its route. Despite its popular support, officials from CTA and Metra have largely dismissed the plan, focussing on other expansion projects. In response to this and other concerns, in 2009 the RTA and the Chicago Department of Transportation authorized $450,000 for a "South Lakefront Study" that is anticipated to yield either one or two new transit projects that are eligible for Federal transit funding. An extension to Peotone, Illinois or the Proposed Chicago south suburban airport with a stop in Monee has been considered since the SouthWest Service was extended to Manhattan. On May 24, 2017, Metra announced new schedule proposals for the line. The new schedule will provide rapid service for the Hyde Park stations every 20 minutes on weekdays until 7 p.m. and every half-hour on Saturdays. The proposed schedule also calls for boosting service on the main line from 63rd Street to Kensington, from every two hours to every hour. However, the proposed schedule also calls for the elimination of lightly used Blue Island trains, including all Saturday service. After reviewing community feedback, Metra decided to keep four Saturday Blue Island trains and one late night trip to South Chicago. The new service went into effect September 11, 2017. ==Ridership== Between 2014 and 2019, annual ridership declined 23% from 9.4 million to 7.3 million passengers. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, ridership dropped to 2,019,403 passengers in 2020 and to 1,836,723 in 2021. ==Rolling stock== The Metra Electric District uses second-generation bi-level Highliner multiple unit cars built by Nippon Sharyo. These will be supplemented by additional EMUs built at Nippon Sharyo's new Rochelle, IL facility opened in 2012.New Highliners will roll out of the factory , Metra - On the Bi-Level, Commuter Newsletter, January 2011 In 2005, these began to replace the original Highliner fleet built by St. Louis Car Company and Bombardier in the 1970s. On February 12, 2016 the original Highliners left on their last run in revenue service. Metra confirmed in a Facebook post that twenty-four cars are being sent to museums around the Midwestern United States, including the Illinois Railway Museum, while an unconfirmed source stated that some cars were sent to Mendota, Illinois to be scrapped. Numbers Type Year built Builder Status 1227-1387 Highliner II 2012–Present Nippon Sharyo In Service^ 1201-1226 Highliner II 2005 Nippon Sharyo In Service^ 1501-1630 Highliner 1971-1972 St. Louis Retired 1631-1666 Highliner 1978-1979 Bombardier Retired 1100-1229 EMU coach 1926 Pullman Retired 1230-1239 EMU coach 1928 Pullman Retired 1301-1320 EMU trailer 1921 Pullman Retired 1321-1345 EMU trailer 1924 Pullman Retired 1346-1430 EMU trailer 1926 Standard Steel Retired 1431-1440 EMU Trailer 1928 Pullman Retired ^1201-1226 are being leased to NICTD for use on the South Shore Line. All are being refurbished prior to being transferred over to the South Shore. ^To be renumbered ==Stations== ===Main branch=== County Zone Location Station Connections and notes Cook A Chicago Millennium Station NICTD: South Shore Line Chicago "L": (at ), (at ) CTA Bus: 3, 4, X4, 6, 19, 20, 26, 60, N66, 124, 143, 147, 148, 151, 157 Pace Bus: 850, 851, 855 ChicaGo Dash Cook A NICTD: South Shore Line CTA Bus: 1, 3, 4, X4, 6, 7, J14, 26, 126, 130, 147, 148, 151 Cook A NICTD: South Shore Line Chicago "L": (at ) CTA Bus: 1, 3, 4, X4, 6, 12, 18, 130, 146 Cook A Cook A NICTD: South Shore Line CTA Bus: 3 King Drive, 21 Cermak Cook A CTA Bus: 3 King Drive, 21 Cermak Cook A 31st Street Closed between 1960 and 1965 Cook A 35th Street Closed between 1939 and 1957 Cook A 39th Street (Oakland) Closed between 1939 and 1957 Cook A 43rd Street Closed between 1960 and 1965 Cook A CTA Bus: 2 Hyde Park Express, 6 Jackson Park Express, 28 Stony Island, 47 47th Cook B CTA Bus: 2, 6, 15, 28, 171, 172 Cook B NICTD: South Shore Line CTA Bus: 15 Jeffery Local, 28 Stony Island, 55 Garfield, 171 U. of Chicago/Hyde Park Cook B CTA Bus: 2 Hyde Park Express, 6 Jackson Park Express, 15 Jeffery Local, 28 Stony Island Cook B NICTD: South Shore Line CTA Bus: 63 63rd Cook B Closed 1984 The platforms are still existent Cook B 72nd Street Closed between 1960 and 1965 Cook B CTA Bus: 30 South Chicago, 75 74th-75th Cook B CTA Bus: 79 79th Cook B Cook B CTA Bus: 87 87th Cook C Cook C CTA Bus: 4 Cottage Grove, N5 South Shore, 95 95th, 100 Jeffery Manor Express, 115 Pullman/115th Cook C CTA Bus: 4 Cottage Grove, 106 East 103rd, 115 Pullman/115th Cook C CTA Bus: 4 Cottage Grove, 115 Pullman/115th Cook C CTA Bus: 4 Cottage Grove, 115 Pullman/115th Cook C CTA Bus: 4 Cottage Grove, 111A Pullman Shuttle, 115 Pullman/115th Cook C 130th Street (Wildwood) Closed between 1960 and 1965 Cook D Riverdale Pace Bus: 348 Harvey–Riverdale–Blue Island Cook D Cook D Harvey Temporarily closed until 2023 for renovations Cook D Harvey Pace Bus: 348, 349, 350, 352, 354, 356, 360, 361, 364, 890 Cook E Hazel Crest Pace Bus: 356 Harvey–Homewood–Tinley Park Cook E East Hazel Crest Pace Bus: 356 Harvey–Homewood–Tinley Park Cook E Homewood Amtrak: , Pace Bus: 356 Harvey–Homewood–Tinley Park, 359 Robbins–South Kedzie Avenue Cook E Flossmoor Cook F Olympia Fields Cook F Pace Bus: 357 Lincoln Highway Cook F Matteson Cook F Richton Park Will G University Park Pace Bus: 367 University Park–Park Forest River Valley Metro: University Park 1, University Park 2 ===South Chicago branch=== The branch leaves the mainline south of the former 67th Street station. County Zone Location Station Connections and notes Cook B Chicago CTA Bus: 28 Stony Island, 71 71st/South Shore Cook B Chicago CTA Bus: N5 South Shore Night, J14 Jeffery Jump, 15 Jeffery Local, 71 71st/South Shore Cook B Chicago CTA Bus: 6 Jackson Park Express, 26 South Shore Express, 71 71st/South Shore Cook B Chicago CTA Bus: N5 South Shore Night, 71 71st/South Shore, 75 74th/75th Cook B Chicago CTA Bus: 79 79th Cook B Chicago CTA Bus: N5 South Shore Night, 26 South Shore Express, 71 71st/South Shore Cook B Chicago CTA Bus: 87 87th Cook B Chicago Closed in 2001, replaced by Cook B Chicago CTA Bus: N5 South Shore Night, 26 South Shore Exp., 30 South Chicago, 71 71st/South Shore, 87 87th, 95 95th ===Blue Island branch=== The branch leaves the main line south of . County Zone Location Station Connections and notes Cook C Chicago CTA Bus: 34 South Michigan Cook C Chicago Cook C Chicago CTA Bus: 8A South Halsted, 108 Halsted/95th Pace Bus: 352 Halsted, 359 Robbins–South Kedzie Ave Cook C Chicago Cook C Calumet Park Cook D Calumet Park Pace Bus: 359 Robbins–South Kedzie Ave Cook D Blue Island Metra: (at Blue Island–Vermont Street) Pace Bus: 348 Harvey–Riverdale–Blue Island, 349 South Western, 359 Robbins–South Kedzie Ave, 385 87th/111th/127th ==Footnotes== ==References== * * * * ==External links== *Metra / Electric District Schedules *Hyde Park Historical Society Article *Metra Electric District: History and Pictures * Category:Metra lines Category:Passenger trains of the Illinois Central Railroad Category:Electric railways in Illinois Category:Railway lines in Chicago Category:1500 V DC railway electrification Category:Railway lines opened in 1856 Category:1856 establishments in Illinois |
Merrill Anthony McPeak (born January 9, 1936) is a retired 4-star general in the United States Air Force whose final assignment before retirement was as the 14th Chief of Staff of the Air Force from 1990 to 1994. In 1993, McPeak served as Acting Secretary of the Air Force, before Sheila E. Widnall was appointed by President Bill Clinton, and is the only Chief of Staff of the Air Force and uniformed Air Force officer on active duty to have ever served as Acting Secretary. ==Early life and education== McPeak was born in Santa Rosa, California. After graduating from Grants Pass High School in Grants Pass, Oregon, he earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics from San Diego State College in 1957 and became a member of the Sigma Chi fraternity. He was commissioned through Air Force ROTC, and entered active duty in November of that year. He later earned a Master of Arts degree in international relations from George Washington University in 1974. ==Career== After completing preflight and pilot training, McPeak flew single-seat fighter aircraft, the F-100 Super Sabre and the F-104 Starfighter, in operational squadrons in the United States and the United Kingdom. He later returned to the United States as an instructor pilot and weapons officer at Luke Air Force Base, Arizona. From December 1966 to December 1968, McPeak was assigned as an opposing solo and then lead solo pilot with the Thunderbirds, the Air Force's aerobatic flying team. While with the Thunderbirds, he performed in nearly 200 air shows in the United States and overseas. Upon completion of his tour with the Thunderbirds, he was assigned as an F-100 pilot with the 37th Tactical Fighter Wing at Phù Cát Air Base in South Vietnam. On February 1, 1969, he was assigned to Project Commando Sabre (Detachment 1, 416th Tactical Fighter Squadron), known as the Misty FACs, a specialized group of high speed forward air controllers trying to stop vehicular resupply traffic down the Ho Chi Minh Trail. He became the tenth commander of Commando Sabre on April 22, 1969, and moved it to the 31st Tactical Fighter Wing at Tuy Hoa Air Base on May 1, when the 37th TFW transitioned to the twin-seat F-4 Phantom II. Rotating out of his command on May 31, 1969 after 98 missions, he served as chief of standardization and evaluation for 31st TFW. McPeak completed a total of 269 combat missions while in Vietnam, was awarded the Silver Star, and remained in-country until 1970, after which he attended the Armed Forces Staff College in Norfolk, Virginia. From 1970 to 1973, McPeak was an air operations staff officer for the Mideast Division at Headquarters USAF in Washington, D.C. After graduating from the National War College in 1974, he was named assistant deputy commander for operations for the 1st Tactical Fighter Wing at MacDill AFB, Florida flying the F-4 Phantom II. From 1975 to 1976, he was a military fellow with the Council on Foreign Relations in New York City. In 1976, McPeak contributed an article to Foreign Affairs Journal expressing his views on the Israeli occupation of territories during the 1967 Arab-Israeli War.Israel:Borders and Security Article preview Foreign Affairs retrieved 2008-03-25 In July 1976, he became commander of the 513th Combat Support Group based at RAF Mildenhall in the United Kingdom; a year later he moved to Zaragoza Air Base, Spain as vice commander of the 406th Tactical Fighter Training Wing. From 1978 to 1980, he was assistant chief of staff for current operations, Allied Air Forces Central Europe (in Boerfink, West Germany). 1980 and 1981 saw him flying the twin-seat F-111E fighter bomber and commanding the 20th Tactical Fighter Wing based at RAF Upper Heyford, United Kingdom. McPeak was chief of staff at USAFE headquarters from 1981 to 1982, and deputy chief of staff for plans at Tactical Air Command (TAC) headquarters, Langley AFB, Virginia from 1982 to 1985. He returned to Headquarters USAF in 1985–87 as deputy chief of staff for programs and resources. In June 1987, McPeak moved to Bergstrom AFB, Texas in the dual roles of Commander, 12th Air Force and Commander of Air Forces for United States Southern Command. A year later, he was named commander-in-chief of Pacific Air Forces (PACAF). == Air Force Chief of Staff == thumb|left|McPeak in 1993, wearing the redesigned Air Force Service Dress Uniform that was used from 1993 to 1994.|alt=|231x231px McPeak was appointed Air Force Chief of Staff by President George H. W. Bush in October 1990, replacing the retiring General Michael Dugan following the latter's removal from the CSAF post by SECDEF Dick Cheney for ill-timed and inappropriate comments to the news media regarding Iraq during Operation Desert Shield. McPeak took over as chief of staff during Operation Desert Shield, and assisted in overall strategic planning for Operation Desert Storm. McPeak's later tenure as chief of staff following the Gulf War also saw a major reduction in force in terms of aircraft, units, officers and enlisted airmen across the entire Air Force as a result of the end of the Cold War. During his time as chief of staff, he oversaw the disestablishment of Strategic Air Command (SAC), Tactical Air Command (TAC), Military Airlift Command (MAC), Air Force Systems Command (AFSC), Air Force Logistics Command (AFLC), and Air Force Communications Command (AFCC), with assets transferred primarily to the newly established Air Combat Command (ACC), Air Mobility Command (AMC), Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC) and the then-Air Force Communications Agency. His tenure also oversaw the merging of Air Training Command (ATC) and Air University (AU) into the Air Education and Training Command (AETC). McPeak pushed through major organizational changes in the Air Force aimed at streamlining and emphasizing operations and combat readiness. Much of his tenure focused on elevating the status of flight operations, especially single-seat fighter pilots, some say at the expense of multi-seat fighter, bomber and reconnaissance aircraft and personnel, cargo and air refueling aircraft and personnel, and non-flying career fields. He also created the Air Force Expeditionary Wing concept, a fusion of combat forces and support into a single organization. He also transferred several flying wing and space wing command billets to brigadier generals, even though previously these had been commanded by colonels.In Remaking Air Force, Even Underwear Changed – tribunedigital-orlandosentinel However, McPeak is best remembered by many current and since-retired Air Force personnel for the sweeping changes he made to the Air Force's service dress uniform, especially for commissioned officers.General Merrill A. McPeak Service Dress – USAF Uniform History Worn by personnel during most garrison duties, the new version was a radical departure from the earlier version, which was essentially the same design as the then-U.S. Army service uniform (the U.S. Air Force was originally the U.S. Army Air Corps and then the U.S. Army Air Forces), but with fewer insignia and in blue. In addition to a new three-button design with fewer and non-buttoning pockets, it changed the rank insignia for officers to use naval-style sleeve stripes, as opposed to metal pins on shoulder straps. Because of the new uniform's resemblance to both commissioned officer's uniforms of the U.S. Navy and those of commercial airline pilots, the McPeak uniform was said to be unpopular with Air Force service members. Some uniform changes were subsequently reversed by his successor. The basic redesign continues to be worn to this day, but the navalized sleeve braid rank insignia was eliminated and shoulder straps with pin-on rank for officers reinstated. McPeak's original concept of simplifying and toning down the various devices and insignia pinned to the uniform has gone by the wayside, with nearly all USAF personnel wearing at least one, if not two, three or more metal insignia with their dress uniforms. McPeak also acted as Secretary of the Air Force for three weeks in 1993, before the formal appointment and confirmation of Sheila E. Widnall, becoming the only person to have ever concurrently served in both capacities. McPeak continued as Chief of Staff through October 1994, retiring afterwards. McPeak's legacy as Chief of Staff has been considered in several quarters as one of the most controversial in Air Force history and has been the subject of much debate. Many Air Force senior officers and senior enlisted personnel, both active and retired from the Regular Air Force, the Air Force Reserve and the Air National Guard, have accused him of trying to run the Air Force as a corporation, with his introduction of Total Quality Management (TQM) under the moniker of "Quality Air Force" (QAF). Rightly or wrongly, McPeak was also often accused of ignoring the needs of enlisted personnel, non-flying officers, aeronautically-rated navigator officers, and looking out solely for his officers who were pilots, primarily single-seat fighter pilots. There was even debate over the somewhat traditional act of inducting him as the outgoing Chief of Staff into the Order of the Sword. Tomorrow's Air Force: Tracing the Past, Shaping the Future; Smith, Jeffrey J.; Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN; ; c2014; pp. 106–113 Some of this controversy may also be traced, at least in part, to the abrupt manner in which McPeak had replaced General Michael Dugan as Chief of Staff of the Air Force. General Dugan, a popular and well-intentioned officer, had sought to repair the Air Force's image, badly frayed by the service's withholding of embarrassing information about the performance of the F-117 Nighthawk during the invasion of Panama. Dugan had also sought to make top Air Force officials more accessible, but he was relieved of command by then-Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney shortly before the start of Operation Desert Storm and the first Gulf War following some intemperate remarks Dugan had made to the news media about targeting Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein under United Nations Security Council Resolution 666 prior to the start of hostilities, this despite the fact that as Air Force Chief of Staff, Dugan had no command authority within the U.S. Central Command theater of operations.Confrontation In The Gulf – Air Force Chief Is Dismissed For Remarks On Gulf Plan – Cheney Cites Bad Judgment – Nytimes.Com In short order, Cheney quickly replaced Dugan with McPeak as Chief of Staff, although Dugan was retained as a 4-star special advisor by the Secretary of Defense until his retirement from the Air Force. ==Later work== Following his Air Force career, McPeak entered the private sector as a consultant and business executive. He has been on the boards of directors for TWA, ECC International, where he served for several years as Chairman, Tektronix, Sensis Corporation, Aerojet/Rocketdyne, Iovance Biotherapeutics and other corporations. He was a founding investor and for a decade Chairman of Ethicspoint, a Portland, Oregon-based software startup. When sold to private equity, it was perhaps Oregon's most successful startup in recent years. McPeak and his wife Elynor currently reside in [Portland], [Oregon]. Ellie served for 9 years as a member of the Lake Oswego City Council.Lake Oswego Council Biographies McPeak was appointed in July 2010 to the American Battle Monuments Commission. He was the tenth Chairman (and the first airman) to lead the commission. In 2018, the government of France decorated McPeak (Legion of Honor, Officer class) in connection with his prior service as U.S. Air Force Chief of Staff and in recognition of his Chairmanship of the American Battle Monuments Commission (ABMC). His leadership was essential in the restoration of the Lafayette Escadrille Memorial, outside Paris. The monument had fallen into disrepair, but has now been renovated and has become an ABMC property, ensuring its future maintenance. McPeak was a technical advisor to Ken Burns and Lynn Novick in their award-winning documentary, “The Vietnam War”. He appeared on- screen in 4 of the 10 episodes. In 1992, San Diego State University gave its first ever Lifetime Achievement Award to General McPeak. In 1995, George Washington University honored him with its Distinguished Alumni Award, the "George." In 2005, on the occasion of the 150th anniversary of the founding of Sigma Chi Fraternity, he was selected as one of 150 members of its Hall of Fame. He was among the initial seven inductees to the Oregon Aviation Hall of Honor. In May 2012, McPeak published Hangar Flying, the first volume of The Aerial View Trilogy, three memoirs that document his career in the Air Force. The book was followed by Volume 2, Below the Zone, in November 2013, and Volume 3, Roles and Missions, in January 2017. ===Israel=== McPeak was harshly criticized by American Spectator journalist Robert Goldberg for comments and writings he has made regarding Israel.Goldberg, Robert McPeak on Display American Spectator 2008-03-24 retrieved 2008-03-25 Goldberg begins the piece saying that "McPeak has a long history of criticizing Israel for not going back to the 1967 borders as part of any peace agreement with Arab states. In 1976 McPeak wrote an article for Foreign Affairs magazine questioning Israel's insistence on holding on to the Golan Heights and parts of the West Bank." Goldberg writes that "[in] recent years McPeak has echoed the Mearsheimer-Walt view that American Middle East policy is being controlled by Jews at the expense of America's interests in the region." Goldberg then quotes McPeak responding to a question as to what is the cause for the lack of progress in getting Israelis and Palestinians together: "New York City. Miami. We have a large vote – vote, here in favor of Israel. And no politician wants to run against it." Goldberg also wrote that McPeak "claims that a combination of Jews and Christian Zionists are manipulating U.S. policy in Iraq in dangerous and radical ways."To support this claim, Goldberg quotes McPeak from a published interview: "Let's say that one of your abiding concerns is the security of Israel as opposed to a purely American self-interest, then it would make sense to build a dozen or so bases in Iraq. Let's say you are a born-again Christian and you think that Armageddon and the rapture are about to happen any minute and what you want to do is retrace steps you think are laid out in Revelations, then it makes sense. So there are a number of scenarios here that could lead you in this direction. This is radical...." ====McPeak's response==== :More than 30 years ago, ... I wrote, and Foreign Affairs published, an article now being circulated in the blogosphere as evidence of an alleged anti-Israel point of view. Some commentators reach farther, suggesting that since I have been an active supporter of Barack Obama's presidential bid he, too, is anti-Israel. Both these assertions fall flat after any objective reading of the historical record. :I am a long-time admirer (and think myself a friend) of Israel. In the early 1970s, I played a key role in getting advanced weaponry released to the Israeli Air Force – capabilities it later put to active use. During that period, I made many official visits to Israel and established close relationships there. These contacts turned out to be useful during Operation Desert Storm, when, as chief of staff of the U.S. Air Force, I worked with my Israeli counterparts to help defend Israel from Iraqi Scud missile attacks. :I was a vocal opponent of the George W. Bush Administration's decision to invade Iraq, a strategic blunder made worse by slapdash execution. As we have seen, this star-crossed action took our eye off the ball in Afghanistan, breathed new life into a moribund al Qaeda, and enhanced Iranian influence in this critical region – all outcomes which damaged both the United States and our ally Israel. :It is my view and hope that Israel will have our continued support. I wish it every success. Of course, what Israel regards as success is up to it to decide. But for friends like me, "success" means a secure Israel at peace with neighbors who recognize and respect its existence. Even so, we should maintain our special relationship and help Israel keep its qualitative military edge. :As for the article, much has changed in 32 years and much has not. The essential argument holds: no set of realistically achievable geographic borders produces safety for Israel. Rather, the security requirement is that any of the territory taken in the Six-Day War and given back as part of a peace settlement should be effectively demilitarized. Of course, the Sinai Peninsula was returned to Egypt long ago in exactly this way, resulting in relative quiet along Israel's southern border and creating a fundamental shift in the regional balance of forces. This opportunity was not skillfully exploited, so the result has been a "cold peace." But it is nevertheless peace and has served the interests of both sides.How to Secure Israel Demilitarized land for peace is the key to a settlement Foreign Affairs Journal 2008-03-31 retrieved 2008-04-08 ===Political activities=== In 1996, McPeak served as Oregon state chairman for the Bob Dole for president campaign. During the presidential election of 2000 McPeak endorsed George W. Bush and served as co-chairman of Oregon Veterans for Bush. As the military and foreign policy of the Bush administration coalesced, however, McPeak expressed strong objections, especially with regard to the 2003 invasion of Iraq.Iraq after Saddam: Text of interview with Gen. Merrill A. "Tony" McPeak The Oregonian 2003-03-27 retrieved 2008-03-25 McPeak later openly campaigned for Howard Dean's nomination, and when Dean withdrew, acted as an adviser for the John Kerry campaign. He was also one of twenty- seven signatories to the statement of the "Committee of Diplomats & Commanders for Change" calling the Bush Administration a failure at "preserving national security" and calling for Bush not to be re-elected. McPeak was a co-chair of Barack Obama's 2008 presidential campaign. He generated controversy following comments he made at a campaign appearance in Medford, Oregon where he implied that former President Bill Clinton had appeared to question Obama's patriotism: "As one who for 37 years proudly wore the uniform of our country, I'm saddened to see a president employ these tactics. He of all people should know better because he was the target of exactly the same kind of tactics."Obama adviser: Bill Clinton like oe McCarthy, Associated Press (March 22, 2008).Associated Press, "McPeak's McCarthyism comments draw fire", March 26, 2008 McPeak also compared the former President's comments to McCarthyism: "I grew up, I was going to college when Joe McCarthy was accusing good Americans of being traitors, so I've had enough of it." ===East Timor=== According to journalist Allan Nairn, General McPeak oversaw the delivery of advanced U.S. fighter planes to Suharto's government not long after the November 1991 shooting of pro-independence demonstrators known as the Dili massacre. ==Dates of rank== Dates of Rank Insignia Rank Date 70px Gen Aug. 1, 1988 54px Lt Gen May 22, 1985 36px Maj Gen Oct. 1, 1983 20px Brig Gen July 1, 1981 25px Col April 1, 1974 20px Lt Col Nov. 1, 1972 20px Maj May 20, 1968 15px Capt Oct. 1, 1962 6px 1st Lt May 30, 1959 6px 2nd Lt June 19, 1957 ==Awards and decorations== McPeak's military decorations include the: 95px Command Pilot Badge 80px Basic Parachutist Badge 95px Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Identification Badge Defense Distinguished Service Medal Air Force Distinguished Service Medal with oak leaf cluster Silver Star Legion of Merit with oak leaf cluster Distinguished Flying Cross with oak leaf cluster Meritorious Service Medal Air Medal (13 olc) Air Force Commendation Medal (3 olc) Air Force Outstanding Unit Award Air Force Organizational Excellence Award Combat Readiness Medal National Defense Service Medal with star Vietnam Service Medal with 4 service stars Air Force Overseas Service Ribbon Short Tour Air Force Overseas Service Ribbon Long Tour with 2 oak leaves Air Force Longevity Service Award (1 silver olc and 3 bronze olc) Air Force Expert Marksmanship Ribbon Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross Vietnam Campaign Medal Qualification badges include the Command Pilot Badge, the Parachutist Badge, and the Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Identification Badge. ==References== ==External links== * Official USAF Biography * Official website of General McPeak's Aerial View Trilogy * |- Category:1936 births Category:United States Air Force personnel of the Vietnam War Category:Chiefs of Staff of the United States Air Force Category:Elliott School of International Affairs alumni Category:Joint Chiefs of Staff Category:Joint Forces Staff College alumni Category:Living people Category:Oregon Democrats Category:Oregon politicians Category:Oregon Republicans Category:People from Lake Oswego, Oregon Category:Recipients of the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal Category:Recipients of the Air Medal Category:Recipients of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States) Category:Recipients of the Legion of Merit Category:Recipients of the Order of the Sword (United States) Category:Recipients of the Silver Star Category:San Diego State University alumni Category:Tektronix people Category:United States Air Force Thunderbirds pilots Category:United States Secretaries of the Air Force |
The Los Angeles Kings are a professional ice hockey team based in Los Angeles. The team competes in the National Hockey League (NHL) as a member of the Pacific Division in the Western Conference and was founded on June 5, 1967, after Jack Kent Cooke was awarded an NHL expansion franchise for Los Angeles on February 9, 1966, becoming one of the six teams that began play as part of the 1967 NHL expansion. The Kings played their home games at the Forum in Inglewood, California, a suburb of Los Angeles, for 32 years, until they moved to the Crypto.com Arena in Downtown Los Angeles at the start of the 1999–2000 season. During the 1970s and early 1980s, the Kings had many years marked by impressive play in the regular season only to be washed out by early playoff exits. Their highlights in those years included the strong goaltending of Rogie Vachon, and the "Triple Crown Line" of Charlie Simmer, Dave Taylor and Hall of Famer Marcel Dionne, who had a famous upset of the rising Edmonton Oilers in a 1982 playoff game known as the Miracle on Manchester. In 1988, the Kings traded with the Oilers to get their captain Wayne Gretzky, leading to a successful phase of the franchise that raised hockey's popularity in Los Angeles, and helped elevate the sport's profile in the American Sun Belt region. Gretzky, fellow Hall of Famer Luc Robitaille, and defenseman Rob Blake led the Kings to the franchise's sole division title in 1990–91, and the Kings' first Stanley Cup Final appearance in 1993, where they lost to the Montreal Canadiens. After the 1993 Finals, the Kings entered financial problems, with a bankruptcy in 1995, which led to the franchise being acquired by Philip Anschutz (the owner of Anschutz Entertainment Group and the operators of Crypto.com Arena) and Edward P. Roski. A period of mediocrity ensued, with the Kings only resurging as they broke a six-year playoff drought in the 2009–10 season, with a team that included goaltender Jonathan Quick, defenseman Drew Doughty, and forwards Dustin Brown, Anze Kopitar, and Justin Williams. Under coach Darryl Sutter, who was hired early in the 2011–12 season, and with the acquisition of Jeff Carter, the Kings won two Stanley Cups in three years: 2012 over the New Jersey Devils, and 2014 over the New York Rangers, while Quick and Williams respectively won the Conn Smythe Trophy. ==Franchise history== ===NHL expansion and the "Forum Blue and Gold" years (1967–1975)=== When the NHL decided to expand for the 1967–68 season amid rumblings that the Western Hockey League (WHL) was proposing to turn itself into a major league and compete for the Stanley Cup, Canadian entrepreneur Jack Kent Cooke paid the NHL $2 million to place one of the six expansion teams in Los Angeles. Following a fan contest to name the team, Cooke chose the name Kings because he wanted his club to take on "an air of royalty," and picked the original team colors of purple (or "Forum Blue", as it was later officially called) and gold because they were colors traditionally associated with royalty. This color scheme, first popularized by the NCAA's LSU Tigers and later on the Minnesota Vikings of the National Football League (NFL), was then adopted by the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association (NBA), which Cooke also owned. Cooke wanted his new NHL team to play in the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena, home of the Lakers, but the Los Angeles Coliseum Commission, which managed the Sports Arena (and still manages the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum today), had already entered into an agreement with the WHL's Los Angeles Blades (whose owners had also tried to land the NHL expansion franchise in Los Angeles) to play their games at the Sports Arena. Frustrated by his dealings with the Coliseum Commission, Cooke said, "I am going to build my own arena...I've had enough of this balderdash." Construction on Cooke's new arena, the Forum, was not yet complete when the 1967–68 season began, so the Kings opened their first season at the Long Beach Arena in the neighboring city of Long Beach on October 14, 1967, defeating another expansion team, the Philadelphia Flyers, 4–2. The "Fabulous Forum" finally opened its doors on December 30, 1967, with the Kings being shut out by the Flyers, 2–0. While the first two seasons had the Kings qualifying for the playoffs, afterwards poor management led the Kings into hard times. The general managers established a history of trading away first- round draft picks, usually for veteran players, and attendance suffered during this time. Eventually the Kings made a few key acquisitions to resurge as a contender. By acquiring Toronto Maple Leafs winger Bob Pulford, who would later become the Kings' head coach, in 1970, Finnish center Juha Widing in a trade from the New York Rangers, and Montreal Canadiens goaltender Rogie Vachon in 1971, the Kings went from being one of the worst defensive teams in the league to one of the best, and in 1974 they returned to the playoffs. ===Marcel Dionne and the "Triple Crown Line" (1975–1988)=== After being eliminated in the first round of the playoffs in both 1973–74 and 1974–75, the Kings moved to significantly upgrade their offensive firepower when they acquired center Marcel Dionne from the Detroit Red Wings. Behind Dionne's offensive prowess, the strong goaltending of Rogie Vachon, and the speed and scoring touch of forward Butch Goring, the Kings played two of their most thrilling seasons yet, with playoff match ups against the then-Atlanta Flames in the first round, and the Boston Bruins in the second round, both times being eliminated by Boston. Bob Pulford left the Kings after the 1976–77 season after constant feuding with then owner Jack Kent Cooke, and General Manager Jake Milford decided to leave as well. This led to struggles in the 1977–78 season, where the Kings finished below .500 and were easily swept out of the first round by the Maple Leafs. Afterwards, Vachon became a free agent and sign with the Red Wings. The following season, Kings coach Bob Berry tried juggling line combinations, and Dionne found himself on a new line with two young, mostly unknown players: second-year right winger Dave Taylor and left winger Charlie Simmer, who had been a career minor-leaguer. Each player benefited from each other, with Simmer being the gritty player who battled along the boards, Taylor being the play maker, and Dionne being the natural goal scorer. This line combination, known as the "Triple Crown Line", would go on to become one of the highest-scoring line combinations in NHL history. During the first three seasons of the Triple Crown Line, a period where Dr. Jerry Buss purchased the Kings, the Lakers, and the Forum for $67.5 million, the Kings were eliminated in the first round. The Kings regressed in 1981–82 finishing 17th overall, but this was nevertheless good enough to make the 1982 Stanley Cup playoffs under the new format put in place that year as they were still fourth in their division with 63 points, the lowest point total of any playoff team but ahead of the Colorado Rockies, the worst team in the league that season. However, Los Angeles managed to upset the second overall Edmonton Oilers, who finished 48 points ahead of them during the season and were led by the young Wayne Gretzky. With two victories in Edmonton and one at the Forum – dubbed "Miracle on Manchester", where the Kings managed to erase a 5–0 deficit at the third period and eventually win in overtime – the Kings upset the vaunted Oilers, but they wound up eliminated by eventual finalists Vancouver Canucks in five games. The 1982 off-season saw the moribund Rockies move to East Rutherford, New Jersey. To keep the divisions geographically and numerically balanced, the re-named New Jersey Devils were re-aligned to the Patrick Division while the Winnipeg Jets took their place in the Smythe Division. It was immediately apparent that the Kings, now the lone American team in the division, would have a much more difficult time staying out of last place since Winnipeg, after struggling for their first two seasons after moving over from the WHA, had already improved to a .500 record the previous season. Despite Dionne's leadership, the Kings missed the playoffs in the next two seasons. The Kings managed to record a winning record in 1984–85 under coach Pat Quinn, although it was still only good enough for fourth place. This time, the Kings were quickly swept out of the playoffs by the Oilers on their way to capturing their second-straight Stanley Cup championship. After a losing season in 1985–86, the Kings saw two important departures during 1986–87, as Quinn signed a contract in December to become coach and general manager of the Vancouver Canucks with just months left on his Kings contract – eventually being suspended by NHL President John Ziegler for creating a conflict of interest - and Dionne left the franchise in March in a trade to the New York Rangers. Despite these shocks, a young squad that would lead the Kings into the next decade, including star forwards Bernie Nicholls, Jimmy Carson, Luc Robitaille, and defenseman Steve Duchesne, started to flourish under head coach Mike Murphy, who played thirteen season with the Kings and was their captain for seven years, and his replacement Robbie Ftorek. The Kings made the playoffs for two seasons, but they were unable to get out of the first round given the playoff structuring forced them to play either the Oilers or the equally powerful Calgary Flames en route to the Conference Finals. In all, the Kings faced either the Oilers or the Flames in the playoffs four times during the 1980s. ===The Gretzky era (1988–1995)=== In 1987, coin collector Bruce McNall purchased the Kings from Buss and turned the team into a Stanley Cup contender almost overnight. After changing the team colors to silver and black, McNall acquired the league's best player, Wayne Gretzky, in a blockbuster trade with the Edmonton Oilers on August 9, 1988. The trade rocked the hockey world, especially north of the border, where Canadians mourned the loss of a player they considered a national treasure. Gretzky's arrival generated much excitement about hockey and the NHL in Southern California, and the ensuing popularity of the Kings is credited for the arrival of another team in the region (the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim, renamed the Anaheim Ducks in 2006), as well as the arrival of a new team in Northern California (the San Jose Sharks) and the NHL's expanding or moving into other Sun Belt cities such as Dallas, Phoenix, Tampa, Miami, Nashville, and Las Vegas. In Gretzky's first season with the Kings, he led the team in scoring with 168 points on 54 goals and 114 assists, and won his ninth Hart Memorial Trophy as the league's Most Valuable Player. The fourth overall Kings eliminated Gretzky's old team, the Oilers, in the first round of the 1989 playoffs before being swept out in the second round by the eventual Stanley Cup champion Flames. Clashes between Gretzky and head coach Robbie Ftorek led to Ftorek's dismissal, and he was replaced by Tom Webster. The next season, where Gretzky became the league's all-time leading scorer, was the inverse of its predecessor, with the Kings eliminating the defending champion Flames before falling to the eventual champion Oilers. Gretzky spearheaded the Kings to their first regular season division title in franchise history in the 1990–91 season, but the heavily favored Kings lost a close series against Edmonton in the second round that saw four games go into overtime. After a third straight elimination by the Oilers in 1992, Webster was fired. General manager Rogie Vachon was moved to a different position in the organization and named Nick Beverley as his successor, and Beverley hired Barry Melrose, then with the American Hockey League's Adirondack Red Wings, as head coach. Melrose would help the Kings reach new heights in the 1992–93 season, even if Gretzky missed 39 games with a career-threatening herniated thoracic disk. Led by Luc Robitaille, who served as captain in Gretzky's absence, the Kings finished with a 39–35–10 record (88 points), clinching third place in the Smythe Division. Heavily contested series in the 1993 playoffs had the Kings eliminating the Flames, Canucks and Leafs en route to their first berth in the Stanley Cup Finals. In the 1993 Stanley Cup Finals, the Kings faced the Montreal Canadiens. They won the first game 4–1, but late in Game 2, with the Kings leading by a score of 2–1, Canadiens coach Jacques Demers requested a measurement of Kings defenseman Marty McSorley's stick blade. His suspicions proved to be correct, as the curve of blade was too great, and McSorley was penalized. The Canadiens pulled their goalie, Patrick Roy, giving them a two- man advantage, and Eric Desjardins scored on the resulting power play to tie the game. Montreal went on to win the game in overtime on another goal by Desjardins, and the Kings never recovered. They dropped the next two games in overtime, and lost Game 5, 4–1, giving the Canadiens their league-leading 24th Stanley Cup in franchise history. ===Bankruptcy, move to the Staples Center, and rebuild (1995–2009)=== The years after the 1993 playoff run were tough for the Kings, as a sluggish start in the 1993–94 season cost them a playoff berth, their first absence from the postseason since 1986. However, Gretzky provided a notable highlight during that year on March 23, 1994, when he scored his 802nd career goal to pass Gordie Howe as the NHL's all-time leading goal-scorer. At the same time, McNall defaulted on a loan from Bank of America, who threatened to force the Kings into bankruptcy unless he sold the team. After the federal government launched an investigation into his financial practices, McNall finally sold the club to IDB Communications founder Jeffrey Sudikoff and former Madison Square Garden president Joseph Cohen. It later emerged that McNall's free-spending ways put the Kings in serious financial trouble; at one point, Cohen and Sudikoff were even unable to meet player payroll, and were ultimately forced into bankruptcy in 1995. They were forced to trade many of their stronger players, and the middling results led to Gretzky demanding a trade to a legitimate Stanley Cup contender. He would be dealt to the St. Louis Blues in 1996. On October 6, 1995, one day before the 1995–96 season opener, a bankruptcy court approved the purchase of the Kings by Phillip Anschutz and Edward P. Roski for $113.5 million. The subsequent rebuild saw the Kings only return to the playoffs in 1998, led by captain Rob Blake and players like Jozef Stumpel and Glen Murray, where the highly skilled St. Louis Blues swept the team in four games. The Kings suffered through an injury-plagued season in 1998–99 as they finished last in the Pacific Division and missed the playoffs with a 32–45–5 record, leading to the dismissal of head coach Larry Robinson. The Kings, along with the Los Angeles Lakers, made an even bigger move in 1999, as they left The Forum after 32 seasons and moved to the Staples Center in downtown Los Angeles, which was built by Anschutz and Roski. Staples Center was a state-of- the-art arena, complete with luxury suites and all modern amenities. With a new home, a new coach (Andy Murray), a potential 50-goal scorer in the fold in Ziggy Palffy, and players such as Blake, Robitaille, Murray, Stumpel, Donald Audette, Ian Laperriere and Mattias Norstrom, the Kings improved dramatically, finishing the season the 1999–2000 season with a 39–31–12–4 record (94 points), good for second place in the Pacific Division. While Audette would struggle under the Kings' system and was unhappy as the number two right wing, most of the new Kings like Bryan Smolinski and Palffy would find success under Andy Murray. But in the 2000 playoffs, the Kings were once again dispatched in the first round, this time by the Detroit Red Wings in a four-game sweep. The 2000–01 season was controversial, as fans began to question AEG's commitment to the success of the Kings because they failed to significantly improve the team during the off-season. Adding fuel to the fire was the February 21, 2001, trade of star defenseman and fan favorite Rob Blake to the Colorado Avalanche. Despite this, two players received in the deal, right wing Adam Deadmarsh and defenseman Aaron Miller, became impact players for the Kings, who finished the 2000–01 season with a 38–28–13–3 record (92 points), good for a third-place finish in the Pacific Division and another first-round playoff date with the Detroit Red Wings. The heavily favored Red Wings suffered an upset, losing in six games for the Kings' first playoff series win since 1993. In the second round, the Kings forced seven games in their series against the Avalanche, but lost to the eventual Stanley Cup champions. Afterwards, during the off-season, Luc Robitaille turned down a one-year deal with a substantial pay cut and ended up signing with Detroit, as the Red Wings represented his best chance at winning the Stanley Cup, and like Tomas Sandstrom before him in 1997, Robitaille won the Stanley Cup with Detroit in 2002. The Kings started off the season with a sluggish October and November, and then found their game again to finish with 95 points. They in fact were tied in points with the second-place Phoenix Coyotes, and only finished third in the Pacific Division and seventh in the West due to a head-to-head record — the Coyotes won the season series, 3—0—2. In the playoffs they met the Colorado Avalanche once again, this time in the first round. The series would prove to be a carbon copy of their previous meeting, with the Kings behind three games to one and bouncing back to tie the series, only to be dominated in the seventh game and eliminated. The next seasons would be major disappointments as the Kings hit another major decline, missing the postseason up until the 2009–10 season. During those mediocre seasons, there would be a few bright spots in the form of draft picks that would attribute to future success for the team, beginning with the 2003 NHL Entry Draft. Players such as Dustin Brown (2003), Anze Kopitar, Jonathan Quick (both 2005), and Drew Doughty (2008) were drafted and would help the Kings reach the playoffs once again. ===Return to the playoffs and Stanley Cups (2009–2014)=== During the 2009–10 season, the team had built a consistent roster with goalie Jonathan Quick, defenseman Drew Doughty, and forwards Dustin Brown, Anze Kopitar and Justin Williams. Finishing sixth overall in the West with 101 points, just the third 100-plus point season in franchise history, and establishing a franchise record with a nine-game unbeaten streak, the Kings returned to the playoffs, where they lost to a highly skilled Vancouver Canucks team in six games. The Kings entered the 2011 playoffs as the seventh seed in the West and played San Jose in the first round. Despite Anze Kopitar's absence with injury, the Kings pushed the series to six games until an overtime goal by Joe Thornton qualified the Sharks. A bad start to the 2011–12 season resulted in coach Terry Murray being fired, with Darryl Sutter being chosen as his replacement. The Kings were much improved under Sutter, finishing with the eight seed after trading for Jeff Carter midseason and having finishing the season with a 40–27–15 record for 95 points. The Kings then headed into the 2012 playoffs against the Presidents' Trophy-winning Vancouver Canucks. After playing two games in Vancouver and one in Los Angeles, the Kings were up 3–0 in the series, a franchise first. By winning Game 5 in Vancouver, the Kings advanced to the Conference Semi-finals for the first time since the 2000–01 season, whereupon they swept the second-seeded St. Louis Blues, advancing to the Western Conference Finals for only the second time in franchise history. In doing so, the Kings also became the first NHL team to enter the playoffs as the eighth seed and eliminate the first- and second-seeded teams in the Conference. They then defeated Phoenix in five games to reach the Finals, culminating in an overtime goal by Dustin Penner in Game 5, and thus becoming the second team in NHL history to beat the top three Conference seeds in the playoffs (the Calgary Flames achieved the same feat in 2004, ironically also under Darryl Sutter) and the first eighth seed to accomplish the feat. Los Angeles faced the New Jersey Devils in the Final, defeating them in six games to win their first Stanley Cup in franchise history. With the Game 6 victory occurring on home ice at Staples Center, the Kings became the first team since the 2007 Anaheim Ducks to win the Stanley Cup at home, as well as the second Californian NHL team to do so. The Kings became the first eight seed champion in any of the North American major leagues, the first Stanley Cup champion that finished below fifth in its conference, and the third to finish below second in its division (after the 1993 Canadiens and the 1995 Devils). Goaltender Jonathan Quick was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy as the most valuable player during the playoffs, and soon after signed a ten-year contract extension on June 28. Due to the 2012–13 NHL lockout, the 2012–13 Los Angeles Kings season began on January 19, 2013, and was shortened to 48 games. The Kings finished the season as the fifth seed in the West and began the defense of the Cup on the road against the St. Louis Blues, who they swept in the 2012 playoffs. After losing the first two games, the Kings won four in a row to eliminate the Blues in six games. In the second round, they then played a very tough San Jose Sharks team, this time with home-ice advantage. In the first game, Jarret Stoll suffered an injury from the Sharks' Raffi Torres, who ended up being suspended for the rest of the series. The Kings eventually won in seven games. In the Western Conference Finals, they faced the number one seed in the West and Presidents' Trophy winner, the Chicago Blackhawks. After dropping the first two games, the Kings won Game 3 with Jeff Carter suffering an injury from Blackhawks defenseman Duncan Keith, who was suspended for Game 4 as a result. After losing Game 4, the Kings battled the Blackhawks through two overtime periods in Game 5, with Patrick Kane eventually scoring the game- winning goal that won the game and the series, sending the Blackhawks to the 2013 Stanley Cup Finals and ending the Kings' season. During the 2013–14 season, the Kings acquired Marian Gaborik, and qualified for their fifth straight playoffs with the sixth-best result of the West. In the first round of the 2014 playoffs, the Kings played their in-state rivals, the San Jose Sharks. After losing the first three games to the Sharks, the Kings became the fourth team in NHL history to win the final four games in a row after initially being down three games to none, beating the Sharks in San Jose in the deciding Game 7. In the second round, the Kings played another in-state rival, Anaheim. After starting the series with two wins, the Kings lost three- straight games, trailing the series three games to two. However, for the second time in the first two rounds of the playoffs, the Kings were able to rally back after being down in the series and defeated the Ducks in Anaheim in Game 7. In the third round, the Kings jumped out to a three-games-to-one lead against Stanley Cup-defending Chicago, but were unable to close out the series in the fifth and sixth games. On June 1, 2014, the Kings advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals for the second time in three years after winning Game 7, 4–3, in overtime through a goal from Alec Martinez, clinching their third Western Conference title in franchise history. The Kings became the first team in NHL history to win three Game 7s en route to a Stanley Cup Finals berth. Not only were the Kings the first team in history to accomplish this feat, but they also managed to win all game sevens on opposing ice. For the third time, the Kings were finalists after finishing third in their division and sixth or lower in their conference. thumb|Parade held for the 2014 Kings team, shortly after they won their second Stanley Cup, June 2014. In the Final, the Kings faced the Eastern Conference-winning New York Rangers, who had defeated the Montreal Canadiens in six games in the Eastern Finals. The Kings won the Stanley Cup in five games, culminating with an Alec Martinez goal in the second overtime of Game 5 at Staples Center. The championship run had a record-tying 26 playoff games (the 1986–87 Philadelphia Flyers and 2003–04 Calgary Flames being the others), with the Kings facing elimination a record seven times. With their Game 7 victory in the Conference Finals and wins in the first two games of the Cup Finals, they became the first team to win three consecutive playoff games after trailing by more than one goal in each game. Justin Williams, who scored twice in the Finals and had points in all three Game 7s throughout the playoffs, won the Conn Smythe Trophy as playoff MVP. ===Playoff struggles and return to rebuilding (2014–present)=== Having won two Stanley Cup championships in the last three years, the Kings entered the 2014–15 season as the early favorites to retain their title. However, the Kings struggled often, with scoring slumps, defensemen losing games to injury and suspensions and frequent road losses. A defeat to the Calgary Flames in the penultimate game of the season eliminated the Kings from playoff contention, while qualifying Calgary, which coincidentally missed the postseason during the Kings' five-season playoff streak. Despite finishing with a record of 40–27–15, the Kings became the first defending Stanley Cup champion to miss the postseason since the 2006–07 Carolina Hurricanes and only the fourth overall since the 1967 NHL expansion season. At the start of the 2015–16 season, the Kings were expected to make the playoffs. They entered the playoffs as the fifth seed in their conference and second seed in their division. They faced the San Jose Sharks, but lost to them in five games. On June 16, 2016, the Kings named Anze Kopitar the 14th captain in team history, replacing Dustin Brown, who had led the team for the past eight seasons. The Kings celebrated their 50th anniversary during the 2016–17 season along with the other still active 1967 expansion teams (the St. Louis Blues, Philadelphia Flyers, and Pittsburgh Penguins), and for the first time since 2002, they hosted the NHL All-Star Game; Jeff Carter and Drew Doughty would represent the Kings at the All-Star Game, with the former leading the team in scoring this season. Goaltender Jonathan Quick suffered an injury on opening night that sidelined him for most of the season, and the Kings struggled without him. Backup Peter Budaj filled the void, earning his first starting duties since his time with the Colorado Avalanche six years earlier, but near the trade deadline, the Kings traded him to Tampa Bay for another goalie, Ben Bishop who shared the crease with Jonathan Quick down the stretch, the superstar having returned from his injury. Despite the trade, the Kings ultimately missed the playoffs for the second time in three seasons and, in the off-season, fired general manager Dean Lombardi and head coach Darryl Sutter. Assistant general manager Rob Blake was promoted to be the new general manager and John Stevens took over as head coach after serving as associate head coach for the Kings for several seasons. In the 2017 NHL Expansion Draft, the Vegas Golden Knights drafted defenseman Brayden McNabb, who had been left unprotected by the Kings. In the next season, the Kings clinched the 2018 playoffs as a wild card, but were swept by the expansion Golden Knights. On November 4, 2018, the Kings fired Stevens as head coach after the team started the 2018–19 season 4–8–1, and replaced him with Willie Desjardins. In Desjardins' debut on November 7, the Kings defeated the Ducks 4–1. The Kings finished the 2018–19 season in last place in both the Pacific Division and Western Conference with 71 points and they missed the playoffs for the third time in five seasons. The Kings hired Todd McLellan as their next head coach on April 16, 2019. The 2019–20 season was highlighted by several rebuilding moves, as players such as Trevor Lewis, Jack Campbell, Kyle Clifford, Derek Forbort and Alec Martinez would all depart the team, through trades or (in Lewis' case) via free agency. The team notably won the 2020 NHL Stadium Series in a 3–1 win over the Colorado Avalanche, which saw Tyler Toffoli score the league's first hat trick in an outdoor regular-season game; Toffoli was traded to the Vancouver Canucks two days after the feat. In their later portion of the season, the Kings called up several prospects including Mikey Anderson, Gabe Vilardi and Cal Petersen, as the team went on a 7-game win streak, showcasing their deep and talented prospect pool. This win streak, however, would mark the end of their season; the NHL would pause its season due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and as part of their plan to return to play, the regular season was officially ended, and the Kings were one of seven teams left out of the playoffs. They were automatically entered into the first phase of the 2020 NHL Draft Lottery, in which the Kings received the second overall pick. In the 2020–21 season, the Kings had another rebuilding year as they traded Jeff Carter, extended Alex Iafallo, and saw debuts of prospects like Jaret Anderson-Dolan, Arthur Kaliyev, Tobias Bjornfot, Rasmus Kupari and Quinton Byfield. A bright spot saw Anze Kopitar score his 1,000th point near season's end. They finished sixth in the Honda West division and missed the playoffs again. During the 2021 NHL Expansion Draft, the Seattle Kraken selected Kurtis MacDermid from the Kings, who was left unprotected (he would later be traded to the Colorado Avalanche). In the lead up to the 2021–22 season, the Kings acquired forwards Phillip Danault and Viktor Arvidsson during the off-season. They also signed defenseman Alexander Edler in an effort to bolster their blue line presence. The Kings qualified for the playoffs for the first time in 4 seasons, despite losing Drew Doughty to injury. This season would also prove to be Dustin Brown's last, as the forward announced on April 28, 2022, he would retire following the 2022 playoffs. They were defeated by the Edmonton Oilers in seven games in the First Round. During the off-season, the Kings acquired Kevin Fiala from the Minnesota Wild, to replace Brown on the first line. The 2022–23 season would start off well, as Fiala would lead the team in points for much of the season and be elected to the 2023 All-Star Game. Clinching the 2023 playoffs, the Kings once again faced the Edmonton Oilers in the First Round, and the Kings were defeated, this time in six games. ==Team identity== ===Uniforms and logos=== thumb|150px|The original logo of the Kings used from 1967 to 1982. The Los Angeles Kings debuted in the NHL wearing purple – officially the shade "Forum blue" – and gold uniforms. The original design was simple and straightforward, featuring monochrome striping on the shoulders and tail, as well as purple pants with white and gold trim. Later on, white trim was added on the numbers, and names were also added, while tail stripes were adjusted. At one point, gold pants were used to pair with the gold uniforms during the 1970s. A variation of the original crown logo, with a contrasting color background, was used with this uniform. From 1980 to 1988, the Kings modified their uniforms to include a contrasting yoke that extends from sleeve to sleeve. White was also added to the socks, on the tail stripes, and at the bottom of the yoke, but the color was removed from the pants. The names and numbers were also modified to a standard NHL block lettering. Just in time for Wayne Gretzky's arrival, the Kings' colors changed to black and silver, mirroring those of the Los Angeles Raiders. The new uniforms did not deviate much from the prior design, save for the color scheme, a new primary Kings logo, and a switch from a contrasting yoke color to sleeve stripes. With minor changes to the text, number font and pant striping, the uniforms were used until the 1997–98 season. The Kings briefly reintroduced purple and gold to the color scheme upon unveiling an alternate jersey for the 1995–96 season. The uniform featured a gradually fading black splash, medieval-inspired serif text, and a logo of a bearded figure wearing a golden crown. The so-called "Burger King" jersey proved to be unpopular with fans, and was scrapped after only one season. For the 1998–99 season, the Kings unveiled new logos, uniforms and a new purple-silver-white color scheme, as black and silver had become associated with gang colors. The shade of purple was a lighter shade than the one used in the "Forum blue and gold" era. The new primary logo was a shield and crest featuring three royal symbols–a sunglass-clad lion, a crown and the Sun. The jerseys featured the shield logo with hints of purple on the yoke, sleeve stripes and tail. By coincidence, this was the same color scheme as the NBA's Sacramento Kings, who had rebranded to the scheme four years before the NHL's Kings did, as well as the Colorado Rockies (not to be confused with the NHL Rockies who became the New Jersey Devils) of Major League Baseball. The bottom of the jerseys read the city name. A purple alternate jersey featuring the updated secondary crown logo was unveiled for the 1999–2000 season. In 2002, the crown logo became the primary while the shield logo was demoted to alternate status. The socks on the black and purple uniforms also switched designations to match their counterparts. Upon moving to the Reebok Edge design in 2007, the jerseys were updated without the tail stripes. The purple-tinged road jerseys were used until the 2010–11 season, while the home jersey was demoted to alternate status in 2011 and remained in use until 2013. In 2008, the Kings unveiled an alternate jersey inspired by the 1988–98 Kings motif. The current logo, now in a black and silver banner with the updated crown logo and 'LA' abbreviation on top, made its debut with the jersey. Three years later, the Kings completed the transition back to the classic black and silver by unveiling a new away jersey, which unlike the home jersey, features a black and silver tail stripe. The Kings script from their 1988–98 logo returned on the helmets, and would stay that way until 2013, when they were replaced by the current Kings script. From the 2010–11 to the 2016–17 seasons, the Kings have also worn their classic purple and gold jerseys from the late 1970s as part of "Legends Night" on select home dates. Minor changes in the uniform include the NHL shield logo on the neck piping, as well as the use of the Reebok Edge design. The Kings wore silver jerseys with white trim, black stripes and shoulder yoke during the 2014 NHL Stadium Series. The uniforms featured a metallic treatment of the alternate crown logo in front. The sleeve numbers were slightly tilted diagonally, while the back numbers were enlarged for visibility purposes. A new 'LA' alternate logo was placed on the left shoulder yoke. For the 2015 Stadium Series, the Kings wore a tricolored jersey featuring the team's silver, black and white colors. Both the sleeve and back numbers are enlarged, while white pants were used with this jersey. As part of the Kings' 50th anniversary in the 2016–17 season, the team wore commemorative silver alternate jerseys with a black shoulder yoke and striping for every Saturday home game. The logos and lettering were accented with metallic gold, while a purple neckline featured five gold diamonds to symbolize the Kings' original colors. A 50th Anniversary patch was adorned on the right shoulder. Adidas signed an agreement with the NHL to be the official manufacturer of uniforms and licensed apparel for all teams, starting with the 2017–18 season, replacing Reebok. The home and away uniforms that were debuted in the 2007–08 season remained identical with the exception of the new Adidas ADIZERO template and the new collar. With the new collar, the NHL shield was moved to the front and center on a pentagon with a new "Chrome Flex" style. The waist stripes on the road white jersey became curved instead of being straight across. In the 2018–19 season, the Kings brought back their silver alternate uniforms last used in the 2016–17 season, minus the metallic gold elements in the logo and numerals. The uniform was retired following the 2020–21 season. During the 2019–20 season, the Kings brought back the 1992–98 white uniform (with black letters and silver trim) as a heritage uniform for two games. The 2020 NHL Stadium Series saw the Kings wear special black and white uniforms with "LA" tilted upward in front, along with chrome helmets. The uniforms took cues from the angular architecture and aircraft of the United States Air Force Academy. In the 2020–21 season, the Kings unveiled a "Reverse Retro" alternate uniform in collaboration with Adidas. The uniform essentially recreated the design worn from 1988 to 1998, but black and silver were replaced by the team's original purple and gold colors. Before the 2021–22 season, the Kings replaced their silver alternates with a modernized version of the throwback 1990s white uniforms. The design featured slightly different striping patterns from the originals, and were paired with chrome helmets. A second "Reverse Retro" uniform was unveiled in the 2022–23 season, featuring the 1980–88 uniform but with a white base, purple stripes and gold accents. ===Mascot=== Since 2007, the mascot of the Kings is Bailey, a six-foot lion ( with mane included) who wears No. 72 because it is the average temperature in Los Angeles. He was named in honor of Garnet "Ace" Bailey, who served Director of Pro Scouting for seven years before dying in the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. Bailey is the second mascot, after Kingston the snow leopard in the early 1990s. ==Rivalries== The Kings have developed strong rivalries with the two other Californian teams of the NHL, the Anaheim Ducks – who also play in the Los Angeles metropolitan area, leading to the rivalry dubbed the "Freeway Face-Off" as both cities are separated by the Interstate 5, and the rivalry with the San Jose Sharks – also reflects the animosity between Northern and Southern California. The Kings eliminated both teams during the 2014 Stanley Cup run, and have played outdoor games with them for the NHL Stadium Series, losing to the Ducks at Dodger Stadium in 2014 and beating the Sharks at Levi's Stadium the following year. During the 1980s, the Kings developed a heated rivalry with the Edmonton Oilers. ==Season-by-season record== List of the last five seasons completed by the Kings. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Los Angeles Kings seasons Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, OTL = Overtime losses/shootout losses, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against Season GP W L OTL Pts GF GA Finish Playoffs 2018–19 82 31 42 9 71 202 263 8th, Pacific Did not qualify 2019–20 70 29 35 6 64 178 212 7th, Pacific Did not qualify 2020–21 56 21 28 7 49 143 170 6th, West Did not qualify 2021–22 82 44 27 11 99 239 236 3rd, Pacific Lost in First Round, 3–4 (Oilers) 2022–23 82 47 25 10 104 280 257 3rd, Pacific Lost in First Round, 2–4 (Oilers) ==Players and personnel== ===Current roster=== ===Team captains=== thumb|Kopitar has been the team's captain since 2016. * Bob Wall, 1967–1969 * Larry Cahan, 1969–1971 * Bob Pulford, 1971–1973 * Terry Harper, 1973–1975 * Mike Murphy, 1975–1981 * Dave Lewis, 1981–1983 * Terry Ruskowski, 1983–1985 * Dave Taylor, 1985–1989 * Wayne Gretzky, 1989–1996 * Luc Robitaille, 1992–1993, 2006Robitaille served as captain to start the 1992–93 season, while Gretzky was injured. Gretzky resumed his role as captain when he returned to the lineup. Robitaille again served as captain for the 2 final games of his career. * Rob Blake, 1996–2001, 2007–2008 * Mattias Norstrom, 2001–2007 * Dustin Brown, 2008–2016, 2022Brown was named captain for the team's final game of the 2021–2022 season * Anze Kopitar, 2016–present ===Head coaches=== * Red Kelly: 1967–1969 * Hal Laycoe: 1969–1970 * Johnny Wilson: 1969–1970 * Larry Regan: 1970–1972 * Fred Glover: 1971–1972 * Bob Pulford: 1972–1977 * Ron Stewart: 1977–1978 * Bob Berry: 1978–1981 * Parker MacDonald: 1981–1982 * Don Perry: 1982–1984 * Rogie Vachon (interim)*: 1984, 1988, 1995 * Roger Neilson: 1984 * Pat Quinn: 1984–1987 * Mike Murphy: 1987–1988 * Robbie Ftorek: 1988–1989 * Tom Webster: 1989–1992 * Barry Melrose: 1992–1995 * Larry Robinson: 1995–1999 * Andy Murray: 1999–2006 * John Torchetti (interim)*: 2006 * Marc Crawford: 2006–2008 * Terry Murray: 2008–2011 * John Stevens (interim)*: 2011, 2017–2018 * Darryl Sutter: 2011–2017 * Willie Desjardins (interim): 2018–2019 * Todd McLellan 2019–present Notes: * Rogie Vachon took over as interim head coach for the Kings on three occasions, the first for two games in the middle of the 1983–84 season after Don Perry was fired, then replaced by Roger Neilson. The second time was for one game in the middle of 1987–88 season after Mike Murphy was fired, then replaced by Robbie Ftorek. The third occasion was for the final seven games in the 1994–95 lockout- shortened season after Barry Melrose was fired, then replaced by Larry Robinson. In all those times, he returned to his duties in the Kings front office. * John Torchetti took over as interim head coach for the final twelve games of the 2005–06 season after Andy Murray was fired. Torchetti was replaced by Marc Crawford at the end of the 2005–06 season. * John Stevens took over as interim head coach for four games in the middle of the 2011–12 season after Terry Murray was fired. He would return to his duties as assistant coach after Darryl Sutter was hired. Stevens would return again, this time as the permanent replacement for Sutter in 2017. ===General managers=== * Larry Regan: 1967–1973 * Jake Milford: 1973–1977 * George Maguire: 1977–1984 * Rogie Vachon: 1984–1992 * Nick Beverley: 1992–1994 * Sam McMaster: 1994–1997 * Dave Taylor: 1997–2006 * Dean Lombardi: 2006–2017 * Rob Blake: 2017–present ===Team owners=== * Jack Kent Cooke: 1967–1979 * Jerry Buss: 1979–1988 * Bruce McNall: 1988–1994 * Joseph M. Cohen and Jeffery Sudikoff: 1994–1995 * Philip Anschutz and Edward Roski: 1995–present ==Team and League honors== ===Retired numbers=== thumb|Five of the Kings retired jersey banners hanging from the rafters in 2012. Los Angeles Kings retired numbers No. Player Position Tenure No. retirement 4 Rob Blake D 1990–2001 2006–2008 January 17, 2015 16 Marcel Dionne C 1975–1987 November 8, 1990 18 Dave Taylor RW 1977–1994 April 3, 1995 20 Luc Robitaille LW 1986–1994 1997–2001 2003–2006 January 20, 2007 23 Dustin Brown RW 2003–2022 February 11, 2023 30 Rogie Vachon G 1972–1978 February 14, 1985 991 Wayne Gretzky C 1988–1996 October 9, 2002 B Bob Miller Broadcaster 1973–2017 January 13, 2018 Notes: * 1 The NHL had retired Wayne Gretzky's No. 99 for all its member teams at the 2000 NHL All-Star Game. ===Hall of Famers=== The Los Angeles Kings presently acknowledge an affiliation with a number of inductees to the Hockey Hall of Fame. Inductees affiliated with the Kings include 18 former players (five of whom earned their credentials primarily as Kings) and three builders of the sport. The three individuals recognized as builders by the Hall of Fame includes former Kings head coaches, and general managers. In addition to players and builders, athletic trainers were inducted into the Hall of Fame through the Professional Hockey Athletic Trainers Society, and the Society of Professional Hockey Equipment Managers. Two athletic trainers from the Kings organization were inducted into the Hall of Fame, Peter Demers in 2007, and Mark O'Neill in 2016. Three sports broadcasters for the Kings were also awarded the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award for their contribution to hockey broadcasting including Jiggs McDonald (1990), Bob Miller (2000), and Nick Nickson (2015). In 2005, Helene Elliott, a sportswriter for the Los Angeles Times was awarded the Elmer Ferguson Memorial Award for her contributions to sports journalism. Los Angeles Kings Hall of Fame inductees Affiliation with inductees based on team acknowledgement Hall of Fame players Rob Blake Harry Howell Larry Robinson Paul Coffey Jarome Iginla Luc Robitaille Marcel Dionne Brian Kilrea Terry Sawchuk Dick Duff Jari Kurri Steve Shutt Grant Fuhr Larry Murphy Billy Smith Wayne Gretzky Bob Pulford Rogie Vachon Hall of Fame builders Red Kelly Jake Milford Roger Neilson ===Franchise records=== ====Regular-season scoring leaders==== thumb|upright|Luc Robitaille is the franchise’s all time leader in goals scored with 557. These are the top-ten regular season scorers in franchise history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL regular season. * – current Kings player Note: Pos = Position; GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; P/G = Points per game Points Player Pos GP G A Pts P/G Marcel Dionne C 921 550 757 1,307 1.42 Luc Robitaille LW 1,079 557 597 1,154 1.07 Anze Kopitar* C 1,292 393 748 1,141 .88 Dave Taylor RW 1,111 431 638 1,069 .96 Wayne Gretzky C 539 246 672 918 1.70 Bernie Nicholls C 602 327 431 758 1.26 Dustin Brown RW 1,296 325 387 712 .55 Butch Goring C 736 275 384 659 .90 Drew Doughty* D 1,095 141 478 619 .57 Rob Blake D 805 161 333 494 .61 Goals Player Pos Luc Robitaille LW 557 Marcel Dionne C 550 Dave Taylor RW 431 Anze Kopitar* C 393 Bernie Nicholls C 327 Dustin Brown RW 325 Butch Goring C 275 Wayne Gretzky C 246 Charlie Simmer LW 222 Jeff Carter C 194 Assists Player Pos Marcel Dionne C 757 Anze Kopitar* C 748 Wayne Gretzky C 672 Dave Taylor RW 638 Luc Robitaille LW 597 Drew Doughty* D 478 Bernie Nicholls C 431 Dustin Brown RW 387 Butch Goring C 384 Rob Blake D 333 ====Regular-season goaltending leaders==== These are the top-ten regular season games played, wins, and shutouts leaders in franchise history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL regular season. * – current Kings player Note: GP = Games played; GAA = Goals against average; SV% = Save percentage; W = Wins; L = Losses; SO = Shutouts Games played Player GP GAA SV% W L SO Jonathan Quick 743 2.46 0.911 370 275 57 Rogie Vachon 389 2.86 0.901 171 148 32 Kelly Hrudey 360 3.47 0.896 145 135 10 Mario Lessard 240 3.75 0.874 92 97 9 Jamie Storr 205 2.52 0.910 85 78 16 Stephane Fiset 200 2.83 0.907 80 85 10 Gary Edwards 155 3.39 0.890 54 68 7 Felix Potvin 136 2.35 0.905 61 52 14 Rollie Melanson 119 4.13 0.869 40 58 3 Gerry Desjardins 104 3.51 0.893 26 58 7 Wins Player GP Jonathan Quick 743 370 Rogie Vachon 389 171 Kelly Hrudey 360 145 Mario Lessard 240 92 Jamie Storr 205 85 Stephane Fiset 200 80 Felix Potvin 136 61 Gary Edwards 155 54 Mathieu Garon 95 44 Bob Janecyk 103 42 Shutouts Player GP Jonathan Quick 743 57 Rogie Vachon 389 32 Jamie Storr 205 16 Felix Potvin 136 14 Stephane Fiset 200 10 Kelly Hrudey 360 10 Mario Lessard 240 9 Martin Jones 34 7 Peter Budaj 57 7 Gerry Desjardins 104 7 ====Playoff scoring leaders==== These are the top-ten playoff scorers in franchise history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL playoff season. * – current Kings player Note: Pos = Position; GP = Games Played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; P/G = Points per game Points Player Pos GP G A Pts P/G Wayne Gretzky C 60 29 65 94 1.57 Luc Robitaille LW 94 41 48 89 .95 Anze Kopitar* C 92 24 53 77 .84 Dave Taylor RW 92 26 33 59 .64 Justin Williams RW 73 22 32 54 .74 Drew Doughty* D 90 16 38 54 .60 Jeff Carter C 73 26 27 53 .73 Dustin Brown RW 92 19 30 49 .53 Tomas Sandstrom RW 50 17 28 45 .90 Marcel Dionne C 43 20 23 43 1.00 Goals Player Pos Luc Robitaille LW 41 Wayne Gretzky C 29 Jeff Carter C 26 Dave Taylor RW 26 Anze Kopitar* C 24 Justin Williams RW 22 Marcel Dionne C 20 Dustin Brown RW 19 Tomas Sandstrom RW 17 Bernie Nicholls C 16 Assists Player Pos Wayne Gretzky C 65 Anze Kopitar* C 53 Luc Robitaille LW 48 Drew Doughty* D 38 Dave Taylor RW 33 Justin Williams RW 32 Dustin Brown RW 30 Tomas Sandstrom RW 28 Mike Richards C 27 Jeff Carter C 27 ====Playoff goaltending leaders==== These are the top-ten playoff games played, wins, and shutouts leaders in franchise history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL playoff season. * – current Kings player Note: GP = Games played; GAA = Goals against average; SV% = Save percentage; W = Wins; L = Losses; SO = Shutouts Games played Player GP GAA SV% W L SO Jonathan Quick 92 2.31 0.921 49 43 10 Kelly Hrudey 57 3.53 0.883 26 30 0 Rogie Vachon 25 3.10 0.890 9 16 1 Felix Potvin 20 2.34 0.915 10 10 3 Mario Lessard 20 4.46 0.865 6 12 0 Gerry Desjardins 9 3.90 0.861 3 4 0 Wayne Rutledge 8 3.18 0.893 2 5 0 Glenn Healy 7 4.66 0.860 1 4 0 Stephane Fiset 7 3.48 0.893 0 5 0 Joonas Korpisalo* 6 3.77 0.892 2 4 0 Wins Player GP Jonathan Quick 92 49 Kelly Hrudey 57 26 Felix Potvin 20 10 Rogie Vachon 25 9 Mario Lessard 20 6 Robb Stauber 4 3 Gerry Desjardins 9 3 Gary Edwards 3 2 Terry Sawchuk 5 2 Joonas Korpisalo* 6 2 Shutouts Player GP Jonathan Quick 92 10 Felix Potvin 20 3 Terry Sawchuk 5 1 Rogie Vachon 25 1 ;Regular season records * Most goals: Bernie Nicholls, 70 (1988–89) * Most assists: Wayne Gretzky, 122 (1990–91) * Most points: Wayne Gretzky, 168 (1988–89) * Most points in a game: Bernie Nicholls, 8 (1988–89) * Most penalty minutes: Marty McSorley, 399 (1992–93) * Most points, defenseman: Larry Murphy, 76 (1980–81) * Most points, rookie: Luc Robitaille, 84 (1986–87) * Most wins: Jonathan Quick, 40 (2015–16) * Most shutouts: Jonathan Quick, 10 (2011–12) ;Playoff records * Most goals: Wayne Gretzky, 15 (1992–93) * Most assists: Wayne Gretzky, 25 (1992-93) * Most points: Wayne Gretzky, 40 (1992–93) * Most points in a game: Tomas Sandstrom, Tony Granato, Wayne Gretzky, 5 (1989–90) * Most penalty minutes: Jay Miller, 63 (1988-89) * Most points, defenseman: Drew Doughty, 18 (2013–14) * Most points, rookie: Tyler Toffoli, 14 (2013-14) * Most wins: Jonathan Quick, 16 (2011-2012), (2013-14) * Most shutouts: Jonathan Quick, 3 (2011-12), (2012–13) ;Team records * Most points in a season: 105 (1974–75) * Most wins in a season: 48 (2015–16) * Longest regular season winning streak: 9 (2009–10) * Longest playoff winning streak: 8 (2011-12) ==Broadcasters== In 1973, the Kings hired Bob Miller as their play-by-play announcer. Considered to be one of the finest hockey play- by-play announcers, Miller held the post continuously until retirement in 2017, and is often referred to as the Voice of the Kings. He received the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award from the NHL Hockey Broadcasters Association on November 13, 2000, making him a media honoree for the Hockey Hall of Fame, and he also earned a star in the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2006. Miller has written two books about his experiences with the team, Bob Miller's Tales of the Los Angeles Kings (2006), and Tales From The Los Angeles Kings Locker Room: A Collection Of The Greatest Kings Stories Ever Told (2013). On March 2, 2017, citing health reasons, Miller announced his retirement after 44 years with the team, and finished his career broadcasting the final two games of the 2016–17 Kings season. The Kings named NBCSN announcer Alex Faust as Miller's replacement, play-by-play announcer the team on TV for the 2017–18 season on June 1, 2017. On September 18, 2018. the team announced that it would cease over-the-air radio broadcasts, and had partnered with iHeartMedia to form the Los Angeles Kings Audio Network, which streams exclusively on the iHeartRadio platform. The deal also includes pre-game shows and other ancillary content streaming on iHeartRadio. Two pre-season games were simulcast by KEIB before the transition was completed. On June 5, 2023, the Kings parted ways with Alex Faust and planned on returning to a TV/radio simulcast format with Nick Nickson, Jim Fox and Daryl Evans, which they last used in the 1989–90 season. The Kings' contract with Bally Sports West also expired, ending a 38-year partnership that began when the network was originally named Prime Ticket. Television and Radio: TBA and iHeartRadio * Nick Nickson – play-by-play * Daryl Evans – color commentator * Jim Fox – color commentator Public address: * David Courtney 1989–2012 * Dave Joseph 2013–2020 *Trevor Rabone 2021–present ==Affiliate teams== The Kings are currently affiliated with the Ontario Reign in the American Hockey League, they also have an affiliation with the Greenville Swamp Rabbits in the ECHL. Previous affiliates included the Manchester Monarchs, Lowell Lock Monsters, Springfield Falcons, New Haven Nighthawks, Binghamton Dusters and Springfield Kings of the AHL; Manchester Monarchs and Reading Royals in the ECHL; Long Beach Ice Dogs, Phoenix Roadrunners and Utah Grizzlies in the International Hockey League; and the Houston Apollos of the Central Hockey League. ==See also== * 1967 NHL expansion * List of NHL players * List of NHL seasons * Crypto.com Arena ==References== ==External links== * Category:National Hockey League teams Category:1967 establishments in California Category:Ice hockey clubs established in 1967 Kings Kings Category:Pacific Division (NHL) Category:Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1995 |
Traditionalism () is a Spanish political doctrine formulated in the early 19th century. It understands politics as implementing the social kingship of Jesus Christ, with Catholicism as the state religion and Catholic religious criteria regulating public morality and every legal aspect of Spain. In practical terms it advocates a loosely organized monarchy combined with strong royal powers, with some checks and balances provided by organicist representation, and with society structured on a corporative basis. The doctrine was adopted as the theoretical platform of the Carlist socio-political movement, though it appeared also in a non-Carlist incarnation. Traditionalism has never exercised major influence among the Spanish governmental strata, yet periodically it was capable of mass mobilization and at times partially filtered into the ruling practice. == History == Spanish Traditionalism is one of the oldest continuously proclaimed political doctrines in the world, its origins traced back to the late 18th century. In terms of intellectual grandeur the theory enjoyed its climax three times: in the 1840–1850s thanks to works of Jaime Balmes and Juan Donoso Cortés, in the 1890–1900s thanks to works of Enrique Gil Robles and Juan Vázquez de Mella, and in the 1950–1960s thanks to works of Francisco Elías de Tejada and Rafael Gambra. In terms of impact on real-life politics the concept exercised most visible influence during the rule of Ramón Narváez in the 1840–1850s, Miguel Primo de Rivera in the 1920s and Francisco Franco in the 1940–1950s. === Antecedents === Spanish Traditionalism is almost unanimously considered a doctrine born in the 19th century, though there are vastly different views as to what intellectual phenomena could be viewed as its antecedents. Apart from isolated cases of going back to pre-Christian times,see e.g. references to Carlism as a concept rooted in pre-Christian theories of Aristotle and fathers of the Church in the letter of José Miguel Gambra Gutiérrez, leader of Comunión Tradicionalista Carlista, to Enrique Sixto de Borbón, dated February 21, 2010, available here the most far-reaching perspective is the one which identifies the roots of Traditionalism with beginnings of Spanish political tradition,named "los escritores tradicinalistas o pertenecientes a la escuela española", Melchor Ferrer, Domingo Tejera de Quesada, Jose Acedo, Historia del tradicionalismo español, vol. 1, Sevilla 1941, p. 8 the latter embodied in works of Isidore of Seville.Ferrer 1941, pp. 11–19 Together with works of other minor Spanish Medieval scholarslike Rodrigo Sánchez de Arévalo, Raimundo Lulio and others, Ferrer 1941, p. 19 and onwards it reportedly enjoyed its climax in the 16th century, from Fernando de RoaFerrrer 1941, pp. 31–32 to Antonio de GuevaraFerrer 1941, p. 33 to Juan de Mariana,Ferrer 1941, pp. 38–46 and laid foundations for Traditionalist understanding of power and politics, derived from Christian and natural order. In the 17th century it was enriched with concepts related to intermediary bodies, political representation and limitation of royal powers, all thanks to works of Juan Fernández de Madrano, Tomás Cerdán de Tallada, Agustín de Rojas Villandrando, Juan de Madariaga, Francisco de Sánchez de la Barreda, Juan de Palafox y Mendoza and especially Francisco de Quevedo.Ferrer 1941, pp. 57–100 Other scholars tend to be skeptical of such a far-reaching approach and suggest that it confuses Traditionalism with Spanish political tradition.perhaps most bold statement on the issue was produced by Javier Herrero, who denied any continuity or identity between Traditionalism and the Spanish tradition by claiming that their reactionary vision "ni era tradición ni era española", see Javier Herrero, Los origenes del pensamiento reaccionario español, Madrid 1971, p. 24. For a sample of many very critical reviews of the book see Vladimir Lamsdorff Galagane, Los orígenes del pensamiento reaccionario español, de Javier Herrero, [in:] Revista de Estudios Políticos 183–184 (1972), pp. 391–399; see also Mariano de Santa Ana, Es preciso no confundir tradición con tradicionalismo, [in:] La Página 50 (2002), pp. 37–44 According to a somewhat competitive perspectiveFrancisco Elías de Tejada, Rafael Gambra, Fernando Puy, ¿Qué es el carlismo?, Madrid 1971, p. 29. According to the authors, it was opposition to putting interests of Casa de Borbón over those of Spain which "es lo que da lugar al nacimiento del tradicionalismo del siglo XVIII" antecedents of Traditionalism can be identified no sooner than in the 18th century, as their emergence was conditioned by experience of discontinuity between the past and the present.Pedro Carlos González Cuevas, Los tradicionalismos. El tradicionalismo como ideologia, [in:] Pedro Carlos González Cuevas (ed.), Historia del pensamiento político español del Renacimiento a nuestros días, Madrid 2016, , pp. 137–158 The first manifestations of pre-Traditionalist thought were born – the theory goes – as opposition to modernizing Borbonic reforms imported from France and resulting in buildup of an absolute monarchy.Jordi Canal, El carlismo, Madrid 2000, , pp. 31–32; detailed discussion in Francisco Puy, El pensamiento tradicional en el siglo XVIII, Madrid 1969. According to one theory, "Ilustrados" and "tradicionalistas" competed for power across most of the 18th century, with Traditionalists claiming that Enlightenment posed a threat to the royal rule. The ilustrados are referred to as having enjoyed most power between 1753 and 1773; after expulsion of the Jesuits the king started to lean back to traditional way, Enrique Martínez Ruiz, Enrique Giménez, José Antonio Armillas, Consuelo Maqueda, La España moderna, Madrid 1992, , p. 502 Initially the critics focused on intended homogenization of state; writers and scholars like Juan Manuel Fernández Pacheco, Narciso Feliú de la Peña and Manuel Larramendi objected to centralization efforts of Felipe V and voiced in favor of traditional local establishments.Jacek Bartyzel, Nic bez Boga, nic wbrew tradycji, Radzymin 2015, , pp. 57–58 In the mid-18th century the criticism shifted to technocratic mode of governing; Andrés Piquer Arrufat, Nuix de Perpiñá brothers and especially Fernando de Ceballos y Mier"Padre Fernando Ceballos y Mier stays at the roots of Spanish Traditionalism, himself merging liberal-conservatism, traditionalism and radical rightism", Юрий Владимирович Василенко, У истоков испанского традиционализма: случай падре Ф. Себальоса, [in:] Научный ежегодник Института философии и права Уральского отделения Российской академии наук 14 (2014), p. 77 confronted rising "despotismo ministerial", perceived as a result of arrogant Enlightenment. Indeed, some scholars emphasize the anti-Enlightenment spirit of 18th-century Traditionalists;the approach pursued e.g. in Herrero 1971 others prefer to underline rather their anti-absolutist stand.the approach pursued e.g. in Bartyzel 2015 In none of the above cases a concise lecture of competitive political theory was offered;Bartyzel 2015, pp. 58–59 instead, the authors listed consciously exploited multifold differences between the new system and traditional Spanish establishments.Estanislao Cantero, Cádiz, 1812. De mitos, tradiciones inventadas y 'husos' historiográficos, [in:] Verbo 505-506 (2012), pp. 373–426, Miguel Ayuso Torres, El pensamiento político del Manifiesto de los Persas, [in:] Aportes 30/87 (2015), pp. 6–7 Both the above perspectives are rejected by scholars sharing perhaps the most popular theory, namely that one can not speak of Traditionalism prior to the French Revolution. It was the 1789 events in France which triggered antecedents of Traditionalism, a theory founded on the concept of counter-revolution. Within this perspective it is the revolution, not Absolutism, that formed the key Traditionalist counterpoint of reference. The proponents listed are Lorenzo Hervás Panduro, Francisco Alvarado y Téllez, Diego José de Cádiz and Rafael de Vélez;see especially the classic Vélez' work, Apología del altar y del trono (1819), a model lecture of anti-liberal and counter-revolutionary outlook of the Fernandine era, though not all scholars necessarily see it as pre- Traditionalist concept, Pedro Carlos González Cuevas, Las tradiciones ideológicas de la extrema derecha española, [in:] Hispania 49 (2001), p. 105 their refutations of revolutionary concepts were based on Spanish political tradition and offered first components of what would later become a Traditionalist doctrine.see e.g. José María Benavente Barreda, Tradicionalismo, [in:] Enciclopedia de la Cultura Española, Madrid 1968, p. 456 According to some scholars Traditionalism as political option for the first time emerged represented by minority deputies at the 1812 Cortes of Cádiz;Alexandra Wilhelmsen, La teoría del Tradicionalismo político español (1810–1875): Realismo y Carlismo, [in:] Stanley G. Payne (ed.), Identidad y nacionalismo en la España contemporánea: el Carlismo, 1833–1975, Madrid 2001, , p. 44, Juan Rodríguez Ruiz, Tradicionalismo, [in:] Enciclopedia de la Cultura Española, Madrid 1968, p. 458 a document considered by some the first political lecture of Traditionalism is the 1814 Manifiesto de los Persas,Bartyzel 2015, p. 59, José Carlos Clemente Muñoz, El carlismo en el novecientos español (1876–1936), Madrid 1999, , p. 20. Pointing to the Persas as antecedents of Traditionalism is the concept of present-day historians; until the 1930s the Traditionalists themselves have not referred to the Manifiesto as to their pre-history the following ones to be mentioned having been the 1822 Manifiesto del Barón de Erolesknown also as Manifest to the Catalans, Bartyzel 2015, pp. 60–61; some scholars link the document to Absolutist rather than Traditionalist outlook, González Cuevas 2001, p. 106 and the 1826 Manifiesto de los Realistas Puros.though there are serious doubts as to authenticity of the document, see Julio Arostegui, El problema del Manifiesto de los Realistas Puros (1826), [in:] Estudios de Historia Contemporánea 1 (1976), pp. 119–185 However, discussing the early 19th century most scholars prefer rather to speak of "realistas",Wilhelmsen 2001, pp. 48–51, Alexandra Wilhemsen, El realismo en el reinado de Fernando VII, [in:] Alexandra Wilhelmsen, La formación del pensamiento político del carlismo (1810–1875), Madrid 1998, "ultras", "apostólicos" or "serviles",Canal 2000, p. 28 and apply the name of Traditionalists to the period starting in the 1830s.Pedro Carlos González Cuevas, Tradicionalismo, [in:] Javier Fernández Sebastián (ed.), Diccionario político y social del siglo XX español, Madrid 2008, , p. 1164. However, some claim that "traditionalism forged its basic beliefs before the dynastic problem emerged", Wilhelmsen 2001, p. 47 Politically, the group tended to swallow their anti-absolutism when supporting Fernando VII in his anti-revolutionary zeal; it was only in the late 1820s that the king started to be viewed as wavering and unreliable, with sympathy gradually shifting to his firmly reactionary brother, Don Carlos. === Isabelline era === The 1833 death of Fernando VII triggered dynastical crisis and a civil war, to become known as the First Carlist War. Don Carlos issued a number of manifiestos; they fell short of outlining a political vision"el carlismo, bajo la dirección de Carlos V, se movió, por ello, dentro de unos principios sumamente vagos, genéricos y abstractos, herederos, al menos en parte, de los planteamientos „realistas” gaditanos y de los apostólicos y „agraviados” del reinado de Fernando VII", González Cuevas 2001, p. 107 and tended to focus on advertising his succession claims,Canal 2000, pp. 63–68, compare also Ferrer 1941, pp. 286–287, 287–288, 289–291 though they also lambasted his opponents as masonic conspirators pitted against religion, monarchy, fueros and traditional liberties.e.g. in the so-called Proclama de Verástegui, see Ferrer 1941, p. 292 Most of the former realistas sided with Don Carlos and politically his faction immediately assumed firmly ultraconservative flavor, directed against slightest manifestations of Liberalism embraced by the opposite faction of María Cristina; in terms of popular support the rural masses were attracted to the camp of Don Carlos mostly by religious zeal and perceived threat of foreign-inspired secularization. However, most present-day scholars refer to his supporters as Carlists; cases of applying the Traditionalist denomination are rather exceptional.Antonio Caridad Salvador, El ejército y las partidas carlistas en Valencia y Aragón (1833–1840), Valencia 2014, , or Juan Carlos Sierra, El Madrid de Larra, Madrid 2006, Though some students have no doubt that political outlook of Don Carlos and his followers was founded on pre- Traditionalist realist antecedents,Wilhelmsen 1998, especially chapter III.13, Pensamiento de los prohombres carlistas: realismo o continuidad histórica; similar approach, claiming that Carlism was Traditionalism plus Legitimism, in Wilhelmsen 2001, p. 45 no Carlist author of the 1830s is credited for developing a Traditionalist outlook.and there are authors who claim that "before the middle of the nineteenth century, Carlism could lay little claim to ideological distinction" and that some Carlists "did subscribe to the kind of traditionalist reformism enshrined in the Persian Manifesto", Martin Blinkhorn, Carlism and Crisis in Spain, Cambridge 1975 [re-printed with no re- edition in 2008], p. 20 A fully-fledged Traditionalism is usually noted as born in the 1840s and 1850s, fathered by two independently working scholars, Jaime Balmes y Urpiá and Juan Donoso Cortés.though the two are usually bundled together as representatives of the same general outlook, upon closer inspection some scholars conclude that they had little in common: "en realidad, Balmes tiene una sola cosa en común con Donoso: la causa católica y antiliberal que defienden', compare González Cuevas 2001, p. 109. Some consider them even antithetical, see Melchot Ferrer, Historia del tradicionalismo español, vol. 20, Sevilla 1955, p. 18 Both formulated largely overlapping theoretical systems accommodating traditional Catholicism within constitutional framework of the Isabelline monarchy.Donoso himself claimed that "Balmes y yo dijamos las mismas cosas, articulamos el mismo juicio, formulamos las mismas opiniones", but considered himself an original thinker and Balmes his follower, quoted after Ferrer 1955, p. 19 Neither defined himself as Traditionalist, and the name is applied retroactively.some scholars consider their Traditionalism equivalent to "conservadurismo autoritario" or "neocatólicismo", see González Cuevas 2001, p. 106; among many other students Traditionalism and Conservatism are considered two different largely incompatible outlooks, while the term "Neo-Catholics" is reserved for late followers of Donoso, active in the 1860s and 1870s Politically Balmes sought rapprochement between the Carlists and the Isabellites;detailed information in Melchor Ferrer, Historia del tradicionalismo español, vol. 18, Sevilla 1951, pp. 34–53; at one point the author concludes that Balmes was in fact a Carlist due to his somewhat eclectic background and conciliatory efforts, his vision is named "tradicionalismo evolutivo".Pedro Carlos González Cuevas, Jaime Balmes: el tradicionalismo evolutivo, [in:] Pedro Carlos González Cuevas (ed.), Historia del pensamiento político español del Renacimiento a nuestros días, Madrid 2016, , pp. 137–158 "Tradicionalismo radical" is the name applied to the opus of vehemently anti-Carlist Donoso Cortés;others label Donoso's Traditionalim "irreal" and that of Balmes "más real", Ferrer 1952, pp. 16–17 radical refers mostly to acknowledgement of a would be dictatorial regime, acceptable in case everything else fails and an apocalyptic Socialist threat is eminent, a clear echo of the 1848 events in Paris. Unlike Balmes, Donoso was read and known across Europe, including politicians like Metternich.Pedro Carlos González Cuevas, Juan Donoso Cortés: el tradicionalismo radical, [in:] Pedro Carlos González Cuevas (ed.), Historia del pensamiento político español del Renacimiento a nuestros días, Madrid 2016, , pp. 137–158 Though in the official Spanish diplomatic service, Donoso held no important state jobs, built no strictly political following and his impact on daily politics was visible but not decisive, related to co-drafting of 1845 constitution, the 1851 concordat and his friendship with Bravo Murillo.González Cuevas 2016 Donoso was the first theorist dubbed Traditionalist, the term starting to appear in the public discourse in the early 1850s.the terms "tradicionalismo" and "tradicionalista" were first used respectively in 1851 and 1849, Fernanda Llergo Bay, Juan Vazquez de Mella y Fanjul. La renovacion del tradicionalismo espanol [PhD thesis Universidad de Navarra], Pamplona 2016, p. 27 The Carlist version of Traditionalism was developed mostly by vast array of periodicals, headed by La Esperanza and its chief, Pedro de la Hoz.Canal 2000, p. 124. Some authors count Hoz – along Magin, and Balmes – key Traditionalist thinker of Isabelline era, Juan Olabarría Agra, Opinión y publicidad en el tradicionalismo español durante la era isabelina, [in:] Historia Contemporánea 27 (2003), p. 648 The first complete Carlist lecture of Traditionalism – by some considered the first complete lecture of Traditionalism at all, preceding those of Balmes and Donoso – is supposed to be the 1843 work of Magín Ferrer."en 1843 se publica un libro que puede ser considerado como la primera exposición sistemática de la doctrina carlista: 'Las leyes fundamentales de la monarquía española', según fueron antiguamente y según conviene que sean en la época actual", Olabarría Agra 2003, p. 648. In-depth discussion in Juan Fernando Segovia, Presentación, [in:] Fuego y Raya 4 (2012), pp. 211–226 Other authors who ventured to offer a more systematic lecture, like Vicente Pou,España en la presente crisis. Examen razonado de las causas y de los hombres que pueden salvar aquella Nación, Madrid 1842, original book was published attributed to "D.V.P.", detailed discussion in Ferrer 1951, pp. 111–117, and especially Alexandra Wilhemlsen, Vicente Pou, carlista temprano, [in:] Razón Española 55 (1992), pp. 181–190 did not make a major impact.Las leyes fundamentales de la Monarquía española, Madrid 1843 Discussing ongoing politics Carlist Traditionalism focused on negative points of reference,"el principal problema de cualquier estudioso que intente descifrar los códigos del ideario carlista estriba en el hecho de que los ideólogos de la Tradición siempre destacaban qué era lo que no querían, fracasando casi regularmente a la hora de verse obligados a formular un programa político «positivo»", Jiří Chalupa, En defensa del trono y del altar. El ideario carlista en el siglo XIX, [in:] Acta palackianae olomucensis. Romanica XIX. Philologica 93 (2007), p. 49 opposing Liberalism and its incarnations like constitutionalism, electoral system, ongoing secularization of state, desamortización and centralization.according to some students, Carlism of the Isabelline "careció de toda relevancia intelectual", González Cuevas 2001, p. 107 Concepts attributed to the claimants and named minimalismo and montemolinismo are political strategies rather than theories;Wilhelmsen 1998, esp. chapters III.22–23 the most lasting contribution to Carlist Traditionalism of the era was a so-called double legitimacy theory.Canal 2000, p. 151. A canonical Carlist text which outlined the theory was Carta de Maria Teresa de Borbón y Braganza, princesa de Beira, a los españoles, probably written by de la Hoz, Olabarría Agra 2003, p. 652 In the 1860s the Isabelline and the Carlist versions of Traditionalism drew closer thanks to followers of Donoso called neocatólicos;"hasta los años del Sexenio Revolucionario 1868–1872 no se hace relación al término „Tradicionalismo” para designar al conjunto de carlistas y neo-católicos", Begoña Urigüen, Orígenes y evolución de la derecha española: el neo-catolicismo, Madrid 1986, , p. 53 the group comprised parliamentarians like Antonio Aparisi Guijarro and Cándido Nocedal, publishers like Gabino Tejado, Eduardo González Pedroso, Antonio Vildósola and Francisco Navarro Villoslada, or academics like Juan Ortí Lara. In terms of intellectual format none of them is considered comparable to Balmes or Donoso.González Cuevas 2001, p. 112, González Cuevas 2008, p. 1164 Together they formed a group which left a clear mark on politics of the late Isabelline era, mounting a last- minute attempt to save the crumbling monarchy by reformatting it along Traditionalist, anti-Liberal lines.Wilhelmsen 1998, esp. chapter 4, Neocatolicismo y carlismo Having seen their efforts frustrated by the early 1870s most of the Neos neared Carlism in the first ever Traditionalist organization, named Comunión Católico-Monárquica.Canal 2000, pp. 158–166. Some authors claim that it was the Neos who were responsible for "providing the reviving Carlist movement of the late 1860s with a more or less systematic corps of anti-liberal thought", Blinkhorn 2008, p. 20 In the public discourse Traditionalism was already firmly and explicitly pitted against Liberalism.see e.g. La cuestión tradicionalista, [in:] Revista de España 1872, available here At that time it was only occasionally and loosely getting associated with Carlism,see e.g. La Época 16.01.72, available here or also El Pensamiento Español 04.09.72, available here though "monarquía tradicional" became common reference of Carlist press and politicians.compare e.g. La Regeneración 28.01.70, available here === War and Restoration === In the 1870s Traditionalism was first tested as operational political concept; during the Third Carlist War territories controlled by the Carlists witnessed emergence of their state structure, though short duration, wartime footing and limited geographical scope do not allow definite conclusions.Juan Montero Díaz, El Estado Carlista. Principios teóricos y práctica política (1872–1876), Madrid 1992 The Carlist version of Traditionalism is already considered about complete at the time, embodied in political manifestos, press propaganda, theoretical works and – last but not least – in popular sentiment, expressed as a motto which keeps defining the movement until today: "Dios – Patria – Rey".Wilhelmsen 1998, esp. chapters V.27-34, Melchor Ferrer, Historia del tradicionalismo español, vol. 24, Sevilla 1958, p. 179 Complete amalgamation of Traditionalism and Carlism was far from accomplished, the key difference having been the legitimist and dynastic issue. It was first demonstrated by Alejandro Pidal,Rodríguez Ruiz 1968, p. 458 who without renouncing his fundamentally Traditionalist outlook in the early 1880s agreed to accept Liberal constitutional realm of Restauración as a hypothesis,Adolfo Posada, Fragmentos de mis memorias, Oviedo 1983, , pp. 268–9 rendered attractive by the vision of Catholic Unity;at that time "Catholic Unity" ceased to be a militant Traditionalist battlecry aimed against religious freedom; it started to stand for a concilliatory union of Catholics of different political persuasions, effectively endorsing Liberal setup of the Restoration, including the very religious freedom the current he launched is named as Pidalismo.Pedro Carlos González Cuevas, La Unión Católica: un intento de tradicionalismo alfonsino, [in:] Pedro Carlos González Cuevas (ed.), Historia del pensamiento político español del Renacimiento a nuestros días, Madrid 2016, , pp. 183–210 Far more important was the late 1880s secession of the so-called Integrists, headed by Ramón Nocedal. The faction de-emphasized all non-religious threads, including the legitimist one,Urigüen 1986, p. 278. The Integrists denied the Carlists the name of genuine Traditionalists also accusing them of embracing Liberal threads and some social engineering, the case epitomized by the so- called Manifiesto de Morentín, Jordi Canal i Morell, Carlins i integristes a la Restauració: l'escissió de 1888, [in:] Revista de Girona 147 (1991), p. 63. The prevailing opinion is that the Manifiesto issue was a cover up, intended to disguise personal conflict, Jaime del Burgo Torres, Carlos VII y Su Tiempo: Leyenda y Realidad, Pamplona 1994, , p. 328, Jaime Ignacio del Burgo Tajadura, El carlismo y su agónico final, [in:] Príncipe de Viana 74 (2013), p. 182 but unlike the Pidalistas they adopted a vehemently intransigent stand towards the Restoration regime. Though there were many prolific Integrist writers active in their network of periodicals, Integrist version of Traditionalism failed to produce its systematic theoretical lecture; the closest thing was an 1884 booklet by Felix Sardá y Salvany.González Cuevas 2008, p. 1165 It is also the Integrists who first started to use the term Traditionalism as their auto- definition, denying also Traditionalist credentials to the Carlists. The scheme was widely accepted in public discourse, and in the late 19th century Spanish press and politicians applied the Traditionalist denomination chiefly to the Integrists.see e.g. El Correo Español 22.05.06, available here This nomenclature is at times adopted also by present-day scholars.Urigüen 1986, p. 533 A scholar considered by some the greatest figure of late 19th century Traditionalism is Marcelino Menéndez Pelayo,González Cuevas 2008, p. 1164 who published most of his key works in the 1880s and 1890s.Pedro Carlos González Cuevas, El historicismo tradicionalista de Marcelino Menéndez Pelayo, [in:] Pedro Carlos González Cuevas (ed.), Historia del pensamiento político español del Renacimiento a nuestros días, Madrid 2016, , pp. 137–158 Historian of political thought and literary critic rather than a political theorist himself, he championed Traditionalism as a cultural approach, defined as constant defense of orthodoxy based on Catholicism though embodied in vastly different locals realms of Hispanidad.some scholars seem to consider menendezpayismo the climax of Traditionalism; an appropriate chapter covering the 1880s-1890s is titled El largo verano liberal y... tradicional, see González Cuevas 2001, pp. 115–119 Erudite to the extreme politically he neared the Conservatives and briefly served as MP;see the official Cortes service, available here some scholars refer also to "menendezpelayismo político";Miguel Ayuso Torres, Menéndez Pelayo y el "menendezpelayismo político", [in:] Fuego y Raya 3/5 (2013), pp. 73–94 most, however, limit themselves to "menendezpelayismo". Some deny him Traditionalist credentials altogether.Ferrer 1958, pp. 61–62 Until the very late 1890s political Traditionalism lacked a complete lecture comparable to works of Balmes and Donoso; authors like Luis Llauder Dalmasesby some considered "corpus de doctrina carlista", Jordi Canal, ¿En busca del precedente perdido? Tríptico sobre las complejas relaciones entre carlismo y catalanismo a fines del siglo XIX, [in:] Historia y Politica 14 (2005), p. 46 produced general overviews of smaller scopee.g. El desenlace de la revolución españoIa (1869) or systematically contributed minor theoretical pieces to the press.the 1971 booklet ¿Qué es el carlismo? among contributors to "cuerpo de doctrina tradicionalista" listed also Matías Barrio y Mier and Guillermo Estrada Villaverde, two scholars of law in the late 19th century and active within Carlism as deputies; none of them earned particular distinction as a political theorist This changed at the turn of the centuries thanks to two figures who renovated Traditionalist thought: Enrique Gil Robles and Juan Vázquez de Mella.some scholars pursue an extreme view that until the arrival of de Mella Carlism was merely "bald dynastic fanaticism", A. J. P. Taylor, Oxford History of Modern Europe: The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1845–1918, London 1966, p. 354 Both offered complete and similar political visions; the former produced it as a single lengthy treatyTratado de derecho político según los principios de la filosofía y el derecho cristianos, 1899–1902 accompanied by few minor workse.g. El absolutismo y la democracia (1891), Oligarquía y caciquismo. Naturaleza. Primeras causas. Remedios. Urgencia de ellos (1901) and the latter as massive and a rather loose collection of press contributions, parliamentary addresses and booklets.when gathered and edited in the 1930s, they amounted to 31 volumes Some scholars consider de Mella a follower of Gil, others believe that Traditionalism achieved its most-refined embodiment in the Mellista thought.in Marcial Solana, El tradicionalismo político español y la ciencia hispana, Madrid 1951, Vázquez de Mella is mentioned 68 times, Gil Robles 46 times, Ramón Nocedal 25 times, Menéndez Pelayo 25 times and Aparisi Guijarro 23 times, referred after Manuel Martorell Pérez, La continuidad ideológica del carlismo tras la Guerra Civil [PhD thesis in Historia Contemporánea, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia], Valencia 2009, p. 370. In Bartyzel 2015 there are 7 rather casual references to Gil; in comparison, Vázquez de Mella is mentioned 67 times Gil remained a scholar with impact mostly in academic realm; following death in 1908 his work was soon eclipsed by that of de Mella, who gained high profile as deputy and politician and became sort of a celebrity. Politically Gil remained in-between Integrism and mainstream Carlism. De Mella for some 25 years was considered the key Carlist theorist until in 1919 he broke away.there was no major conflict between de Mella and the claimant related to theoretical vision of Traditionalism; the conflict resulted from the clash of personalities, issues of political strategy and questions of foreign policy, detailed discussion in Juan Ramón de Andrés Martín, El cisma mellista. Historia de una ambición política, Madrid 2000, The short-lived party he founded was named Partido Católico-Tradicionalista;Agustín Fernández Escudero, El marqués de Cerralbo (1845–1922): biografía politica [PhD thesis], Madrid 2012, p. 511, Canal 2000, p. 276 in popular discourse it was referred to as Mellistas or Tradicionalistas, while the Carlists of the era – still sharing the same Traditionalist outlook – were usually named Jaimistas. === Dictatorship era === Until his death in 1928 de Mella remained the undisputed highest authority on Traditionalist political thought,"caudillo del tradicionalismo español", Nuevo mundo 02.03.28, available here though since the early 1920s he was withdrawing into privacy. He dismissed the Primo de Rivera dictatorship with contempt as an attempt falling dramatically short of a fundamental change needed.González Cuevas 2008, p. 1168 The Jaimists cautiously welcomed the coup as a step in the right direction, but in the mid-1920 they got disillusioned and moved into opposition. It was the disciple of de Mella, de facto intellectual leader of Mellista Traditionalists and a political theorist himself, Víctor Pradera,by some denied Traditionalist credentials; at times he appears as "seudotradicoinalista", Andrés Martín 2000, pp. 242–43, and his work as "magma", Manuel Martorell-Pérez, Nuevas aportaciones históricas sobre la evolución ideológica del carlismo, [in:] Gerónimo de Uztariz 16 (2000), pp. 103–104 who kept supporting Primo and turned into one of his key political advisors. Perhaps never before and never afterwards stood any Traditionalist closer to the source of power than Pradera did in the mid-1920s,there were 4 Traditionalists from the Mellista-Praderista branch nominated as civil governors during the Primo regime, José Luis Gómez Navarro, El régimen de Primo de Rivera, Madrid 1991, , p. 119 supplying the dictator with memoranda advocating features of Traditionalist regime;like abolishment of political parties, corporate representation, and regionalisation, Francisco J. Carballo, Recordando a Víctor Pradera. Homenaje y crítica, [in:] Aportes 81 (2013), p 108, Ignacio Olábarri Gortázar, Víctor Pradera y el Partido Social Popular (1922–1923), [in:] Estudios de historia moderna y contemporánea, Madrid 1991, , 9788432127489, p 308, José Luis Orella Martínez, El origen del primer católicismo social español [PhD thesis UNED], Madrid 2012 p. 173 to some authors he became a reference point for primoderiverismo,Jesús María Fuente Langas, Los tradicionalistas navarros bajo la dictadura de Primo de Rivera (1923–1930), [in:] Príncipe de Viana 55 (1994), p. 420 even though in the late 1920s he was increasingly disappointed with centralization and the facade quasi-party, Unión Patriótica.though some scholars see Traditionalist threads in the primoderiverista state party, see Pedro Carlos González Cuevas, El tradicionalismo ideológico de la Unión Patriótica, [in:] Pedro Carlos González Cuevas (ed.), Historia del pensamiento político español del Renacimiento a nuestros días, Madrid 2016, , pp. 375–392 There is little agreement about the figure of Angel Herrera Oria, founder and the moving spirit of ACNDP. Some students consider him representative of Catholic Traditionalism rooted in Balmesian and Menendezpelayista schools."Su ideología y proyecto político eran una actualización de la tradición católica en su versión balmesiana, junto a las nuevas perspectivas abiertas por el catolicismo social", González Cuevas 2001, p. 124, also González Cuevas 2008, p. 1166–7 Others set him on the antipodes of Traditionalism, noting that minimalist, democratic and accidentalist format of his activity should be rather associated with modern Catholic groupings.like Christian Democracy or Social Catholicism, Orella Martínez 2012, p. 68, Carballo 2013, p. 97 Acción Española, a formation set up during the Republic years in the early 1930s, was according to different authors either an eclectic synthesis of various Traditionalist schools,González Cuevas 2008, p. 1169; developed in detail in Pedro Carlos González Cuevas, Acción Española. Teologia politica y nacionalismo autoritario en España (1909–1936), Madrid 1998, . Its critical review challenging the understanding pursued in Gonzalo Fernández de la Mora, Pedro Carlos González Cuevas. Acción Española [review], [in:] Razón Española 89 (1998), p. 361 or political menendezpelayismo,Miguel Ayuso Torres, In memoriam. Vicente Marrero (A propósito de una polémica sobre el pensamiento tradicional y sus concreciones), [in:] Anales de la Fundación Francisco Elías de Tejada 6 (2000), p. 305 or neo-Traditionalism – especially in case of Ramiro Maeztuit is, during the last years of his life, compare Jorge Novella Suárez, Tradición y reacción en la Espala del siglo XX: Del neotradicionalismo de Ramiro de Maeztu al nacionalcatolicismo, [in:] José Luis Mora García, Ramón Emilio Mandado Gutiérrez, Gemma Gordo Piñar, Marta Nogueroles Jové (eds.), La filosofía y las lenguas de la Península Ibérica, Barcelona/Santander 2010, , pp. 71–88 – or a blend of Traditionalism and Maurras-inspired nationalism.Orella Martínez 2012, p. 441, Jacek Bartyzel, Synteza doktrynalna: Vázquez de Mella, [in:] Jacek Bartyzel, Umierać ale powoli, Kraków 2002, , pp. 820–831, Jacek Bartyzel, Tradycjonalistyczno-hiszpańscy krytycy Maurrasa, [in:] Jacek Bartyzel, Prawica – nacjonalizm – monarchizm, Warszawa 2016, , pp. 146–152 It remained politically competitive to re-united Carlism, which having gathered together Jaimistas, Mellistas and Integristas operated under the name of Comunión Tradicionalista. Traditionalist references are at times applied to CEDA.during one of Gil-Robles' Cortes addresses of the early 1930s a Carlist deputy exclaimed: "this is Traditionalism!", to which Gil-Robles responded by stating that the Carlists did not possess exclusive rights to Traditionalism Upon the 1935 publication of his key theoretical work Pradera emerged as the new intellectual champion of Traditionalism.some consider Pradera's work Traditionalism at its best, see Gonzalo Fernández de la Mora, Los teóricos izquierdistas de la democracia orgánica, Barcelona 1985, , p. 188. Others see it as evolution of typical Carlism, since regionalism and dynastical allegiance gave way to corporativism and organicism, Javier Ugarte Tellería, El carlismo en la guerra del 36. La formación de un cuasi-estado nacional- corporativo y foral en la zona vasco-navarra, [in:] Historia contemporánea 38 (2009), p. 68. An American scholar names El Estado Nuevo a lecture of corporative neotraditionalist monarchism, Stanley G. Payne, Fascism. Comparisons and Definitions, Madison 1980, , p. 143; in another of his works, Payne applies a more typical description of "societal corporatism", see his The Franco Regime, Madison 1987, , pp. 53–54. Rather unusual qualification is "traditionalist fascism" and "fascist project turned firmly towards the past", Dylan Riley, The Civic Foundations of Fascism in Europe: Italy, Spain, and Romania, 1870–1945, Baltimore 2010, , pp. 19–20 Outbreak of the Civil War triggered emergence of some re-definitions of TraditionalismIdeario Tradicionalista by Jaime del Burgo (1937), Manifestación de los Ideales Tradicionalistas a S.E. el Generalisimo y Jefe del Estado Español (1939). A somewhat earlier brief booklet worth noting was Catecismo by Juan Maria Roma (1935) and two major synthetic works by Luis Hernando de LarramendiEl sistema tradicional (1937), published in 1952 as Cristiandad, Tradición y Realeza; another work of that period was Jesús Evaristo Casariego Fernández Noriega, La verdad del Tradicionalismo: Aportaciones españolas a la realidad de Europa (1940) and Marcial Solana González-Camino.El tradicionalismo político español y la ciencia hispana, published in 1951 but completed in 1938, Antonio de los Bueis Guemes, Marcial Solana. Estudio critico, Madrid 2014, p. 34 The late 1930s and 1940s, however, contributed rather to general bewilderment in the Traditionalist camp. On the one hand, the emergent Francoism posed as synthesis of all genuinely Spanish political schools, including Traditionalism; the late Pradera was elevated to one of the founding fathers of the system, and some Traditionalist references were ostentatiously boasted as components of the new Spain. On the other hand, marginalized Carlism went into intra-system opposition and its leaders lambasted Francoism as incompatible with Traditionalist political outlook.detailed discussion in three PhD dissertations: Francisco Javier Caspistegui Gorasurreta, El carlismo: transformación y permanencia del franquismo a la democracia (1962–1977) [PhD thesis Universidad de Navarra], Pamplona 1996, Manuel Martorell Pérez, La continuidad ideológica del carlismo tras la Guerra Civil [PhD thesis in Historia Contemporánea, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia], Valencia 2009, and Ramón María Rodón Guinjoan, Invierno, primavera y otoño del carlismo (1939–1976) [PhD thesis Universitat Abat Oliba CEU], Barcelona 2015 The doctrine demonstrated first signs of revitalization in the late 1940s, marked by emergence of a review Arbor and works of Rafael Calvo Serer,especially the iconic España sin problema (1949) joined by Vicente Marrero and Florentino Pérez Embid.González Cuevas 2008, p. 1171 Own approaches to Traditionalism were fathered by Eugenio Vegas Latapié, Leopoldo Eulogio Palacios, Eugenio d'Ors Rovira and Manuel Garcia Morente, with a spirit of neotradicionalismo in the Juanista camp championed by José María Pemán.Emilio Castillejo Cambra, Mito, legitimación y violencia simbólica en los manuales escolares de Historia del franquismo(1936–1975), Madrid 2008, , pp. 100, 155, 358, 480, 482; Bartyzel 2002, p. 837 In the mid-1950s a Carlism- related breed of Traditionalist theorists entered the scene and it is they who for the third time brought Traditionalism to its highest intellectual standards. The one who stands out is Francisco Elías de Tejada, mostly a theorist of law, though also historian and theorist of political thought;some present him as a second-rank theorist – in a recent, 6,000-word encyclopaedic entry on Traditionalism, Elías de Tejada is treated marginally, see González Cuevas 2008; similar perspective in Pedro Carlos González Cuevas, El pensamiento político de la derecha española an el siglo XX, Madrid 2005, : Elías de Tejada is noted 4 times, Calvo Serer is noted 8 times and Gonzalo Fernandez de la Mora is noted 18 times Rafael Gambra Ciudad is perhaps best described as an anthropologist, Juan Vallet de Goytisolo and Alvaro d'Ors Pérez-Peix made their names as jurists and philosophersd'Ors was also as a historian, translator and theorist of law, Rafael Domingo, Alvaro d'Ors: una approximación a su obra, [in:] Revista de Derecho de la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaiso 26 (2005), p. 119 and Francisco Canals Vidaldefined also as integrista, tomista and esencialista, Nelson Manuel Garrido, Luis M. Orringer, Margarita Valdés, Legado Filosófico Español e Hispanoamericano del Siglo XX, Madrid 2009, , pp. 919–20 excelled as philosopher, theologian and historian.other names to be noted are Jesús Evaristo Casariego and Francisco Puy Muñoz Their numerous works, some of them monumental in size, appeared mostly during the 1960s and 1970s, their scale and refined in-depth scope contrasting sharply with demise of Traditionalism as a political force. === Present days === Following the death of Franco, Traditionalism remained on the sidelines of national politics; in the late 1970s numerous Carlist grouplets remained a third-rate extra-parliamentarian force, while Traditionalism- flavored post-Francoist Unión Nacional Española of Gonzalo Fernandéz de la Mora registered few deputies and disintegrated before 1980.Miguel A. del Río Morillas, Origen y desarrollo de la Unión Nacional Española (UNE): la experiencia de la extrema derecha neofranquista tradicionalista de Alianza Popular, available here Most Traditionalist authors active during late Francoism remained active also after the fall of the regime; some, like Goytisolo, d'Ors or Canals, published their best known works in the late 1970s, in the 1980s or afterwards. They were joined by a new generation of authors, who started to publish in the last two decades of the 20th century, most of them scholars rather than political theorists and militants; the best known ones are a jurist and philosopher Miguel Ayuso Torres, historian Andrés Gambra Gutierrez and philosopher José Miguel Gambra Gutierrez. Their contribution is mostly about systematization of existing heritage rather than about proposing own visions of political system, though Ayuso's recent works on public power and constitutionalism form part of normative Traditionalist discourse of politics.e.g. Constitución. El problema y sus problemas (2016), El estado en su laberinto (2011), ¿Después del Leviathan? (1998) An own, detailed and holistic view of Traditionalism-based political organisation for the 21st century Spain was contributed in the late 1990s in a 3-volume opus by Ignacio Hernando de Larramendi,Crisis de sociedad: reflexiones para el siglo XXI (1995), Panorama para una reforma del estado (1996) and Bienestar solidario (1998) but it made little impact even within the Traditionalist realm. A rather derogatory term "neotradicionalismo" has been coined to denote 21st century Traditionalist approach to Carlist history.it was intended to underline partisan approach to history, incompatible with unbiased scientific craft of an academic historian, Jordi Canal, El carlismo en España: interpretaciones, problemas, propuestas, [in:] José Ramón Barreiro Fernández (ed.), O liberalismo nos seus contextos: un estado da cuestión, p. 44, repeated also in Canal 2000, p. 155. The thesis elicited response from a historian dubbed neotradicionalista, see Alfonso Bullón de Mendoza, La parcialidad de los historiadores españoles, [in:] John Vincent, Introducción a la Historia para gente inteligente, Madrid 2013, , pp. 9–38 The institutional Traditionalist realm itself is made of a number of institutions, periodicals and other initiatives. Politically it is headed by two groupings, Comunión Tradicionalista Carlistaits leader is Telmo Aldaz de la Quadra-Salcedo, compare CTC website, available here and Comunión Tradicionalista;its leader until late 2021 was José Miguel Gambra Gutiérrez, compare CT website, available here. Currently the post is vacant the key differences are that the former does not admit allegiance to any claimant or dynasty while the latter supports leadership of Sixto Enrique de Borbón, and that the former remains firmly within Vatican-defined orthodoxy while the latter is highly sympathetic towards the FSSX format of Catholicism.falling short of outward hostility, in general CTC and CT tend to ignore each other and maintain sort of an armed truce. However, there are periodical outbursts of enmity. November 2016 claim of exclusive Traditionalist credentials by CTC, compare here, elicited backlash on part of CT, compare here Both maintain their websites and social media profiles, issue bulletins, organize various types of public events and at times take part in elections. Key non-political institutions more or less flavored with Traditionalism are Fundación Ignacio Larramendi,compare Fundación Ignacio Larramendi website, available here Fundación Elías de Tejada,compare Fundación Elías de Tejada website, available here Centro de Estudios Históricos y Políticos General Zumalacárregui,compare Centro de Estudios Históricos y Políticos General Zumalacárregui website, available here Consejo de Estudios Hispánicos Felipe II,compare Consejo de Estudios Hispánicos Felipe II website, available here Fundación Speirocompare Fundación Speiro website, available here and Fundación Luis de Trelles;compare Fundación Luis de Trelles website, available here they issue own periodicals, stage cultural events, organize scientific conferencesthe last one noted was Maestros del tradicionalismo hispánico de la segunda mitad del siglo XX, organized in Madrid in 2014; for program see here and remain active in cyberspace. Some of them maintain publishing houses and award prizes.the best known one is Premio Internacional de Historia del Carlismo, awarded by Fundación Larramendi, compare here Among numerous ephemeral periodicals and mostly electronic bulletins (Tradición Viva,see here Ahorasee here) the ones which stand out for continuity and quality are Verbo,for website with search functionality see here, for accessible issues, see dialnet.uniroja service, available here Anales de Fundación Francisco Elías de Tejada,for accessible issues see here Aportesfor accessible issues see here and Fuego y Raya.for accessible issues, see here In popular public discourse Traditionalism is represented mostly by an array of electronic services, maintained by individuals, Carlist círculos, various organizations or informal groupings, and formatted as portals, fora, blogs, shared-content sites, news etc. == Doctrine == Longevity of Traditionalism poses two major problems for those willing to discuss its theoretical contents: how to define the borders and how to capture the unalterable nucleus. In case of outward-leaning scholarly approaches the theory is defined very broadly and the term "Traditionalist" could be applied generously,perhaps the most curious case is this of Vicente Blasco Ibańez, a freemason, vehement anti-clericalist, republican and anti- Carlist, in one book counted among the Traditionalists, compare Martin Domínguez Barbera, El tradicionalismo de un republicano, vols. I-III, Sevilla 1961–1962 also to personalities like Fernando VIIcompare reference to Fernando VII as "king-traditionalist" (король-традиционалист), Василенко 2014, p. 78 or Francisco Franco;compare reference to Franco as "tradicionalista profundo", Gonzalo Redondo, Historia de la Iglesia en España, 1931–1939: La Guerra Civil, 1936–1939, Madrid 1993, , p. 574; according to some, Estado Nuevo "se convirtió en breviario político e institucional de Franco", see Eduardo Palomar Baró, Victor Pradera Larumbe (1873–1936), others claim that it was "uno de los libros que más influyó en el pensamiento político de Franco", Stanley G Payne, Navarrismo y españolismo en la política navarra bajo la Segunda República, [in:] Príncipe de Viana 166-167 (1982), p. 901 some historians see Spanish traditionalism very broadly as a general anti-liberal cultural sentiment.Gonzalo Redondo, Política, cultura y sociedad en la España de Franco (1939–1975), Pamplona 1999, ; some other historians accept this proposal, see e.g. Jesús M. Zaratiegui Labiano, Alberto García Velasco, Franquismo: ¿fascista, nacional católico, tradicionalista?, [in:] Carlos Navajas Zubeldia, Diego Iturriaga Barco, (eds.), Siglo. Actas del V Congreso Internacional de Historia de Nuestro Tiempo, Logroño 2016, pp. 379-395 In case of inward-leaning approaches the theory is narrowed, generally to Carlismapproach pursued usually by the Carlists themselves. Example is Francisco Elías de Tejada, who initially (in the 1950s) applied Traditionalist denomination to Miguel de Unamuno, while later (in the 1970s) he denied that name to even to Jaime Balmes, Francisco Elías de Tejada, Balmes en la tradición política de Catalunya, [in:] Francisco Elías de Tejada (ed.), El otro Balmes, Sevilla 1974, pp. 301–344, referred after Bartyzel 2015, p. 104 though in some cases even down to its branches.for the sample of Nocedalista treatment see El Correo Español 22.05.06, available here, for the sample of Mellista treatment see – El Sol 04.04.23, available here Scaled down to a non- reducible minimum, Traditionalism is politics understood as implementation of social kingship of Jesus Christ; in practical terms it stands for a loosely organized confessional monarchy with strong royal power, with some checks-and- balances provided by organicist representation and with society organized on a corporative basis. === Origin of power and monarchy === The Traditionalist doctrine starts with philosophical acknowledgementfor detailed treatment of philosophical premises of Traditionalist political thought see José María Alsina Roca, El tradicionalismo filosófico en España. Su génesis en la generación romántica catalana, Barcelona 1985, that God is the beginning of all things, not only as a creator but also a lawmaker.González Cuevas 2016, pp. 137–158 According to the theory, mankind emerged as a result of divine will and developed only when adhering to divine rules, since the truth is accessible to a man only by means of Revelation.José Ferrater Mora, Diccionario de la filosofia, vol IV, Barcelona 2009, , pp. 3554–5. Many key Traditionalist pundits, including these writing in the 21st century, based their understanding of Traditionalism on repudiation of rationalism, Miguel Ayuso Torres, El tradicionalismo de Gambra, [in:] Razón española 89 (1998), p. 305 As humanity was maturing people were organizing their communities, and the question of public power emerged having been natural result of their advancement. Some Traditionalists presented the process as social structures built from the bottom until topped by institution of a monarchy, some prefer the option that people entrusted power to kings.Raimundo de Miguel López, La Legitimitad, Palencia 1962, p. 50, Fernando Polo, ¿Quién es el Rey? Sevilla 1968 p 23, referred after Bartyzel 2015, p. 126 This way or another, legitimate monarchical power was presented as resulting from human and social development in line with godly spirit, natural law declared a source of royal legitimacy.Álvaro D'Ors, Ensayos de Teoría política, Pamplona 1979, p. 136, referred after Alvaro Rodríguez Núñez, Franquismo y tradicionalismo. La legitimación teórica del franquismo en la teória política tradicionalista [PhD thesis Universidad Santiago de Compostela], Santiago de Compostela 2013, p. 262. According to d'Ors, "por la gracia de Dios" does not stand for royal powers being divine or granted by God, but for king respecting God, Álvaro D'Ors, La legitimidad del poder, [in:] La violencia y el orden, Madrid 1987, , p. 54, A traditional, much older approach was that royal authority is emanation of God's authority, Vicente Manteola, El espíritu carlista, Madrid 1871, pp. 197–198 The original political sin of a man was defined as looking for law beyond Revelation, which led to human usurpation. Attempts to define own rules – the Traditionalist reading goes – produced emergence of illegitimate political regimes; examples are despotic tyrants who claimed own legitimacy or societies, who declared themselves the ultimate source of power. At this point Carlist theorists advanced their own dynastic theory, denying legitimacy to descendants of Fernando VII."cualquier tradicionalismo que no buscara un entronque con el carlismo, debia perecer, y de aquí el fracaso del marqués de Viluma, el fracaso de Bravo Murillo y el fracaso de Donoso Cortés", Ferrer 1951, p. 49, also Elías de Tejada, Gambra, Puy 1971, p. 10 Monarchy not always has been treated in Traditionalist thought with the same emphasis. In general, the focus on royalty decreased over time; while the cornerstone of theories launched in the mid-19th century, in the mid-20th century it gave way to society as an object of primary attention. As exception there were also theorists counted among Traditionalists who remained close to adopting an accidentalist principle.González Cuevas 2008, p. 1165. During periods of disorientation, e.g. during Dictablanda, also die-hard Traditionalist tribunes at times advanced non-orthodox ideas, like "República en el Municipio, República en la Región o Nación, y Monarquía en la Confederación", compare El Cruzado Espanol 28.03.30, available here However, it is generally assumed that monarchism formed one of the key points of the theory, with monarchy approached as an ultimate and united social bodyin Traditionalist doctrine a monarch was not representative of the people (la nación), but rather both were components of the same being, Bartyzel 2015, p. 61; another approach is that a monarch is ambodiment of unity, Luis Hernando de Larramendi Ruiz, Cristiandad, Tradición, Realeza, Madrid 1951, p. 132 and not infrequently viewed in transcendent terms.at times Traditionalist understanding of political concepts assumes transcendental dimension, e.g. monarchy is named corpus mysticum, Miguel Ayuso Torres, Un aporte para el estudio de la filosofía jurídico- política en la España de la segunda mitad del siglo XX, [in:] Anales de la Fundación Francisco Elías de Tejada 5 (1999), p. 81 As a kinga generic name which in principle could mean also a queen; other monarchical terms, like "emperor", are uncommon in Traditionalist literature was supposed to top the political structure, in general sovereignty was placed exclusively with him. Most Traditionalists claimed that fragmented sovereignty – e.g. shared with a nation or its representative bodies in constitutional monarchye.g. Enrique Gil Robles distinguished between two types of constitutional monarchy: "monarquía democrática" (Spain according to the 1869 constitution; its article 32 declared sovereignty of the nation and assigned executive role to the king) and "monarquía doctrinaria" (Spain according to the 1876 constitution; its article 18 declared that powers reside jointly with Cortes and king), Manuel Alberto Montoro Ballesteros, La idea de democracia en el pensamiento de don Enrique Gil y Robles, [in:] Revista de Estudios Políticos 174 (1970), pp. 101–2 – is not possible,Vincente Pou, La España en la presente crisis, Montpellier 1842-3, p.168, referred after Bartyzel 2015, p. 120 though some claimed that while a king enjoys political sovereignty,Víctor Pradera, El Estado Nuevo, Madrid 1935, referred after Bartyzel 2015, p. 123 a society enjoys a separate social sovereignty, understood as capacity to govern itself within limits traditionally developed for its components.González Cuevas 2008, pp. 1165–6 Traditionalist concept of monarchic rule embraced a doctrine of integral and undivided public power; division into legislative,this does not mean that a king was considered the source of law. More customary traditionalist approach is that a king is merely defining laws which already existed in divine order, with God being the only source of natural law executive and judicial branches was rejected.for Balmes see e.g. González Cuevas 2016, for Gil Robles see e.g. Montoro Ballesteros 1970, pp. 96, 98 In some writings this is literally referred to as "absolute" rule, which prompted some historians to conclude that Traditionalism was a branch of Absolutism;Luis Lorente Toledo, Bandos y proclamas del Toledo decimonónico, Toledo 1996, , p. 86; Isidoro Moreno Navarro, La antigua hermandad de los negros de Sevilla: etnicidad, poder y sociedad, Sevilla 1997, , p 287; José Luis Ortigosa, La cuestión vasca: desde la prehistoria hasta la muerte de Sabino Arana, Madrid 2013, , p 243; José Luis L. Aranguren, Moral y sociedad. La Moral española en el siglo XIX, Madrid 1982, , pp. 72–73, Antonio Fernandez Benayas, Catolicismo y Politica, Madrid 2008, , p. 176, José Antonio Vaca de Osma, Los vascos en la historia de España, Barcelona 1995, , p 140; Antonio Jiménez-Landi, La Institución Libre de Enseñanza y su ambiente: Los orígenes de la Institución, Madrid 1987, , p. 411, Isabel Enciso Alonso-Muñumer, Las Cortes de Cádiz, Madrid 1999, , p. 46 many others, however, underline that the two should not be confused.Manterola 1871, p. 198, referred after Bartyzel 2015, p. 122 Neither rejection of division of powers nor the theory of unshared political sovereignty led to the doctrine of unlimited royal powers; quite to the contrary, most Traditionalists – with somewhat less focus on this issue in the first half of the 19th century – emphatically claimed that a king can rule only within strict limits.Bartyzel 2015, p. 115 They are set principally by 3 factors: natural law as defined in divine order, fundamental laws of Spainthe fundamental laws are defined as follows: 1) absolute monarchy 2) hereditary monarchy 3) catholicism 4) government based on natural law, justice, prudence, freedom and property of inhabitants 5) seeking advice from Consejo Real and Cortes, Magín Ferrer, Las leyes fundamentales de la Monarquía española, Madrid 1843, vol. 2, pp. 92–96, referred after Bartyzel 2015, p. 118 and self-governmentat times defined as autonomy or autarchy, Alvaro d'Ors, Autarquía y autonomía, [in:] La Ley 76 (1981), pp. 1–3, in older literature the same denomination is used by Gil Robles, José J. Albert Márquez, Hacia un estado corporativo de justicia. Fundamentos del derecho y del estado en José Pedro Galvao de Sousa, Barcelona 2010, , p. 99 of groups forming the society.Bartyzel 2015, pp. 54–4 A king who reaches beyond limits becomes not only a tyrant but also a hereticMagin Ferrer 1871, pp. 49–50, referred after Bartyzel 2015, p. 119 and may be overthrown.which in case of Carlist Traditionalism occurred in relatin to the claimant Juan III, who was forced to abdicate in the 1860s, or to Carlos Hugo, who was rejected as a monarch in the 1970s === Religion === The Traditionalist political doctrine is theocentrist; it stems from acknowledgement that the entire human order must be based on God as taught by the Roman Catholic Church. God – with particular emphasis on Jesus Christ – is considered the beginning, the means and the objective of politics.Bartyzel 2015, p. 14 This general concept was neared with various detail, though a widely adopted claim is that the purpose of politics is to establish a social kingship of Jesus Christ, a community strictly adhering to Christian principles.Rodríguez Núñez 2013, pp. 255–57 An ideal political regime is supposed to be means of achieving this objective;some key Traditionalists did not distinguish between politics and religion at all, e.g. Lluis de Llauder considered Carlism the work of divine providence and its political endavours sort of evangelization, Jordi Canal i Morell, El carlisme català dins l'Espanya de la Restauració: un assaig de modernització politica (1888–1900), Barcelona 1998, , p. 257 a Traditionalist monarchy is hence referred to as a katechon, the entity upholding Christianity and fighting the antichrist.Bartyzel 2015, pp. 79–82 Such a monarchy – and the Spanish one in particular – is also supposed to be missionary, as it is focused on spread of Christianity.Bartyzel 2015, pp. 82–3 Some Traditionalist theorists considered this feature the very nucleus of Hispanidad,or one of its key components, constitucion historica of Spanish nation – catholic unity, monarchy and fueros, for the case of Gil Robes see González Cuevas 2008, p. 1165 a metaphoric soul of Hispanic cultural tradition.Ramiro Maeztu, Defensa de la Hispanidad, Madrid 1998, , p. 73 In historiography there are abundant references to theocratic nature of Traditionalism, especially in its Carlist incarnation,see e.g. José Álvarez-Junco, Spanish Identity in the Age of Nations, Oxford 2011, , p. 234; the opinion is repeated also by scholars expert in Spanish history, see e.g. Raymond Carr, Modern Spain, 1875–1980, Oxford 1980, , p. 1 and this opinion has even made it to college textbooks,„pensamiento teocrático y antirracionalista llamado tradicionalismo", Bermejo López, María Luisa, Ana Jiménez de Garnica, Alejandro Cana Sánchez, Juan Antonio Soria Álamo, Martínez Monasterio, Miguel, Santamaría Morales, Joaquín (eds.), Historia del mundo contemporáneo, Madrid 2010, , p. 47 though some scholars demonstrate caution„theocratic tone of Traditionalist thought", William James Callahan, Church, Politics, and Society in Spain, 1750–1874, Harvard 1984, , p. 81, the rule of Carlos V on conquered territories "approached the norm of theocracy", Stanley G. Payne, Spanish Catholicism, Madison 1984, , p. 81 and some reserve the term only for certain branches of Traditionalism.especially for Integrism, William A. Christian Jr, Moving Crucifixes in Modern Spain, Princeton 2014, , p. 4, Stanley G. Payne, Spanish Catholicism, Madison 1984, , p. 114 Scholars focusing on Spanish political thought do not confirm such a qualification,Alexandra Wilhelmsen, Carlism's Defense of the Church in Spain, 1833–1936, [in:] Faith and Reason 14 (1990), pp. 355–370 pointing that a Traditionalist monarchy is to be ruled by a king and various lay intermediary bodies, not by a religious hierarchy, and that the state and the Church have to remain two distinct institutions.perhaps except some Integrists, who rejected functional though not institutional dychotomy between state and church, González Cuevas 2008, pp. 1164–65 Traditionalist theorists emphatically confirmed that a state must be based on Christian orthodoxy,compare a 1963 document titled El Carlismo y la Unidad Católica, addressed to Vatican and signed by José María Valiente and a number of other Carlist leaders, but probably drafted by Raimundo de Miguel López and Alberto Ruiz de Galarreta, Bartyzel 2015, p. 288 that politics and religion are inseparable in terms of their principles and that the Church might and should influence politics, but their prevailing opinion was that the Church should also stay clear of exercising direct political power.Bartyzel 2015, p. 288 However, in terms of praxis Traditionalists advocated a number of arrangements endorsing Church's participation in power structures, be it re- establishment of the Inquisition in the early 19th centuryEusebio Fernández García, Tradición y libertades (el "Manifiesto de los Persas" y sus recuperaciones tradicionalistas), [in:] Revista de Historiografía 20 (2014), p. 144, Ayuso Torres 2015, pp. 32–33 or default presence of hierarchs in bodies like Cortes or Royal Council later on.Mariano García Canales, La democracia y el repliegue del individuo: organicismo y corporativismo, [in:] Espacio, Tiempo y Forma 27 (2015), p. 47 Though distinct and independent as institutions, the state and the Church are not supposed to be separate; the Traditionalist monarchy is a confessional state, with Church enjoying political, economicexact views might have differed. One of the Traditionalist programmatic documents demanded that the "culto y clero" section of the state budget is scrapped; the Church was supposed to be provided with sufficient own rights and means which rendered official assistance unnecessary, compare El Cruzado Espanol 23.05.30, available here and otherwise support of the state, and the state enjoying pastoral support of the Church. The Church is supposed to retain economic autonomy; expropriations of religious properties, carried out in mid-decades of the 19th century, were viewed as assault on fundamental laws. Certain areas of public life, especially culture and education, were approached as jointly controlled by state and Church, though visions as to specific regulations might have differed.e.g. in the early 19th century all education was supposed to be controlled by the Church; in the late 19th century some theorists, e.g. de Mella, believed that education structures should be maintained by the state (though they were by means supposed to be secular) Common public orthodoxy requires that no freedom of religion or freedom of press is allowed,Fernández García 2014, p. 142 though confessions other than Roman Catholicism are admitted if practiced in private.for Rafael Gambra see Gabriel de Armas, Rafael Gambra y la unidad católica de España, [in:] Verbo 39 (1965), p. 553. There are slightly different views on Elías de Tejada; some claim that he was opposed to religious liberty, see Miguel Ayuso Torres, Francisco Elías de Tejada en la ciencia jurídico-política, [in:] Anales de la Fundación Francisco Elías de Tejada 3 (1997), p. 30, others maintain that he was rather opposed to equality of faiths, Jacek Bartyzel, Elías de Tejada y Spinola Francisco, [in:] legitymizm service, available here The Traditionalist vision of religion and Church was incompatible either with Conservative, Liberal or Christian DemocraticGil Robles viewed first papal references to Christian democracy as "acción social benéfica", sort of Catholic social actitivity, and by no means acceptance of "the people" as a political sovereign, Ballesteros Montoro 1970, pp. 105–7. Another interpretation offered is that Gil viewed Christian Democracy as recognition that pueblo (hierarchized) shared sovereignty with a monarch, González Cuevas 2001, p. 119 principles, lambasted as anti-Christian and revolutionary.Francisco Canals Vidal, Politica española: pasado y presente, Barcelona 1977, p. 291, referred after Bartyzel 2015, p. 286 In the mid-20th century it also proved incompatible with the official Vatican outlook, and release of Dignitatis Humanae was a major blow to Spanish Traditionalism. Some of its pundits remained at the verge of breaching loyalty to the popescompare Rafael Gambra, La declaración de libertad religiosa y la caida del regimen nacional, [in:] Boletín de la FN.FF 36 (1985), pp. I–IX; he later referred to the Council as "Los heraldos del anticristo", see Boletín de Comunión Católico-Monárquica 11–12 (1985), available here. See also Francisco Elías de Tejada, Nota sobre la libertad religiosa en España [manuscript, Sevilla 1965], referred after Bartyzel 2015, p. 290 and there were even signs of Traditionalist anti-clericalism emerging.e.g. in El Pensamiento Navarro Rafael Gambra lambasted clergymen for systematically turning sermons into subversive political lectures, apparently with no reaction on part of official ecclesiastical euthorities, referred after Mediterráneo. Prensa y radio del Movimiento 23.03.75, available here. Gambra's views on cardenal Tarancón were extremely critical and he did not refrain from mocking the head of Spanish church in public, compare an article with already abusive title La 'cana al aire' del cardenal Tarancon, [in:] Fuerza Nueva 06.08.77. See also Ayuso Torres 1999, p. 85 Until today one of the two Traditionalist political groupings remains highly sympathetic to religious Traditionalism of FSSPX,see a letter from CT leader José Miguel Gambra to Sixto Enrique de Borbón (2010), available here. Compare also discussion at Hispanismo service, available here which proves that though Traditionalism at times approached Ultramontanism, they can by no means by equaled.in case of Donoso some scholars indeed see Traditionalism formatted as "ultramontanismo": in his case it "consists of affirmation that social and historical order should be subordinated to authority of the Roman Catholic Church and be articulated in an hierarchy of divine order", José Ferrater Mora, Diccionario de la filosofia, vol IV, Barcelona 2009, , pp. 3554–5 Non-Catholic Traditionalism has never taken root in Spain; though in the 1920s and 1930s some Traditionalism-leaning theorists and politicians demonstrated sympathy for Maurras-inspired concepts,in cases of Enric Prat de la Riba, Eugenio d'Ors or Antonio Goicoechea, González Cuevas 2008, p. 1166 later on it was generally outwardly and vehemently rejected as Left-wing ideas in disguise.e.g. in opinion of Elías de Tejada, referred after Bartyzel 2015, pp. 237–68, also in opinion of Gambra, referred after González Cuevas 2008, p. 1166. Integralist traditionalism of Julius Evola made an even more negligible impact, though some Spanish Traditionalists, like de Tejada, maintained friendly relations with Evola and did not spare him words of respect, Bartyzel 2015, pp. 101–05 === State === Unlike the questions of monarchy or society, this of a state has usuallysome authors claim that state envisaged by Pradera was still far stronger than that envisioned by most Carlists, and "sovereignty" was reserved only for this very state, see Martorell Pérez 2009, pp. 359–60 been played down by Traditionalist writers; the phenomenon has even prompted one of their present-day theorists to make a reservation that Traditionalists are not enemies of the state.Ayuso Torres 1999, p. 82 In fact, they saw state as a structure secondary and subordinate to a societyexplicit opinion of Vazquez de Mella, see González Cuevas 2008, p. 1165; according to Gil Robles, the rise of potent state – like most European countries of the late 19th century, Spain included – was due to decomposition of the society, unable to govern itself, García Canales 2015, pp. 21–36 and were careful to lambast all cases of reverting the order, be it "estadolatría moderna" of Hobbes and MachiavelliRafael Gambra (ed.), Vazquez de Mella. Textos de doctrina política, Madrid 1943, p. 21 or totalitarian 20th century regimes.Martin Blinkhorn, Fascists & Conservatives. The radical Right and the establishment in twentieth-century Europe, London 2003, , p. 126, Blinkhorn 2008, pp. 163–182, Jacek Bartyzel, Tradycjonalizm (hiszpański) wobec faszyzmu, hitleryzmu i totalitaryzmu, [in:] Pro Fide Rege et Lege 71 (2013), p. 26 The state is supposed to be a lightweight superstructure over the existing social structures, sort of a society of societies;José Luis Orella Martínez, Víctor Pradera; un intelectual entre los ismos de una época, [in:] Navarra: memoria e imagen, vol. 2, Pamplona 2006, , pp. 257–268 it is not embodiment of sovereignty in Bodinian sense, but rather a combined function of social components making it up.Juan Vallet de Goytisolo, Poderes políticos y poderes sociales, [in:] Verbo 1990, referred after Bartyzel 2015, p. 109 In most precise description available, a state can only exercise those rights which can not be effectively exercised by intermediary bodies governing various social structures,Angel Luis Sánchez Marín, La teoría orgánica de la sociedad en el krausismo y tradicionalismo español, [in:] Eikasia 58 (2014), pp. 349–368 typically tasks related to foreign policy, defense, money, justice etc.;Stanley G. Payne, Navarrismo y españolismo en la política navarra bajo la Segunda República, [in:] Príncipe de Viana, 166–67 (1982), p. 901 the state's governing principle is this of subsidiarity or devolution.José Fermín Garralda Arizcun, Europa y el retorno del principio de subsidiariedad, [in:] Verbo 387-388 (2000), pp. 593–630, also Rafael Gambra, Aspectos del pensamiento de Salvador Minguijon, [in:] Revista internacional de sociologia 67 (1949), p. 414, referred after Bartyzel 2015, p. 74 According to the Traditionalists a state, and the Spanish state in particular, developed in line with natural law in course of the centuries; it is hence defined by history and tradition. Whenever they refer to a constitution, they usually mean a historical process,Miguel Ayuso Torres, "Constitución" y "Nación": una relación dialéctica con la "Tradición" como clave, [in:] Anales de la Fundación Francisco Elías de Tejada 11 (2005), p. 115 not a documented set of agreed principles. The latter is generally deemed not only unnecessary but in fact unacceptable as embodiment of erroneous theories, chiefly this of a national sovereignty and this of a social contract.Bartyzel 2015, p. 62 A state, as a function of society, is considered not a voluntaristic and contractual being which needs to be acknowledged in a formal deal; its principles are defined by traditional Fundamental Laws which are not an agreement, but a result of development occurring in line with natural order.see e.g. the opinion of Balmes referred by González Cuevas 2016, pp. 137–158 In case of some theorists the above principles were approached somewhat flexibly; few Traditionalists tended to view constitutional document as embodiment of traditional development and contributed to their drafting.e.g. Donoso co-drafted the 1845 constitution, Aparisi drafted his own proposal in 1871, and Pradera co-drafted a primoderiverista version in 1928 In case of Spanish Traditionalists the relationship between a state and Spain has been somewhat vague. Given their emphasis on traditional social components and local identities in particular, Spain was not necessarily identified with a Spanish state.theory generally shared by most theorists, but developed fully by Elías de Tejada, Miguel Ayuso Torres, Francisco Elías de Tejada y Spínola, 30 años después, [in:] Anales de la Fundación Francisco Elías de Tejada, 14 (2008), p. 18 Independent political entities existing on the Iberian Peninsula in the Medieval era are deemed part of Spain, which might also be the case of Madrid-controlled territories elsewhere in Europe or Spanish possessions overseas, at times envisioned as a confederation.Ayuso Torres 1997, pp. 24–5 It is fairly frequent to encounter Traditionalist references to the Spains, "Las Españas",see e.g. Francisco Elías de Tejada, Las Españas, Madrid 1948 at times divided into "peninsulares" and "ultramarinas", as a principal multi-state point of referenceAyuso 2005, p. 123 and as a fatherland,Bartyzel 2015, pp. 76–79 though over time they became more and more of a cultural reference, pointing to tradition of Hispanidad.in rather few cases Traditionalists embraced Iberism, see e.g. the poetry and essayistic works Martelo Paumán Within this perspective the imperial dimension is ignored or rejected,Bartyzel 2015, pp. 80–81, Traditionalists viewed the Hispanic political community as forged by will of the people forming its components, not as a result of conquest, Ayuso 1997, pp. 24–5 with focus not on conquest and subordination, but rather on community and shared values.see e.g. the difference drawn between the Spanish conquistadores in Latin America and the Protestant colonisers in North America, Maeztu 1998, p. 133 At this point Hispanic cultural tradition is combined with missionary role of the Spanish monarchy, rendering one of the cornerstones of Traditionalist ideario, Patria,for detailed discussion of the role of Patria in Traditionalist outlook see José Fermín Garralda Arizcun, La Patria en el pensamiento tradicional español (1874–1923) y el "patriotismo constitucional", [in:] Anales de la Fundación Francisco Elías de Tejada 9 (2003), pp. 35–136 rather vague and definitely not tantamount to a state.Hispanic tradition is supposed to consist of two features: Catholic vision of life combined with missionary universalist spirit pursued by a federative monarchy, Estanislao Cantero Núñez, Eugenio Vegas Latapié y Francisco Elías de Tejada y Spínola: dos pensamientos coincidentes a la sombra de Menéndez Pelayo, [in:] Verbo 337–338 (1995), pp. 129, 141 === Society === Society did not elicit major interest of early Traditionalist theorists, or at least their interest was not formulated in terms of society, formatted rather as a discourse on tradition forming the community; it was in the late 19th century that the question of social fabric emerged on the forefront, which it keeps occupying until today. Its understanding is founded on the concept of organicism: society is formed by a multitude of functionalformed by role performed by a group in a society and related to occupational structure, e.g. agriculture, trade, finance, military, academics or naturalformed by geography, like municipalities, comarcas, provinces, regions communities – family being the primary and most important componentGambra 1949, p. 414, referred after Bartyzel 2015, p. 74, Llergo Bay 2016, pp. 175–182 – and is not a set of individuals. These communities are described as joined in a multi- layer structureGil Robles distinguished between horizontal and vertical lines of division; the former are mostly territorial units, family, municipio, region, province etc, while the latter are mostly functional, like gremios, asociaciones, parties etc., García Canales 2015, pp. 26, 46 organized by teleological principles, hierarchic and constantly interfacing with each other.see references to "jerarquización teleológica", Gambra 1949, p. 414, referred after Bartyzel 2015, p. 74 Individuals are first and foremost expressed as members of those communities,Gil pursued a concept of dual relationship; each individual is linked 1) to groups he belongs to and 2) to the entire society, Mariano García Canales, La teoría de la representación en la España del siglo XX: (de la crisis de la restauración a 1936), Madrid 1977, , p. 45, García Canales 2015, p. 25 not as their own selves, as a man does not exist in isolation.Sánchez Marín 2014, pp. 349–368 Traditionalists pitted their vision of society principally against the Liberal one, supposed to be based on erroneous principle of individuals and their liberties, exercised in pursuit of their own self;for Gil Robles see García Canales 2015, p. 26 the concept of "human rights" is dismissed."human rights" are considered usurpation of a man; the only rights existing are those of natural law, created by God, and it is his rights which have to be complied with. Pradera considered Rousseau's vision sort of a secular heresy, another version of Pelagianism, Francisco J. Carballo, Recordando a Víctor Pradera. Homenaje y crítica, [in:] Aportes 81 (2013), p. 118. Elías de Tejada in turn juxtaposed Spanish communitarian fueros against the French individual liberties, Samuele Cecotti, Francisco Elías de Tejada. Europa, Tradizione, Libertà, [in:] Anales de la Fundación Francisco Elías de Tejada 11 (2005), p. 206 Another key difference between Traditionalist and non-Traditionalist, especially Liberal visions of society, stemmed from an idea of a social contract, a concept deemed absurd as by default subject to rejection;García Canales 2015, p. 26 the Traditionalist society was formed in course of historical development.García Canales 2015, pp. 21–36 One more point of contention was that a Traditionalist society was united by common orthodoxy – this is, a Roman Catholic oneGonzález Cuevas 2008, p. 1164, Rodríguez Núñez 2013, p. 260, Ayuso Torres 1999, p. 85 – while a Liberal society was merely a technical mechanism allowing compromise between many normative moral systems.Gambra 1949, p. 414, referred after Bartyzel 2015, p. 74 Finally, the Traditionalist ideal was a hierarchical sociedad estamental,Bartyzel 2015, p. 54, González Cuevas 2016, pp. 137–158 the concept initially pointing to feudal understanding of the estate system, later developed by different authors with varying degree of detail into more complex systems of social groups, dubbed strata, classes, corporations etc.; they were united either by functional role or by their specific interests.for the case of Vazquez de Mella see González Cuevas 2009, p. 47 This perspective emphasized hierarchy and roles as opposed to emphasizing mobility, when all individuals are equal and can theoretically fit anywhere.Montoro Ballesteros 1970, p. 100 A theory developed in the late 19th century was that of a social sovereignty.for the case of Gil Robles see González Cuevas 2009, p. 46, González Cuevas 2008, p. 1165 It claimed that communitarian components of the society standing between an individual and a king – named cuerpos intermedios – are fully autonomousthe terms used were either "autonomous" or "autarchic", in both cases standing for self- government, Alvaro d'Ors, Autarquía y autonomía, [in:] La Ley 76 (1981), pp. 1-3 and self-governed within their own limits. Neither king nor state nor political administration were entitled to tamper with them and were restrained in their powers by those very autonomous establishments.Gambra 1943, p. 20 Effectively, this concept rendered Traditionalist state sort of a federation of geographical entities, professional groupings or functional associations, each of them governing itself as opposed to a society regulated by increasingly homogeneous, universal rules. In the early 19th century this resembled more of a patchy feudal structure pitted against uniformity-driven modernization projects, in the early 21st century it seems rather comparable to devolution, subsidiarity and neo-medievalism in their post-modern incarnation.e.g. a vision of post-modern European order as a realm of shared sovereignties, exercised by different entities, partially overlapping, crossing each other and co-existing at various levels, the concept dubbed Neo- Medievalisation, Pertti Joenniemi (ed.), Neo-Nationalism or Regionality, Stockholm 1997, Social sovereignty should also not be confused with national sovereignty. In Traditionalist thought nation was a marginal concept, deemed originating from revolutionary fallacy and conveying defective theory of legitimacy built from bottom up. If used, the term "nation" stood for community united by common tradition rather than by ethnicity, as people were falling not into various nations but rather into various traditionsElías de Tejada, Gambra, Puy 1971, pp. 89–90, also Ayuso 2005, p. 116. For Elías de Tejada nation was a commonality of tradition, Estanislao Cantero Núñez, Francisco Elías de Tejada y la tradición española, [in:] Anales de la Fundación Francisco Elías de Tejada 1 (1995), p. 132 or, according to some, into various patrias.Alvaro d'Ors, Una introducción al estudio del Derecho, Madrid 1963, p. 161, referred after Bartyzel 2015 === Representation === Though according to Traditionalist reading all political sovereignty rests with a king, his powers are limited and he is not considered free to declare his own understanding of these limitations at will; he is supposed to take into account the opinion of cuerpos intermedios.Carballo 2013, pp. 119–121 Exact mechanism of this process was described at varying levels of granularity and at times in somewhat contradictory terms; according to some theorists representatives of the society"gremios, hermandades, agrupaciones, cámaras, comunidades y cofradías" – Gonzalo Fernández de la Mora, Elías de Tejada, el hombre y sus libros, [in:] Francisco Elías de Tejada y Spínola (1917–1977). El hombre y la obra, Madrid 1989, p. 12, Sergio Fernández Riquelme, Sociología, corporativismo y política social en España. Las décadas del pensamiento corporativo en España: de Ramiro de Maeztu a Gonzalo Fernández de la Mora, 1877–1977 [PhD thesis Universidad de Murcia] 2008, p. 562 were merely to be consulted,this was the understanding of Magín Ferrer, see his Las leyes fundamentales de la Monarquía española, Madrid 1843, vol. 2, pp. 92–96, referred after Bartyzel 2015, pp. 118–120 according to some their say should have been formally incorporated into the mechanism of decision making, also to the extent of suspending or blocking royal resolutions;though most theorists conceded rather merely the right to legislative initiative and consultation, García Canales 2015, p. 26 in extreme cases, they were entitled to disobedience or even rejection of an illegitimate ruler.see e.g. Francisco Elías de Tejada, El derecho a la rebelióñ, [in:] Tizona 44 (1973), pp. 4–7 Regardless of the differences, the government was generally deemed responsible to a king rather than to any social representationcounter-signatures of ministers were considered not needed as incompatible with royal sovereignty, Víctor Pradera, El estado nuevo, Madrid 1935, p. 179, referred after Bartyzel2015, p. 123, also Carlos Guinea Suárez, Víctor Pradera, Madrid 1953 with monarchy vaguely "moderated"not to be confused with Partido Moderado, a pre-configuration of the Spanish Conservatives, and their political outlook by representatives of the society.Fernández García 2014, p. 145 Such a vision did not seem necessarily compatible with the theory of unshared royal sovereignty. Traditionalist theories tried to sort out the problem by different workarounds; one of them was that society is not sharing power, but rather is represented in front of the power.for the Persians see e.g. Ayuso Torres 2015, p. 17 In line with the prevailing Traditionalist reading, representation should be channeled by cuerpos intermedios along what is usually considered a corporative pattern; Traditionalists preferred to name it an organic representation.Gambra 1949, p. 414, referred after Bartyzel 2015, pp. 60, 74 Differently defined intermediary bodiesaccording to de Mella there were 7 classes to be represented, Llergo Bay 2016, p. 96, according to Gil Robles there were 3, Felipe Alfonso Rojas Quintana, Enrique Gil y Robles: la respuesta de un pensadór católico a la crisis del 98, [in:] Hispania Sacra 53 (2001), p. 224, Montoro Ballesteros 1970, p. 93, according to Pradera there were 6, Orella Martínez 2006, pp. 257–68, according to Donoso there were 3, Bartzel 2015, p. 54 were free to find their own way of appointing their representatives along differently defined structural patterns.González Cuevas 2009, p. 44, González Cuevas 2008, p. 1165 This mechanism was pitted against representation exercised by means of individual popular suffrage, a faulty Liberal concept invented to serve either bourgeoisiefor Gil Robles see Rojas Quintana 2001, pp. 213–228 or "plebe",which was deemed to be dictatorship of the plebs, Montoro Ballesteros 1970, pp. 99–100 exploiting atomization of individuals, unavoidably leading to corruption, partidocracía, oligarchy and caciquismosee Gil Robles, Oligarquía y caciquismo. Naturaleza. Primeras causas. Remedios. Urgencia de ellos (1901) while failing to represent social interests properly.Sánchez Marín 2014, González Cuevas 2009, p. 43. Within a Traditionalist regime an individual was entitled to elect his representatives not once, as in the process of casting a ballot in parliamentary elections, but almost indefinite number of times depending upon the number of communities an individual belonged to However, some Traditionalists embraced an idea of non-corporative elections, though usually highly limited by census requirements.for Balmes, see González Cuevas 2016, pp. 137–58 The bodies usually named as those gathering representatives of the society were first of all bi-cameral Cortesdubbed "Cortes organicistas" or "Cortes corporatistas", García Canales 2015, pp. 21–36 and then Royal Council. A somewhat unclear question is this of Traditionalism and democracy. Understood in presently prevailing terms the two are clearly incompatible, as the former identified divine order and the latter the people as a source of public power.see e.g. La actualidad del Dios-Patria-Rey, [in:] Boletín carlista de Madrid 69 (2002), referred after Bartyzel 2015, p. 124 Also in terms of praxis most Traditionalists generally rejected democracy as unstable and non-functional systemaccording to the Persians democracy was an unstable system, Fernández García 2014, p. 141 and at the level of popular public discourse Traditionalist press have usually denigrated democracy. However, some key theorists admitted that it might be operational at the lowest community level, e.g. in case of a municipio.see e.g. references to democracy in Acta de Loredan, referred after Bartyzel 2015, p. 123 Moreover, few – at times dubbed "democrats to the core"Gil Robles was referred to by his son as "demócrata en lo más profundo del alma", José María Gil-Robles, No fue possible la paz, Barcelona 1968, p. 20 – did not reject democracy, understanding it as a principle of representation and legal recognition;according to Gil Robles "llamemos, pues, democracia, al total estado jurídico del pueblo, es decir, la condición que resulta del reconocimiento, garantía y goce de todos los derechos privados, públicos y políticos que corresponden a la clase popular, la cual, si no es sonerana, es también imperante y gobernante en proporción de su valor y fuerza sociales", see his El absolutismo y la democracia (1891), p. 17. Detailed discussion of his views on democracy in Montoro Ballesteros 1970, pp. 89–112. Gambra seems to be of a similar opinion; he claimed that Gil was not that much anti-democratic as rather opposing deification of democracy, and especially the central if not exclusive position it claimed within public space, Rafael Gambra, La democracia como religión, [in:] Roma 89 (1985), referred after Bartyzel 2015, p. 207 according to this reading, popular parliamentary elections were rejected as not genuinely democratic.García Canales 2015, pp. 21–36. See also the 2010 declaration of José Luis Gambra, reading "Católico, sin duda; demócrata también, pero no a la manera en que estamos acostumbrados, con elecciones de partidos obsequiosos en los programas y tiránicos en el poder, sino a la manera de las cortes, cuyos miembros son elegidos por estamentos, entre personas conocidas que, a modo de compromisarios, defienden los intereses de municipios, gremios, regiones y reinos, y no los del partido", available here Similarly vague is Traditionalist approach to dictatorship. In principle fiercely hostile to tyrannical or despotic regimes exercising power beyond appropriate limits, some Traditionalist theorists acknowledged the sovereign right to coerce"el derecho que corresponde a la persona superior de una sociedad para obligar a los miembros de ella a los actos conducentes al fin social, en cuanto, por naturaleza o circunstancias, sean incapaces esos miembros de ordenarse a dicho fin o bien", quoted after Montoro Ballesteros 1970, p. 95, see also Rojas 2001, p. 221, Javier Esteve Martí, El carlismo ante la reorganización de las derechas. De la Segunda Guerra Carlista a la Guerra Civil, [in:] Revista de Historia Contemporánea 13 (2014), pp. 128–9 and agreed – usually as a last resort applicable in extremis – to dictatorial rule. Some have even developed own theories of dictatorship; the one of the 1840s was resemblant of a praetorian praxis,for the case of Donoso see González Cuevas 2016, pp. 137–58 while the one of the 1920s was far closer to an authoritarian paradigm.for the case of Pradera see González Cuevas 2009, p. 79 === Fueros === Technically speaking territorial entities were just one out of many types of intermediary bodies making up a society; indeed in early Traditionalist writings they did not enjoy particular prominence and according to some scholars they were rather ignored.Clemente 1999, p. 20 Traditionalist embracement of separate local legal identities was proportional to modernizing efforts of Liberal governments, which in course of the 19th century systematically did away with feudalism-rooted territory-specific establishments which prevented homogeneity of a modern state.the best known are those related to economy (customs or excise barriers, separate taxation rules, specific trade regulations) and military rules (draft, service). However, they might have also referred to a number of other areas, e.g. no Protestant or Jew was entitled to settle in Navarre save for specifically approved cases The subject of fueros, traditional regulations specific to some if not most areas, started to feature in the 1840s in the Carlist rather than non-Carlist breed of Traditionalism; by the 1870s it grew to a prominent issue; by the late 19th century re- establishment of the fueros became one of the cornerstones of the entire theory and it remains so until today.Elías de Tejada, Gambra, Puy 1971, esp. chapters 6-10, pp. 57–91 In the full-blown doctrine fueros are considered primary rules constituting the state and by no means sort of a privilege, granted by central authority to specific territorial entities.Ayuso Torres 1999, p. 81 Fueros might be applicable to any sort of entity from a municipio to a region, though some theorists focused rather on smaller provincesaccording to Pradera municipios are naturally grouped in comarcas, not provincias; actually, he did not recognise official "provincias", and when advocating "provincial" rights he meant "regiones", Carballo 2013, pp. 109–10 and some rather on larger regions.the case of Vazquez de Mella, who tended to ignore provinces According to Traditionalist reading identical set of specific regulations is not applicable across all entities forming a specific category, e.g. across all the provinces; fueros are entity-specific, which means that one province might enjoy some establishments which are not in force in another province.when discussing political regime of Vasco-Navarrese region during the Reconquista, Pradera pointed out that Navarre formed a militarised monarchy, Álava was almost republican, Gipuzkoa resembled constitutional monarchy and Biscay formed a señorío, see Carballo 2013, p. 149 This mechanism reflects a theory that fueros are legal embodiments of local identity which goes far beyond juridical regulations; it is composed of common history, culture and habits. Traditionalism has always struggled to make sure that its understanding of local identity is not confused with not necessarily identical concepts. The closest one is fuerismo, a term at times adopted by the Traditionalists, similarly focused on fueros but made distinct by its limitation to Vascongadas and Navarre, by downplaying the Spanish link and by revindication of pre-1868, but not earlier laws.compare José Ignacio Fínez Garcia, Fuerismo tradicionalista y nacionalismo vasco [MA thesis University of Salamanca], Salamanca 2013, pp. 25–33. The key Traditionalist work of the late 20th century does not mention the term a single time, see Elías de Tejasa, Gambra, Puy 1971. In scholarly literature the term "fuerismo" is applied to a non-Carlist doctrine of the Vascongadas, at times its representatives divided into "fueristas transigentes" and "fueristas intransigentes", Javier Corcuera Atienza, La patria de los Vascos, Madrid 2001, , pp. 91–108 Similarly close is regionalismo, though Traditionalists were cautious to endorse only regionalismo foralista and to dismiss regionalism based merely on geographic or economic principles.Elías de Tejasa, Gambra, Puy 1971, p. 76 Federalism is also a term accepted by many Traditionalists,not to be confused with the Mellista-nurtured a vision of a federation between Spain, Portugal and Morocco, Carballo 2013, p. 107 as even the key of them auto-defined themselves as federalists, advocated regional federalismGonzález Cuevas 2009, p. 47 and declared Spain a federation of regions;see e.g. Juan Vazquez de Mella, Discurso pronunciado en el Congreso de los Diputados el 19 de agosto de 1896, [in:] Rafael Gambra (ed.), Vazquez de Mella. Textos de doctrina política, Madrid 1943, vol. 1, pp 114-116. De Mella was longing for the times when decisions were made not by "king of Spain" but by "king of Leon and Castile", "king of Navarre", "senor de Vizcaya", "count of Barcelona" and so on, Bartyzel 2015, p. 139 some were longing rather for a confederation.Pradera claimed that under the old regime Spain was in fact a confederation, Ignacio Olábarri Gortázar, Víctor Pradera y el Partido Social Popular (1922–1923), [in:] Estudios de historia moderna y contemporánea, Madrid 1991, , 9788432127489, pp. 299–310, 304 Others, however, were cautious and viewed federative solutions as technocratic,José María Codón Fernández, Tradición y monarquía, Madrid 1961, pp. 337–339, referred after Bartyzel 2015, p. 141 let alone a specific trend within Spanish Liberalism which embraced federative solutions; this is even more so in case of cantonalism, a theory advanced briefly in the mid-19th century by radical Liberal Left. Autonomous solutions were in principle rejected as reflecting the erroneous top-down logic and putting a state before a local entity; some also viewed autonomy of Catalonia or Basque Country as anti-foral because fueros were province-specific.the case of Víctor Pradera In practice Traditionalists remained highly divided; both in the 1930s and 1970s some supported and some opposed autonomous regulations discussed.for the 1930s see e.g. Blinkhorn 2008, pp. 41–68, for the 1970s see e.g. José Luis de la Granja Sainz, El error de Estella del PNV en perspectiva histórica, [in:] Anales de Historia Contemporánea 16 (2000), pp. 199–207 The 21st century Traditionalist theorists criticize current praxis of autonomy as increasingly infected with rationalist mentality and positive law. Finally, separatism is mutually viewed as clearly incompatible with Traditionalism; in present-day Spain there is no greater enemy of Traditionalism than independence-minded Basque political movement, and the last Traditionalist known to have been killed was the victim of ETA.the last known Traditionalist killed by ETA was Alberto Toca Echeverria, assassinated in 1982. For a monograph discussing ETA war on Traditionalism see Víctor Javier Ibáñez, Una resistencia olvidada. Tradicionalistas mártires del terrorismo, s.l. 2017 === Economy === As a political doctrine the Spanish Traditionalism did not develop its own economic theory.until recently there has been no monographic work on Traditionalist vision of the economy at all. The first ever work to target the issue is Gianandrea de Antonellis, Il progetto economico carlista. Un esempio di politica cattolica, [in:] Bruno Lima (ed.), I beni temporali della Chiesa e altre riflessioni storico–artistiche giuridiche ed etico–finanziarie, Canterano 2019, , pp. 27-46 Explicit references are rare, either very general or very fragmented.compare e.g. a chapter dedicated to economy in one of the best-known Traditionalist documents, known as Acta de Loredan (1897), Melchor Ferrer, Historia del tradicionalismo español, vol. 28/2, Sevilla 1959, pp. 136–137 Wartime experience of Carlist states briefly emergent during Carlist Wars provide little guidance, be it in general economic terms or in terms of detailed questions like fiscal, monetary or trade policy.not infrequently scholars point to high fiscalism of Carlist states both in the 1830s and 1870s, the result of pressing wartime necessities rather than practical embodiment of Traditionalist theory. For the Third Carlist War, see e.g. María Soledad Martínez Caspe, La II Guerra Carlista en Navarra (1872–1876): represión y exacciones. La cuestion foral y la guerra, [in:] Gerónimo de Uztariz 8 (1993), pp. 91–110 Massively changing economic conditions from remnants of late feudalism of the late 18th century to the post-industrial globalization of the early 21st century at various points in time elicited comments applicable to specific conditions, but falling short of a general theory. There are no traceable specific references to economy in early Traditionalist writings, produced during the twilight of Spanish feudalism. The first incursions into the area came upon implementation of revolutionary roots and gradual emergence of bourgeoisie. Some early Traditionalist theorists voiced in defense of certain features of historical regime, especially huge religious landholdings, subject to massive expropriation project launched by the Liberal governments. In conditions of Spanish agricultural economy these landholdings were normally accessible to rural masses by means of specific and rather affordable agreements. New bourgeoisie owners reformatted usage of the plots on a purely commercial basis; the result was emergence of Traditionalist "sentimientos radicalmente anticapitalistas",González Cuevas 2016, pp. 137–158. Llauder viewed social problems as part of religious issue, results of godless Liberalism allowing shameless profiteering, brought to Spain by foreign and Jewish speculators. Spanish economy was described as feudalism of money, with Jews having been seniors and caciques their vassals, Jordi Canal i Morell, El carlisme català dins l'Espanya de la Restauració: un assaig de modernització politica (1888–1900), Barcelona 1998, , pp. 267–227 directed against the new "agrarismo militante". Similarly unwelcome was the 1834 abolishment of guilds, bodies advocated even 100 years later.the Traditionalists advocated re-introduction of guilds 100 years after their 1834 abolishment, compare Erik Nörling, La Obra Nacional Corporativa. El proyecto fracasado de estructura sindical tradicionalista en el primer franquismo, 1936–1939, [in:] Aportes 22 (2007), pp. 98–117 Finally, opposition to doing away with feudalism-rooted local customs, fiscal exemptions or other local tariffs,moving state customs post from frontier between Vascongadas and Castilla to the coastline was considered dramatic breach of traditional order, see e.g. Carlos Larrinaga Rodríguez, Comercio con América y traslado de aduanas. El nacimiento del liberalismo económico en Guipúzcoa en la primera mitad del siglo XIX, [in:] Anales de Historia Contemporánea 21 (2005), pp. 323–344. As late as in the 1950s Traditionalists petitioned Franco to restore a so-called Concierto Económico, sort of a Basque fiscal autonomy, Iker Cantabrana Morras, Lo viejo y lo nuevo: Díputación-FET de las JONS. La convulsa dinámica política de la "leal" Alava (Primera parte: 1936–1938), [in:] Sancho el Sabio 21 (2004), p. 165. In general the Traditionalists tended to high protectionism, supporting measures preventing penetration of the Spanish market by foreign products and foreign capital, including trade, railways and banking, compare Acta de Loredan, González Cuevas 2008, p. 1164, Canal 1998, p. 268. For a sample of protectionist Traditionalist propaganda see El Siglo Futuro, 3 January 1895, available here and popular rather than theoretical hostility to urbanization and industrializationcompare Francisco Javier Caspistegui Gorasurreta, "Esa ciudad maldita, cuna del centralismo, la burocracia y el liberalismo": la ciudad como enemigo en el tradicionalismo español, [in:] Actas del congreso internacional "Arquitectura, ciudad e ideología antiurbana, Pamplona 2002, , pp. 71–86. During the Third Carlist War some Carlist units spontenously and with no specific military purpose demolished railroad tracks, the practice condemned by the claimant, who attempted to strike a deal with the railway companies by large pitted Traditionalism against the bourgeoisie realm.a theory pursued by historians related to Partido Carlista presents Carlism as a movement of social protest, fundamentally hostile to capitalism and the rule of bourgeoisie, sort of an unconscious avant la lettre pre-socialism; however, scholars from this school claim that genuine Carlism had nothing to do with Traditionalism, compare numerous works of José Carlos Clemente Few non-Carlist Traditionalists accepted desamortización and in line with nascent capitalist order declared individual private property an inviolable foundation of a society; their efforts, typical for the mid-19th century, are summarized as attempts to fuse capitalist impulse with hierarchical structures of predominantly rural society.see the chapter on Balmes and "tradicionalismo evolutivo" in González Cuevas 2016, pp. 137–158 Gradually private property got fully embraced as a cornerstone of especially the rural economy, with mid-size family holdings in Vascongadas and Navarre presented as an ideal economic milieu. However, it has never marginalized the concept of collective economy, be it in terms of ownership, usage or administration. In rural conditions it resulted in focus on commons like pastures, meadows and forests;the issue of commons underlined in Steven Henry Martin, The Commonality of Enemies: Carlism and anarchism in modern Spain, 1868–1937 [MA thesis], Peterborough 2014, pp. 26–47, MacClancy 2000, p. 38, Renato Barahona, Vizcaya on the Eve of Carlism: Politics and Society, 1800–1833, Reno 1989, , 9780874171228, p. 170 in industrial terms it evolved into an attempt to replicate rural family order in the setting of an industrial enterprise, with employers and employees united in a joint management formula.González Cuevas 2009, pp. 81–82. However, Pradera was reluctant to accept the concept of employee stock ownership, see Orella Martínez 2012, p. 259 With Rerum novarum accepted as a substitute for own Traditionalist socio-economic recipe, in the first half of the 20th century some pundits have already declared that there was no other possible way of production than capitalism,González Cuevas 2009, p. 82 though they might have also advocated redistribution of wealth as means to solve social problems.economic issues as envisioned by Pradera discussed in detail by Carballo 2013, pp. 132–142; on the other hand, other Traditionalists almost explicitly opposed the redistribution of wealth principle, lambasting an idea that "Estado tiene derecho a participar de las utilidades de la riqueza y del trabajo de los ciudadanos", see El Cruzado Espanol 23.05.30, available here During Francoism key Carlist theorists lamented vertical sindicates as pathetic distortion of the gremial system, but it seems that apart from Juanistas, also they accepted "premisas del neocapitalismo", at least in the controlled free-market ambience. Present-day Traditionalist leaders at times admit their "odio al capitalismo" and declare return to the old regime, though its designation remains highly vague;"más aún, el carlismo comulga con los anteriores [fascism, socialism] en el odio al capitalismo, nacido de la destrucción de los estamentos del antiguo régimen y fuente de innumerables males e injusticias, contra el cual propone no una revolución, sino una restauración" – letter from leader of Comunión Tradicinalista to Sixto Enrique de Borbón (2010), available here an official party program demonstrates technocratic approach, pointing towards a regulated and common-good oriented free market economy.it declares that "economy is a science, to be discussed by experts, not by politicians", see section 15 of Programa Político of CTC === Foreign relations === Throughout almost 200 years of history the Spanish Traditionalists have sympathised with various countries which at different points in time they considered closest to their own ideological blueprint. In the mid-19th century these were mostly states on the Apennine Peninsula; successive Carlist claimants married women from Borbon and Habsburg branches, ruling in Naples,in 1850 the claimant Carlos VI married María Carolina di Borbone-Due Sicilie from the Borbón branch ruling in the Kingdom of Two Sicilies Modenain 1847 the claimant Juan III married María Beatriz de Austria- Este from the Habsburg branch ruling in the Duchy od Modena or Parma.in 1867 the claimant Carlos VII married Margarita de Borbón-Parma from the deposed Borbón branch which ruled in the Duchy of Parma Their suppression of revolutionary risings in 1848–1849 was viewed as triumph over ungodly liberalism; their fall in 1859–1861 was viewed as a fatal blow to European order,compare e.g. La Esperanza 04.07.60, available here. Some Carlists like José Borjes were engaged in fightings in defense of the Kingdom of Two Sicilies. For detailed discussion of the legitimist solidarity see Alfonso Bullón de Mendoza, El legitimismo europeo, [in:] Stanley G. Payne (ed.), Identidad y nacionalismo en España contemporánea: el carlismo, Madrid 2001, ISBN 8487863469, pp. 195-253 the blow completed with abolition of the Papal State – defended e.g. by the later claimant Alfonso CarlosLa battaglia di Porta Pia, [in:] Emanuele Martinez, Il Museo Storico di Bersaglieri, Roma 2020, ISBN 9788849289572, pp. 28-29, also Melchor Ferrer, Historia del tradicionalismo español, vol. XXX/1, Sevilla 1979, pp. 9-10 – in 1870.also long afterwards provinces which used to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies enjoyed particular role in the Carlist narrative, and some Carlist pundits were personally engaged. This was the case of Francisco Elías de Tejada, who spent many years in Naples and married a descandant of traditionalist Naples family, Pablo Ramírez Jerez, La biblioteca de D. Francisco Elías de Tejada, [in:] Anales de la Fundación Francisco Elías de Tejada 19 (2013), p. 205 At that time Traditionalists began to focus their hopes on Russia, the country which demonstrated somewhat warm feelings towards the Carlists during both civil warsa Carlist envoy was petmitted to operate at the St. Petersburg court during the First Carlist War; he was also aided financially. During the Third Carlist War the tsarist administration were also tempted to aid the Carlists, but eventually they decided to follow Bismarck in a neutralist policy, see Joaquim Veríssimo Serrão, Alfonso Bullón de Mendoza, La contrarrevolución legitimista, 1688–1876, Madrid 1995, ISBN 9788489365155, pp. 236–238, Javier Rubio, La política exterior de Cánovas del Castillo: una profunda revisión, [in:] Studia historica. Historia contemporánea 13–16 (1995–1996), pp. 177–187, José Ramón de Urquijo y Goitia, El carlismo y Rusia, [in:] Hispania. Revista Española de Historia 48 (1988), pp. 599–623. For Russian perception of the First Carlist War see Andrei Andreevich Tereshchuk, La Primera Guerra Carlista a través de la prensa rusa, [in:] Aportes 37 (2022), pp. 7-32. On the other hand, some 400 Carlist exiles in France enlisted to the Foreign Legion and fought against Russia during the Crimean War in the 1850s, Javier Iborra, Carlistas contra Rusia, [in:] Diario de Navarra 15.03.22, available here and which was sympathised with already during the Crimean War.compare the news as compiled and commented in La Esperanza 05.01.55, available here The claimant Carlos VII observed the Balkan campaign against Turkey as tsar's special guest;Francisco de Paula Oller, Album de personajes carlistas con sus biografías, s.l. 1887, pp. 54-55. The claimant was personal friend to tsar Alexander II, El Correo Español 10.03.13, available here. Some sources claim he commanded a unit in combat and was allegedly decorated, Borbón y Austria- Este (Carlos de), [in:] Enciclopedia Universal Ilustrada Europeo-Americana Espasa-Calpe, Madrid 1911, vol. 11. p. 1047 in the 1890s his son Don Jaime – though he frequented the Austrian military academyMelchor Ferrer, Historia del tradicionalismo español, vol. 29, Sevilla 1960, p. 11 – joined the Russian army and he later served in combat missions;Salvador Bofarull, Un príncipe español en la Guerra Ruso-Japonesa 1904–1905, [in:] Revista de Filatelia 2006, p. 55 at the turn of the centuries Carlist pundits like Enrique Gil-Robles hailed Russia as a bulwark of tradition against the onslaught of plutocracy, secularisation and democracy.El Imparcial 07.03.05, available here As new lines of the European conflict were getting increasingly clear more and more Carlists began to look to Germany; its dynamic growth to power and its regime were perceived as counter-proposal to rotten, liberalism-driven, decadent French-British alliance.for detailed discussion see Juan Ramón de Andrés Martín, El cisma mellista: historia de una ambición política, Madrid 2000, ISBN 9788487863820 During the First World War most Carlists sympathised with the German Empire,El Norte 11.10.13, available here though a sizeable minority section – including the claimant – supported France.in the 19th century Traditionalism has been turning gallophobic. France was viewed as the source of ungodly, subversive, liberal ideas, supported by the so-called afrancesados. As the Spanish liberals were increasingly looking to secular, centralised, republican France as the role model, the Spanish Traditionalists were increasingly turning against the northern neighbor. The Traditionalists were also getting convinced that the long-standing alliance brought nothing but decline, which triggered shift towards Germany. However, some important personalities like Francisco Melgar or Melchor Ferrer remained strongly pro- French, see e.g. Miguel Ayuso, Una visión española de la Acción Francesa, [in:] Anales de la Fundación Francisco Elías de Tejada 16 (2010), p. 77 The split contributed to major crisis within the movement and its breakup in 1919.Andrés Martín 2000, pp. 139-187 In the interwar period Traditionalist press looked with hope towards emerging anti-democratic regimes, especially these of Portugal and Italy, though also in Austria and Germany. Some tentative credit given to Hitler was withdrawn following the Dolfuss assassination, but Mussolini was still viewed as an ally; in the mid-1930s some 200 Carlists received military training in Fascist ItalyRobert Vallverdú i Martí, El carlisme català durant la Segona República Espanyola 1931–1936, Barcelona 2008, ISBN 9788478260805, pp. 195-198 and the Comunión political leader Rodezno signed a related quasi-political agreement.full story discussed in detail in Ángel Viñas, ¿Quién quiso la guerra civil? Historia de una conspiración, Madrid 2019, ISBN 9788491990994 During the Second World War there were both pro-Axise.g. following the Nazi invasion on the Soviet Union in 1941 there was a spate of telegrams of support despatched by Carlist personalities to the German consulate in San Sebastián. Also, though officially Carlist authorities discouraged enlisting, there were some Carlist volunteers to Division Azul, see Xosé Manoel Núñez Seixas, An Approach to the Social Profile and the Ideological Motivations of the Spanish Volunteers of the "Blue Division", 1941–1944, [in:] Sonja Levsen, Christine Krüger (eds.), War Volunteering in Modern Times, London 2010, ISBN 978-0-230-22805-4, pp. 248-74. At the turn of the 1930s and 1940s the Navarrese Carlist mouthpiece El Pensamiento Navarro was strongly pro-Nazi, Manuel Martorell Pérez, La continuidad ideológica del carlismo tras la Guerra Civil [PhD thesis in Historia Contemporanea, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia], Valencia 2009, pp. 263-264 and pro-Alliese.g. there were plans to engage Requetes in pro-British espionage activities; some scholars claim they were thwarted by the national Carlist executive, which stuck to neutralist stand, Martorell Peréz 2009, p. 268-271, Manuel Martorell Pérez, Antonio Arrue, el carlista que colaboró en el relanzamiento de Euskaltzaindia, [in:] Euskaltzaindiaren lan eta agiriak 56 (2011), p. 856. There are scholars, however, who claim that Fal Conde supported the idea of forming a tercio to fight alongside the Allies against the Nazis, Josep Carles Clemente, Breve historia de las guerras carlistas, Madrid 2011, ISBN 9788499671710, p. 223, Fermín Pérez-Nievas Borderas, Contra viento y marea, Estella 1999, ISBN 8460589323, p. 146 currents within the organisation; eventually the non- engagement policy was enforced,Josep Carles Clemente, Historia del Carlismo contemporáneo, Barcelona 1977, ISBN 9788425307591, p. 31 even though the regent-claimant was loosely involved in Resistance and he ended up in the Nazi concentration camp.details in Ignacio Romero Raizabal, El prisionero de Dachau 156.270, Santander 1972 The Cold War presented the Carlists with a dilemma. As intrinsically anti-revolutionary movement which fought bolshevisation of Spain during the civil war they perceived the Communist block as the arch-enemy. On the other hand, democratic, secular and initially fiercely anti-Spanish regimes of the Western world were neither seen as a would-be ally, even though marriage of the Carlist infant with a Dutch princess caused more horror and bewilderement in the Netherlands than in Spain.the marriage of princess Irene with the Carlist infant Carlos Hugo caused constitutional crisis in the Netherlands, the country which for 20 years has been among most militant critics of Francoist Spain and which advocated its international isolation, compare Dutch are facing crisis over Irene, [in:] The New York Times 07.02.64, available here The apparent longing for “a third way”, which translated to sympathy for Third World countries,a typical example was total Carlist support for Argentina during the Falklands war against Britain, see e.g. the review in Malvinas a 40 años de una gesta nacional, [in:] Tradición Viva service 02.04.22, available here, or 40. aniversario Guerra de las Malvinas: la última Cruzada, [in:] Somatemps service, available here found expression also in fascination with Yugoslavia, nurtured by some currents within Carlism.the Huguista faction remained skeptical of the Soviet project and were not shy to denounce it as a failure, see e.g. J. Ayape, Polonia: reflejo de un socialismo fracasado?, [in:] Montejurra 57 (1971), pp. 6-10 Following the fall of the bi- polar world the anti-Western sentiment was again on the rise among the Traditionalists. Founded on traditional resentment towards Anglo- Americansgeneral hostility towards England, stemming from the centuries-long Spanish-English rivalry across the globe, was reinforced along specifically Carlist lines, as England was deemed a hotbed of masonry, liberalism and anti- Catholic obsession. The English engagement in the First Carlist War contributed to hostility, and episodes of Carlist troops routing the English (e.g. during the battle of Andoain) have been cherished in the Traditionalist historiographic narrative. However, some Carlists remained fascinated with either the British – the case of Ignacio de Larramendi, see Ignacio Hernando de Larramendi, Así se hizo MAPFRE. Mi tiempo, Madrid 2000, ISBN 9788487863875 – or with the United States, see Luis García Guijarro, Notas americanas, Madrid 1913 and earlier concerns about the emergent consumer society,the best- known Carlist theorist who kept warning against the perils of consumer society was Rafael Gambra, see his La unidad religiosa y el derrotismo católico (1965), El silencio de dios (1967), Tradición o mimetismo (1976) and El lenguaje y los mitos (1983), detailed discussion e.g. in Julio Alvear Téllez, Drama del hombre, silencio de dios y crisis de la historia. La filosofía antimoderna de Rafael Gambra, Madrid 2020, ISBN 9788413247694 it was now fuelled also by opposition to cultural revolution marked by LGBT, feminism and woke currents. In the 21st centuryor even earlier; in the late 20th century the Traditionalist pundit explicitly voiced hope that the lux ex oriente will shine again, see Alvaro d’Ors, La violencia y el orden, Madrid 1998 it converted into fascination with Putin’s Russia, presented as a bulwark of traditionalism;in the Carlist cyberspace – blogs, fora, semi-official or official websites – one might fairly often find warm references to Russia, which like a rock stands in the flood of left-wing cultural terror, see e.g. a blog maintained by East Andalusian structures of Comuníon Tradicionalista Carlista, available here pundits like Miguel AyusoAyuso from time to time meets representatives of various organizations from Russia, like Русский Общевоинский Союз (see semi-official FB profile of Comunión Tradicionalista, 13.12.14, available here) of Русское Имперское Движение (Делегация Русского Имперского Движения посетила Испанию, [in:] service Информационный портал Русского Имперского Движения, 27.11.15, available here). During his visit to Argentina he made numerous biting remarks about the US and referred to Spain and Russia, two supra-state cultures of strong spiritual ingredient, confronting corrupted modernity, see Entrevista a Miguel Ayuso, [in:] YouTube service 19.09.19, available here dwell upon Russia “the only Christian global power”literally “unica potencia cristiana en la orden internacional”, see the interview with Ayuso, [in:] CarlismoGalicia service 22.06.16, available here and speak against attempts “to strangulate Russia”.a pundit particularly active when advancing the Russian narrative is the author, TV host and sort of celebrity Juan Manuel de Prada. Back in 2014 he noted that the West stole the soul of human race, and the role of Russia is to give it back, Juan Manuel de Prada, Porqué estamos con Rusia, [in:] Diario Español 10.03.14, available here. He vehemently opposes attempts to strangulate Russia with sanctions and media campaign, Juan Manuel de Prada, La misión de Rusia es devolver el alma a Occidente, [in:] Comunidad Saker Latinoamérica 23.11.16, available here. Upon outbreak of the Russian-Ukrainian war CTof two Traditionalist parties operational in Spain Comunión Tradicionalista has been particularly active when advancing the Russian narrative, see e.g. its semi-official profile on FB here; since outbreak of the Russian-Ukrainian war the profile almost every day has been publishing posts which endorse Russian claims or simply re-post official Russian messages, compare April 8 (1. Russian consul in Galicia, 2. El embajador de Rusia), April 6 (Ucrania es uno de los países más permisivos), April 5 (Zelenski se intepreta), March 31 (Kiev conservaría...), March 30 (1. Embajada de Rusia en España, 2. Ucrania, un volcán), March 28 (Las alternativas del oso II), March 26 (La política de bumerán), March 25 (Per i bambini del Donbass), March 24 (Ministerio de Defensa de Rusia), March 22 (Por qué se amotinan las naciones), March 21 (Cabalgando contradiciones), March 19 (Las alternativas del oso I), March 17 (Javier Solana reconoce que...), March 12 (La agitación del miedo), March 11 (Russians in the Hispanic Kingdoms II), March 9 (Reflexiones sobre la guerra en Ucrania), March 8 (En las ultimas oras...), March 7 (Un demonio para todos y todas), March 5 (1. Con Ucrania, pero de lejos, 2. Capacidad coercitiva, 3. Quien contra Rusia?), March 4 (The Russians in Hispanic Kingdoms I), March 3 (La guerra en Ucrania), Feb 28 (La otra guerra de Ucrania), Feb 26 (Embajada de Rusia), Feb 25 (Ministerio de Defensa de Rusia), Feb 24 (1. Julia Tymosenko, 2. La operación militar...), Feb 21 (Ante el riesgo de las noticias...) and CTCCTC has been somewhat less explicit than CT as to the Russian-Ukrainian war, but its media when discussing the events advance arguments which happen to support the Russian cause. Its semi-official website here or its FB profile here have published a number of pro-Russian articles, often penned by respected CTC activists, see e.g. Guernika y Zelenski (Carlos Ibáñez Quintana, 11.04.22), Guerra en Ucrania (1): los lejanos orígenes en la desconocida Transnistria (Javier Barraycoa, 31.03.22), La hipocresía y las mentiras de la guerra en Ucrania (Javier María Pérez-Roldán, 03.03.22), En defensa de la neutralidad (Javier Garisoain, 02.03.22). The CTC intellectuals, like Javier Barraycoa, published in social media numerous materials which advance arguments against the Ukrainian cause, compare ¿Por qué la guerra entre Rusia y Ucrania?, [in:] YT 05.02.22, available here sided with MoscowPartido Carlista, radically left-wing and anti-Traditionalist organisation, was the only grouping claiming Carlist identity which took official stand vs the Russian-Ukrainian war and which explicitly condemned Russia “imperialist aggression against the sovereign state”, [Comunicado] del Partido Carlista ante la invasión rusa de Ucrania, [in:] Partido Carlista service 28.02.22, available here and their media endorse Russian perspective.usually the Carlist narrative begins with lamenting the US-enforced global order. Emergence of Ukraine is presented as its part, and then the discussion focuses on Ukrainian atrocities against Russian minority. The last step is to note that Russia is fully entitled to defend its people in Ukraine. This is e.g. the perspective offered by Juan Manuel de Prada, both in his FB profile or in his contributions to ABC, compare here Don Sixtodynastic head of one of Carlist branches, Sixto Enrique de Borbón, has long been presenting NATO as a criminal institution and advocated Spanish exit from the organisation, compare e.g. Regresa de Libia Don Sixto Enrique de Borbón, [in:] Carlismo service 24.06.11, available here (exit from NATO is also supported by the competitive CTC organisation, see Manifiesto de ’Desperta’: ¡Saquemos a España de la OTAN!, [in:] Ahora Información service 11.04.22, available here). He maintains personal links with Russia and Russians, e.g. the chief of security in his Lignières castle is a Russian, Francisco M. de las Heras y Borrero, Carlos Hugo. El Rey que no pudo ser, Madrid 2010, ISBN 9788495009999, pp. 170-171. For his comments on the Russian-Ukrainian war see e.g. his FB profile, available here has long advocated return to “Russia’s historic frontiers”.see his interview with Monde & Vie 09.04.14, discussed at D. Sixto Enrique de Borbón: La voluntad rusa de independencia nos ayudará a reencontrar la nuestra, que está amenazada por la penetración anglosajona, [in:] Carlismo service 03.06.14, available, available here. However, the former political leader of CT, José Miguel Gambra, when meeting a group of Russian dissidents mentioned „destructive role of Putin” and “his genocidal regime”, see Movimiento Imperial Ruso, [in:] A las catacumbas blog 21.02.12, [alascatacumbas blog blocked by WP]. In late 2021 Gambra resigned as CT political leader == Traditionalism and other concepts == Spanish Traditionalism is a political theory with over 200 years of history; Traditionalists had to formulate their response to novelties like Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789 and the European Constitution of 2004. Traditionalism co-existed with numerous political concepts, maintaining firm position towards some and adopting more erratic course towards the others. Vehement hostility towards theories and political movements deemed revolutionary – especially Liberalismin more chiliastic versions of Traditionalist thought Traditionalism was viewed as Evangelical trunk of the good tree, while Liberalism was the trunk of the bad tree, Canal 1998, p. 262 though also Socialism, Communism and Anarchismsome (like Llauder) considered Socialism a secondary enemy, sort of a by-product of Liberalism, Canal 1998, p. 260. Some (like Donoso) considered Liberalist threat dwarferd by the apocalyptic horror of Socialism; his famous 1851 prophecy read that "when the terrible day comes and all the battleground is occupied by Catholic and Socialist columns, no-one will be able to tell where the Liberals are" – remained the backbone of Traditionalist principles. In case of many other doctrines the relationship is not entirely clear, subject to different opinions of competent scholars, confusion in popular discourse or conscious manipulation in partisan political or cultural debate. === Absolutism === There are not infrequent scholarly references to "Carlist absolutism"Lorente Toledo 1996, p. 86, Moreno Navarro 1997, p. 287, Ortigosa 2013, p. 243 or "absolutist Traditionalism",see e,g, Aranguren 1982, pp. 72–73, Fernandez Benayas 2008, p. 176, Vaca de Osma 1995, p. 140 usually applied to the early 19th century but at times even to the 1880;Antonio Jiménez-Landi, La Institución Libre de Enseñanza y su ambiente: Los orígenes de la Institución, Barcelona 1996, , p. 411 in case closer references are provided, they usually point to Manifiesto de los Persas, dubbed "un verdadero alegato absolutista".Alonso-Muñumer 1999, p. 46. Others call it "los principios más básicos de la filosofía política de los diputados serviles y su defensa de la monarquía absoluta", Fernández García 2014, p. 145. Also some scholars expert in Right-wing thought dub the Manifesto "legitimación del absolutismo fernandino", compare González Cuevas 2001, p. 104 Indeed, its Article 134 contained a lengthy praise of "monarquía absoluta" and "soberano absoluto"; moreover, in the late 1820s Don Carlos by all means seemed far more vehement defender of antiguo régimen than his brother Fernando VII. However, most scholars dwelling on Traditionalism remain at least cautious when discussing its proximity to Absolutism; the prevailing opinion is that the two offered highly competitive visions. Some relate birth of Traditionalism to mounting dissatisfaction with increasingly absolutist reforms of the 18th century.Theory pursued in Elías de Tejasa, Gambra, Puy 1971, p. 29. Also non- partisan scholars note that opposition to giving precedence to interests of Casa de Borbón over those of Spain "es lo que da lugar al nacimiento del tradicionalismo del siglo XVIII", Francisca Paredes-Mendez, Mark Harpring, Jose Ballesteros, Voces de España, Boston 2013, , p. 199 Some see absolutist references in the Persian Manifesto as linguistic misunderstanding,"qui pro quo terminológico", Ayuso Torres 2015, p. 20 since the paragraph in question is reportedly clearly aimed against absolute, unlimited monarchical power, standing rather for sovereign execution of undivided powers limited by divine law, justice and fundamental rules of the state.Federico Suarez, La formación de la doctrina politica del Carlismo, Madrid 1946, pp. 50–60, Francisco José Fernandez de la Cigoña, El manifiesto de los persas, [in:] Verbo 141-2 (1976), pp. 179–258, Wilhelmsen 1998, pp. 79–95, Gabriel Alférez, La travesía del desierto, [in:] Gabriel Alférez, Historia del Carlismo, Madrid 1995, , pp. 26–28 Some note that Absolutism might have served as sort of incubus for Traditionalism, as pre-Traditionalists firmly stood by Fernando VII during his Absolutist-driven purge of afrancesados, revolutionaries and Liberals;Blinkhorn 2008, p. 22 however, while both aimed to restore antiguo regimén, the Traditionalists dreamt of coming back to pre-Borbonic regime,according to Elías de Tejada Hispanidad was born in the Middle Ages, climaxed during the early España de los Austrias and declined due to centralist French tradition imported by the Borbones, Cecotti 2005, p. 205 not to despotismo ministerial of the late 18th century.Blinkhorn 2008, p. 7 Through much of the 19th century and even late into the 20th century the Traditionalists kept underlining their equidistant stand towards both a Constitutional and an Absolute monarchy.Elías de Tejasa, Gambra, Puy 1971, p. 64 In terms of substance, there were three major issues which stood between the Traditionalists and the Absolutists. First, the former stood by the Spanish political tradition while the latter embraced 18th-century novelties imported from France. Second, the former rejected the principles of Enlightenment as ungodly human usurpation while the latter adopted them as theoretical foundation of absolutismo ilustrado. Third, the former considered the monarch entrusted with execution of powers, limited by natural order, tradition and divine rules, while the latter tended to see him as a source of public power.compare numerous references in Elías de Tejasa, Gambra, Puy 1971 === Carlism === There is general and rather unanimous understanding both in historiography and in political sciences that Traditionalism is heavily related to Carlism, though exact relationship between the two might be understood in widely different terms.also genetically it is not clear what is older: Traditionalism or Carlism. The birth date of Carlism as a militant political movement is fairly clear: October 2, 1833, around 7 PM, when a post official in Talavera de la Reina, Manuel María Gonzalez, gathered his armed men on the main town square and raised the "Viva Don Carlos" cry. Some scholars refer to Traditionalism already in the late 18th century (Ferrer), some point to the Persas Manifesto as its birth date (Bartyzel) or conclude that Traditionalism was born before the dynastic issue occurred (Wilhelmsen), some consider Balmes and Donoso – both writing in the 1840s – the fathers of Traditionalism (González Cuevas), and some prefer safe conclusions that the nascent era fell on the period "between the reign of Carlos III and the liberal-bourgeoisie revolution" ("от правления Карлоса III (1759–1788) до либерально-буржуазной революции 1868–1874"), Василенко 2014, p. 77 The prevailing theory holds that Traditionalism is a theoretical political doctrine, which has been adopted by social and political movement named Carlism. The version of this theory currently accepted by the Carlists themselves is that though not exclusively forming their outlook, Traditionalism combined with a theory of dynastic legitimacyaccording to some legitimism was not another – apart from Traditionalism – component of Carlism, but a component of Traditionalism itself, "el tradicionalismo fue una fuerza importante en España, pero la obediencia dinástica la marginaba de la vida pública", Orella Martínez 2012, p. 184 and a theory of Spanish historical continuity is one of 3 theoretical pillars of Carlism.Gambra 1949, p. 414, referred after Bartyzel 2015, p. 76. According to a canonic 1971 text, Traditionalism is "doctrina jurídico-política" and one of 3 pillars of Carlism (the other two are legitimism and historical continuity of Spain), Elías de Tejada, Gambra, Puy 1971, p. 10 In some concise definitions Traditionalism is simply presented as a doctrine of the Carlists.Diccionario Enciclopédico U.T.E.H.A., vol. X, Mexico 1953, p. 246. In the very text Traditionalism is presented as a doctrine of a vague "Carlist party", a simplification acceptable in the 1950s but misleading since the 1970s. Today "Carlist party" intuitively points to Partido Carlista, a political organization claiming Carlist identity and fiercely denying any Traditionalist links However, in detailed scholarly discourse most students are cautious to underline that Traditionalism appears in Carlist and non-Carlist incarnations. Some of them maintain that Carlism is the essence of Traditionalism,this opinion is of course maintained also by the Carlists themselves; they might recognize that Traditionalism exists also beyond the Carlism realm, but add that "cualquier tradicionalismo que no buscara un entronque con el carlismo, debia perecer, y de aquí el fracaso del marqués de Viluma, el fracaso de Bravo Murillo y el fracaso de Donoso Cortés", Ferrer 1951, p. 49 its proper case, in Aristotelian terms πρός έν or rather έφ ένός of Traditionalism.Bartyzel 2015, p. 108. The author views Carlism as most complete embodiment of Traditionalism, its foundation being two concepts: theocentricism – the legitimate order must necessarily follow teachings of Jesus Christ, and sort of communitarianism (the term not used by the author) – a human is best expressed as member of a community and common interests should take precedence over those of an individual, Bartyzel 2015, p. 14 Others present the opposite opinion, leaving no stone unturned in search for arguments that mainstream Traditionalism was not Carlist;a typical example is González Cuevas. He claims up-front that reportedly Traditionalism is wrongly identified with Carlism, but later on his discourse goes much further, suggesting that Traditionalism is not only not tantamount to Carlism, but that Carlism was a non-mainstream breed of Traditionalism; when discussing Traditionalist authors, he systematically focuses on non-Carlist theorists and downplays the Carlist ones, González Cuevas 2008, p. 1163 and onwards finally, there are many authors in-between both positions.Francisco Colom González, La imaginación política del tradicionalismo español, [in:] "Por Dios, por la Patria y el Rey": las ideas del carlismo, Pamplona 2011, , pp. 179–198 Most students – especially historians – do not go into such detail; they note that Carlists nurtured "their brand of Traditionalism"Blinkhorn 2008, p. 85 and either mention "Carlist Traditionalism" or use both terms almost interchangeably.compare Blinkhorn 2008, pp. 10, 21, 162, 303 Finally, there are scholars who claim that in principle Carlism and Traditionalism had little in common and one can either be a genuine Carlist or a Traditionalist; this is a theory pursued mostly by students related to Partido Carlista, who present Carlism as a movement of social protest at times infiltrated by Traditionalists.Clemente 1999, p. 56 Apart from differing scholarly opinions on Traditionalism v. Carlism there is also confusion related to terminology and historical usage in popular discourse. It stems mostly from secessions which occurred within political movement and exclusive claims which various factions laid to Traditionalist credentials, though also from conscious attempts to manipulate public opinion. The former is related to 1888 and 1919 secessions from mainstream Carlism; both Nocedalista and Mellistasee e.g. El Sol 04.05.23, available here breakaways were and are< at times dubbed Traditionalists and pitted against Carlists, especially that the party of de Mella assumed the name of Partido Católico TradicionalistaFernández Escudero 2012, p. 511 and both Nocedalistas and Mellistas claimed exclusive license for usage of the term. Manipulation is the case of Primo de Rivera and Franco dictatorships; with intention to deny existence of political groupings other than the official party, both regimes downplayed the term "Carlism" and used to replace it with "Traditionalism"; the latter was deemed more ample, capable of covering also principles of the respective regimes, and in particular deprived of the potentially harmful dynastic ingredient.for primoderiverismo see e.g. Enciclopedia Espasa, vol. 63, Madrid 1928, p. 506, for franquismo see e.g. Clemente 1999, p. 74 === Conservatism === In terms of real-life politics the Spanish Conservatives from the onset remained largely at odds with the Traditionalists. Doceañistas of the Fernandine period, Partido Moderado of the Isabelline era and Partido Conservador of the Restoration stayed fiercely hostile to Carlist Traditionalism, though there were periods of rapprochement with non-legitimist branches of the movement; some representatives of the two neared each other in times of Donoso Cortés, neocatólicos, Alejandro Pidal and Menéndez Pelayo, with offshoot Conservative branches like Mauristas considering even a fusion with Traditionalists. In terms of doctrinal affinity mutual relationship of the two is more ambiguous and difficult to capture. Traditionalism is not infrequently referred to as Conservativesee e.g. Andrés Vázquez de Prada, El Fundador del Opus Dei, Barcelona 1997, , p. 18, Elvira Pirraglia, Valle-Inclán y su macrotexto literario, Madrid 2002, , p. 85 or even Ultra-conservativeKarheinz Barck, Essays zur spanischen und französischen Literatur- und Ideologiegeschichte, Berlin 1997, , p. 490 theory. Recent multi-dimensional typological attempt presents an ambiguous picture.Carlism is compared to Conservatism on at least 6 different layers, combining methodological proposals of Carlos Seco Serrano, Jose María Clemente, Federico Suarez Verdaguer and the theory of П. Ю. Рахшмир & А. А. Галкин, see Юрий Владимирович Василенко, Генезис карлизма и проблемы типологии испанского консерватизма, [in:] Научный ежегодник Института философии и права Уральского отделения Российской академии наук 1/16 (2016), pp. 92–111, especially the table p. 104 Some detailed scholarly studies claim that Traditionalism and Conservatism are clearly distinct concepts, be it in case of Spain"the term 'political conservative' does not fit the Carlists and other self-styled Traditionalists. ... The Carlist and Traditionalist ideal is best described, as it is in Spain, as 'traditionalist', but some may prefer 'reactionary' or 'restorationist'", R. A. H. Robinson, Political conservatism: The Spanish Case, 1875–1977, [in:] Journal of Contemporary History 14/4 (1979), p. 575 or in general.Pedro Carlos González Cuevas, Tradicionalismo y conservadurismo, [in:] Pedro Carlos González Cuevas, Ana Martínez Arancón (eds.), Ideas y formas políticas: del triunfo del Absolutismo a la Posmodernidad, Madrid 2010, , pp. 149–182 The former is based on religious principles and sourced in the Revelation, the latter – though usually respectful towards religious values – is not centered around them. The former understands politics as means of achieving missionary Catholic objectives, the latter as a technique of exercising public power. The former is founded on unalterable nucleus, the latter is in principle evolutionary.according to the Traditionalist reading offered by de Mella, tradition and progress are compatible. Tradition is all in the past which has contributed to building of a godly order (all in the past which has not contributed is not tradition). Progress is the value added by following generations to heritage received from their forefathers, referred after Bartyzel 2015, pp. 70–72 The former is providential, the latter is deterministic and historicist. The former is incompatible with democracy, the latter is perfectly tailored to operate in a realm founded on sovereignty of the peoples assumption. The former is monarchist, the latter is accidentalist. The former is derived from vernacular cultural tradition, the latter is in principle universal. The former perceives society as based on presumed natural order, the latter as stemming from contractual and voluntaristic principles embodied in a constitution. The former understands society as composed of organic bodies, the latter as composed of free individuals. The former sees public power as united and integral, the latter as divided into legislative, executive and judicial branches. Perhaps a good though obviously simplistic way of summarizing the difference between the two is noting that while the Conservatives usually have no problem admitting their Right-wing identity, the Traditionalists are uneasy about it,see e.g. a 1953 article of Francisco Canals, El „derechismo” y su inevitable deriva izquierdista, available e.g. here pointing that their concept is rooted in pre-1789 realm, before the Right-Left paradigm had been even born.Bartyzel 2015, pp. 49–57, 65–69 === Fascism === In anonymous cyberspace Traditionalism as component of the Nationalist faction during the Spanish Civil War might be referred to in catch-all terms as Fascism;though there are isolated attempts to present even 18th-century thinkers like Ceballos against the Fascist setting, claiming that it helps to understand emergence of radical conservatism and then right-wing radicalism in all countries which developed Fascist regimes (Italy, Germany, Eastern Europe). The logic is that Traditionalism was initially consensual, but having failed to find an ally among the Conservatives it got increasingly radical and vehement, Василенко 2014, p. 90 also some politicians at times use the term "fascist" as abuse and insult, applied to the Traditionalists.recent example is the case of a PSOE politician Santos Cerdán, who in 2019 referred to the Traditionalist commemorative session in Leitza as "fascismo en el que dos parlamentarios de Navarra Suma, Iñaki Iriarte y Patxi Pérez, fueron a un acto de exaltación del franquismo", Cerdán llama "fascista" a Iriarte (Navarra Suma), [in:] Diario de Navarra 21.10.19, available here. The MPs lambasted by Cerdán responded with filing a lawsuit, currently in course In scholarly discourse such perspective is extremely rare, though not nonexistent.see e.g. the comments on Paul Preston: "sin duda, el historiador británico no ha leído ni a Enrique Gil Robles, ni a Juan Vázquez de Mella, ni a Víctor Pradera; y tiende, con su habitual ignorancia, a presentar el carlismo como una especie de remedo del fascismo, sin tener en cuenta el antiestatismo y antitotalitarismo characterísticos del tradicionalismo carlista", Pedro Carlos González Cuevas, En torno a la obra del hispanista Paul Preston, [in:] Catoblepas 91 (2009), available here Some scholars in case of selected authors suggested a fusion of two doctrines, referring to "traditionalist Fascism"e.g. in case of Pradera, his doctrine classified as "fascist project turned firmly towards the past", see Riley 2010, pp. 19–20. Elías de Tejada has been named „superfascista” and dub selected Traditionalist authors "Fascists" or even "super-Fascists".Anna Caballé, Arcadi Espada, Entrevista a Alonso de los Ríos, [in:] Boletín de la Unidad de Estudios Biográficos 3 (1998), p. 78; this opinion has also filtered out to popular discourse abroad, compare "Übereinstimmend mit ihren faschistischen Vorbildern, herrschte auch in der Falange das Führerprinzip. Die Partei verkörperte den Willen des Volkes, Franco brachte ihn zum Ausdruck. Seine Entscheidungen waren als "Quell der Souveränität" und "Wurzel irdischer Macht" unanfechtbar, wie der Rechtsphilosoph Francisco Elías de Tejada 1939 pathetisch ausführte", Carlos Collado Seidel, Der General, der Krieg und die Kirche, [in:] Die Zeit 27.08.13 At times episodes of rapprochement between Traditionalists and Fascists or Nazis are discussed, like institutional attempt to blend Traditionalism and Fascism into Partido Nacionalista Español of Jose Albiñana,Orella Martínez 2012, p. 379 generally positive treatment Mussolini and initially Hitler enjoyed in the Traditionalist press, training received by Carlist paramilitary in Italy in the mid-1930s,at the turn of 1936 and 1937 Italian envoys to Spain, like Pedrazzi or Danzi, suggested to Rome that Italy should support not Falange but the Carlists, especially that "they have proven to be faithful and loyal friends of Italy", Mercedes Peñalba-Sotorrío, Cultural Intervention in the Spanish Civil War: A Comparative Analysis of Nazi and Fascist Propaganda, [in:] Journal of Contemporary History 58/1 (2023), p. 31. However, nothing is known of any would-be contacts between the Carlist executive and Fascist envoys in Spain at the time or a spate of congratulation telegrams from Carlist politicians to Nazi embassy in Madrid following outbreak of the 1941 German-Soviet war.Xosé-Manoel Nuñez-Seixas, An Approach to the Social Profile and the Ideological Motivations of the Spanish Volunteers of the "Blue Division", 1941–1944, [in:] Sonja Levsen, Christine Krüger (eds.), War Volunteering in Modern Times, London 2010, , p. 251 However, no broader conclusions are drawn,many authors invoke Pradera against the fascist background, indicate similarities, and apply fascistoid qualifications, but stop just short of naming him fascist, see Enrique Moradiellos, Evangelios fascistas, [in:] Revista de Libros 12 (2014), p. 30, Olabarri Gortázar 1988, p. 323, Ernesto Mila, Renovación Española y Acción Española, la "derecha fascista española", [in:] Revista de Historia del Fascismo, 2 (2011), María Cruz Mina Apat, Elecciones y partidos políticos en Navarra (1891–1923), [in:] J. L. García-Delgado (ed.), La España de la Restauración: política, economía, legislación y cultura), Madrid 1985, , 9788432305115, pp. 120–121, S. Fernandez Viguera, Ideologia de Raimundo Garcia 'Garcilaso' en torno al tema foral, [in:] Principe de Viana 47 (1986), pp. 511–531 perhaps except that both systems shared vehement hostility towards parties, democracy, freemasonry, class war and Communism. Detailed studies highlight differences between the two doctrines and suggest they were largely on a collision course.detailed discussion in Orella Martínez 2006, pp. 257–268, Fernando del Rey Reguillo, Manuel Álvarez Tardío, The Spanish Second Republic Revisited: From Democratic Hopes to the Civil War (1931–1936), Madrid 2012, , pp. 250–251, Carballo 2013, pp. 126–131, Jacek Bartyzel, Tradycjonalizm (hiszpański) wobec faszyzmu, hitleryzmu i totalitaryzmu, [in:] Pro Fide Rege et Lege 71 (2013), p. 26. The author who studied relations between Carlism and Fascism most extensively is Martin Blinkhorn, see his Fascists & Conservatives. The radical Right and the establishment in twentieth-century Europe, London 2003, , also his Right-wing utopianism and harsh reality: Carlism, the Republic and the 'Crusade, [in:] Martin Blinkhorn (ed.), Spain in Conflict, 1931–1939. Democracy and Its Enemies, London 1986, pp. 183-205, also his Martin Blinkhorn, Conservatism, traditionalism and fascism in Spain, 1898–1937, [in:] Martin Blinkhorn (ed.), Fascists and Conservatives: The Radical Right and the Establishment in Twentieth-Century Europe, London 2003, , pp. 118-137, also his Carlism and fascism, [in:] Martin Blinkhorn, Carlism and crisis in Spain 1931–1939, London 2008, , pp. 183-206 Any cautious sympathy that Traditionalist authors might have nurtured towards Hitler evaporated following assassination of Dolfuss, and all differences in terms of outlook started to stand out. What estranged the Traditionalists was in particular: foreign origins of Fascism, considered incompatible with Spanish tradition; the Fascist statolatria, with omnipotent state controlling more and more areas of public life; marginalization of religion, especially openly pagan and anti-Christian profile of the Nazis; drive for social engineering; Fascist focus on industry and heavy industry, incompatible with rural Traditionalist outlook; nationalism, with nation and ethnicity elevated to status of secular god; racism, usually eliciting furious response of Traditionalists who used to associate it with separatist Basque ideology;though anti-Semitism has never been a major thread of Traditionalist thought or propaganda, at times it surfaced in Traditionalist popular discourse, compare e.g. Jordi Canal i Morell, El carlisme català dins l'Espanya de la Restauració: un assaig de modernització politica (1888–1900), Barcelona 1998, , pp. 288, 270–271. However, it has been fuelled by religious and not racist considerations. Also in popular discourse leading Traditionalist pundits explicitly spoke against racism, their elaborates again stemming from religious principles, compare an article by Fabio (Emilio Ruiz Muñoz) in El Siglo Futuro 06.01.35, available here leadership principle, considered close to blasphemous faith in false idols; centralismhowever, in expert scholarly literature there is one and entirely exceptional reference to "neocentralist traditionalism of Carlism"; no further explanation is provided, Stanley G. Payne, Fascism in Spain, 1923–1977, Madison 1999, , p. 48 and homogenization, wiping out local identities and separate establishments; general modernizing crusade, including the horror of young women with bare shoulders and legs paraded in mass on sport stadiums.Blinkhorn 2008, pp. 169–182, Bartyzel 2013, pp. 13–32 === Francoism === At a first glance the name of the Francoist state party – Falange Española Tradicionalista – might suggest that Traditionalism was firmly mounted within the Francoist theory of politics.the name reflected rather the fact that two organizations, Falange Española and Comunion Tradicionalista, were the key ones providing volunteers to the Nationalist ranks Indeed, there is almost unanimous agreement that Traditionalism has heavily contributed to the Francoist political doctrinesee e.g. González Cuevas 2008, pp. 1170–1171, Rodríguez Núñez 2013, Heleno Saña, Historia de la filosófia española, Madrid 2007, , p. 255 and onwards, in popular discourse Pradera is "one of the icons and pilars of Francoism", see ABC 25.10.04, available here – this is, provided scholars agree there was such.many tend to see Francoism as political practice rather than a coherent political theory; within this perspective, elements from various concepts were first accommodated and then dumped according to needs of the moment. Franco regime used cultural Traditionalism of menendezpelayano sort when looking for its historical legitimization, see e.g. Stanley G. Payne, Postfascist survivals: Spain and Portugal, [in:] Stanley G. Payne, Fascism, Madison 1980, , pp. 139–160 Some conclude that once the regime emerged from its national- syndicalist phase of the early 1940s, it was perhaps closer to Traditionalist blueprint than to any other theoretical political concept.Gonzalo Redondo Galvez, Política, cultura y sociedad en la España de Franco, 1939–1975, vol. 1, Pamplona 1999, ; according to the author, "el authoritarismo franquista no fue de signo fascista sino tradicionalista", according to another, "el authoritarismo franquista no fue de signo fascista sino tradicionalista", see Juan María Sanchez-Prieto, Lo que fué y lo que no fué Franco, [in:] Nueva Revista de Política, Cultura y Arte 69 (2000), pp. 30–38 Others limit the case to the 1944–1957 period only, after de-emphasizing of falangism and before embarking on a technocratic course.Rodríguez Núñez 2013, p. 268; similar view in González Cuevas 2009, p. 202 Former Acción Española theorists are credited for infusing Traditionalist spirit, based on its pre-war nacionalcatolicismo version, into the country institutional shape,Bartyzel 2002, p. 841 and for the 1958-adopted auto-definition of Francoist Spain as Monarquía Tradícional, Católica, Social y Representativa."franquismo neotradicionalista" – Jorge Novella, El pensamiento reaccionario español, 1812–1975: tradición y contrarrevolución en España, Madrid 2007, , pp. 248–9, see esp. the chapter El franquismo tradicionalista: Elías de Tejada y Fernández de la Mora Key common features, apart from negative points of reference like democracy, plutocracy, Socialism, Communism, Liberalism, parliamentarism, freemasonry and so-called European values,for Elías de Tejada see e.g. Ayuso Torres 1997, p. 25, Cecotti 2005, p. 205, for Gambra see e.g. Bartyzel 2015, p. 89. Both considered "European thought" an euphemism denoting a militant, anti-Christian ideology would be: organic vision of society, culture subjected to Catholic church, corporative political representation and focus on Hispanic tradition.in-depth analysis of Traditionalism versus Francoism, definitely the best work available so far, is Rodríguez Núñez 2014, see esp. chapters V and VI, pp. 247–391 Scholars discussing history and doctrine of Traditionalism during the Francoist era underline its paradoxical, incoherent, contradictory, fragmented and erratic stand towards the regime.Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, Martorell Pérez 2009, Rodón Guinjoan 2015 Thinkers related to Carlism kept claiming that the system built by Franco was entirely incompatible with Traditionalism, pitting nationalism against non-ethnic patriotism, centralism against regionalism, homogenization against diversity, hybrid caudillaje against monarchy, omnipotent state and its dirigisme against withdrawn minimalist structure, monstrous single party against doing away with all parties, Cortes based on personal appointments against Cortes based on genuine organic representation, syndicalism against gremialism and Church subservient to state against state subservient to Church, plus charges related to changes of late Francoism, especially those related to technocratic spirit and religious liberty. The result was that politically, Traditionalists failed to square the circle of forging a coherent stand versus the Franco regime; their position ranged from violence and conspiracy to non-participation, intra-system opposition, conditional co-operation, endorsement and finally amalgamation into a carlo-francoist blend.Rodríguez Núñez 2013, pp. 261–262 === Nationalism === There are scholars who claim that initially clearly anti-Nationalist, in the 1870s the Carlist breed of Traditionalism started to approach Nationalism."during the nineteenth century the only political group that expressed anything approaching a kind of nationalism was that of the Carlist traditionalists", Stanley G. Payne, Nationalism, Regionalism and Micronationalism in Spain, [in:] Journal of Contemporary History 3-4 (1991), p. 481. On the following pages author notes, however, that in the early 20th century Carlism had already nothing to do with nationalism. The same authot notes that "llegó a afirmarse en la época de la segunda guerra [Third Carlist War] como el único verdadero nacionalismo español, acuñado por primera vez la frase de 'glorioso movimiento nacional', mucho más tarde recogida por los nacionales en la guerra de 1936", Stanley G. Payne, Prólogo, [in:] Mercedes Vázquez de Prada, El final de una ilusión. Auge y declive del tradicionalismo carlista (1957–1967), Madrid 2016, , p. 16. Traditionalism indeed posed as 'glorioso movimiento nacional' in at least one article of the Carlist newspaper La Reconquista on January 16th 1873, Vicente Garmendia, Carlismo y nacionalismo (s) en la época de la última guerra carlista, [in:] Las Guerras Carlistas, Madrid 1993, , p. 104. Some Traditionalist authors at times defined themselves as "españolistas";Donald Weinstein, Júlia Benavent i Benavent, José Domingo Corbató, La figura de Jerónimo Savonarola O. P. y su influencia en España y Europa, Madrid 2004, , p. 226 some of them, especially Pradera, are fairly frequently considered champions of españolismo;see e.g. Pradera's entry at Auñamendi Eusko Entziklopedia, available here finally, the spirit of nacionalcatolicismo, both in its pre-war Acción Española and post-war Francoist incarnations, is at times defined as Traditionalism enveloped in Integral Nationalism. Some scholars relate Traditionalism not to the Spanish, but to the Basque Nationalism.at times the term traditionalism is even used to denote early Basque Nationalism, Luis Castells Arteche, El desarrollo de la clase obrera en Azcoitia y el sindicalismo católico (1900–1923), [in:] Estudios de historia social 42-43 (1987), p. 1155 The prevailing opinion, however, is that Traditionalism has always been on collision course with Nationalism, be it in 1801 or in 2001. Early Nationalism stemmed from the French Revolution supported by its ideological toolset, with sovereignty of the peoples at the forefront, and as such it represented an all-out challenge to Traditionalist understanding of public power. Throughout most of the 19th century the European Nationalisms – German, Italian, Polish – elicited no support of the Traditionalists, who related them to Liberalism, Carbonarism or various breeds of Republicanism and cheered their defeats at hands of the Holy Alliance. By the end of the century the emergence of Basque and Catalan movements helped to formulate Traditionalist response to modern Nationalism, the response formatted in cultural terms of Hispanidad rather than in Nationalist terms of españolismo. As it seems that Traditionalism might have served as incubus for CatalanCatalanism "tenía sus antecedentes, no solo en la Renaixença, sino en la escuela tradicionalista de los apologistas catalanes y posteriormente en la obra del obispo Torras y Bagès", González Cuevas 2001, p. 121 and BasqueCastells Arteche 1987, p. 1155 Nationalisms, and in the early 20th century a number of individuals left Traditionalism to become activists of peripheral Nationalisms, they were viewed as traitors in Traditionalism camp, receiving particularly venomous and hostile welcome.Pradera is sometimes considered one of the founding fathers of navarrismo, see Juan María Sánchez- Prieto, Garcia-Sanz, Iriarte, Mikelarena, Historia del navarrismo (1841–1936) [review], [in:] Revista Internacional de Estudios Vascos 48 (2003), p. 732. Another author claims that Pradera is fundamental to change in Navarrese perception of their enemies: before him it was the Spanish state, after him it was the Basque Nationalism; Roldán Jimeno Aranguren, Los derechos históricos en la renovación del régimen autonómico de Navarra (2004–2006), [in:] Revista interdisciplinar de estudios histórico-jurídicos 15/8 (2007), p. 344 Emergence of Maurras-inspired integral Nationalism of the 1920s made some impact on Traditionalism,perhaps the most evident case of fascination with integral nationalism was the early thought of Melchor Ferrer, who strove to modernise Traditionalism by re-defining the role of a nation and a state in its framework. Compare his El valor positivo del tradicionalismo español, [in:] España 02.03.19, available here but lack of transcendent component and rationalizing logic prevented major understanding.Action Francaise was positvist, paganist, determinist and nationalistic, while Acción Española was iusnaturalist, Catholic, providentialist and Hispanic – opinion of Gonzalez Fernandez de la Mora, referred after Bartyzel 2016, p. 149 Traditionalists from the Acción Española school, who neared nacionalcatolicismo of the early 1940s, were not immune to temptations of Nationalism also in its non- Integralist, ethnicity-based branch. Those related to Carlism stayed firmly within borders of Hispanidad, lamenting Francoist crackdown on Basque and Catalan culture though also firmly opposing political ambitions of the Basques and the Catalans. Nation states, dominating in Europe of the 20th century, were deemed incompatible with Traditionalism.opinion of Gambra, referred after Bartyzel 2015, p. 139; for Elías de Tejada see Cecotti 2005, p. 208. Both despised nation-states as born out of Nationalism, a concept not rooted in tradition, Ayuso Torres 2008, pp. 17–18, 23 === Other === Over time Traditionalism has partially overlapped with or was otherwise related to a number of other concepts, some of them political doctrines, some merely theoretical trends, some types of political praxis and some denoting social or cultural phenomena. They could be related to: general political setting – contrarrevolucionarios,probably the most widely accepted generic categorization of Traditionalism. It is generally considered to be – in terms of genealogy, doctrinal outlook, public mobilization – a counter-revolutionary concept, or even – as in case of Carlism – a "classic form of counter- revolution", Blinkorn 2008, pp. 1–40 reaccionarios,"reactionary" or "ultra- reactionary" are labels fairly frequently attached to Traditionalism, in public discourse often intended as abuse or insult, compare e.g. Alfonso Valencia, Teniente coronel Miguel Ayuso, [in:] Sociopolitica service, 26.09.13, available here. Also a scholarly discourse might be formatted as an onslaught rather than as an analysis, see Herrero 1971. On the other hand, opinion of Traditionalism having been born as a reaction to discontinuity of the Spanish tradition – triggered either by France-imported Absolutist of revolutionary thought – remains rather undisputed in the scholarly realm derechistas;in a recent attempt to produce a global typology of the Right, among 5 of its generic sub-sections Spanish Traditionalism is classified in the Extreme Rightist Right, Bartyzel 2016, p. 40. The same author notes, however, that some refused to accept the Right-wing label; they claim that the entire Right-Left paradigm, born during the French Revolution, is revolutionary, Nicolas Gómez Dávila, Escolios en un texto implícito, Bogota 2001, , p. 24, referred after Bartyzel 2016, p. 25 religious issues – apostólicos,frequently considered one of the streams which merged in Carlism, compare Roman Oyarzun, Historia del carlismo, Madrid 1944, p. 8 neocatólicos,for best detailed discussion available, see Urigüen 1986 ultramontanismo,there are fairly frequent references to "ultramontanismo carlista", see e.g. Julio de la Cueva Merino, Clericales y anticlericales: el conflicto entre confesionalidad y secularización en Cantabria (1875–1923), Santander 1994, , p. 85, though expert scholars vehemently deny that Carlism was ultramontanist, e.g. when discussing Traditionalist opposition to Vatican- endorsed malmenorismo – see e.g. Rosa Ana Gutiérrez Lloret, ¡A las urnas. En defensa de la Fe! La movilización política Católica en la España de comienzos del siglo XX, [in:] Pasado y Memoria. Revista de Historia Contemporánea 7 (2008), p. 249 – or to Vaticanum II, labelled "Los heraldos del anticristo", see Boletin de Comunion Catolico-Monarquica 11-12 (1985), available here lefebrismo,for a scholarly discourse referring to the 1970s see Juan Manuel González Sáez, El catolicismo tradicional español ante el „caso Lefebvre” (1976–1978), [in:] Hispania Sacra 46 (2014), pp. 489–513 integrismo,see Joan Bonet, Casimir Martí, L'integrisme a Catalunya. Les grans polémiques: 1881–1888, Barcelona 1990, ISBN, 9788431628000, Jordi Canal i Morell, Carlins i integristes a la Restauració: l'escissió de 1888, [in:] Revista de Girona 147 (1991), pp. 59–68, Jordi Canal i Morell, Las "muertes" y las "resurrecciones" del carlismo. Reflexiones sobre la escisión integrista de 1888, [in:] Ayer 38 (2000), pp. 115–136, Antonio Elorza, Los integrismos, Madrid 1995, , Juan María Laboa, El integrismo, un talante limitado y excluyente, Madrid 1985, , Antonio Moliner Prada, Félix Sardá i Salvany y el integrismo en la Restauración, Barcelona 2000, , Feliciano Montero García, El peso del integrismo en la Iglesia y el catolicismo español del siglo XX, [in:] Mélanges de la Casa de Velázquez 44/1 (2014), pp. 131–156, John N. Schumacher, Integrism. A Study in XIXth Century Spanish politico-religious Thought, [in:] Catholic Historical Review, 48/3 (1962), pp. 343–64 clericalismo,see e.g. references to Traditionalist clericalism in Coro Rubio Pobes, José Luis de la Granja, Santiago de Pablo, Breve historia de Euskadi: De los fueros a la autonomía, Madrid 2011, , available here nacionalcatolicisimo,semi-official doctrine adopted in the 1940s by the Francoist regime. There are vastly different views as to its relation to Traditionalism, e.g. some scholars consider National-Catholicism and Traditionalism one and the same thing, compare Carlos Moreno Hernández, En torno a Castilla, Sevilla 2009, , p. 223; a fairly popular if not indeed dominating view is that nacionalcatolicismo was a blend of Traditionalism and other doctrines, see Josefa Dolores Ruiz Resa, Los derechos de los trabajadores en el franquismo, Madrid 2015, , p. 65; some view the two as competitive doctrines; some see Traditionalism, and especially its Carlist branch, competitive if not hostile to nacional-catolicismo, see Bartyzel 2015, pp. 237–238 democristianos;on competition between Traditionalism and nascent Spanish Christian Democracy see e.g. Feliciano Montero García, El movimiento católico en la España del siglo XX. Entre el integrismo y el posibilismo, [in:] María Dolores de la Calle Velasco, Manuel Redero San Román (eds.), Movimientos sociales en la España del siglo XX, Madrid 2008, , pp. 173–192 territorial organisation – federalismo,apart from "federalismo regionalista" of classical Traditionalist authors like de Mella, see e.g. González Cuevas 2009, p. 47, there were also non-orthodox versions of Traditionalist federalism, e.g. the one represented by Francesc Romaní i Puigdengolas, see e.g. Andreu Navarra Ordoño, La región sospechosa. La dialéctica hispanocatalana entre 1875 y 1939, Barcelona 2012, , p. 53 regionalismo,apart from frequent Traditionalist references to regional traditions of Vascongadas, Navarre and Catalonia, a one which deserves notice is also Galician "regionalismo tradicionalista", developed by its key theorist, Alfredo Brañas, see Laura Lara Martinez, Naciones, estados y nacionalismos en Europa desde 1871 hasta 1914, , p. 17 foralismo,for a sample of references to "foralismo tradicionalista" see e.g. Alfred Balcells (ed.), Cataluña contemporánea, vol. 1, Madrid 1977, , p. 72 fuerismo,there are frequent historiographic references to "tradicionalismo fuerista", see e.g. Luis Castells Arteche, Arturo Cajal Valero, La autonomía vasca en la España contemporánea (1808–2008), Madrid 2009, , p. 294, and some scholars consider Fuerismo one of two (another one was Carlism) paths leading to Basque nationalism, see e.g. Corduera Atienza 2001 cuarentaiunistas,Traditionalist supporters of Basque foral regulations known as Ley Paccionada and set up in 1841, Jesús María Fuente Langas, Los tradicionalistas navarros bajo la dictadura de Primo de Rivera (1923–1930), [in:] Príncipe de Viana 55 (1994), pp. 417–426 antitrentainuevistas,Traditionalist supporters of Basque pre-1839 foral regime, Fuente Langas 1994, p. 419 autonomismo,there are numerous references to "autonomismo" in relation to Traditionalism, set in a wide timeframe between the late 19th and the late 20th century, see e.g. Jordi Canal i Morell, Banderas blancas, boinas rojas: una historia política del carlismo, 1876–1939, Madrid 2006, , p. 226 navarrismo,Sánchez-Prieto 2003, p. 732 vasquismo,there are abundant works on Traditionalism as incubus of Basque nationalism, written from Carlists, nationalist of scholarly perspectives. For example of the latter, see Corcuera Atienza 2001 catalanismo;on relations between Traditionalism and Catalanism see numerous works of Canal, e.g. Jordi Canal, Carlisme i catalanisme a la fi del segle XIX. Notes sobre unes relacions complexes, [in:] Le discours sur la nation en Catalogne aux XIXe et XXe siècles. Hommage à Antoni M. Badia i Margarit, Paris 1995, pp. 211–230, Jordi Canal, ¿En busca del precedente perdido? Tríptico sobre las complejas relaciones entre carlismo y catalanismo a fines del siglo XIX, [in:] Historia y Politica 14 (2005), p. 45-84, Jordi Canal, Marian Vayreda, entre el carlisme i el catalanisme, [in:] Revista de Girona 225 (2004), pp. 41–46 way of life and production: provincionalismo,compare "provincionalismo tradicionalista" in José Andrés-Gallego, Historia General de España y América: Revolución y Restauración: (1868–1931), vol. XVI/2, Madrid 1991, , p. 129 agrarismo,compare anti-urban agrarism discussed in Caspistegui Gorasurreta 2002 ruralismo;see e.g. references to "ruralismo tradicionalista", Jorge Luis Marzo, Lo moderno como antimoderno, [in:] Antonio Casaseca Casaseca, Francisco Javier Panera Cuevas, El poder de la imagen, Salamanca 2014, , p. 209 foreign policy – imperialismo,the term rather rarely paired with Traditionalism, usually against the background of Hispanidad, compare Enver Joel Torregroza, Pauline Ochoa, Formas de hispanidad, Rosario 2010, , p. 127 iberismo,some Traditionalists nurtered a vision of an Iberic confederation, see Carballo 2013, p. 107 germanofilia,applied mostly during the First World War and related to Traditionalist perception of German and Austro-Hungarian state model, pitted against the British and French state models anglofobia,related to long-standing Spanish and English competition overseas, Gibraltar, and incompatibility of Traditionalist model and the British model, by Traditionalists usually – though with some exceptions, e.g. this of Ignacio Hernando de Larramendi – considered a hotbed of greed, plutocracy, freemasonry, Liberalism and capitalism antieuropeanismo;as "European values" are deemed a disguise for militant anti-Christian secularism, Ayuso Torres 1997, p. 25, Cecotti 2005, p. 205, Bartyzel 2015, p. 89 monarchy – legitimismo,applied mostly to Carlist branch of Traditionalism realismo,by some considered pre-Carlism of the 1810s and 1820s blancs d'Espagne,French legitimists claiming that after 1883 the legitimate rights to the French throne passed to the Spanish Carlist Borbón branch miguelismo;Portuguese legitimism organisation of society – comunitarismo,the term has never been used by Traditionalist theorists, but this is how some scholars view the Traditionalist vision of a society, see e.g. very interesting mappings in Walter Actis, Miguel Angel Prada, Carlos Pereda, Extraños, distintos, iguales a las paradojas de la alteridad, [in:] Revista de Educación 307 (1995), p. 43 authoritarismo,references to "Traditionalist authoritarism" are not infrequent in Spanish literature, compare Gonzalo Redondo, Historia de la Iglesia en España, 1931–1939: La Segunda República, 1931–1936, Madrid 1993, , p. 561 organicismo,a concept of society and its organization, fairly frequently applied to mid- and late Traditionalism, compare Josefa Dolores Ruiz Resa, Los derechos de los trabajadores en el franquismo, Madrid 2015, , p. 160 corporativismo,a concept of political representation, fairly frequently applied to mid- and late Traditionalism, compare Gonzalo Álvarez Chillida, José María Pemán: pensamiento y trayectoria de un monárquico (1897–1941), Madrid 1996, , p. 136 socialcatolicismo,within Traditionalist realm applied mostly to Partido Social Popular and Salvador Minguijón sociedalismo,a concept of society developed by Vazquez de Mella neotradicionalismo;term applied in a number of ways; may denote e.g. Maeztu-related vision, or cultural approach fathered by Menéndez, or a school in historiography, or many other ideas short-lived social or political strategies or phenomena: doceañistas,later supporters of the 1812 constitution, considered pre-configuration of Moderates and Conservatives malcontents,or agraviados, combatants of Catalan insurgenty of the late 1820s, a movement aimed against reforms introduced by Fernando VII oyalateros,Carlist supporters refraining from openly joining the Carlist troops in the 1830s trabucaires,rural banditry partially of post-Carlist origin, active in Catalonia in the 1830s and 1840s montemolinismo,political strategy adopted by Carlos de Borbón y Braganza, Conde de Mondemolín, name applied in the 1840s matiners,combatants of Catalan insurgency of the 1840s, a movement aimed against the Isabelline order transaccionismo,conciliatory political strategy adopted by Traditionalists towards the Isabelline and Restoration regimes immovilismo,political strategy adopted by Cándido Nocedal and cultivated by his son Ramón, name applied in the 1870s and 1880s aperturismo,political strategy adopted by Enrique Aguilera y Gamboa as head of mainstream Carlism in the 1880s and 1890s minimismo,political strategy adopted by Victor Pradera and his followers in the early 20th century, also a theoretical outlook adopted by Salvador Minguijón and some of associated socially-minded Traditionalists bunkerismo,political strategy adopted by die- hard Francoist followers during late Francoism and early Transition socialismo autogestionario;outlook adopted by Hugocarlistas and Partido Carlista personal following at times amounting to a political option: pidalistas,followers of Alejandro Pidal, name used in the 1870s and 1880s menendezpelayistas,followers of Marcelino Menéndez de Pelayo, name applied in the 1890s and more loosely throughout most of the 20th century, in general denoting an erudite cultural format of Traditionalism mellistas,followers of Juan Vazquez de Mella, name applied in the 1910s and 1920s nocedalistas,followers of Ramón Nocedal (though might be also applied to followers of Cándido Nocedal), name applied between the 1880s and 1890s jaimistas,followers of Jaime de Borbón y Borbón-Parma, name applied between the 1910s and 1930s, though might have been used to denote rebels conspiring against Carlos VII in favor of his son in the 1900s cruzadistas,followers of dynastical reading pursued by a daily El Cruzado Español, name applied in the 1930s falcondistas,followers of Manuel Fal Conde, in the 1940s and 1950s interchanging with „javieristas” sivattistas,followers of Maurici de Sivatte and a Carlist branch organized as RENACE carloctavistas,followers of Carlos Pío de Habsburgo-Lorena y de Borbón and his descendants juanistas,followers of Juan de Borbón y Battenberg, name applied in the 1950s and 1960s, in the 1950s interchanging with "rodeznistas" or "estorilos" rodeznistas,followers of Tomás Domínguez Arévalo, 7th Count of Rodezno, name applied between the 1930s and 1950, in the 1950s interchanging with "juanistas" and „"estorilos" estorilos,signatories of a so-called Acto de Estoril (1957), followers of Juan de Borbón y Battenberg, name applied in the 1950s and 1960s, in the 1950s interchanging with "juanistas" javieristas,followers of Javier de Borbón-Parma, name applied usually between the 1940s and 1960s hugocarlistas,also "huguistas", "carlo-huguistas", followers of Carlos Hugo de Borbón-Parma, name applied usually between the 1960s and 1980s juancarlistas,followers of Juan Carlos de Borbón y Borbón-Dos Sicilias, name applied usually between 1960s and 1970s sixtinos,followers of Sixto Enrique de Borbón-Parma, name applied currently javierocarlistas,followers of Carlos Javier de Borbón-Parma, name applied currently tronovacantistas.a branch of Carlism which does not point to any individual as to a legitimate king of Spain and which claims that the throne of Spain is currently vacant Though none of these terms is crucial for understanding the history or contents of Traditionalism, they set its conceptual background and might serve as occasional points of reference. == List of selected traditionalist texts == thumb|160px|left thumb|160px|right thumb|160px|left thumb|160px|right thumb|160px|left thumb|160px|right thumb|160px|left thumb|160px|right thumb|160px|left thumb|160px|right thumb|160px|left thumb|160px|right 60 selected Traditionalist texts year title author 1814 Manifiesto de los PersasManifiesto de los Persas is the reference commonly used in literature. The original title of the document was Representación y manifiesto que algunos diputados a las Cortes ordinarias firmaron en los mayores apuros de su opresión en Madrid Bernardo Mozo de Rosalespresumed to be the key author among a number of individuals possibly contributing 1818 Apologia del altar y del tronofull title Apología del altar y del trono ó Historia de las reformas hechas en España en tiempo de las llamadas Cortes, é impugnacion de algunas doctrinas publicadas en la Constitucion, diarios y otros escritos contra la religion y el Estado Rafael de Veléz 1822 Manifiesto del barón de Eroles a los Catalanes Joaquín Ibáñez- Cuevas y Valonga 1833 Manifiesto de Castello Branco Carlos María Isidro de Borbónthe claimant signed the document; actual author of the text is not clear 1842 La España en la presente crisisfull title La España en la presente crisis. Examen razonado de la causa y de los hombres que pueden salvar aquella nación Vicente Pou 1843 Las leyes fundamentales de la monarquía española Magín Ferrer y Pons 1845 Manifiesto del Conde de Montemolín a los españoles Jaime Balmespresumed author, Bartyzel 2015, p. 67 1851 Ensayo sobre el catolicismo, el liberalismo y el socialismofull title Ensayo sobre el catolicismo, el liberalismo y el socialismo, considerado en sus principios fundamentales Juan Donoso Cortés 1864 Carta de Maria Teresa de Borbón y Braganzafull title Carta de Maria Teresa de Borbón y Braganza, princesa de Beira, a los españoles Pedro de la Hozpresumed author; formally the document was signed by Maria Teresa de Borbón y Braganza 1868 La solución española en el rey y en la ley Antonio Juan de Vildósola 1869 Carta de Don Carlos a su hermano Don Alfonso Antonio Aparisi y Guijarro 1869 El Rey de España Antonio Aparisi y Guijarro 1869 La solución lógica en la presente crisis Gabino Tejado 1870 La política tradicional de España Bienvenido Comín y Sarté 1871 Don Carlos o el petróleo Vicente Manterola 1874 Manifiesto de Deva Carlos de Borbónpresumed author is either Aparisi or Villoslada 1880date the first volume appeared; the second one appeared in 1882 Historia de los heterodoxos españoles Marcelino Menéndez Pelayo 1880 ¿Qué esperáis?address delivered during the Cortes sitting on June 16, 1880 Alejandro Pidal 1887 El liberalismo es pecado Félix Sardá y Salvany 1888 El pensamiento del Duque de Madrid Luis María de Llauder 1888 Manifestación de Burgos Ramón Nocedalpresumed author 1897 Acta de Loredán joint worksigned by de Cerralbo, de Mella is presumed to have been the author 1899date the first volume appeared, the second on appeared in 1902 Tratado de derecho políticofull title Tratado de derecho político según los principios de la filosofía y el derecho cristianos Enrique Gil Robles 1905 Credo y programa del Partido Carlista Manuel Polo y Peyrolón 1910 Las Cortes de Cádizfull title Las Cortes de Cádiz (con motivo de su primer centenario): su origen, su constitución, sus hechos y sus consecuencias Juan María Roma 1912 ¿Cuál es el mal mayor y cuál el mal menor? José Roca y Ponsa 1914 La crisis del tradicionalismo en España Salvador Minguijón 1919 Acuerdo de la Junta Magna de Biarritz joint work 1921 La autonomia de la sociedad y el poder del estadolecture at Teatro Goya in Barcelona, June 5, 1921 Juan Vazquez de Mella 1930 Doctrinas y anhelos de la Comunión tradicionalista joint work 1932 Verdadera doctrina sobre acatamientofull title Verdadera doctrina sobre acatamiento, obediencia y adhesión a los poderes constituidos, y sobre la licitud de la resistencia a los poderes ilegítimos y de hecho. La política tradicionalista Manuel Senante Martinez 1934 Defensa de la Hispanidad Ramiro de Maeztu 1934 Manifiesto de Viena Alfonso Carlos de Borbón 1935 El Estado Nuevo Víctor Pradera 1937 Ideario Jaime del Burgo 1937 Corporativismo gremialfull title Corporativismo gremial. La organización social en la nueva España José María Araúz de Robles 1938published 1952 El sistema tradicionalpublished as Cristiandad, Tradición y Realeza Luis Hernando de Larramendi 1938date completed. It was published in 1951 El tradicionalismo político español y la ciencia hispana Marcial Solana González-Camino 1939 Manifestación de los ideales tradicionalistasfull title Manifestación de los ideales tradicionalistas al generalisimo y jefe del estado español joint work 1949 ¿Quién es el Rey?full title ¿Quién es el Rey? La actual sucesión dinástica en la Monarquía española Fernando Polo 1949 España, sin problema Rafael Calvo Serer 1952 El poder entrañable Vicente Marrero 1954 La monarquía tradicional Francisco Elías de Tejada 1954 La monarquía social y representativa en el pensamiento tradicional Rafael Gambra Ciudad 1960 Instituciones de la Monarquía Española Jaime de Carlos Gómez-Rodulfo 1961 Tradición y monarquía José María Codón Fernández 1961 Meditaciones sobre el Tradicionalismo José María Pemán 1963 El Carlismo y la Unidad Católica joint worksigned by 20-odd leaders of Comunión Tradicionalista, presumed authors are Raimundo de Miguel López and Alberto Ruiz de Galarreta 1965 Consideraciones sobre la democracíafull title Consideraciones sobre la democracia : discurso leído en el acto de su recepción Eugenio Vegas Latapié 1969 Fundamento y soluciones de la organización por cuerpos intermedios Juan Vallet de Goytisolo 1971 ¿Qué es el carlismo? joint workauthors signed are Francisco Elías de Tejada, Rafael Gambra Ciudad and Francisco Puy Muñoz, though at times Elías de Tejada is considered the key author 1977 Política española. Pasado y futuro Francisco Canals Vidal 1977 Así pensamos Frederick Wilhelmsen 1986 Los errores del cambio Gonzalo Fernández de la Mora 1996 Panorama para una reforma del estado Ignacio Hernando de Larramendi 2002 La actualidad del „Dios-Patria-Rey” Álvaro d'Ors 2008 La constitución cristiana de los estados Miguel Ayuso 2011 El estado en su laberintofull title El estado en su laberinto. Las transformaciones de la política contemporánea Miguel Ayuso 2016 Programa políticofull title Programa político. Comunión Tradicionalista Carlista. XII Congreso joint work 2019 La sociedad tradicional y sus enemigosJosé Miguel Gambra Gutiérrez, La sociedad tradicional y sus enemigos, Madrid 2019, José Miguel Gambra Gutiérrez == See also == * Carlism * Traditionalism (Catholicism) * Integrism (Spain) * Carlism in literature == Footnotes == == Further reading == * Miguel Ayuso, Historia del tradicionalismo reciente, [in:] Razón española: Revista bimestral de pensamiento 32 (1988), pp. 347–351 * Miguel Ayuso, Qué es el Carlismo. Una introducción al tradicionalismo hispánico, Buenos Aires 2005 * Jacek Bartyzel, Nic bez Boga, nic wbrew tradycji, Radzymin 2015, * Jacek Bartyzel, Tradycjonalizm, sensy terminu i kręgi odniesienia, [in:] Sensus historiae XXXIII (2018), pp. 17–31 * Jacek Bartyzel, Umierać ale powoli, Kraków 2002, * Jacek Bartyzel, Wolności konkretne i wolność chrześcijańska w hiszpańskiej myśli tradycjonalistycznej (karlistowskiej), [in:] Olgierd Górecki (ed.), Wolność człowieka i jej granice. Antologia pojęcia w doktrynach polityczno-prawnych. Od Nietzschego do współczesności, Łódź 2019, , pp. 61–82 * José María Beneyto Pérez, La época de las revoluciones y la gnosis política del tradicionalismo, [in:] José Luis Villacañas Berlanga (ed.), La filosofía del siglo XIX, Madrid 2001, , pp. 201–236 * Javier Barraycoa, Catolicismo político tradicional, liberalismo, socialismo y radicalismo en la España contemporánea, [in:] Miguel Ayuso (ed.), La res publica christiana como problema político, pp. 93–133, Madrid 2014, * Francisco Colom González, La imaginación política del tradicionalismo español, [in:] "Por Dios, por la Patria y el Rey": las ideas del carlismo, Madrid 2011, , pp. 179–198 * Melchor Ferrer, Historia del tradicionalismo español, vols. 1-30, Sevilla-Madrid 1941–1979 * Pedro Carlos González Cuevas (ed.), Historia del pensamiento político español del Renacimiento a nuestros días, Madrid 2016, * Pedro Carlos González Cuevas, Tradicionalismo, [in:] Javier Fernández Sebastián (ed.), Diccionario político y social del siglo XX español, Madrid 2008, , p. 1163-1173 * Pedro Carlos González Cuevas, El pensamiento político de la derecha española en el siglo XX, Madrid 2005, * Jorge Novella Suárez, El pensamiento reaccionario español, 1812–1975: tradición y contrarrevolución en España, Madrid 2007, * Alvaro Rodríguez Núñez, Tradicionalismo, Carlismo y Catolicismo, [in:] Razón española: Revista bimestral de pensamiento 170 (2011), pp. 311–332 * Юрий Владимирович Василенко, Генезис карлизма и проблемы типологии испанского консерватизма, [in:] Научный ежегодник Института философии и права Уральского отделения Российской академии наук 1/16 (2016), pp. 92–111 * Alexandra Wilhelmsen, La formación del pensamiento político del carlismo (1810–1875), Madrid 1998, * Alexandra Wilhelmsen, La teoría del Tradicionalismo político español (1810–1875): Realismo y Carlismo, [in:] Stanley G. Payne (ed.), Identidad y nacionalismo en la España contemporánea: el Carlismo, 1833–1975, Madrid 2001, , pp. 33–54 == External links == * website of Comunión Tradicionalista * website of Comunión Tradicionalista Carlista * Por Dios y por España; contemporary Carlist propaganda Category:Far-right politics in Spain Category:Monarchism in Spain Category:Carlism Category:Traditionalist Catholicism in Spain |
Carlos Alberto Valderrama Palacio (Colombian Spanish: ; born 2 September 1961), also known as El Pibe ("The Kid"), is a Colombian former professional footballer and sports commentator for Fútbol de Primera, who played as an attacking midfielder. Valderrama is considered by many to be one of the greatest South American players in history and one of the best players of his era.https://www.si.com/soccer/2019/07/04/50-greatest-south-american- footballers-all-timehttps://bleacherreport.com/articles/1572011-50-greatest- midfielders-in-the-history-of-world-football In 2004, he was named by Pelé in the FIFA 100 list of the world's greatest living players. A creative playmaker, he is regarded as one of the best Colombian footballers of all time, and by some as Colombia's greatest player ever. His distinctive hairstyle, as well as his precise passing and technical skills made him one of South America's most recognisable footballers in the late 1980s and early 1990s. He won the South American Footballer of the Year award in 1987 and 1993, and in 1999, he was also named one of the top 100 players of the 20th century by World Soccer. Valderrama was a member of the Colombia national football team from 1985 until 1998. He represented Colombia in 111 full internationals and scored 11 times, making him the second-most capped player in the country's history, behind only David Ospina. He played a major role during the golden era of Colombian football in the 1990s, representing his national side in three FIFA World Cups and five Copa América tournaments. After spending most of his career playing club football in South America and Europe, towards the end of his career Valderrama played in Major League Soccer, joining the league in its first season. One of the most recognisable players in the league at the time of its inception, he helped popularise the league during the second half of the 1990s. To this day, he is an icon and is considered one of the most decorated players to ever play in MLS; in 2005, he was named to the MLS All-Time Best XI.Colombians in MLS: Stability, status influence recent shift . MLSsoccer.com (8 March 2012). Retrieved on 1 September 2020.Why are so many Colombians keen to play in MLS? | Football. The Guardian. Retrieved on 1 September 2020.Raimondo, Avery. (19 October 2010) Colombia Makes An Impact On Major League Soccer. Goal.com. Retrieved on 1 September 2020.Colombian flavour on the rise in MLS. FIFA.com. 15 April 2012 ==Club career== ===Colombia and Europe=== Born in Santa Marta, Colombia, Valderrama began his career at Unión Magdalena of the Colombian First Division in 1981. He also later played for Millonarios in 1984. He joined Deportivo Cali in 1985, where he played most of his Colombian football. In 1988, he moved to the French First Division side Montpellier. He struggled to adapt to the less technical and the faster, more physical, and tactical brand of football being played in Europe, losing his place in the squad. However, his passing ability later saw him become the club's main creative force, and he played a decisive role as his side won the Coupe de France in 1990. In 1991, he remained in Europe and joined Spanish side Real Valladolid for a season. He then returned to Colombia in 1992 and went on to play for Independiente Medellín, and subsequently Atlético Junior in 1993, with whom he won the Colombian championship in 1993 and 1995.Valderrama: an artist's short spell in Montpellier. FIFA.com. 25 May 2003 ===MLS career=== Valderrama began his Major League Soccer career with the US side Tampa Bay Mutiny in the league's inaugural 1996 season. The team won the first ever Supporters' Shield, awarded for having the league's best regular season record, while Valderrama was the league's first Most Valuable Player, finishing the season with 4 goals and 17 assists. He remained with the club for the 1997 season, and also spent a spell on loan back at Deportivo Cali in Colombia, before moving to another MLS side, Miami Fusion, in 1998, where he also remained for two seasons. He returned to Tampa Bay in 2000, spending two more seasons with the club; while a member of the Mutiny, the team would sell Carlos Valderrama wigs at Tampa Stadium. In the 2000 MLS season, Valderrama recorded the only 20+ assist season in MLS history—ending the season with 26 — a single season assist record that remains intact to this day, and which MLS itself suggested was an "unbreakable" record in a 2012 article.Power 5 Unbreakable Records – Valderrama's 26 assists in 2000. MLSsoccer.com (22 June 2012). Retrieved on 1 September 2020. In 2001, Valderrama joined the Colorado Rapids, and remained with the team until 2002, when he retired; his American soccer league career spanned a total of eight years, during which he made 175 appearances. In the MLS, Valderrama scored relatively few goals (16) for a midfielder, but is the league's fourth all- time leader in assists (114) after Brad Davis (123), Steve Ralston (135) – a former teammate, and Landon Donovan (145). In 2005, he was named to the MLS All-Time Best XI.Carlos Valderrama. MLSsoccer.com. Retrieved on 1 September 2020. ==International career== Valderrama was a member of the Colombia national football team from 1985 until 1998; he made 111 international appearances, scoring 11 goals, making him the most capped outfield player in the country's history. He represented and captained his national side in the 1990, 1994, and 1998 FIFA World Cups, and also took part in the 1987, 1989, 1991, 1993, and 1995 Copa América tournaments. Valderrama made his international debut on 27 October 1985, in a 3–0 defeat to Paraguay in a 1986 World Cup qualifying match, at the age of 24. In his first major international tournament, he helped Colombia to a third-place finish at the 1987 Copa América in Argentina, as his team's captain, where he was named the tournament's best player; during the tournament he scored the opening goal in Colombia's 2–0 over Bolivia on 1 July, their first match of the group stage. thumb|Valderrama with Colombia in 1993 Some of Valderrama's most impressive international performances came during the 1990 FIFA World Cup in Italy, during which he served as Colombia's captain. He helped his team to a 2–0 win against the UAE in Colombia's opening match of the group stage, scoring the second goal of the match with a strike from 20 yards. Colombia lost their second match against Yugoslavia, however, needing at least a draw against the eventual champions West Germany in their final group match in order to advance to the next round of the competition. In the decisive game, German striker Pierre Littbarski scored what appeared to be the winning goal in the 88th minute of the game; however, within the last minute of injury time, Valderrama beat several opposing players and made a crucial left-footed pass to Freddy Rincón, who subsequently equalised, sealing a place for Colombia in the second round of the tournament with a 1–1 draw. Colombia were eliminated in the round of 16, following a 2–1 extra time loss to Cameroon.Italia 90 Mundial World Cup 1990 Germany v Colombia. YouTube (7 February 2009). Retrieved on 1 September 2020. On 5 September 1993, Valderrama contributed to Colombia's historic 5–0 victory over South American rivals Argentina at the Monumental in Buenos Aires, which allowed them to qualify for the 1994 World Cup.The day Colombia rocked the Monumental. FIFA.com. 6 September 2013 Although much was expected of Valderrama at the World Cup, an injury during a pre-tournament warm-up game put his place in the squad in jeopardy; although he was able to regain match fitness in time for the tournament, Colombia disappointed and suffered a first round elimination following defeats to Romania and the hosts USA, though it has been contributed by the internal problem and threats by cartel groups at the time. Four years later, Valderrama led his nation to qualify for the 1998 World Cup in France, scoring three goals during the qualifying stages. His impact in the final tournament at the advancing age of 37, however, was less decisive, and, despite defeating Tunisia, Colombia once again suffered a first round exit, following a 2–0 defeat against England, which was Valderrama's final international appearance. ==Playing style== Although Valderrama is often defined as a 'classic number 10 playmaker', due to his creativity and offensive contribution, in reality he was not a classic playmaker in the traditional sense. Although he often wore the number 10 shirt throughout his career and was deployed as an attacking midfielder at times, he played mostly in deeper positions in the centre of the pitch – often operating in a free role as a deep-lying playmaker, rather than in more advanced midfield positions behind the forwards – in order to have a greater influence on the game. A team-player, Valderrama was also known to be an extremely selfless midfielder, who preferred assisting his teammates over going for goal himself; his tactical intelligence, positioning, reading of the game, efficient movement, and versatile range of passing enabled him to find space for himself to distribute and receive the ball, which allowed him both to set the tempo of his team in midfield with short, first time exchanges, or create chances with long lobbed passes or through balls.Chi ha sbagliato Pagliuca?: How Maturana changed football. Chihasbagliatopagliuca.blogspot.com (4 September 1994). Retrieved on 1 September 2020.Valderrama 1990/1991 French D1 (assists) part2. YouTube (30 October 2016). Retrieved on 1 September 2020. Valderrama's most instantly recognisable physical features were his big afro-blonde hairstyle, jewelry, and moustache, but he was best known for his grace and elegance on the ball, as well as his agility, and quick feet as a footballer. His control, dribbling ability and footwork were similar to those of smaller players, which for a player of Valderrama's size and physical build was fairly uncommon, and he frequently stood out throughout his career for his ability to use his strength, balance, composure, and flamboyant technique to shield the ball from opponents when put under pressure, and retain possession in difficult situations, often with elaborate skills, which made him an extremely popular figure with the fans. Valderrama's mix of physical strength, two-footed ability, unpredictability and flair enabled him to produce key and incisive performances against top-tier teams, while his world class vision and exceptional passing and crossing ability with his right foot made him one of the best assist providers of his time; his height, physique and elevation also made him effective in the air, and he was also an accurate free kick taker and striker of the ball, despite not being a particularly prolific goalscorer. Despite his natural talent and ability as a footballer, Valderrama earned a reputation for having a "languid" playing style, as well as lacking notable pace, being unfit, and for having a poor defensive work-rate on the pitch, in particular, after succumbing to the physical effects of ageing in his later career in the MLS. In his first season in France, he also initially struggled to adapt to the faster-paced, more physical and tactically rigorous European brand of football, which saw him play in an unfamiliar position, and gave him less space and time on the ball to dictate attacking passing moves; he was criticised at times for his lack of match fitness and his low defensive contribution, which initially limited his appearances with the club, although he later successfully became a key creative player in his team's starting line-up due to his discipline, skill, and his precise and efficient passing. Despite these claims, earlier in his career, however, Valderrama demonstrated substantial pace, stamina, and defensive competence. Former French defender Laurent Blanc, who played with Valderrama in Montpellier, described him thusly: "In the fast and furious European game he wasn't always at his ease. He was a natural exponent of 'toque', keeping the ball moving. But he was so gifted that we could give him the ball when we didn't know what else to do with it knowing he wouldn't lose it... and often he would do things that most of us only dream about." ==Retirement and legacy== In February 2004, Valderrama ended his 22-year career in a tribute match at the Metropolitan stadium of Barranquilla, with some of the most important football players of South America, such as Diego Maradona, Enzo Francescoli, Iván Zamorano, and José Luis Chilavert. In 2006, a 22-foot bronze statue of Valderrama, created by Colombian artist Amilkar Ariza, was erected outside Estadio Eduardo Santos in Valderrama's birthplace of Santa Marta. Valderrama was the only Colombian to feature in FIFA's 125 Top Living Football Players list in March 2004. ===Media=== Valderrama appeared on the cover of Konami's International Superstar Soccer Pro 98. In the Nintendo 64 version of the game, he is referred to by his nickname, El Pibe. Valderrama has also appeared in EA Sports' FIFA football video game series; he was named one of the Ultimate Team Legend cards in FIFA 15.Carlos Valderrama FIFA 15 – 86 Legend – Ultimate Team FUT Stats. Futhead Besides his link to videogames, Valderrama has been present in sports media through his work with Fútbol de Primera, Andrés Cantor's radio station. He works as a color commentator during broadcasts of different matches, mostly participating during the FIFA World Cup, alongside play-by- play commentators like Sammy Sadovnik or Cantor himself. ==Coaching career== Since retiring from professional football, Valderrama has become assistant manager of Atlético Junior. On 1 November 2007, Valderrama accused a referee of corruption by waving cash in the face of Oscar Julian Ruiz when the official awarded a penalty to América de Cali. Junior lost the match 4–1, which ended the club's hopes of playoff qualification.AP (2007), Valderrama expelled from match for taunting referee with cash, USA Today, 1 November 2007, usatoday.com. Retrieved 10 July 2008. He later also served as a coach for a football academy called Clearwater Galactics in Clearwater, Florida. ==Personal life== Valderrama is married and has six children. ==Career statistics== ===Club=== Appearances and goals by club, season and competition Club Season League Cup Continental Other Total Division Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals Unión Magdalena 1981 Categoría Primera A 15 1 1 0 – – 16 1 1982 43 2 – – – 43 2 1983 36 2 – – – 36 2 Total 94 5 1 0 – – 95 5 Millonarios 1984 Categoría Primera A 33 0 – – – 33 0 Deportivo Cali 1985 48 13 – – – 48 13 1986 46 5 – 6 0 – 52 5 1987 37 4 – 6 1 – 43 5 Total 131 22 – 12 1 – 143 23 Montpellier 1988–89 Division 1 24 1 2 0 1 0 – 27 1 1989–90 18 1 5 1 – – 23 2 1990–91 35 2 2 0 4 0 – 41 2 Total 77 4 9 1 5 0 – 91 5 Real Valladolid 1991–92 La Liga 17 1 4 0 – – 21 1 Independiente Medellín 1992 Categoría Primera A 10 1 – – – 10 1 Atlético Junior 1993 35 4 – – – 35 4 1994 18 1 – 7 0 – 25 1 1995 29 0 – – – 29 0 Total 82 5 – 7 0 – 89 5 Tampa Bay Mutiny 1996 MLS 23 4 1 1 – 4 0 28 5 Deportivo Cali (loan) 1996–97 Categoría Primera A 18 4 – 3 1 – 21 5 Tampa Bay Mutiny 1997 MLS 20 3 1 0 – 2 0 23 3 Total 43 7 2 1 – 6 0 51 8 Miami Fusion 1998 MLS 18 2 1 0 – 2 0 21 2 1999 4 1 – – – 4 1 Total 22 3 1 0 – 2 0 25 3 Tampa Bay Mutiny 1999 MLS 27 3 2 0 – 2 0 31 3 2000 32 1 2 0 – 2 0 36 1 2001 12 1 1 0 – – 13 1 Total 71 5 5 0 – 4 0 80 5 Colorado Rapids 2001 MLS 12 0 – – – 12 0 2002 27 1 2 0 – 5 1 34 2 Total 39 1 2 0 – 5 1 46 2 Career total 604 58 24 2 27 2 17 1 672 63 ===International=== :Scores and results list Colombia's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Valderrama goal. List of international goals scored by Carlos Valderrama No. Date Venue Opponent Score Result Competition 1 1 July 1987 Estadio Gigante de Arroyito, Rosario, Argentina 1–0 2–0 1987 Copa América 2 30 March 1988 Estadio Centenario, Armenia, Colombia 2–0 3–0 Friendly 3 24 June 1989 Miami Orange Bowl, Miami, United States 1–0 1–0 Friendly 4 27 June 1989 3–0 4–0 Friendly 5 9 June 1990 Stadio Renato Dall'Ara, Bologna, Italy 2–0 2–0 1990 FIFA World Cup 6 22 July 1995 Estadio Domingo Burgueño, Maldonado, Uruguay 2–0 4–1 1995 Copa América 7 7 July 1996 Estadio Metropolitano Roberto Meléndez, Barranquilla, Colombia 2–0 3–1 1998 FIFA World Cup qualification 8 20 August 1997 2–0 3–0 1998 FIFA World Cup qualification 9 16 November 1997 Estadio Alberto J. Armando, Buenos Aires, Argentina 1–0 1–1 1998 FIFA World Cup qualification 10 23 May 1998 Giants Stadium, East Rutherford, United States 1–0 2–2 Friendly 11 31 May 1998 Waldstadion, Frankfurt, Germany 1–3 1–3 Friendly ==Honours== Montpellier *Coupe de France: 1990 Atletico Junior * Colombian Championship: 1993, 1995 Tampa Bay Mutiny *MLS Supporters' Shield: 1996 Individual *Copa América MVP: 1987 *South American Footballer of the Year: 1987, 1993 *South American Team of the Year: 1987, 1993, 1996 *MLS All-Star of the Year: 1996 *Major League Soccer MVP: 1996 *World Soccer's 100 Greatest Footballers of All Time: 1999 *Colombian Player of the Century: 1999 *MLS Assist leader: 2000 (26 assists – a single season record) *FIFA 100: 2004 *MLS All-Time Best XI: Midfielder *Golden Foot: 2013, as football legend ==See also== *List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps ==References== ==External links== * * International statistics at Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation * Profile at Colombia.com * Power 5 Unbreakable Records – Valderrama's 26 assists in 2000 at mlssoccer.com Category:1961 births Category:Living people Category:Footballers from Santa Marta Category:Colombian footballers Category:Men's association football midfielders Category:Categoría Primera A players Category:Ligue 1 players Category:La Liga players Category:Major League Soccer players Category:Colombian expatriate footballers Category:Expatriate footballers in France Category:Expatriate footballers in Spain Category:Expatriate soccer players in the United States Category:Colombian expatriate sportspeople in France Category:Colombian expatriate sportspeople in Spain Category:Colombian expatriate sportspeople in the United States Category:Unión Magdalena footballers Category:Millonarios F.C. players Category:Deportivo Cali footballers Category:Montpellier HSC players Category:Real Valladolid players Category:Independiente Medellín footballers Category:Atlético Junior footballers Category:Tampa Bay Mutiny players Category:Miami Fusion players Category:Colorado Rapids players Category:Colombia men's international footballers Category:1987 Copa América players Category:1989 Copa América players Category:1990 FIFA World Cup players Category:1991 Copa América players Category:1993 Copa América players Category:1994 FIFA World Cup players Category:1995 Copa América players Category:1998 FIFA World Cup players Category:FIFA Men's Century Club Category:FIFA 100 Category:South American Footballer of the Year winners Category:Major League Soccer All-Stars Category:Colombian people of African descent Category:Sportspeople from Magdalena Department |
{{Infobox settlement | official_name = Chipata | native_name = | nickname = | settlement_type = City | motto = | image_skyline = https://chipata_skyline.jpeg | imagesize = | image_caption = | image_flag = | flag_size = | image_seal = Chipata Coat of Arms.jpg | seal_size = | image_shield = | shield_size = | image_blank_emblem = | blank_emblem_type = | blank_emblem_size = | image_map = | mapsize = | map_caption = | image_map1 = | mapsize1 = | map_caption1 = | image_dot_map = | dot_mapsize = | dot_map_caption = | dot_x = | dot_y = | pushpin_map = Zambia | pushpin_label_position = left | pushpin_map_caption = Location in Zambia | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = 25px Zambia | subdivision_type1 = Province | subdivision_name1 = Eastern Province | subdivision_type2 = District | subdivision_name2 = Chipata District | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = | government_footnotes = | government_type = Local Government | leader_title = Mayor | leader_name = George Mwanza | leader_title1 = | leader_name1 = | leader_title2 = | leader_name2 = | leader_title3 = | leader_name3 = | leader_title4 = | leader_name4 = | established_title = Founded | established_date = | established_title2 = City status | established_date2 = 2017 | established_title3 = | established_date3 = | area_magnitude = | unit_pref = Imperial | area_footnotes = | area_total_km2 = | area_land_km2 = | area_water_km2 = | area_total_sq_mi = | area_land_sq_mi = | area_water_sq_mi = | area_water_percent = | area_urban_km2 = 153.94 | area_urban_sq_mi = | area_metro_km2 = | area_metro_sq_mi = | area_blank1_title = | population_as_of = 2022 | population_footnotes = | population_note = | population_total = 327,059 | population_density_km2 = 193.4 | population_density_sq_mi = | population_metro = 327,059 | population_density_metro_km2 = | population_density_metro_sq_mi = | population_urban = | population_density_urban_km2 = | population_density_urban_sq_mi = | population_blank1_title = Ethnicities | population_blank1 = | population_blank2_title = Religions | population_blank2 = | timezone = CAT | utc_offset = +2 | coordinates = | elevation_footnotes = | elevation_m = 1181 | postal_code_type = | postal_code = 51 | area_code = +260 216 | blank_name = Climate | blank_info = Aw | blank1_name = | blank1_info = | website = | footnotes = | name = Chipata }} The city of Chipata is the administrative centre of the Eastern Province of Zambia and Chipata District. It was declared the 5th city of the country, after Lusaka, Ndola, Kitwe and Livingstone, by President Edgar Lungu on 24 February 2017. The city has undergone rapid economic and infrastructure growth in the years, leading up to city status. ==Location== Chipata is located approximately east of Lusaka, the capital city of Zambia. This is about west of Lilongwe, the capital city of Malawi. The geographical coordinates of Chipata are 13°38'43.0"S, 32°38'47.0"E (Latitude:13°38'43.0"S; Longitude:32°38'47.0"E). The average elevation of Chipata is , above sea level. ==Overview== Having a modern market, a central hospital, shopping malls, a university, some colleges and a number of schools, Chipata is the business and administrative hub of the region. The town boasts a four star hotel, a golf course, an airport, and a "welcome arch". Developed areas includes Kalongwezi, Moth, and Little Bombay. Chipata is the regional head of the Ngoni of Zambia. The Ngoni adopted the languages of the tribes they conquered, so Chewa and Nsenga are the principal languages, although Tumbuka and English are widely spoken, plus some Indian languages, as a large number of Zambian Indians live in the town. It is located near the border with Malawi, and lies on the Great East Road which connects the capitals Lilongwe to the east, and Lusaka to the west. It is a popular access point for the South Luangwa National Park. == History == Chipata's name comes from the Chewa word "Chimpata" meaning "large space", in reference to the town's situation in a shallow valley between hills. The name of the central neighbourhood of Kapata, the original centre of town, comes from the Chewa word meaning "small space." Chipata was formerly known as Fort Jameson (and informally as "Fort Jimmy"), being named after Sir Leander Starr Jameson, the 19th-century British politician and adventurer. Even during the colonial period, few supported that Jameson, who is mainly known for his part in the infamous Jameson Raid, fully deserved the honour of having any town named after him. Like 'Fort Manning' and 'Fort Rosebery', Fort Jameson was called a "fort" because the local government offices, or "Boma", were once fortified. Fort Jameson was the capital of the British protectorate of North- Eastern Rhodesia between 1900 and 1911. == Government == The mayor of the city of Chipata is the head of the city government. ==Population== With a population of about 455,783 in 2010, the Chipata district is believed to be the 3rd largest district of the country. The city of Chipata had 116.600 inhabitants in 2010.Largest cities of Zambia retrieved 20 june 2019 The predominant ethnic groups in the city are the Chewa, Tumbuka, Ngoni and Nsenga. == Economy == thumb|right|Saturday Market in Chipata Chipata is the primary transport hub for trade between Zambia and Malawi. "Down Shops" is Chipata's bustling down-town area, most shops and other businesses having proprietors of Indian origin. Two notable shops are Kavulamungu Bargain Centre, and Ally & Sons. == Tourism == The Nc'wala ceremony of the Ngoni people takes place at Mutenguleni on the outskirts of Chipata. The ceremony celebrates the first fruits harvest and is usually held at the end of February. ==Hospitality== Chipata has five Hotels and several guest houses and lodges dotted across the city that meets international standards. Some of the notable places of accommodation in Chipata include Protea Hotel a three-star Hotel that has been in the city for over 10 years. Crystal Springs Hotel about 1.5km away from town centre as you go towards Malawi is another Hotel with excellent Conference Halls and Swimming pool facilities. It has been in operation for over 25 years. Nyamfinzi Hotel, Fort Jameson and Luangwa House operated by Hostels Board of Zambia. Other notable guest Houses and Lodges include; • Dean's Hillview Lodge • Eastern Comfort Lodge • Pineview Guest House • La Rochelle • Franklin Gardens • Jemita Guest House • Dredel Lodge • Travel Lodge • Golf Rest House • Chiwayu Guest House • Yanja Lodge • Mama Rula's campsite • Kigelia Campsite • Mwana Chanda Lodge • Mukels Lodge • Fort Young's Lodge • Chikhute Guest House • Wise Donkey Guest House • Roadside Guest House • Sunnyside Lodge • Katuta Lodge • Crossroads Lodges • Gloka Guest House • Calmrest Lodge • Mercury one Lodge • CTV Lodge • Streamside Guest House • Chipata Motel • VNT Motel • Tilandile Guest House • Murphy Guest House • Hom's cottage • Rombando Executive Lodge • Chansolo Lodge • Malent • Escape view Lodge • New Horizon view Lodge • Eastlands Lodge • Redmont Guest House • Chatowa Lodge • Kum'mawa Lodge == Transport == thumb|Bus and taxi stop shelter on Great East Road An extension of the Sena railway, connecting the city of Chipata to the territory of Malawi (via Mchinji) was opened in August 2011. Chipata will now act as the Zambian railhead and entry point from Malawi and beyond. In the pipeline since 1982, the short link, about , provides a through-route for rail traffic from Zambia via Malawi to the Indian Ocean deep-water port at Nacala in Mozambique. The route and alignment of the line has been laid out, including the site of Chipata station and the basic station building. The route will provide an alternative to two existing rail routes to the Indian Ocean, at Dar es Salaam and Beira. In 2015 it was proposed to build a rail link to Serenje, a small town on the TAZARA Railway line. ===Intra-city Transportation=== Residents in Chipata are serviced mainly by taxis which are mostly Toyota Corolla that transport people from one part of the city to another mostly on short distances. Another common mode of transport is the use of bicycles known as bicycle taxis. These carry passengers at relatively lower fares compared to vehicle taxi. Chipata City is known to the outside world due to its large use of bicycles. The large presence of bicycles can be attributed to the defunct Luangwa bicycle assembly plant that was located in the town back in 1990s. However bicycle taxis are slowly being phased out by motorcycles which have been mushrooming in the city at a very faster rate. Bicycles, motorcycles can take passengers almost anywhere including in places that may not be accessible by vehicles. Not only that, white Minibuses with a green ribbon(colour for Eastern province) around them locally known as "Bongo" have also been used as public transport in Chipata for almost 10 years. Bongos make up a reasonable percentage of the traffic volumes in Chipata. Bongos usually service high density residential areas by ferrying passengers from the city centre to suburbs and back. These are found in very limited streets because they mainly target residential areas with a lot of people such as Mchini, Navutika, Sido, Kapata and Magazine. Other areas are not serviced due to lack of target customers and absence of proper surfaced roads among other reasons. However lack of adherence to traffic rules by bus and taxi operators is a serious concern raised by Chipata residents. This include a large presence of unregistered, not roadworthy vehicles and motorcycles being allowed to operate on the roads and authorities have done little to enforce the law. Incidents of attacks and theft cases of motorcycles have also been reported in the recent past. ===Inter District Transportation=== Vehicle Taxis and Minibuses also take passengers to remote villages outside Chipata and other towns elsewhere in Eastern province. Transportation to Katete, Sinda, Petauke and Nyimba can be accessed at Lunkhwakwa bus station/near COMESA market. And those that go to Chadiza are based at Mbanyane Station. Transporters who go to Lundazi are found at Old welcome near Kobil Petrol station. And transportation to Mfuwe or South Luangwa is usually found at Kapata Main bus station. Transporters that go to Mwami are found at Umodzi highway front opposite Saturday Market and Gondar Barracks station is at Highway bakers bus stop. == Rivers == Chipata has four major streams pouring into the Luangwa river. The Luangwa river rises in the Lilonda and Mafinga Hills in north-east Zambia at an elevation of around 1500 meters near the border with Tanzania and Malawi, and flows in a southwesterly direction through a broad valley. The water from the streams and the Luangwa river is used for farming by the inhabitants around the district. == Soil and Vegetation == There are three main soil types namely Acrisols, Fersiallitic soils, and Lithosols. There are four vegetation types, the main one being the Brachystegia (Miombo) woodland and Munga vegetation types. == Climate == == Schools & Colleges == === Primary education === * SPS (Shakespeare private school) * Hillside Primary School * Mpezeni Primary School * Chipata Primary School * Kapata Primary School * Chongololo School * St Anne's Primary School * Trinity private School * Mem private School *Lunkwakwa Primary school *St. Betty Primary school *Munga Primary school *Mchini Primary school *Nadalisika primary school *Msekera primary school *Walela Primary school *Madaliso Primary school *Crownhill School === Secondary education === * Anoya Zulu Boys Secondary School * Chizongwe Technical Secondary School * St. Monicas Girls Secondary School * Chipata Day Secondary School * Hillside Girls High School * St. Atanazio Secondary School * St. Mary's Seminary School * Damview Secondary School * Muziphas high school *Katopola Day secondary school *Kanjala Day secondary school *St. Magrets Girls secondary school *Lutembwe Day secondary school *Mazimoyo Day Secondary school *Gondar Day secondary school === Tertiary education === * Chipata Teacher's Training College * Chipata Trades Training Institute * Chipata School of Nursing * DMI-St. Eugene University == Suburbs == * Kalongwezi * Kalongwezi Extension * Kapata * Umodzi * Moth * Muchini * Nabvutika * Little Bombay * Mchenga * Damview * Old Gym * New Gym * Chimwemwe * Magazine * Eastrise * Walela * Chawama * Munga * Chipata Motel * Nadalitsika * Katopola * Maferendum * Rose * Hillview * Gash * Msekera * Messengers *David Kaunda area *Hollywood *Kalongola site and service *Hillview *Chimzere *Gondar Barracks *Highlands *Aslot == See also == * Railway stations in Zambia * Railway stations in Malawi * Transport in Zambia * Transport in Malawi == References == == External links == * UN Map * Largest cities of Zambia Category:Populated places in Eastern Province, Zambia Category:Capitals of former nations Category:Provincial capitals in Zambia Category:Chipata District |
January 1 or 1 January is the first day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. There are 364 days remaining until the end of the year (365 in leap years). This day is also known as New Year's Day since the day marks the beginning of the year. __TOC__ ==Events== ===Pre-1600=== *153 BC - For the first time, Roman consuls begin their year in office on January 1. *45 BC - The Julian calendar takes effect as the civil calendar of the Roman Empire, establishing January 1 as the new date of the new year. *42 BC - The Roman Senate posthumously deifies Julius Caesar. * 193 - The Senate chooses Pertinax against his will to succeed Commodus as Roman emperor. *404 - Saint Telemachus tries to stop a gladiatorial fight in a Roman amphitheatre, and is stoned to death by the crowd. This act impresses the Christian Emperor Honorius, who issues a historic ban on gladiatorial fights. * 417 - Emperor Honorius forces Galla Placidia into marriage to Constantius, his famous general (magister militum) (probable). * 947 - Emperor Tai Zong of the Khitan-led Liao Dynasty captures Daliang, ending the dynasty and empire of the Later Jin. *1001 - Grand Prince Stephen I of Hungary is named the first King of Hungary by Pope Sylvester II (probable). *1068 - Romanos IV Diogenes marries Eudokia Makrembolitissa and is crowned Byzantine Emperor. *1259 - Michael VIII Palaiologos is proclaimed co-emperor of the Empire of Nicaea with his ward John IV Laskaris. *1438 - Albert II of Habsburg is crowned King of Hungary. *1500 - Portuguese explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral discovers the coast of Brazil. *1502 - The present-day location of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, is first explored by the Portuguese. *1515 - Twenty-year-old Francis, Duke of Brittany, succeeds to the French throne following the death of his father-in-law, Louis XII. *1527 - Croatian nobles elect Ferdinand I, Archduke of Austria as King of Croatia in the 1527 election in Cetin. *1600 - Scotland recognises January 1 as the start of the year, instead of March 25. ===1601–1900=== *1604 - The Masque of Indian and China Knights is performed by courtiers of James VI and I at Hampton Court.Martin Butler, The Stuart Court Masque and Political Culture (Cambridge, 2008), p. 63. *1651 - Charles II is crowned King of Scotland at Scone Palace. *1700 - Russia begins using the Anno Domini era instead of the Anno Mundi era of the Byzantine Empire. *1707 - John V is proclaimed King of Portugal and the Algarves in Lisbon. *1739 - Bouvet Island, the world's remotest island, is discovered by French explorer Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier. *1772 - The first traveler's cheques, which could be used in 90 European cities, are issued by the London Credit Exchange Company. *1773 - The hymn that became known as "Amazing Grace", then titled "1 Chronicles 17:16–17, Faith's Review and Expectation", is first used to accompany a sermon led by John Newton in the town of Olney, Buckinghamshire, England. *1776 - American Revolutionary War: Norfolk, Virginia is burned by combined Royal Navy and Continental Army action. * 1776 - General George Washington hoists the first United States flag, the Grand Union Flag, at Prospect Hill. *1781 - American Revolutionary War: One thousand five hundred soldiers of the 6th Pennsylvania Regiment under General Anthony Wayne's command rebel against the Continental Army's winter camp in Morristown, New Jersey in the Pennsylvania Line Mutiny of 1781. *1788 - The first edition of The Times of London, previously The Daily Universal Register, is published. *1801 - The legislative union of Kingdom of Great Britain and Kingdom of Ireland is completed, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland is proclaimed. * 1801 - Ceres, the largest and first known object in the Asteroid belt, is discovered by Giuseppe Piazzi. *1804 - French rule ends in Haiti. Haiti becomes the first black- majority republic and second independent country in North America after the United States. *1806 - The French Republican Calendar is abolished. *1808 - The United States bans the importation of slaves. *1810 - Major-General Lachlan Macquarie officially becomes Governor of New South Wales. *1822 - The Greek Constitution of 1822 is adopted by the First National Assembly at Epidaurus. *1834 - Most of Germany forms the Zollverein customs union, the first such union between sovereign states. *1845 - The Philippines began in sync with Asian dates by redrawing the International Date Line through skipping Tuesday, December 31, 1844. Ordered by Governor–General Narciso Claveria reforming the country calendar to align with the rest of Asia. It's territory was one day behind for 323 years since the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in the Philippines on March 16, 1521. *1847 - The world's first "Mercy" Hospital is founded in Pittsburgh, United States, by a group of Sisters of Mercy from Ireland; the name will go on to grace over 30 major hospitals throughout the world. *1860 - The first Polish stamp is issued, replacing the Russian stamps previously in use. *1861 - Liberal forces supporting Benito Juárez enter Mexico City. *1863 - American Civil War: The Emancipation Proclamation takes effect in Confederate territory. *1877 - Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom is proclaimed Empress of India. *1885 - Twenty- five nations adopt Sandford Fleming's proposal for standard time (and also, time zones). *1890 - Eritrea is consolidated into a colony by the Italian government. *1892 - Ellis Island begins processing immigrants into the United States. *1898 - New York, New York annexes land from surrounding counties, creating the City of Greater New York. The four initial boroughs, Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, and The Bronx, are joined on January 25 by Staten Island to create the modern city of five boroughs. *1899 - Spanish rule ends in Cuba. *1900 - Nigeria becomes British protectorate with Frederick Lugard as high commissioner. ===1901–present=== *1901 - The Southern Nigeria Protectorate is established within the British Empire. * 1901 - The British colonies of New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania, and Western Australia federate as the Commonwealth of Australia; Edmund Barton is appointed the first Prime Minister. *1902 - The first American college football bowl game, the Rose Bowl between Michigan and Stanford, is held in Pasadena, California. *1910 - Captain David Beatty is promoted to Rear admiral, and becomes the youngest admiral in the Royal Navy (except for Royal family members) since Horatio Nelson. *1912 - The Republic of China is established. *1914 - The SPT Airboat Line becomes the world's first scheduled airline to use a winged aircraft. *1923 - Britain's Railways are grouped into the Big Four: LNER, GWR, SR, and LMS. *1927 - A new Mexican oil legislation goes into effect, leading to the formal outbreak of the Cristero War. *1928 - Boris Bazhanov defects through Iran. He is the only assistant of Joseph Stalin's secretariat to have defected from the Eastern Bloc. *1929 - The former municipalities of Point Grey, British Columbia and South Vancouver, British Columbia are amalgamated into Vancouver. *1932 - The United States Post Office Department issues a set of 12 stamps commemorating the 200th anniversary of George Washington's birth. *1934 - Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay becomes a United States federal prison. * 1934 - A "Law for the Prevention of Genetically Diseased Offspring" comes into effect in Nazi Germany. *1942 - The Declaration by United Nations is signed by twenty-six nations. *1945 - World War II: The German Luftwaffe launches Operation Bodenplatte, a massive, but failed, attempt to knock out Allied air power in northern Europe in a single blow. *1947 - Cold War: The American and British occupation zones in Allied-occupied Germany, after World War II, merge to form the Bizone, which later (with the French zone) became part of West Germany. * 1947 - The Canadian Citizenship Act 1946 comes into effect, converting British subjects into Canadian citizens. Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King becomes the first Canadian citizen. *1948 - The British railway network is nationalized to form British Railways. *1949 - United Nations cease-fire takes effect in Kashmir from one minute before midnight. War between India and Pakistan stops accordingly. *1956 - Sudan achieves independence from Egypt and the United Kingdom. *1957 - George Town, Penang, is made a city by a royal charter of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. * 1957 - Lèse majesté in Thailand is strengthened to include "insult" and changed to a crime against national security, after the Thai criminal code of 1956 went into effect. *1958 - The European Economic Community is established. *1959 - Cuban Revolution: Fulgencio Batista, dictator of Cuba, is overthrown by Fidel Castro's forces. *1960 - Cameroon achieves independence from France and the United Kingdom. *1962 - Western Samoa achieves independence from New Zealand; its name is changed to the Independent State of Western Samoa. *1964 - The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland is divided into the independent republics of Zambia and Malawi, and the British-controlled Rhodesia. *1965 - The People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan is founded in Kabul, Afghanistan. *1970 - The defined beginning of Unix time, at 00:00:00. *1971 - Cigarette advertisements are banned on American television. *1973 - Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom are admitted into the European Economic Community. *1976 - A bomb explodes on board Middle East Airlines Flight 438 over Qaisumah, Saudi Arabia, killing all 81 people on board. *1978 - Air India Flight 855, a Boeing 747, crashes into the Arabian Sea off the coast of Bombay, India, due to instrument failure, spatial disorientation, and pilot error, killing all 213 people on board. *1979 - Normal diplomatic relations are established between the People's Republic of China and the United States. *1981 - Greece is admitted into the European Community. *1982 - Peruvian Javier Pérez de Cuéllar becomes the first Latin American to hold the title of Secretary-General of the United Nations. *1983 - The ARPANET officially changes to using TCP/IP, the Internet Protocol, effectively creating the Internet. *1984 - The original American Telephone & Telegraph Company is divested of its 22 Bell System companies as a result of the settlement of the 1974 United States Department of Justice antitrust suit against AT&T.; * 1984 - Brunei becomes independent of the United Kingdom. *1985 - The first British mobile phone call is made by Michael Harrison to his father Sir Ernest Harrison, chairman of Vodafone. *1987 - The Isleta Pueblo tribe elect Verna Williamson to be their first female governor. *1988 - The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America comes into existence, creating the largest Lutheran denomination in the United States. *1989 - The Montreal Protocol comes into force, stopping the use of chemicals contributing to ozone depletion. *1990 - David Dinkins is sworn in as New York City's first black mayor. *1993 - Dissolution of Czechoslovakia: Czechoslovakia is divided into the Czech Republic and Slovak Republic. *1994 - The Zapatista Army of National Liberation initiates twelve days of armed conflict in the Mexican state of Chiapas. * 1994 - The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) comes into effect. *1995 - The World Trade Organization comes into being. * 1995 - The Draupner wave in the North Sea in Norway is detected, confirming the existence of freak waves. * 1995 - Austria, Finland and Sweden join the EU. *1998 - Following a currency reform, Russia begins to circulate new rubles to stem inflation and promote confidence. * 1998 – Argentinian physicist Juan Maldacena published a landmark paper initiating the study of AdS/CFT correspondence, which links string theory and quantum gravity. *1999 - Euro currency is introduced in 11 member nations of the European Union (with the exception of the United Kingdom, Denmark, Greece and Sweden). *2001 – Greece adopts the Euro *2004 - In a vote of confidence, General Pervez Musharraf wins 658 out of 1,170 votes in the Electoral College of Pakistan, and according to Article 41(8) of the Constitution of Pakistan, is "deemed to be elected" to the office of President until October 2007. *2007 - Bulgaria and Romania join the EU.Enlargement, 3 years after , Europa (web portal) * 2007 - Adam Air Flight 574 breaks apart in mid-air and crashes near the Makassar Strait, Indonesia, killing all 102 people on board. *2009 - Sixty-six people die in a nightclub fire in Bangkok, Thailand. *2010 - A suicide car bomber detonates at a volleyball tournament in Lakki Marwat, Pakistan, killing 105 and injuring 100 more. *2011 - A bomb explodes as Coptic Christians in Alexandria, Egypt, leave a new year service, killing 23 people. * 2011 - Estonia officially adopts the Euro currency and becomes the 17th Eurozone country. *2013 - At least 60 people are killed and 200 injured in a stampede after celebrations at Félix Houphouët-Boigny Stadium in Abidjan, Ivory Coast. *2015 - The Eurasian Economic Union comes into effect, creating a political and economic union between Russia, Belarus, Armenia, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. *2017 - An attack on a nightclub in Istanbul, Turkey, during New Year's celebrations, kills at least 39 people and injures more than 60 others. *2023 - Croatia officially adopts the Euro, becoming the 20th Eurozone country, and becomes the 27th member of the Schengen Area. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== * 766 - Ali al-Ridha (d. 818) 8th Imam of Twelver Shia Islam *1431 - Pope Alexander VI (d. 1503) *1449 - Lorenzo de' Medici, Italian politician (d. 1492) *1467 - Sigismund I the Old, Polish king (d. 1548) *1484 - Huldrych Zwingli, Swiss pastor and theologian (d. 1531) *1511 - Henry, Duke of Cornwall, first-born child of Henry VIII of England (d. 1511) *1557 - Stephen Bocskay, Prince of Transylvania (d. 1606) *1600 - Friedrich Spanheim, Dutch theologian and academic (d. 1649) ===1601–1900=== *1628 - Christoph Bernhard, German composer and theorist (d. 1692) *1655 - Christian Thomasius, German jurist and philosopher (d. 1728) *1684 - Arnold Drakenborch, Dutch scholar and author (d. 1748) *1704 - Soame Jenyns, English author, poet, and politician (d. 1787) *1711 - Baron Franz von der Trenck, Austrian soldier (d. 1749) *1714 - Giovanni Battista Mancini, Italian soprano and author (d. 1800) * 1714 - Kristijonas Donelaitis, Lithuanian pastor and poet (d. 1780) *1735 - Paul Revere, American silversmith and engraver (d. 1818) *1745 - Anthony Wayne, American general and politician (d. 1796) *1752 - Betsy Ross, American seamstress, sewed flags for the Pennsylvania Navy during the Revolutionary War (d. 1836) *1768 - Maria Edgeworth, Anglo-Irish author (d. 1849) *1769 - Marie- Louise Lachapelle, French obstetrician (d. 1821) *1774 - André Marie Constant Duméril, French zoologist and academic (d. 1860) *1779 - William Clowes, English publisher (d. 1847) *1803 - Edward Dickinson, American politician and father of poet Emily Dickinson (d. 1874) *1806 - Lionel Kieseritzky, Estonian- French chess player (d. 1853) *1809 - Achille Guenée, French lawyer and entomologist (d. 1880) *1813 - George Bliss, American politician (d. 1868) *1814 - Hong Xiuquan, Chinese rebellion leader and king (d. 1864) *1818 - William Gamble, Irish-born American general (d. 1866) *1819 - Arthur Hugh Clough, English-Italian poet and academic (d. 1861) * 1819 - George Foster Shepley, American general (d. 1878) *1823 - Sándor Petőfi, Hungarian poet and activist (d. 1849) *1833 - Robert Lawson, Scottish-New Zealand architect, designed the Otago Boys' High School and Knox Church (d. 1902) *1834 - Ludovic Halévy, French author and playwright (d. 1908) *1839 - Ouida, English-Italian author and activist (d. 1908) *1848 - John W. Goff, Irish-American lawyer and politician (d. 1924) *1852 - Eugène-Anatole Demarçay, French chemist and academic (d. 1904) *1854 - James George Frazer, Scottish anthropologist and academic (d. 1941) * 1854 - Thomas Waddell, Irish-Australian politician, 15th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1940) *1857 - Tim Keefe, American baseball player (d. 1933) *1858 - Heinrich Rauchinger, Kraków-born painter (d. 1942) *1859 - Michael Joseph Owens, American inventor (d. 1923) * 1859 - Thibaw Min, Burmese king (d. 1916) *1860 - Michele Lega, Italian cardinal (d. 1935) *1863 - Pierre de Coubertin, French historian and educator, founded the International Olympic Committee (d. 1937) *1864 - Alfred Stieglitz, American photographer and curator (d. 1946) * 1864 - Qi Baishi, Chinese painter (d. 1957) *1867 - Mary Acworth Evershed, English astronomer and scholar (d. 1949) *1874 - Frank Knox, American publisher and politician, 46th United States Secretary of the Navy (d. 1944) * 1874 - Gustave Whitehead, German-American pilot and engineer (d. 1927) *1877 - Alexander von Staël-Holstein, German sinologist and orientalist (d. 1937) *1878 - Agner Krarup Erlang, Danish mathematician, statistician, and engineer (d. 1929) *1879 - E. M. Forster, English author and playwright (d. 1970) * 1879 - William Fox, Hungarian- American screenwriter and producer, founded the Fox Film Corporation and Fox Theatres (d. 1952) *1883 - William J. Donovan, American general, lawyer, and politician (d. 1959) *1884 - Chikuhei Nakajima, Japanese lieutenant, engineer, and politician, founded Nakajima Aircraft Company (d. 1949) *1887 - Wilhelm Canaris, German admiral (d. 1945) *1888 - Georgios Stanotas, Greek general (d. 1965) * 1888 - John Garand, Canadian-American engineer, designed the M1 Garand rifle (d. 1974) *1889 - Charles Bickford, American actor (d. 1967) *1890 - Anton Melik, Slovenian geographer and academic (d. 1966) *1891 - Sampurnanand, Indian educator and politician, 3rd Governor of Rajasthan (d. 1969) *1892 - Mahadev Desai, Indian author and activist (d. 1942) * 1892 - Artur Rodziński, Polish-American conductor (d. 1958) * 1892 - Manuel Roxas, Filipino lawyer and politician, 5th President of the Philippines (d. 1948) *1893 - Mordechai Frizis, Greek colonel (d. 1940) *1894 - Satyendra Nath Bose, Indian physicist and mathematician (d. 1974) * 1894 - Edward Joseph Hunkeler, American clergyman (d. 1970) *1895 - J. Edgar Hoover, American law enforcement official; 1st Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (d. 1972) *1900 - Chiune Sugihara, Japanese soldier and diplomat (d. 1986) * 1900 - Xavier Cugat, Spanish-American singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1990) ===1901–present=== *1902 - Buster Nupen, Norwegian-South African cricketer and lawyer (d. 1977) * 1902 - Hans von Dohnányi, German jurist and political dissident (d. 1945) *1904 - Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry, Pakistani lawyer and politician, 5th President of Pakistan (d. 1982) *1905 - Stanisław Mazur, Ukrainian-Polish mathematician and theorist (d. 1981) *1906 - Manuel Silos, Filipino filmmaker and actor (d. 1988) *1907 - Kinue Hitomi, Japanese sprinter and long jumper (d. 1931) *1909 - Dana Andrews, American actor (d. 1992) * 1909 - Stepan Bandera, Ukrainian soldier and politician (d. 1959) *1911 - Audrey Wurdemann, American poet and author (d. 1960) * 1911 - Basil Dearden, English director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1971) * 1911 - Hank Greenberg, American baseball player (d. 1986) * 1911 - Roman Totenberg, Polish-American violinist and educator (d. 2012) *1912 - Boris Vladimirovich Gnedenko, Russian mathematician and historian (d. 1995) * 1912 - Kim Philby, British spy (d. 1988) * 1912 - Nikiforos Vrettakos, Greek poet and academic (d. 1991) *1914 - Noor Inayat Khan, British SOE agent (d. 1944) *1917 - Shannon Bolin, American actress and singer (d. 2016) *1918 - Patrick Anthony Porteous, Scottish colonel, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 2000) * 1918 - Willy den Ouden, Dutch swimmer (d. 1997) *1919 - Rocky Graziano, American boxer and actor (d. 1990) * 1919 - Carole Landis, American actress (d. 1948) * 1919 - Sheila Mercier, British actress, Emmerdale Farm (d. 2019) * 1919 - J. D. Salinger, American soldier and author (d. 2010) *1920 - Osvaldo Cavandoli, Italian cartoonist (d. 2007) *1921 - Ismail al-Faruqi, Palestinian-American philosopher and academic (d. 1986) * 1921 - César Baldaccini, French sculptor and academic (d. 1998) * 1921 - Regina Bianchi, Italian actress (d. 2013) *1922 - Ernest Hollings, American soldier and politician, 106th Governor of South Carolina (d. 2019) *1923 - Valentina Cortese, Italian actress (d. 2019) * 1923 - Milt Jackson, American jazz vibraphonist and composer (d. 1999) *1924 - Francisco Macías Nguema, Equatorial Guinean politician, 1st President of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea (d. 1979) *1925 - Matthew Beard, American child actor (d. 1981) * 1925 - Paul Bomani, Tanzanian politician and diplomat, 1st Tanzanian Minister of Finance (d. 2005) *1926 - Kazys Petkevičius, Lithuanian basketball player and coach (d. 2008) *1927 - Maurice Béjart, French-Swiss dancer, choreographer, and director (d. 2007) * 1927 - James Reeb, American clergyman and political activist (d. 1965) * 1927 - Vernon L. Smith, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate * 1927 - Doak Walker, American football player and businessman (d. 1998) *1928 - Ernest Tidyman, American author and screenwriter (d. 1984) * 1928 - Gerhard Weinberg, German-American historian, author, and academic *1929 - Larry L. King, American journalist, author, and playwright (d. 2012) *1930 - Frederick Wiseman, American director and producer *1932 - Giuseppe Patanè, Italian conductor (d. 1989) *1933 - James Hormel, American philanthropist and diplomat (d. 2021) * 1933 - Joe Orton, English dramatist (d. 1967) *1934 - Alan Berg, American lawyer and radio host (d. 1984) * 1934 - Lakhdar Brahimi, Algerian politician, Algerian Minister of Foreign Affairs *1935 - Om Prakash Chautala, Indian politician *1936 - James Sinegal, American businessman, co-founded Costco *1938 - Frank Langella, American actor *1939 - Michèle Mercier, French actress * 1939 - Phil Read, English motorcycle racer and businessman * 1939 - Senfronia Thompson, American politician * 1939 - Younoussi Touré, Malian politician, Prime Minister of Mali"Assemblée nationale: aux commandes ...", L'Essor, number 16,042, 28 September 2007 . *1942 - Dennis Archer, American lawyer and politician, 67th Mayor of Detroit * 1942 - Anthony Hamilton-Smith, 3rd Baron Colwyn, English dentist and politician * 1942 - Country Joe McDonald, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1942 - Alassane Ouattara, Ivorian economist and politician, President of the Ivory Coast * 1942 - Gennadi Sarafanov, Russian pilot and cosmonaut (d. 2005) *1943 - Don Novello, American comedian, screenwriter and producer * 1943 - Tony Knowles, American soldier and politician, 7th Governor of Alaska * 1943 - Vladimir Šeks, Croatian lawyer and politician, 16th Speaker of the Croatian Parliament *1944 - Omar al-Bashir, Sudanese field marshal and politician, 7th President of Sudan * 1944 - Barry Beath, Australian rugby league player * 1944 - Zafarullah Khan Jamali, Pakistani field hockey player and politician, 13th Prime Minister of Pakistan (d.2020) * 1944 - Teresa Torańska, Polish journalist and author (d. 2013) * 1944 - Mati Unt, Estonian author, playwright, and director (d. 2005) *1945 - Jacky Ickx, Belgian racing driver * 1945 - Victor Ashe, American politician and former United States Ambassador to Poland *1946 - Claude Steele, American social psychologist and academic * 1946 - Rivellino, Brazilian footballer and manager *1947 - Jon Corzine, American sergeant and politician, 54th Governor of New Jersey *1948 - Devlet Bahçeli, Turkish economist, academic, and politician, 57th Deputy Prime Minister of Turkey * 1948 - Dick Quax, New Zealand runner and politician (d. 2018) * 1948 - Pavel Grachev, Russian general and politician, 1st Russian Minister of Defence (d. 2012) *1949 - Borys Tarasyuk, Ukrainian politician and diplomat *1950 - Wayne Bennett, Australian rugby league player and coach * 1950 - Tony Currie, English footballer *1952 - Shaji N. Karun, Indian director and cinematographer *1953 - Gary Johnson, American businessman and politician, 29th Governor of New Mexico *1954 - Bob Menendez, American lawyer and politician * 1954 - Dennis O'Driscoll, Irish poet and critic (d. 2012) * 1954 - Yannis Papathanasiou, Greek engineer and politician, Greek Minister of Finance *1955 - LaMarr Hoyt, American baseball player (d. 2021) * 1955 - Mary Beard, English classicist, academic and presenter *1956 - Sergei Avdeyev, Russian engineer and astronaut * 1956 - Royce Ayliffe, Australian rugby league player * 1956 - Christine Lagarde, French lawyer and politician; Managing Director, International Monetary Fund * 1956 - Martin Plaza, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist *1957 - Evangelos Venizelos, Greek lawyer and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Greece *1958 - Grandmaster Flash, Barbadian rapper and DJ *1959 - Abdul Ahad Mohmand, Afghan colonel, pilot, and astronaut * 1959 - Azali Assoumani, Comorian colonel and politician, President of the Comoros * 1959 - Panagiotis Giannakis, Greek basketball player and coach *1961 - Sam Backo, Australian rugby league player *1962 - Anton Muscatelli, Italian- Scottish economist and academic *1963 - Jean-Marc Gounon, French racing driver *1964 - Dedee Pfeiffer, American actress *1966 - Anna Burke, Australian businesswoman and politician, 28th Speaker of the Australian House of Representatives * 1966 - Ivica Dačić, Serbian journalist and politician, 95th Prime Minister of Serbia * 1966 - Tihomir Orešković, Croatian–Canadian businessman, 11th Prime Minister of Croatia *1967 - Tawera Nikau, New Zealand rugby league player *1968 - Davor Šuker, Croatian footballer *1969 - Morris Chestnut, American actor * 1969 - Verne Troyer, American actor (d. 2018) *1970 - Sergei Kiriakov, Russian footballer and coach *1971 - Bobby Holík, Czech- American ice hockey player and coach * 1971 - Jyotiraditya Madhavrao Scindia, Indian politician * 1971 - Sammie Henson, American wrestler and coach *1972 - Lilian Thuram, French footballer *1974 - Christian Paradis, Canadian lawyer and politician, 9th Canadian Minister of Industry *1975 - Chris Anstey, Australian basketball player and coach * 1975 - Joe Cannon, American soccer player and sportscaster * 1975 - Becky Kellar-Duke, Canadian ice hockey player * 1975 - Fernando Tatís, Dominican baseball player *1979 - Vidya Balan, Indian actress *1981 - Zsolt Baumgartner, Hungarian racing driver * 1981 - Mladen Petrić, Croatian footballer *1982 - David Nalbandian, Argentinian tennis player * 1982 - Egidio Arévalo Ríos, Uruguayan footballer *1983 - Melaine Walker, Jamaican hurdler * 1983 - Park Sung-hyun, South Korean archer * 1983 - Calum Davenport, English footballer *1984 - Paolo Guerrero, Peruvian footballer * 1984 - Michael Witt, Australian rugby league player *1985 - Steven Davis, Northern Irish footballer * 1985 - Tiago Splitter, Brazilian basketball player *1986 - Pablo Cuevas, Uruguayan tennis player * 1986 - Ramses Barden, American football player * 1986 - Glen Davis, American Basketball player * 1986 - Colin Morgan, Northern Irish actor *1987 - Meryl Davis, American ice dancer * 1987 - Patric Hörnqvist, Swedish ice hockey player *1988 - Marcel Gecov, Czech footballer * 1988 - Dallas Keuchel, American baseball player *1989 - Jason Pierre-Paul, American football player *1990 - Julia Glushko, Israeli tennis player"Julia Glushko," wtatennis.com. *1991 - Darius Slay, American football player *1991 - Xavier Su'a-Filo, American football player *1992 - Nathaniel Peteru, New Zealand rugby league player *1994 - Brendan Elliot, Australian rugby league player *1995 - Poppy, American singer and YouTube personality *1997 - Keegan Hipgrave, Australian rugby league player *1998 - Cristina Bucșa, Moldovan-Spanish tennis player *2000 - Ice Spice, American rapper *2001 - Angourie Rice, Australian actress *2003 - Daria Trubnikova, Russian rhythmic gymnast ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== *138 - Lucius Aelius, adopted son and intended successor of Hadrian (b. 101) *404 - Telemachus, Christian monk and martyr * 898 - Odo I, Frankish king (b. 860) * 951 - Ramiro II, king of León and Galicia *1031 - William of Volpiano, Italian abbot (b. 962) *1189 - Henry of Marcy, Cistercian abbot (b. c. 1136) *1204 - Haakon III, king of Norway (b. 1182) *1387 - Charles II, king of Navarre (b. 1332) *1496 - Charles d'Orléans, count of Angoulême (b. 1459) *1515 - Louis XII, king of France (b. 1462) *1559 - Christian III, king of Denmark (b. 1503) *1560 - Joachim du Bellay, French poet and critic (b. 1522) ===1601–1900=== *1617 - Hendrik Goltzius, Dutch painter and illustrator (b. 1558) *1697 - Filippo Baldinucci, Florentine historian and author (b. 1625) *1716 - William Wycherley, English playwright and poet (b. 1641) *1748 - Johann Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician and academic (b. 1667) *1780 - Johann Ludwig Krebs, German organist and composer (b. 1713) *1782 - Johann Christian Bach, German composer (b. 1735) *1789 - Fletcher Norton, 1st Baron Grantley, English lawyer and politician, British Speaker of the House of Commons (b. 1716) *1793 - Francesco Guardi, Italian painter and educator (b. 1712) *1817 - Martin Heinrich Klaproth, German chemist and academic (b. 1743) *1846 - John Torrington, English sailor and explorer (b. 1825) *1853 - Gregory Blaxland, Australian farmer and explorer (b. 1778) *1862 - Mikhail Ostrogradsky, Ukrainian mathematician and physicist (b. 1801) *1881 - Louis Auguste Blanqui, French activist (b. 1805) *1892 - Roswell B. Mason, American lawyer and politician, 25th Mayor of Chicago (b. 1805) *1894 - Heinrich Hertz, German physicist and academic (b. 1857) *1896 - Alfred Ely Beach, American publisher and lawyer, created the Beach Pneumatic Transit (b. 1826) ===1901–present=== *1906 - Hugh Nelson, Scottish-Australian farmer and politician, 11th Premier of Queensland (b. 1833) *1918 - William Wilfred Campbell, Canadian poet and author (b. 1858) *1921 - Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg, German lawyer and politician, 5th Chancellor of Germany (b. 1856) *1929 - Mustafa Necati, Turkish civil servant and politician, Turkish Minister of Environment and Urban Planning (b. 1894)Mustafa Necati page Accessed 2 March 2019 *1931 - Martinus Beijerinck, Dutch microbiologist and botanist (b. 1851) *1937 - Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati, Indian religious leader, founded the Gaudiya Math (b. 1874) *1940 - Panuganti Lakshminarasimha Rao, Indian author and educator (b. 1865) *1943 - Jenő Rejtő, Hungarian journalist *1944 - Edwin Lutyens, English architect, designed the Castle Drogo and Thiepval Memorial (b. 1869) * 1944 - Charles Turner, Australian cricketer (b. 1862) *1953 - Hank Williams, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1923) *1954 - Duff Cooper, English politician and diplomat, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (b. 1890) * 1954 - Leonard Bacon, American poet and critic (b. 1887) *1955 - Arthur C. Parker, American archaeologist and historian (b. 1881) *1960 - Margaret Sullavan, American actress (b. 1909) *1966 - Vincent Auriol, French journalist and politician, 16th President of the French Republic (b. 1884) *1969 - Barton MacLane, American actor, playwright and screenwriter (b. 1902) *1971 - Amphilochius of Pochayiv, Ukrainian saint (b. 1894) *1972 - Maurice Chevalier, French actor and singer (b. 1888) *1978 - Carle Hessay, German- Canadian painter (b. 1911) *1980 - Pietro Nenni, Italian journalist and politician, Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1891) *1981 - Hephzibah Menuhin, American-Australian pianist (b. 1920) *1982 - Victor Buono, American actor (b. 1938) *1984 - Alexis Korner, French-English singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1928) *1992 - Grace Hopper, American computer scientist and admiral, co-developed COBOL (b. 1906) *1994 - Arthur Porritt, Baron Porritt, New Zealand physician and politician, 11th Governor-General of New Zealand (b. 1900) * 1994 - Cesar Romero, American actor (b. 1907) * 1994 - Edward Arthur Thompson, Irish historian and academic (b. 1914) *1995 - Eugene Wigner, Hungarian-American physicist and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1902) *1996 - Arleigh Burke, American admiral (b. 1901) * 1996 - Arthur Rudolph, German-American engineer (b. 1906) *1997 - Townes Van Zandt, American singer- songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1944)Kruth, J. (2007) "To Live's to Fly: The Ballad of the Late, Great Townes Van Zandt". *1998 - Helen Wills, American tennis player and coach (b. 1905) *2001 - Ray Walston, American actor (b. 1914) *2002 - Julia Phillips, American film producer and author (b. 1944) *2003 - Joe Foss, American soldier, pilot, and politician, 20th Governor of South Dakota (b. 1915) *2005 - Shirley Chisholm, American educator and politician (b. 1924) *2006 - Harry Magdoff, American economist and journalist (b. 1913) *2007 - Roland Levinsky, South African-English biochemist and academic (b. 1943) * 2007 - Tillie Olsen, American short story writer (b. 1912) *2008 - Pratap Chandra Chunder, Indian educator and politician (b. 1919) *2009 - Claiborne Pell, American politician (b. 1918) *2010 - Lhasa de Sela, American-Mexican singer-songwriter (b. 1972) *2012 - Kiro Gligorov, Bulgarian- Macedonian lawyer and politician, 1st President of the Republic of Macedonia (b. 1917) * 2012 - Nay Win Maung, Burmese physician, businessman, and activist (b. 1962) * 2012 - Tommy Mont, American football player and coach (b. 1922) *2013 - Christopher Martin-Jenkins, English journalist (b. 1945) * 2013 - Patti Page, American singer and actress (b. 1927) *2014 - Higashifushimi Kunihide, Japanese monk and educator (b. 1910) * 2014 - William Mgimwa, Tanzanian banker and politician, 13th Tanzanian Minister of Finance (b. 1950) * 2014 - Juanita Moore, American actress (b. 1914) *2015 - Mario Cuomo, American lawyer and politician, 52nd Governor of New York (b. 1932) * 2015 - Donna Douglas, American actress (b. 1932) * 2015 - Omar Karami, Lebanese lawyer and politician, 58th Prime Minister of Lebanon (b. 1934) * 2015 - Boris Morukov, Russian physician and astronaut (b. 1950) *2016 - Fazu Aliyeva, Russian poet and journalist (b. 1932) * 2016 - Dale Bumpers, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 38th Governor of Arkansas (b. 1925) * 2016 - Vilmos Zsigmond, Hungarian-American cinematographer and producer (b. 1930) *2017 - Tony Atkinson, British economist (b. 1944) * 2017 - Yvon Dupuis, Canadian politician (b. 1926) * 2017 - Derek Parfit, British philosopher (b. 1942) *2018 - Robert Mann, American violinist (b. 1920) *2019 - Paul Neville, Australian politician (b. 1940)Reid, Emma (1 January 2019) Tributes flow for former MP Paul Neville, NewsMail. Retrieved 3 March 2020. * 2019 - Pegi Young, American singer, songwriter, environmentalist, educator and philanthropist (b. 1952) * 2019 - George, last known Achatinella apexfulva (b. )Ed Yong (2019) "The Last of Its Kind" The Atlantic, July 2019. Accessed June 26, 2023. *2020 - Alexander Frater, British travel writer and journalist (b. 1937) * 2020 - Barry McDonald, Australian rugby union player (b. 1940) * 2020 - David Stern, American lawyer and businessman (b. 1942) *2021 - Carlos do Carmo, Portuguese fado singer (b. 1939) * 2021 - Elmira Minita Gordon, Belizean educator and psychologist (b. 1930) *2022 - Dan Reeves, American football player and coach (b. 1944) ==Holidays and observances== *Christian feast day: **Adalard of Corbie **Basil the Great (Eastern Orthodox Church) **Feast of the Circumcision of Christ ***Feast of the Holy Name of Jesus (Anglican Communion, Lutheran Church) ***Feast of Fools (Medieval Europe) **Fulgentius of Ruspe **Giuseppe Maria Tomasi **Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God, the Octave Day of Christmas, considered a holy day of obligation in some countries (Catholic Church); and its related observances: ***World Day of Peace **Telemachus **Zygmunt Gorazdowski **January 1 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) *Earliest day on which Handsel Monday can fall, while January 7 is the latest; celebrated on the first Monday of the year (Scotland) *Second day of Hogmanay (Scotland) December 31-January 1, in some cases until January 2. *The last day of Kwanzaa (African-Americans) *The eighth of the Twelve Days of Christmas (Western Christianity) *Constitution Day (Italy) *Dissolution of Czechoslovakia-related observances: **Day of the Establishment of the Slovak Republic (Slovakia) **Restoration Day of the Independent Czech State (Czech Republic) *Emancipation Day (United States) *Euro Day (European Union) *Flag Day (Lithuania) commemorates raising of the Lithuanian flag on Gediminas' Tower in 1919 *Founding Day (Taiwan) commemorates the establishment of the Provisional Government in Nanjing *Global Family Day *Independence Day (Brunei, Cameroon, Haiti, Sudan) *International Nepali Dhoti and Nepali Topi Day *Jump-up Day (Montserrat) *Kalpataru Day (Ramakrishna Movement) *Kamakura Ebisu, January 1–3 (Kamakura, Kanagawa, Japan) *National Bloody Mary Day (United States) *National Tree Planting Day (Tanzania) *New Year's Day (Gregorian calendar) **Japanese New Year **Novy God Day (Russia) **Sjoogwachi (Okinawa Islands) *Polar Bear Swim Day (Canada and United States) *Public Domain Day (multiple countries) *Triumph of the Revolution (Cuba) ==References== ==External links== * BBC: On This Day * * Historical Events on January 1 Category:Days of the year Category:January |
Lester Frank Ward (June 18, 1841 – April 18, 1913) was an American botanist, paleontologist, and sociologist. He served as the first president of the American Sociological Association. In service of democratic development, polymath Lester Ward was the original American leader promoting the introduction of sociology courses into American higher education. His Enlightenment belief that institution-building could be scientifically informed was attractive to democratic intellectuals during the Progressive Era. To avoid anachronism and misinterpretation, it is crucial to understand that what "scientific" means, including scientists' own science concept, has long been contested. Ward's version of social science was based in organicist Enlightenment theories of comparative knowledge for democratic development, as distinguished from the mechanist version of science associated with Spencer's version of Sociology, and which later came to dominate the Anglo-American sciences and, along with micro symbolic interactionism and ethnography, sociology in the Cold War. Ward's significance is in deploying his scientific literacy, including his grasp of geological and biological sciences, to found American Sociology in an historical-materialist paradigm that avoided Cartesian dualism and efficiently distinguished democratic-developmentalist social institutions. Ward's influence in certain circles (see: the Social Gospel) was also affected by his Enlightenment views regarding organized priesthoods, which he believed had been responsible for more evil than good throughout human history. In the democratic Enlightenment tradition, Ward emphasized the importance of macro social forces which could be guided by the cultivation and use of democratic knowledge, in order to achieve progress toward democratic human development, justice, and security, rather than allowing "evolution"--understood as institionalized, mystified social power-- to "take its own course," as proposed by elitists William Graham Sumner and Herbert Spencer. Like other sociological Enlightenment thinkers including Thomas Jefferson, Mary Wollstonecraft, Harriet Martineau, John Stuart Mill, and John Dewey, Kimmel, Michael. 2007. Classical Sociological Theory. Oxford University Press. Ward emphasized universal and comprehensive public schooling to provide the public with the knowledge a democracy needs to successfully govern itself. A collection of Ward's writings and photographs is maintained by the Special Collections Research Center of the George Washington University. The collection includes articles, diaries, correspondence, and a scrapbook. GWU's Special Collections Research Center is located in the Estelle and Melvin Gelman Library.Guide to the Lester Frank Ward Papers, 1883–1919 , Special Collections Research Center, Estelle and Melvin Gelman Library, the George Washington University ==Biography== Most, if not all of what is known about Ward's early life comes from the definitive biography, Lester F. Ward: A Personal Sketch, written by Emily Palmer Cape in 1922, where she writes in the foreword: Cape explained later in the foreword: In a footnote on pp. 5–6, Cape notes: On February 20, 1911, in replying to my asking him to write his autobiography, he says: "I don't want to write my autobiography and have it appear while I am alive. It doesn't seem the thing to do. You are the one to write my biography from all the data that I shall leave, but it will be done after I have left them." (The "data" signified the diaries. The above italics are in Dr. Ward's letter.) ===Early life=== Lester Frank Ward was born in Joliet, Illinois, the youngest of 10 children born to Justus Ward and his wife Silence Rolph Ward. Justus Ward (d. 1858) was of old New England colonial stock, but he wasn't rich, and farmed to earn a living. Silence Ward was the daughter of a clergyman; she was a talented perfectionist, educated and fond of literature. When Lester Frank was one year old, the family moved closer to Chicago, to a place called Cass, now known as Downers Grove, Illinois about twenty-three miles from Lake Michigan. The family then moved to a homestead in nearby St. Charles, Illinois where his father built a saw mill business making railroad ties. ===Early education=== Ward first attended a formal school at St. Charles, Kane County, Illinois, in 1850 when he was nine years old. He was known as Frank Ward to his classmates and friends and showed a great enthusiasm for books and learning, liberally supplementing his education with outside reading. Four years after Ward started attending school, his parents, along with Lester and an older brother, Erastus, traveled to Iowa in a covered wagon for a new life on the frontier. Four years later, in 1858, Justus Ward unexpectedly died, and the boys returned the family to the old homestead they still owned in St. Charles. Ward's estranged mother, who lived two miles away with Ward's sister, disapproved of the move, and wanted the boys to stay in Iowa to continue their father's work. The two brothers lived together for a short time in the old family homestead they dubbed "Bachelor's Hall," doing farm work to earn a living, and encouraged each other to pursue an education and abandon their father's life of physical labor. In late 1858 the two brothers moved to Pennsylvania at the invitation of Lester Frank's oldest brother Cyrenus (9 years Lester Frank's senior), who was starting a business making wagon wheel hubs and needed workers. The brothers saw this as an opportunity to move closer to civilization and to eventually attend college. The business failed, however, and Lester Frank, who still didn't have the money to attend college, found a job teaching in a small country school; in the summer months he worked as a farm laborer. He finally saved enough money to attend college and enrolled in the Susquehanna Collegiate Institute in 1860. While he was at first self-conscious about his spotty formal education and self learning, he soon found that his knowledge compared favorably to his classmates', and he was rapidly promoted. ===Marriage and Civil War service=== It was while attending the Susquehanna Collegiate Institute that he met Elizabeth "Lizzie" Carolyn Vought (some sources cite Bought) and fell deeply in love. Their "rather torrid love affair" was documented in Ward's first journal Young Ward's Diary. They married on August 13, 1862. Almost immediately afterward, Ward enlisted in the Union Army and was sent to the Civil War front where he was wounded three times. After the end of the war he successfully petitioned for work with the federal government in Washington, DC, where he and Lizzie then moved. Lizzie assisted him in editing a newsletter called "The Iconoclast," dedicated to free thinking and attacks on organized religion. She gave birth to a son, but the child died when he was less than a year old. Lizzie died in 1872. Rosamond Asenath Simons was married to Lester Frank Ward as his second wife in the year 1873. ===College=== After moving to Washington, Ward attended Columbian College, now the George Washington University, and graduating in 1869 with the degree of A.B. In 1871, after he received the degree of LL.B, he was admitted to the Bar of the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia. In 1873, he completed his A.M. degree. ===Research career and U.S. Geologic Survey=== Ward never practiced law, however, and concentrated on his work as a researcher for the federal government. At that time almost all of the basic research in such fields as geography, paleontology, archaeology and anthropology were concentrated in Washington, DC, and a job as a federal government scientist was a prestigious and influential position. In 1883 he was made Geologist of the U.S. Geological Survey. While he worked at the Geological Survey he became good friends with John Wesley Powell, the powerful and influential second director of the US Geological Survey (1881–1894) and the director of the Bureau of Ethnology at the Smithsonian Institution. 350px|right|thumb|Ward and fossil tree trunks ===Brown University Chair of Sociology=== In 1892, he was named Paleontologist for the USGS, a position he held until 1906, when he resigned to accept the chair of Sociology at Brown University. ==Works and ideas== In the early 1880s, Enlightenment, Counterenlightenment and Antienlightenment struggles continued over the extent of democratic versus elite institutions necessary and sufficient to advance justice and security. The British champion of the conservatives and businessmen was Herbert Spencer, innovating Social Darwinism to argue for social, economic, and political inequality. Spencer was opposed by the Historical materialism of Karl Marx. Ward worked for team democratic Enlightenment in the ongoing contest. He strategized to defuse mobilized conservative-liberal opposition to Marx in the United States while furthering democracy; so he deployed his scientific literacy to contribute an American version of historical-materialist Sociology. With the publication of the two- volume, 1,200-page, Dynamic Sociology: Or Applied Social Science as Based Upon Statistical Sociology and the Less Complex Sciences (1883), Lester Ward hoped to bring scientific epistemology to the struggle for democracy in the United States. For Ward science wasn't cold or impersonal; it was human-centered and results-oriented. As he put it in the Preface to Dynamic Sociology, "The real object of science is to benefit man. A science which fails to do this, however agreeable its study, is lifeless. Sociology, which of all sciences should benefit man most, is in danger of falling into the class of polite amusements, or dead sciences. It is the object of this work to point out a method by which the breath of life may be breathed into its nostrils." Spencer's twist on Darwinism argued that inequality is inevitable and proper because Nature requires social, political, and economic inequality, inegalitarian institutions and dispositions. Against such antidemocratic efforts to naturalize inequality with the end of Reconstruction and the rise of the Gilded Age, Ward argued that empirically and theoretically, poverty can be minimized or eliminated by systematic intervention. Historically and cross- culturally, humankind has not been helpless before "impersonal" forces of nature and evolution disconnected from human collective action. Whether in elite-ruled networks or through democratic relations, agential humans can and do collectively take control of their institutions and direct the development of human society. In the historical political contest with inegalitarian naturalism, Ward's classic Enlightenment approach has sometimes been labeled telesis (Also see: meliorism, sociocracy and public sociology). A Sociology which intelligently and scientifically directed the social and economic development of society should contribute knowledge to instituting a universal and comprehensive system of education, regulating competition, connecting the people on the basis of equal opportunities and cooperation, and promoting the happiness and the freedom of everyone. ==Criticism of laissez-faire== Ward is most often remembered for his relentless attack on Herbert Spencer and Spencer's theories of laissez-faire and survival of the fittest that dominated inegalitarian socio-economic thought in the United States after the American Civil War over slavery. Spencer was a leading light for conservatives and for many elites who considered themselves to be progressive for their day, while the American ruling class rejected the historical-materialist emphasis on democratic human development furthered in Marxism and the related Sociology of W.E.B. Du Bois. Ward placed himself in direct opposition to Spencer and Spencer's American disciple William Graham Sumner, who had become the most well known and widely read American Political Scientist by single-mindedly promoting the principles of laissez-faire. To quote the historian Henry Steele Commager: "Ward was the first major scholar to attack this whole system of negativist and absolutist sociology and he remains the ablest.... Before Ward could begin to formulate that science of society which he hoped would inaugurate an era of such progress as the world had not yet seen, he had to destroy the superstitions that still held domain over the mind of his generation. Of these, laissez-faire was the most stupefying, and it was on the doctrine of laissez-faire that he trained his heaviest guns. The work of demolition performed in Dynamic Sociology, Psychic Factors and Applied Sociology was thorough." ==Welfare state== Ward was a strong supporter of the concept of the welfare state, or state aid for those in need of it. He fiercely criticized those who criticized such policies as paternalistic, writing that the primary critics of state aid for the indigent were the wealthy classes who themselves lobbied for government assistance for their failing enterprises: > The charge of paternalism is chiefly made by the class that enjoys the > largest share of government protection. Those who denounce it are those who > most frequently and successfully invoke it. Nothing is more obvious today > than the signal inability of capital and private enterprise to take care of > themselves unaided by the state; and while they are incessantly denouncing > "paternalism," by which they mean the claim of the defenseless laborer and > artisan to a share in this lavish state protection, they are all the while > besieging legislatures for relief from their own incompetency, and "pleading > the baby act" through a trained body of lawyers and lobbyists. The > dispensing of national pap to this class should rather be called > "maternalism," to which a square, open, and dignified paternalism would be > infinitely preferable.Lester Frank Ward, Forum XX, 1895, quoted in Henry > Steel Commager's The American Mind: An Interpretation of American Thought > and Character Since the 1880s (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950), p. > 210. ==Female equality== Ward was a strong advocate for equal rights for women and even theorized, in a typical witty and acerbic pre-Cold War rhetorical style that can be difficult for undergraduates and antifeminists to appreciate, that women are naturally superior to men ("Our Better Halves," 1922). Ward contributed to the sociological feminist revival pioneered by Mary Wollstonecraft and Charles Fourier beginning in the 17th century. Deploying his biological expertise, Ward's take-down of patriarchal inegalitarianism and its crippling effect on both women and men's human development is consanguine with Virginia Woolf's feminist argument in Three Guineas (1938), though it can be anachronistically associated with the difference feminism of writers such as Harvard's Carol Gilligan, who have developed claims of female superiority. Ward is considered a feminist writer by contemporary historians such as Ann Taylor Allen, and a feminist Sociologist by contemporary Sociologists such as Michael Kimmel. This is a sample of the sort of confident and withering narrative style that in its deployment against patriarchal inequality can offend antifeminists: "And now from the point of view of intellectual development itself we find her side by side, and shoulder to shoulder with him furnishing, from the very outset, far back in prehistoric, presocial, and even prehuman times, the necessary complement to his otherwise one-sided, headlong, and wayward career, without which he would soon have warped and distorted the race and rendered it incapable of the very progress which he claims exclusively to inspire," Ward wrote in 1922. "And herefore again, even in the realm of intellect, where he would fain reign supreme, she has proved herself fully his equal and is entitled to her share of whatever credit attaches to human progress hereby achieved." Clifford H. Scott claims that "practically all the suffragists ignored" Ward,Clifford H. Scott, "A Naturalistic Rationale For Women's Reform: Lester Frank Ward on the Evolution of Sexual Relations," Historian (1970) 33#1 pp. 54–67 but Scott is focused on the Progressivist upper-class suffragists who were taken by the inegalitarian Social Darwinist and eugenicist ideologies of the day. Their ambition for liberation was smaller than Ward's feminism. ==Environmental policy in the US== Ward had a considerable influence on the United States' environmental policy in the late 19th and early 20th century. Ross listed Ward among the four "philosopher/scientists" that shaped American early environmental policies. (see: Ross, John R.; Man over Nature) ==White supremacy and race== Ward was a Republican Whig and supported the abolition of the American system of slavery. He enlisted in the Union Army during the Civil War and was wounded three times. However, a close reading of his Dynamic Sociology will uncover several statements that would be considered somewhat racist and ethnocentric by today's standards. There are references to the superiority of Western culture and the savagery of the American Indian and black races, made all the more jarring by the modern feel of much of the rest of the book. However, Ward lived in Washington D.C., then the center of anthropological research in the US; he was always up-to-date on the latest findings of science and in tune with the developing Zeitgeist, and by the early twentieth century, perhaps influenced by W.E.B. Du Bois and German-born Franz Boas, he began to focus more on the question of race. During this period his views on race were arguably more progressive and in tune with modern standards than any other white academic of the time. In the 1870s, as editor of the Iconoclast, he published articles by Frederick Douglas and he was involved in the founding of Howard University. Later, while Charlotte Perkins Gilman and many sociologists supported the eugenics movement, he vigorously opposed it. Later Franz Boaz perhaps even more strongly combated the theory of white supremacy. ==Organicism== Science was co-opted by the military in the Cold War US, which reduced Americans' understanding of science to positivist-mechanism, in competition with the Soviet Union's sponsorship of organicist science, as that country raced to modernize agriculture and so prioritized faster crop development.Peterson, Erik. 2016. The Life Organic. University of Pittsburgh. The legacy of this Cold War science competition, as it impacts our understanding of Ward's work, is that his historical-materialist organicism was often dismissed as Lamarckian, which was a big put-down on the American side of the Cold War. 20th century American science was not autonomous scholarship, and had to walk a line between quickly and effectively developing destructive technologies and affirming the natural inevitability of the outcomes of social inequality. Because science in the United States was directed by the military to weapons-development and "crowd" suppression, there was little tolerance for learning about how organisms respond to their environment, a research agenda that contra inegalitarian imperial capitalism, implied that not only does the human construction of environments matter, but also, and more objectionably to military and capitalist elites, that humans and other organisms suffer when their environments are constructed around the interests of a human elite. Ward's article "Neo-Darwinism and Neo-Lamarckism" shows Ward had a sophisticated understanding of this subject. He clearly described himself as being a Neo-Lamarckian, and as an Enlightenment scientist, he completely and enthusiastically accepted Darwin's findings and theories. The military domination of American science in the Cold War was an unalloyed boon to Physics and Chemistry, but it was more repressive in Biology. When the Soviet Union was folded and as the Cold War reverted to the Great Game, American geneticists were freed to recognize epigenetics, and Ward was vindicated. Ward thought that empirical evidence indicated that there had to be a mechanism that would allow environmental factors to influence evolution faster than Darwin's slow evolutionary process. The science of epigenetics suggests that Ward was correct, although hard-core inegalitarian scientists continue to ridicule Larmarkianism.cf. Brody & Body, The Science Class you Wish you Had, 1996 A study of Lester Ward and his opponents can be a study of how our understanding of science, with its modern roots in the Renaissance and revolutionary-era Western Enlightenment, has often been distorted by powerful efforts to make it serve imperial capitalist- militarism and its inegalitarian, undemocratic governance mode. In its home court of democratic knowledge development, scientific validity is a competitive alternative to elite Truth, and that is why the knowledge of democratic historical-materialists like Lester Ward stand the test of time. ==Positivism== While Durkheim is usually credited for updating Comte's positivism to modern scientific and sociological standards, Ward accomplished much the same thing 10 years earlier in the United States. However, Ward would be the last person to claim that his contributions were somehow unique or original to him. As Gillis J. Harp points out in The Positivist Republic, Comte's positivism found a fertile ground in the democratic republic of the United States, and there soon developed among the pragmatic intellectual community in New York City, which featured such thinkers as William James and Charles Sanders Peirce, as well as among federal government scientists like Ward in Washington, D.C., a consensus regarding positivism. ==Theory of war and conflict== In Pure Sociology: A Treatise on the Origin and Spontaneous Development of Society (1903) Ward theorizes that throughout human history conflict and war have been the forces that are most responsible for human progress. It was through conflict that hominids gained dominance over animals. It was through conflict and war that Homo Sapiens wiped out the less advanced hominid species, and it was through war that the more technologically advanced races and nations expanded their territory and spread civilization. Ward sees war as a natural evolutionary process and like all natural evolutionary processes war is capricious, slow, often ineffective and shows no regard for the pain inflicted on living creatures. One of the central tenets of Ward's world view is that the artificial is superior to the natural and thus one of the central goals of Applied Sociology is to replace war with a system that retains the progressive elements that war has provided but without the many miseries it inflicts. ==Influence on U.S. government policy== Ward influenced a rising generation of progressive political leaders, such as Herbert Croly. In the book Lester Ward and the Welfare State, Commager details Ward's influence and refers to him as the "father of the modern welfare state". As a political approach, Ward's system became sometimes known as social liberalism, distinguished from the classical liberalism of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries associated with such thinkers as Adam Smith and John Stuart Mill. While classical liberalism had sought prosperity and progress through laissez- faire (a "natural" state of stratified relations achieved by the restriction of state and legal patronage to elite economic interests), Ward's "American social liberalism" sought to enhance social progress through direct government "intervention" (as laissez-faire proponents see it) or state accountability to the diverse working-class, as egalitarians like Ward understand it. Like many Enlightenment and revolutionary thinkers before him (Rousseau for example), Ward believed that in large, complex and rapidly growing societies, inclusive human freedom (egaliberte) could only be achieved with the assistance of a strong democratic government acting in the balanced interests of universal individual development. The element of Ward's thinking that has most alarmed his inegalitarian and anarchist opponents was his confidence that a government, acting on the empirical findings and scientific theory of the science of Sociology, could be diverted from elite domination and patronage and harnessed instead to create democratic justice and security. Ward's work toward this end was exploded in the Cold War, when wartime collaboration with US commercial elites persisted to permit the military to harness American science (Hogan, 1998), and Sociology was rebuilt around a new quantitative positivism-mechanism and micro research and theory agendas suggested by Austro-Hungarian Empire philosopher Georg Simmel and implemented under the leadership of White Russian expat Pitirim Sorokin. Progressive thinking had a profound impact on the administrations of Presidents Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Lyndon B. Johnson and on the liberal wing of the modern Democratic Party. Ward's ideas were in the air but there are few direct links between his writings and the actual programs of the founders of the welfare state and the New Deal. ==Ward's diaries== All but the first of his voluminous diaries were reportedly destroyed by his wife after his death. Ward's first journal, Young Ward's Diary: A Human and Eager Record of the Years Between 1860 and 1870..., remains under copyright. Ward died in Washington, D.C. He is buried in Watertown, New York. ==Literature== * Becker 1975: online available in Internet Archive. * * * * * * Coser, Lewis. A History of Sociological Analysis. New York : Basic Books. * Dahms, Harry F. – 'Lester F. Ward' * Finlay, Barbara. "Lester Frank Ward as a Sociologist Of Gender: A New Look at His Sociological Work." Gender & Society, Vol. 13, No. 2, 251–265 (1999)Finlay 1999: abstract * Gossett, Thomas F. (1963) – Race: The History of an Idea in America.Gossett : new edition 1997 in Google Books. * Harp, Gillis J. Positivist Republic, Ch. 5 "Lester F. Ward: Positivist Whig" Positivist Republic: Auguste Comte and the Reconstruction of American Liberalism, 1865–1920 * Hofstadter, Richard. Social Darwinism in American Thought, Chapter 4, (original 1944, 1955. reprint Boston: Beacon Press, 1992). Social Darwinism in American Thought * Largey, Gale. Lester Ward: A Global Sociologist * Mers, Adelheid. Fusion * Perlstadt, Harry. Applied Sociology as Translational Research: A One Hundred Fifty Year Voyage * Rafferty, Edward C. 'Apostle of Human Progress. Lester Frank Ward and American Political Thought, 1841/1913. https://books.google.com/books?id=4Q_5F1gu-mMC * Ravitch, Diane. Left Back: A Century of Failed School Reforms. Simon & Schuster. "Chapter one: The Educational Ladder" https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/r/ravitch- back.html * Ross, John R. Man over Nature: the origins of the conservation movement https://journals.ku.edu/index.php/amerstud/article/view/2348/2307 * Ross, Dorthy. The Origins of American Social Science. Cambridge University Press https://books.google.com/books?id=rg4blh6xmhIC&pg;=PA85 * Seidelman, Raymond and Harpham, Edward J. Disenchanted Realists: Political Science and the American Crisis, 1884–1984. p. 26 https://books.google.com/books?id=09-ZDrzUz-gC * Wood, Clement. The Sociology Of Lester F Ward https://archive.org/details/sociologyofleste033176mbp ==Selected works== Linked here are facsimiles of original editions, which also include links to JSTOR conversions (where available), along with several alternate formats. For modernized copies in pdf format, see those under external links below, which were photocopied and proofread by Ralf Schreyer and are the best quality you can find on the internet. ===1880–1889=== * * * * * ===1890–1899=== * * (reprinted 1906) * * * * * * * * * * * * * (reprinted 1913) ===1900–1909=== * * * * (1903) "Pure Sociology: A Treatise on the Origin and Spontaneous Development of Society." (2,625 KB – PDF) * With the collaboration of William M. Fontaine, Arthur Bibbins, and G. R. Wieland * With the collaboration of William M. Fontaine, Arthur Bibbins, and G. R. Wieland * * * ===1910–1919=== * * * * * * * ==See also== * History of feminism ==References== ==Further reading== ===Primary sources=== * Commager, Henry Steele, ed., Lester Frank Ward and the Welfare State (1967), major writings by Ward, and long introduction by Commager * Stern, Bernhard J. ed. Young Ward's Diary: A Human and Eager Record of the Years Between 1860 and 1870 as They Were Lived in the Vicinity of the Little Town of Towanda, Pennsylvania; in the Field as a Rank and File Soldier in the Union Army; and Later in the Nation's Capital, by Lester Ward Who became the First Great Sociologist This Country Produced (1935) ===Secondary sources=== * Bannister, Robert. Sociology and Scientism: The American Quest for Objectivity, 1880–1940 (1987), pp. 13–31. * Burnham, John C. "Lester Frank Ward as Natural Scientist," American Quarterly 1954 6#3 pp. 259–265 in JSTOR * Chugerman, Samuel. Lester F. Ward, the American Aristotle: A Summary and Interpretation of His Sociology (Duke University Press, 1939) * Fine, Sidney. Laissez Faire and the General-Welfare State: A Study of Conflict in American Thought, 1865–1901 (1956), pp. 252–288 * Muccigrosso, Robert, ed. Research Guide to American Historical Biography (1988) 3:1570–1574 * Nelson, Alvin F. "Lester Ward's Conception of the Nature of Science," Journal of the History of Ideas (1972) 33#4 pp. 633–638 in JSTOR * Piott, Steven L. American Reformers, 1870-1920: Progressives in Word and Deed (2006); examines 12 leading activists; see chapter 1 for Ward. * Scott, Clifford H. Lester Frank Ward (1976) ==External links== ===Primary sources=== * Guide to the Lester Frank Ward Collection, 1860–1913, Brown University Library Collections * Guide to the Lester Frank Ward Papers, 1883–1919, Special Collections Research Center, Estelle and Melvin Gelman Library, the George Washington University * * ===Secondary sources=== * * The Sunday Review; Towanda, Pennsylvania * Short biography * A Lester Ward web site * Public Sociology website * Mansfield University Sociology professor Gale Largey produced a 90 minute documentary on Lester Frank Ward that was featured at the 2005 Centennial of the American Sociological Association and is available upon request from the director. * * * Category:1841 births Category:1913 deaths Category:American sociologists Category:Writers from Joliet, Illinois Category:Lamarckism Category:Presidents of the American Sociological Association Category:Male feminists Category:19th-century American writers Category:20th-century American writers Category:Brown University faculty |
Henry Stuart Hazlitt (; November 28, 1894 – July 9, 1993) was an American journalist who wrote about business and economics for such publications as The Wall Street Journal, The Nation, The American Mercury, Newsweek, and The New York Times.Doherty, B., Radicals for Capitalism: a Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement (New York: PublicAffairs, 2007), pp. 33, 91–94, 97, 123, 156, 159, 162–167, 189, 198–199, 203, 213, 231, 238 and 279; Nash, G. H., The Conservative Intellectual Movement in America Since 1945 (New York: Basic Books, 1976) pp. 418–420. == Early life and education == Henry Hazlitt was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and raised in Brooklyn, New York. He was a collateral descendant of the British essayist William Hazlitt,"Hall of Fame", Vanity Fair, February 1934, p. 37. but grew up in relative poverty, his father having died when Hazlitt was an infant. His early heroes were Herbert Spencer and William James, and his first ambition was for an academic career in psychology and philosophy. He attended New York's City College, but left after only a short time to support his twice-widowed mother.; Greaves, Bettina Bien, ; Rockwell, Llewellyn H., As he later wrote, his short time at college "had a greater influence than may at first sight be supposed, not as much from the knowledge gained there, as from the increased consciousness of the knowledge which I still had to gain and the consequent ambition to attain it." == Career == === Early accomplishments === Hazlitt started his career at The Wall Street Journal as secretary to the managing editor when he was still a teenager, and his interest in the field of economics began while working there. His studies led him to The Common Sense of Political Economy by Philip Wicksteed which, he later said, was his first "tremendous influence" in the subject. Hazlitt published his first book, Thinking as a Science at age 21.Thinking as a Science He wrote the book because he realized—through his intense process of self-education—that it was more important to think clearly than to merely absorb information. As he explains in its opening pages: === Military service === During World War I, he served in the Army Air Service. While residing in Brooklyn, he enlisted in New York City on February 11, 1918, and served with the Aviation Section of the Signal Enlisted Reserve Corps until July 9, 1918. He was then in Princeton, New Jersey, at the US School of Military Aeronautics until October 22, when he was sent to AS Camp Dick in Dallas, Texas, for a few weeks until November 7, and he was honorably discharged from service with the rank of private first class on December 12, 1918. He returned to New York, residing at Washington Square Park for many years.Greaves, Bettina Bien, === Editor and author === In the early 1920s, he was financial editor of The New York Evening Mail, and during this period, Hazlitt reported his understanding of economics was further refined by frequent discussions with former Harvard economics professor Benjamin Anderson, who was then working for Chase National Bank in Manhattan. Later, when the publisher W. W. Norton suggested he write an official biography of their author Bertrand Russell, Hazlitt spent "a good deal of time," as he described it, with the famous philosopher.Hazlitt, Henry. "Reflections at 70". Henry Hazlitt: An Appreciation. Foundation for Economic Education, 1989. (pp. 6–9) Lord Russell "so admired the young journalist's talent" that he had agreed with Norton's proposal, but the project ended after nearly two years of work when Russell declared his intention to write his own autobiography. During the interwar decades, a vibrant period in the history of American literature, Hazlitt served as literary editor of The New York Sun (1925–1929), and as literary editor of the left-leaning journal, The Nation (1930–1933). In connection with his work for The Nation, Hazlitt also edited A Practical Program for America (1932), a compilation of Great Depression policy considerations, but he was in the minority in calling for less government intervention in the economy. After a series of public debates with socialist Louis Fischer, Hazlitt and The Nation parted ways.Greaves, Bettina Bien, ; Rockwell, Llewellyn H., In 1933, Hazlitt published The Anatomy of Criticism, an extended "trialogue" examining the nature of literary criticism and appreciation, regarded by some to be an early refutation of literary deconstruction.While deconstruction per se was developed and popularized by French philosopher Jacques Derrida in the 1960s and '70s, the roots of deconstruction can be traced much earlier, e.g., to the francophone Genevan philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau in the 18th century. In the same year, he became H. L. Mencken's chosen successor as editor of the literary magazine, The American Mercury, which Mencken had founded with George Jean Nathan, as a result of which appointment Vanity Fair included Hazlitt among those hailed in its regular "Hall of Fame" photo feature. Due to increasing differences with the publisher, Alfred A. Knopf, Sr., he served in that role for only a brief time, but Mencken wrote that Hazlitt was the "only competent critic of the arts that I have heard of who was at the same time a competent economist, of practical as well as theoretical training," adding that he "is one of the few economists in human history who could really write." From 1934 to 1946, Hazlitt was the principal editorial writer on finance and economics for The New York Times, writing both a signed weekly column and most of the unsigned editorials on economics, producing a considerable volume of work. Following World War II, he came into conflict with Arthur Hays Sulzberger, publisher of The New York Times, over the newly established Bretton Woods system which created the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Hazlitt opposed the Bretton Woods agreement, primarily fearing the risk of inflation. After agreeing not to write on the topic, he looked for another venue for his work, deciding on Newsweek magazine, for which he wrote a signed column, "Business Tides", from 1946 to 1966. According to Hazlitt, the greatest influence on his writing in economics was the work of Ludwig von Mises, and he is credited with introducing the ideas of the Austrian School of economics to the English- speaking layman. In 1938, for example, he reviewed the recently published English translation of Mises's influential treatise Socialism for The New York Times, declaring it "a classic" and "the most devastating analysis of socialism yet penned."; Greaves, Bettina Bien, After the Jewish economist's emigration to the United States from National Socialist-dominated Europe in 1940, Hazlitt arranged for Mises to contribute editorials to The New York Times, and helped to secure for Mises a teaching position at New York University. Along with the efforts of his friends, Max Eastman and John Chamberlain, Hazlitt also helped introduce F. A. Hayek's The Road to Serfdom to the American reading public. His 1944 review in The New York Times caused Reader's Digest, where Eastman served as roving editor, to publish one of its trademark condensations, bringing the future Nobel laureate's work to a vast audience.Hulsmann, Jorg Guido, Mises: The Last Knight of Liberalism, 2007, Ludwig von Mises Institute, , p. xi; Ludwig von Mises Institute, Henry Hazlitt: A Giant of Liberty, pp. 20–27; Greaves, Bettina Bien, ; Henry Hazlitt: an Appreciation, Foundation for Economic Education, 1989, pp. 8–9. Author Tom Malone contends that Hazlitt distinguished himself from other economists largely by his skill as a writer:Unlike many other writers of his generation from the political right, Hazlitt never experienced a period when he was a socialist or communist, or a significant change in his classical liberal political views. He was the founding vice president of the Foundation for Economic Education, which also acquired his large personal library in the 1980s. Established by Leonard Read in 1946, FEE is considered to be the first "think tank" for free-market ideas. He was also one of the original members of the classical liberal Mont Pelerin Society in 1947.Greaves, Bettina Bien, ; Henry Hazlitt: an Appreciation, Foundation for Economic Education, 1989 With John Chamberlain (and Suzanne La Follette as managing editor), Hazlitt served as editor of the early free market publication The Freeman from 1950 to 1952, and as sole editor-in-chief from 1952 to 1953, and its contributors during his tenure there included Hayek, Mises, and Wilhelm Röpke, as well as the writers James Burnham, John Dos Passos, Max Eastman, John T. Flynn, Frank Meyer, Raymond Moley, Morrie Ryskind, and George Sokolsky.Chamberlain, John, A Life With the Printed Word, 1982, Regnery, p.138; Hamilton, Charles H., "The Freeman: the Early Years," The Freeman, Dec. 1984, vol. 34, iss. 12. Prior to his becoming editor, The Freeman had supported Senator Joseph McCarthy in his conflict with President Harry Truman on the issue of communism, "undiscriminatingly" according to some critics, but upon becoming editor, Hazlitt changed the magazine's policy to one of support for President Truman.Diggins, John P., Up From Communism, Columbia University Press, 1975, p. 217. The Freeman is widely considered to be an important forerunner to the conservative National Review, founded by William F. Buckley, Jr., which from the start included many of the same contributing editors.Chamberlain, John, A Life with the Printed Word, pp. 141, 145–146. Hazlitt himself was on the masthead of National Review, either as a contributing editor or, later, as contributor, from its inception in 1955 until his death in 1993. Differences existed between the journals: The Freeman under Hazlitt was more secular and presented a wider range of foreign policy opinion than the later National Review. Even prior to her success with The Fountainhead, the novelist Ayn Rand was a friend of both Hazlitt and his wife, Frances, and Hazlitt introduced Rand to Mises, bringing together the two figures who would become most associated with the defense of pure laissez-faire capitalism.Burns, Jennifer, Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right, 2009, Oxford University Press, pp. 141–143; cf. Branden, Barbara, The Passion of Ayn Rand, Doubleday, 1986, pp. 168–169, 181n. The two became admirers of Hazlitt and of one another.See, e.g., the first issue of Rand's Objectivist Newsletter which declared Mises "the most distinguished economist of our age" and "an intransigent advocate of freedom and capitalism" (The Objectivist Newsletter, "Review: Planned Chaos by Ludwig von Mises," vol. 1, no. 1, Jan. 1962), and the second issue which declared Hazlitt's Economics in One Lesson to be "a classic in the literature of freedom" and "the finest primer available for students of capitalism" (The Objectivist Newsletter, "Review: Economics in One Lesson by Henry Hazlitt," vol. 1, no. 2, Feb. 1962); Mises invited Rand to attend his seminar as an "honored guest" (Burns, Goddess of the Market, p. 177) and praised her novel Atlas Shrugged as "a pitiless unmasking of the insincerity of the policies adopted by governments and political parties" and "a cogent analysis of the evils that plague our society" in a letter to Rand (dated January 23, 1958, quoted in Hülsmann, Mises: The Last Knight of Liberalism, p. 996.); and see, McConnell, Scott, 100 Voices: an Oral History of Ayn Rand, "Sylvester Petro," New American Library, 2010, pp. 165–170. Hazlitt became well known both through his articles and by frequently debating prominent politicians on the radio, including: Vice President Henry A. Wallace, Secretary of State Dean Acheson, and U.S. Senators Paul Douglas and Hubert H. Humphrey, the future Vice President. In the early 1950s, he also occasionally appeared on the CBS Television current events program Longines Chronoscope, interviewing figures such as Senator Joseph McCarthy and Congressman Franklin D. Roosevelt, Jr., along with coeditor William Bradford Huie.Longines Chronoscope programs are at the Library of Congress's National Archives and Records cataloged as "Television Interviews, 1951–1955"; Longines Chronoscope (TV Series 1951–1955) – IMDb At the invitation of philosopher Sidney Hook, he was also a participating member of the American Committee for Cultural Freedom in the 1950s.Hook, Sidney, Out of Step, Carroll & Graf, 1987, chapter 26. When he finally left Newsweek in 1966, the magazine replaced Hazlitt with three university professors: "free-market monetarist Milton Friedman of the University of Chicago, middle-of-the-roader Henry Wallich of Yale, and Keynesian Paul A. Samuelson of MIT." His last published scholarly article appeared in the first volume of The Review of Austrian Economics (now, The Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics) in 1987. He was awarded an honorary doctoral degree at Universidad Francisco Marroquín in Guatemala. === Journalistic career timeline === * 1913–1916: The Wall Street Journal * 1916–1918: New York Evening Post * 1919–1920: Mechanics and Metals National Bank (monthly financial letter) * 1921–1923: New York Evening Mail (financial editor) * 1923–1924: New York Herald (editorial writer) * 1924–1925: The Sun * 1925–1929: The Sun (literary editor) * 1930–1933: The Nation (literary editor) * 1933–1934: American Mercury (editor) * 1934–1946: The New York Times (editorial staff) * 1946–1966: Newsweek (associate & columnist) * 1950–1952: The Freeman (co–editor) * 1952–1953: The Freeman (editor–in–chief) * 1966–1969: Los Angeles Times Syndicate (columnist) == Economics and philosophy == About Hazlitt, Lew Rockwell wrote: "The times call for courage. The times call for hard work. But if the demands are high, it is because the stakes are even higher. They are nothing less than the future of liberty, which means the future of civilization." Rockwell called Economics in One Lesson Hazlitt's "most enduring contribution." With a million copies sold and available in ten languages, it is considered a classic by several American conservative, free- market, and right-libertarian circles, such as at the Mises Institute. Ayn Rand called it a "magnificent job of theoretical exposition", while Congressman Ron Paul ranks it with the works of Frédéric Bastiat and Friedrich Hayek. Hayek himself praised the work, saying that "Henry Hazlitt's explanation of how a price system works is a true classic: timeless, correct, painlessly instructive." Nobel Prize laureate Milton Friedman described it as "a brilliant performance. It says precisely the things which need most saying and says them with rare courage and integrity. I know of no other modern book from which the intelligent layman can learn so much about the basic truths of economics in so short a time." In 1996, Laissez Faire Books issued a 50th anniversary edition with an introduction by publisher and presidential candidate Steve Forbes. Economist Thomas Sowell's work has been described as following in the "Bastiat-Hazlitt tradition" of economic exposition.Ebeling, Richard M., "Book Review: Basic Economics by Thomas Sowell," Freedom Daily, April 2001. Another of Hazlitt's works, The Failure of the New Economics (1959), gives a detailed, chapter-by-chapter critique of John Maynard Keynes's highly influential work The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. With reference to Keynes's book, Hazlitt paraphrased a quote attributed to Samuel Johnson, that he was "unable to find in it a single doctrine that is both true and original. What is original in the book is not true; and what is true is not original." Hazlitt also published three books on the subject of inflation, including From Bretton Woods to World Inflation (1984), and two influential works on poverty, Man vs. The Welfare State (1969), and The Conquest of Poverty (1973), thought by some to have anticipated the later work of Charles Murray in Losing Ground.Rockwell, Llewellyn H., ; Murray, Charles, Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950–1980, Basic Books, 1984, . Hazlitt's major work in philosophy, such as The Foundations of Morality (1964), a treatise on ethics defending utilitarianism, builds on the work of David Hume and John Stuart Mill. Hazlitt's 1922 work, The Way to Will-Power has been described as a defense of free will; Lew Rockwell characterized it as "a defense of individual initiative against the deterministic claims of Freudian psychoanalysis." In contrast to many other thinkers on the political right, Hazlitt was an agnostic with regard to religious beliefs.Hazlitt, Henry, "Agnosticism and Morality," The New Individualist Review, Spring, 1966. In A New Constitution Now (1942), published during Franklin D. Roosevelt's unprecedented third term as President of the United States, Hazlitt called for the replacement of the existing fixed-term presidential tenure in the United States with a more Anglo-European system of "cabinet" government, under which a head of state who had lost the confidence of the legislature or cabinet might be removed from office after a no-confidence vote in as few as 30 days. In 1951, following Roosevelt's death in 1945, the United States imposed presidential term limits. Hazlitt's 1951 novel The Great Idea, reissued in 1966 as Time Will Run Back, depicts rulers of a centrally-planned socialist dystopia discovering, amid the resulting economic chaos, the need to restore a market pricing-system, private ownership of capital goods and competitive markets. == Personal life == Henry was born to Stuart Clark and Bertha (Zauner) Hazlitt on November 28, 1894, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. They resided at 819 North Broad Street in Philadelphia. The Hazlitt family was originally from England, although his paternal grandmother was from Ireland. His maternal grandparents were German immigrants. Henry's father, a clerk, died of diabetes when Henry was only five months old. His mother, Bertha, then married Frederick E. Piebes, who was engaged in manufacturing, and they resided in Brooklyn, where Henry was raised. Henry is listed on the 1905 New York state census as Henry S. Piebes, and he is listed on Frederick's will as Henry Hazlitt Piebes, Frederick's adopted son. His stepfather died in 1907, leaving Henry to support his mother and probably leading to the ambition that enabled him to work at the Wall Street Journal while he was still a teenager. In 1929, Hazlitt married Valerie Earle, daughter of the noted photographer and Vitagraph film director William P. S. Earle. They were married by the pacifist minister John Haynes Holmes, but later divorced. In 1936, he married Frances Kanes, the author of The Concise Bible,Hazlitt, Frances Kanes, The Concise Bible, Liberty Press, 1962. with whom he later collaborated to produce an anthology of the Stoic philosophers, The Wisdom of the Stoics: Selections from Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius (1984). They were married until Frances' death in 1991. Hazlitt died at the age of 98 in Fairfield, Connecticut. At the time of his death, he resided in Wilton, Connecticut. == Legacy == Hazlitt was a prolific writer, authoring 25 works in his lifetime. In 1981, President Ronald Reagan in his speech before the Conservative Political Action Conference (or "CPAC") named Hazlitt as one of the "[i]ntellectual leaders" (along with Friedrich Hayek, Ludwig von Mises, Milton Friedman, Russell Kirk, James Burnham and Frank Meyer) who had "shaped so much of our thoughts..." Ludwig von Mises said at a dinner honoring Hazlitt: "In this age of the great struggle in favor of freedom and the social system in which men can live as free men, you are our leader. You have indefatigably fought against the step-by-step advance of the powers anxious to destroy everything that human civilization has created over a long period of centuries... You are the economic conscience of our country and of our nation." === Henry Hazlitt Foundation === From 1997 to 2002, there was an organization called The Henry Hazlitt Foundation which actively promoted libertarian networking online, especially through its website Free-Market.Net. This organization was named in honor of Hazlitt because he was known for introducing a wide range of people to libertarian ideas through his writing and for helping free-market advocates connect with each other. The foundation was started after Hazlitt's death and had no official connection with his estate. === Hazlitt Policy Center === On 1 March 2019, the Young Americans for Liberty announced the launch of the Hazlitt Policy Center "to provide YAL's elected officials with modern legislation, facts, and strategies to give them the extra muscle they need to be effective liberty legislators." == Publications == Books * Thinking as a Science, 1916 * The Way to Will-Power, 1922 * A Practical Program for America, 1932 * The Anatomy of Criticism, 1933 * Instead of Dictatorship, 1933 * A New Constitution Now, 1942 * Freedom in America: The Freeman (with Virgil Jordan), 1945 * The Full Employment Bill: An Analysis, 1945 * Economics in One Lesson, 1946 * Will Dollars Save the World?, 1947 * Forum: Do Current Events Indicate Greater Government Regulation, Nationalization, or Socialization?, Proceedings from a Conference Sponsored by The Economic and Business Foundation, 1948 * The Illusions of Point Four, 1950 * The Great Idea, 1951 (titled Time Will Run Back in Great Britain, revised and rereleased with this title in 1966.) * The Free Man's Library, 1956 * The Failure of the 'New Economics': An Analysis of the Keynesian Fallacies, 1959 * The Critics of Keynesian Economics (ed.), 1960 * What You Should Know About Inflation, 1960 * The Foundations of Morality, 1964 * Man vs. The Welfare State, 1969 * The Conquest of Poverty, 1973 * To Stop Inflation, Return to Gold, 1974 * The Inflation Crisis, and How To Resolve It, 1978 * From Bretton Woods to World Inflation, 1984 * The Wisdom of the Stoics: Selections from Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius, with Frances Hazlitt, 1984 * The Wisdom of Henry Hazlitt, 1993 * Rules for Living: The Ethics of Social Cooperation, 1999 (an abridgment by Bettina Bien Greaves of Hazlitt's The Foundations of Morality.) * Business Tides: The Newsweek Era of Henry Hazlitt, 2011 Articles * Rockwell, Lew. Biography of Henry Hazlitt (1894–1993). Auburn, Alabama: Ludwig von Mises Institute, 1 August 2007. == References == === Notes === === Citations === thumb|A gold token minted in 1979 by the American Pacific Mint to promote Hazlitt's libertarian stance on monetary policy. 3,180 tokens were produced|left|281x281px == Further reading == ; Articles * The Complete Bibliography of Henry Hazlitt. Irvington-on-Hudson, New York: Foundation for Economic Education, 2 March 2015. * Henry Hazlitt: A Giant of Liberty, Ludwig von Mises Institute, 1994. . * Henry Hazlitt: an Appreciation. Irvington-on-Hudson, New York: Foundation for Economic Education, 1989. (pp. 8–9) * Interview with Henry Hazlitt. * Richard M. Ebeling and Roy A. Childs, Jr., "Henry Hazlitt: An Appreciation," Laissez Faire Books, November 1985. * Greaves, Bettina Bien. "Henry Hazlitt: A Man for Many Seasons". Irvington-on- Hudson, New York: Foundation for Economic Education, 1 November 1989. * * Henry Hazlitt, "The Early History of FEE," The Freeman, March 1984 (article is excerpted from his remarks at the Leonard E. Read Memorial Conference on Freedom, November 18, 1983.) * Llewellyn H. Rockwell, "Henry Hazlitt: Journalist of the Century," The Freeman, May 1995. * Murray N. Rothbard, "Henry Hazlitt Celebrates 80th Birthday," Human Events, November 20, 1974, reprinted in The Libertarian Forum, December 1974. * George Selgin, Don Boudreaux, and Sanford Ikeda:, "An Interview with Henry Hazlitt", Austrian Economics Newsletter, Spring 1984. * "Reason Interview: Henry Hazlitt", Reason, December 1984. * Hans F. Sennholz, edit., The Wisdom of Henry Hazlitt, Foundation for Economic Education, 1993. * * Jeffrey Tucker, "Henry Hazlitt: The People's Austrian" in Randall Holcombe, edit., The Great Austrian Economists (2009; originally published as 15 Great Austrian Economists, 1999), pp. 167–179. == External links == * * Henry Hazlitt at Google Books. * Henry Hazlitt at HathiTrust. * Henry Hazlitt at Internet Archive. * Henry Hazlitt at Online Liberty Library. * Henry Hazlitt at Open Library. * Henry Hazlitt at Project Gutenberg. * Henry Hazlitt at WorldCat. * En lärdom (första kapitlet i Economics in One Lesson, på Svenska) av Henry Hazlitt * The Complete Bibliography of Henry Hazlitt at Foundation for Economic Education. * Økonomiske forutsigelser – Hvor gode er de ? av Henry Hazlitt * Honorary Doctoral Degrees at University Francisco Marroquín in Guatemala * Henry Hazlitt Quotations * A Biography of Henry Hazlitt, Llewellyn H. Rockwell Jr., Mises Institute * * *Appearances on C-SPAN Category:1894 births Category:1993 deaths Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers Category:20th-century American economists Category:Austrian School economists Category:American agnostics Category:American economics writers Category:American libertarians Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:American political philosophers Category:American political writers Category:Consequentialists Category:Conservatism in the United States Category:Economists from Pennsylvania Category:Foundation for Economic Education Category:Libertarian economists Category:Libertarian theorists Category:Mises Institute people Category:Old Right (United States) Category:Right-wing politics in the United States Category:Utilitarians Category:Writers from Philadelphia Category:Member of the Mont Pelerin Society |
The First Van Agt cabinet, also called the Van Agt–Wiegel cabinet was the executive branch of the Dutch Government from 19 December 1977 until 11 September 1981. The cabinet was formed by the christian-democratic Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) and the conservative-liberal People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) after the election of 1977. The cabinet was a centre-right coalition and had a slim majority in the House of Representatives with Christian Democratic Leader Dries van Agt serving as Prime Minister. Liberal Leader Hans Wiegel served as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of the Interior. The cabinet served in the final years of the radical 1970s and the early years of the economic expansion of the 1980s. Domestically it had to deal with the last days of the counterculture, the abdication of Queen Juliana and the installation of Queen Beatrix, a growing inflation following the recession in the 1980s but it was able to implement several major social reforms to the public sector and civil reforms and stimulating deregulation and privatization. Internationally it had to deal with the 1979 oil crisis and the fallout of the increasing international stand against Apartheid in South Africa. The cabinet suffered several major internal and external conflicts including multiple cabinet resignations, including a informal caucus of several Christian Democrats in the House of Representatives that only supported the cabinet in a confidence and supply construction, but it was able to complete its entire term and was succeeded by the Second Van Agt cabinet following the election of 1981. Dries van Agt (1931), Absolutefacts.nl, 10 December 2008 Wiegel houdt belofte van terugkeer levend, Trouw, 24 February 2005 ==Formation== After the 1977 general election the Labour Party (PvdA) of incumbent Prime Minister Joop den Uyl was the winner of the election which won ten new seats and had now a total of 53 seats. The People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) of Hans Wiegel won six seats and had now 28 seats. The Anti-Revolutionary Party (ARP), Catholic People's Party (KVP) and the Christian Historical Union (CHU) participated for the first time as the combined party Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) with Dries van Agt as its new Leader. This electoral fusion resulted in one new seat and now had a total of 49 seats in the House of Representatives. A long negotiation between the Labour Party and Christian Democratic Appeal followed. Both parties had come out of the elections as equal partners. The negotiations were troubled by the personal animosity between incumbent Prime Minister and Leader of the Labour Party Joop den Uyl and the Leader of the Christian Democratic Appeal Dries van Agt. Van Agt who served as Deputy Prime Minister under Den Uyl his cabinet had a bad working relationship. In the end Van Agt found that the demands of the Den Uyl were too great and instead he formed a coalition with the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy. ==Term== The cabinet had to deal with a major economic depression, but refused to cut government spending due to fierce left-wing opposition in the parliament, which had nearly half of the seats. Many left-wing demonstrations were held on the street against the government. Notorious were the harsh demonstrations in Amsterdam during the crowning of Queen Beatrix and the squatting riots. There was a sharp increase in unemployment and the government was seen to have created too much debt. ===Changes=== On 5 March 1978 Minister of Defence Roelof Kruisinga (CHU) resigned in-protest after the cabinet decided to not publicly condemn the United States for further developing the Neutron bomb. Minister for Development Cooperation Jan de Koning (ARP) served as acting Minister of Defence until 8 March 1978 when Member of the Council of State Willem Scholten (CHU) was appointed as his successor. On 1 April 1979 Minister for Science Policy Rinus Peijnenburg (KVP) unexpectedly died from a heart attack at the age of 51. Minister of Health and Environment Leendert Ginjaar (VVD) served as acting Minister for Science Policy until 3 May 1979 when Ton van Trier, who until then had been working as a professor of electrical engineering at the Eindhoven University of Technology was installed as his successor. Ton van Trier an Independent Christian Democrat joined the Catholic People's Party that same month. On 22 February 1980 Minister of Finance Frans Andriessen (KVP) resigned after disagreeing with the cabinets decision to not implement a stronger austerity policy. State Secretary for Finance Ad Nooteboom (CHU) declares his solidarity with Frans Andriessen and also resigned that same day. Minister of Economic Affairs Gijs van Aardenne (VVD) served as acting Minister of Finance until 5 March 1980 when Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries Fons van der Stee (KVP) was appointed as Minister of Finance. That same day Member of the House of Representatives Gerrit Braks (KVP) was installed as Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries. On 16 April 1980 Member of the House of Representatives Marius van Amelsvoort (KVP) was appointed as State Secretary for Finance. On 25 August 1980 Minister of Defence Willem Scholten (CHU) resigned after he was appointed Vice-President of the Council of State. That same day former naval officer Pieter de Geus (CHU), who until then had been working as a top official at the Ministry of Defence was appointed as his successor. On 1 September 1981 ten days before the new cabinet took office Minister for Housing and Spatial Planning Pieter Beelaerts van Blokland (CDA) resigned after he had been appointed Mayor of Apeldoorn. Minister of Transport and Water Management Dany Tuijnman (VVD) took over the position until the new cabinet was installed on 11 September 1981. ==Cabinet Members== Ministers Ministers Ministers Title/Ministry/Portfolio(s) Title/Ministry/Portfolio(s) Title/Ministry/Portfolio(s) Term of office Party 120px|Dries van Agt Dries van Agt (born 1931) Prime Minister General Affairs 19 December 1977 – 4 November 1982 Catholic People's Party 120px|Dries van Agt Dries van Agt (born 1931) Prime Minister General Affairs 19 December 1977 – 4 November 1982 Christian Democratic Appeal 120px|Hans Wiegel Hans Wiegel (born 1941) Deputy Prime Minister Interior 19 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 People's Party for Freedom and Democracy 120px|Hans Wiegel Hans Wiegel (born 1941) Minister Interior 19 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 People's Party for Freedom and Democracy Chris van der Klaauw Dr. Chris van der Klaauw (1924–2005) Minister Foreign Affairs 19 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 People's Party for Freedom and Democracy Frans Andriessen Frans Andriessen (1929–2019) Minister Finance 19 December 1977 – 22 February 1980 Catholic People's Party Gijs van Aardenne Gijs van Aardenne (1930–1995) Minister Finance 22 February 1980 – 5 March 1980 People's Party for Freedom and Democracy 120px|Fons van der Stee Fons van der Stee (1928–1999) Minister Finance 5 March 1980 – 4 November 1982 Catholic People's Party 120px|Fons van der Stee Fons van der Stee (1928–1999) Minister Finance 5 March 1980 – 4 November 1982 Christian Democratic Appeal 120px|Job de Ruiter Dr. Job de Ruiter (1930–2015) Minister Justice 19 December 1977 – 4 November 1982 Anti-Revolutionary Party 120px|Job de Ruiter Dr. Job de Ruiter (1930–2015) Minister Justice 19 December 1977 – 4 November 1982 Christian Democratic Appeal Gijs van Aardenne Gijs van Aardenne (1930–1995) Minister Economic Affairs 19 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 People's Party for Freedom and Democracy Roelof Kruisinga Dr. Roelof Kruisinga (1922–2012) Minister Defence 19 December 1977 – 4 March 1978 Christian Historical Union Jan de Koning Jan de Koning (1926–1994) Minister Defence 4 March 1978 – 8 March 1978 Anti-Revolutionary Party Willem Scholten Willem Scholten (1927–2005) Minister Defence 8 March 1978 – 25 August 1980 Christian Historical Union 120px|Pieter de Geus Captain Pieter de Geus (1929–2004) Minister Defence 25 August 1980 – 11 September 1981 Christian Historical Union 120px|Pieter de Geus Captain Pieter de Geus (1929–2004) Minister Defence 25 August 1980 – 11 September 1981 Christian Democratic Appeal Leendert Ginjaar Dr. Leendert Ginjaar (1928–2003) Minister Health and Environment 19 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 People's Party for Freedom and Democracy 120px|Wil Albeda Dr. Wil Albeda (1925–2014) Minister Social Affairs 19 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 Anti-Revolutionary Party 120px|Wil Albeda Dr. Wil Albeda (1925–2014) Minister Social Affairs 19 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 Christian Democratic Appeal Arie Pais Dr. Arie Pais (1930–2022) Minister Education and Sciences 19 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 People's Party for Freedom and Democracy Dany Tuijnman Dany Tuijnman (1915–1992) Minister Transport and Water Management 19 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 People's Party for Freedom and Democracy Fons van der Stee Fons van der Stee (1928–1999) Minister Agriculture and Fisheries 1 November 1973 – 5 March 1980 Catholic People's Party 120px|Gerrit Braks Gerrit Braks (1933–2017) Minister Agriculture and Fisheries 5 March 1980 – 11 September 1981 Catholic People's Party 120px|Gerrit Braks Gerrit Braks (1933–2017) Minister Agriculture and Fisheries 5 March 1980 – 11 September 1981 Christian Democratic Appeal 120px|Pieter Beelaerts van Blokland Jonkheer Pieter Beelaerts van Blokland (1932–2021) Minister Housing and Spatial Planning 19 December 1977 – 1 September 1981 Christian Historical Union 120px|Pieter Beelaerts van Blokland Jonkheer Pieter Beelaerts van Blokland (1932–2021) Minister Housing and Spatial Planning 19 December 1977 – 1 September 1981 Christian Democratic Appeal Dany Tuijnman Dany Tuijnman (1915–1992) Minister Housing and Spatial Planning 1 September 1981 – 11 September 1981 People's Party for Freedom and Democracy 120px|Til Gardeniers-Berendsen Til Gardeniers- Berendsen (1925–2019) Minister Culture, Recreation and Social Work 19 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 Catholic People's Party 120px|Til Gardeniers-Berendsen Til Gardeniers- Berendsen (1925–2019) Minister Culture, Recreation and Social Work 19 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 Christian Democratic Appeal Ministers without portfolio Ministers without portfolio Ministers without portfolio Title/Ministry/Portfolio(s) Title/Ministry/Portfolio(s) Title/Ministry/Portfolio(s) Term of office Party 120px|Fons van der Stee Fons van der Stee (1928–1999) Minister Interior • Netherlands Antilles Affairs 19 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 Catholic People's Party 120px|Fons van der Stee Fons van der Stee (1928–1999) Minister Interior • Netherlands Antilles Affairs 19 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 Christian Democratic Appeal 120px|Jan de Koning Jan de Koning (1926–1994) Minister Foreign Affairs • Development Cooperation 19 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 Anti-Revolutionary Party 120px|Jan de Koning Jan de Koning (1926–1994) Minister Foreign Affairs • Development Cooperation 19 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 Christian Democratic Appeal Rinus Peijnenburg Rinus Peijnenburg (1928–1979) Minister Education and Sciences • Science Policy 19 December 1977 – 1 April 1979 Catholic People's Party Leendert Ginjaar Dr. Leendert Ginjaar (1928–2003) Minister Education and Sciences • Science Policy 1 April 1979 – 3 May 1979 People's Party for Freedom and Democracy 120px|Ton van Trier Dr. Ton van Trier (1926–1983) Minister Education and Sciences • Science Policy 3 May 1979 – 11 September 1981 Independent Christian Democratic Catholic 120px|Ton van Trier Dr. Ton van Trier (1926–1983) Minister Education and Sciences • Science Policy 3 May 1979 – 11 September 1981 Catholic People's Party 120px|Ton van Trier Dr. Ton van Trier (1926–1983) Minister Education and Sciences • Science Policy 3 May 1979 – 11 September 1981 Christian Democratic Appeal State Secretaries State Secretaries State Secretaries Title/Ministry/Portfolio(s) Title/Ministry/Portfolio(s) Title/Ministry/Portfolio(s) Term of office Party Henk Koning Henk Koning (1933–2016) State Secretary Interior • Municipalities • Civil Service 28 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 People's Party for Freedom and Democracy 120px|Durk van der Mei Durk van der Mei (1924–2018) State Secretary Foreign Affairs • European Union • Benelux 28 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 Christian Historical Union 120px|Durk van der Mei Durk van der Mei (1924–2018) State Secretary Foreign Affairs • European Union • Benelux 28 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 Christian Democratic Appeal Ad Nooteboom Ad Nooteboom (born 1928) State Secretary Finance • Fiscal Policy • Tax and Customs • Governmental Budget 28 December 1977 – 22 February 1980 Christian Historical Union 120px|Marius van Amelsvoort Marius van Amelsvoort (1930–2006) State Secretary Finance • Fiscal Policy • Tax and Customs • Governmental Budget 16 April 1980 – 11 September 1981 Catholic People's Party 120px|Marius van Amelsvoort Marius van Amelsvoort (1930–2006) State Secretary Finance • Fiscal Policy • Tax and Customs • Governmental Budget 16 April 1980 – 11 September 1981 Christian Democratic Appeal 120px|Bert Haars Bert Haars (1913–1997) State Secretary Justice • Immigration and Asylum • Judicial Reform • Youth Justice • Penitentiaries 28 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 Christian Historical Union 120px|Bert Haars Bert Haars (1913–1997) State Secretary Justice • Immigration and Asylum • Judicial Reform • Youth Justice • Penitentiaries 28 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 Christian Democratic Appeal 120px|Ted Hazekamp Ted Hazekamp (1926–1987) State Secretary Economic Affairs • Small and Medium-sized Businesses • Regional Development • Consumer Protection 11 May 1973 – 11 September 1981 Catholic People's Party 120px|Ted Hazekamp Ted Hazekamp (1926–1987) State Secretary Economic Affairs • Small and Medium-sized Businesses • Regional Development • Consumer Protection 11 May 1973 – 11 September 1981 Christian Democratic Appeal Has Beyen Has Beyen (1923–2002) State Secretary Economic Affairs • Trade and Export 9 January 1978 – 11 September 1981 People's Party for Freedom and Democracy 120px|Cees van Lent Brigadier general Cees van Lent (1922–2000) State Secretary Defence • Human Resources 11 March 1974 – 11 September 1981 Catholic People's Party 120px|Cees van Lent Brigadier general Cees van Lent (1922–2000) State Secretary Defence • Human Resources 11 March 1974 – 11 September 1981 Christian Democratic Appeal Wim van Eekelen Dr. Wim van Eekelen (born 1931) State Secretary Defence • Equipment • Justice 20 January 1978 – 11 September 1981 People's Party for Freedom and Democracy Els Veder-Smit Els Veder-Smit (1921–2020) State Secretary Health and Environment • Primary Healthcare • Elderly Care • Disability Policy • Medical Ethics • Food Policy 3 January 1978 – 11 September 1981 People's Party for Freedom and Democracy 120px|Louw de Graaf Louw de Graaf (1930–2020) State Secretary Social Affairs • Social Security • Occupational Safety 28 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 Anti-Revolutionary Party 120px|Louw de Graaf Louw de Graaf (1930–2020) State Secretary Social Affairs • Social Security • Occupational Safety 28 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 Christian Democratic Appeal 120px|Klaas de Jong Klaas de Jong (1926–2011) State Secretary Education and Sciences • Secondary Education 1 September 1975 – 11 September 1981 Anti-Revolutionary Party 120px|Klaas de Jong Klaas de Jong (1926–2011) State Secretary Education and Sciences • Secondary Education 1 September 1975 – 11 September 1981 Christian Democratic Appeal 120px|Ad Hermes Ad Hermes (1929–2002) State Secretary Education and Sciences • Primary Education 9 January 1978 – 4 November 1982 Catholic People's Party 120px|Ad Hermes Ad Hermes (1929–2002) State Secretary Education and Sciences • Primary Education 9 January 1978 – 4 November 1982 Christian Democratic Appeal Neelie Kroes Neelie Kroes (born 1941) State Secretary Transport and Water Management • Public Infrastructure • Public Transport • Rail Transport • Water Management • Postal Service • Weather Forecasting 28 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 People's Party for Freedom and Democracy 120px|Gerrit Brokx Gerrit Brokx (1933–2002) State Secretary Housing and Spatial Planning • Public Housing • Urban Planning 28 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 Catholic People's Party 120px|Gerrit Brokx Gerrit Brokx (1933–2002) State Secretary Housing and Spatial Planning • Public Housing • Urban Planning 28 December 1977 – 11 September 1981 Christian Democratic Appeal 120px|Jeltien Kraaijeveld-Wouters Jeltien Kraaijeveld- Wouters (born 1932) State Secretary Culture, Recreation and Social Work • Unemployment • Equality • Emancipation 28 December 1977 – 9 September 1981 Anti-Revolutionary Party 120px|Jeltien Kraaijeveld-Wouters Jeltien Kraaijeveld- Wouters (born 1932) State Secretary Culture, Recreation and Social Work • Unemployment • Equality • Emancipation 28 December 1977 – 9 September 1981 Christian Democratic Appeal Gerard Wallis de Vries Gerard Wallis de Vries (1936–2018) State Secretary Culture, Recreation and Social Work • Social Services • Environmental Policy • Nature • Media • Culture • Art • Recreation • Sport 4 January 1978 – 11 September 1981 People's Party for Freedom and Democracy : : : : : : : : : ==Trivia== * Eleven cabinet members had previous experience as scholars or professors: Dries van Agt (Criminal Law and Procedure), Chris van der Klaauw (International Relations), Job de Ruiter (Civil Law), Roelof Kruisinga (Otorhinolaryngology), Leendert Ginjaar (Chemistry), Wil Albeda (Social Economics and Labour Law), Arie Pais (Public Economics), Dany Tuijnman (Agronomy), Ton van Trier (Electrical Engineering), Ad Nooteboom (Fiscal Law) and Wim van Eekelen (Political Science). * Five cabinet members (later) served as Mayors: Gerrit Braks (Eindhoven), Pieter Beelaerts van Blokland (Wolphaartsdijk, Vianen, Amstelveen, Apeldoorn and Hengelo), Bert Haars (Kockengen), Gerrit Brokx (Tilburg) and Jeltien Kraaijeveld-Wouters (Hilversum). * Four cabinet members (later) served as Party Leaders and Lijsttrekkers: Dries van Agt (1976–1982) of the Christian Democratic Appeal, Hans Wiegel (1971–1982) of the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy, Frans Andriessen (1971–1977) of the Catholic People's Party and Roelof Kruisinga (1973–1977) of the Christian Historical Union. * Four cabinet members (later) served as Queen's Commissioners: Dries van Agt (North Brabant), Hans Wiegel (Friesland) and Pieter Beelaerts van Blokland (Utrecht). * Three cabinet members (later) served as on the Council of State: Jan de Koning (1990–1994), Willem Scholten (1976–1978, 1980–1997) and Til Gardeniers- Berendsen (1983–1995). * Two cabinet members would later serve as European Commissioners: Frans Andriessen (1981–1993) and Neelie Kroes (2004–2014). ==References== ==External links== ;Official * Kabinet-Van Agt I Parlement & Politiek * Kabinet-Van Agt I Rijksoverheid Category:Cabinets of the Netherlands Category:1977 establishments in the Netherlands Category:1981 disestablishments in the Netherlands Category:Cabinets established in 1977 Category:Cabinets disestablished in 1981 |
Legion (David Charles Haller) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, typically as a villain or supporting character in stories featuring the X-Men and related characters. Created by writer Chris Claremont and artist Bill Sienkiewicz, the character first appeared in New Mutants #25 (March 1985). He is the mutant son of Charles Xavier and Gabrielle Haller. Legion takes the role of an antihero who has a severe mental illness, including a form of dissociative identity disorder in which each of his identities exhibits different mutant abilities or powers. The character was portrayed by Dan Stevens in the FX television series Legion (2017–19), which was developed, written, directed, and produced by Noah Hawley. ==Publication history== Created by writer Chris Claremont and artist Bill Sienkiewicz, Legion first appeared at the conclusion of New Mutants #25 (March 1985) leading to his full story appearance in the following issue: New Mutants #26 (April 1985). In 1991, Legion was assigned to be a co-starring character in the newly revamped X-Factor, as a member of the eponymous superteam. However, writer Peter David was uncomfortable with this, and ultimately editor Bob Harras independently came to the conclusion that Legion should not be used in the series. David explained "I don't mind building a story around [Legion], but working him into a group – you're really asking for a bit much from the reader. Believing that a group of people will come together to form a team is enough of a suspension of disbelief... 'Oh, by the way, one of them is so nuts he shouldn't be setting foot off Muir Island'... that's asking the reader to bend so far he will break." ==Fictional character biography== While working in an Israeli psychiatric facility, Charles Xavier met a patient named Gabrielle Haller. The two had an affair which ended amicably. Gabrielle became pregnant with David, but did not tell Charles.Uncanny X-Men #161 and New Mutants vol. 1 #1. Marvel Comics. David, at a young age, was living with his mother and stepfather in Paris when his home was attacked by terrorists and his stepfather was killed. The trauma of the situation caused an initial manifestation of David's mutant powers, as David incinerated the minds of the terrorists. In the process, he unintentionally absorbed the mind of the terrorist leader, Jemail Karami, into his own. Being linked to so many others at their time of death, David was rendered catatonic for years. As he slowly recovered, he was moved to the care of Moira MacTaggert at the Muir Island mutant research facility. The trauma (possibly in conjunction with the nature of his reality-altering powers) caused David's mind to dissociate chronically until it became Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), each alter manifesting different mutant abilities.New Mutants #27. Marvel Comics. The Karami alter, which manifested telepathic abilities, struggled for years to separate his consciousness from David's. In the process, Karami tried to unify as many alters as he could, trying to end David's catatonic state. Some of the alters resisted Karami, most notably Jack Wayne, a swaggering adventurer who was telekinetic, and Cyndi, a temperamental, rebellious girl who was pyrokinetic. Ultimately Karami, Wayne, and Cyndi continued to exist as David's most prominent alters.New Mutants vol. 1 #26–28. Marvel Comics. During his time at Muir Island, David saved Moira and Wolfsbane from a fatal accident by accessing the telekinetic abilities of his Jack Wayne alter. However, this allowed Jack Wayne to take control of David's body, and he left the island. The New Mutants tracked him down and, after a struggle, convinced Wayne to allow David to again assume control.New Mutants vol. 1 #44. Marvel Comics. Soon after, David was possessed by the Shadow King. While under the Shadow King's influence, David killed the mutant Destiny and destroyed 2/3 of the island. When the X-Men and X-Factor defeated the Shadow King, David was again left in a coma.Muir Island Saga, involving Uncanny X-Men #278–280 and X-Factor #69–70. Marvel Comics. ===Legion Quest/Age of Apocalypse=== Years later, David awoke from his coma believing his psyche fully healed. When he had killed the mutant precog Destiny, David had absorbed her psyche. Destiny gave David vague prophetic guidance about the great world that could exist "if only, years ago, Professor X had been given a real chance to fulfill his dream."X-Men vol. 2 #38. Marvel Comics. David, who despite his belief that he was not sane, understood these words as a directive to travel back in time and kill Magneto, Xavier's greatest adversary, to allow his father Professor X to achieve the dream of human-mutant coexistence. As several X-Men attempted to stop him, Legion traveled twenty years into the past, accidentally dragging the X-Men with him. David appeared in the past in front of Xavier and Magneto, who at the time were orderlies in a mental hospital. As Legion attacked Magneto, the X-Men intervened. After overpowering the X-Men, Legion readied his fatal blow for Magneto, but Xavier leaped in front of the lethal psychic attack and was himself killed. By accidentally killing his father, the horrified David prevented his own birth and ceased to exist. The death of Xavier created a catastrophic alternate timeline, the Age of Apocalypse. Ultimately, Bishop managed to fix the timeline by enlisting the aid of the new reality's X-Men to travel back in time to the moment of Xavier's murder. There Bishop confronted Legion, using David's own power to create a psionic loop that showed the young mutant the damage that his actions would cause. David allowed the energy released in this process to incinerate him, in his last moments apologizing for what he had done."X-Men Omega #1. Marvel Comics. While David was considered deceased, some of his alters manifested as spirits and started terrorizing Israel (where David had been born). Excalibur was called to stop them. Ultimately Meggan used her empathy to calm their rage, convincing them to go "towards the light."Excalibur (1st series) #121. Marvel Comics. ===Return=== David had in fact not died; rather, his mind manifested in Otherplace, a timeless interdimensional limbo. When Bishop had turned Legion's psychic power back on him, it devastated David's mental landscape, undoing all the healing efforts of Karami and Professor Xavier. David now had thousands of alters vying for control in his mind. David wandered through Otherplace for an untold period of time, trying to make his way back home.New Mutants vol. 3 #3. Marvel Comics. Magik, a mutant able to travel across dimensions, reached out and contacted one of David's alters, "The Legion," who could alter reality at a cosmic scale (this incredibly powerful personality claimed to be the "real" David, although it was distinct from David's host alter).New Mutants vol. 3 #20. Marvel Comics. Magik offered to guide Legion back to this dimension, provided that The Legion would aid her by destroying her nemeses, the Elder Gods, when she asked.New Mutants vol. 3 #21. Marvel Comics. David re-manifested in the physical world, although his David's host alter had been imprisoned in his mindscape by his other alters, allowing the more malicious alters to take turns controlling his body. One of these alters killed and absorbed the mind of a young girl, Marci Sobol, who became another alter within Legion. David was discovered by the New Mutants as they investigated a possible mutant case in Westcliffe, Colorado.New Mutants vol. 3 #1. Marvel Comics. David absorbed Karma and Magik into his mind. As the rest of the team fought a losing battle against various alters that seized control of Legion's body, in his mindscape Karma and Magik destroyed other hostile alters. Eventually they found the Marci alter, who led them to David's imprisoned core self. By freeing David and helping him reassert control, Karma and Magik saved the rest of the team and were restored to their bodies.New Mutants vol. 3 #4. Marvel Comics. David was detained by the X-Men and put in the care of Professor X, Doctor Nemesis, Danger, and Rogue.New Mutants vol. 3 #5. Marvel Comics. Weeks later, Magik managed to bring the Elder Gods back to Earth, planning to have her revenge on them. The Elder Gods manifested, causing catastrophic destruction, and appeared ready to lay waste to the world. As the various mutant teams tried to stop this apocalypse, Magik sent her ally Karma to free Legion and awaken "The Legion" alter to fulfill its bargain. The Legion, who Magik called "The God Mutant," appeared and altered reality to wipe the Elder Gods from existence and reset the world to a time before they had manifested. After this, David's host alter returned and he was taken back into the care and treatment of the X-Men. ===Age of X=== Believing that David's psyche would be healed if his alters were quarantined, Doctor Nemesis began to catalog and contain these alters within David's mind. Unbeknownst to Doctor Nemesis and Professor Xavier, however, David's mind subconsciously perceived this intervention as a threat and created a "psychic antibody," a powerful new alter, to defend itself. The new alter had access to a degree of David's underlying ability to alter reality and time. Assuming the appearance of the deceased Moira McTaggert (considered a mother figure by David due to his time under her care at Muir Island), the alter attempted to 'protect' Legion from the 'assault' on his mind by creating a pocket reality where Legion was the hero that he always wanted to be.X-Men: Legacy #244. Marvel Comics. Many members of various X-teams were also brought into this new reality, which existed separately from Marvel's primary continuity.X-Men: Legacy #247. Marvel Comics. The alternate pocket reality, the Age of X, was a dystopia in which mutants had been hunted almost to extinction; the remaining mutants were kept alive by Legion's mutant team, who daily generated a force wall to repel attacking human forces. Legion himself remained unaware that one of his alters had created this world, and most of the mutants who had been brought into the reality by 'Moira' believed that they had always been there. Within this pocket reality the 'Moira' personality was practically omnipotent, creating and controlling random soldiers for Legion and the other mutants to kill. Eventually, Legacy, the alternate Rogue, discovered that 'Moira' had in fact created this reality. Confronted with this truth, Legion spoke to 'Moira,' who tearfully offered to create as many universes for him as he wanted. Instead, David absorbed 'Moira' back into himself and erased the Age of X reality, restoring its participants to Earth-616 reality; ultimately, this entire timeline had lasted seven days in their normal continuity.X-Men: Legacy #245–248; New Mutants Vol. 3 #22–23. Marvel Comics. ===Lost Legions=== With the Age of X incident underscoring the potentially apocalyptic scope of David's power, Professor X proposed a new approach to help Legion retain control of himself. Instead of isolating David from the other alters in his mind, Professor X suggested that he learn to co-exist with them. To this end, Doctor Nemesis, Madison Jeffries and Reed Richards designed a Neural Switchboard Wristband for David. This switchboard assigned unique numbers to different Legion alters. When David entered a number, the device stimulated cells in his thalamus and neocortex, creating a one-way link between David's host alter and the other alters he had selected. This allowed Legion to access the power of that alter for several seconds without being overwhelmed by it. While testing the device, Legion discovered that six of his alter were no longer in his mind, but had "escaped," manifesting separately from him in the real world.X-Men: Legacy #249. Marvel Comics. With a team of X-Men, Legion tracked down and reabsorbed all of these rogue personas. While absorbing the last one, he accidentally absorbed Rogue along with it, and, after releasing her, David suffered a massive shock to his nervous system. Rogue stated that, while she was inside Legion, she was connected to thousands of types of powers and there were more being born all the time.X-Men: Legacy #253. Marvel Comics. ===The Fiend=== To aid his recovery, Professor X left Legion with Merzah the Mystic, a powerful empath and telepath who ran a Himalayan monastery. While at the monastery, David gained much greater control of himself, and he stopped using the Neural Switchboard Wristband. Under Merzah's tutelage, David learned to visualize a facility in his mind where his alters could be kept and controlled.X-Men: Legacy Vol. 2 #1. Marvel Comics. However, while David was at the monastery, elsewhere in the world Professor X was killed. When Legion sensed this, the mental shock caused a catastrophic release of energy that killed Merzah and everyone else at the monastery.X-Men: Legacy Vol. 2 #2. Marvel Comics. In addition, without knowing it, David subconsciously created a new alter, The Fiend. This alter was able to kill other alters in his mind, absorbing their powers in the process. In the final issue of X-Men: Legacy, Legion, reaching the full extent of his powers, decided to erase himself from existence.X-Men: Legacy Vol.2 #24. Marvel Comics. ===Trauma=== For unknown reasons (perhaps elements of his own psyche working against him), Legion's attempt to erase himself from existence failed. When he reappeared, David's mind was again fragmented into many alter, including a malicious new alter, "Lord Trauma." Lord Trauma aimed to take over David's mind and body by absorbing all of David's other alter. In a desperate attempt to save himself, David sought out the help of renowned young psychotherapist Hannah Jones to delve into his fractured mind and fight back this dark alterLegion #1. Marvel Comics. While Jones was ultimately able to help Legion defeat Trauma, she remained trapped in David's psyche (her body in a vegetative coma). To thank Jones, Legion placed her psyche into a dream state/alternate reality where she achieved her biggest goals.Legion #5. Marvel Comics. === X-Men Dissassembled === As the X-Men race around the globe to fight the temporal anomalies that have been springing up and to corral the hundreds of Madrox duplicates wreaking havoc, Legion arrives at the X-Mansion, seemingly in control of his powers and psyche. While the young X-Men try to ascertain what he wants, elsewhere Jean Grey and Psylocke team up to psychically purge whatever force is controlling the army of Madrox duplicates. Finding the prime Madrox imprisoned below the area where the army of duplicates are congregating, he explains that Legion imprisoned him and implanted his numerous alter and powers across the hundreds of duplicates. However, with his control broken, Legion goes berserk in the mansion, attacking the young X-Men and ranting about a vision of the future. The rest of the X-Men arrive to help but Legion singlehandedly takes on the whole team until he and Jean Grey go head-to-head. Legion then explains that he's trying to prevent a vision of the future – the arrival of the Horsemen of Salvation – but just as Legion mentions them, the Horsemen arrive.Uncanny X-Men (2018) #3. Marvel Comics. ===Reign of X=== Following the creation of Krakoa as a mutant nation, Legion was captured by Project Orchis and had his brain harvested into a mysterious device which kept his mind trapped in a hellscape, simulating Legion's various personas to predict every probability scenarios in which to bring down the nation of Krakoa. Hoping to spread further strife, Orchis introduced an invasive entity to speed along the process, giving them a psychic weapon they can use to break the social structures of Krakoa and in the process, destroy the new mutant homeland. Nightcrawler is the first to notice this dark trend at the heart of his fellow mutants, especially in light of effective immortality, which radically altered and is influencing and pushing them to their darker and crueler impulses on a day-to-day basis. He also learns in the process about the Patchwork Man, a mysterious figure appearing to mutants in their dreams and haunting them. After recruiting Nightcrawler to rescue his mind from the device that trapped him, Legion confirms to Nightcrawler that the Patchwork Man and the signature he encountered in his mind are one and the same and that belongs to Onslaught, the evil psionic entity born from Xavier's darkest self, somehow restored by Project Orchis.Way of X #1–2 ==Powers and abilities== Legion is an Omega-level mutant who has dissociative identity disorder. Fundamentally, he has the ability to alter reality and time on a cosmic scale at will, but due to his multiple personalities, in practice his abilities vary depending on the dominant personality: each alter has different powers enabled by David's subconscious manipulation of reality. The core personality, David Haller himself, generally does not manifest mutant abilities, but must access various personalities to use their power, sometimes losing control of himself to that personality. Some of Legion's personalities physically transform his body (e.g., manifesting a prehensile tongue, becoming a woman, transforming into a werewolf, etc.). The first alter to manifest, Jemail Karami, was telepathic. Other prominent alters include Jack Wayne (telekinetic) and Cyndi (pyrokinetic). Legion has over a thousand different personalities (the exact number is unknown), and his mind can create additional alters in response to external or internal events.X-Men: Legacy #254 The cumulative abilities of all his personalities make him one of the most powerful mutants in existence, if not the most powerful.X-Men: Legacy vol. 2 #6. Since the abilities of his personalities stem from his subconscious alteration of reality, Legion is theoretically capable of manifesting any power he can imagine. In two instances David has manifested the full extent of his ability to alter time and reality: in the first, he wiped the Elder Gods from existence and reset the universe to a state before the Elder Gods first appeared on Earth,New Mutants, vol. 3 #20–21. Marvel Comics. and in the other he observed the entirety of spacetime and mended damage his personalities had done to it. Legion can absorb other people's psyches into his mind, either intentionally or, if he is next to them when they die, unintentionally. Conversely, in several instances Legion has had personalities manifest and act separately from him (or even against him) in the physical world; in most instances Legion has ultimately reabsorbed these personalities back into himself. Presumably, both his absorption of other psyches and the physical manifestations of his own personalities are enabled by Legion's underlying ability to alter reality/time at will. Generally, David's ability to access and control his personalities/powers is closely tied to his self confidence and self esteem: the better he feels about himself, the more control he exercises. Unfortunately, David often suffers from self-doubt and self-recrimination, meaning that he must struggle to remain in control. Following the Age of X, David briefly used a Neural Switchboard Wristband engineered by Doctor Nemesis, Madison Jeffries, and Reed Richards. This device allowed Legion to utilize a personality's power set for several seconds without being overwhelmed by that personality. However, he soon abandoned this and attempted instead to develop a more organic control over his personalities. ===Personalities=== The following characters are different personalities of Legion that have appeared thus far, each one manifesting different powers: * Through the personality of terrorist Jemail Karami (the name given to Personality #2), he has manifested telepathy.New Mutants #26. Marvel Comics. * Through the personality of roustabout adventurer Jack Wayne (the name given to Personality #3), he has manifested telekinesis. This personality was often quite dangerous and would not hesitate to hurt or kill others if it would allow him to remain independent/free from David's control.New Mutants vol. 3 #2. Marvel Comics. Eventually, Jack Wayne was subsumed by a different, malevolent Legion personality, Lord Trauma.Legion #1–5. Marvel Comics. * Through the personality of the rebellious girl Cyndi (the name given to Personality #4), he has manifested pyrokinesis. This personality of Legion has a crush on Cypher. * Through the personality of The Legion (the name given to Personality #5, which claims to be Legion's "real me"), he can warp time and reality. Magik nicknamed this personality the "God-Mutant." * Through the personality of Sally (the name given to Personality #67), he has the appearance of an obese woman with Hulk-like super-strength. * Through the personality of a punk rocker named Lucas (the name given to Personality #115), he can channel sound into energy blasts.New Mutants vol. 3 #14. Marvel Comics. * Through Personality #181, he can enlarge himself to an undetermined size. This was the first power Legion utilized with the Neural Switchboard Wristband.X-Men: Legacy #248. Marvel Comics. * Through the personality of Johnny Gomorrah (the name given to Personality #186), he can transmute his enemies and objects into salt. * Through the personality of Time-Sink (the name given to Personality #227), he has the ability of time-manipulation. This rebellious personality was able to become independent from David but was eventually found and reabsorbed by David.X-Men: Legacy Vol. 1 #250. Marvel Comics. David was ultimately forced to stop using Time-Sink's powers because when David tried to access the personality, it would always fight to get back its freedom. * Through Personality #302, he can move at supersonic speeds. * Through the personality of Styx (the name given to Personality #666), he has the ability to absorb the consciousness of anyone he touches, turning that person's body into a shell that he can then control. The possessed individual can still access any special abilities they have, and there does not appear to be a limit to the number of individuals simultaneously controlled. David considers this manipulative personality his most dangerous, because it is clever, cruel, and extremely ambitious.X-Men: Legacy Vol. 1 #252. Marvel Comics. Styx was able to become independent from Legion, manifesting as a desiccated corpse, and tried to take control of Legion himself, so that he could use Legion's reality-altering powers to remake the world according to his will. Legion, using the power of his Chain personality, managed to trick and reabsorb Styx. * Through Personality #762, he becomes a pirate with the ability to belch an acidic gas. * Through Personality #898, he becomes a centaur. * Through the personality of Delphic (the name given to Personality #1012), he becomes a blue-skinned, seemingly-omniscient female seer who will answer any three questions from supplicants. Legion personalities that have not been assigned numbers include: * Absence, an alien/demon creature with its eyes sewn shut who claims to have traveled through different realities and who can siphon off heat and love. * Bleeding Image, a living voodoo doll who can redirect and amplify the pain from any injury he inflicts on himself onto his victims. As he notes, "How much must David hate himself, to have imagined me?" This malicious personality was able to become independent from David but he was eventually found and stated to have been destroyed by Magneto.X-Men: Legacy #252. Marvel Comics. * Chain, effectively a human virus who turns anyone he touches into a copy of himself with a new weapon. The power dissipates when the original is dealt with. This personality was able to become independent from David but he was eventually found and reabsorbed by David.X-Men: Legacy #251. Marvel Comics. * Chronodon, a dinosaur with a clock on its face. Based on its name and appearance, it can be assumed that it can manipulate time in some way. * Clown, a surly-looking clown that can blast energy from his mouth. * Compass Rose, who can locate any person and teleport to them. * The Delusionaut, a train engineer with a billow stack for a head who uses the smoke that he exudes to create illusions so convincing that they fool even powerful telepaths such as Emma Frost. He manifested outside of Legion to help him at one point, and eventually was one of the personalities that volunteered to meld together to form Gestalt.X-Men: Legacy vol. 2 #20. * Drexel, a foul-mouthed simpleton with super-strength. * Endgame, huge and aggressive armor that instantly manifests the perfect counter to any attack executed against it (for example, becoming intangible, manifesting super strength, transmuting its material from metal to wood to defeat Magneto, etc.). This personality became independent from David, but it was eventually found and reabsorbed by David. * The Fiend/"Charles Xavier", a dangerous personality David created following the mental shock of the death of his father, Professor X. The Fiend manifests as either a yellow goblin-like creature or in the guise of Professor X; it has significant psychic abilities, including precognition and possession, and can kill other Legion personalities in Legion's mind, absorbing their power. Eventually, the Fiend became independent from David and tried to help him retain more control of himself. * Findel the Finder, who can find anyone across the galaxy. * Gestalt, a powerful fusion of several Legion personalities with the core personality of David himself, allowing the abilities of these personalities to manifest simultaneously under David's control. Legion created Gestalt to successfully repel an attack on his mind.X-Men: Legacy vol. 2 #24. Marvel Comics. * Hugh Davidson, a stereotypical prepster with a long prehensile tongue. * Hunter, a macho-man personality David's mind created to replace Jack Wayne, when that personality was subsumed by the Lord Trauma personality. * Hypnobloke, a gentleman with flashing swirls for eyes who wears a top hat and carries a pocket watch. He has the power of hypnotic suggestion. * Joe Fury, an angry young man who can generate flame and other types of energy, and whom David struggles to repress. * Kirbax the Kraklar, a demonic creature that can fly and generate electricity. * Ksenia Nadejda Panov, a Moscovite heiress, discus- throwing champion, caviar exporter, and torturer of puppies. She has the ability to generate ionic scalpels from her fingers. * K-Zek the Conduit, an android with the ability of far-field, concentrated wireless energy transfer (or WET). * Lord Trauma, a malevolent personality who can bring out the worst traumas a person has experienced and draw power from the psychic energies that result. This personality became independent from David and tried to absorb all his other personas in order to gain control over David's body, although Trauma was eventually destroyed. * Marci Sabol, a normal human girl who befriended David but was killed and absorbed into him by one of his other personalities; she has significant influence within David's mindscape. * Max Kelvin, a crotchety old man whose eyes protrude when he uses his powers of plasmatic flame generation. * Moira Kinross/X, a mother figure created by David's mind to protect his mindscape from tampering. This persona, which could warp reality, became independent from David and created the dystopian pocket reality dubbed Age of X where David was seen as a hero. Within this pocket reality X was practically omnipotent, altering the mindsets and personalities of the fabricated entities in her reality.Age of X: Alpha #1. Marvel Comics. * Mycolojester, a plant-like entity with the attire of a jester, who can emit toxic spores from his skin. These spores act as a powerful nerve gas, but their effects can be dissipated by water. This personality volunteered to help David by merging with several other personalities to become Gestalt. * Non- Newtonian Annie, a skinny purple woman dressed in pink clothes and cloaked in a "zero-tau nullskin" that does not conform to the law of conservation of energy (e.g., kinetic energy that hits it is immediately amplified and reflected directly back on its source).X-Men: Legacy vol. 2 #4. * Origamist, one of the most powerful personalities in David's mind, is a reality warping sumo wrestler who can fold spacetime, allowing, among other things, instant teleportation of any object to any location. * Protozoan Porter, a large green leech-like being who can teleport by disassembling himself into minuscule ameboid-like parts that reassemble after reaching his destination.X-Men: Legacy vol. 2 #10. This personality volunteered to help David by merging with several other personalities to create Gestalt. * Pukatus Jr., a small cherub- like demon who flies and can vomit an acidic substance. * Skinsmith, who can produce artificial skin on any surface or bend/alter the skin of others. * Specs, a nervous young man with large glasses who can see through solid objects. This personality develops a romantic interest in Magma.New Mutants vol. 3 #4." * Susan in Sunshine, an innocent-looking blonde child with the ability to sense, augment and manipulate the emotions of those around her and, if she wishes, convert those emotions into destructive energy. This personality became independent from Legion, but she was eventually found and reabsorbed by him. * Tami Haar, a nightclub singer who is a friend and companion to David; she appears to have a master knowledge of David's mindscape, which among other things allows her to manifest in the real world.Legion #4. * Tyrannix the Abominoid, a small and hapless Cthulhu-like creature with telepathic powers. When David traveled within his mindscape, he often used Tyrannix as a backpack. Tyrannix was the first personality to volunteer to help David by melding to create Gestalt. * The Weaver, probably Legion's most powerful splinter personality, a large arachnid creature whose massive limbs are connected to a main body wreathed in bright light. The Weaver can change and refabricate reality itself, and it is ultimately revealed to be either David's core self or a mirror of David. When David and the Weaver united, he could observe and alter all time and space at will; David, aware of the extent and implications of this godlike power, attempted to unmake himself by erasing his own birth. For unknown reasons his attempt failed (it may have been undermined by other aspects of David's psyche), in the process creating the Lord Trauma personality. * The White Witch Doctor, a murderous white man dressed as a witch doctor who killed Marci Sabol and absorbed her psyche into Legion, creating the Marci Sabol personality.New Mutants vol. 3 #5. * Wormhole Wodo, who can open a wormhole between two points anywhere in the galaxy, allowing near instantaneous travel between them.X-Men: Legacy vol. 2 #5. * Zari Zap, a young punk woman with short, spiked hair who can manipulate electricity. * Zero G. Priestly, a robed priest who floats upside down and can control gravity. * Zubar, a personality that likes to call himself "the Airshrike" and has the power to levitate himself. ==Mentality== Legion has been described as having dissociative identity disorder. In his first appearance he was also described as autistic, however this diagnosis has not been used since. ===Origin of name=== Legion's name is derived from a passage in the Christian Bible (found in Mark 5 and Luke 8). In it, Jesus asks a man possessed by many evil spirits what his name is, to which the man replies "I am Legion, for we are many." ==Reception== * In 2014, Entertainment Weekly ranked Legion 21st in their "Let's rank every X-Man ever" list. * In 2018, CBR.com ranked Legion 14th in their "8 X-Men Kids Cooler Than Their Parents (And 7 Who Are Way Worse)" list. * In 2018, CBR.com ranked Legion 1st in their "20 Most Powerful Mutants From The '80s" list. ==Other versions== ===Ultimate Marvel=== The Ultimate incarnation of Proteus is a combination of Legion and Proteus from the mainstream comics. His mother is Moira MacTaggert and his father is Charles Xavier. He possesses Proteus' reality warping power and is named David Xavier. He escapes his mother's facility, looking for his father, and murders hundreds to discredit him. David is later crushed by Colossus, while possessing S.T.R.I.K.E. agent Betsy Braddock inside a car.Ultimate X-Men #15–19 (2002). Marvel Comics. ===Age of X=== In the Age of X reality, Legion leads the Force Warriors, a select group of telekinetics who rebuild the "Force Walls" (telekinetic shields that protect Fortress X) on a daily basis to protect mutants from human attacks. Unlike his 616 counterpart, there is no trace of the other personalities shown. It is ultimately revealed that the Age of X reality was unconsciously created by Legion himself. A flashback reveals that in the 616 universe Professor X was arguing with Dr. Nemesis regarding the latter's containment and deletion of Legion's other personalities in an effort to stabilize him. While Dr. Nemesis claimed that everything was going according to his plan, Professor X was unconvinced and entered Legion's mind. There he found the other personalities dead and their rotting corpses left in their containment units. This surprised Dr. Nemesis, who had thought that when a personality was deleted it should simply disappear. Professor X was then attacked by what he called a "psychic antibody," a personality Legion had subconsciously created to defend against Nemesis's deleting of the personalities. To overcome Professor X on the psychic plane, this personality took on the face of Moira MacTaggart and claimed that it would make a world where Legion could be happy. The 'Moira' personality then reshaped Utopia into Fortress X and inserted itself as Moira and the supercomputer X. When finally confronted about its actions, the personality made the Force walls fall, allowing the human armies to attack. 'Moira' announced her intention to destroy the 616 universe as well as the Age of X and to create a new safe place for David to live happily forever. Instead, David absorbed her and reverted the Fortress X to the normal reality, with a few modifications.New Mutants Vol. 3 #24. Marvel Comics. ==In other media== * Legion via David, Lucas, and an original personality named Ian, a young mute boy with pyrokinesis, appears in the X-Men: Evolution episode "Sins of the Son", voiced by Kyle Labine. This version is a blonde teenager whose body appears to randomly change to match the personality controlling said body and is capable of appearing in multiple places at once, both through unknown means. * A character partially based on Legion named Takeo Sasaki appears in Marvel Anime: X-Men, voiced by Atsushi Abe in the Japanese version and by Steve Staley in the English dub. Similarly to Legion, Takeo is the son of Professor X. Additionally, while Legion himself does not appear, he is stated to be responsible for creating "Demon-Hall Syndrome", a mutant affliction that manifests secondary mutations, such as multiple personalities, uncontrolled physical mutations, and psychological instability. * David Haller / Legion appears in a self-titled TV series, portrayed by Dan Stevens. This version was diagnosed with schizophrenia instead of dissociative identity disorder and possesses psionic abilities such as telepathy and telekinesis. Throughout the first season, he goes on to enter a relationship with a body-swapping mutant named Sydney "Syd" Barrett and discovers the Shadow King has lived in his mind since childhood before the latter possesses another psychic mutant named Oliver Bird. During the second season, David pursues the Shadow King, only to join forces with him to avert a future plague and become more psychopathic. In the third season, David starts a cult and recruits a mutant with time- traveling capabilities called Switch to help him warn his parents Professor X and Gabrielle Haller. However, he puts his mother into a catatonic state. Eventually, he confronts his father before attempting to kill Amahl Farouk for ruining his life, but reconciles with him instead, creating a new timeline in the process. ** Additionally, an alternate reality version of David appears in the episode "Chapter 18", also portrayed by Dan Stevens. ==Collected editions== ===Solo Series=== Title Material collected Publication date ISBN X-Men Legacy Vol. 1: Prodigal X-Men Legacy (vol. 2) #1–6 May 7, 2013 X-Men Legacy Vol. 2: Invasive Exotics X-Men Legacy (vol. 2) #7–12 September 17, 2013 X-Men Legacy Vol. 3: Revenants X-Men Legacy (vol. 2) #13–18 December 3, 2013 X-Men Legacy Vol. 4: For We Are Many X-Men Legacy (vol. 2) #19–24 May 6, 2014 X-Men Legacy: Legion Omnibus X-Men Legacy (vol. 2) #1–24 April 20, 2017 Legion: Trauma Legion #1–5 July 31, 2018 X-Men Legacy volumes 1–4 were rereleased as Legion: Son of X volumes 1–4 in 2018. ===Storylines=== Title Material collected Publication date ISBN X-Men: Legion Quest Uncanny X-Men #318–321, X-Men #38–41, X-Men Unlimited #4–7, X-Men Annual #3, X-Factor #107–109, Cable #20 April 17, 2018 X-Men: Age of X Age of X Alpha #1, X-Men Legacy #245–247, New Mutants #22–24, Age of X Universe #1–2, Age of X Historical Logs January 11, 2012 X-Men: Legion – Shadow King Rising New Mutants #26–28, 44, Uncanny X-Men #253–255, 278–280, X-Factor #69–70 January 30, 2018 ==See also== * Crazy Jane – A DC Comics character who is often linked and compared to Legion * Stephanie Maas – A Joe's Comics character with superpowers and dissociative identity disorder ==References== ==External links== * * Legion at Marvel Wiki ** Legion Personality Index at Marvel Wiki * Legion at Comic Vine * UncannyXmen.Net Spotlight on Legion Category:Characters created by Bill Sienkiewicz Category:Characters created by Chris Claremont Category:Comics characters introduced in 1985 Category:Fictional characters with dissociative identity disorder Category:Fictional characters with schizophrenia Category:Fictional Jews in comics Category:Fictional Israeli Jews Category:Jewish superheroes Category:Israeli superheroes Category:Fictional characters who can manipulate reality Category:Fictional characters who can manipulate time Category:Fictional characters who can manipulate sound Category:Fictional characters with energy-manipulation abilities Category:Fictional characters with fire or heat abilities Category:Fictional characters with dimensional travel abilities Category:Fictional characters with absorption or parasitic abilities Category:Male characters in television Category:Marvel Comics characters who are shapeshifters Category:Marvel Comics characters who can teleport Category:Marvel Comics characters who have mental powers Category:Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength Category:Marvel Comics mutants Category:Marvel Comics telekinetics Category:Marvel Comics telepaths Category:Marvel Comics male superheroes Category:Marvel Comics male supervillains Category:Marvel Comics television characters Category:Fictional attempted suicides Category:Time travelers Category:X-Men supporting characters |
Dhola Post was a border post set up by the Indian Army in June 1962, at a location called Che Dong (), in the Namka Chu river valley area disputed by China and India. The area is now generally accepted to be north of the McMahon Line as drawn on the treaty map of 1914, but it was to the south of the Thagla Ridge, where India held the McMahon Line to lie. On 20 September, the post was attacked by Chinese forces from the Thagla Ridge in the north, and sporadic fighting continued till 20 October when an all-out attack was launched by China leading to the Sino-Indian War. Facing an overwhelming force, the Indian Army evacuated the Dhola Post as well as the entire area of Tawang, retreating to Sela and Bomdila. == Location == The Dhola Post was set up by the Indian border forces on the lower slopes of Tsangdhar range on its northern side. It faced the Thagla Ridge in the north. Between two ridges, and north of the outpost, flows the Namka Chu river from west to east.KC OPraval, 2011, 1962 War: The Chinese invasionI, Indian Defence Review. Though it was not recognised at the outset, the Tsangdhar ridge, Namka Chu valley as well as the Thagla ridge, all turned out to be part of disputed territory. The territory is to the west of the Nyamjang Chu river, which is intersected by the Indo- Tibetan border. The corresponding area to the east, that of the Sumdorong Chu valley, also turned out to be disputed, though the conflict surrounding it arose much later. == Background == The map attached to the 1914 McMahon Line agreement between Tibet and British India (part of the 1914 Simla Convention) showed a straight line border running east–west in the vicinity of the Nyamjang Chu river, cutting across a ridge now recognised as Tsangdhar. Immediately to the north of Tsangdhar ridge is a higher Thagla Ridge (or Tang La Ridge). The Namka Chu river, long, flows in the valley between the two ridges, west to east, joining Nyamjang Chu at the bottom. At the foot of the Thagla Ridge in the Nyamjang Chu valley, about 2.5 km north from the mouth of Namkha Chu, is a grazing ground called Khinzemane (). At the northeastern tip of the Thagla ridge is located the Tibetan village of Le (also spelt Lei or Lai). The villagers of Le as well as those of the village Lumpo to the south are said to have traditionally used the Khinzemane grazing ground. The Indian government claimed that the grazing ground belonged to Lumpo and the villagers of Le had to pay rent to Lumpo for its use. : (Letter from the Prime Minister of India to the Prime Minister of China, 26 September 1959): "[Villages] within Chinese territory’s [on] the other side of the Thangla ridge have been allowed to utilise these grazing pastures and for this privilege the Tibetan village of Le is paying rent in kind to the Indian village of Lumpo. In any case it is not uncommon for border villages on one side to use by mutual agreement pastures lying on the other side of the international boundary and the exercise of this privilege cannot be regarded as evidence in support of a territorial claim." The Indians held that the boundary was supposed to follow the Himalayan watershed, which was clearly on the Thagla Ridge. They believed that the 1914 map incorrectly depicted the border due to inadequate exploration at that time and that the correct border was on the Thagla Ridge. In 1959, India had placed a post at Khinzemane at the foot of the Thagla Ridge. The Chinese forces attacked it and forced it to retreat. After some exchanges in the diplomatic channels, India reinstated the post. During the officials' level border negotiations between the India and China in 1960, the issue was thoroughly discussed, even though it did not result in any agreement.: "[Indian] Army Headquarters had been sent the minutes of the officials' talks of 1960, as well as the final Officials' Report, in which this issue had been addressed. During the officials' talks the Chinese had also been told of the Indian view on correcting a map-drawn line; that is, the need to correlate it with the actual features on the ground. If a feature such as Thagla Ridge had not been explored when the map was issued, and if the map- drawn boundary was supposed to be set by the watershed ridge, then the line lay on the watershed ridge despite the error on the map." China continued to maintain that Khinzemane was Chinese territory. == Establishment == In late 1961, India settled on what came to be called a 'forward policy' to circumvent the Chinese expansion into the disputed areas. It ordered the Indian Army to "go as far as practicable ... and be in effective occupation of the whole frontier". In the northeast frontier, Assam Rifles was tasked with setting up posts all along the McMahon Line. The Dhola Post came into being as part of this effort. The Dhola Post was located on the northern slopes of the Tsangdhar ridge, close to the Namkha Chu valley, at about 300 metres above the level of the river. The Indian official history of the war states that the post was able to dominate the Namkha Chu valley, but it was itself dominated by the Thagla Ridge to the north. The terrain was extremely difficult: thickly wooded mountain slopes led to the area via walking tracks in narrow gorges. The closest inhabitable place was the village of Lumpo at a distance of . The posts had to be supplied by air and the nearest air drop location was on top of the Tsangdhar ridge. A walking track was established along the mountain slope facing the Namjyang Chu valley, leading from Lumpo to a depression called Hatung La on the Tangdhar ridge. At an intermediate location called Zirkhim (or Serkhim) a helipad was constructed. The villages of Lumpo and Zemithang also had helipads, the latter able to take MI-4 Russian helicopters. The army officer who commanded the Assam Rifles platoon, Captain Mahabir Prasad, questioned the siting of the post immediately after returning to base. He informed the Divisional Headquarters that, according to the local Intelligence Bureau sources, the Chinese knew about the Dhola Post and regarded the location as Chinese territory. They would be ready to occupy it as soon as they received orders. The Divisional Commander, Maj. Gen. Niranjan Prasad, queried the higher officers whether the territory was properly Indian, but did not receive a response. His superior, Lt. Gen. Umrao Singh commanding the XXXIII Corps, expressed his own doubts about the legality of the territory, which were also greeted with no response. Eventually the matter was referred to Sarvepalli Gopal heading the Historical Division of the Ministry of External Affairs, who answered in the affirmative, citing the Officials' Report. But, before the information trickled down to the commanders, matters came to a head. == Indian hesitations == When General Prasad, the divisional commander, did not receive a reply to his query about the boundary, he assessed that it made tactical sense to occupy the Thagla Ridge preemptively. He sought permission from the Army headquarters to do so. Before the headquarters made up its mind, the Chinese occupied the Thagla Ridge on 8 September 1962.: "Prasad thought that if the area did belong to India it made better tactical sense to occupy the Thagla ridge itself. He sought permission for a pre-emptive occupation of the ridge. By the time the army headquarters obtained a clarification from the MEA’s historical division and passed it on, the PLA had occupied the Thagla ridge on 8 September.": "The division commander referred the question of whether the territory was properly Indian to higher echelons in the army command chain, and two weeks later... asked for permission to occupy the Thagla Ridge preemptively. Before any reply was received, he learned that the Chinese had recently carried out military exercises in the Dhola area and had already constructed brigade-strength (but not permanently occupied) defensive positions on Thagla Ridge. To Prasad this news precluded Indian occupation of the ridge, since the Chinese could now move onto it at short notice." Scholars find the inefficiencies of the Army command responsible for the Indian inaction, but at the same time the lack of clarity on where the border lay and indecision on how far to go in confronting the Chinese seem to have played a role. In contrast, the Chinese moved decisively.: "Therefore, the unresponsiveness of higher echelons to the questions raised by Prasad..., the need for personal intervention by Palit, the referral to the MEA..., and the fact that Army Headquarters did not respond to Gopal's information with a clear decision...—all served to prevent a preemptive Indian move. The Chinese were allowed to occupy Thagla Ridge first, starting on 8 September." Having occupied the Thagla Ridge, the Chinese entered the Namka Chu valley on the southwestern side of the ridge and threatened the Dhola Post. The Indian Army high command saw the Chinese action as an attempt to replicate in Assam Himalaya the kind of encroachments they were already conducting in Aksai Chin. It was felt that a show of determination was called for to forestall any further encroachments; a 'no alternative' situation, in the words of scholar Steven Hoffmann. Indeed, the opposition parties were vying for blood. The Swatantra Party led by Rajagopalachari asked for Nehru's resignation. In a meeting chaired by defence minister Krishna Menon, it was decided that India would use force "to expel the Chinese from the south of the Thagla [Ridge]". The Army headquarters ordered 7th Infantry Brigade to move to Dhola to deal with the Chinese investment of the post. The local commanders thought the operation to be utterly infeasible. Umrao Singh argued that the Chinese could easily outstrip any effort by India to induct new troops into the area since they had a roadhead leading to their positions. He recommended withdrawing the Dhola Post to the south of the map-marked McMahon Line. He was overruled by General L. P. Sen, in charge of the Eastern Command. In Sen's view any intrusion into Indian territory was unacceptable to the Indian government and the intrusion must be thrown out by force. Fighting broke out on 20 September and continued for ten days. L. P. Sen asked for plans for dislodging the Chinese from the Thagla Ridge. The corps commander, who thought it infeasible, produced logistical requirements that were impossible to meet. Sen asked the high command for Umrao Singh to be replaced. The high command divested Umrao Singh's XXXIII Corps of responsibility for Assam Himalaya, and gave it to IV Corps. The Chief of General Staff B. M. Kaul was asked to head the new formation. IV Corps' troops in the area were inadequate and Kaul is said to have lacked combat experience.: "Lt. General Kaul, who had no combat experience, was made Commander of the IV Corps, a newly raised Corps." == Skirmishes == Kaul toured Dhola Post and nearby locations on 6, 7 and 8 October. Despite the obvious difficulties Kaul perceived, Kaul remained determined to execute the plan of evicting the Chinese. His orders were to complete the operation by 10 October. The few days he had been there, Kaul knew that Thagla was tactically out of reach, so on 9 October, he sent soldiers of 9 Punjab to Thagla Ridge and establish themselves anywhere on it towards Yumtso La which was adjacent to Thagla. The soldiers came face to face with the Chinese and a brief skirmish took place at Tseng Jong. === Clash at Tseng Jong === The clash at Tseng Jong resulted in Indian casualties of 6 dead and 11 wounded; Chinese media announced their casualties as 77 dead. Both sides had numerous injures.Sanjay Sethi (Autumn 2013). Confrontation at Thag La: Indo China War 1962. pp 120–123. Scholar Warrior, CLAWS. Following the clash at Tseng Jong it was clear to General Kaul that the Chinese meant to confront Indian actions. Leaving Brigadier Dalvi incharge, Gen Kaul went to Delhi to explain the situation. Arriving in Delhi on 11 he unsuccessfully tried to convince the leadership to pull back the troops to a defensible position. Gen Kaul went back to the front, but on 17 October Kaul fell ill and returned to Delhi. Brigadier Dalvi had not been informed of Kaul's departure for Delhi. Further, Brigadier Dalvi was at Zimithang, and when the attack on Namka Chu did start, he could not give out clear instructions due to cut communication lines as well as the lack of staff at Zimithang. On 20 October, when the Chinese attacked, there was no one in command of IV Corps. === Massacre at Namka Chu === The battle of Namka Chu started at 5:14 am on 20 October 1962 with Chinese artillery bombardment on Indian positions in Namka Chu and Tsangdhar. After an hour, the Chinese infantry assault began. Indian defences at Namka Chu were attacked from both the front and rear. Positions of the 2 Rajputs and 1/9 Gorkhas were soon overrun with rear positions also being infiltrated by the Chinese. In one hour 7 Infantry Brigade was dismantled. By 8 am some "stragglers" from 1/9 Gorkha reached Brigade HQ. Brigadier Dalvi got permission to withdraw to Tsangdhar but since it had been overrun, he moved to Serkhim. However, on 22 October they were also captured by a Chinese patrol. 9 Punjab and Grenadiers managed to escape through Bhutan after receiving orders for the same. It took them 17 days, ending the battle of Namka Chu. 2 Rajput had consisted of 513 of all ranks out of which 282 killed in the morning and many were captured while 60 men escaped. The Gorkhas lost 80 with 102 captured. 7 Infantry Brigade lost 493 men in the morning of 20 October. In 1989, an Intelligence officer of an infantry battalion led a patrol into the Namka Chu Valley, he has written that "There were skeletons everywhere, and we dug out quite a few – especially in the vicinity of Bridge 3 and 4, Temporary and Log Bridge. All the dog tags we found belonged to the dead from 2 Rajput, for they started with the serial number “29”. Some were probably Chinese casualties, but we had no way of knowing. There was nothing much that we could do – we just stacked them together, poured kerosene on them, saluted and cremated them." === Bum La clashes and the fall of Tawang === == Aftermath == === 1986 Sumdorong Chu standoff === Since 1962, India and China had not returned to Namka Chu until 1986. In that year, the Chinese forces entered the south of the Sumdorong Chu valley and set up semi-permanent structures at the pasturage of Wangdung. Taking up locations on multiple heights, Indian troops were able to strategically occupy the high ground near Sumdorong Chu. India and China formed a new line of actual control along the Namka chu, and the actual control line turned from the downstream to Khinzemane. ==Notes== ==References== ==Bibliography== * * * * * * * * * ; Primary sources * * * * * * * * Category:Territorial disputes of India Category:Territorial disputes of China Category:Sino-Indian War Category:China–India military relations Category:Tawang district Category:Shannan, Tibet Category:Borders of Arunachal Pradesh |
Martha Albertson Fineman (born 1943) is an American jurist, legal theorist and political philosopher. She is Robert W. Woodruff Professor of Law at Emory University School of Law. Fineman was previously the first holder of the Dorothea S. Clarke Professor of Feminist Jurisprudence at Cornell Law School. She held the Maurice T. Moore Professorship at Columbia Law School. Fineman works in the areas of feminist legal theory and critical legal theory and directs the Feminism and Legal Theory Project, which she founded in 1984. Much of her early scholarship focuses on the legal regulation of family and intimacy, and she has been called "the preeminent feminist family theorist of our time." She has since broadened her scope to focus on the legal implications of universal dependency, vulnerability and justice. Her recent work formulates a theory of vulnerability. She is a progressive liberal thinker; she has been an affiliated scholar of John Podesta's Center for American Progress. ==Career== Fineman has a B.A. from Temple University (1971) and a J.D. from the University of Chicago (1975). After graduating from law school, she clerked for the Hon. Luther Merritt Swygert of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, and was on faculty at the University of Wisconsin Law School from 1976 to 1990. Subsequently, Fineman moved to Columbia Law School, where she was appointed as the Maurice T. Moore Professor of Law in 1990. She went on to become the first Dorothea S. Clarke Professor of Feminist Jurisprudence at Cornell Law School in 1999. Since 2004, she has been a Robert W. Woodruff Professor of Law at Emory University School of Law.Emory Law School: Martha Albertson Fineman The honor is "reserved for world-class scholars who are not only proven leaders of their own fields of specialty, but also ambitious bridge-builders across specialty disciplines."Thomas C. Arthur and John Witte, Jr., "The Foundations of Law: Introduction", 54 Emory Law Journal, 1-375 (2005). ==Feminism and Legal Theory Project== Fineman is the founding director of the Feminism and Legal Theory Project, which she founded in 1984 and which has been housed by the University of Wisconsin Law School, Columbia Law School, Cornell Law School, and Emory University School of Law. Fineman founded the FLT Project at the University of Wisconsin Law School and for the next six years the Project hosted an annual summer conference to "provide a forum for interdisciplinary feminist scholarship addressing important issues in law and society." Over time, Fineman expanded the scope of the Project – increasing the number and variety of annual workshops and presentations, and adding new programs. Fineman seeks to bring together other feminists to validate established expertise and encourage newly emerging scholars. The Feminism and Legal Theory Project brings together scholars to study and debate a wide range of topics related to feminist theory and law.Emory Law School: Feminism & Legal Theory The FLT Project hosts four or five scholarly workshops per year with a core commitment "to foster interdisciplinary examinations of specific law and policy topics of particular interest to women." FLT Project inquiries do not address gender exclusively – project scholarship is concerned with equality issues related to the intersections of race, gender, class, sexuality and ability. The FLT Project published At the Boundaries of Law: Feminism and Legal Theory (1990) and Transcending the Boundaries of Law: Generations of Feminism and Legal Theory (2011) as well as other books. ==Vulnerability and the Human Condition Initiative== Fineman directs the Vulnerability and the Human Condition Initiative which was founded in 2008 at Emory Law School. This program hosts national and international workshops and visitors. Its purpose is to provide a forum for scholars interested in engaging the concepts of "vulnerability" and "resilience" and the idea of a "responsive state" in constructing a universal approach to address the human condition. Fineman is an affiliated scholar of the Center for American Progress. In September 2018, she was ranked the #1 Most-Cited Family Law Faculty in the U.S. for the period 2013-2017 on Brian Leiter's Law School Reports, based on Sisk Annual Report data. ==Work on dependency and vulnerability== She now focuses on the legal implications of universal dependency, vulnerability and justice. In her 2004 book The Autonomy Myth: A Theory of Dependency, Fineman "argues that popular ideology in the United States has become fixated on the myth that citizens are and should be autonomous. Yet the fact that dependency is unavoidable in any society and must be dealt with to sustain the polity, Fineman contends, gives the state the responsibility to support caretaking." Her 2008 article "The Vulnerable Subject" in the Yale Journal of Law and Feminism forms the basis for her 2011 book, also titled The Vulnerable Subject. Fineman argues: > Vulnerability is and should be understood to be universal and constant, > inherent in the human condition. The vulnerability approach is an > alternative to traditional equal protection analysis; it represents a post- > identity inquiry in that it is not focused only on discrimination against > defined groups, but concerned with privilege and favor conferred on limited > segments of the population by the state and broader society through their > institutions. As such, vulnerability analysis concentrates on the > institutions and structures our society has and will establish to manage our > common vulnerabilities. This approach has the potential to move us beyond > the stifling confines of current discrimination-based models toward a more > substantive vision of equality.M. Fineman, "The Vulnerable Subject: > Anchoring Equality in the Human Condition", Yale Journal of Law and > Feminism, Vol. 20, No. 1, 2008 According to Selberg and Wegerstad, > Fundamental to Fineman's scholarly work is a feminist critique of notions of > equality, the liberal subject and prevailing anti-discrimination politics. > According to Fineman, the current anti-discrimination doctrine assumes that > discrimination is the discoverable and correctable exception to an otherwise > just and fair system, characterized by values such as individual liberty and > autonomy. Developing her work on dependency, Fineman raises the question: if > our bodily fragility, material needs, and the possibility of messy > dependency they signify cannot be ignored in life, how can they be absent in > our theories about equality, society, politics and law?' Moving beyond > gender and other identity categories, Fineman uses the concept of > vulnerability to 'define the very meaning of what it means to be human.' Expanding on Fineman's framework, Reilly, Bjørnholt and Tastsoglou propose an "expanded, critical and heuristic vulnerability approach, which integrates key insights of 'situated intersectionality' along with a deep understanding of structural and discursively produced forms of oppression as revealed by the precarity approach." ==Awards and recognitions== Fineman is the recipient of the 2008 Cook Award from the School of Industrial and Labor Relations at Cornell UniversityState, Work, and Family: Constructing Equality and the 2006–2007 Leverhulme Visiting Professorship.Professor Fineman Awarded Prestigious Leverhulme Visiting Professorship She is the recipient of the Harry Kalven Prize,Kalven Prize Winners awarded by the Law and Society Association to a scholar whose body of "empirical scholarship has contributed most effectively to the advancement of research in law and society."Association Prizes In March 2004, a symposium of some 500 scholars and students gathered at Emory University School of Law to celebrate the scholarship of its three Robert W. Woodruff Professors of Law, Harold J. Berman, Martha Albertson Fineman, and Michael J. Perry, and Visiting Professor Martin E. Marty.Thomas C. Arthur and John Witte, Jr., "The Foundations of Law: Introduction", 54 Emory Law Journal, 1-375 (2005). In 2010, Fineman held a Marie Curie Fellowship at the UCD Equality Studies Center which was awarded by the European Union. In 2012, Fineman held the Cecil H. and Ida Green Visiting Professorship at the University of British Columbia. In 2013, Lund University awarded her an honorary doctorate. The Faculty of Law named Fineman and former Swedish Chief Justice Johan Munck as its new honorary doctors in 2013. In 2017, Fineman was awarded the Ruth Bader Ginsburg Lifetime Achievement Award by the Association of American Law Schools. Additionally, she held a Neilson Professorship at the Kahn Liberal Arts Institute at Smith College and was named a Lifetime Fellow by the American Bar Foundation. In 2018, she was awarded Albany Law School's Miriam M. Netter '72 Stoneman Award in recognition of her efforts to expand opportunities for women. For 2020-2021, Fineman is a Distinguished Lecturer at the Hagler Institute for Advanced Study at Texas A&M; University. ==Legal scholarship== Fineman has been listed in the top ten most cited scholars in multiple areas of legal scholarship, including critical legal theoryBrian Leiter Most Cited Law Professors by Specialty, 2000-2007 and family law. Fineman's recent publications include "Reasoning from the Body," in Jurisprudence of the Body, Palgrave Press: M.A. Thomson, M. Travis Eds. (forthcoming 2020); "The Limits of Equality: Vulnerability and Inevitable Inequality," in FEMINIST JURISPRUDENCE, Elgar Press: Bowman, C. and West, R. Eds. (2019); and Culture," in Injury and Injustice: The Cultural Politics of Harm and Redress, Cambridge University Press: A. Bloom, D. Engel, M. McCann eds. (2018). ==Publications== ===Books=== *The Autonomy Myth: A Theory of Dependency (The New Press, 2004) *The Neutered Mother, the Sexual Family, and Other Twentieth Century Tragedies (Routledge, 1995) *The Illusion of Equality: The Rhetoric and Reality of Divorce Reform (University of Chicago Press, 1991). Fineman has edited or co-edited the following legal theory volumes: *Vulnerability: Reflections on a New Ethical Foundation for Law and Politics (Ashgate, 2014; co-editor Anna Grear) *Transcending the Boundaries of Law: Generations of Feminism and Legal Theory (Routledge, 2010) *What Is Right for Children? The Competing Paradigms of Religion and Human Rights (Ashgate, 2009; co-editor Karen Worthington) *Feminist and Queer Legal Theory: Intimate Encounters, Uncomfortable Conversations (Ashgate, 2009, co-editors Jack E. Jackson and Adam P. Romero) *Feminism Confronts Homo Economicus: Gender, Law, and Society (Cornell University Press, 2005; co-editor Terrance Doherty) *Feminism, Media, and the Law (Oxford University Press, 1997; co-editor Martha T. McCluskey) *Mothers in Law: Feminism and the Legal Regulation of Motherhood (Columbia University Press, 1995; co-editor Isabel Karpin) *The Public Nature of Private Violence: Women and the Discovery of Abuse (Routledge, 1994, co- editor Roxanne Mykitiuk) *At the Boundaries of Law: Feminism and Legal Theory (Routledge, 1990, co-editor Nancy Sweet Thomadsen). At the Boundaries of Law is the first volume of feminist legal theory. *Feminist Perspectives on Transitional Justice: Through a Theoretical, Policy and Practice-Oriented Lens (with E. Zinsstag), Intersentia Press (Series on Transitional Justice 2013). *Masculinities and Feminisms: Critical Perspectives (with M. Thomson), Ashgate Press 2013. *Privatization, Vulnerability, and Social Responsibility: A Comparative Perspective (with U. Andersson and T. Mattsson), Routledge 2017. *Vulnerability and the Legal Organization of Work (with J. Fineman), Routledge 2019. Fineman has written book reviews including: *"Family Values: Between Neoliberalism and the New Social Conservatism," 25th Anniversary Issue of Social & Legal Studies Vol. 26(6) (2017). *"The Hermeneutics of Reason: A Commentary on Sex and Reason, 25 University of Connecticut Law Review 503 (1993). *"Justice, Gender and the Family" Ethics (1991). *"Unmythological Procedure" 63 University of Southern California Law Review 141 (1989). *"Neither Silent, Nor Revolutionary." Law and Society Review (1989). *"Illusive Equality: Review of The Divorce Revolution, The Unexpected Social and Economic Consequences for Women and Children in America" American Bar Foundation Research Journal 781 (1986). *"Contexts and Comparisons" 55 University of Chicago Law Review 1431 (1988). ===Journal articles=== Recent articles include "Vulnerability in Law and Bioethics," 30 Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved 52 (2020); "Beyond Equality and Discrimination," 73 SMU Law Review Forum 51 (2020); "Vulnerability and Social Justice," 53 Valparaiso Law Review 341 (2019); "Vulnerability and Inevitable Inequality," Oslo Law Review (peer reviewed, 2017); and "Homeschooling the Vulnerable Child" – University of Baltimore Law Review (2016 with George Shepherd). ===Other=== *"Having a child is nothing like deciding to buy a Porsche" in The Guardian (December 1, 2013) ==Lectures and presentations== *Seeger Lecture on Jurisprudence, Valparaiso University (2017) *Anne E. Hirsch Centennial Lecture, New England School of Law (2008) *Emory University – Life of the Mind Lecture (2008) *Cornell University – Alice Cook Lecture(2008) *Panelist and Discussant for the Tanner Lectures (Lecturer was Sarah Hrdy), University of Utah (2001) *Vulnerability and the Human Condition: A Different Approach to Equality, featuring Robert W. Woodruff Professor of Law and Director of the Feminism and Legal Theory Project, Martha Albertson Fineman, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=seC6hqnpkPU *Feminism, Masculinities, and Multiple Identities, featuring Martha Fineman and Elizabeth F. Emens. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nEWUMFF5_WQ ==References== ==Further reading== *"Life, Liberty and Family – Our Q&A; with Law Professor Martha Albertson Fineman", by Laura LaVelle in NewsWhistle (May 4, 2017) *"The human condition: A conversation with Martha Albertson Fineman", by Mirjam Katzin in Eurozine (May 24, 2016) *"Martha Fineman delivers inaugural lecture for Centre for Law and Social Justice", University of Leeds School of Law (October 7, 2015) *"Martha Fineman: Not Afraid of Uncomfortable Conversations" in ESME *"Why Lesbians and Gay Men Should Read Martha Fineman.", American University Journal of Gender, Social Policy & the Law, Vol. 8, No. 1 (2000), pp. 167–176 In 2018, Emory Law Journal featured six articles about Fineman in its 6th issue, written by esteemed colleagues and scholars, some of whom are fellow Law Professors at Emory Law School: *"Vulnerability and the Intergenerational Transmission of Psychosocial Harm", Emory Law Journal, Vol. 67, No. 6 (2018), pp. 1115–1134 *"Martha Fineman, More Transformative Than Ever", Emory Law Journal, Vol. 67, No. 6 (2018), pp. 1135–1147 *"Vulnerability as a Category of Historical Analysis: Initial Thoughts in Tribute to Martha Albertson Fineman", Emory Law Journal, Vol. 67, No. 6 (2018), pp. 1149–1163 *"Notes on The Neutered Mother, or Toward a Queer Socialist Matriarchy", Emory Law Journal, Vol. 67, No. 6 (2018), pp. 1165–1173 *"Formative Projects, Formative Influences: Of Martha Albertson Fineman and Feminist, Liberal, and Vulnerable Subjects", Emory Law Journal, Vol. 67, No. 6 (2018), pp. 1175–1205 *"Bioethics & Vulnerability: Recasting the Objects of Ethical Concern", Emory Law Journal, Vol. 67, No. 6 (2018), pp. 1207–1233 ==External links== *Martha Albertson Fineman - Vulnerability and the Human Condition Initiative *Martha Albertson Fineman – Emory University School of Law *Martha Albertson Fineman – Center for American Progress *Martha Albertson Fineman – Center for the Study of Law and Religion * Martha A. Fineman Papers at Hugh F. MacMillan Law Library, Law Archives, Emory University Category:1943 births Category:Living people Category:Feminist studies scholars Category:American women lawyers Category:American lawyers Category:American legal scholars Category:American legal writers Category:American feminists Category:Philosophers of law Category:American political philosophers Category:American women philosophers Category:Critical theorists Category:Emory University faculty Category:Cornell University faculty Category:Columbia University faculty Category:University of Wisconsin–Madison faculty Category:University of Chicago Law School alumni Category:Temple University alumni Category:Postmodern feminists Category:Center for American Progress people Category:20th-century American philosophers Category:21st-century American philosophers Category:American women legal scholars Category:21st-century American women |
The president of El Salvador (), officially titled President of the Republic of El Salvador (), is the head of state and head of government of El Salvador. He is also, by constitutional law, the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of El Salvador. The office was created in the Constitution of 1841. From 1821 until 1841, the head of state of El Salvador was styled simply as Head of State (Jefe de Estado). The President of the Republic of El Salvador begins their duties on 1 June of the year of their election and is accompanied by a vice president. According to the Electoral Code, for a person to be declared President-Elect of the Republic, they must obtain 50% plus one of the votes obtained in the election in the presidential elections. If none of the candidates gets to obtain that result, a second voting round will be held where the two candidates who have obtained the most electoral votes in the first round will participate. The duration of the presidential term is five years and the president is eligible for reelection once consecutively as of 2021. Each 1 June, the president is accountable to the Legislative Assembly for the contributions and Government Development that the president, the vice president and the Council of Ministers developed from the beginning of the presidential term. ==History== In 1824, the Mayor's Office of Sonsonate and the Intendancy of San Salvador joined to form the State of El Salvador, united first to the United Provinces of Central America and then to the Federal Republic of Central America. According to the federal law, the governor received the title of Supreme Chief until 1841, when El Salvador declared itself independent, with its governor being called President. From then on, four stages with particular characteristics are recognized: the post-federal period, the Coffee Republic, the military governments, and civil governments. In 1841, El Salvador was constituted as an independent and sovereign nation after the rupture of the Federal Republic of Central America in 1838. At that time, the legislative body created a constitution to legitimize the nation of El Salvador and also named Juan Lindo Provisional President of the Republic of El Salvador on 2 February 1841. It was not until 26 September 1842 Juan José Guzmán was elected by the people as President of El Salvador. From that moment, the republic suffered a constant series of provisional governments that brought many leaders to power. In 1858, Captain General Gerardo Barrios became President of the Republic in which his government gave entrance to the "French Bread". He resigned from power in 1863 and Francisco Dueñas became President. It was not until the Constitution of the Republic of El Salvador of 1886 was ratified when the presidential term is increased from two to four years, beginning and ending the presidential terms on 1 March. In 1913, before the death of Manuel Enrique Araujo, a family 'dynasty' would begin. The Meléndez-Quiñonez Dynasty lasted 18 years until Arturo Araujo became President. In 1931, a coup d'état led by Vice President General Maximiliano Hernández Martínez overthrew President Araujo. This dictatorial government would establish the foundations of a rigid and totally militarized nation. It was not until 1939 when General Martínez called for a Constituent Assembly to draft a new constitution which established that the presidential term would be increased from 4 to 6 years and would begin and end on 1 January. During his presidency, Martínez initiated the 1932 Salvadoran Peasant Massacre which killed 25,000 indigenous peoples. Martínez would be overthrown 12 years later in 1944 and General Andrés Ignacio Menéndez became Provisional President. From that moment, the presidency of the Republic once again showed dictatorial instability and military governments began to be established to the point of creating a republic with 'Military Authoritarianism' which would end in 1982. In 1950, Lieutenant Colonel Óscar Osorio constitutionally became the president of the Republic and a new constitution was drafted where the presidential term would be 6 years and begin and end on 14 September. Osorio was known as the president of the social programs since he implemented and founded programs such as the Urban Housing Institute (IVU), the Autonomous Port Executive Commission (CEPA) among others that benefited the nation. In 1960, a coup d'état overthrew President José María Lemus which led to the formation of a Junta of Government which would later be overthrown by the Civic-Military Directory in 1961. This was the case until the constitutional order was reestablished and another constitution was created in 1962 which would bring with it significant presidential reforms. From that moment, the presidential term would last 5 years and begin and end on 1 July. On 15 October 1979, the last coup d'état in Salvadoran history took place where a group of young soldiers and officers overthrew General Carlos Humberto Romero. The coup marked the beginning of the Salvadoran Civil War which would rage on from 1979 to 1992. The Revolutionary Government Junta was established and ruled over El Salvador while fighting against the communist guerrilla group Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN). The Junta was abolished in 1982 and Álvaro Magaña became President of the Republic. The 1983 Constituent Assembly decided to create the current Constitution of El Salvador which set presidential terms to 5 years and would begin and end on June 1. The civil war greatly affected the political stability of the country. President José Napoleón Duarte would lead the government against the FMLN from 1984 to 1989. In 1989, the Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA) won the 1989 presidential election. Alfredo Cristiani became the first president of ARENA. ARENA won the presidential elections in 1989, 1994, 1999, and 2004. Its presidents were Alfredo Cristiani, Armando Calderón Sol, Francisco Flores, and Elías Antonio Saca. The Civil War ended in 1992 and the FMLN became a legal political party in accordance to the Chapultepec Peace Accords. In 20 years of government, El Salvador was characterized by the privatization of national services such as coffee, telecommunications, the pension system, the National Bank, the Electric Power Service, among others. In 2001, the Economic Dollarization System was carried out in the country, a measure adopted by then President Francisco Flores which would have great long-term consequences for the Salvadoran economy and adopted the US dollar as legal currency. Mauricio Funes won the 2009 presidential election ending 20 years of ARENA rule and marked the first FMLN presidency. Salvador Sánchez Cerén became the second FMLN president in 2015 after narrowly defeating Norman Quijano. In 2019, Nayib Bukele, from the Grand Alliance for National Unity (GANA), won the 2019 presidential election ending 10 years of FMLN rule. He was the first president since Duarte to not be a member of either ARENA or FMLN. He was the second president from Palestinian descent, after Elías Antonio Saca. He was inaugurated on 1 June 2019. ==Heads of state of El Salvador within the Federal Republic of Central America (1821–1841)== ===Intendants political leaders of the Province of San Salvador=== ;Political parties Portrait Name Term of office Political affiliation Took office Left office Time in office 1 80px Pedro Barriere 21 September 1821 28 November 1821 Independent 2 80px José Matías Delgado 28 November 1821 9 February 1823 Independent 3 102x102px Vicente Filísola 9 February 1823 7 May 1823 Military 4 80px Felipe Codallos 7 May 1823 25 May 1823 Military — 80px Consultive Junta 25 May 1823 17 June 1823 Consultive Junta – 102x102px Mariano Prado 17 June 1823 22 April 1824 Liberal ===Heads of state of El Salvador=== ;Political parties Portrait Name Elected Term of office Political affiliation Took office Left office Time in office 1 112x112px Juan Manuel Rodríguez — 22 April 1824 1 October 1824 Independent 2 80px Mariano Prado — 1 October 1824 13 December 1824 Liberal 3 101x101px Juan Vicente Villacorta Díaz — 13 December 1824 1 November 1826 Liberal 4 80px Mariano Prado — 1 November 1826 30 January 1829 Liberal 5 80px José María Cornejo 1829 30 January 1829 16 February 1830 Conservative 6 80px José Damián Villacorta — 16 February 1830 4 December 1830 Independent 7 80px José María Cornejo — 4 December 1830 3 April 1832 Conservative — 80px Francisco Morazán — 3 April 1832 13 May 1832 Liberal 8 80px Joaquín de San Martín — 13 May 1832 25 July 1832 Conservative 9 80px Mariano Prado — 25 July 1832 1 July 1833 Liberal 10 80px Joaquín de San Martín 1833 1 July 1833 23 June 1834 Conservative — 80px Carlos Salazar Castro — 23 June 1834 13 July 1834 Independent — 114x114px José Gregorio Salazar — 13 July 1834 30 September 1834 Independent – 80px Joaquín Escolán y Balibrera — 30 September 1834 13 October 1834 Independent 11 80px José María Silva — 13 October 1834 2 March 1835 Independent 12 80px Joaquín Escolán y Balibrera — 2 March 1835 10 April 1835 Independent 13 80px Nicolás Espinoza — 10 April 1835 15 November 1835 Liberal 14 80px Francisco Gómez — 15 November 1835 1 February 1836 Independent 15 80px Diego Vigil Cocaña — 1 February 1836 23 May 1837 Liberal 16 80px Timoteo Menéndez — 23 May 1837 7 June 1837 Independent 17 80px Diego Vigil Cocaña — 7 June 1837 6 January 1838 Liberal 18 80px Timoteo Menéndez — 6 January 1838 23 May 1838 Independent — 80px Antonio José Cañas — 23 May 1838 11 July 1839 Independent 19 80px Francisco Morazán — 11 July 1839 16 February 1840 Liberal — 80px José María Silva — 16 February 1840 5 April 1840 Independent — 80px Municipal Council of San Salvador — 5 April 1840 15 April 1840 Municipal Council of San Salvador — 80px Antonio José Cañas — 15 April 1840 20 September 1840 Independent — 80px Norberto Ramírez — 20 September 1840 7 January 1841 Independent — 80px Juan Lindo — 7 January 1841 22 February 1841 Conservative == Presidents of El Salvador (1841–present) == === Early republic (1841–1885) === ;Political parties Portrait Name Elected Term of office Political Affiliation Took office Left office Time in office — 80px Juan Lindo — 22 February 1841 20 June 1841 Conservative — 80px — 20 June 1841 28 June 1841 Independent — 80px Juan Lindo — 28 June 1841 1 February 1842 Conservative — 102x102px José Escolástico Marín — 1 February 1842 12 April 1842 Independent 1 80px Juan José Guzmán — 12 April 1842 30 June 1842 Conservative — 80px — 30 June 1842 19 July 1842 Independent — 102x102px José Escolástico Marín — 19 July 1842 26 September 1842 Independent 1 80px Juan José Guzmán — 26 September 1842 10 December 1843 Conservative — 80px — 10 December 1843 20 December 1843 Independent — 80px — 20 December 1843 29 December 1843 Independent — 80px — 29 December 1843 1 January 1844 Independent — 80px — 1 January 1844 1 February 1844 Independent — 80px Fermín Palacios — 1 February 1844 7 February 1844 Independent 2 105x105px Francisco Malespín 1844 7 February 1844 16 February 1845 Conservative — 80px Fermín Palacios — 16 February 1845 25 April 1845 Independent 3 80px Joaquín Eufrasio Guzmán — 25 April 1845 1 February 1846 Conservative — 80px Fermín Palacios — 1 February 1846 21 February 1846 Independent 4 80px Eugenio Aguilar 1846 21 February 1846 12 July 1846 Liberal — 80px Fermín Palacios — 12 July 1846 21 July 1846 Independent 4 80px Eugenio Aguilar — 12 July 1846 1 February 1848 Liberal — 80px Tomás Medina — 1 February 1848 3 February 1848 Independent — 80px José Félix Quirós — 3 February 1848 7 February 1848 Independent 5 80px Doroteo Vasconcelos 1848 7 February 1848 26 January 1850 Liberal — 80px Ramón Rodríguez — 26 January 1850 1 February 1850 Independent 5 80px Doroteo Vasconcelos 1850 1 February 1850 12 January 1851 Liberal – 80px Francisco Dueñas — 12 January 1851 1 March 1851 Conservative — 80px José Félix Quirós — 1 March 1851 3 May 1851 Independent 6 80px Francisco Dueñas — 3 May 1851 30 January 1852 Conservative — 80px José María San Martín — 30 January 1852 1 February 1852 Conservative 6 80px Francisco Dueñas 1852 1 February 1852 1 February 1854 Conservative — 80px Vicente Gómez — 1 February 1854 15 February 1854 Independent 7 80px José María San Martín 1854 15 February 1854 1 February 1856 Conservative — 80px Francisco Dueñas — 1 February 1856 12 February 1856 Conservative 8 80px Rafael Campo 1856 12 February 1856 12 May 1856 Conservative — 80px Francisco Dueñas — 12 May 1856 19 July 1856 Conservative 8 80px Rafael Campo — 19 July 1856 1 February 1858 Conservative — 80px Lorenzo Zepeda — 1 February 1858 7 February 1858 Independent 9 80px Miguel Santín del Castillo 1858 7 February 1858 24 June 1858 Conservative — 80px Gerardo Barrios — 24 June 1858 18 September 1858 Liberal 9 80px Miguel Santín del Castillo 1858 18 September 1858 19 January 1859 Conservative – 80px Joaquín Eufrasio Guzmán — 19 January 1859 15 February 1859 Conservative – 80px José María Peralta — 15 February 1859 12 March 1859 Independent – 80px Gerardo Barrios — 12 March 1859 1 February 1860 Liberal 10 80px Gerardo Barrios 1859 1 February 1860 16 December 1860 Liberal – 80px José María Peralta — 16 December 1860 7 February 1861 Independent 10 80px Gerardo Barrios — 7 February 1861 26 October 1863 Liberal — 80px Francisco Dueñas — 26 October 1863 1 February 1865 Conservative 11 80px Francisco Dueñas 1864 1869 1 February 1865 12 April 1871 Conservative – 80px Santiago González Portillo — 12 April 1871 1 February 1872 Liberal 12 80px Santiago González Portillo 1872 1 February 1872 10 May 1872 Liberal – 80px Manuel Méndez — 10 May 1872 16 June 1872 Independent 12 80px Santiago González Portillo – 16 June 1872 1 February 1876 Liberal 13 80px Andrés del Valle 1876 1 February 1876 1 May 1876 Liberal – 80px Rafael Zaldívar – 1 May 1876 1 February 1880 Liberal 14 80px Rafael Zaldívar 1876 1 February 1880 6 April 1884 Liberal — 80px Ángel Guirola — 6 April 1884 21 August 1884 Independent 14 80px Rafael Zaldívar — 21 August 1884 14 May 1885 Liberal === First military dictatorship (1885–1911) === ;Political parties Portrait Name Elected Term of office Political Affiliation Took office Left office Time in office – 80px Fernando Figueroa — 14 May 1885 18 June 1885 Military/Liberal — 80px José Rosales Herrador — 18 June 1885 22 June 1885 Independent – 80px Francisco Menéndez — 22 June 1885 1 March 1887 Military/Liberal 15 80px Francisco Menéndez 1887 1 March 1887 22 June 1890 Military/Liberal – 80px Carlos Ezeta — 22 June 1890 1 March 1891 Military/Liberal 16 80px Carlos Ezeta 1891 1 March 1891 10 June 1894 Military/Liberal – 80px Antonio Ezeta — 4 June 1894 10 June 1894 Military/Liberal – 80px Rafael Antonio Gutiérrez — 10 June 1894 1 March 1895 Military/Liberal 17 80px Rafael Antonio Gutiérrez 1895 1 March 1895 14 November 1898 Military/Liberal – 80px Tomás Regalado Romero — 14 November 1898 1 March 1899 Military/Liberal 18 80px Tomás Regalado Romero 1899 1 March 1899 1 March 1903 Military/Liberal 19 80px Pedro José Escalón 1903 1 March 1903 1 March 1907 Military/Conservative 20 80px Fernando Figueroa 1907 1 March 1907 1 March 1911 Military/Liberal === Meléndez–Quiñónez dynasty (1911–1931) === ;Political parties Portrait Name Elected Term of office Political Affiliation Took office Left office Time in office 21 80px Manuel Enrique Araujo 1911 1 March 1911 9 February 1913 Independent – 80px Carlos Meléndez Ramírez — 9 February 1913 29 August 1914 National Democratic Party – 80px Alfonso Quiñónez Molina — 29 August 1914 1 March 1915 National Democratic Party 22 80px Carlos Meléndez Ramírez 1915 1 March 1915 21 December 1918 National Democratic Party – 80px Alfonso Quiñónez Molina — 21 December 1918 1 March 1919 National Democratic Party 23 80px Jorge Meléndez Ramírez 1919 1 March 1919 1 March 1923 4 years National Democratic Party 24 80px Alfonso Quiñónez Molina 1923 1 March 1923 1 March 1927 4 years National Democratic Party 25 80px Pío Romero Bosque 1927 1 March 1927 1 March 1931 4 years National Democratic Party 26 80px Arturo Araujo 1931 1 March 1931 2 December 1931 Labor Party === Second military dictatorship (1931–1979) === ;Political parties Portrait Name Elected Term of office Political Affiliation Took office Left office Time in office – 80px Civic Directory — 2 December 1931 4 December 1931 Civic Directory – 80px Maximiliano Hernández Martínez — 4 December 1931 28 August 1934 Military/National Pro Patria Party – 80px Andrés Ignacio Menéndez — 28 August 1934 1 March 1935 Military/National Pro Patria Party 27 80px Maximiliano Hernández Martínez 1935 1939 1944 1 March 1935 9 May 1944 Military/National Pro Patria Party – 80px Andrés Ignacio Menéndez — 9 May 1944 21 October 1944 Military/National Pro Patria Party – 80px Osmín Aguirre y Salinas — 21 October 1944 1 March 1945 Military 28 80px Salvador Castaneda Castro 1945 1 March 1945 14 December 1948 Military/Unification Social Democratic Party – 80px — 14 December 1948 14 September 1950 Revolutionary Council of Government 29 80px Óscar Osorio 1950 14 September 1950 14 September 1956 Military/Revolutionary Party of Democratic Unification 30 80px José María Lemus 1956 14 September 1956 26 October 1960 Military/Revolutionary Party of Democratic Unification – 80px Junta of Government — 26 October 1960 25 January 1961 Junta of Government – 80px Civic-Military Directory — 25 January 1961 25 January 1962 Civic-Military Directory – 80px Eusebio Rodolfo Cordón Cea — 25 January 1962 1 July 1962 Independent 31 80px Julio Adalberto Rivera Carballo 1962 1 July 1962 1 July 1967 5 years Military/National Conciliation Party 32 80px Fidel Sánchez Hernández 1967 1 July 1967 1 July 1972 5 years Military/National Conciliation Party 33 80px Arturo Armando Molina 1972 1 July 1972 1 July 1977 5 years Military/National Conciliation Party 34 80px Carlos Humberto Romero 1977 1 July 1977 15 October 1979 Military/National Conciliation Party === Modern republic (1979–present) === ;Political parties Portrait Name Elected Term of office Political Affiliation Took office Left office Time in office – 80px First Revolutionary Government Junta — 15 October 1979 9 January 1980 First Revolutionary Government Junta – 80px Second Revolutionary Government Junta — 9 January 1980 13 December 1980 Second Revolutionary Government Junta – 80px Third Revolutionary Government Junta — 13 December 1980 2 May 1982 Third Revolutionary Government Junta 35 80px Álvaro Magaña 1982 2 May 1982 1 June 1984 Democratic Action Party 36 80px José Napoleón Duarte 1984 1 June 1984 1 June 1989 5 years Christian Democratic Party 37 80px Alfredo Cristiani 1989 1 June 1989 1 June 1994 5 years Nationalist Republican Alliance 38 80px Armando Calderón Sol 1994 1 June 1994 1 June 1999 5 years Nationalist Republican Alliance 39 80px Francisco Flores Pérez 1999 1 June 1999 1 June 2004 5 years Nationalist Republican Alliance 40 80px Antonio Saca 2004 1 June 2004 1 June 2009 5 years Nationalist Republican Alliance 41 80px Mauricio Funes 2009 1 June 2009 1 June 2014 5 years Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front 42 80px Salvador Sánchez Cerén 2014 1 June 2014 1 June 2019 5 years Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front 43 80px Nayib Bukele 2019 1 June 2019 Incumbent (Term ends on 1 June 2024) Nuevas Ideas == Latest election == == See also == *El Salvador *Colonial Intendant of San Salvador *History of El Salvador == References == ==External links== * El Presidencia de El Salvador Category:1841 establishments in El Salvador El Salvador Category:Government of El Salvador |
Women in the Air Force (WAF) was a program which served to bring women into limited roles in the United States Air Force. WAF was formed in 1948 when President Truman signed the Women's Armed Services Integration Act, allowing women to serve directly in the military.Witt, 2005, pp. 5–6. The WAF program ended in 1976 when women were accepted into the USAF on an equal basis with men. WAF was distinct from the Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron (WAFS), a small group of female civilian transport pilots that was formed in 1942 with Nancy H. Love as commander. WAFS was folded into the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs) in 1943; WASP was disbanded in December 1944. ==Life in the WAF== When the USAF was officially formed in 1947, a number of former Women's Army Corps members (WACs) continued serving in the Army but performed Air Force duties, as the Air Force did not admit women in its first year. Some WACs chose to transfer to the WAFs when it became possible. At its inception in 1948, WAF was limited to 4,000 enlisted women and 300 female officers. Women were encouraged to fill many different roles but were not to be trained as pilots, even though the United States Army Air Corps had graduated their first class of female pilots in April 1943 under wartime conditions. The WAF directorship was to be filled by a non-pilot. All WAFs were assigned ground duties, most ending up in clerical and medical positions. Women who were already pilots and who would have been good candidates for WAF leadership were instead diverted to the Air Force Reserves. For example, Nancy Harkness Love, founder and commander of the Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron (WAFS) and executive of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs), was awarded the rank of lieutenant colonel in the Reserves in 1948 after it was directed to admit women. Jacqueline Cochran, who had volunteered in the RAF and had demonstrated solid leadership in greatly expanding the WASP program, was similarly directed to join the Reserves in 1948 within which she rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel in 1969. Female pilots in the Reserves were classified as federal civilian employees, not active military personnel. ===Directors=== upright|thumb|right|A 1952 WAF officer candidate salutes in front of the American flag The first director of WAF was Colonel Geraldine Pratt May, who received her first commission in August 1942. She had been among the first women officers assigned to the Army Air Forces, where she served as WAC staff director within Air Transport Command. May's wartime command at "Air WAC" included 6,000 enlisted women and officers. On becoming director of WAF, May was promoted to full colonel, the first woman in the Air Force to attain that rank. May served until 1951 at which time she accepted a non-military government post. Mary Jo Shelly picked up the WAF directorship in 1951. Shelly was among the first women officers in the Navy and had been instrumental in setting up WAVES training in 1942; after the war she had returned to civilian life as assistant to the president of Bennington College. In WAF, Shelly worked to expand women's assignments within the USAF, as most women were still being placed in traditional "women's jobs" such as stenographer or nurse. A push to employ women in more technical fields was undertaken. Some male USAF commanders were interested in the good results obtained by using women in air defense control centers, passenger air transport operations and in data processing and analysis. Others wanted to see women restricted to a few tightly defined roles. Against the ingrained male-dominated military habits, Shelly achieved only limited success; her outgoing report in 1954 stated that the WAF was fated to remain small and exclusive as long as Selective Service applied only to men.Witt, 2005, p. 67. Colonel Phyllis D. S. Gray, another ex- WAVE, was director of WAF starting in 1954. She passed the baton to Colonel Emma J. Riley in 1957. Riley linked forces with Army Colonel Mary Louise Milligan (WAC) to work with the Defense Department Advisory Committee on Women in the Services (DACOWITS) in a successful attempt to retroactively grant active military service status (and its benefits) to former WAACs (Women's Auxiliary Air Corps) who had served in World War II and had also been in WAC, WAF or one of the other women's services. Riley pointed out to a Congressional subcommittee that SPARS, WAVES and female Marines had been given active duty status but Army and Air Force women had not. The bill passed in 1959 and approximately 1,400 women gained additional active duty credit. WAACs who had chosen not to continue service would wait until 1980 to be granted this status. Further directors: * 1961–1965: Elizabeth Ann Ray * 1965–1973: Jeanne M. Holm (first female two-star general in the United States) * 1973–1975: Billie M. Bobbitt * 1975–1976: Bianca D. Trimeloni left|thumb|New WAF Privates Moore, Kinniebrue, Jackson and Gogue-Cook are issued their service uniforms for basic and extended training, February 1949 ===Recruits=== The first WAF recruit was Sergeant Esther Blake who enlisted July 8, 1948 in the first minute that regular Air Force duty was authorized for women; Blake transferred from the WACs where she had a post in Fort McPherson, Georgia. Lackland Air Force Base, near San Antonio, Texas, was where the first cadre of WAFs reported. Recruits were expected to appear attractive and were schooled in posture and cosmetics along with their physical training and military indoctrination. African-American recruits joined the WAFs in greater numbers in 1949 when basic training for women was desegregated in the USAF. Integration of quarters and mess was slower in coming.Dr. Judith Bellafaire, (2006). Women's Memorial History Archive: Volunteering For Vietnam: African- American Servicewomen Barbara A. Wilson started as a Private at Lackland then steadily moved up the ranks. She was the first WAF to complete her Bachelor of Arts degree through a military program at Long Island University. She was the first enlisted WAF NCO (Technical Sergeant) to become an officer via Officer Training School (OTS). She retired at the rank of Major, and earned a master's degree in an Air Force Program at Southern Illinois University. She produced and hosted a TV program about antiques and wrote as a syndicated newspaper columnist in the '80s. Wilson, writing as "Captain Barb", maintains a website with information about women in all branches of the military: Women Military Veterans: Yesterday—Today—Tomorrow. The first African-American female brigadier general of the USAF was Marcelite J. Harris who attained the rank in 1990. Harris took OTS at Lackland in 1966, after traveling with a USO tour to military bases in Germany and France. Harris said in a 1992 interview with Ebony: "Originally, I wanted to be an actress." After graduating from Spelman College with a BA in speech and drama she joined the WAFs. Specializing in aircraft maintenance, she served as a supervisor at Korat Air Base in Thailand, servicing Vietnam war aircraft. Harris later became Air Officer Commanding at the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado. She even picked up a degree in Business Management along the way. Circa 1992 Harris held a command at HQ USAF, Washington, DC, where she was responsible for 125,000 airmen and an annual budget of $20 billion.Ebony magazine interview: Brig. Gen. Marcelite J. Harris: the Air Force's first black female general. December 1992 She retired in 1997. ===Uniforms=== The first WAFs wore men's uniforms with neckties.Witt, 2005, p. 53. Geraldine Pratt May quickly ordered women's uniforms, selecting herself the particular shade of blue. The cut of the winter uniform was modeled after those of airline flight attendants, using the same material as the men's winter uniforms. Instead of a necktie, tabs were worn on the collar. The effect was considered "smart and contemporary", The two-piece summer uniform, however, made of cotton-cord seersucker, fit poorly and required frequent ironing. ===WAF Band=== The 543rd Air Force Band (WAF) was organized in January 1951 by Colonel George S. Howard, Chief of Bands and Music for the Air Force. Eighteen women musicians were directed by Private First Class Mary Divens. In December 1951, MaryBelle Johns Nissly was recruited by Howard to return to military life at the rank of captain to be given the tasks of conductor and commander of the WAF Band.Witt, 2005, p. 167. Nissly had left Army service in 1946 as a warrant officer and had previously gained attention as a sergeant by starting the first Women's Army Band at Fort Des Moines in 1942 while she was with the Women's Auxiliary Air Corps (WAAC). In its ten-year lifespan, the WAF Band was served by some 235 women musicians with approximately 50 members at any one time. Attrition from the organization was often caused by marriage, as band members were required to be single. They also had to be white; the Air Force knew the WAF Band would be touring the segregated Deep South and they did not want to cross the race barrier. Concerts were played all over the nation, including Hawaii, Alaska and Puerto Rico. At least one concert took them to Mexico. thumb|right|Colonel George S. Howard, USAF Chief of Bands and Music The band marched in Eisenhower's two inaugurations, played in the freezing cold for JFK's inauguration and appeared occasionally on live television broadcasts. Home base for the WAF Band was first Lackland, moving in 1953 to Bolling AFB in Washington, DC, where, by Air Force Regulation 190-21, published June 13, 1955, they were officially designated "United States WAF Band", acknowledging their de facto status as USAF representatives rather than their former status as a simple base band. Their official mission became to "assist, within their capabilities, in promoting Air Force objectives and enhancing the prestige of the Air Force and the United States." This meant there were now two bands serving as ambassadors of the USAF: the all-male Air Force Band and the WAF Band. In 1957, while flying aboard a C-124 Globemaster II, the WAF Band was invited by General James L. Jackson, Deputy Commander of the San Bernardino Air Materiel Area, Air Materiel Command,Air Force biography: Brigadier General James L. Jackson to move to his headquarters at Norton AFB in San Bernardino, California. The move took place in January 1958. The band retained its training and chain-of- command connection with the USAF band school at Bolling. At Norton, the band found it easier to schedule C-124 planes and pilots to keep up their touring schedule. The WAF Band was inactivated in 1961, most likely victims of their success. Colonel Howard, as leader of the all-male band, had apparently grown less eager to share the spotlight. In 1960, he had diverted a special request for the WAFs to perform in Europe, substituting his band instead. That same year Howard issued a directive forbidding the WAF Band to appear at any civilian functions such as county fairs and schools where they had become popular. Nissly continued to accept these civilian invitations in contravention of the directive, allowing anti-women elements in the USAF an excuse to charge the WAF Band with insubordination. The band was dissolved. Band members were given the option of transferring to a different WAF unit but some left the service entirely. Colonel Howard retired on September 1, 1963. Nissly retired at the rank of Major in 1968. The Sousa Archives and Center for American Music holds the Martha Awkerman WAF and Long Beach Band Papers, 1940-2002 which consists of scrapbooks, photographs, and recordings of cornet soloist Martha Awkerman and the WAF Band. ===ROTC program=== In 1956, a WAF section was introduced into the Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) program. Miss Janet Marshall of George Washington University was the first woman to enroll in the WAF Cadet ROTC Program. The program was ordered to be phased out by 1960 by order of the Secretary of the Air Force. By 1959 only 3 WAF ROTC units remained. The downturn was not permanent and by 1970, the Air Force ROTC women cadet program had expanded to a more national scope. Major General Wendy M. Masiello, a 1980 graduate of Texas Tech University, is an example of high- ranking woman officer who was commissioned via Air Force ROTC. ==Closing chapter== In 1967, President Johnson signed Public Law 90-130, lifting grade restrictions and strength limitations on women in the military.Witt, 2005, p. 199. 1973 saw the end of Selective Service (the "draft"), meaning military recruiting practices were beginning to experience radical changes. In 1976, women were accepted into the military on much the same basis as men; the separate status of WAF was abolished. That same year, the United States Air Force Academy began accepting females. ==See also== * Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) * Women's Army Corps (WAC) * WAVES * United States Marine Corps Women's Reserve * SPARS * United States Army Air Forces * United States Air Force * Women in the United States Air Force ==References== ;Notes ;Sources * Witt, Linda. A Defense Weapon Known to Be of Value: Servicewomen of the Korean War Era. UPNE, 2005. ==External links== * Women Military Veterans: Yesterday—Today—Tomorrow * WAF Band website * Category:All-female military units and formations Category:1948 establishments in the United States |
RNA polymerase II holoenzyme is a form of eukaryotic RNA polymerase II that is recruited to the promoters of protein-coding genes in living cells. It consists of RNA polymerase II, a subset of general transcription factors, and regulatory proteins known as . ==RNA polymerase II== RNA polymerase II (also called RNAP II and Pol II) is an enzyme found in eukaryotic cells. It catalyzes the transcription of DNA to synthesize precursors of mRNA and most snRNA and microRNA. In humans, RNAP II consists of seventeen protein molecules (gene products encoded by POLR2A-L, where the proteins synthesized from POLR2C, POLR2E, and POLR2F form homodimers). ==General transcription factors== General transcription factors (GTFs) or basal transcription factors are protein transcription factors that have been shown to be important in the transcription of class II genes to mRNA templates. Many of them are involved in the formation of a preinitiation complex, which, together with RNA polymerase II, bind to and read the single-stranded DNA gene template. The cluster of RNA polymerase II and various transcription factors is known as a basal transcriptional complex (BTC). ==Preinitiation complex== The preinitiation complex (PIC) is a large complex of proteins that is necessary for the transcription of protein-coding genes in eukaryotes and archaea. The PIC helps position RNA polymerase II over gene transcription start sites, denatures the DNA, and positions the DNA in the RNA polymerase II active site for transcription. The typical PIC is made up of six general transcription factors: TFIIA (GTF2A1, GTF2A2), TFIIB (GTF2B), B-TFIID (BTAF1, TBP), TFIID (BTAF1, BTF3, BTF3L4, EDF1, TAF1-15, 16 total), TFIIE, TFIIF, TFIIH and TFIIJ. The construction of the polymerase complex takes place on the gene promoter. The TATA box is one well-studied example of a promoter element that occurs in approximately 10% of genes. It is conserved in many (though not all) model eukaryotes and is found in a fraction of the promoters in these organisms. The sequence TATA (or variations) is located at approximately 25 nucleotides upstream of the Transcription Start Point (TSP). In addition, there are also some weakly conserved features including the TFIIB-Recognition Element (BRE), approximately 5 nucleotides upstream (BREu) and 5 nucleotides downstream (BREd) of the TATA box. ===Assembly of the PIC=== Although the sequence of steps involved in the assembly of the PIC can vary, in general, they follow step 1, binding to the promoter. # The TATA-binding protein (TBP, a subunit of TFIID), TBPL1, or TBPL2 can bind the promoter or TATA box. Most genes lack a TATA box and use an initiator element (Inr) or downstream core promoter instead. Nevertheless, TBP is always involved and is forced to bind without sequence specificity. TAFs from TFIID can also be involved when the TATA box is absent. A TFIID TAF will bind sequence specifically, and force the TBP to bind non-sequence specifically, bringing the remaining portions of TFIID to the promoter. # TFIIA interacts with the TBP subunit of TFIID and aids in the binding of TBP to TATA-box containing promoter DNA. Although TFIIA does not recognize DNA itself, its interactions with TBP allow it to stabilize and facilitate formation of the PIC. # The N-terminal domain of TFIIB brings the DNA into proper position for entry into the active site of RNA polymerase II. TFIIB binds partially sequence specifically, with some preference for BRE. The TFIID-TFIIA-TFIIB (DAB)-promoter complex subsequently recruits RNA polymerase II and TFIIF. # TFIIF (two subunits, RAP30 and RAP74, showing some similarity to bacterial sigma factors) and Pol II enter the complex together. TFIIF helps to speed up the polymerization process. # TFIIE joins the growing complex and recruits TFIIH. TFIIE may be involved in DNA melting at the promoter: it contains a zinc ribbon motif that can bind single-stranded DNA. TFIIE helps to open and close the Pol II’s Jaw-like structure, which enables movement down the DNA strand. # DNA may be wrapped one complete turn around the preinitiation complex and it is TFIIF that helps keep this tight wrapping. In the process, the torsional strain on the DNA may aid in DNA melting at the promoter, forming the transcription bubble. # TFIIH enters the complex. TFIIH is a large protein complex that contains among others the CDK7/cyclin H kinase complex and a DNA helicase. TFIIH has three functions: It binds specifically to the template strand to ensure that the correct strand of DNA is transcribed and melts or unwinds the DNA (ATP-dependent) to separate the two strands using its helicase activity. It has a kinase activity that phosphorylates the C-terminal domain (CTD) of Pol II at the amino acid serine. This switches the RNA polymerase to start producing RNA. Finally it is essential for Nucleotide Excision Repair (NER) of damaged DNA. TFIIH and TFIIE strongly interact with one another. TFIIE affects TFIIH's catalytic activity. Without TFIIE, TFIIH will not unwind the promoter. # TFIIH helps create the transcription bubble and may be required for transcription if the DNA template is not already denatured or if it is supercoiled. # Mediator then encases all the transcription factors and Pol II. It interacts with enhancers, areas very far away (upstream or downstream) that help regulate transcription. The formation of the preinitiation complex (PIC) is analogous to the mechanism seen in bacterial initiation. In bacteria, the sigma factor recognizes and binds to the promoter sequence. In eukaryotes, the transcription factors perform this role. ==Mediator complex== Mediator is a multiprotein complex that functions as a transcriptional coactivator. The Mediator complex is required for the successful transcription of nearly all class II gene promoters in yeast. It works in the same manner in mammals. The mediator functions as a coactivator and binds to the C-terminal domain (CTD) of RNA polymerase II holoenzyme, acting as a bridge between this enzyme and transcription factors. ==C-terminal domain (CTD)== The carboxy-terminal domain (CTD) of RNA polymerase II is that portion of the polymerase that is involved in the initiation of DNA transcription, the capping of the RNA transcript, and attachment to the spliceosome for RNA splicing. The CTD typically consists of up to 52 repeats (in humans) of the sequence Tyr-Ser-Pro-Thr-Ser-Pro-Ser. The carboxy-terminal repeat domain (CTD) is essential for life. Cells containing only RNAPII with none or only up to one-third of its repeats are inviable. The CTD is an extension appended to the C terminus of RPB1, the largest subunit of RNA polymerase II. It serves as a flexible binding scaffold for numerous nuclear factors, determined by the phosphorylation patterns on the CTD repeats. Each repeat contains an evolutionary conserved and repeated heptapeptide, Tyr1-Ser2-Pro3-Thr4-Ser5-Pro6-Ser7, which is subjected to reversible phosphorylations during each transcription cycle. This domain is inherently unstructured yet evolutionarily conserved, and in eukaryotes it comprises from 25 to 52 tandem copies of the consensus repeat heptad. As the CTD is frequently not required for general transcription factor (GTF)-mediated initiation and RNA synthesis, it does not form a part of the catalytic essence of RNAPII, but performs other functions. ==CTD phosphorylation== RNAPII can exist in two forms: RNAPII0, with a highly phosphorylated CTD, and RNAPIIA, with a nonphosphorylated CTD. Phosphorylation occurs principally on Ser2 and Ser5 of the repeats, although these positions are not equivalent. The phosphorylation state changes as RNAPII progresses through the transcription cycle: The initiating RNAPII is form IIA, and the elongating enzyme is form II0. While RNAPII0 does consist of RNAPs with hyperphosphorylated CTDs, the pattern of phosphorylation on individual CTDs can vary due to differential phosphorylation of Ser2 versus Ser5 residues and/or to differential phosphorylation of repeats along the length of the CTD. The PCTD (phosphoCTD of an RNAPII0) physically links pre-mRNA processing to transcription by tethering processing factors to elongating RNAPII, e.g., 5′-end capping, 3′-end cleavage, and polyadenylation. Ser5 phosphorylation (Ser5PO4) near the 5′ ends of genes depends principally on the kinase activity of TFIIH (Kin28 in yeast; CDK7 in metazoans). The transcription factor TFIIH is a kinase and will hyperphosphorylate the CTD of RNAP, and in doing so, causes the RNAP complex to move away from the initiation site. Subsequent to the action of TFIIH kinase, Ser2 residues are phosphorylated by CTDK-I in yeast (CDK9 kinase in metazoans). Ctk1 (CDK9) acts in complement to phosphorylation of serine 5 and is, thus, seen in middle to late elongation. CDK8 and cyclin C (CCNC) are components of the RNA polymerase II holoenzyme that phosphorylate the carboxy- terminal domain (CTD). CDK8 regulates transcription by targeting the CDK7/cyclin H subunits of the general transcription initiation factor IIH (TFIIH), thereby providing a link between the mediator and the basal transcription machinery. The gene CTDP1 encodes a phosphatase that interacts with the carboxy-terminus of transcription initiation factor TFIIF, a transcription factor that regulates elongation as well as initiation by RNA polymerase II. Also involved in the phosphorylation and regulation of the RPB1 CTD is cyclin T1 (CCNT1). Cyclin T1 tightly associates and forms a complex with CDK9 kinase, both of which are involved in the phosphorylation and regulation. : ATP + [DNA-directed RNA polymerase II] <=> ADP + [DNA-directed RNA polymerase II] phosphate : catalyzed by CDK9 EC 2.7.11.23. TFIIF and FCP1 cooperate for RNAPII recycling. FCP1, the CTD phosphatase, interacts with RNA polymerase II. Transcription is regulated by the state of phosphorylation of a heptapeptide repeat. The nonphosphorylated form, RNAPIIA, is recruited to the initiation complex, whereas the elongating polymerase is found with RNAPII0. RNAPII cycles during transcription. CTD phosphatase activity is regulated by two GTFs (TFIIF and TFIIB). The large subunit of TFIIF (RAP74) stimulates the CTD phosphatase activity, whereas TFIIB inhibits TFIIF-mediated stimulation. Dephosphorylation of the CTD alters the migration of the largest subunit of RNAPII (RPB1). ===5' capping=== The carboxy-terminal domain is also the binding site of the cap-synthesizing and cap-binding complex. In eukaryotes, after transcription of the 5' end of an RNA transcript, the cap-synthesizing complex on the CTD will remove the gamma-phosphate from the 5'-phosphate and attach a GMP, forming a 5',5'-triphosphate linkage. The synthesizing complex falls off and the cap then binds to the cap-binding complex (CBC), which is bound to the CTD. The 5'cap of eukaryotic RNA transcripts is important for binding of the mRNA transcript to the ribosome during translation, to the CTD of RNAP, and prevents RNA degradation. ===Spliceosome=== The carboxy-terminal domain is also the binding site for spliceosome factors that are part of RNA splicing. These allow for the splicing and removal of introns (in the form of a lariat structure) during RNA transcription. ===Mutation in the CTD=== Major studies in which knockout of particular amino acids was achieved in the CTD have been carried out. The results indicate that RNA polymerase II CTD truncation mutations affect the ability to induce transcription of a subset of genes in vivo, and the lack of response to induction maps to the upstream activating sequences of these genes. ==Genome surveillance complex== Several protein members of the BRCA1-associated genome surveillance complex (BASC) associate with RNA polymerase II and play a role in transcription. The transcription factor TFIIH is involved in transcription initiation and DNA repair. MAT1 (for 'ménage à trois-1') is involved in the assembly of the CAK complex. CAK is a multisubunit protein that includes CDK7, cyclin H (CCNH), and MAT1. CAK is an essential component of the transcription factor TFIIH that is involved in transcription initiation and DNA repair. The nucleotide excision repair (NER) pathway is a mechanism to repair damage to DNA. ERCC2 is involved in transcription-coupled NER and is an integral member of the basal transcription factor BTF2/TFIIH complex. ERCC3 is an ATP-dependent DNA helicase that functions in NER. It also is a subunit of basal transcription factor 2 (TFIIH) and, thus, functions in class II transcription. XPG (ERCC5) forms a stable complex with TFIIH, which is active in transcription and NER. ERCC6 encodes a DNA-binding protein that is important in transcription-coupled excision repair. ERCC8 interacts with Cockayne syndrome type B (CSB) protein, with p44 (GTF2H2), a subunit of the RNA polymerase II transcription factor IIH, and ERCC6. It is involved in transcription-coupled excision repair. Higher error ratios in transcription by RNA polymerase II are observed in the presence of Mn2+ compared to Mg2+. ==Transcription coactivators== The EDF1 gene encodes a protein that acts as a transcriptional coactivator by interconnecting the general transcription factor TATA element-binding protein (TBP) and gene-specific activators. TFIID and human mediator coactivator (THRAP3) complexes (mediator complex, plus THRAP3 protein) assemble cooperatively on promoter DNA, from which they become part of the RNAPII holoenzyme. ==Transcription initiation== The completed assembly of the holoenzyme with transcription factors and RNA polymerase II bound to the promoter forms the eukaryotic transcription initiation complex. Transcription in the archaea domain is similar to transcription in eukaryotes. Transcription begins with matching of NTPs to the first and second in the DNA sequence. This, like most of the remainder of transcription, is an energy-dependent process, consuming adenosine triphosphate (ATP) or other NTP. ==Promoter clearance== After the first bond is synthesized, the RNA polymerase must clear the promoter. During this time, there is a tendency to release the RNA transcript and produce truncated transcripts. This is called abortive initiation and is common for both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Abortive initiation continues to occur until the σ factor rearranges, resulting in the transcription elongation complex (which gives a 35 bp-moving footprint). The σ factor is released before 80 nucleotides of mRNA are synthesized. Once the transcript reaches approximately 23 nucleotides, it no longer slips and elongation can occur. ==Initiation regulation== Due to the range of genes that Pol II transcribes, this is the polymerase that experiences the most regulation by a range of factors at each stage of transcription. It is also one of the most complex in terms of polymerase cofactors involved. Initiation is regulated by many mechanisms. These can be separated into two main categories: #Protein interference. #Regulation by phosphorylation. ===Regulation by protein interference=== Protein interference is the process where in some signaling protein interacts, either with the promoter or with some stage of the partially constructed complex, to prevent further construction of the polymerase complex, so preventing initiation. In general, this is a very rapid response and is used for fine level, individual gene control and for 'cascade' processes for a group of genes useful under a specific conditions (for example, DNA repair genes or heat shock genes). Chromatin structure inhibition is the process wherein the promoter is hidden by chromatin structure. Chromatin structure is controlled by post- translational modification of the histones involved and leads to gross levels of high or low transcription levels. See: chromatin, histone, and nucleosome. These methods of control can be combined in a modular method, allowing very high specificity in transcription initiation control. ===Regulation by phosphorylation=== The largest subunit of Pol II (Rpb1) has a domain at its C-terminus called the CTD (C-terminal domain). This is the target of kinases and phosphatases. The phosphorylation of the CTD is an important regulation mechanism, as this allows attraction and rejection of factors that have a function in the transcription process. The CTD can be considered as a platform for transcription factors. The CTD consists of repetitions of an amino acid motif, YSPTSPS, of which Serines and Threonines can be phosphorylated. The number of these repeats varies; the mammalian protein contains 52, while the yeast protein contains 26. Site-directed-mutagenesis of the yeast protein has found at least 10 repeats are needed for viability. There are many different combinations of phosphorylations possible on these repeats and these can change rapidly during transcription. The regulation of these phosphorylations and the consequences for the association of transcription factors plays a major role in the regulation of transcription. During the transcription cycle, the CTD of the large subunit of RNAP II is reversibly phosphorylated. RNAP II containing unphosphorylated CTD is recruited to the promoter, whereas the hyperphosphorylated CTD form is involved in active transcription. Phosphorylation occurs at two sites within the heptapeptide repeat, at Serine 5 and Serine 2. Serine 5 phosphorylation is confined to promoter regions and is necessary for the initiation of transcription, whereas Serine 2 phosphorylation is important for mRNA elongation and 3'-end processing. ==Elongation== The process of elongation is the synthesis of a copy of the DNA into messenger RNA. RNA Pol II matches complementary RNA nucleotides to the template DNA by Watson-Crick base pairing. These RNA nucleotides are ligated, resulting in a strand of messenger RNA. Unlike DNA replication, mRNA transcription can involve multiple RNA polymerases on a single DNA template and multiple rounds of transcription (amplification of particular mRNA), so many mRNA molecules can be rapidly produced from a single copy of a gene. Elongation also involves a proofreading mechanism that can replace incorrectly incorporated bases. In eukaryotes, this may correspond with short pauses during transcription that allow appropriate RNA editing factors to bind. These pauses may be intrinsic to the RNA polymerase or due to chromatin structure. ===Elongation regulation=== RNA Pol II elongation promoters can be summarised in three classes: # Drug/sequence-dependent arrest affected factors, e.g., SII (TFIIS) and P-TEFb protein families. # Chromatin structure oriented factors. Based on histone post translational modifications – phosphorylation, acetylation, methylation and ubiquination. #: See: chromatin, histone, and nucleosome # RNA Pol II catalysis improving factors. Improve the Vmax or Km of RNA Pol II, so improving the catalytic quality of the polymerase enzyme. E.g. TFIIF, Elongin and ELL families. #: See: Enzyme kinetics, Henri–Michaelis–Menten kinetics, Michaelis constant, and Lineweaver–Burk plot As for initiation, protein interference, seen as the "drug/sequence-dependent arrest affected factors" and "RNA Pol II catalysis improving factors" provide a very rapid response and is used for fine level individual gene control. Elongation downregulation is also possible, in this case usually by blocking polymerase progress or by deactivating the polymerase. Chromatin structure- oriented factors are more complex than for initiation control. Often the chromatin-altering factor becomes bound to the polymerase complex, altering the histones as they are encountered and providing a semi-permanent 'memory' of previous promotion and transcription. ==Termination== Termination is the process of breaking up the polymerase complex and ending the RNA strand. In eukaryotes using RNA Pol II, this termination is very variable (up to 2000 bases), relying on post transcriptional modification. Little regulation occurs at termination, although it has been proposed newly transcribed RNA is held in place if proper termination is inhibited, allowing very fast expression of genes given a stimulus. This has not yet been demonstrated in eukaryotes. ==Transcription factory== Active RNA Pol II transcription holoenzymes can be clustered in the nucleus, in discrete sites called transcription factories. There are ~8,000 such factories in the nucleoplasm of a HeLa cell, but only 100–300 RNAP II foci per nucleus in erythroid cells, as in many other tissue types. The number of transcription factories in tissues is far more restricted than indicated by previous estimates from cultured cells. As an active transcription unit is usually associated with only one Pol II holoenzyme, a polymerase II factory may contain on average ~8 holoenzymes. Colocalization of transcribed genes has not been observed when using cultured fibroblast-like cells. Differentiated or committed tissue types have a limited number of available transcription sites. Estimates show that erythroid cells express at least 4,000 genes, so many genes are obliged to seek out and share the same factory. The intranuclear position of many genes is correlated with their activity state. During transcription in vivo, distal active genes are dynamically organized into shared nuclear subcompartments and colocalize to the same transcription factory at high frequencies. Movement into or out of these factories results in activation (On) or abatement (Off) of transcription, rather than by recruiting and assembling a transcription complex. Usually, genes migrate to preassembled factories for transcription. An expressed gene is preferentially located outside of its chromosome territory, but a closely linked, inactive gene is located inside. ==Holoenzyme stability== RNA polymerase II holoenzyme stability determines the number of base pairs that can be transcribed before the holoenzyme loses its ability to transcribe. The length of the CTD is essential for RNA polymerase II stability. RNA polymerase II stability has been shown to be regulated by post- translation proline hydroxylation. The von Hippel–Lindau tumor suppressor protein (pVHL, human GeneID: 7428) complex binds the hyperphosphorylated large subunit of the RNA polymerase II complex, in a proline hydroxylation- and CTD phosphorylation-dependent manner, targeting it for ubiquitination. ==See also== * RNA polymerase I * RNA polymerase III * Post-transcriptional modification * Transcription (genetics) * Eukaryotic transcription ==References== * *RNA Polymerase: Components of the Transcription Initiation Machinery * * ==External links== * More information at Berkeley National Lab * Category:Enzymes Category:Protein complexes Category:Gene expression |
White Latin Americans, or European Latin Americans, are Latin Americans who are considered white, typically due to European descent. Latin American countries have often tolerated interethnic marriage since the beginning of the colonial period. Direct descendants of European settlers who arrived in the Americas during the colonial and post-colonial periods can be found throughout Latin America. Most immigrants who settled the region for the past five centuries were Spanish and Portuguese; after independence, the most numerous non-Iberian immigrants were French, Italians, and Germans, followed by other Europeans as well as West Asians (such as Levantine Arabs and Armenians). Composing from 33% of the population , according to some sources,CIA data from The World Factbook's Field Listing :: Ethnic groups and Field Listing :: Population, retrieved on May 09 2011. They show 191,543,213 whites from a total population of 579,092,570. For a few countries the percentage of white population is not provided as a standalone figure, and thus that datum is considered to be not available; for example, in Chile's case the CIA states "white and white-Amerindian 95.4%". Unequivocal data are given for the following: Argentina 41,769,726 * 97% white = 40,516,634; Bolivia 10,118,683 * 5% white = 505,934; Brazil 203,429,773 * 53.7% white = 109,241,788; Colombia 44,725,543 * 20% white = 8,945,109; Cuba 11,087,330 * 65.1% white = 7,217,852; Dominican Republic 9,956,648 * 16% white = 1,593,064; El Salvador 6,071,774 * 9% white = 546,460; Honduras 8,143,564 * 1% white = 81,436; Mexico 113,724,226 * 9% white = 10,235,180; Nicaragua 5,666,301 * 17% white = 963,272; Panama 3,460,462 * 10% white = 346,046; Peru 29,248,943 * 15% white = 4,387,342; Puerto Rico 3,989,133 * 76.2% white = 3,039,719; Uruguay 3,308,535 * 88% white = 2,911,511. Total white population in these countries: 191,543,213, i.e 33.07% of the region's population. White Latin Americans constitute the second largest racial-ethnic group after mixed race people in the region. White is the self-identification of many Latin Americans in some national censuses. According to a survey conducted by Cohesión Social in Latin America, conducted on a sample of 10,000 people from seven countries of the region, 34% of those interviewed identified themselves as white. ==Being white== Being white is a term that emerged from a tradition of racial classification that developed as many Europeans colonized large parts of the world and employed classificatory systems to distinguish themselves from the local inhabitants. However, while most present-day racial classifications include a concept of being white that is ideologically connected to European heritage and specific phenotypic and biological features associated with European heritage, there are differences in how people are classified. These differences arise from the various historical processes and social contexts in which a given racial classification is used. As Latin America is characterized by differing histories and social contexts, there is also variance in the perception of whiteness throughout Latin America. According to Peter Wade, a specialist in race concepts of Latin America, > ...racial categories and racial ideologies are not simply those that > elaborate social constructions on the basis of phenotypical variation or > ideas about innate difference but those that do so using the particular > aspects of phenotypical variation that were worked into vital signifiers of > difference during European colonial encounters with others.Wade, Peter. > 1997. Race and Ethnicity in Latin America. Critical Studies On Latin > America. Pluto Press p. 15 In many parts of Latin America being white is more a matter of socio-economic status than specific phenotypic traits, and it is often said that in Latin America "money whitens".Levine-Rasky, Cynthia. 2002. "Working through whiteness: international perspectives. SUNY Press (p. 73) " 'Money whitens' If any phrase encapsulates the association of whiteness and the modern in Latin America, this is it. It is a cliché formulated and reformulated throughout the region, a truism dependent upon the social experience that wealth is associated with whiteness, and that in obtaining the former one may become aligned with the latter (and vice versa)." Within Latin America there are variations in how racial boundaries have been defined. In Argentina, for example, the notion of mixture has been downplayed. Alternately, in countries like Mexico and Brazil mixture has been emphasized as fundamental for nation- building, resulting in a large group of bi-racial mestizos, in Mexico, or tri- racial pardos, in Brazil,Do pensamento racial ao pensamento racional , laboratoriogene.com.br. who are considered neither fully white nor fully non- white. Unlike in the United States where ancestry may be used exclusively to define race, by the 1970s, Latin American scholars came to agree that race in Latin America could not be understood as the "genetic composition of individuals" but instead must be "based upon a combination of cultural, social, and somatic considerations". In Latin America, a person's ancestry may not be decisive in racial classification. For example, full-blooded siblings can often be classified as belonging to different races (Harris 1964). For these reasons the distinction between "white" and "mixed", and between "mixed" and "black" and "indigenous", is largely subjective and situational, meaning that any attempt to classify by discrete racial categories is fraught with problems. ==History== thumb|right|upright=1.32|Latin America People of European origin began to arrive in the Americas in the 15th century since the first voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492. Most early migrants were male, but by the early and mid 16th century, more and more women also began to arrive from Europe. After the Wars of Independence, the elites of most of the countries of the region concluded that their underdevelopment was caused by their populations being mostly Amerindian, Mestizo or Mulatto; so a major process of "whitening" was required, or at least desirable. Most Latin American countries then implemented blanqueamiento policies to promote European immigration, and some were quite successful, especially Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil. From the late 19th century to the early 20th century, the number of European immigrants who arrived far surpassed the number of original colonists. Between 1821 and 1932, of a total 15 million immigrants who arrived in Latin America,South America: Postindependence overseas immigrants. Encyclopædia Britannica Retrieved 26-11-2007 Argentina received 6.4 million, and Brazil 5.5 million. === Historical demographic growth === The following table shows estimates (in thousands) of white, black/mulatto, Amerindian, and mestizo populations of Latin America, from the 17th to the 20th centuries. The figures shown are, for the years between 1650 and 1980, from the Arias' The Cry of My People...,The Cry of My People. Out of Captivity in Latin America, escrita por Esther and Mortimer Arias. Editorial New York Friendship Press. 1980. Páginas 17 y 18. for 2000, from Lizcano's Composición Étnica.... Percentages are by the editor. Year White Black Amerindian Mestizo Total 1650 138 67 12,000 670 12,875 Percentages 1.1% 0.5% 93.2% 5.2% 100% 1825 4,350 4,100 8,000 6,200 22,650 Percentages 19.2% 18.1% 35.3% 27.3% 100% 1950 72,000 13,729 14,000 61,000 160,729 Percentages 44.8% 8.5% 8.7% 37.9% 100% 1980 150,000 27,000 30,000 140,000 347,000 Percentages 43.2% 7.7% 8.6% 40.3% 100% 2000 181,296 119,055 46,434 152,380 502,784 Percentages 36.1% 23.6% 9.2% 30.3% 100% ==Admixture== Since European colonization, Latin America's population has had a long history of intermixing. Today, many Latin Americans who have European ancestry, may have varying degrees of Indigenous or Sub-Saharan African ancestry as well. The casta categories used in 18th-century colonial Latin America designated people according to their ethnic or racial background, with the main classifications being indio (used to refer to Native American people), Spaniard, and mestizo, although the categories were rather fluid and inconsistently used. Under this system, those with one Indio great- grandparent but the remainder being Spaniards, were legally Spaniards. The offspring of a castizo and Spaniard was a Spaniard. The same was not true for African ancestry. As in Spain, persons of Moorish or Jewish ancestry within two generations were generally not allowed to enroll in the Spanish Army or the Catholic Church in the colonies, although this prohibition was inconsistently applied. Applicants to both institutions, and their spouses, had to obtain a Limpieza de sangre (purity of blood) certificate that proved that they had no Jewish or Moorish ancestors, in the same way as those in the Peninsula did. However, being a medieval concept that was more of a religious issue rather than a racial issue, it was never a problem for the native or slave populations in the colonies of the Spanish Empire, and by law people from all races were to join the army, with openly practicing Roman Catholicism being the only prerequisite. One notable example was that of Francisco Menendez, a freed-black military officer of the Spanish Army during the 18th century at the Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose fort in St. Augustine, Florida. ==Populations== The country with the largest number of white inhabitants in Latin America is Brazil, with 91 million out of 190.7 million total Brazilians, or 47.7% of the total population, as of the 2010 census. Brazil's southern region contains the highest concentration, at 79% of the population. Argentina received the largest number of European immigrants, with more than 7 million, second only to the United States, which received 24 million, and ahead of Canada and Australia. In terms of percentage of the total population, Uruguay has the highest concentrations of whites, who constitute 92% of their total population, while Honduras has the smallest white population, with only 1%. Country Percent (%) of the local population Self identification Population (millions) Uruguay 88 3.2 Costa Rica 82.7 3.2 Argentina 85 38 Cuba 64.1official 2012 Census 7.16 Chile 52 9.1 Brazil 47.7 91 Mexico 10-47 12-56 Venezuela 17-43.6 4.1-13.1 Colombia 20-37 8.4-18.2 Paraguay 20.0 1.7 Nicaragua 14-17 1.0-1.4 Dominican Republic 17.8 1.8 Puerto Rico 17.1-75.8 0.56-2.6 El Salvador 12-12.7 0.73 Panama 10 0.420 Ecuador 6.1 0.883 Peru 5.9 1.3 Bolivia 5 0.950 Guatemala 4.0 0.650 Haiti 5 (est.)CIA World Factbook : Haiti. 0.524 (est.) Honduras 1.0 0.089 ===North America=== ====Mexico==== White Mexicans are for the most part descendants of Spanish immigrants who arrived mainly from northern regions of Spain such as Cantabria, Navarra, Asturias, Burgos, Galicia and the Basque Country; however in the 19th and 20th century many non- Iberian immigrants arrived to the country, either motivated by economic opportunity (Americans, Canadians, English), government programs (Italians, Irish, Germans) or political motives such as the French during the Second Mexican Empire. In the 20th century, international political instability was a key factor to drive immigration to Mexico; in this era Greeks, Armenians, Poles, Russians, Lebanese, Palestinians and Jews, along with many Spanish refugees fleeing the Spanish Civil War, also settled in Mexico whereas in the 21st century, due to Mexico's economic growth, immigration from Europe has increased (mainly France and Spain), people from the United States have arrived as well, nowadays making up more than three-quarters of Mexico's roughly one million legal migrants. In that time, more people from the United States have been added to the population of Mexico than Mexicans to that of the United States, according to government data in both nations. Mexico's northern and western regions have the highest percentages of European population, according to the American historian Howard F. Cline the majority of Mexicans in these regions have no native admixture and their aspect resemble that of northern Spaniards. In the north and west of Mexico, the indigenous tribes were substantially smaller than those found in central and southern Mexico, and also much less organized, thus they remained isolated from the rest of the population or even in some cases were hostile towards Mexican colonists. Because of this, Europeans often were the most numerous ethnic group within colonial cities in northern and western Mexico (albeit this trend is also seen in large central Mexican cities such as Mexico City) and became the regions with the highest proportion of whites during the Spanish colonial period."Household Mobility and Persistence in Guadalajara, Mexico: 1811–1842, page 62", fsu org, 8 December 2016. Retrieved on 9 December 2018. However, recent immigrants from southern Mexico have been changing, to some degree, its demographic trends. Estimates of Mexico's white population differ greatly in both, methodology and percentages given, extra-official sources such as the World factbook and Encyclopædia Britannica, which use the 1921 census results as the base of their estimations calculate Mexico's White population as only 9% or between one tenth to one fifth Ethnic composition (2010): 64.3% mestizo; 15% Mexican white; 10.5% detribalized Amerindian; 7.5% other Amerindian; 1% Arab; 0.5% Mexican black; 1.2% other. (the results of the 1921 census, however, have been contested by various historians and deemed inaccurate). Surveys that account for phenotypical traits and have performed actual field research suggest rather higher percentages: using the presence of blond hair as reference to classify a Mexican as white, the Metropolitan Autonomous University of Mexico calculated the percentage of said ethnic group at 23%. With a similar methodology, the American Sociological Association obtained a percentage of 18.8% having its higher frequency on the North region (22.3%–23.9%) followed by the Center region (18.4%–21.3%) and the South region (11.9%). Another study made by the University College London in collaboration with Mexico's National Institute of Anthropology and History found that the frequencies of blond hair and light eyes in Mexicans are of 18% and 28% respectively, surveys that use as reference skin color such as those made by Mexico's National Council to Prevent Discrimination and Mexico's National Institute of Statistics and Geography reported a percentages of 47% in 2010 and 49% in 2017" Visión INEGI 2021 Dr. Julio Santaella Castell", INEGI, 03 July 2017, Retrieved on 30 April 2018."Resultados del Modulo de Movilidad Social Intergeneracional" , INEGI, 16 June 2017, Retrieved on 30 April 2018. respectively. Another survey published in 2018 reported a percentage significantly lower at 29%,"Encuesta Nacional sobre Discriminación 2017", CNDH, 6 August 2018, Retrieved on 10 August 2018. this time however, the surveying of Mexicans from "vulnerable groups" was prioritized, which among other measures meant that states known to have high numbers of people from said groups surveyed more people."Encuesta Nacional sobre Discriminación 2017. ENADIS. Diseño muestral. 2018", INEGI, 6 August 2018, Retrieved on 10 August 2018. A study performed in hospitals of Mexico City reported that an average 51.8% of Mexican newborns presented the congenital skin birthmark known as the Mongolian spot whilst it was absent in 48.2% of the analyzed babies. The Mongolian spot appears with a very high frequency (85-95%) in Asian, Native American, African children, but can be present in some individuals in the Mediterranean populations. The skin lesion reportedly almost always appears on South American and Mexican children who are racially Mestizos, while having a very low frequency (5–10%) in European children. According to the Mexican Social Security Institute (shortened as IMSS) nationwide, around half of Mexican babies have the Mongolian spot."Tienen manchas mongólicas 50% de bebés", El Universal, January 2012. Retrieved on 3 July 2017. ===Caribbean=== ====Cuba==== White people in Cuba make up 64.1% of the total population, according to the census of 2012, with the majority being of Spanish descent. However, after the mass exodus resulting from the Cuban Revolution in 1959, Cuba's white population diminished. Today, the various records that claim to show the percentage of whites in Cuba are conflicting and uncertain; some reports (usually coming from Cuba) still report a similar-to-pre-1959 number of 65%, and others (usually from outside observers) report 40–45%. Although most white Cubans are of Spanish descent, others may have French, Portuguese, German, Italian, or Russian ancestry. (from Cuban Genealogy Center) During the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries, large waves of Canarians, Catalans, Andalusians, Castilians, and Galicians immigrated to Cuba. Between 1901 and 1958, more than a million Spaniards arrived in Cuba from Spain; many of these and their descendants left after Castro's Communist regime took power. The country also saw Jewish immigrants coming to the country. Historically, Chinese descendants in Cuba were classified as white. Though more recent censuses would add a yellow (or amarilla) racial category before its removal in 21st century census results. An autosomal study from 2014 found the genetic makeup in Cuba to be 72% European, 20% African, and 8% Native American with different proportions depending on the self-reported ancestry (White, Mulatto or Mestizo, and Black). According to this study Whites are on average 86% European, 6.7% African and 7.8% Native American with European ancestry ranging from 65% to 99%. 75% of whites are over 80% European and 50% are over 88% European According to a study in 2011 Whites are on average 5.8% African with African ancestry ranging from 0% to 13%. 75% of whites are under 8% African and 50% are under 5% African. A study from 2009 analysed the genetic structure of the three principal ethnic groups from Havana City (209 individuals), and the contribution of parental populations to its genetic pool. A contribution from Indigenous peoples of the Americas was not detectable in the studied sample. Self-reported ancestry European African Native American White 86% 6.7% 7.8% White (Havana) 86% 14% 0% Mulatto/Mestizo 50.8% 45.5% 3.7% Mulatto/Mestizo (Havana) 60% 40% 0% Black 29% 65.5% 5.5% Black (Havana) 23% 77% 0% ====Dominican Republic==== The 1750 estimates show that there were 30,863 whites, out of a total population of 70,625, in the colony of Santo Domingo.A Population History of North America By Michael R. Haines, Richard H. Steckel The census of 1920 was the first national enumeration. The second census, taken in 1935, covered race, religion, literacy, nationality, labor force, and urban–rural residence. The 2022 Dominican Republic Census will be the first census since 1960 to gather data on ethnic identification. Identifying as European / white 1750-1960 Identifying as European / white 1750-1960 Identifying as European / white 1750-1960 Identifying as European / white 1750-1960 Identifying as European / white 1750-1960 Year Population Percent 1750 30,863 43.7 1790 40,000 32.0 Dominican Republic Foreign Policy and Government Guide Volume 1 Strategic By IBP, Inc. * 1846 80,000 48.5 1920 223,144 24.9 1935 192,732 13.0 1950 600,994 28.14 1960 489,580 16.1 Power and Television in Latin America: The Dominican Case By Antonio V. Menéndez Alarcó 2022 TBD TBD They are 17.8% of the Dominican Republic's population, according to a 2021 survey by the United Nations Population Fund. with the vast majority being of Spanish descent. Notable other ancestries includes French, Italian, Lebanese, German, and Portuguese. The government of Rafael Leónidas Trujillo made a point of increasing the white population, or "whitening" the racial composition of the country, by rejecting black immigrants from Haiti and local blacks as foreigners. He also welcomed Jewish refugees in 1938 and Spanish farmers in the 1950s as part of this plan. The country's German minority is the largest in the Caribbean. ====Haiti==== The white and the mulatto population of Haiti make up about 5% of its population, while 95% is of African descent. That 5% minority group comprises people of many different ethnic and national backgrounds, who are French, Spanish, Polish and other European ancestry, as well as the Jewish diaspora, arriving from the Polish legion and during the Holocaust, Germans (18th century and ), and Italian. ====Puerto Rico==== right|thumb|upright=1.27|The Riefkohl and Verges children of German descent in Maunabo, Puerto Rico (c. 1890s) An early census on the island was conducted by Governor Francisco Manuel de Lando in 1530. An exhaustive 1765 census was taken by Lieutenant General Alexander O'Reilly, which, according to some sources, showed 17,572 whites out of a total population of 44,883.El crecimiento poblacional en Puerto Rico: 1493 al presente (Population of Puerto Rico 1493 - present) Page 11. The censuses from 1765 to 1887 were taken by the Spanish government who conducted them at irregular intervals. The 1899 census was taken by the United States War Department. Since 1910, Puerto Rico has been included in every decennial census taken by the United States. European / white population 1530 - 2020 European / white population 1530 - 2020 European / white population 1530 - 2020 European / white population 1530 - 2020 European / white population 1530 - 2020 European / white population 1530 - 2020 European / white population 1530 - 2020 European / white population 1530 - 2020 Year Population % Year Population % 1530 333, 426 8.0-10.0 HISTORIA DE PUERTO RICO Page 17. 1887 474,933 59.5 Report on the census of Porto Rico, 1899 Census of "Porto Rico" (Old Spelling) Page 57. 1765 17,572 - 1897 573,187 64.3 1775 30,709 40.4 El crecimiento poblacional en Puerto Rico: 1493 al presente (Population of Puerto Rico 1493 - present) 1899 589,426 61.8 1787 46,756 45.5 1910 732,555 65.5 Puerto Rico Census of 1910, 1920 & 1930\. (See page 136). 1802 78,281 48.0 1920 948,709 73.0 1812 85,662 46.8 1930 1,146,719 74.3 1820' 102,432 44.4 1940 1,430,744 76.5 The population of the United States and Puerto Rico See (page 53-26). 1827 150,311 49.7 1950 1,762,411 79.7 1830 162,311 50.1 2000 3,064,862 80.5 Summary Population, Housing Characteristics. Puerto Rico: 2000 Census. (Page 52). 1836 188,869 52.9 2010 2,825,100 75.8 Puerto Rico: 2010 - Summary Population and Housing Characteristics 2010 Census of Population and Housing. 1860 300,406 51.5 2020 561,884 17.1 1877 411,712 56.3 In 2010, White Puerto Ricans are said to comprise the majority of the island's population, with 75.8% of the population identifying as white.2010.census.gov Though in the 2020 U.S. census, this percentage dropped to 17.1%. People of self-identified multiracial descent are now the largest demographic in the country, at 49.8%. In 1899, one year after the U.S invaded and took control of the island, 61.8% identified as white. In 2000, for the first time in fifty years, the census asked people to define their race and found the percentage of whites had risen to 80.5% (3,064,862); not because there has been an influx of whites to the island (or an exodus of non-White people), but a change of race perceptions, mainly because Puerto Rican elites wished to portray Puerto Rico as the "white island of the Antilles", partly as a response to scientific racism. Geologist Robert T. Hill wrote that the island was "notable among the West Indian group for the reason that its preponderant population is of the white race" and "Porto Rico, at least, has not become Africanized". According to a genetic research by the University of Brasilia, Puerto Rican genetic admixture consists in a 60.3% European, 26.4% African, and 13.2% Amerindian ancestry. ===Central America=== ====Costa Rica==== thumb|left|upright=1|Family of German immigrants in Costa Rica From the late 19th century to when the Panama Canal opened, European migrants used Costa Rica to get across the isthmus of Central America to reach the west coast of the United States (California). In Costa Rica, estimates of the percentage of white people vary between 77% and 82%, or about 3.1–3.5 million people. The white and mestizo populations combined equal 83%, according to the CIA World Factbook. Many of the first Spanish colonists in Costa Rica may have been Jewish converts to Christianity. The first sizable group of self-identified Jews immigrated from diaspora communities in Poland, beginning in 1929. From the 1930s to the early 1950s, journalistic and official anti-Semitic campaigns fueled harassment of Jews; however, by the 1950s and 1960s, the immigrants won greater acceptance. Most of the 3,500 Costa Rican Jews today are not highly observant, but they remain largely endogamous. ====El Salvador==== According to the official 2007 Census in El Salvador, 12.7% of Salvadorans identified as being "white", and 86.3% as mestizo. Before the conquest it was the Central American nation with the lowest Amerindian population, due to diseases and hostility from Europeans, the Amerindian population fell precipitously. This was due to the small indigenous population in the area and colonial governors wanting to repopulate the land with Europeans. Spaniards, mainly from Galicia and Asturias emigrated to El Salvador. Later, the country would experience other waves of other European immigrants, mainly Italian and Spaniards. The immigration of the time had a great demographic impact, since by 1880 there were 480,000 inhabitants in El Salvador, 40 years later in 1920, there were 1.2 million Salvadorans. During World War II, El Salvador gave documents to Jews from Hungary, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, and Switzerland. It is estimated that they were up to 40,000 immigrants, and even up to 50,000. Genetic study of the publication Genomic Components in America's demography, in which geneticists from all over the continent and Japan participated, that the average genetic composition of the average Salvadoran is: 52% European, 40% Amerindian, 6% African and 2% Middle Eastern.https://c1.staticflickr.com/5/4307/35125440893_3566ed7714_o.jpg ====Guatemala==== In the recent 2018 Census, those mestizos and whites are included in one category (Ladinos), accounting 56% of population.Censo Población y Vivienda, 2018 INE (Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas). Into the category Ladino, include part of Amerindians culturally Hispanic along people of mixed heritage, part of mixed Guatemalans could have important European ancestry or being castizo (mixed+white), specially in Metropolitan Areas and the East. The most common European ancestry in Guatemalans mixed is Spanish descent, but there were German migration throughout Nineteen and Twenty Century in the country ====Nicaragua==== According to a 2014 research published in the journal Genetics and Molecular Biology and to a 2010 research published in the journal "Physical Anthropology", European ancestry predominates in majority of Nicaraguans at 69% genetic contribution, followed by Native American ancestry at 20%, and lastly Northwest African ancestry at 11%, making Nicaragua the country with one of the highest proportion of European ancestry in Latin America. Non-genetic self-reported data from the CIA World Factbook consider that Nicaragua's population averages phenotypically at 69% Mestizo/Castizo, 17% White, 9% Afro-Latino and 5% Native American. This fluctuates with changes in migration patterns. The population is 58% urban . In the 19th century, Nicaragua experienced a wave of immigration, primarily from Western Europe. In particular, families moved to Nicaragua to set up businesses with the money they brought from Europe. They established many agricultural businesses, such as coffee and sugarcane plantations, as well as newspapers, hotels, and banks. A study called "Genomic Components in America's demography" published in 2017, estimates that the average Nicaraguan is of 58-62% European genetic background, primarily of Spanish (43.63%) but also of German, French, and Italian ancestry; 28% of indigenous American ancestry; and 14% of West African origin. ====Panama==== White Panamanians are 6.7% of the population, with those of Spanish ancestry being in the majority. Other ancestries includes Dutch, English, French, German, Swiss, Danish, Irish, Greek, Italian, Portuguese, Polish, Russian, and Ukrainian. There is also a sizable and influential Jewish community. ====Honduras==== Honduras contains perhaps one of the smallest percentages of whites in Latin America, according some census with only about 3% classified in this group. Another census indicates that only a 7.8% of the total population is white in Honduras. During the 19th century several immigrants from Catalonia, Germany, Italy and Eastern Europe arrived to Honduras. Of these the majority are people of Spanish descent. There is an important Spanish community mostly located in the city of San Pedro Sula and Tegucigalpa. There are also people from The Bay Islands who descend from British settlers (either English, Irish, or Scottish). However, most Hondurans consider themselves as mestizos, regardless of their ethnic category, which is why it is difficult to determine the actual white population of Honduras. According to Admixture and genetic relationships of Mexican Mestizos regarding Latin American and Caribbean populations based on 13 CODIS-STRs, the genetic composition of Hondurans is 58.4% European, 36.2% Amerindian, and 5.4% African. ===South America=== ==== Argentina ==== The ancestry of Argentines is mostly European, with both Native American and African contributions. A 2009 autosomal DNA study found the Argentine population to average 78.5 percent European, 17.3 percent Native American, and 4.2 percent sub-Saharan African, in which 63.6% of the tested group had at least one ancestor who was Indigenous. A 2012 autosomal DNA study found the genetic composition of Argentines to be 65% European, 31% Native American, and 4% African. A 2015 study concluded that 90% of Argentinians have a genetic composition different from native Europeans. Argentina's National Institute of Statistics and Censuses (INDEC) does not conduct ethnic/racial censuses; so, no official data exist on the percentage of white Argentines today. White Argentines are dispersed throughout the country, but their greatest concentration is in the east-central region of Pampas, the southern region of Patagonia, and in the west-central region of Cuyo. Their concentration is smaller in the north- eastern region of Litoral, and is much smaller in the north-western provinces of Salta, Jujuy, Tucumán, Catamarca, La Rioja, and Santiago del Estero, which was the most densely populated region of the country (mainly by Amerindian and Mestizo people) before the wave of immigration of 1857-1940 and was the area where European newcomers settled the least. During the last few decades, due to internal migration from the northern provinces—as well as to immigration from Bolivia, Peru, and Paraguay—the percentage of white Argentines in certain areas of Greater Buenos Aires and the provinces of Salta and Jujuy has decreased significantly. The white population in Argentina is mostly descended from immigrants arriving from Europe between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with a smaller proportion from Spaniards of the colonial period. From 1506 to 1650—according to M. Möner, Peter Muschamp, and Boyd-Bowman—out of a total of 437,669 Spaniards who settled in the American Spanish colonies, between 10,500 and 13,125 Peninsulares settled in the Río de la Plata region. The colonial censuses conducted after the creation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata showed that the proportion of Spaniards and Criollos was significant in the cities and surrounding countryside, but not so much in the rural areas. The 1778 census of Buenos Aires, ordered by Viceroy Juan José de Vértiz, revealed that, of a total population of 37,130 inhabitants (in both the city and surrounding countryside), the Spaniards and Criollos numbered 25,451, or 68.55% of the total. Another census, carried out in the Corregimiento de Cuyo in 1777, showed that the Spaniards and Criollos numbered 4,491 (or 51.24%) out of a population of 8,765 inhabitants. In Córdoba (city and countryside) the Spanish/Criollo people comprised a 39.36% (about 14,170) of 36,000 inhabitants.Fuente: Argentina: de la Conquista a la Independencia. por C. S. Assadourian – C. Beato – J. C. Chiaramonte. Ed. Hyspamérica. Buenos Aires, 1986. Cited in Revisionistas. La Otra Historia de los Argentinos. Data provided by Argentina's Dirección Nacional de Migraciones (National Bureau of Migrations) states that the country received a total of 6,611,000 immigrants during the period from 1857 to 1940. The main immigrant group was 2,970,000 Italians (44.9% of the total), who came initially from Piedmont, Veneto, and Lombardy, and later from Campania, Calabria, and Sicily. The second group in importance was Spaniards, some 2,080,000 (31.4% of the total), who were mostly Galicians and Basques, but also Asturians, Cantabrians, Catalans, and Andalucians. In smaller but significant numbers came Frenchmen from Occitania (239,000, 3.6% of the total) and Poles (180,000 – 2.7%). From the Russian Empire came some 177,000 people (2.6%), who were not only ethnic Russians, but also Ukrainians, Belarusians, Volga Germans, Lithuanians, etc. From the Ottoman Empire the contribution was mainly Armenians, Lebanese, and Syrians, some 174,000 in all (2.6%). Then come the immigrants from the German Empire, some 152,000 (2.2%). From the Austro-Hungarian Empire came 111,000 people (1.6%), among them Austríans, Hungarians, Croatians, Bosniaks, Serbs, Ruthenians, and Montenegrins. Roughly 75,000 people came from what was then the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with the majority of these being Irish immigrants arriving via "coffin ships" escaping the Great Famine. Other minor groups were the Portuguese (65,000), Slavic peoples from the Balkans (48,000), Swiss (44,000), Belgians (26,000), Danes (18,000), white Americans (12,000), the Dutch (10,000), and the Swedish (7,000). 223,000 came from other countries not listed above. Even colonists from Australia, and Boers from South Africa, can be found in the Argentine immigration records. The city's motto is "Crespo: melting pot, culture of faith and hard work", referring to the Volga Germans, Italians, Spaniards, and other ethnicities that comprise its population. In the 1910s, when immigration reached its peak, more than 30% of Argentina's population had been born in Europe, and over half of the population of the city of Buenos Aires had been born abroad. According to the 1914 national census, 80% out of a total population of 7,903,662 were people who were either European, or the children and grandchildren of same. Among the remaining 20% (the descendants of the population previous to the immigratory wave), about one third were white. That makes for 86.6%, or about 6.8 million whites residing in Argentina.History of Argentina, de Ricardo.Levene. University of North Carolina Press, 1937. European immigration continued to account for over half the population growth during the 1920s,Argentina: 1516-1982 From Spanish Colonisation to the Falklands War escrito por David Rock. University of California Press, 1987. and for smaller percentages after World War II, many Europeans migrating to Argentina after the great conflict to escape hunger and destitution. According to Argentine records, 392,603 people from the Old World entered the country in the 1940s. In the following decade, the flow diminished because the Marshall Plan improved Europe's economy, and emigration was not such a necessity; but even then, between 1951 and 1970 another 256,252 Europeans entered Argentina.Migration and Nationality Patterns in Argentina. Fuente: Dirección Nacional de Migraciones, 1976. From the 1960s—when whites were 76.1% of the total—onward, increasing immigration from countries on Argentina's northern border (Bolivia, Peru, and Paraguay)"Inmigración, Cambio Demográfico y Desarrollo Industrial en la Argentina". Alfredo Lattes and Ruth Sautu. Cuaderno Nº 5 del CENEP (1978). Citado en Argentina: 1516-1982 From Spanish Colonisation to the Falklands War by David Rock. University of California Press, 1987. significantly increased the process of Mestizaje in certain areas of Argentina, especially Greater Buenos Aires, because those countries have Amerindian and Mestizo majorities. In 1992, after the fall of the Communist regimes of the Soviet Union and its allies, the governments of Western Europe were worried about a possible mass exodus from Central Europe and Russia. President Carlos Menem offered to receive part of that emigratory wave in Argentina. On December 19, 1994, Resolution 4632/94 was enacted, allowing "special treatment" for applicants who wished to emigrate from the republics of the ex-Soviet Union. From January 1994 until December 2000, a total 9,399 Central and Eastern Europeans traveled and settled in Argentina. Of the total, 6,720 were Ukrainians (71.5%), 1,598 Russians (17%), 526 Romanians, Bulgarians, Armenians, Georgians, Moldovans, and Poles, and 555 (5.9%) traveled with a Soviet passport.Recent Migration from Central and Eastern Europe to Argentina, a Special Treatment? by María José Marcogliese. Revista Argentina de Sociología, 2003 85% of the newcomers were under age 45 and 51% had tertiary-level education, so most of them integrated quite rapidly into Argentine society, although some had to work for lower wages than expected at the beginning."Ukrainians, Russians and Armenians, from professionals to security guardians" by Florencia Tateossian. Le Monde Diplomatique, June 2001. Genetic studies of Argentina population: *According to M. Caputo et al, 2021, X-DIPs studies show that the European genetic contribution is 52%, indigenous 39.6% and African 7.5%. * Homburguer et al., 2015, PLOS Genetics: 67% European, 28% Amerindian, 4% African and 1,4% Asian. * Avena et al., 2012, PLOS One: 65% European, 31% Amerindian, and 4% African. ** Buenos Aires Province: 76% European and 24% others. ** South Zone (Chubut Province): 54% European and 46% others. ** Northeast Zone (Misiones, Corrientes, Chaco & Formosa provinces): 54% European and 46% others. ** Northwest Zone (Salta Province): 33% European and 67% others. * Oliveira, 2008, on Universidade de Brasília: 60% European, 31% Amerindian and 9% African. * National Geographic: 52% European, 27% Amerindian ancestry, 9% African and 9% others. *Corach, Daniel (2010): 78.5% European, 17.3% Amerindian, and 4.2% Black African ancestry. ==== Bolivia ==== White people in Bolivia make up 5% of the nation's population. The white population consists mostly of criollos, which consist of families of unmixed Spanish ancestry descended from the Spanish colonists and Spanish refugees fleeing the 1936–1939 Spanish Civil War. These two groups have constituted much of the aristocracy since independence. Other groups within the white population are Germans, who founded the national airline Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano, as well as Italians, Americans, Basques, Croats, Russians, Polish, English, Irish, and other minorities, many of whose members descend from families that have lived in Bolivia for several generations. Comparatively, Bolivia experienced far less immigration than its South American neighbors. ====Brazil==== thumb|upright=1.15|Italian immigrants newly arrived in Brazil in 1890. Brazil is one of the few countries in Latin America that includes racial categories in its censuses: Branco (White), Negro (Black), Pardo (Multiracial), Amarelo (Yellow) and Indígena (Amerindian), with categorization being by self- identification. Taking into account the data provided by the last National Household Survey, conducted in 2010, Brazil would possess the most numerous white population in Latin America, given that a 47.7% – 91 million people – of Brazilians self-declared as "Brancos". Comparing this survey with previous censuses, a slow but constant decrease in the percentage of self-identified white Brazilians can be seen: in the 2000 Census it was 53.7%, in the 2006 Household Survey it was 49.9%, and in the last, 2008, survey it decreased to the current 48.4%. Some analysts believe that this decrease is evidence that more Brazilians have come to appreciate their mixed ancestry, re-classifying themselves as "Pardos". Furthermore, some demographers estimate that a 9% of the self-declared white Brazilians have a certain degree of African and Amerindian ancestry, which, if the "one-drop rule" were applied, would classify them as "Pardos".Blacks in Brazil: the myth and the reality. by Charles Whitaker. Ebony Magazine, 1991. The white Brazilian population is spread throughout the country, but it is concentrated in the four southernmost states, where 79.8% of the population self-identify as white.PNAD 2006 The states with the highest percentage of white people are Santa Catarina (86.9%), Rio Grande do Sul (82.3%), Paraná (77.2%) and São Paulo (70.4%). Another five states that have significant proportions of whites are Rio de Janeiro (55.8%), Mato Grosso do Sul (51.7%), Espírito Santo (50.4%), Minas Gerais (47.2%) and Goiás (43.6%). São Paulo has the largest population in absolute numbers with 30 million whites. In the 18th century, an estimated 600,000 Portuguese arrived, including wealthy immigrants, as well as poor peasants, attracted by the Brazil Gold Rush in Minas Gerais. By the time of Brazilian independence, declared by emperor Pedro I in 1822, an estimated 600,000 to 800,000 Europeans had come to Brazil, most of them male settlers from Portugal. Rich immigrants who established the first sugarcane plantations in Pernambuco and Bahia, and New Christians and Gypsies fleeing from religious persecution, were among the early settlers. After independence, Brazil saw several campaigns to attract European immigrants, which were prompted by a policy of Branqueamento (Whitening).Ideologia do Branqueamento - Racismo á Brasileira? por Andreas Haufbauer During the 19th century, the slave labor force was gradually replaced by European immigrants, especially Italians. This mostly took place after 1850, as a result of the end of the slave trade in the Atlantic Ocean and the growth of coffee plantations in the São Paulo region. European immigration was at its peak between the mid-19th and the mid-20th centuries, when nearly five million Europeans immigrated to Brazil, most of them Italians (58.5%), Portuguese (20%), Germans, Spaniards, Poles, Lithuanians, and Ukrainians. Between 1877 and 1903, 1,927,992 immigrants entered Brazil, an average of 71,000 people per year, with the peak year being 1891, when 215,239 Europeans arrived. After the First World War, the Portuguese once more became the main immigrant group, and Italians fell to third place. Spanish immigrants rose to second place because of the poverty that was affecting millions of rural workers. Germans were fourth place on the list; they arrived especially during the Weimar Republic, due to poverty and unemployment caused by the First World War. The numbers of Europeans of other ethnicities increased; among them were people from Poland, Russia, and Romania, who emigrated in the 1920s, probably because of politic persecution. Other peoples emigrated from the Middle East, especially from what now are Syria and Lebanon. During the period 1821–1932, Brazil received an estimated 4,431,000 European immigrants.Argentina. by Arthur P. Whitaker. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc, 1984. Cited in Yale immigration study After the end of the Second World War, European immigration diminished significantly, although between 1931 and 1963 1.1 million immigrants entered Brazil, mostly Portuguese. By the mid-1970s, some Portuguese immigrated to Brazil after the independence of Portugal's African colonies—from Angola, Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau.Flight from Angola, The Economist, August 16, 1975 =====Genetic studies===== A 2015 autosomal genetic study, which also analysed data of 25 studies of 38 different Brazilian populations, concluded the following: "European (EUR) ancestry is the major contributor to the genetic background of Brazilians, followed by African (AFR), and Amerindian (AMR) ancestries. The pooled ancestry contributions were 0.62 EUR, 0.21 AFR, and 0.17AMR. The Southern region had a greater EUR contribution (0.77) than other regions. Individuals from the Northeast (NE) region had the highest AFR contribution (0.27) whereas individuals from the North regions had more AMR contribution (0.32)". Region European African Native American North Region 51% 16% 32% Northeast Region 58% 27% 15% Central-West Region 64% 24% 12% Southeast Region 67% 23% 10% South Region 77% 12% 11% An autosomal study from 2013, of nearly 1,300 samples from all regions of Brazil, found predominantly European ancestry, combined with African and Native American contributions in varying degrees: > Following an increasing North to South gradient, European ancestry was the > most prevalent in all urban populations (with values up to 74%). The > populations in the North consisted of a significant proportion of Native > American ancestry that was about two times higher than the African > contribution. Conversely, in the Northeast, Center-West and Southeast, > African ancestry was the second most prevalent. At an intrapopulation level, > all urban populations were highly admixed, and most of the variation in > ancestry proportions was observed between individuals within each population > rather than among population. According to a genetic study about Brazilians (based upon about 200 samples), on the paternal side, 98% of the white Brazilian Y Chromosome comes from a European male ancestor, only 2% from an African ancestor and there is a complete absence of Amerindian contributions. On the maternal side, 39% have European Mitochondrial DNA, 33% Amerindian and 28% African female ancestry. This, considering the facts that the slave trade was effectively suppressed in 1850, and that the Amerindian population had been reduced to small numbers even earlier, shows that at least 61% of white Brazilians had at least one ancestor living in Brazil before the beginning of the Great Immigration. This analysis, however, only shows a small fraction of a person's ancestry (the Y Chromosome comes from a single male ancestor and the mtDNA from a single female ancestor, while the contributions of the many other ancestors is not specified). According to another study, those who identified as whites in Rio de Janeiro turned out to have 86.4% European ancestry on average. ====Chile==== Various autosomal studies have shown the following admixture in Chile: * 67.9% European; 32.1% amerindian; (Valenzuela, 1984): Marco de referencia sociogenético para los estudios de salud pública en Chile, fuente: Revista Chilena de Pediatría.Valenzuela C. (1984). Marco de Referencia Sociogenético para los Estudios de Salud Pública en Chile. Revista Chilena de Pediatría; 55: 123-7. * 64.0% European; 35.0% amerindian; (Cruz-Coke, 1994): Genetic epidemiology of single gene defects in Chile, fuente: Universidad de Chile. * 57.2% European; 38.7% amerindian; 2.5% African; 1.7% Asiatic; (Homburger et al., 2015): Genomic Insights into the Ancestry and Demographic History of South America, fuente: PLOS Genetics. A 2015 autosomal DNA study found Chile to be 55.16% European, 42.38% Native American and 2.44% African, using LAMP-LD modeling; and 54.38% European, 43.22% Native American, and 2.40% African, using RFMix. An autosomal DNA study from 2014 found the results to be 51.85% (± 5.44%) European, 44.34% (± 3.9%) Native American, and 3.81% (± 0.45%) African. A Chilean researcher in 2015 stated that "there are no Chileans without Amerindian or European ancestry". She also added that the average ancestry was 51% European, 44% Amerindian and 3% African, and that in the upper classes the average Amerindian ancestry was 35.2%. Studies estimates the white population at 20%, to 52.7% of the Chilean population. According to genetic research by the University of Brasilia, Chilean genetic admixture consists of 51.6% European, 42.1% Amerindian, and 6.3% African ancestry. According to an autosomal genetic study of 2014 carried out among soldiers in the city of Arica, Northern Chile, the European admixture goes from 56.8% in soldiers born in Magallanes to 41.2% for the ones who were born in Tarapacá.El Gradiente Sociogenético Chileno y sus Implicaciones Etico-Sociales (2014) According to a study from 2013, conducted by the Candela Project in Northern Chile as well, the genetic admixture of Chile is 52% European, 44% Native American, and 4% African. According to a study performed in 2014, 37.9% of Chileans self-identified as white, a subsequent DNA tests showed that the average self identifying white was genetically 54% European. Genotype and phenotype in Chileans vary according to social class. 13% of lower-class Chileans have at least one non-Spanish surname, compared to 72% of those who belong to the upper-middle-class. Phenotypically, only 9.6% of lower-class girls have light-colored eyes—either green or blue—where 31.6% of upper- middle-class girls have such eyes. Blonde hair is present in 2.2% and 21.3%, of lower-class and upper-middle girls respectively, whilst black hair is more common among lower-class girls (24.5%) than upper-middle class ones (9.0%). Chile was initially an unattractive place for migrants, because it was far from Europe and relatively difficult to reach. However, during the 18th century an influx of emigrants from Spain moved to Chile. They were mostly Basques, who rose rapidly up the social ladder, becoming part of the political elite that still dominates the country. An estimated 1.6 million (10%) to 3.2 million (20%) Chileans have a surname (one or both) of Basque origin.vascos Ainara Madariaga: Autora del estudio "Imaginarios vascos desde Chile La construcción de imaginarios vascos en Chile durante el siglo XX".Contacto Interlingüístico e intercultural en el mundo hispano.instituto valenciano de lenguas y culturas. Universitat de València Cita: "Un 20% de la población chilena tiene su origen en el País Vasco". La población chilena con ascendencia vasca bordea entre el 15% y el 20% del total, por lo que es uno de los países con mayor presencia de emigrantes venidos de Euskadi. De los Vascos, Oñati y los Elorza DE LOS VASCOS, OÑATI Y LOS ELORZA Waldo Ayarza Elorza. The Basques liked Chile because of its similarity to their native land: cool climate, with similar geography, fruits, seafood, and wine.De los Vascos, Oñati y los Elorza DE LOS VASCOS, OÑATI Y LOS ELORZA Waldo Ayarza Elorza. Page 68 The Spanish was the most significant European immigration to Chile,De los Vascos, Oñati y los Elorza DE LOS VASCOS, OÑATI Y LOS ELORZA Waldo Ayarza Elorza. Page 59, 65, 66 although there was never a massive immigration, such as happened in neighboring Argentina and Uruguay, and, therefore, the Chilean population wasn't "whitened" to the same extent. However, it is undeniable that immigrants have played a role in Chilean society. Between 1851 and 1924, Chile received only 0.5% of the total European immigration to Latin America, compared to 46% for Argentina, 33% for Brazil, 14% for Cuba, and 4% for Uruguay. This was because such migrants came across the Atlantic, not the Pacific, and before the construction of the Panama Canal, Europeans preferring to settle in countries close to their homelands, instead of taking the long route through the Straits of Magellan or across the Andes. In 1907, the European-born reached a peak of 2.4% of the Chilean population, decreasing to 1.8% in 1920, and 1.5% in 1930. About 5% of the Chilean population has some French ancestry. Over 700,000 (4.5%) Chileans may be of British (English, Scottish and Welsh) or Irish origin. Another significant immigrant group is Croatian. The number of their descendants today is estimated to be 380,000, or 2.4% of the population. Diaspora Croata.. Other authors claim that close to 4.6% of the Chilean population must have some Croatian ancestry. After the failed liberal revolution of 1848 in the German states, a significant German immigration took place, laying the foundation for the German-Chilean community. Sponsored by the Chilean government, to "unbarbarize" and colonize the southern region, these Germans (including German-speaking Swiss, Silesians, Alsatians and Austrians) settled mainly in Valdivia, Llanquihue, Chiloé, and Los Ángeles. The Chilean Embassy in Germany estimated that 150,000 to 200,000 Chileans are of German origin. ====Colombia==== According to the 2005 Census 86% of Colombians are considered either White or Mestizo, which are not categorized separately. Though the census does not identify the number of white Colombians, Lizcano and the CIA World Factbook estimates 20% of White population, while Hudson estimates 37%, a figure that also coincides with the research done by Schwartzman, forming the second largest racial group after Mestizo Colombians (at 49%). Genetic studies estimate that the ethnic composition of Colombia varies between 45.9% European, 33.8% Amerindian, and 20.3% African ancestry; and 62.5% European, 27.4% Amerindian, and 9.2% African ancestry. Between 1540 and 1559, 8.9 percent of the residents of Colombia were of Basque origin. It has been suggested that the present day incidence of business entrepreneurship in the region of Antioquia is attributable to the Basque immigration and character traits. Today many Colombians of the Department of Antioquia region preserve their Basque ethnic heritage. In Bogota, there is a small district/colonies of Basque families who emigrated as a consequence of Spain's Civil War or because of better opportunities. Basque priests were the ones that introduced handball into Colombia. Basque immigrants in Colombia were devoted to teaching and public administration. In the first years of the Andean Multinational Company, Basque sailors navigated as captains and pilots on the majority of the ships until the country was able to train its own crews. The first and largest wave of immigration from the Middle East began around 1880, and continued during the first two decades of the twentieth century. The immigrants were mainly Maronite Christians from Greater Syria (Syria and Lebanon) and Palestine, fleeing those then Ottoman territories. Syrians, Palestinians, and Lebanese have continued to settle in Colombia. Due to a lack of information, it is impossible to know the exact number of Lebanese and Syrians that immigrated to Colombia; but for 1880 to 1930, 5,000–10,000 is estimated. Syrians and Lebanese are perhaps the biggest immigrant group next to the Spanish since independence. Those who left their homeland in the Middle East to settle in Colombia left for different religious, economic, and political reasons. In 1945, Barranquilla, Cartagena, Cali, and Bogota are the cities with the largest numbers of Arabic-speakers in Colombia. The Arabs that went to Maicao were mostly Sunni Muslim, with some Druze and Shiites, as well as Orthodox and Maronite Christians. The mosque of Maicao is the second largest mosque in Latin America. Middle Easterns are generally called Turcos (Turkish). In December 1941 the United States government estimated that there were 4,000 Germans living in Colombia. There were some Nazi agitators in Colombia, such as Barranquilla businessman Emil Prufurt. Colombia invited Germans who were on the U.S. blacklist to leave. SCADTA, a Colombian-German air transport corporation, which was established by German expatriates in 1919, was the first commercial airline in the western hemisphere. In recent years, the celebration of Colombian-German heritage has grown increasingly popular in Bogota, Cartagena, and Bucaramanga. There are many annual festivals that focus German cuisine, specially pastry arts and beer. Since 2009, there has been a considerable increase in collaborative research through advanced business and educational exchanges, such as those promoted by COLCIENCIAS and AIESEC. There are many Colombian-German companies focused on finance, science, education, technology and innovation, and engineering. ====Ecuador==== According to the 2010 National Population Census, 6.1% of the population self-identified as white, down from 10.5% in 2001. In Ecuador, being white is more an indication of social class than of ethnicity. Classifying oneself as white is often done to claim membership to the middle class and to distance oneself from the lower class, which is associated being "Indian". For this reason the status of blanco is claimed by people who are not primarily of European heritage.Levinson, David. 1998. Ethnic groups worldwide: a ready reference handbook. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 346. "Blanco or White is more a social-class designation than an ethnic one, as identification as a Blanco is based on a combination of white skin color, European features, speaking Spanish, residence in the western part of the nation (especially in a city), and enough wealth or education to be classified as middle or upper class. However, in some rural regions, Mestizos refer to themselves as Blancos, to distinguish themselves from Native Americans and Quechua speakers. Blancos form the ruling elite in Ecuador, and categorization as a Blanco is considered desirable by people of full or partial European descent. According to genetic research done in 2008 by the University of Brasilia, the average Ecuadorian genetic admixture is 64.6% Amerindian, 31.0% European, and 4.4% African. In 2015, another study showed the average Ecuadorian is estimated to be 52.96% Amerindian, 41.77% European, and 5.26% Sub-Saharan African overall. White Ecuadorians, mostly criollos, are descendants of Spanish colonists and also Spanish refugees fleeing the 1936–1939 Spanish Civil War. Most still hold large amounts of lands, mainly in the northern Sierra, and live in Quito or Guayaquil. There is also a large number of white people in Cuenca, a city in the southern Andes of Ecuador, due to the arrival of Frenchmen in the area, who came to measure the arc of the Earth. Cuenca, Loja, and the Galápagos attracted German immigration during the early 20th century. The Galápagos also had a small Norwegian fishing community until they were asked to leave. There are large populations of Italian, French, German, Basque, Portuguese, and Greek descent, as well as a small Ecuadorian Jewish population. Ecuador's Jews consists of Sephardic Jews arriving in the South of the country in the 16th and 17th centuries and Ashkenazi Jews during the 1930s in the main cities of Quito and Cuenca. ====Paraguay==== Ethnically, culturally, and socially, Paraguay has one of the most homogeneous populations in South America. Because of José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia's 1814 policy that no Spaniards and other Europeans could intermarry among themselves (they could only marry blacks, mulattoes, mestizos or the native Guaraní), a measure taken to avoid a white majority occurring in Paraguay (De Francia believed that all men were equal as well), it was within little more than one generation that most of the population were of mixed racial origin. The exact percentage of the white Paraguayan population is not known because the Paraguayan census does not include racial or ethnic identification, save for the indigenous population, which was 1.7% of the country's total in the 2002 census. Other sources estimate the sizes of other groups, the mestizo population being estimated at 95% by the CIA World Factbook, with all other groups totaling 5%.Paraguay. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Thus, whites and the remaining groups (such as those of African descent) make up approximately 3.3% of the total population. According to Carlos Pastore, 30% are white and 70% approximately is mestizo. Such a reading is complicated, because, as elsewhere in Latin America, "white" and "mestizo" are not mutually exclusive (people may identify as both). Due to the European migration in the 19th and 20th centuries, the majority of Paraguay's white population are of German descent (including Mennonites), with others being of French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese descent. Many are southern and southeastern Brazilians (brasiguayos), as well as Argentines and Uruguayans, and their descendants. People from such regions are generally descendants of colonial settlers and/or more recent immigrants. In 2005, 600 families of Volga Germans who migrated to Germany after the fall of the Soviet Union, re-migrated and established a new colony, Neufeld, near Yuty (Caazapá Department), in southeastern Paraguay. ====Peru==== According to the 2017 census 5.9% or 1.3 million people self- identified as white of the population. This was the first time the census had asked an ancestral identity question. The highest proportion was in the La Libertad Region with 10% identifying as white. They are descendants primarily of Spanish colonists, and also of Spanish refugees fleeing the Spanish Civil War. After World War II, many German refugees fled to Peru and settled in large cities, while others descend from Italian, French (mainly Basques), Austrian or German, Portuguese, British, Russians and Croatian immigrant families. The regions with the highest proportion of self-identified whites were in La Libertad Region (10.5%), Tumbes Region and Lambayeque Region (9.0% each), Piura Region (8.1%), Callao (7.7%), Cajamarca Region (7.5%), Lima Province (7.2%) and Lima Region (6.0%). According to a genetic research by the University of Brasilia, Peruvian genetic admixture indicates 73.0% Amerindian, 15.1% European, and 11.9% African ancestry. White population by region, 2017 Region Population Percent border La Libertad 144,606 10.5% border Tumbes 15,383 9.0% border Lambayeque 83,908 9.0% border Piura 114,682 8.1% border Callao 61,576 7.7% border Cajamarca 76,953 7.5% Lima Province 507,039 7.2% border Lima 43,074 6.0% border Ica 38,119 5.8% border Ancash 49,175 5.8% Arequipa 55,093 4.9% border Amazonas 12,470 4.4% border Huánuco 24,130 4.4% border San Martín 24,516 4.0% border Moquegua 5,703 4.0% border Pasco 7,448 3.8% border Junín 34,700 3.6% border Madre de Dios 3,444 3.3% border Tacna 8,678 3.2% border Ucayali 8,283 2.3% border Ayacucho 9,516 2.0% border Huancavelica 5,222 2.0% border Loreto 11,884 1.9% border Cusco 12,458 1.3% border Apurímac 3,034 1.0% border Puno 5,837 0.6% Republic of Peru 1,336,931 5.9% ====Uruguay==== A 2009 DNA study in the American Journal of Human Biology showed the genetic composition of Uruguay as primarily European, with Native American ancestry ranging from one to 20 percent and sub-Saharan African from seven to 15 percent, depending on the region. Between the mid-19th and the early 20th centuries, Uruguay received part of the same migratory influx as Argentina, although the process started a bit earlier. During 1850–1900, the country welcomed four waves of European immigrants, mainly Spaniards, Italians and Frenchmen. In smaller numbers came British, Germans, Swiss, Russians, Portuguese, Poles, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Estonians, Dutch, Belgians, Croatians, Lebanese, Armenians, Greeks, Scandinavians, and Irish. The demographic impact of these migratory waves was greater than in Argentina, Uruguay going from having 70,000 inhabitants in 1830, to 450,000 in 1875, and a million inhabitants by 1900, its population thus increasing fourteen-fold in only 70 years. Between 1840 and 1890, 50%–60% of Montevideo's population was born abroad, almost all in Europe. The Census conducted in 1860 showed that 35% of the country's population was made up by foreigners, although by the time of the 1908 Census this figure had dropped to 17%. From 1996 to 1997, the National Institute of Statistics (INE) of Uruguay conducted a Continuous Household Survey, of 40,000 homes, that included the topic of race in the country. Its results were based on "the explicit statements of the interviewee about the race they consider they belong themselves". These results were extrapolated, and the INE estimated that out of 2,790,600 inhabitants, some 2,602,200 were white (93.2%), some 164,200 (5.9%) were totally or partially black, some 12,100 were totally or partially Amerindian (0.4%), and the remaining 12,000 considered themselves Yellow. In 2006, a new Enhanced National Household Survey touched on the topic again, but this time emphasizing ancestry, not race; the results revealed 5.8% more Uruguayans stated having total or partial black and/or Amerindian ancestry. This reduction in the percentage of self-declared "pure whites" between surveys could be caused by the phenomenon of the interviewee giving new value to their African heritage, similar to what has happened in Brazil in the last three censuses. Anyway, it is worth noting that 2,897,525 interviewées declared having only white ancestry (87.4%), 302,460 declared having total or partial black ancestry (9.1%), 106,368 total or partial Amerindian ancestry (2.9%) and 6,549 total or partial Yellow ancestry (0.2%). This figure matches external estimates for white population in Uruguay of 87.4%, 88%, or 90%. In 1997, the Uruguayan government granted residence rights to only 200 European/American citizens; in 2008 the number of residence rights granted increased to 927. ====Venezuela==== According to the official Venezuelan census, although "white" literally involves external issues such as light skin, shape and color of hair and eyes, among others, the term "white" has been used in different ways in different historical periods and places, so its precise definition is somewhat confusing. Though the 2011 Venezuelan Census states that "White" in Venezuela is used to describe the Venezuelans of European origin. According to the 2011 National Population and Housing Census, 43.6% of the population identified themselves as white people. A genomic study shows that about 60.6% of the Venezuelan gene pool has European origin. Among the countries in the study (Argentina, Bahamas, Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, Colombia, El Salvador, Ecuador, Jamaica, Mexico, Peru, Puerto Rico, and Venezuela), Colombia, Brazil, Venezuela, and Argentina exhibit the highest European contribution. The Venezuelan gene pool indicates a 60.6% European, 23.0% Amerindian, and 16.3% African ancestry. Spaniards were introduced into Venezuela during the colonial period. Most of them were from Andalusia, Galicia, Basque Country and from the Canary Islands. Until the last years of World War II, a large part of European immigrants to Venezuela came from the Canary Islands, and their cultural impact was significant, influencing its gastronomy, customs and the development of Castilian in the country. With the beginning of oil production during the first decades of the 20th century, employees of oil companies from the United States, United Kingdom, and the Netherlands established themselves in Venezuela. Later, in the middle of the century, there was a new wave of immigrants originating from Spain (mainly from Galicia, Andalucia, and Basque country, some being refugees from the Spanish Civil War), Italy (mainly from southern Italy and the Veneto region), and Portugal (from Madeira), as well as from Germany, France, England, Croatia, the Netherlands, and other European countries encouraged by a welcoming immigration policy to a prosperous, rapidly developing country where educated and skilled immigrants were needed. ==Representation in the media== Some media outlets in the United States have criticized Latin American media for allegedly featuring a disproportionate number of blond and blue-eyed actors and actresses in telenovelas, relative to the overall population. == See also == ==References== ==Further reading== *Twinam, Ann. 2015. Purchasing whiteness: Pardos, mulattos, and the quest for social mobility in the Spanish Indies. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Category:Ethnic groups in Central America Category:Ethnic groups in the Caribbean Category:Ethnic groups in Latin America Category:Ethnic groups in North America Category:Ethnic groups in South America Latin American Latin American |
This article represents the structure of the Irish Defence Forces as of May 2020: == Chief of staff == Chief of staff is a three-star general rank, and the holder of this post has authority and responsibility in respect to all staff duties relating to the management of the Irish Defence Forces. * Chief of staff, in Newbridge ** Chief of Staff's Division, headed by the assistant chief of staff, based in Newbridge *** Office of the Chief of Staff *** Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff *** Strategic Planning Branch *** Public Relations Branch *** The Military Judge ** Operations Division, headed by the deputy chief of staff operations, based in Newbridge and Dublin *** Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff Operations *** J2 Intelligence Branch *** J3 & J5 Planning & Operations Branch *** Combat Support Branch *** J6 CIS Branch **** Defence Forces Headquarters CIS Company *** J7 Training Branch ** Support Division, headed by the Deputy Chief of Staff Support, based in Newbridge and Dublin *** Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff Support *** J1 Human Resources Management Branch *** J4 Logistics *** CAOGA *** Conciliation & Arbitration (Mil) *** Transport Branch *** Legal Services Branch *** Engineers Branch *** Ordnance Branch *** Medical Branch *** Military Police Branch *** Military Chaplaincy Service ** Military Police Government Buildings Company, in Dublin === Army === The Army is the land warfare branch of the Irish Defence Forces and consists of two brigades, a training centre, providing training to all the defense forces, and other units, including musical units. * 25px Army Headquarters, in Dublin ** Army Ranger Wing, in Curragh ** 1st Mechanised Infantry Company, in Curragh ** 1st Armoured Cavalry Squadron, in Curragh ** Defence Forces School of Music, in Dublin *** Army No 1 Band, in Dublin *** Band of the 1st Brigade, in Cork *** Band of the 2nd Brigade, in Dublin ** Equitation School, in Dublin ==== 1st Brigade ==== thumb|right|105mm artillery during a live fire exercise The 1st Brigade is headquartered at Collins Barracks in Cork. The brigade is responsible for the counties of Carlow, Clare, Cork, Galway, Kerry, Kilkenny, Laois, Limerick, Offaly, Tipperary, Waterford, and Wexford. * 25px 1st Brigade, in Cork ** 1st Infantry Battalion, in Galway ** 3rd Infantry Battalion, in Kilkenny ** 12th Infantry Battalion, in Limerick ** 1st Artillery Regiment, in Cork, with L118/119 105mm light guns and 120mm mortars ** 1st Cavalry Squadron, in Cork ** 1st Engineer Group, in Cork ** 1st Supply and Transport Group, in Cork ** 1st Ordnance Group, in Cork ** 1st Field CIS Company, in Cork ** 1st Military Police Company, in Cork ==== 2nd Brigade ==== The 2nd Brigade is headquartered at the Cathal Brugha Barracks in Dublin. The brigade is responsible for the counties of Cavan, Donegal, Dublin, Kildare, Leitrim, Longford, Louth, Mayo, Meath, Monaghan, Roscommon, Sligo, Westmeath, and Wicklow. * 25px 2nd Brigade, in Dublin ** 6th Infantry Battalion, in Athlone ** 7th Infantry Battalion, in Dublin ** 27th Infantry Battalion, in Dundalk ** 28th Infantry Battalion, in Ballyshannon ** 2nd Artillery Regiment, in Athlone, with L118/119 105mm light guns and 120mm mortars ** 2nd Cavalry Squadron, in Dublin ** 2nd Engineer Group, in Athlone ** 2nd Supply and Transport Group, in Athlone ** 2nd Ordnance Group, in Athlone ** 2nd Field CIS Company, in Dublin ** 2nd Military Police Company, in Dublin ==== Defence Forces Training Centre ==== thumb|right|Artillery School live fire exercise The Defence Forces Training Centre (DFTC) based at the Curragh Camp is provides professional training to the Irish Army: * 25px Defence Forces Training Centre, in Curragh ** Military College *** Command and Staff School *** Cadet School *** Infantry School **** Officer Training Wing **** Non Commissioned Officer Training Wing **** Infantry Weapons Wing *** Artillery School *** Cavalry School *** United Nations Training School Ireland *** Military Administration School *** Defence Forces Physical Education School ** CIS Group *** Communications and Information Services School ** Engineer Group *** Military Engineering School ** Ordnance Group *** Ordnance School ** Military Police Group *** Military Police School ** Transport Group *** Transport and Vehicle Maintenance School ** Medical School ** Defence Forces Catering School ** Central Medical Unit Detachment ** Defence Forces Training Centre Military Police Company ** Defence Forces Training Centre Support Unit ==== Army Reserve ==== The Army Reserve is a part-time, voluntary organisation established on 1 October 2005, whose members round out regular army units. The Army Reserve is present at the following locations: * 1st Brigade, in Cork ** C Company, 1st Infantry Battalion, in Clifden ** D Company, 1st Infantry Battalion, in Galway ** E Company, 1st Infantry Battalion, in Ennis ** C Company, 3rd Infantry Battalion, in Kilkenny ** D Company, 12th Infantry Battalion, in Mallow ** E Company, 12th Infantry Battalion, in Tralee ** F Company, 12th Infantry Battalion, in Skibbereen ** C Company, 12th Infantry Battalion, in Limerick ** D Company, 3rd Infantry Battalion, in Templemore ** E Company, 3rd Infantry Battalion, in Wexford ** F Company, 3rd Infantry Battalion, in Waterford ** 4th and 5th Artillery Battery, 1st Artillery Regiment, 2x Cavalry Squadron Troops, 1x CIS Radio Platoon, 2x Transport Platoons, 1x Military Police Platoon, in Cork * 2nd Brigade, in Dublin ** C Company, 6th Infantry Battalion, in Mullingar ** D Company, 6th Infantry Battalion, in Castlebar ** E Company, 6th Infantry Battalion, in Boyle ** D Company, 7th Infantry Battalion, 2x Cavalry Squadron Troops, 1x CIS Radio Platoon, 2x Transport Platoons, 1x Military Police Platoon, in Dublin ** E Company, 7th Infantry Battalion, in Bray ** C Company, 27th Infantry Battalion, in Cavan ** D Company, 27th Infantry Battalion, in Dundalk ** E Company, 27th Infantry Battalion, in Navan ** C Company, 28th Infantry Battalion, in Letterkenny ** D Company, 28th Infantry Battalion, in Sligo ** E Company, 28th Infantry Battalion, in Donegal ** 4th and 5th Artillery Battery, 2nd Artillery Regiment, 1x Field Engineer Platoon, in Athlone * Defence Forces Training Centre, in Curragh ** various units, in Curragh ==== Infantry battalion organization ==== The infantry battalions of the Irish Army are organized as follows: * Infantry Battalion ** Headquarters Company *** Administrative Platoon *** Communications Platoon *** Transport Platoon *** Logistic Platoon ** 3x to 6x Infantry companies *** 3x Infantry platoons *** Weapons Platoon, with M1 60mm mortars, FN MAG machine guns, and 84mm recoilless rifles ** Support Company *** Reconnaissance Platoon, includes a Sniper section *** Heavy Machine Gun Platoon, with M2 Browning heavy machine guns *** Anti-armour Platoon, with Javelin anti-tank missiles *** Mortar Platoon, with LLR 81mm mortars === Air Corps === The Air Corps is the air branch of the Irish Defence Forces. Headed by a brigadier general it comprises a staff headquarters, two operational wings, two support wings, one independent squadron and the Air Corps College. * 25px Air Corps Headquarters, at Casement Aerodrome in Baldonnel ** Office of General Officer Commanding ** Operations Section ** Support Section ** Military Airworthiness Authority ** Flight Safety Section ** Military Police Section ** CIS Squadron (former 501 CIS Squadron, No 5 Support Wing) *** Squadron Headquarters *** Airfield Services Flight *** Communications Flight *** Technical Services Flight *** Information Technology Flight ==== No 1 Operations Wing ==== No 1 Operations Wing operates the fixed-wing assets of the Air Corps. The wing is divided into four flying and two non-flying squadrons: * No 1 Operations Wing, at Casement Aerodrome in Baldonnel ** 101 Maritime Surveillance and Airlift Squadron, with 2x CN-235 MPA maritime patrol aircraft (to be replaced by 2x C-295 MPA) ** 102 Ministerial Transport Squadron, with 1x Learjet 45 plane ** 103 Garda Air Support Unit, with 1x Defender plane ** 104 Army Co-op and Reconnaissance Squadron, with 4x PC-12NG planes ** 105 Defence Forces Photographic Section ** 106 Maintenance Squadron ==== No 3 Operations Wing ==== No 3 Operations Wing is operates all Air Corps helicopters, and is divided into three squadrons. It provides pilots for the Emergency Aeromedical Service, the air ambulance service which is jointly operated by the Air Corps and the HSE National Ambulance Service. * No 3 Operations Wing, at Casement Aerodrome in Baldonnel ** 301 Tactical Helicopter Squadron, with 6x AW139 helicopters ** 302 Training and Surveillance Squadron, with 2x EC135 P2 helicopters, and 2x EC135 T2 helicopters for the Garda Air Support Unit (Detachment at Finner Camp) ** 303 Maintenance Squadron ==== No 4 Support Wing ==== No 4 Support Wing carries out second line maintenance and manages the procurement of spares and aviation fuel. This formation has two squadrons. * No 4 Support Wing, at Casement Aerodrome in Baldonnel ** 401 Mechanical Support Squadron ** 402 Avionics Support Squadron ==== No 5 Support Wing ==== No 5 Support Wing is responsible for the logistic support for the Air Corps and the management and security of Casement Aerodrome. * No 5 Support Wing, at Casement Aerodrome in Baldonnel ** 502 Logistics Squadron ** 503 Transport Squadron ** 504 Medical Squadron ** 505 Air Traffic Control Squadron ** 506 Crash Rescue Squadron ** 507 Security and Maintenance Squadron ==== Air Corps College ==== The Air Corps College is the principal training unit of the Irish Air Corps, where all entrants into the service undertake their training. The College is divided into three distinct schools: * Air Corps College, at Casement Aerodrome in Baldonnel ** Flying Training School, pilot and officer training, with PC-9 trainer aircraft ** Technical Training School, aircraft technicians training ** Military Training and Survival School, basic military, Non-commissioned Officer, and SERE training === Naval Service === The Naval Service is the sea branch of the Irish Defence Forces. Headed by a brigadier general it comprises a staff headquarters, two commands, and the Naval College. * 25px Naval Headquarters, at Haulbowline Naval Base ==== Naval Operations Command ==== Naval Operations Command is the command component of the Irish Naval Service responsible for all day-to-day activities of the service, both at sea and on shore. * Naval Operations Command, at Haulbowline Naval Base ** Operations Command Headquarters ** Fleet Operational Readiness Standards and Training *** LÉ Eithne (P31), LÉ Orla (P41) (in operational reserve), LÉ Ciara (P42), LÉ Róisín (P51), LÉ Niamh (P52), LÉ Samuel Beckett (P61), LÉ James Joyce (P62), LÉ William Butler Yeats (P63), and LÉ George Bernard Shaw (P64) ** Intelligence and Fishery Section *** Naval Intelligence Cell *** Navigation Cell *** Naval Computer Centre *** Fisheries Monitoring Centre **** Vessel Monitoring System **** Fishery Protection System - Lirguard ***** Fishery Information System ***** Fishery Geographic System ***** Fishery Legislative System ***** Electronic Recording and Reporting System ** Shore Operations *** Headquarters Section *** Naval Service Operations Room *** Naval Service Reserve Staff *** Naval Base Communications Centre *** Operations Security Section *** Naval Service Diving Section *** Harbour Master Naval Base **** Boat Transport ==== Naval Support Command ==== thumb|right|Naval Service armed boarding party underway Naval Support Command oversees the personnel, logistical and technical resources of the Naval Service, allowing the service to meets its operational and training commitments. Ship procurement, maintenance, repair, provisions, ordnance, food, fuel, personnel and transportation are handled by Naval Support Command. * Naval Support Command, at Haulbowline Naval Base ** Support Command Headquarters *** Personnel Management Section *** Maintenance Management/Planning and Inspectorate ** Mechanical Engineering and Naval Dockyard Unit *** Plant and Machinery Section *** Naval Dockyard ** Base Logistic Department *** Naval Technical Stores *** Central Supply Unit *** Accommodation and Messes Section *** Base Engineering Maintenance Section *** Road Transport Section ** Weapons Electrical Unit *** Communications Technical Section *** Electrical/Electronics Section *** Ordnance Section ==== Naval College ==== The Naval College provides training to cadets, non-commissioned officers, and recruits of the Naval Service. The Naval College trains and educates personnel for service, providing a mixture of different courses ranging from officer training right through to Naval Engineering. The Naval College is based out of the Naval Service's headquarters at Naval Base Haulbowline but also provides classes and lessons in non-military naval training at the nearby National Maritime College of Ireland in Ringaskiddy. * Naval College, at Haulbowline Naval Base ** Officer Training School ** Military and Naval Operational Training School ** School of Naval Engineering ==== Naval Service Reserve ==== The Naval Service Reserve is the reserve force of the Naval Service. Its personnel supplements the crew of vessels of the Naval Service during operations, and conducts stand-alone operations within their respective ports, such as security duties, sighting reports and intelligence gathering. * Naval Service Reserve, at Haulbowline Naval Base ** Dublin Unit Naval Service Reserve, in Dublin ** Waterford Unit Naval Service Reserve, in Waterford ** Cork Unit Naval Service Reserve, in Cork ** Limerick Unit Naval Service Reserve, in Limerick == Defence Forces structure graphic == thumb|center|860px|Irish Defence Forces structure 2020 (click to enlarge) == Geographic distribution of units == ==References== ==External links== * Website of the Irish Defence Forces Irish Defence Forces |
Pedro Manrique de Lara (died January 1202), commonly called Pedro de Molina or Peter of Lara, was a Castilian nobleman and military leader of the House of Lara. Although he spent most of his career in the service of Alfonso VIII of Castile, he also served briefly Ferdinand II of León (1185–86) and was Viscount of Narbonne by hereditary right after 1192. He was one of the most powerful Castilian magnates of his time, and defended the Kingdom of Toledo and the Extremadura against the Almohads. He also fought the Reconquista in Cuenca, and was a "second founder" of the monasteries of Huerta and Arandilla. Pedro was married three times. By his first marriage, to a Navarrese princess, he forged a connection with the lineage of the folk hero El Cid, and scholars have suggested that Lara patronage lies behind the epic Poema de mio Cid. Pedro's second wife was a relative of Henry II of England. Pedro's trans- Pyrenean connexions explain his adoption of seals for authenticating documents; he is the first Spanish aristocrat from whom an examples survives. He also adopted the style "by the grace of God" to indicate his independence in ruling the lordship of Molina, which he inherited from his father. ==Inheritance== Pedro was the eldest son and heir of Manrique Pérez de Lara and Ermessinde, daughter of Aimery II of Narbonne.Barton, 264 n3. He regularly called himself "de Lara", a toponymic surname first employed by his grandfather and namesake Pedro González. Pedro's descendants adopted his own patronymic, Manrique, as part of their surname.Barton, 44. Pedro's patrimony was extensive, but he is well known among historians for how much of it he mortgaged or sold for a small profit. This had led to the accusation that he was a poor administrator. He owned land at Cogolludo.Doubleday, 40 and 42 for a map of Pedro's patrimony. Pedro first appears in a public document on 18 December 1157.Barton, 282 n1. Pedro's father died at the Battle of Huete in the summer of 1164 and his semi-independent lordship of Molina was inherited by his widow, who promptly invested half of it in her eldest son.Grassotti, 34–35. By November 1164 Pedro was governing the eastern fief of Atienza, which his father had held before his death.Barton, 282 and 283 n9. Dating to 1 March 1165 is the only document that cites Pedro as actually ruling Lara, from which his family took its name.Barton, 282 and 283 n17. There is a second document that may date to 1184 that shows him governing Lara. ==First marriage== Pedro's first wife was the infanta Sancha Garcés, a daughter of King García Ramírez of Navarre and his second wife, Urraca, illegitimate daughter of Alfonso VII of León and Castile and his mistress Gontrodo Pérez. This was thus a highly auspicious match for the young nobleman.Barton, 282 and n3. She first appears as his wife in a donation to the Praemonstratensian foundation at La Vid dated to 1165.Barton, 282 and 283 n30. This presents problems, however, as her first husband, Gaston V of Béarn, did not die until 1170. In May 1172, Pedro and his brother Manrique donated half of the saltworks (salinas) of Tercegüela to the abbey of Santa María de Huerta and Abbot Martín de Finojosa. In February 1173 Manrique along with Sancha donated the remaining half in exchange for a horse. This charter reads was "made in the month of February in the era 1211 in the year when King Sancho of Navarre gave his sister to count Pedro son of Manrique" (facta ... mense febrero in era M.CC.XI in anno quando rex Sancius Navarre dedit sororem suam comiti Petro filio comitis Almarica).Lacarra, 158–59. This indicates that the marriage must have occurred sometime after February 1172, and as Sancha does not appear with her husband in the donation of May 1172, probably after that date as well. Sancha and Pedro had three sons: García, Aimerico, and Nuño.Barton, 282. Nuño, known as Nuño Pérez II to distinguish him from his great uncle, Nuño Pérez I, was still alive in 1228.Doubleday, 157. He had received the tenencia of Bertabillo.Corral, 583. Nuño Pérez I and Pedro Manrique shared the guardianship of the young Alfonso VIII before he attained his majority in 1169.Corral, 582. British historian Richard A. Fletcher believed that Manrique, the Bishop of León from 1181 to 1205, was a son of Pedro and Sancha, although it is more likely that he was Pedro's brother.Fletcher, 71; Doubleday, 138. Sancha was a great-granddaughter of Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, called the Cid.Smith, 177–79. It has been argued that the author of the Poema de mio Cid, perhaps Per Abbat, was patronised by the Lara family and that the Poema can be read as a work of escarnho e mal dizer ("shaming and cursing") against the Laras' enemies, the Castros (represented in the epic by the Infantes de Carrión). The town of San Esteban de Gormaz, nearby where the daughters of the Cid were beaten and abandoned, was also the site where the Laras, led by Pedro's father, hid the young Alfonso VIII in 1163; and the favourable light shone on Avengalvón, the last Muslim ruler of Molina (which fell to the Christians shortly before 1138), may reflect his relationship with the later Lara rulers of the same. ==Military governor of the southern frontier== By 1 September 1166 Pedro was a count (comes in Latin), the highest dignity to which a Castilian nobleman of his time could be appointed by the king.Barton, 282 and 283 n6. He regularly titled himself Dei gratia, "by the grace of God", a rare usage for a nobleman in twelfth-century Spain, perhaps borrowed from his Occitan or Catalan cousins.Barton, 30 n11; Menéndez Pidal de Navascués, 105. There is also an example of his use of the phrase munere divino ("by divine mercy").Barton, 329. In 1168 he was sent to govern the tenencias of Osma and San Esteban de Gormaz in eastern Castile.Barton, 282 and 283 nn 20 and 22. On 4 October that year he made a donation to the parish church of Molina.Barton, 282 and 283 n31. Pedro was a regular patron of the military order of the Knights of Calatrava. He made his first donatio to them on 8 May 1169.Barton, 282 and 283 n28. In 1169 Pedro intervened to arbitrate a dispute between the settlers of Molina and the Abbey of Huerta concerning the boundaries of the village of Arandilla. In June 1170 Pedro was the governor (or tenant, tenens) of the militarily important frontier zone of Extremadura.Barton, 282 and 283 n14. On 5 November 1172 he was cited as governing Cabezón.Barton, 282 and 283 n11. By 3 April 1173 Pedro was governing the Kingdom of Toledo, the region centred on the populous city of Toledo and bordering al-Andalus to the south.Barton, 282 and 283 n23. That year, when Alfonso VIII invaded Navarre as far as Pamplona, Pedro acted as a mediator between his sovereign and the king of Navarre, Sancho VI, his brother-in-law. The war ended in a treaty in October. In 1177, Pedro took part in the Siege of Cuenca. On 19 August, during the siege, Cerebruno, Archbishop of Toledo, purchased Pedro's lands at Añover and Barcilés for 100 maravedíes. The size and sophistication of Pedro Manrique's own court and mesnada (private army) is indicated by his employment of a majordomo (maiordomus) of his own, Pedro Vidas, in 1177.Barton, 59. ==Use of seals== The earliest surviving aristocratic wax seal from Spain is found hanging from a document of Pedro's dated 22 January 1179.Barton, 62; Menéndez Pidal de Navascués, 103 n7. Since this practice was already current in France, it is probable that it entered Spain through the Laras' connexions with Narbonne and was certainly influenced by Occitan and Catalan designs.Perhaps Raymond Berengar IV of Barcelona's 1150 seal was its model (Menéndez Pidal de Navascués, 107). It may have been made from a matrix cast as early as 1164, when Pedro succeeded his father in Molina. This is the only surviving example of Pedro's seal and, although heavily worn, its image is describable: > It depicts a knight, protected by a conical helmet and a long kite-shaped > shield, mounted upon a galloping charger and brandishing a lance. This, > without any shadow of a doubt, was how Count Pedro wished to present himself > to the world: warlike, puissant, unstoppable; a warrior aristocrat > indeed.Barton, 148. The seal is double-sided, both sides bearing equestrian depictions of Pedro. The obverse bears the barely discernible legend "seal of count Pedro",Reading of Menéndez Pidal de Navascués, 106: +S/IGIL[LVM] D[...] PETRI CO[M]ITIS. and the reverse and indiscernible legend that appears to be a sentence or motto.Reading of Menéndez Pidal de Navascués, 107: +[...]IT SIGNA[...] FORT[...]. This would be the earliest of only three examples of personal seals from medieval Spain bearing mottoes.The others being one of Sancho VII of Navarre from 1214 and another of Nuño Sánchez from 1226 (Menéndez Pidal de Navascués, 107). The charter to which it was attached put the village of Torralba de Ribota, which belonged to the mother church at Calatayud of the Canons of the Holy Sepulchre in Spain, under the protection of Pedro Dei gratia comes, "by the grace of God count".Barton, 282 and 283 n34. It was confirmed in the city of Calatayud on Saint Vincent's Day in the year 1217 of the Spanish era. The identification with Pedro Manrique is secure, since there was neither another count named Pedro in Castile at the time nor any other count using the style Dei gratia.Menéndez Pidal de Navascués, 105. Pedro was at Torralba in March 1179. On 20 March Pedro assisted Alfonso VIII in laying the foundation stone of the Abbey of Huerta.Duggan, 84–86. ==Relations with religious houses== On 11 February 1172 Pedro received half the vill of Beteta from Cathedral of Santa María in Sigüenza in exchange for the monastery of Santa María de Molina. On 2 May Pedro made a donation to the Cistercian monastery at Sacramenia.Barton, 282 and 283 n33. On 17 May he made another donation to a Cistercian house, this time the Abbey of Huerta.Barton, 282 and 283 n29. Although he made donations to the Praemonstratensians and the Benedictines (the monastery of Arlanza on an unknown dateBarton, 282 and 283 n26.), the Cistercians were his preferred monastic order. The Cistercian historian Ángel Manrique in his Annales Cistercienses (II, 429) considers Pedro and his descendants, the Manriques de Lara, as the "second founders" of Huerta because of their numerous benefactions. On 26 June 1176 Pedro made a donation to the regular clergy of Alcalech.Barton, 282 and 283 n25. In October 1176 he made an apparently pious donation to the cathedral of Sigüenza, for this time he received nothing in return.Barton, 282 and 283 n35. On 16 January 1178 he made his second donation to the parish of Molina. On 1 January 1181 Pedro and his sister María granted the vill of Carabanchel, on the outskirts of Madrid, to a certain Gonzalo Díaz and his wife Melisenda. The vill had been mortgaged for 100 maravedíes by Ermessinde of Narbonne.Barton, 282, citing F. Fita, "Madrid en el siglo XII," Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia, 8 (1886), 68–69. Later that year (28 June) Pedro pledged 2,000 maravedíes for the construction of a monastery at Arandilla, which had lain in his jurisdiction since at least 1169.Barton, 84. Besides the money, not only did Pedro offer land for the building of an abbey, he also granted the monks of Huerta (who were to build it) some four hundred sheep, forty cows, and ten mares. Pedro also instructed that he was to be buried at Arandilla if work on the monastery had not been finished by the time of his death, and that his successor was to donate a further 3,000 maravedíes.Barton, 205–6. As early as 14 March 1167 Pedro's mother had attempted to establish a monastery there. She gave the usufruct of her estates at Arandilla to the monks of Huerta for two years on that date, and also promised them some properties at Molina. Ermessinde further pledged 200 gold pieces per annum for the erection of a monastery at Arandilla, offering even to pay the salary of the master builder who would supervise its construction. No monastery was every built at Arandilla, nor was Pedro buried there. It is not clear why the project failed. On 11 March 1183, Pedro and his eldest son, García, made a donation to the Order of Calatrava for the good of the soul of his first wife, the latter's mother, the infanta Sancha. Pedro, with his sister María, made another donation to Calatrava that same month, letting go the castle of Alcozar.Barton, 210. On 23 April he made a further pious donation (of two houses) to the Cathedral of Santa María in Burgos.Barton, 282 and 283 n27. Some time in 1183 Pedro and María mortgaged their joint property of the vill and castle of Los Ausines to the monastery of La Vid for 1,000 maravedíes.Cf. Barton, appendix 3, no. XVIII, 329, where the edited document is published. ==Member of the Leonese court and second marriage== Pedro is last seen ruling Toledo in May 1179. On 8 May 1181 Pedro was governing Hita.Barton, 282 and 283 n15. On 28 June that year he made a donation to Huerta, his third. Also in June 1179 Pedro rewarded one of his loyal followers, García de Alberit, and the latter's daughter Toda and brother Pascasio with land at Valtablado.Barton, 282, citing J. L. Martín Rodríguez, Orígenes de la Orden Militar de Santiago (1170–1195) (Barcelona: 1974), 280–81. Pedro took as his second wife Margaret (Margarita, Margerina). The couple first appears as married in a charter redacted at Angers and preserved in the cartulary of Llanthony Secunda, recording the gift of bridewealth to a certain Margaret, relative of Henry II of England, by her husband, Petrus Dei gratia comes de Lara. The properties granted were Molmera (perhaps Molina), Andaluz, Agusino, Eles, and Polvoranca.Menéndez Pidal de Navascués, 111. The charter is quoted in Evans, 187–91. It names Pedro's wife "Countess Margaret my wife a relative of the illustrious Henry king of England" (comitisse Marger′ uxori mee consanguinee H. illustris angl′ regis). It lists as its confirmants "Henry king of England, Randulf bishop of Angers, Joscius bishop of Acre, Count Geoffrey of Brittany, John Lackland, Count John, seneschal Maurice de Craon of Anjou, Count Juan Díaz" (H. rex Angl′, Rand′ episcopus Andeg′, Choce episcopus de Acre, comes Gaufredus Britannie, J. sans terra, comes J., Mauricius de Creon senescallus, Andeg′, J. didaci comitis). It is dated "the tenth kalends of February of the Era 1221" (x kal′ februarii Era(t) m cc xxi), that is, 23 January 1183 according to Evans, but Church says of it, "Dated 23 January, it must have been granted in either 1184, 1185 or 1186."Church, 259 This charter is the only evidence to hint at Margaret's origin. They made another donation to the Order of Calatrava in which she was cited as "countess (comitissa) Margaret" on 30 December 1187 (or perhaps 1186).Barton, 282 and 283 n28. The couple was still married on 17 November 1189 when they made another donation to Calatrava. She gave him no known children. On 27 January 1185 Pedro witnessed his first charter as a member of the court of Ferdinand II of León. By 11 February he had been appointed majordomo, the highest-ranking official at court.Barton, 283 n7. This appointment could not have lasted much more than a week, for Ferdinand had returned the former official, Rodrigo López, to the office by 16 February. By that time, however, Pedro had been appointed to a post away from court: the large and important, if quiet, tenencia of Asturias de Oviedo. His tenencias steadily increased throughout the year. By 22 February he was governing the "towers of León", that is, the royal citadel that controlled the capital city; by 6 July he held Salamanca and Toro, the latter only briefly; and by 26 September he was holding Ciudad Rodrigo, an important city in the south of the kingdom. On 4 March 1186 Pedro was styled a "vassal of king Ferdinand" (uassallo regis Fernandi). There is an isolated reference to his governing Babia on 16 March and Luna on 31 March–1 April. He continued to govern Asturias de Oviedo, Ciudad Rodrigo, and Salamanca until at least 5 May that year. He held onto León a short while longer, for he was still in charge of the fortress there on 21 May.The dates of Pedro's tenencias in León are derived from Barton, 282–83 notes 7, 8, 10, 12, 18, 19, 21, and 24. On 29 January 1187 Pedro made a second donation to Alcalech (his first had been in 1176). From 1188 until 1200 Pedro was ruling the region of Cuenca.Barton, 282 and 283 n13. After 1190 Pedro no longer held Atienza. Beginning in that year he ruled Huete, where his father had been killed in battle. His rule there lasted until at least 21 March 1198.Barton, 282 and 283 n16. On 13 June 1195 Pedro made a second donation to the cathedral of Sigüenza. ==Viscount of Narbonne== Pedro seems to have been second in line to the viscounty of Narbonne, since his aunt, the viscountess Ermengarde, was childless. Pedro's brother Aimerico Manrique de Lara was invited to co-rule with Ermengarde, but on his death in 1177 the viscountess again ruled alone, at least until 1184. In that year the abbot of Fontfroide, the abbey where Aimerico was buried, donated the hamlet of Terrail to the Archbishop of Narbonne, Bernard Gaucelin. The archbishop solicited a confirmation of this acquisition of territory within the viscounty from "Ermengarde, viscountess of Narbonne, and from you, Count Pedro, and from your successors," which suggests the presence of Pedro Manrique north of the Pyrenees and that his aunt had recognised him as her heir.Sánchez de Mora, 344: Hermengarde vicecometesse de Narbona, et a toy, comte Pierre, et a vos successeurs. The confirmation was duly received from Ermengarde, "by the grace of God, viscountess of Narbonne, and my relative Pedro, by the same grace count."Sánchez de Mora, 344: par la grace de Dieu, vicecomtesse de Narbóne, et moy pareillement Pierre, pa mesme grace comte. This demonstrates that on the other side of the Pyrenees Pedro continued to style himself and be styled as a count, as in "Count Pedro, Viscount of Narbonne".Comitem Petrum Vicecomitem Narbonae, in Graham-Leigh, 156 n203. In 1192 on the abdication of his aunt (died 1197), Pedro succeeded in the viscounty of Narbonne. On 28 April 1194 he, "in consideration of the good", named his second son, Aimerico, as his heir there, and may have invested him with the viscounty.Sánchez de Mora, 344: ego Petrus comes, ac vicecomes Narbonensis bono intuitu ("I, Count Pedro, also viscount of Narbonne, in consideration of the good"). Aimerico remained behind in it, for he did not return to Castile until after Pedro's death in 1202. Besides the viscounty, Pedro also inherited suzerainty over the viscounts of Béziers, which he included in his cession to his son of 1194. Excepted was the castle of Montpesat, which Pedro retained under his control. thumb|Inscription on the wall of the Pantheon of the Counts of Molina at the cloister of the Monastery of Santa María de Huerta ==Death and legacy== In April 1199 Pedro was present at Huerta when it was visited by Alfonso VIII, the occasion for which the Poem de mio Cid may have first been publicly recited.Duggan, 90–94. On 30 October 1199 he made his second donation to La Vid. In September 1200 he may have been present at Ariza when Peter II of Aragon received the local castle from his mother, Sancha. Pedro's last appearance at court was on 11 December 1201. He died early in 1202 and was buried in the abbey of Huerta, next to his first wife under the first stone archway of the cloister, on 14 January, according to the Anales toledanos primeros. On 29 July 1203 the Cistercian monastery at Piedra received properties promised it in Pedro's will.Barton, 282 and 283 n32. Although there is no further mention of Pedro's second wife, Margaret, after their joint donation to Calatrava on 17 November 1189, his third and final wife (and widow), Mafalda, is not mentioned until after his death, on 3 February 1202, when she and her eldest son by Pedro, Gonzalo, sold their estate at Tragacete to the city council of Cuenca for 4,000 maravedíes.Barton, 282 and 283 n5. She refers to herself as quondam uxore comitis Petri, "formerly count Pedro's wife". She also had by Pedro a son named Rodrigo or Ruy, who in the 1190s joined his father at the royal court and became merino mayor.Doubleday, 46. He also became the lord of Montpesat. ==Notes== ==References== ==Bibliography== *Simon Barton. The Aristocracy in Twelfth- century León and Castile. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. *José María Canal Sánchez-Pagín. "Casamientos de los condes de Urgel en Castilla". Anuario de estudios medievales, 19 (1989), 119–35. *Fredric L. Cheyette. Ermengard of Narbonne and the World of the Troubadours. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001. *Stephen Church. King John and the Road to Magna Carta. New York: Basic Books, 2015. *José María de Corral. "Santa María de Rocamador y la milagrosa salvación de una Infanta de Navarra en el siglo XII". Hispania, 7:29 (1947), 554–610. *Simon R. Doubleday. The Lara Family: Crown and Nobility in Medieval Spain. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2001. *Joseph J. Duggan. The Cantar de Mio Cid: Poetic Creation in Its Economic and Social Contexts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. *Charles Evans. "Margaret of Scotland, Duchess of Brittany." Mélanges offerts à Szalbocs de Vajay à l'occasion de son cinquantième anniversaire, edd. Le comte de'Adhémar de Panat, Xavier de Ghellinck Vaernewyck and Pierre Brière. Braga: 1971. *Judith Everard and Michael Jones, eds. The Charters of Duchess Constance of Brittany and her Family, 1171–1221. London: Boydell and Brewer, 1999. *Richard A. Fletcher. The Episcopate in the Kingdom of León in the Twelfth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978. *Julio González. "Repoblación de las tierras de Cuenca". Anuario de estudios medievales, 12 (1982), 183–204. *Elaine Graham-Leigh. The Southern French Nobility and the Albigensian Crusade. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2005. *Hilda Grassotti. "El sitio de Cuenca en la mecánica vasallático-señorial de Castilla". Anuario de estudios medievales, 12 (1982), 33–40. Originally published in Cuadernos de Historia de España, 63–64 (1980), 112–19. *María Eugenia Lacarra. El Poema de mio Cid: realidad histórica e ideología. Madrid: Ediciones José Porrúa Turanzas, 1980. *Faustino Menéndez Pidal de Navascués. "Los sellos de los señores de Molina". Anuario de estudios medievales, 14 (1984), 101–119. *Derek E. T. Nicholson. The Poems of the Troubadour Peire Rogier. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1976. *Luis de Salazar y Castro. Pruebas de la historia de la Casa de Lara. Madrid: Imprenta Real, 1694. *Antonio Sánchez de Mora. nobleza castellana en la plena Edad Media: el linaje de Lara (SS. XI–XIII). Doctoral Thesis, University of Seville, 2003. *Colin Smith. The Making of the Poema de mio Cid. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Category:12th-century births Category:1202 deaths Category:Viscounts of Narbonne Category:People of the Reconquista Category:12th-century nobility from León and Castile Category:13th-century Castilians |
Chandler is a city in Maricopa and Pinal counties, Arizona, United States, and a suburb in the Phoenix-Mesa-Chandler Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA). It is bordered to the north and west by Tempe, to the north by Mesa, to the west by Phoenix, to the south by the Gila River Indian Community, and to the east by Gilbert. Most of the city is located in Maricopa County, while a portion of it in the south is in Pinal County. As of the 2020 census, the population of Chandler was 279,458, up from 236,123 at the 2010 census. == History == In 1891, Dr. Alexander John Chandler, the first veterinary surgeon in Arizona Territory, settled on a ranch south of Mesa and studied irrigation engineering. By 1900, he had acquired of land and began drawing up plans for a townsite on what was then known as the Chandler Ranch. The townsite office opened on May 16, 1912. (Soon after celebrating Chandler's Centennial on May 17, 2012, Chandler Museum staff discovered that the city had been celebrating the wrong date. In May 1912, the Chandler Arizonan newspaper had erroneously published the founding day as May 17, and through the years residents had misremembered the correct date, which was Thursday, May 16, 1912.) The original townsite was bounded by Galveston Street on the north, Frye Road on the south, Hartford Street on the west, and Hamilton Street on the east. By 1913, a town center had become established, featuring the Hotel San Marcos, which also had the first grass golf course in the state. Chandler High School was established in 1914.ChandlerAZ.gov, [The Story of Chandler, Arizona http://www.chandleraz.gov/default.aspx?pageid=37 ]. Retrieved October 13, 2009. Chandler incorporated on February 16, 1920, after 186 residents petitioned the Maricopa County Board of Supervisors to approve incorporation. Town founder A.J. Chandler was chosen as the president of the first town council and the town's first mayor. Most of Chandler's economy was sustained during the Great Depression (though the Depression was to blame for the cancellation of a second San Marcos hotel), but the cotton crash a few years later had a much deeper impact on the city's residents. Later, the founding of Williams Air Force Base in 1941 led to a small surge in population, but Chandler still only held 3,800 people by 1950. By 1980, it had grown to 30,000, and it has since paced the Phoenix metropolitan area's high rate of growth, with suburban residential areas swallowing former agricultural plots. Some of this growth was fueled by the establishment of manufacturing plants for communications and computing firms such as Microchip, Motorola and Intel. Since the early 1990s, the city of Chandler has experienced exponential growth, ranking among the fastest-growing municipalities in the country. The population had grown to more than 275,000 residents in more than 100,000 homes as of 2020. The heart of Chandler remains its revitalized historic downtown, which includes the Chandler City Hall and the Chandler Center for the Arts. In 2010, Chandler was named an All-America City by the National Civic League. Chandler was the only Arizona winner for the 61st annual awards. == Geography == According to the United States Census Bureau, Chandler has a total area of , of which , or 0.11%, are listed as water. The center of the city, along Arizona State Route 87, is southeast of Downtown Phoenix. Chandler has reached its physical limits save for some remaining county islands and cannot expand outward anymore due to being bound in by the Gila River Indian Community, Tempe, Mesa, Gilbert, and Phoenix. === Climate === == Demographics == At the time of the 2010 Census, there were 236,123 people, 86,924 households, and 60,212 families in the city. The racial makeup of the city was 73.3% White, 4.8% Black or African American, 1.5% Native American, 8.2% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, and 8.3% of other races. 21.9% of the population was Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 62,377 households, out of which 41.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.5% were married couples living together, 10.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.2% were non-families. Of all households 19.3% were made up of individuals, and 3.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.82 and the average family size was 3.26. In the city, the population was spread out, with 29.8% under the age of 18, 8.6% from 18 to 24, 38.0% from 25 to 44, 17.8% from 45 to 64, and 5.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.9 males. There were 101,229 housing units as of May 2016.Chandler. "Community Profile Demographics" https://www.chandleraz.gov/default.aspx?pageid=724 . Retrieved June 21, 2016 The median income for a household in the city was $70,456, and the median income for a family was $81,720. Males had a median income of $44,578 versus $31,763 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23,904. About 4.6% of families and 6.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.7% of those under age 18 and 8.0% of those age 65 or over. == Economy == Computer chip manufacturer Intel has an influential role in city growth strategies with four locations in the municipal area, including its first factory to be designated "environmentally sustainable" under current Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) criteria. Other high- technology manufacturing firms have partnerships with the local government, their operations employing approximately 25% of non-government workers in 2007. Although per capita employment growth in the sector has been in decline in Arizona since 2000, semiconductor and other electronic component manufacturing was largely unaffected; a series of customized grants for the training of net new employees, incorporating the Phoenix urbanized area (27,000 workers now commute to work in other communities), resulted in a larger market share of (Californian) industry. Since 2003, more than 2,900 jobs and investments totalling $3 billion have been created along the Price and Santan freeways, in the Price Road Corridor. Three shopping malls provide a "strong attraction" to such an open-ended, high exposure trade area: the Chandler Fashion Center, opened in 2001, has spurred on several courts and laneway developments. In the southern end of the Corridor, Wal-Mart is expected to draw business from as far south as Hunt Highway, bringing with it a "large consumer population" which will improve "the image and perception of the area" in the mindset of many Greater Phoenix residents and state commercial retailers. The northern portion is "attractive and possesses the historic character" for success, which "can be grown to the south".Final Report, South Arizona Avenue Entry Corridor Study , RNL Design. Companies headquartered in Chandler include Infusionsoft, Microchip, and Rogers. Bashas' headquarters is in a county island surrounded by Chandler. === Top employers === According to the City of Chandler's website leading employers in the city include: # Employer # of Employees 1 Intel 12,000 2 Wells Fargo 5,500 3 Chandler Unified School District 4,900 4 Bank of America 3,600 5 Chandler Regional Medical Center / Dignity Health 2,500 6 Northrop Grumman 2,150 7 NXP Semiconductors 1,700 8 PayPal 1,700 9 City of Chandler 1,586 10 Microchip Technology 1,500 == Culture == Chandler is noted for its annual Ostrich Festival. Initially, agriculture was the primary business in Chandler, based on cotton, corn, and alfalfa. During the 1910s, there were ostrich farms in the area, catering to the demand for plumes used in women's hats of the era. This demand ebbed with the increasing popularity of the automobile, but the legacy of the ostrich farms would be commemorated by the Ostrich Festival. The Chandler Center for the Arts, a 1,500-seat regional performing arts venue and the Vision Gallery, a non-profit fine arts gallery representing over 300 regional artists in the Chandler area are downtown, and the Arizona Railway Museum is at Tumbleweed Park. A Holocaust and Tolerance Museum has been slated for construction in Chandler. There are numerous properties in the town of Chandler which are considered to be historical and have been included either in the National Register of Historic Places or listed as such by the Chandler Historical Society. The Historic McCullough-Price House, a 1938 Pueblo Revival-style home, was donated to the city by the Price-Propstra family in 2001. The city renovated and opened it to the public in 2007. On June 12, 2009, the McCullough-Price House was added to the National Register of Historic Places, the official listing of America's historic and cultural resources worthy of preservation. The city of Chandler operates the facility, which is southwest of Chandler Fashion Center at 300 S. Chandler Village Dr. == Parks and recreation == thumb|Lake at Village of Gila Springs subdivision, Chandler|upright On May 18, 2016, a national nonprofit parks and recreation advocacy organization based in Washington, D.C., announced that Chandler was a 2016 Playful City USA community, marking the tenth consecutive year the city earned the distinction (one of twelve founding U.S. cities to receive the honor for the tenth consecutive year since the program was initiated in 2007). Chandler was recognized for taking an innovative approach to making play a priority throughout the city with its many recreational amenities, parks and aquatic centers. === Community Services Department === The Chandler Community Services Department serves residents and visitors in a variety of ways by providing recreation, fitness, cultural, artistic and educational opportunities along with classes, programs and special events. The Community Services Department, in Old Downtown Chandler, operates the community center, senior center, dozens of local neighborhood and community parks, two recreation centers and six aquatic centers. Chandler's recreational offerings provide residents and visitors of all ages, interests and abilities with the facilities to participate in many sports, activities and special events. The Department publishes a quarterly recreation magazine called Break Time that is distributed free at many City facilities and through a free subscription service to residents. A sampling of programs available through the Community Services Department and its Parks and Recreation Divisions includes: swim lessons; junior tennis clinics and leagues; youth classes and programs; youth sports; after-school teen programs; summer youth sports camps and arts camps; fitness classes; group aerobics and dance classes; nature and sustainable living courses; adult classes, sports leagues and outdoor recreation programs; active adult activities; therapeutic recreation special events and Special Olympics fundraising programs. Chandler's regional Tumbleweed Park hosts a variety of events throughout the year, including the annual Ostrich Festival, the Fourth of July Fireworks Festival and the sixth annual Day of Play, attended by more than 5,000 people, was held on Saturday, October 27, 2012, at, Tumbleweed Park. Veterans Oasis Park is also the site of the city's highest point, at . == Government == thumb|Kevin Hartke presenting the State of the City in 2020 Chandler is represented by a mayor, a vice mayor and five city council members. The vice mayor is elected by the city council from among its members. The mayor, vice mayor and council members represent the entire city and are not elected from districts or wards. Mayor: Kevin Hartke Vice Mayor: Matt Orlando Council Members * Christine Ellis * OD Harris * Mark Stewart * Jane Poston * Angel Encinas == Education == === Elementary and secondary === thumb|right|300px|Chandler High School, built 1921 Most of Chandler is served by the Chandler Unified School District. The area west of Loop 101 is served by the Kyrene Elementary School District and the Tempe Union High School District. The area east of Loop 101 and north of Warner Road is served by Mesa Public Schools. The San Vincente neighborhood in Chandler is served by Gilbert Public Schools. Education alternatives include charter schools, Christian schools, parochial schools, magnet schools, as well as "traditional" academies. The leading charter schools in Chandler are Basis Schools and Legacy Traditional School. === Post-secondary === The two-year Chandler- Gilbert Community College, serving 13,000 students, is in the east of the city near the Gilbert border. Private educational institutions Western International University and Apollo Group subsidiary University of Phoenix have locations here. International Baptist College is in Chandler. Arizona State University is from downtown in Tempe. Ottawa University began offering adult education programs in Chandler in 1977. Chandler University opened in 2011. === Chandler Public Library === The Chandler Public Library serves Chandler and the greater Phoenix East Valley. The main library is in downtown Chandler, with three branches elsewhere in the city: Sunset, Basha (shared with Basha High School), and Hamilton (shared with Hamilton High School). As part of a family literacy project to encourage literacy and library use among families who live in public housing, the Chandler Public Library visited four public housing locations to offer a four-week series of programs at each. == Radio and television licenses == Chandler has only one radio license: KMLE. == Transportation == === Addressing === Most incorporated portions of Chandler, along with other East Valley cities Gilbert, Mesa, and Tempe, have their own addressing system distinct from the city of Phoenix and Maricopa County. The north–south meridian is Arizona Avenue, also known as State Route 87. Commonwealth Avenue, two blocks south of Chandler Boulevard, is the east–west baseline. With the significant exception of the stretch of the city from Chandler Boulevard to Ray Road, address numbers follow in mile-long increments of 1000 along the grid. Modern remnants of county addressing (which corresponds to the city of Phoenix system) from the city's rural agrarian days can be found in some neighborhood street names (90th place, 132nd Street) and county islands surrounded by the city proper. === Airports === Chandler Municipal Airport is a two-runway general aviation facility in the heart of the city south of Loop 202. Gila River Memorial Airport in the Gila River Indian Community may serve the city in the future. In western Chandler, Stellar Airpark is a privately owned airport that is open to the public. The nearest commercial airport to downtown Chandler is Phoenix-Mesa Gateway Airport. It is roughly to the east and offers service to 35 cities as of July 2015. For international and regional travel, most area residents continue to use Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport, from downtown Chandler. === City bus === Chandler has very limited bus service compared with other Valley Metro cities of similar size; it currently ranks sixth in total ridership behind Phoenix, Tempe, Mesa, Scottsdale, and Glendale. Most local routes dead-end a few miles from the city or have further limited service within its borders. Currently, two express bus routes leave from the city near downtown, and a new park and ride facility was completed further south. Faced with increasing congestion, the land-locked city is pursuing transportation alternatives, including enhancement of the local bus system. This goal has partially been achieved through Proposition 400, which converts transit funding from city- based to county-based. The result has been increased frequencies on routes 72, 81, 96 (since July 28, 2008), 112, and 156, as well as Sunday bus service on the 72, 112, and 156. However, other routes have yet to be converted to "supergrid" status. === Freeways === Chandler is served by three limited access highways: * Loop 202, the Santan Freeway, completed through the city in 2006, cuts through the midsection of the city along the Pecos Road alignment. * Loop 101, the Price Freeway, was completed in 2001, dividing West Chandler from the rest of the city. A majority of the city's employment, over 10,000 people as of 2007, are along the city's Price Road Corridor. Air Products' industrial pipelines along the corridor are unique to the metropolitan area. South of Pecos, the freeway borders the Gila River Indian Community. * Interstate 10 is the city's westernmost border, and is on the other side is the Phoenix neighborhood of Ahwatukee. === Railroads === ==== Heavy rail ==== Chandler is served by two single-track branch lines of the Union Pacific Railroad. One generally traverses the Kyrene Road alignment and currently dead-ends at the Lone Butte Industrial Park. The other runs east of Arizona Avenue and dead-ends near Sacaton, Arizona. Commuter rail service on these lines is under study . ==== Light rail ==== No light rail lines have been approved in the city, although high-capacity corridors including light rail have been identified in other regional and local plans. City officials joined the regional light rail authority, Valley Metro Rail, in 2007, expecting service perhaps in 2020. Potential high capacity transit corridors that have been identified in the past include Rural Road, Arizona Avenue, and Chandler Boulevard. The Chandler General Plan 2016 does not authorize light rail or any form of high capacity transit. A separate process for any consideration of light rail as the mode of transit may occur in the years to come. The language in the General Plan 2016 is to identify that options remain available in the future for the city as it continues analyzing transit within the high-capacity transit corridors. ==Healthcare== The public hospital system, Valleywise Health (formerly Maricopa Integrated Health System), operates Valleywise Community Health Center – Chandler. Its sole hospital, Valleywise Health Medical Center, is in Phoenix. == Notable people == * Ryan Bader, MMA fighter * Cody Bellinger, MLB player for the Chicago Cubs * Hunter Bishop (born 1998), baseball player * Jakob Butturff, professional ten-pin bowler * Zora Folley, professional heavyweight boxer *Austin Hollins (born 1991), basketball player for Maccabi Tel Aviv of the Israeli Basketball Premier League * Markus Howard, Marquette all-time leading basketball scorer * Cameron Jordan, football player for the New Orleans Saints * Shawn Michaels, professional wrestler and WWE Hall of Famer * Patrick Murphy, MLB pitcher for the Minnesota Twins * James Rallison (TheOdd1sOut), YouTube animator == Sister cities == Chandler has two sister cities: * Tullamore, County Offaly, Ireland – since 2008 * Tainan, Taiwan == Gallery of historic properties == == Governmental representation == === Federal === The north central section of the city and the western "leg" of the city are within Arizona's 9th congressional district, served by Representative Greg Stanton, a Democrat. The rest of Chandler is within Arizona's 5th congressional district, served by Representative Andy Biggs, a Republican. === State === Chandler's western "leg" and a small, narrow portion of the adjacent northern part of the city are within Arizona's 18th Legislative District, served by Representatives Denise Epstein and Jennifer Jermaine, and Senator Sean Bowie, all Democrats. The rest of the city is in Arizona's 17th Legislative District, served by Representatives Jennifer Pawlik and Jeff Weninger, and Senator J. D. Mesnard, one Democrat and two Republicans. == See also == * Pueblo de Los Muertos * Wild Horse Pass Motorsports Park == References == == External links == * * Visit Chandler, official City of Chandler tourism website Category:Phoenix metropolitan area Category:Cities in Maricopa County, Arizona Category:Cities in Arizona Category:Populated places established in 1912 Category:Company towns in Arizona Category:Populated places in the Sonoran Desert Category:1912 establishments in Arizona |
A mobile payment, also referred to as mobile money, mobile money transfer and mobile wallet, is any of various payment processing services operated under financial regulations and performed from or via a mobile device, as the cardinal class of digital wallet. Instead of paying with cash, cheque, or credit cards, a consumer can use a payment app on a mobile device to pay for a wide range of services and digital or hard goods. Although the concept of using non-coin-based currency systems has a long history, it is only in the 21st century that the technology to support such systems has become widely available. Mobile payments began adoption in Japan in the 2000s and later all over the world in different ways. The first patent exclusively defined "Mobile Payment System" was filed in 2000. In developing countries, mobile payment solutions have been deployed as a means of extending financial services to the community known as the "unbanked" or "underbanked", which is estimated to be as much as 50% of the world's adult population, according to Financial Access' 2009 Report "Half the World is Unbanked". These payment networks are often used for micropayments.Micro-payment systems and their application to mobile networks, InfoDev report, Jan 2006 accessed at The use of mobile payments in developing countries has attracted public and private funding by organizations such as the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, United States Agency for International Development and Mercy Corps. Mobile payments are becoming a key instrument for payment service providers (PSPs) and other market participants, in order to achieve new growth opportunities, according to the European Payments Council (EPC). The EPC states that "new technology solutions provide a direct improvement to the operations efficiency, ultimately resulting in cost savings and in an increase in business volume". ==Models== There are 4 primary models for mobile payments: * Bank-centric model * Operator-centric model * Collaborative model * Independent service provider (ISP) model In models connected to a bank or operator, a bank/operator is the central node of the model, manages the transactions and distributes the property rights. In collaborative model, the financial intermediaries and telephonic operators collaborate in the managing tasks and share cooperatively the proprietary rights. In ISP model, a third party of confidence operates as an independent and “neutral” intermediary between financial agents and operators. Apple Pay or PayPal are the ISP the most frequently associated to this model in these last months. There can also be combinations of two models. * Operator/bank co- operation, emerging in Haiti. Financial institutions and credit card companies as well as Internet companies such as Google and a number of mobile communication companies, such as mobile network operators and major telecommunications infrastructure such as w-HA from Orange and smartphone multinationals such as Ericsson and BlackBerry have implemented mobile payment solutions. ==Mobile wallets== A mobile wallet is an app that contains the user's debit and credit card information, letting the user pay for goods and services digitally with a mobile device. Notable mobile wallets include: *Alipay *Amazon Pay *Apple Wallet *BHIM *Cloud QuickPass *Google Pay *Gyft *LG Pay *Line Pay *Mi Pay *Mir Pay *Paytm *PhonePe *Samsung Wallet *Touch 'n Go eWallet *Venmo *WeChat Pay ==Credit card== A simple mobile web payment system can also include a credit card payment flow allowing a consumer to enter their card details to make purchases. This process is familiar but any entry of details on a mobile phone is known to reduce the success rate (conversion) of payments. In addition, if the payment vendor can automatically and securely identify customers then card details can be recalled for future purchases turning credit card payments into simple single click-to-buy giving higher conversion rates for additional purchases. However, there are concerns regarding information and payment privacy when cards are used during online transactions. If a website is not secure, for example, then personal credit card info can leak online. ==Carrier billing == The consumer uses the mobile billing option during checkout at an e-commerce site—such as an online gaming site—to make a payment. After two-factor authentication involving the consumer's mobile number and a PIN or one-time password (often abbreviated as OTP), the consumer's mobile account is charged for the purchase. It is a true alternative payment method that does not require the use of credit/debit cards or pre-registration at an online payment solution such as PayPal, thus bypassing banks and credit card companies altogether. This type of mobile payment method, which is prevalent in Asia, provides the following benefits: # Security – two-factor authentication and a risk management engine prevents fraud. # Convenience – no pre-registration and no new mobile software is required. # Easy – It is just another option during the checkout process. # Fast – most transactions are completed in less than 10 seconds. # Proven – 70% of all digital content purchased online in some parts of Asia uses the direct mobile billing method ===Remote payment by SMS and credit card tokenization=== Even as the volume of Premium SMS transactions have flattened, many cloud- based payment systems continue to use SMS for presentment, authorization, and authentication, while the payment itself is processed through existing payment networks such as credit and debit card networks. These solutions combine the ubiquity of the SMS channel, with the security and reliability of existing payment infrastructure. Since SMS lacks end-to-end encryption, such solutions employ a higher-level security strategies known as 'tokenization' and 'target removal' whereby payment occurs without transmitting any sensitive account details, username, password, or PIN. To date, point-of-sales mobile payment solutions have not relied on SMS-based authentication as a payment mechanism, but remote payments such as bill payments, seat upgrades on flights, and membership or subscription renewals are commonplace. In comparison to premium short code programs which often exist in isolation, relationship marketing and payment systems are often integrated with CRM, ERP, marketing-automation platforms, and reservation systems. Many of the problems inherent with premium SMS have been addressed by solution providers. Remembering keywords is not required since sessions are initiated by the enterprise to establish a transaction specific context. Reply messages are linked to the proper session and authenticated either synchronously through a very short expiry period (every reply is assumed to be to the last message sent) or by tracking session according to varying reply addresses and/or reply options. ===Direct operator billing=== Direct operator billing, also known as mobile content billing, WAP billing, and carrier billing, requires integration with the mobile network operator. It provides certain benefits: #Mobile network operators already have a billing relationship with consumers, the payment will be added to their bill. #Provides instantaneous payment #Protects payment details and consumer identity #Better conversion rates #Reduced customer support costs for merchants #Alternative monetization option in countries where credit card usage is low One of the drawbacks is that the payout rate will often be much lower than with other mobile payments options. Examples from a popular provider: * 92% with PayPal * 85 to 86% with credit card * 45 to 91.7% with operator billing in the US, UK and some smaller European countries, but usually around 60% More recently, direct operator billing is being deployed in an in-app environment, where mobile application developers are taking advantage of the one-click payment option that direct operator billing provides for monetising mobile applications. This is a logical alternative to credit card and Premium SMS billing. In 2012, Ericsson and Western Union partnered to expand the direct operator billing market, making it possible for mobile operators to include Western Union mobile money transfers as part of their mobile financial service offerings. Given the international reach of both companies, the partnership is meant to accelerate the interconnection between the m-commerce market and the existing financial world. ==Contactless near-field communication== Near-field communication (NFC) is used mostly in paying for purchases made in physical stores or transportation services. A consumer using a special mobile phone equipped with a smartcard waves his/her phone near a reader module. Most transactions do not require authentication, but some require authentication using PIN, before transaction is completed. The payment could be deducted from a pre-paid account or charged to a mobile or bank account directly. Mobile payment method via NFC faces significant challenges for wide and fast adoption, due to lack of supporting infrastructure, complex ecosystem of stakeholders, and standards. Some phone manufacturers and banks, however, are enthusiastic. Ericsson and Aconite are examples of businesses that make it possible for banks to create consumer mobile payment applications that take advantage of NFC technology. NFC vendors in Japan are closely related to mass-transit networks, like the Mobile Suica used since 28 January 2006 on the JR East rail network. The mobile wallet Osaifu-Keitai system, used since 2004 for Mobile Suica and many others including Edy and nanaco, has become the de facto standard method for mobile payments in Japan. Its core technology, Mobile FeliCa IC, is partially owned by Sony, NTT DoCoMo and JR East. Mobile FeliCa utilize Sony's FeliCa technology, which itself is the de facto standard for contactless smart cards in the country. NFC was used in transports for the first time in the world by China Unicom and Yucheng Transportation Card in the tramways and bus of Chongqing on 19 January 2009, in those of Nice on 21 May 2010, then in Seoul after its introduction in Korea by the discount retailer Homeplus in March 2010 and it was tested then adopted or added to the existing systems in Tokyo from May 2010 to end of 2012. After an experimentation in the metro of Rennes in 2007, the NFC standard was implemented for the first time in a metro network, by China Unicom in Beijing on 31 December 2010. Other NFC vendors mostly in Europe use contactless payment over mobile phones to pay for on- and off-street parking in specially demarcated areas. Parking wardens may enforce the parking by license plate, transponder tags, or barcode stickers. In Europe, the first experimentations of mobile payment took place in Germany during 6 months, from May 2005, with a deferred payment at the end of each month on the tramways and bus of Hanau with the Nokia 3220 using the NFC standard of Philips and Sony. In France, the immediate contactless payment was experimented during 6 months, from October 2005, in some Cofinoga shops (Galeries Lafayette, Monoprix) and Vinci parkings of Caen with a Samsung NFC smartphone provided by Orange in collaboration with Philips Semiconductors (for the first time, thanks to "Fly Tag", the system allowed to receive as well audiovisual informations, like bus timetables or cinema trailers from the concerned services). From 19 November 2007 to 2009, this experimentation was extended in Caen to more services and three additional mobile phone operators (Bouygues Telecom, SFR and NRJ Mobile) and in Strasbourg and on 5 November 2007, Orange and the transport societies SNCF and Keolis associated themselves for a 2 months experimentation on smartphones in the metro, bus and TER trains in Rennes. After a test conducted from October 2005 to November 2006 with 27 users, on 21 May 2010, the transport authority of Nice Régie Lignes d'Azur was the first public transport provider in Europe to add definitely to its own offer a contactless payment on its tramways and bus network either with a NFC bank card or smartphone application notably on Samsung Player One (with the same mobile phone operators than in Caen and Strasbourg), as well as the validation aboard with them of the transport titles and the loading of these titles onto the smartphone, in addition to the season tickets contactless card. This service was as well experimented then respectively implemented for NFC smartphones on 18 and 25 June 2013 in the tramways and bus of Caen and Strasbourg. In Paris transport network, after a 4 months testing from November 2006 with Bouygues Telecom and 43 persons and finally with users from July 2018, the contactless mobile payment and direct validation on the turnstile readers with a smartphone was adopted on 25 September 2019Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: in collaboration with the societies Orange, Samsung, Wizway Solutions, Worldline and Conduent. First conceptualized in the early 2010s, the technology has seen as well commercial use in this century in Scandinavia and Estonia. End users benefit from the convenience of being able to pay for parking from the comfort of their car with their mobile phone, and parking operators are not obliged to invest in either existing or new street-based parking infrastructures. Parking wardens maintain order in these systems by license plate, transponder tags or barcode stickers or they read a digital display in the same way as they read a pay and display receipt. Other vendors use a combination of both NFC and a barcode on the mobile device for mobile payment, because many mobile devices in the market do not yet support NFC. ==Others== === QR code payments=== QR code is a square two-dimensional bar code. QR codes have been in use since 1994. Originally used to track products in warehouses, QR codes were designed to replace the older one-dimensional bar codes. The older bar codes just represent numbers, which can be looked up in a database and translated into something meaningful. QR, or "quick response", bar codes were designed to contain the meaningful information directly in the bar code. QR codes can be of two main categories: * The QR code is presented on the mobile device of the person paying and scanned by a POS or another mobile device of the payee * The QR code is presented by the payee, in a static or one time generated fashion and it is scanned by the person executing the payment Mobile self-checkout allows for one to scan a QR code or barcode of a product inside a brick-and- mortar establishment in order to purchase the product on the spot. This theoretically eliminates or reduces the incidence of long checkout lines, even at self-checkout kiosks. ===Cloud-based mobile payments=== Google, PayPal, GlobalPay and GoPago use a cloud-based approach to in-store mobile payment. The cloud based approach places the mobile payment provider in the middle of the transaction, which involves two separate steps. First, a cloud-linked payment method is selected and payment is authorized via NFC or an alternative method. During this step, the payment provider automatically covers the cost of the purchase with issuer linked funds. Second, in a separate transaction, the payment provider charges the purchaser's selected, cloud-linked account in a card-not-present environment to recoup its losses on the first transaction. ===Audio signal-based payments=== The audio channel of the mobile phone is another wireless interface that is used to make payments. Several companies have created technology to use the acoustic features of cell phones to support mobile payments and other applications that are not chip-based. The technologies like near sound data transfer (NSDT), data over voice and NFC 2.0 produce audio signatures that the microphone of the cell phone can pick up to enable electronic transactions. ===Direct carrier/bank co-operation=== In the T-CashT-Cash from VoilàFoundation.com model, the mobile phone and the phone carrier is the front-end interface to the consumers. The consumer can purchase goods, transfer money to a peer, cash out, and cash in. A 'mini wallet' account can be opened as simply as entering *700# on the mobile phone, presumably by depositing money at a participating local merchant and the mobile phone number. Presumably, other transactions are similarly accomplished by entering special codes and the phone number of the other party on the consumer's mobile phone. In Switzerland, TWINT offers the same function. ===Magnetic secure transmission=== In magnetic secure transmission (MST), a smartphone emits a magnetic signal that resembles the one created by swiping a magnetic credit card through a traditional credit card terminal. No changes to the terminal or a new terminal are required. ===Bank transfer systems=== Swish is the name of a system established in Sweden. It was established through a collaboration from major banks in 2012 and has been very successful, with 66 percent of the population as users in 2017. It is mainly used for peer-to-peer payments between private people, but is also used by churches, street vendors, and small businesses. A person's account is tied to his or her phone number and the connection between the phone number and the actual bank account number is registered in the internet bank. The electronic identification system mobile BankID, issued by several Swedish banks, is used to verify the payment. Users with a simple phone or without the app can still receive money if the phone number is registered in the internet bank. Like many other mobile payment system, its main obstacle is getting people to register and download the app, but it has managed to reach a critical mass and it has become part of everyday life for many Swedes. Swedish payments company Trustly also enables mobile bank transfers, but is used mainly for business-to-consumer transactions that occur solely online. If an e-tailer integrates with Trustly, its customers can pay directly from their bank account. Unlike Swish, users don't need to register a Trustly account or download software to pay with it. The Danish MobilePay and Norwegian Vipps are also popular in their countries. They use direct and instant bank transfers, but also for users not connected to a participating bank, credit card billing. In India, a new direct bank transfer system has emerged called as Unified Payments Interface. This system enables users to transfer money to other users and businesses in real-time directly from their bank accounts. Users download UPI supporting app from app stores on their Android or iOS device, link and verify their mobile number with the bank account by sending one outgoing SMS to app provider, create a virtual payment address (VPA) which auto generates a QR code and then set a banking PIN by generating OTP for secure transactions. VPA and QR codes are to ensure easy to use & privacy which can help in peer-to-peer (P2P) transactions without giving any user details. Fund transfer can then be initiated to other users or businesses. Settlement of funds happen in real-time, i.e. money is debited from payer's bank account and credited in recipient's bank account in real-time. UPI service works 24x7, including weekends and holidays. This is slowly becoming a very popular service in India and is processing monthly payments worth approximately $10 billion as in October 2018. In Poland, Blik - mobile payment system created in February 2015 by the Polish Payment Standard (PSP) company. To pay with Blik, you need a smartphone, a personal account and a mobile application of one of the banks that cooperate with it. The principle of operation is to generate a 6-digit code in the bank's mobile application. The Blik code is used only to connect the parties to the transaction. It is an identifier that associates the user and a specific bank at a given moment. For two minutes, it points to a specific mobile application to which - through a string of numbers - a request to accept a transaction in a specific store or ATM is sent. Blik allows you to pay in online and stationary stores. By the Blik, we can also make transfers to the phone or withdraw money from ATMs. ==See also== * Contactless payment * Cryptocurrency wallet * Diem (digital currency) * Digital wallets * Electronic money * Financial cryptography * Mobile ticketing * Point of sale * Point-of-sale malware * SMS banking * Unified Payments Interface * Universal credit card ==References== Category:Financial technology ja:非接触型決済 |
John Ricardo Irfan "Juan" Cole (born October 23, 1952) is an American academic and commentator on the modern Middle East and South Asia. Dead link; no archive located.http://events.umn.edu/event?occurrence=398490;event=114965 Dead link at University of Minnesota Events web page. He is Richard P. Mitchell Collegiate Professor of History at the University of Michigan. Since 2002, he has written a weblog, Informed Comment (juancole.com). == Background == Cole was born in Albuquerque, New Mexico. His father served in the United States Army Signal Corps. When Cole was age two, his family left New Mexico for France. His father completed two tours with the U.S. military in France (a total of seven years) and one 18-month stay at Kagnew Station in Asmara, Eritrea (then Ethiopia). Cole was schooled at twelve schools in twelve years, at a series of dependent schools on military bases but also sometimes in civilian schools. Some schooling occurred in the United States, particularly in North Carolina and California. ===Baháʼí studies=== Cole converted to the Baháʼí Faith in 1972 and spent 25 years writing and travelling in support of the religion. He had several works published through Baháʼí publishers and co- edited an online journal (Occasional Papers in the Shaykhi, Babi, and Baha'i Religions). Some of these were unofficial translations, and two volumes by/about early Baháʼí theologian Mírzá Abu'l-Fadl.They are: Letters and Essays 1886-1913 (Rasa'il va Raqa'im) of Mírzá Abu'l-Fadl Gulpaygani [tr. from Arabic and Persian] (Los Angeles: Kalimat Press, 1985); and Miracles and Metaphors (Ad-Durar al-bahiyyah) of Mírzá Abu'l-Fadl Gulpaygani [tr. from the Arabic and annotated](Los Angeles: Kalimat Press, 1982). In 1994 Cole participated in a discussion group that became a forum for dissent among Baháʼí academics against the Baháʼí administration. Cole was perceived as leading a dissident faction, and resigned his membership in 1996 after being confronted by Baháʼí leadership. He declared himself a Unitarian Universalist. Soon after his resignation, Cole created an email list and website called H-Bahai, which became a repository of both primary source material and critical analysis on the religion. Cole went on to critically attack the Baháʼí Faith in several books and articles written from 1998–2002, describing a prominent Baháʼí as "inquisitor" and "bigot", and accusing Baháʼí institutions of cult-like tendencies. === Appointments and awards === Cole was awarded Fulbright-Hays fellowships to India (1982) and to Egypt (1985–1986). In 1991 he held a National Endowment for the Humanities grant for the study of Shia Islam in Iran. From 1999 until 2004, Juan Cole was the editor of The International Journal of Middle East Studies. He has served in professional offices for the American Institute of Iranian Studies and on the editorial board of the journal Iranian Studies. He is a member of the Middle East Studies Association of North America, and served as the organization's president for 2006. In 2006, he received the James Aronson Award for Social Justice Journalism administered by Hunter College.Faculty News and Awards , Department of History: University of Michigan, 2007 He is a member of the Community Council of the National Iranian American Council (NIAC). ==Notable work== Cole founded the Global Americana Institute to translate works concerning the United States into Arabic. The first volume was selected works of Thomas Jefferson, and the second was a translation of a biography of Martin Luther King Jr. along with selected speeches and writings. ===Current affairs history=== After September 11, 2001, Cole turned increasingly to writing on radical Muslim movements, the Iraq War, United States foreign policy, and the Iran crisis. He calls his work not "contemporary history" but "current affairs history". Cole testified on Iraq before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations in 2004.Juan Cole's Senate Testimony Brief, United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, April 20, 2004. ===Informed Comment blog=== Since 2002, Cole has published the blog Informed Comment, covering "History, Middle East, South Asia, Religious Studies, and the War on Terror". Cole's prominence quickly rose through his blog,Curt Guyette, "The Blog of War", Metrotimes (25 August 2004). and Foreign Policy commented in 2004, "Cole's transformation into a public intellectual embodies many of the dynamics that have heightened the impact of the blogosphere. He wanted to publicize his expertise, and he did so by attracting attention from elite members of the blogosphere. As Cole made waves within the virtual world, others in the real world began to take notice".Daniel W. Drezner and Henry Farrell, "Web of Influence", Foreign Policy (November/December 2004). In 2006 National Journal called Cole "the most respected voice on foreign policy on the left"The Hotline: National Journal's Daily Briefing on Politics, Blogometer Profiles: Informed Comment , National Journal, October 2, 2006 and his blog ranked the 99th most popular in 2009, but it has since fallen off the list. ==Views== Leading up to the 2008 U.S. presidential election, Cole chastised several candidates, including Hillary Clinton, Rudy Giuliani, and Mitt Romney, for making bellicose statements about Iran in order to present themselves in a tougher or more conservative light. In 2002, Cole rejected the Bush administration's early claims of Iraqi cooperation with Al-Qaeda, commenting that Saddam Hussein had "persecuted and killed both Sunni and Shiite fundamentalists in great number", as well as claims to the effect that Iraq was developing weapons of mass destruction. Rather than making America safer, he says, the war has ironically had the opposite effect: inspiring anti-U.S. militants. In a 2005 speech at the Middle East Policy Council, Cole was critical of the U.S. allying itself with offshoots of the Islamic Dawa Party in Iraq but vehemently opposing Hezbollah in Lebanon. at Middle East Policy Council. ===Ahmadinejad's remarks on Israel=== Cole and Christopher Hitchens traded barbs regarding the translation and meaning of a passage referring to Israel in a speech by Iran President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. Fathi Nazila of The New York Timess Tehran bureau translated the passage as "Our dear Imam [Khomeini] said that the occupying regime must be wiped off the map." In an article published at the Slate website, Hitchens accused Cole of attempting to minimize and distort the meaning of the speech, which Hitchens understood to be a repetition of "the standard line" that "the state of Israel is illegitimate and must be obliterated." Hitchens also denigrated Cole's competence in both Persian and "plain English" and described him as a Muslim apologist. Cole responded that while he personally despised "everything Ahmadinejad stands for, not to mention the odious Khomeini", he nonetheless objected to the New York Times translation. Cole wrote that it inaccurately suggested Ahmadinejad was advocating an invasion of Israel ("that he wants to play Hitler to Israel's Poland"). He added that a better translation of the phrase would be "the occupation regime over Jerusalem should vanish from the page of time," a metaphysical if not poetic reference rather than a militaristic one. He also stated that Hitchens was incompetent to assess a Persian-to-English translation, and accused him of unethically accessing private Cole e-mails from an on-line discussion group.News Hits staff, Juan up, Metro Times, 5/10/2006Joel Mowbray, Hatchet man or scholar?, The Washington Times, May 22, 2006 ==CIA harassment allegations== In 2011, James Risen reported in The New York Times that Glenn Carle, a former Central Intelligence Agency officer who was a top counterterrorism official during the administration of President George W. Bush, "said the White House at least twice asked intelligence officials to gather sensitive information" on Cole "in order to discredit him".Risen, James (2011-06-15) Ex-Spy Alleges Bush White House Sought to Discredit Critic, The New York Times "In an interview, Mr. Carle said his supervisor at the National Intelligence Council told him in 2005 that White House officials wanted 'to get' Professor Cole, and made clear that he wanted Mr. Carle to collect information about him, an effort Mr. Carle rebuffed. Months later, Mr. Carle said, he confronted a CIA official after learning of another attempt to collect information about Professor Cole. Mr. Carle said he contended at the time that such actions would have been unlawful." == Criticism == === Yale controversy === In 2006, Cole was nominated to teach at Yale University and was approved by both Yale's sociology and history departments. However, the senior appointments committee overruled the departments, and Cole was not appointed. According to "several Yale faculty members", the decision to overrule Cole's approval was "highly unusual".Leibovitz, Liel. "Middle East Wars Flare Up At Yale" , The Jewish Week, 2006-06-02. Retrieved on 7 June 2006. Yale Deputy Provost Charles Long stated that "Tenure appointments at Yale are very complicated and they go through several stages, and [the candidates] can fail to pass at any of the stages. Every year, at least one and often more fail at one of these levels, and that happened in this case." The history department vote was 13 in favor, seven opposed, and three abstentions. Professors interviewed by the Yale Daily News said "the faculty appeared sharply divided." Yale historian Paula Hyman commented that the deep divisions in the appointment committee were the primary reasons that Cole was rejected: "There was also concern, aside from the process, about the nature of his blog and what it would be like to have a very divisive colleague." Yale political science professor Steven B. Smith commented, "It would be very comforting for Cole's supporters to think that this got steamrolled because of his controversial blog opinions. The blog opened people's eyes as to what was going on."David White, "Juan Cole and Yale: The Inside Story", Campus Watch, August 3, 2006. Another Yale historian, John M. Merriman, said of Cole's rejection: "In this case, academic integrity clearly has been trumped by politics."Philip Weiss, "Burning Cole", The Nation, July 3, 2006. In an interview on Democracy Now!, Cole said that he had not applied for the post at Yale: "Some people at Yale asked if they could look at me for a senior appointment. I said, 'Look all you want.' So that's up to them. Senior professors are like baseball players. You're being looked at by other teams all the time. If it doesn't result in an offer, then nobody takes it seriously." He described the so-called "scandal" surrounding his nomination as "a tempest in a teapot" that had been exaggerated by "neo-con journalists": "Who knows what their hiring process is like, what things they were looking for?""Hundreds of Thousands Rally in Iraq Against the War in Lebanon: Middle East Analyst Juan Cole on War in the Middle East - from Baghdad to Beirut" , Democracy Now, August 4, 2006 === Other controversies === Alexander H. Joffe in the Middle East Quarterly has written that "Cole suggests that many Jewish American officials hold dual loyalties, a frequent anti-Semitic theme." Cole argues that his critics have "perverted the word 'antisemitic, and also points out that "in the Middle East Studies establishment in the United States, I have stood with Israeli colleagues and against any attempt to marginalize them or boycott them". According to Efraim Karsh, Cole has done "hardly any independent research on the twentieth-century Middle East", and characterized Cole's analysis of this era as "derivative". He has also responded to Cole's criticism of Israeli policies and the influence of the "Israel lobby", comparing them to accusations that have been made in anti-semitic writings. Jeremy Sapienza of Antiwar.com has criticized Cole for what he deems as partisan bias on issues of war and peace, citing his support for wars supported by the U.S. Democratic Party as in the Balkans and Libya, while opposing wars supported by the U.S. Republican Party such as the wars in Iraq.Sapienza, Jeremy, "Juan Cole's Conveniently Partisan Intervention Issues", Antiwar.com, August 23, 2011. ==Selected bibliography== ===Monographs and edited works=== * Engaging the Muslim World, Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. * Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. * The Ayatollahs and Democracy in Iraq, Amsterdam University Press, 2006. * Nationalism and the Colonial Legacy in the Middle East and Central Asia. Co- edited with Deniz Kandiyoti. Special Issue of The International Journal of Middle East Studies Vol. 34, no. 2 (May 2002), pp. 187–424 * Sacred Space and Holy War: The Politics, Culture and History of Shi`ite Islam, London: I.B. Tauris, 2002. * Modernity and the Millennium:The Genesis of the Baháʼí Faith in the Nineteenth-Century Middle East. New York: Columbia University Press, 1998. * Colonialism and Revolution in the Middle East: Social and Cultural Origins of Egypt's `Urabi Movement. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993. Paperback edn., Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1999. * Comparing Muslim Societies (edited, Comparative Studies in Society and History series); Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992. * Roots of North Indian Shi`ism in Iran and Iraq: Religion and State in Awadh, 1722-1859. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988; New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1991) * Shi'ism and Social Protest. (edited, with Nikki Keddie), New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986. * Muhammad: Prophet of Peace Amid the Clash of Empires. Bold Type Books, 2018. ===Selected recent journal articles and book chapters=== Reference:(2012-06-15) Juan R. I. Cole Publications * "Islamophobia and American Foreign Policy Rhetoric: The Bush Years and After". In John L. Esposito and Ibrahim Kalin, eds., Islamophobia: the Challenge of Pluralism in the 21st Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 127–142. * "Shi'ite Parties and the Democratic Process in Iraq". In Mary Ann Tetreault, Gwen Okruhlik, and Andrzej Kapiszewski, eds. Political Change in the Arab Gulf States: Stuck in Transition. (Boulder, Co.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2011). pp. 49–71. * "Notes on 'Iran Today.' Michigan Quarterly Review. (Winter, 2010), pp. 49–55. * "Playing Muslim: Bonaparte's Army of the Orient and Euro-Muslim Creolization". In David Armitage and Sanjay Subrahmaniyam, eds., The Age of Revolutions in Global Context, c. 1760-1840. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), pp. 125–143. * "Struggles over Personal Status and Family Laws in Post-Baathist Iraq". In Kenneth Cuno and Manisha Desai, eds., Family, Gender and Law in a Globalizing Middle East and South Asia (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2009), pp. 105–125. * "Iraq and the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict in the Twentieth Century". Macalester International, Volume 23 (Spring 2009): 3–23. * "The Taliban, Women and the Hegelian Private Sphere", in Robert D. Crews and Amin Tarzi, The Taliban and the Crisis of Afghanistan (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2008), pp. 118–154 (revised version of Social Research article below.) * "Islamophobia and American Foreign Policy" Islamophobia and the Challenges of Pluralism in the 21st Century, (Washington, D.C.: ACMCU Occasional Papers, Georgetown University, 2008). Pp. 70–79. * "Marsh Arab Rebellion: Grievance, Mafias and Militias in Iraq", Fourth Wadie Jwaideh Memorial Lecture, (Bloomington, IN: Department of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures, Indiana University, 2008). pp. 1–31. * "The Decline of Grand Ayatollah Sistani's Influence". Die Friedens-Warte: Journal of International Peace and Organization. Vol. 82, nos.2–3 (2007): 67–83. * "Shia Militias in Iraqi Politics". In Markus Bouillon, David M. Malone and Ben Rowswell, eds., Iraq: Preventing a New Generation of Conflict (Boulder, Co.: Lynne Rienner, 2007), pp. 109–123. * "Anti-Americanism: It's the Policies". AHR Forum : Historical Perspectives on Anti-Americanism. The American Historical Review, 111 (October, 2006): 1120–1129. * "The Rise of Religious and Ethnic Mass Politics in Iraq", in David Little and Donald K. Swearer, eds., Religion and Nationalism in Iraq: A Comparative Perspective (Cambridge, Mass.: Center for the Study of the World Religions/ Harvard University Press, 2006), pp. 43–62. * "Muslim Religious Extremism in Egypt: A Historiographical Critique of Narratives", in Israel Gershoni, et al., eds. Middle East Historiographies: Narrating the Twentieth Century (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2006), pp. 262–287. * "Of Crowds and Empires: Afro-Asian Riots and European Expansion, 1857–1882". [Extensively revised.] In Fernando Coronil and Julie Skurski, eds. States of Violence. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2006, pp. 269–305. * "Empires of Liberty? Democracy and Conquest in French Egypt, British Egypt and American Iraq". In Lessons of Empire: Imperial Histories and American Power. Ed. Calhoun, Craig, Frederick Cooper and Kevin W. Moore, eds. New York: The New Press, 2006. pp. 94–115. . * "A 'Shiite Crescent'? The Regional Impact of the Iraq War". Current History. (January 2006): 20–26. * Juan Cole et al., "A Shia Crescent: What Fallout for the U.S.?" Middle East Policy Volume XII, Winter 2005, Number 4, pp. 1–27. (Joint oral round table). * "The United States and Shi'ite Religious Factions in Post-Ba'thist Iraq", The Middle East Journal, Volume 57, Number 4, Autumn 2003, pp. 543–566. * "The Imagined Embrace: Gender, Identity and Iranian Ethnicity in Jahangiri Paintings". In Michel Mazzaoui, ed. Safavid Iran and her Neighbors (Salt Lake City: Utah University Press, 2003), pp. 49–62. * "Mad Sufis and Civic Courtesans: The French Republican Construction of Eighteenth- Century Egypt". In Irene Bierman, ed. Napoleon in Egypt. (London: Ithaca Press, 2003), pp. 47–62. * "Al-Tahtawi on Poverty and Welfare", in Michael Bonner, Mine Ener and Amy Singer, eds. Poverty and Charity in Middle Eastern Contexts (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2003), pp. 223–238. ===Translations=== * Religion in Iran: From Zoroaster to Baha'u'llah by Alessandro Bausani. [Editor of this English translation of Persia Religiosa, Milan, 1958, and contributor of afterwords and bibliographical updates]. New York: Bibliotheca Persica Press, 2000. * Broken Wings: A Novel by Kahlil Gibran. [Translation of the Arabic novel, al-Ajnihah al-Mutakassirah.] Ashland, Or.: White Cloud Press, 1998) * The Vision [ar-Ru'ya] of Kahlil Gibran [prose poems translated from the Arabic]. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1998. [Hardcover Edn.: Ashland, Or.: White Cloud Press, 1994) * Spirit Brides [`Ara'is al-muruj] of Kahlil Gibran [short stories translated from the Arabic]. Santa Cruz: White Cloud Press, 1993. * Letters and Essays 1886–1913 (Rasa'il va Raqa'im) of Mírzá Abu'l-Fadl Gulpaygani [tr. from Arabic and Persian]. Los Angeles: Kalimat Press, 1985. * Miracles and Metaphors (Ad-Durar al-bahiyyah) of Mírzá Abu'l-Fadl Gulpaygani [tr. from the Arabic and annotated]. Los Angeles: Kalimat Press, 1982) == References == ==External links== * * Home page at the University of Michigan * Category:1952 births Category:Living people Category:American bloggers Category:21st-century American historians Category:21st-century American male writers Category:American political commentators Category:University of Michigan faculty Category:Islam and politics Category:Former Bahá'ís Category:Translators from Arabic Category:Middle Eastern studies in the United States Category:University of California, Los Angeles alumni Category:Northwestern University alumni Category:Writers from Albuquerque, New Mexico Category:20th-century American writers Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:Fulbright alumni |
The National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) for Fiscal Year 2012112th Congress, 1st Session, H1540CR.HSE: "National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012." () is a United States federal law which among other things specifies the budget and expenditures of the United States Department of Defense. The bill passed the U.S. House on December 14, 2011, the U.S. Senate on December 15, 2011, and was signed into United States law on December 31, 2011, by President Barack Obama. The Act authorizes $662 billion in funding, among other things "for the defense of the United States and its interests abroad". In a signing statement, President Obama described the Act as addressing national security programs, Department of Defense health care costs, counter-terrorism within the United States and abroad, and military modernization.“President Obama's signing statement” , "White House Press Office", December 31, 2011 The Act also imposes new economic sanctions against Iran (section 1245), commissions appraisals of the military capabilities of countries such as Iran, China, and Russia,Sections 1232 and 1240. and refocuses the strategic goals of NATO towards "energy security".Section 1233 from H1540CR.HSE: "National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012.". The Act also increases pay and healthcare costs for military service members and gives governors the ability to request the help of military reservists in the event of a hurricane, earthquake, flood, terrorist attack, or other disaster. The most controversial provisions to receive wide attention were contained in subsections 1021–1022 of Title X, Subtitle D, entitled "Counter- Terrorism", authorizing the indefinite military detention of persons the government suspects of involvement in terrorism, including U.S. citizens arrested on American soil. Although the White House and Senate sponsors maintain that the Authorization for Use of Military Force (AUMF) already grants presidential authority for indefinite detention, the Act states that Congress "affirms" this authority and makes specific provisions as to the exercise of that authority.Khalek, Rania, "Global Battlefield' Provision Allowing Indefinite Detention of Citizens Accused of Terror Could Pass This Week", Alternet, December 13, 2011.Library of Congress THOMAS. H.R. 1540 – National Defense Authorization Act for fiscal year 2012 Versions of H.R.1540 . The detention provisions of the Act have received critical attention by, among others, the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), the Bill of Rights Defense Committee, and some media sources which are concerned about the scope of the President's authority, including contentions that those whom they claim may be held indefinitely could include U.S. citizens arrested on American soil, including arrests by members of the Armed Forces.Carter, Tom "US Senators back law authorizing indefinite military detention without trial or charge," World Socialist Web Site, December 2, 2011. The detention powers currently face legal challenge. ==Section 818== This section contains "critical provisions" Senate Armed Services Committee, Completion of Conference with The House of Representatives on H.R. 1540, National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012, published 12 December 2011, accessed 2 January 2022 reflecting a bipartisan amendment regarding counterfeit electronic parts in the Defense Department's supply chain, adopted following concerns raised by Senators Carl Levin and John McCain, chairman and ranking member respectively of the Senate Committee on Armed Services, regarding counterfeit electronic parts highlighted in an investigation commenced in March 2011,Senate Armed Services Committee, Senate Armed Services Committee Announces Investigation into Counterfeit Electronic Parts in DOD Supply Chain, published 9 March 2011, accessed 2 January 2022 which found that 1,800 cases of suspected counterfeit components were in use within over 1 million individual products".Trace Laboratories, Inc., Counterfeit Electronic Components: Understanding the Risk, accessed 4 January 2022 Further year-long work undertaken by the Senate Committee and contained in a report on counterfeit parts in the Department of Defense supply chain released on 12 May 2012 showed that counterfeit electronic parts of Chinese origin had been found in the Air Force's C-130J and C-27J cargo planes, in assemblies used in the Navy's SH-60B helicopter, and in the Navy's P-8A surveillance plane, among 1800 cases identified.Nash- Hoff, M. Senate Report Reveals Extent of Chinese Counterfeit Parts in Defense Industry, published 31 May 2012, accessed 12 March 2022 ==Detention without trial: Section 1021== The detention sections of the NDAA begin by "affirm[ing]" that the authority of the President under the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists (AUMF), a joint resolution passed in the immediate aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks, includes the power to detain, via the Armed Forces, any person, including a U.S. citizen, "who was part of or substantially supported al-Qaeda, the Taliban, or associated forces that are engaged in hostilities against the United States or its coalition partners", and anyone who commits a "belligerent act" against the United States or its coalition allies in aid of such enemy forces, under the law of war, "without trial, until the end of the hostilities authorized by the [AUMF]". The text authorizes trial by military tribunal, or "transfer to the custody or control of the person's country of origin", or transfer to "any other foreign country, or any other foreign entity".112th Congress, 1st Session, H1540CR.HSE: "National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012." pp. 265–266. Addressing previous conflicts with the Obama Administration regarding the wording of the Senate text, the Senate–House compromise text, in sub-section 1021(d), also affirms that nothing in the Act "is intended to limit or expand the authority of the President or the scope of the Authorization for Use of Military Force". The final version of the bill also provides, in sub-section(e), that "Nothing in this section shall be construed to affect existing law or authorities relating to the detention of United States citizens, lawful resident aliens of the United States, or any other persons who are captured or arrested in the United States". As reflected in Senate debate over the bill, there is a great deal of controversy over the status of existing law. An amendment to the Act that would have replaced current text with a requirement for executive clarification of detention authorities was rejected by the Senate."Senate Poised to Pass Indefinite Detention Without Charge or Trial", American Civil Liberties Union, December 1, 2011. According to Senator Carl Levin, "the language which precluded the application of section 1031 to American Citizens was in the bill that we originally approved in the Armed Services Committee and the Administration asked us to remove the language which says that U.S. citizens and lawful residents would not be subject to this section".Senate Session – C-SPAN Video Library The Senator refers to section 1021 as "1031" because it was section 1031 at the time of his speaking. ==Requirement for military custody: Section 1022== All persons arrested and detained according to the provisions of section 1021, including those detained on U.S. soil, whether detained indefinitely or not, are required to be held by the United States Armed Forces. The law affords the option to have U.S. citizens detained by the armed forces but this requirement does not extend to them, as with foreign persons. Lawful resident aliens may or may not be required to be detained by the Armed Forces, "on the basis of conduct taking place within the United States".McGreal, Chris, "Military given go-ahead to detain US terrorist suspects without trial," The Guardian, 14 December 2011: .Greenwald, Glenn, "Obama to sign indefinite detention bill into law," Salon.com, 14 December 2011: . During debate on the senate floor, Levin stated that "Administration officials reviewed the draft language for this provision and recommended additional changes. We were able to accommodate those recommendations, except for the Administration request that the provision apply only to detainees captured overseas and there's a good reason for that. Even here, the difference is modest, because the provision already excludes all U.S. citizens. It also excludes lawful residents of United States, except to extent permitted by the constitution. The only covered persons left are those who are illegally in this country or on a tourist visa or other short-term basis. Contrary to some press statements, the detainee provisions in our bill do not include new authority for the permanent detention of suspected terrorists. Rather, the bill uses language provided by the Administration to codify existing authority that has been upheld in federal courts". A Presidential Policy Directive entitled "Requirements of the National Defense Authorization Act" regarding the procedures for implementing §1022 of the NDAA was issued on February 28, 2012, by the White House. The directive consists of eleven pages of specific implementation procedures including defining scope and limitations. Judge Kathrine B. Forrest wrote in Hedges v. Obama: "That directive provides specific guidance as to the 'Scope of Procedures and Standard for Covered Persons Determinations.' Specifically, it states that 'covered persons' applies only to a person who is not a citizen of the United States and who is a member or part of al-Qaeda or an associated force that acts in coordination with or pursuant to the direction of al-Qaeda; and "who participated in the course of planning or carrying out an attack or attempted attack against the United States or its coalition partners" (see p. 11–12). Under procedures released by the White House the military custody requirement can be waived in a wide variety of cases. Among the waiver possibilities are the following: * The suspect's home country objects to military custody * The suspect is arrested for conduct conducted in the United States * The suspect is originally charged with a non-terrorism offense * The suspect was originally arrested by state or local law enforcement * A transfer to military custody could interfere with efforts to secure cooperation or confession * A transfer would interfere with a joint trial ==Actions from the White House and Senate leading to the vote== The White House threatened to veto the Senate version of the Act, arguing in an executive statement on November 17, 2011, that while "the authorities granted by the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists, including the detention authority ... are essential to our ability to protect the American people ... (and) Because the authorities codified in this section already exist, the Administration does not believe codification is necessary and poses some risk". The statement furthermore objected to the mandate for "military custody for a certain class of terrorism suspects", which it called inconsistent with "the fundamental American principle that our military does not patrol our streets". The White House may now waive the requirement for military custody for some detainees following a review by appointed officials including the Attorney General, the secretaries of state, defense and homeland security, the chairman of the military's Joint Chiefs of Staff and the director of national intelligence. During debate within the Senate and before the Act's passage, Senator Mark Udall introduced an amendment interpreted by the ACLU and some news sources as an effort to limit military detention of American citizens indefinitely and without trial. The amendment proposed to strike the section "Detainee Matters" from the bill, and replace section 1021 (then titled 1031) with a provision requiring the Administration to clarify the Executive's authority to detain suspects on the basis of the 2001 Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists.Udall Amendment Text for SA 1107. The amendment was rejected by a vote of 60–38 (with 2 abstaining).U.S. Senate Roll Call Votes 112th Congress – 1st Session Udall subsequently voted for the Act in the joint session of Congress that passed it, and though he remained "extremely troubled" by the detainee provisions, he promised to "push Congress to conduct the maximum amount of oversight possible"."Despite concerns, Udall gives nod to Defense Authorization bill." Denver Post, December 15, 2011. The Senate later adopted by a 98 to 1 vote a compromise amendment, based upon a proposal by Senator Dianne Feinstein, which preserves current law concerning U.S. citizens and lawful resident aliens detained within the United States.Gerstein, Josh, "Senate Votes to Allow Indefinite Detention of Americans." Politico, December 1, 2011. After a Senate–House compromise text explicitly ruled out any limitation of the President's authorities, but also removed the requirement of military detention for terrorism suspects arrested in the United States, the White House issued a statement saying that it would not veto the bill. In his Signing Statement, President Obama explained: "I have signed the Act chiefly because it authorizes funding for the defense of the United States and its interests abroad, crucial services for service members and their families, and vital national security programs that must be renewed ... I have signed this bill despite having serious reservations with certain provisions that regulate the detention, interrogation, and prosecution of suspected terrorists". ==The vote== thumb|300px|House vote by congressional district. thumb|300px|Senate vote by state. On December 14, 2011, the bill passed the U.S. House by a vote of 283 to 136, with 19 representatives not voting, and passed by the U.S. Senate on December 15, 2011, by a vote of 86 to 13. ==Controversy over indefinite detention== thumb|left|300px|H Amdt 1127 Repeals Indefinite Military Detention Provisions House vote by congressional district.[https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/112-2012/h270 On Agreeing to the Amendment: Amendment 29 to H R 4310] thumb|left|300px|''' S Amdt 3018 – Prohibits the Indefinite Detention of Citizens and Lawful Permanent Residents Senate vote by state.[https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/112-2012/s213 On the Amendment S.Amdt. 3018 to S. 3254 (National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2013)] ===American and international reactions=== Section 1021 and 1022 have been called a violation of constitutional principles and of the Bill of Rights."Commentary: trampling the bill of rights in defense's name." The Kansas City Star, 14 December 2011: . Internationally, the UK-based newspaper The Guardian has described the legislation as allowing indefinite detention "without trial [of] American terrorism suspects arrested on U.S. soil who could then be shipped to Guantánamo Bay;"McGreal, C., "Military given go-ahead to detain US terrorist suspects without trial", The Guardian, 14 December 2011: . Al Jazeera has written that the Act "gives the U.S. military the option to detain U.S. citizens suspected of participating or aiding in terrorist activities without a trial, indefinitely".Parvaz, D., "US lawmakers legalise indefinite detention", Al Jazeera, 16 December 2011: . The official Russian international radio broadcasting service Voice of Russia has been highly critical of the legislation, writing that under its authority "the U.S. military will have the power to detain Americans suspected of involvement in terrorism without charge or trial and imprison them for an indefinite period of time"; it has furthermore written that "the most radical analysts are comparing the new law to the edicts of the 'Third Reich' or 'Muslim tyrannies'".Kramnik, Ilya, "New US Defense Act curtails liberties not military spending", Voice of Russia, 28 December 2011. The Act was strongly opposed by the ACLU, Amnesty International, Human Rights First, Human Rights Watch, The Center for Constitutional Rights, the Cato Institute, Reason Magazine, and The Council on American-Islamic Relations, and was criticized in editorials published in the New York TimesRosenthal, A., "President Obama: Veto the Defense Authorization Act," The New York Times, 30 November 2011: . and other news organizations.Grey, B. and T. Carter, "The Nation and the National Defense Authorization Act", World Socialist Web Site, 27 December 2011: . Americans have sought resistance of the NDAA through successful resolution campaigns in various states and municipalities. The states of Rhode Island and Michigan, the Colorado counties of Wade, El Paso, and Fremont, as well as the municipalities of Northampton, MA. and Fairfax, CA, have all passed resolutions rejecting the indefinite detention provisions of the NDAA. The Bill of Rights Defense Committee has launched a national campaign to mobilize individuals at the grassroots level to pass local and state resolutions voicing opposition to the NDAA. Campaigns have begun to grow in New York City, Miami and San Diego, among other cities and states.http://constitutioncampaign.org/campaigns/dueprocess/maps.php > Attorneys Carl J. Mayer and Bruce I. Afran filed a complaint January 13, 2012, in the Southern U.S. District Court in New York City on the behalf of Chris Hedges against Barack Obama and Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta to challenge the legality of the Authorization for Use of Military Force as embedded in the latest version of the National Defense Authorization Act, signed by the president December 31. Lt. Col. Barry Wingard, a military attorney representing prisoners at Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp, noted that under the NDAA "an American citizen can be detained forever without trial, while the allegations against you go uncontested because you have no right to see them". ===Views of the Obama Administration=== On December 31, 2011, and after signing the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012 into law, President Obama issued a statement on it addressing "certain provisions that regulate the detention, interrogation, and prosecution of terrorism suspects". In the statement the President maintains that "the legislation does nothing more than confirm authorities that the Federal courts have recognized as lawful under the 2001 AUMF". The statement also maintains that the "Administration will not authorize the indefinite military detention without trial of American citizens", and that it "will interpret section 1021 in a manner that ensures that any detention it authorizes complies with the Constitution, the laws of war, and all other applicable law". Referring to the applicability of civilian versus military detention, the statement argued that "the only responsible way to combat the threat al-Qa'ida poses is to remain relentlessly practical, guided by the factual and legal complexities of each case and the relative strengths and weaknesses of each system. Otherwise, investigations could be compromised, our authorities to hold dangerous individuals could be jeopardized, and intelligence could be lost". On February 22, 2012, the Administration represented by Jeh Charles Johnson, General Counsel of the U.S. Department of Defense defined the term "associated forces". Johnson stated in a speech at Yale Law School: On February 28, 2012, the administration announced that it would waive the requirement for military detention in "any case in which officials [believe] that placing a detainee in military custody could impede counterterrorism cooperation with the detainee's home government or interfere with efforts to secure the person's cooperation or confession". Application of military custody to any suspect is determined by a national security team including the attorney general, the secretaries of state, defense, and homeland security, the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Director of National Intelligence. On September 12, 2012, U.S. District Judge Katherine B. Forrest issued an injunction against the indefinite detention provisions of the NDAA (section 1021(b)(2)) on the grounds of unconstitutionality; however, this injunction was appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit the following day and was later reversed. The Administration explained on November 6, 2012, the terms "substantially supported" and "associated forces" in its opening brief before the U.S. Second Court of Appeals in Hedges v. Obama. With respect to the term "substantially supported" the Obama administration stated: And with respect to the term "associated forces", the Administration cited the above-mentioned Jeh Johnson's remarks on February 22, 2012: The Administration summarized later in its brief that: NBC News released in February 2014 an undated U.S. Department of Justice White paper entitled "Lawfulness of a Lethal Operation Directed Against a U.S. Citizen who is a Senior Operational Leader of Al Qa'ida or An Associated Force." In it the Justice Department stated with respect to the term "associated forces" ===Legal arguments that the legislation does not allow the indefinite detention of U.S. citizens=== Mother Jones wrote that the Act "is the first concrete gesture Congress has made towards turning the homeland into the battlefield", arguing that "codifying indefinite detention on American soil is a very dangerous step". The magazine has nevertheless contested claims by The Guardian and the New York Times that the Act "allows the military to indefinitely detain without trial American terrorism suspects arrested on U.S. soil who could then be shipped to Guantánamo Bay", writing that "they're simply wrong ... It allows people who think the 2001 Authorization to Use Military Force against the perpetrators of the 9/11 attacks gives the president the authority to detain U.S. citizens without charge or trial to say that, but it also allows people who can read the Constitution of the United States to argue something else". Legal commentator Joanne Mariner has noted in Verdict that the scope of existing detention power under the AUMF is "subject to vociferous debate and continuing litigation". In the years that followed the September 11 attacks, the AUMF was interpreted to allow the indefinite detention of both citizens and non-citizens arrested far from any traditional battlefield, including in the United States. Other legal commentators argue that the NDAA does not permit truly "indefinite" detention, given that the period of detention is limited by the duration of the armed conflict. In making this claim, they emphasize the difference between (1) detention pursuant to the "laws of war" and (2) detention pursuant to domestic criminal law authorities. "Rivkin & Casey, Bill's detainee provisions reaffirm the laws of war." David B. Rivkin and Lee Casey, for example, argue that detention under the AUMF is authorized under the laws of war and is not indefinite because the authority to detain ends with the cessation of hostilities. They argue that the NDAA invokes "existing Supreme Court precedent ... that clearly permits the military detention (and even trial) of citizens who have themselves engaged in hostile acts or have supported such acts to the extent that they are properly classified as 'combatants' or 'belligerents'". This reflects the fact that, in their view, the United States is, pursuant to the AUMF, at war with al-Qaeda, and detention of enemy combatants in accordance with the laws of war is authorized. In their view, this does not preclude trial in civilian courts, but it does not require that the detainee be charged and tried. If the detainee is an enemy combatant who has not violated the laws of war, he is not chargeable with any triable offense. Commentators who share this view emphasize the need not to blur the distinction between domestic criminal law and the laws of war.ICRC official statement: The relevance of IHL in the context of terrorism, 21 July 2005 ===Legal arguments that the legislation allows indefinite detention=== The American Civil Liberties Union has stated that "While President Obama issued a signing statement saying he had 'serious reservations' about the provisions, the statement only applies to how his administration would use the authorities granted by the NDAA", and, despite claims to the contrary, "The statute contains a sweeping worldwide indefinite detention provision ... [without] temporal or geographic limitations, and can be used by this and future presidents to militarily detain people captured far from any battlefield". The ACLU also maintains that "the breadth of the NDAA's detention authority violates international law because it is not limited to people captured in the context of an actual armed conflict as required by the laws of war"."President Obama Signs Indefinite Detention Bill Into Law", ACLU, 31 December 2011. ===Proposed legislative reforms=== Following the passage of the NDAA, various proposals have been offered to clarify the detainee provisions. One example, H.R. 3676, sponsored by U.S. Representative Jeff Landry of Louisiana, would amend the NDAA "to specify that no U.S. citizen may be detained against his or her will without all the rights of due process".Library of Congress: Thomas. Other similar bills in the U.S. House of Representatives have been introduced by Representatives John Garamendi of California and Chris Gibson of New York. The Feinstein-Lee Amendment that would have explicitly barred the military from holding American citizens and permanent residents in indefinite detention without trial as terrorism suspects was dropped on December 18, 2012, during the merging of the House and Senate versions of the 2013 National Defense Authorization Act. ==Legal challenges to indefinite detention== ===Hedges v. Obama=== A lawsuit was filed January 13, 2012, against the Obama Administration and Members of the U.S. Congress by a group including former New York Times reporter Christopher Hedges challenging the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012. The plaintiffs contend that Section 1021(b)(2) of the law allows the detention of citizens and permanent residents taken into custody in the United States on "suspicion of providing substantial support" to groups engaged in hostilities against the United States such as al-Qaeda and the Taliban. In May 2012, a federal court in New York issued a preliminary injunction which temporarily blocked the indefinite detention powers of NDAA Section 1021(b)(2) on the grounds of unconstitutionality. On August 6, 2012, federal prosecutors representing President Obama and Defense Secretary Leon Panetta filed a notice of appeal with the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, hoping to eliminate the ban. The following day arguments from both sides were heard by U.S. District Judge Katherine B. Forrest during a hearing to determine whether to make her preliminary injunction permanent or not. On September 12, 2012, Judge Forrest issued a permanent injunction, but this was appealed by the Obama Administration on September 13, 2012. A federal appeals court granted a U.S. Justice Department's request for an interim stay of the permanent injunction, pending the Second Circuit's consideration of the government's motion to stay the injunction throughout its appeal. The court also said that a Second Circuit motions panel will take up the government's motion for stay pending appeal on September 28, 2012. On October 2, 2012, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that the ban on indefinite detention will not go into effect until a decision on the Obama Administration's appeal is rendered. The U.S. Supreme Court refused on December 14, 2012, to lift the stay pending appeal of the order issued by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit on October 2, 2012. The Second Circuit Court of Appeals overturned on July 17, 2013, the district court's ruling which struck down § 1021(b)(2) of NDAA as unconstitutional, because the plaintiffs lacked legal standing to challenge it. The Supreme Court denied certiorari in an order issued April 28, 2014. Critics of the decision quickly pointed out that, without the right to a trial, it is impossible for an individual with legal standing to challenge 1021 without having already been released. ===States taking action against indefinite detention sections of NDAA=== As of April 2013, four states have passed resolutions through committee to adjust or block the detainment provisions of the 2012 NDAA and now await a vote. These states are: Arizona, Colorado, Montana, and South Carolina.http://www.pandaunite.org/resources/anti-ndaa-legislativetracking Retrieved 21 May 2013 Pandaunite.org Anti-NDAA legislation has passed the full senate in Indiana by a vote of 31–17. In Kansas, legislation is waiting for a vote. An additional 13 states have introduced legislation against the detainment provisions: California, Georgia, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, Nevada, New Hampshire, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Tennessee, Texas, and West Virginia.www.pandaunite.org ===Counties and municipalities taking action against indefinite detention sections of NDAA=== Nine counties have passed resolutions against sections 1021 and 1022 of the NDAA. They are: Moffat, Weld, and Fremont counties in Colorado; Harper County, Kansas; Allegan and Oakland counties in Michigan; Alleghany County in North Carolina; and Fulton and Elk counties in Pennsylvania. Resolutions have been introduced in three counties: Barber County, Kansas; Montgomery County, Maryland; and Lycoming County, Pennsylvania. Eleven municipalities have passed resolutions as well. They are: Berkeley, Fairfax, San Francisco, and Santa Cruz, California; Cherokee City, Kansas; Northampton, Massachusetts; Takoma Park, Maryland; Macomb, New York; New Shorehampton, Rhode Island; League City, Texas; and Las Vegas, Nevada (currently waiting on the county to pass a joint resolution). An additional 13 municipalities have introduced anti-NDAA resolutions: San Diego, California; Miami, Florida; Portland, Maine; Chapel Hill, Durham, and Raleigh, North Carolina; Albuquerque, New Mexico; Albany and New York City, New York; Tulsa, Oklahoma; Dallas, Texas; Springfield, Virginia; and Tacoma, Washington. Northampton, Massachusetts, became the first city in New England to pass a resolution rejecting the NDAA on February 16, 2012. William Newman, Director of the ACLU in western Massachusetts, said, "We have a country based on laws and process and fairness. This law is an absolute affront to those principles that make America a free nation".Northampton "opts out" of federal law | WWLP.com ==Sanctions targeting the Iranian Central Bank== As part of the ongoing dispute over Iranian uranium enrichment, section 1245 of the NDAA imposes unilateral sanctions against the Central Bank of Iran, effectively blocking Iranian oil exports to countries which do business with the United States. The new sanctions impose penalties against entities—including corporations and foreign central banks—which engage in transactions with the Iranian central bank. Sanctions on transactions unrelated to petroleum take effect 60 days after the bill is signed into law, while sanctions on transactions related to petroleum take effect a minimum of six months after the bill's signing. The bill grants the U.S. President authority to grant waivers in cases in which petroleum purchasers are unable, due to supply or cost, to significantly reduce their purchases of Iranian oil, or in which American national security is threatened by implementation of the sanctions. Following the signing into law of the NDAA, the Iranian rial fell significantly against the U.S. dollar, reaching a record low two days after the bill's enactment, a change widely attributed to the expected impact of the new sanctions on the Iranian economy. Officials within the Iranian government have threatened to close the Strait of Hormuz, an important passageway for Middle East oil exports, should the United States press forward with the new sanctions as planned. ==Military pay and benefits== Amendments made to the bill following its passage include a 1.6 percent pay increase for all service members, and an increase in military healthcare enrollment and copay fees. The changes were unanimously endorsed by the Senate Armed Services Committee. ==See also== * Hedges v. Obama * Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists * Enemy Expatriation Act * Hamdan v. Rumsfeld * Hamdi v. Rumsfeld * Marbury v. Madison * Military Commissions Act of 2006 * National Defense Authorization Act * Posse Comitatus Act * Ex parte Quirin * Smith Act * Unlawful combatant * National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2013 ==References== ==External links== * Full Text of the Act (Public Law 112-81) * Cutting through the Controversy about Indefinite Detention and the NDAA (ProPublica) Category:2011 controversies Category:2012 controversies Category:Acts of the 112th United States Congress Category:Civil liberties in the United States Category:Human rights in the United States Category:Obama administration controversies Category:U.S. National Defense Authorization Acts Category:Counterterrorism in the United States |
350px|thumb|left|June 3, 1979: Pope John Paul II holds first Mass in a Communist nation 300px|thumb|right|June 18, 1979: U.S. President Carter and Soviet leader Brezhnev sign the SALT II treaty in Vienna The following events occurred in June 1979: ==June 1, 1979 (Friday)== 100px|thumb|right|Rhodesia flag (1965–1979) 100px|thumb|right|Zimbabwe Rhodesia flag (1979) thumb|100px|right|Zimbabwe (1980–present) *The Republic of "Zimbabwe Rhodesia" was proclaimed, with the first black-led government of the former Rhodesia, which had been ruled by the white minority for 90 years. Abel Muzorewa, a Methodist Bishop and black African, became the Prime Minister while the white Rhodesian former Prime Minister, Ian Smith, served as the third most senior official as Minister of Portfolio."Muzorewa Urges Black Guerrillas To Accept His 'Hand of Fellowship', The New York Times, June 2, 1979, p. A3 *The Seattle SuperSonics won the NBA Championship against the Washington Bullets, winning 97 to 93 to win the best-4-of-7 series, four games to one."Sonics Triumph, Win N.B.A. Title", Sam Goldpaper, The New York Times, June 2, 1979, p. A13 *Born: **Markus Persson, Swedish video game programmer and co-creator of the Minecraft game; in Stockholm **Rhea Santos, Philippine and Canadian TV news anchor; in San Mateo, Rizal *Died: **Werner Forssmann, 74, German physician and 1956 Nobel Prize in Medicine winner who developed the cardiac catheterization procedure"Surgeon Werner Fossman, 74", Miami Herald, June 7, 1979, p. 8-C **Ján Kadár, 61, Czechoslovakian filmmaker and Academy Award winner"Obituary: Jan Kadar", Daily News (New York), June 3, 1979, p. 98 **Jack Mulhall, 91, American film actor who appeared in 430 films over fifty years"Jack Mulhall, 91, Movie, Stage, TV Actor, Dies", by Dorothy Townsend, Los Angeles Times, June 7, 1979, p. II-6 **Eric Partridge, 85, New Zealand- born British lexicographer and expert on slang."Eric Partridge, Expert on English And Lover of Its Quirks, Is Dead", by Israel Shenker, The New York Times, June 2, 1979, p. A1 ==June 2, 1979 (Saturday)== 150px|thumb|right|The Pope at Warsaw's Victory Square 150px|thumb|right|Last of the UK's Ariel satellites *Pope John Paul II arrived in his native Poland on his first official, nine-day stay, becoming the first Pope to visit a Communist country. The former Archbishop of Krakow landed at the Warsaw airport at 10:05 a.m. where he was welcomed by a crowd of 20,000 and was cheered by hundreds of thousands of supporters who lined the route of his motorcade, before holding a nationally televised mass at Victory Square before a crowd of 200,000. Officially, the occasion for the visit by the Karol Wojtyla, who had become Pope less than a year earlier, was the 900th anniversary of the martyrdom of Saint Stanislaus of Szczepanów,"Pope Gets Big Welcome in Poland, Offers Challenge to the Authorities", by David A. Andelman, The New York Times, June 3, 1979, p. A1 who had been killed by King Boleslaw II of Poland on April 11, 1079. The visit, later known as "nine days that changed the world", would bring about the solidarity of the Polish people against Communism, ultimately leading to the rise of the Solidarity movement. *Ariel 6, the last of the British Ariel satellite program, was launched from the United States Wallops Island launch site. On April 26, 1962, Ariel 1 had been the first British satellite."Britain's satellite on track", The Guardian (London), June 4, 1979, p. 3 *Twenty people were killed near Samcheok in South Korea, and more injured, after the bus they were in toppled over a cliff after colliding with a truck."South Korean Accident Kills 20", The New York Times, June 3, 1979, p. A6 *Born: **Choirul Huda, Indonesian soccer football goalkeeper known for being fatally injured during a Liga 1 game; in Lamongan, East Java (d. 2017)"Indonesian Muslim GoalKeeper, Choirul Huda Dies During Live Match", The Islamic Information, October 16, 2017"Goalie dies after collision in Indonesian soccer match, reportedly of head and neck trauma", Washington Post, October 15, 2017 **Morena Baccarin, Brazilian-born U.S. TV actress and Emmy Award nominee; in Rio de Janeiro *Died: **Jim Hutton, 45, American film and television actor known for the title role in the Ellery Queen, TV detective series"Actor Jim Hutton dies of liver cancer at age 45", Chicago Tribune, June 4, 1979, p. 15 **P. V. H. Weems, 90, U.S. Navy officer, inventor and navigational expert who invented the Weems Plotter and the Second Setting Watch, and founded the Weems School of Navigation."Capt. Philip Van H. Weems dies at 91; noted navigator aided Lindbergh, Byrd", Baltimore Sun, June 4, 1979, p. A10 ==June 3, 1979 (Sunday)== *A blowout at the Ixtoc I oil well in the southern Gulf of Mexico"Well Blows Out Off the Yucatan; Oil Find Hinted", by William K. Stevens, The New York Times, June 9, 1979, p. A1"Mexico Continues Effort to Save Oil From Well Blowout in the Gulf", The New York Times, June 10, 1979, p. A11 caused at least 600,000 tons (130 million U.S. gallons) of oil to be spilled into the waters until it was brought under control on March 23, 1980. The disaster would be the largest accidental oil spill in history until it was surpassed by the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010. *Parliamentary voting was held in Italy for the 630-seat Chamber of Deputies and the 315-seat Senate of the Republic. The Democrazia Cristiana Party continued its plurality in both houses (262 in the Chamber and 138 in the Senate) and Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti formed a new government."Both Major Parties Lose Some Strength in Italian Election", The New York Times, June 5, 1979, p. A1 *The Uganda–Tanzania War, which had started on October 9, 1978, came to an end as the Tanzania People's Defence Force secured Uganda's western border to prevent the supporters of Idi Amin from attempting a counterinvasion.Tony Avirgan and Martha Honey, War in Uganda: The Legacy of Idi Amin (Tanzania Publishing House, 1983) pp. 195-196 *Mohamed Mahmoud Ould Louly became the new President of Mauritania after the ruling Military Committee for National Salvation decided to replace President Mustafa Ould Salek. A former Mauritanian Army officer, Colonel Salek had led the bloodless coup that had overthrown President Moktar Ould Daddah on July 10, 1978."Mauritanian President Resigns 11 Months After Coup", The New York Times, June 4, 1979, p. A3 *Fifty-two people were burned to death in Thailand, and 11 seriously injured, when a bus crowded with 68 partygoers collided head-on with a fully-loaded gasoline truck on a mountain road in Phang Nga Province"52 Thais Are Killed as Bus Crashes Into Gasoline Truck", The New York Times, June 4, 1979, p. A7 *Born: **Pierre Poilievre, Canadian politician, Leader of the Opposition, in Calgaryhttps://www.thestar.com/amp/politics/2022/09/05/pierre- poilievre-quick-facts-about-the-conservative-leadership-candidate.html **Tábata Jalil, Mexican TV hostess; in Mexico City *Died: Arno Schmidt, 65, German author"Schmidt, Arno", by Arne Klawitter, in The Facts on File Companion to the World Novel 1900 to the Present, ed. by Michael D. Sollars (Facts on File, Inc. 2008) p. 710"Writers No One Reads: Arno Schmidt" ==June 4, 1979 (Monday)== *Flight Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings took power in the West African nation of Ghana in a military coup d'état, overthrowing General Fred Akuffo and ending the rule of the Supreme Military Council."Ghana Rebels Say Coup Is Under Way", The New York Times, June 5, 1979, p. A3 Ghana Army Major General Neville Alexander Odartey-Wellington, Chief of Staff of the Army, died during the defense of the Council headquarters."Rebel Officers in Ghana Say They Are in Firm Control", by Carey Winfrey, The New York Times, June 6, 1979, p. A3 Most of the members of the council, including four former heads of state, would be executed in the next few weeks. *South Africa's State President and former Prime Minister, John Vorster, resigned after being accused by a government board of inquiry of attempting to cover up the "Muldergate" scandal and perjury in his testimony to the board. Vorster was replaced in the largely ceremonial position by Marais Viljoen, the president of the South African Senate."Vorster, Accused of Role in Scandal, Quits as President; He Is Charged With Cover-up", The New York Times, June 5, 1979, p. A1Archontology.org: A Guide for Study of Historical Offices: South Africa: Heads of State: 1961–1994. Accessed 14 April 2017. *Joe Clark took office as Canada's 16th and youngest Prime Minister at the age 39, the day before his 40th birthday."Clark Is Sworn In as Canadian Leader", by Andrew H. Malcolm, The New York Times, June 5, 1979, p. A3 *Iran reversed its agreement to receive a new U.S. Ambassador, rejecting career diplomat Walter L. Cutler."Iran, in Shift, Bars Envoy U.S. Selected", The New York Times, June 5, 1979, p. A1 The post had been vacant since the April 6 resignation of William H. Sullivan. With Cutler's rejection by the Iranian government, and the refusal by the U.S. Department of State to nominate a different diplomat, U.S. Embassy chargé d'affaires Bruce Laingen remained the senior U.S. official in Iran. The Iranian Foreign Minister later stated that Cutler had been refused because of American intervention in African politics when Cutler had been the Ambassador to Zaire."Iran Aide Explains Rejection of Envoy; Foreign Minister Says Cutler, Last Stationed in Zaire, Is Tainted by American Role There", The New York Times, June 7, 1979, pA7 *The roof of Kemper Arena, the 19,500 sports facility for the NBA's Kansas City Kings and the site of the 1976 Republican National Convention less than three years earlier, collapsed in a storm at 6:45 p.m."Kansas City Arena Loses Roof in Storm— Few Are Inside and All Are Unhurt at Award-Winning Structure", by Paul Goldberger, The New York Times, June 6, 1979; the Times account mistakenly listed the collapse has happening the day after a rock concert; in fact, the concert, the most recent event at the Arena, had been a week before the collapse Fortunately, no events were scheduled at the time, and the most recent event had been a week earlier, a Memorial Day concert by the Village People. Coincidentally, the American Institute of Architects was holding its national convention in Kansas City the same day, at Bartle Hall at the Kansas City Convention Center half a mile away."Storm Caves In Roof of Kemper; Damage Is Estimated at $1 Million", Kansas City Times, June 5, 1979, p. 1A *The song "Tusk" was recorded by Fleetwood Mac along with the 112-member University of Southern California Marching Band, setting a record for the most musicians on a rock music single."Fleetwood Mac's 'Tusk': 10 Things You Didn't Know", by Ryan Reed, Rolling Stone, October 11, 2019 *Born: Hanieh Tavassoli, Iranian film actress, in Hamedan *Died: **Hans Mauch, 60, Swiss ice skater and slapstick comedian who was "Frack" in the famous Ice Follies duo of Frick and Frack."Hans Mauch, 'Frack' of Ice Follies Frick and Frack, Dies", Los Angeles Times, June 5, 1979, p. I-8 **Gilda de Abreu, 74, Brazilian actress and film director **Seamus O'Donovan, 82, Irish Republican Army explosives expert and Nazi collaborator. ==June 5, 1979 (Tuesday)== *Sandinista National Liberation Front guerrillas captured León, Nicaragua's second-largest city as the Guardia Nacional abandoned the barracks."Rebels Control City in Nicaragua", The New York Times, June 6, 1979, pA13 More provinces fell to the Sandinist National Liberation Front as Nicaraguan President Anastasio Somoza Debayle declared a national siege, with rebel rule in the departamentos of Matagalpa, Ocotal and Chichigalpa in the north, Diriamba and Granada in the south, and Masaya near the capital."Nicaraguan Towns Fall to Rebels" by Alan Riding, The New York Times, June 8, 1979, pA8 *The University of Rio de Janeiro was founded. Officially referred to as the "Federal University of the State of Rio de Janeiro", it is commonly known as "Unirio". "Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro— Historia" (translation available) Unirio.br *Died: Heinz Erhardt, 70, West German comedian and radio and TV actor"Heinz Erhardt", Internet Movie Database ==June 6, 1979 (Wednesday)== *The Kola Superdeep Borehole broke the world record for greatest depth drilled into the Earth, reaching to break the mark set in the U.S. in 1974 by the "Bertha Rogers hole" in Washita County, Oklahoma. Drilling would cease in 1989 at a depth of which has not been exceeded since.Yevgeny A. Kozlovsky, "The Superdeep Well of the Kola Peninsula" (Springer Berlin, 2012) *Twelve days after the May 25 crash of American Airlines Flight 191, a McDonnell Douglas DC-10 jumbo jet, had killed all 271 people on board in the worst single airplane crash in U.S. history, the Federal Aviation Administration suspended the flight certification of all 138 of the McDonnell-Douglas DC-10 jumbo jets operating in the United States."U.S. Halts DC-10's Indefinitely, Demanding New Safety Tests; Travel Is Disrupted for 60,000", by Richard Witkin, The New York Times, June 7, 1979, p. A1 An inspection of other DC-10s after the disaster had shown that a large number of the DC-10s had the same defect in their engine mountings that had led one of the three jet engines of Flight 191 to drop from the aircraft during takeoff. While there were 143 more DC-10 jets being operated by airlines outside the U.S., virtually all had been grounded voluntarily by foreign airlines. On June 19, the DC-10 jets began returning to the air in most European nations, as a Martinair DC-10 departed Zurich to take vacationers to Majorca, followed by a Swissair flight to Tel Aviv"DC-10's Are Cleared by Europe Airlines", The New York Times, June 20, 1979, p. A1 *The 200th annual Epsom Derby, the horse race with the largest purse, at the time, in Europe and in the United Kingdom, took place at Epsom Downs in Surrey. With a prize of £153,980 the race won by the Irish-bred and British-trained thoroughbred Troy, ridden by Willie Carson."200th English Derby Disappoints Royalty", The New York Times, June 7, 1979, p. D19 *The high Kalabaland Dhura mountain in the Himalayas, located in India, was climbed for the first time. The ascent of the Chiring We peak was made by a team of three mountaineers, Harish Kapadia, Vijay Kothari and Lakhpa Tsering."Asia, India— Garwhal, Chring We, Kalabaland Area", American Alpine Club *Born: **Randa Abdel-Fattah, prolific Australian novelist; in Sydney **Shanda Sharer, American murder victim, known for her brutal murder by fellow students; in Pineville, Kentucky (d. 1992) thumb|right|150px|Haley, with Ray Bolger and Margaret Hamilton 30 years after 'Oz' *Died: **Jack Haley, 81, American film actor best known for portraying the Tin Woodman in The Wizard of Oz"Jack Haley, Actor, 79, Dead; Was Tin Woodman in 'Oz'", by Eric Pace, The New York Times, June 7, 1979, p. D23 **Ion Idriess, 89, prolific Australian novelist **Babu Rajab Ali, 84, Pakistani poet notable for his compositions and performance of the Kavishari sung verse. ==June 7, 1979 (Thursday)== *The first direct elections to the European Parliament began, allowing citizens from across all nine (at that time) member states of the European Union to elect 410 MEPs in the first international election in history. Voting in the nine European Community nations was staggered over four days, based on national preference for the day of the week for voting, and the first votes took place in Ireland, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom."Turnout Reported Light as Voting Begins for European Parliament", by R. W. Apple, Jr., The New York Times, June 8, 1979, pA2 *India's second orbiting satellite, Bhaskara-I, was launched from the Soviet Union as part of its Intercosmos program to gather Earth observation data."June 8, 1979, Forty Years Ago: Bhaskara Launched", The Indian Express, June 8, 2019 The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) had launched the first satellite designed and built in India, Aryabhata, on April 19, 1975; Bhaskara-I orbited earth for 10 years and re-entered the atmosphere in 1989."Bhaskara-I" , Indian Space Research Organisation *Egypt conducted its first multiparty parliamentary elections since 1952, when the monarchy was abolished and a republic was established."Egypt Elects Parliament Today In First Multiparty Vote Since '52", The New York Times, June 7, 1979, pA2 President Anwar Sadat's ruling National Democratic Party won all but 45 of the 392 seats."Sadat's Party a Big Winner in Parliament Election", The New York Times, June 10, 1979, p. A8 *Born: Anna Torv, award-winning Australian TV actress; in Melbourne *Died: **Yehudit Harari, 93, Belarusan-born Israeli educator and one of the co-founders (in 1909) of Tel Aviv **Forrest Carter, 53, American white supremacist and Western novelist best known for Gone to Texas, which became the basis for the film The Outlaw Josey Wales; from a heart attack"Novelist Carter dies", AP report in "Longview (WA) Daily News, June 9, 1979, p. 2"Western novelist Forrest Carter dies", Des Moines (IA) Tribune, June 9, 1979, p. 2 Weeks later, a newspaper reporter's story that was picked up by the Associated Press concluded that Forrest Carter was Asa Carter, a fervent Alabama segregationist who had last been in the news in 1972, and that Carter's death had been ruled by a coroner as having been caused by choking to death "after being in a fistfight at a relative's home"."Death fails to resolve mystery; Segregationist Asa Carter, author Forrest Carter said same", by Debbie Skipper, Anniston (AL) Star, July 1, 1979, p. 1, reprinted as "Mystery surrounds apparent double life of late Asa Carter", Fort Worth (TX) Star Telegram, July 4, 1979, p. 12a ==June 8, 1979 (Friday)== *Motorcycle speedway competitor Vic Harding of the Hackney Hawks was killed, and Steve Weatherley of the Eastbourne Eagles was permanently paralyzed, when the two collided during a competition at the Hackney Wick Stadium in greater London. *Died: **Wehrmacht Lieutenant General Reinhard Gehlen, 77, German military officer, founder of the Gehlen Organization intelligence agency after World War II that eventually became West Germany's Bundesnachrichtendienst (BRD) spy agency."Gehlne Dies at 77; Bonn's Ex-Spy Chief; General Served Hitler as an Expert on the Soviet Front and Then Cooperated With the U.S.", The New York Times, June 10, 1979, p. 36 **C. S. Bull, 83, American unit still photographer who created most of the publicity photos for the MGM studios from the 1920s thorough the 1950s. ==June 9, 1979 (Saturday)== *Six students and one adult were killed in a fire at Luna Park in Sydney, Australia, while riding one of the attractions, the "Ghost Train". The ride had gone into a tunnel with 35 people on board, and came out with only 28."Ghost Train toll rises to 7", Sydney Morning Herald, June 11, 1979, p. 1"Ride's horror real: Fire kills 6 children, dad", Daily News (New York City), June 11, 1979, p. 7 *The Rhodesian Security Forces invaded neighboring Mozambique to attack an encampment of the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army guerrillas, killing 30 of the ZANLA forces in their first military engagement since majority black African rule began in Zimbabwe Rhodesia. *The Dobani Peak mountain in Pakistan, high, was climbed for the first time in history, conquered by Japanese mountaineers Isao Ikeuchi and Masaru Hashimoto."Asia, Pakistan— Karakoram, Dobani", by Masaru Hashimoto, American Alpine Club Journal (1980) *Hamburger SV won the championship of the 1978–79 Bundesliga on the final day of the season, finishing one point ahead of VfB Stuttgart on the strength of 21 wins and 7 draws to the 20 wins and 8 draws of Stuttgart. *Sepp Maier, goalkeeper for Bayern Munich and for the West German national team, appeared in his 442nd consecutive soccer football match, closing out a 17-season career on the final day of the 1978-79 Bundesliga season. In all, Maier played in 599 matches, and had not missed a game since August 20, 1966. Maier was seriously injured in an auto accident the following month.Paul Simpson and Uli Hesse, Who Invented the Stepover?: and Other Crucial Football Conundrums (Profile Books, 2013) p172 *The Canada national cricket team, founded in 1968, played its first ever One Day International match, as part of the 1979 ICC Trophy competition, facing Pakistan at the Headingley Cricket Ground in England. *Panionios F.C. won the Greek Cup in soccer football, 3 to 1, over AEK Athens before 20,000 fans at Piraeus. *Died: **Frederick "Cyclone" Taylor, 94, Canadian ice hockey star and inductee to the Hockey Hall of Fame"Obituary: Fred (Cyclone) Taylor", The New York Times, June 10, 1979, p. 36 **Scott Garland, 27, Canadian NHL ice hockey centre for the Los Angeles Kings, was killed in a single car accident in Montreal."Garland dies in car crash", Ottawa Journal, June 11, 1979, "Sports Front", p. 2 ==June 10, 1979 (Sunday)== *Voting concluded in the 10 nations participating in the first direct elections for the European Parliament as voters in France, Italy, West Germany, Belgium and Luxembourg cast their ballots; previously, each nation's parliaments selected the representatives."Projections in Voting For Europe Assembly Show Setback for Left", by Flora Lewis, The New York Times, June 11, 1979, p. A1 The Christian Democrat parties in Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Belgium won 108 of the 410 seats, and Britain's Conservative Party was the largest single vote-getter with 60 seats."Conservatives Gain in Europe's Voting", The New York Times, June 12, 1979, p. A3 Among the representatives elected was the former Crown Prince of Austria-Hungary, Otto von Hapsburg."A Hapsburg Gets Elected", The New York Times, June 12, 1979, p. A3 *The first championship of Australia's professional basketball association, the National Basketball League (NBL), was won by the St Kilda Saints of Melbourne, who defeated the Canberra Cannons by a single point in NBL Grand Final game at Melbourne, 94 to 93."Nobody can like Canberra Cannons", The Age (Melbourne), June 11, 1979, p. 24 *Born: Lee Brice (Kenneth Mobley Brice Jr.), American country music singer; in Sumter, South Carolina ==June 11, 1979 (Monday)== *The most distant volcanic eruption ever observed by humans took place on Io, one of the moons of the planet Jupiter, as the Surt volcano was photographed by the Voyager 1 space probe as it displaced lava and sent the images back to the planet Earth."Two classes of volcanic plume on Io", by A. S. McEwen and L. A. Soderblom, Icarus, the Journal of the American Astronomical Society's Division for Planetary Science (1983), vol. 191–217 *In what was only the third successful hijacking of an American airliner since strict security measures had been enacted at the end of 1972, Delta Airlines Flight 1061, a jet with 195 passengers and a crew of 12 was seized while en route to Fort Lauderdale, Florida from New York City."Plane Carrying 207 Is Hijacked to Cuba— Delta Flight From Kennedy Is Safe; Hijacker in Custody in Havana", The New York Times, June 12, 1979, p. A1 The Lockheed L-1011 TriStar jet was diverted at 7:07 in the evening about 90 miles east of Charleston, South Carolina and landed in Cuba at the Havana airport at 8:34. The hijacker, former Cuban Air Force pilot Eduardo Guerra Jimenez, had defected to the U.S. on October 5, 1969, when he landed a MiG-17 at Homestead Air Force Base near Miami."Cuba Identifies Hijacker As '69 Defector with MiG", The New York Times, June 12, 1979, p. A16 150px|thumb|right|John Wayne *Born: Olaf Schmid, British Army bomb defuser; in Truro (killed 2009) *Died: **John Wayne, 72, (stage name for Marion Morrison), popular American film actor, died of stomach cancer"John Wayne Dead of Cancer on Coast at 72", The New York Times, June 12, 1979, p. A1 **Loren Murchison, 80, American Olympic athlete and member of the relay team that won gold medals in 1920 and 1924"Loren Murchison, was Olympic gold medalist", Shrewsbury (NJ) Daily Register, June 14, 1979, p. 4 ==June 12, 1979 (Tuesday)== *The Army of Thailand forcibly repatriated 42,000 refugees who had fled from Cambodia during the 1978 invasion by the Vietnamese Army and who were being held at the Nong Chan Refugee Camp. On orders of General Kriangsak Chomanan, the embassies of the United States, France and Australia were given three hours to select 1,200 refugees for their own countries, and the remaining Cambodians were then taken by bus to the Buddhist temple at Preah Vihear, located on a high cliff overlooking the border with Cambodia, and forced to make their way down the mountain side and across a minefield. According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, at least 3,000 Cambodians died as they were being forced out of Thailand.Larry Clinton Thompson, Refugee Workers in the Indochina Exodus, 1975-1982 (McFarland, 2010) pp. 175-178 *Using the Gossamer Albatross, Bryan Allen became the first person to fly a pedal-powered aircraft across the English Channel, winning the £100,000 ($205,000 at the time) Kremer prize. Allen departed Folkestone in England at 5:50 in the morning local time and landed away at Cap Griz-Nez in France at 8:45. The plane itself weighed only and the pilot weighed ."American Pilot Pedals a Plane Across Channel", by Robert D. Hershey, Jr., The New York Times, June 13, 1979, p. A1 *Born: Robyn (stage name for Robin Miriam Carlsson), Swedish pop music star and Grammy Award nominee; in Stockholm *Died: David Sibeko, 40, South African political activist and official of the Pan Africanist Congress of Azania, was shot and killed at his home in Dar es Salaam in Tanzania after getting into an argument in a dispute with members of the Second Azanian People's Liberation Army ==June 13, 1979 (Wednesday)== *Solar One, the first manned solar-powered aircraft, made its maiden flight, piloted by Ken Stewart after the solar cells had charged. Stewart flew the aircraft at Lasham Airfield near Hampshire in England for at a height of "UK's first solar aircraft takes off", Flight International, June 30, 1979"Going Solar: The aircraft that flies on sunshine", Sydney Morning Herald, June 30, 1979, p. 11 *Born: Ágnes Csomor, Hungarian TV actress; in Budapest *Died: **Darla Hood, 47, American child actress best known of the Our Gang film comedies, died of complications from routine surgery."'Our Gang' Star Darla Hood dies in Calif.", by Susan Watson, Detroit Free Press, June 16, 1979, p. 5 **Sunshine Sue (stage name for Mary Higdon Workman), 66, American country music singer and one of the first women to host a national network radio program, the Old Dominion Barn Dance."Barn Dance emcee 'Sunshine Sue,' 67, dies of heart attack", AP report in Miami News, June 14, 1979, p. 4A ==June 14, 1979 (Thursday)== *Air France Flight 54, a Concorde airliner with 81 people aboard, suffered a blowout of two tires while attempting a takeoff from Dulles International Airport in Washington, DC and shrapnel damaged one of the four engines, punctured fuel tanks and severed hydraulic lines and wires. After the control tower informed Flight 54 that two of its tires on the left main landing gear had blown, the pilot made a safe landing 20 minutes later on another runway that had been prepared by fire trucks."Concorde lands safely after blowing two tires", Minneapolis Star Tribune, June 15, 1979, p. 3 *Jerome Robbins's ballet Opus 19/The Dreamer, performed by the New York City Ballet company to the music of the late Sergei Prokofiev, had its world premiere, and starred Mikhail Baryshnikov and Patricia McBride as the principal dancers."Robbins' 'Opus 19' is built for Baryshnikov", by Daniel Webster, Philadelphia Inquirer, June 16, 1979, p5-A *Died: Ahmad Zahir, 33, popular Afghan singer and songwriter, was killed in an auto accident while traveling through the Salang Tunnel."Ahmad Zahir’s death anniversary observed in Kabul', Khaama Press, June 13, 2016 ==June 15, 1979 (Friday)== *McDonald's introduced the Happy Meal in the United States in a nationwide advertising campaign after testing the product since February in franchises in the U.S. state of Missouri.Wausau (WI) Daily Herald, June 15, 1979, p. 9; Helena (MT) Independent-Record, June 19, 1979, p. 31; Grand Junction (CO) Daily Sentinel, June 19, 1979, p. 3; Seymour (IN) Tribune, June 20, 1979, p. 15 Anticipating the June release, the Burger Chef restaurant chain had filed a lawsuit in a federal court in St. Louis, alleging that the Happy Meal was an unfair copy of Burger Chef's "Funmeal", which it had introduced for children in 1973."Battle of burgers begins as Burger Chef files suit", St. Louis Post-Dispatch, April 28, 1979, p. 2 *U.S. President Jimmy Carter and Soviet Communist Party First Secretary Leonid Brezhnev met for the first time after both had arrived in the Austrian capital of Vienna to sign the SALT II treaty to reduce the number of nuclear weapons to be deployed by both nations. In the afternoon, Austria's President Rudolf Kirchschläger hosted the first meeting, at the presidential residence, the Hofburg. The two leaders then attended a presentation at the Austrian State Opera of the Mozart opera Die Entführung aus dem Serail (The Abduction from the Seraglio)."Brezhnev Arrives in Vienna and Sees Carter for 1st Time; They Attend Opera Together", The New York Times, June 16, 1979, p. A1 *Arriba, the official daily newspaper in Spain of Francisco Franco's Falangist Party, published its final issue after an existence of 44 years. *The ecological horror film Prophecy is released, starring Robert Foxworth and Talia Shire. *Born: **Yulia Nestsiarenka, Belaursan sprinter and 2004 Olympic gold medalist in the women's 100m dash; in Brest, Byelorussian SSR, Soviet Union **Paradorn Srichaphan, Thailand professional tennis player and the first Asian player to be ranked in the ATP Top 10; in Khon Kaen *Died: Teruo Nakamura, 59, Taiwanese-born Imperial Japanese Army who, in 1974, became the last soldier of World War II to surrender ==June 16, 1979 (Saturday)== *At least 32 Syrian Army cadets were killed and 54 wounded in a shooting attack by the Muslim Brotherhood at Aleppo. The cadets, like President Hafez al-Assad, were member of the Alawite sect of Shi'ite Muslims while the Brotherhood was composed of Sunni Muslims."Syria Says Moslem Militants Killed 32 Artillery Cadets of Assad's Sect", The New York Times, June 23, 1979, p. A4 *General Ignatius K. Acheampong, who had served as President of Ghana from 1972 to 1978, was executed by a firing squad 12 days after a coup d'état led by Jerry Rawlings had overthrown General Acheampong's successor, Frederick Akuffo, and arrested most of the Ghanaian military leaders. Acheampong and the former Ghanaian Border Guard chief, Major General E. K. Utuka, were the first to be put on trial by a designated revolutionary court in the capital at Accra and both were executed after being convicted of "using their positions to amass wealth while in office and recklessly dissipating state funds to the detriment of the country.""Firing Squad Executes Former Ghana Leader On Corruption Charge", The New York Times, June 17, 1979, p. A1 *FC Nantes defeated AJ Auxerre, 4 to 1, to win the Coupe de France soccer football championship. *Born: Emmanuel Moire, French singer-songwriter, in Le Mans *Died: **Nicholas Ray, 67, American film director known for Rebel Without a Cause **Liselotte Welskopf-Henrich, 77, West German novelist ==June 17, 1979 (Sunday)== *The government of Malaysia forcibly expelled 2,500 Vietnamese refugees by loading them onto five boats, none considered seaworthy, towed them out to international waters and abandoned them."Viet 'boat people' towed out to sea", Chicago Tribune, June 18, 1979, p. 1 *Hale Irwin won golf's U.S. Open tournament at Toledo, Ohio, finishing two strokes ahead of Gary Player and Jerry Pate."Irwin wins his 2d Open", Chicago Tribune, June 18, 1979, p. 5-1 A sportswriter for The New York Times commented that, although the final day was "one of the sloppiest final rounds they had played in recent years... everyone else played as poorly as he did.""Irwin Wins Open 2d Time", The New York Times,June 18, 1979, p. C1 *At Rochester, New York, golfer Jane Blalock won the Ladies Professional Golf Association title."Blalock takes 4th LPGA title by six strokes", Daily News (New York), June 18, 1979, p. 51 ==June 18, 1979 (Monday)== *U.S. President Jimmy Carter and U.S.S.R. leader Leonid Brezhnev signed the SALT II agreement in Vienna."U.S. and Soviet Sign Strategic Arms Treaty; Carter Urges Congress to Support Accord; Ceremony in Vienna", by Hedrick Smith, The New York Times, June 19, 1979, p. A1 According to U.S. officials, Communist Party leader Brezhnev, "leader of a country where atheism is the rule," surprised Carter by telling him "God will not forgive us if we fail." A Soviet spokesman, Leonid Zamyatin, told a press conference that Brezhnev had actually said 'Future generations will not forgive us if we fail.'"Brezhnev Quoted: 'God Will Not Forgive Us if We Fail...", UPI report by Helen Thomas, The Tennessean (Nashville TN), June 17, 1979, p. 1 After the invasion of Afghanistan by the Soviet Union in December, Carter would halt further proceedings on Senate ratification of the treaty on January 3, 1980, and SALT II would never take effect. *The first round of voting was held in presidential and parliamentary elections in Ghana that took place as scheduled even after Jerry Rawlings had overthrown the government of the West African nation."Despite Coup, Ghana Goes Ahead With Plans for Election", by Carey Winfrey, The New York Times, June 15, 1979, p. A2 Hilla Limann and Victor Owusu were the top two finishers in the first round of presidential voting, with 35% and 30% of the vote, respectively, and since neither had a majority, a runoff election was held on July 9. Voting was also held for the 140 seats of the Parliament of Ghana, with candidates of Limann's People's National Party taking an early lead in the first round. *Under the leadership of the Conservative government of Prime Minister Thatcher, the United Kingdom revised the Value Added Tax on sales of classified goods, setting a single rate of 15% on all sales. ==June 19, 1979 (Tuesday)== *Voting along party lines, a joint session of the Parliament of South Africa elected Senate President (and National Party nominee) Marais Viljoen to the ceremonial position of State President of South Africa. Viljoens, by a margin of 155 to 23, defeated United Party leader De Villiers Graaff."South Africa Elects New President", Kansas City Star, June 19, 1979, p. 4 *Yes-no voting was held in the West African nation of Mali for President Moussa Traoré and for the 82 candidates of the Democratic Union of the Malian People, the nation's lone legal political party. ==June 20, 1979 (Wednesday)== *A Nicaraguan National Guard soldier killed ABC TV news correspondent Bill Stewart and his interpreter Juan Espinosa. Both Stewart and Espinosa complied with orders from a guardsman to lie face down, and then both were shot by a rifle at point-blank range."ABC Reporter and Aide Killed By Soldier in Nicaraguan Capital", The New York Times, by Linda Charlton, June 21, 1979, p. A12 Other members of the news crew captured the murder on tape. Corporal Lorenzo Brenes was arrested the next day after being identified as the gunman, but the killing of the American newsman ended any chance of U.S. support of the regime of Anastasio Somoza Debayle as Secretary of State Cyrus Vance called for Somoza to step down and for the Organization of American States (OAS) to send an international peace force to maintain order."Vance Proposes Replacement of Somoza Rule in Nicaragua; Asks for an O.A.S. Peace Force— Soldier Is Seized in Slaying of ABC-TV but He Blames Another", The New York Times, June 22, 1979, p. A1 *Ugandan President Yusufu Lule resigned after less than 10 weeks in office after a vote of no confidence by the National Consultative Council that had been installed as the new government following the Uganda-Tanzania War. Former Ugandan Attorney General Godfrey Binaisa was appointed as the new President of Uganda"Ugandan President Out After 10 Weeks", by Carey Winfrey, The New York Times, June 21, 1979, p. A5 and would serve until May 12, 1980. *American Airlines Flight 293, a Boeing 727 flight from New York to Chicago, was hijacked by a Serbian Yugoslavian terrorist, Nikola Kavaja, who was out on bail during the appeal of his conviction for bombing the home of the Yugoslav consul in Chicago."New York-Chicago Jet Hijacked; Passengers Free, It Returns Here", The New York Times, June 21, 1979, p. A1 Kavaja released the passengers and most of the crew, forced the jet to return to New York City, and then successfully demanded a Boeing 707 to fly him to Ireland, where he surrendered. ==June 21, 1979 (Thursday)== *The first Prime Minister of Dominica, Patrick John, was removed from office by vote of the House of Assembly after only seven months in office. He was replaced by Communications Minister Oliver Seraphin. Prime Minister John refused to step down, in that the Assembly had not followed the procedure of first having a vote of no confidence in the government"Dominica has 2 prime ministers", Miami News, June 22, 1979, p. 2 but yielded by the end of the month. *The U.S. Consumer Products Safety Commission voted to turn down a petition to ban the further manufacture and sale of skateboards after a consumer safety advocacy group cited 140,000 skateboard accidents reported by physicians during 1977. At the time, there were an estimated 20 million skateboards in use in the U.S.; the commission's Chairman, Susan B. King, said in a statement that the injuries "had resulted mainly because of how skateboards were used, rather than how manufacturers built them.""Safety Commission Rejects Bid to Prohibit Skateboards", The New York Times, June 22, 1979, p. A10 *The gravesite of Korean Christian evangelist Yi Byeok, founder of Korea's Roman Catholic community, was discovered by chance in Gyeonggi Province almost 200 years after his martyrdom. *The cricket teams of Sri Lanka and Canada met in the final of the first-ever ICC Trophy, sponsored by the International Cricket Conference to qualify the best two of the ICC's 16 associate members for the Cricket World Cup. The other six spots in the 8-team tournament were occupied by the ICC's full members (Australia, England, India, New Zealand, Pakistan and the West Indies)."I say, I say, I say— ICC", The Age (Melbourne), June 21, 1979, p. 39 At the final played in England at Worcester, Sri Lanka won by scoring 324 runs against Canada's 264."ICC Trophy Final: Sri Lanka v Canada", The Guardian (London), June 22, 1979, p. 24 Both teams qualified for the seventh and eighth seed of the World Cup tournament. *Born: Chris Pratt, American TV actor; in Virginia, Minnesota *Died: Elias IV of Antioch, 64, Patriarch of the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch and All The East since 1970 ==June 22, 1979 (Friday)== *The Home Depot chain of superstores for home improvement, began operations with the opening of two stores near Atlanta, in Doraville, Georgia and Decatur, Georgia.History of The Home Depot *The Soviet Union's Baikal–Amur Mainline (BAM) neared completion as two railroad construction crews, one working from the east and the other from the west, met to join the two segments of the original long railway designed to cross most of the Russian SFSR and relieve traffic on the existing Trans- Siberian Railway."Vital Rail Segment Is Opened in Siberia; Track-Laying Gangs Join Up After Five Years' Work on Far East Link of Baikal-Amur Line", by Theodore Shabad, The New York Times, July 1, 1979, p. A9 *Jeremy Thorpe, the former leader of the United Kingdom's Liberal Party, which had the third highest number of MPs in the House of Commons, was acquitted by a jury along with three other defendants on all charges of conspiring to attempt the assassination of a former friend, Norman Scott. The "Thorpe affair", however, ended his career as a Member of Parliament and as Liberal Party leader, after Scott testified in detail about a homosexual relationship he had had with Thorpe in the early 1960s."Thorpe Not Guilty of Plotting to Kill Former Friend", by William Borders, The New York Times, June 23, 1979, p. A1 *The Professional Football Researchers Association, football's counterpart to the Society for American Baseball Research (SABR), was founded. *Born: Joey Cheek, American speed skater and 2006 Olympic gold medalist; in Greensboro, North Carolina *Died: G. S. Adair, 82, British biochemist ==June 23, 1979 (Saturday)== *Thousands of protesters in Afghanistan rioted in an insurrection against the pro-Communist government of Nur Mohammad Taraki. The rebellion began in Kabul's Chindawol District after the arrest of Shia Muslim leaders, captured the police precinct station and its arsenal of weapons. The rebellion was suppressed by the next day, and people in Chindawol were arrested, and an unknown number executed. In the first 20 months of rule by Taraki and his successor, Hafizullah Amin, at least 4,785 arrestees were killed. "Flashback to 1979: A massacre of unarmed civilians in an uprising", by Fazal Hadi Hamidi, Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (RAWA) *Fortuna Düsseldorf defeated Hertha BSC, 1 to 0, in extra time to win the DFB-Pokal West German championship at Hanover. Wolfgang Seel scored in the 116th minute for the winning goal."Fortuna wins cup", Calgary Herald, June 25, 1979, p. C8 *Born: **LaDainian Tomlinson, American NFL football running back and Pro Football Hall of Fame enshrinee; in Rosebud, Texas **Yosvani Ramos, Cuban-born ballet dancer and principal dancer for four ballet companies; in Camagüey **Marilyn Agliotti, South African-born Netherlands field hockey player and Olympic gold medalist; in Boksburg ==June 24, 1979 (Sunday)== *The Permanent Peoples' Tribunal, an international opinion tribunal, was founded in Italy in Bologna at the initiative of the late Senator Lelio Basso (who had died six months earlier), with Francois Rigaux of Belgium as its first President."The History of the Permanent Peoples' Tribunal, by Gianni Tognoni, in Peoples' Tribunals and International Law, ed. by Andrew Byrnes and Gabrielle Simm (Cambridge University Press, 2017) p. 42 *The Thalay Sagar mountain peak, located in India and high was climbed for the first time. The British-American team of Roy Kligfield, John Thackray, and Pete Thexton made the historic first ascent."Amnesiac in the Himalaya, Thalay, Sagar, Garwhal" (American Alpine Club 1980) *Born: **Craig Shergold, English cancer patient known for receiving more greeting cards than any person in the world and subject of a persistent urban legend; in Carshalton, Surrey (d. 2020) **Mindy Kaling (stage name for Vera Mindy Chokalingam), American TV actress; in Cambridge, Massachusetts ==June 25, 1979 (Monday)== *In Casteau, located in Belgium and the location of Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE), U.S. Army General Alexander Haig, the NATO Supreme Allied Commander, escaped an assassination attempt by the Baader-Meinhof terrorist organization. At 8:30 in the morning, General Haig was being driven to work when a remotely controlled bomb exploded underneath the street an instant after his limousine had passed the location. Haig and the three other occupants of the limo were unhurt, but three security guards in the "chase vehicle" assigned to follow Haig' car were slightly injured. At a press conference, the SHAPE commander said that it was likely that he would have been killed if the explosion of the bomb, which had the force of up to of TNT, had happened a split second sooner."Gen. Haig Unhurt as Car Is Target Of Bomb on Road to NATO Office", by John Vinocur, The New York Times, June 26, 1979, p. A1 *Oliver "O. J." Seraphin was sworn in as the new Prime Minister of Dominica, to replace the recently deposed Patrick John. Seraphin, formerly the Minister of Communication, would serve for 13 months before his Labour Party's loss of control of parliament in 1980. *Born: **Busy Philipps (Elizabeth Jean Philipps), American TV actress and Critics Choice award winner; in Oak Park, Illinois **La La Anthony, American television reality show host; as Alani Nicole Vazquez in New York City. *Died: Dave Fleischer, 84, American animator known as the co-creator of Popeye, Betty Boop and Koko the Clown."Obituary: Dave Fleischer, Film Animator; Created Popeye and Betty Boop", The New York Times, June 29, 1979, p. A15 ==June 26, 1979 (Tuesday)== *Twenty-eight crewmembers of the French freighter Emanuel Delmas were burned to death after the ship collided with an Italian oil tanker, the Vera Berlingieri, off of Italy's west coast."28 feared killed in ship collision", Boston Globe, June 28, 1979, p. 9 *Pol Le Gourrierec, France's Ambassador to Pakistan was arrested and charged with espionage after attempting to enter Pakistan's nuclear facilities at the Kahuta Research Laboratories, along with the Embassy's First Secretary, Jean Forlot. The two men were beaten up after reaching a roadblock leading up to the site, with Forlot suffering a skull fracture and Ambassador Le Gourrierec having a tooth broken."French nuclear investigators hurt in Pakistan", The Guardian (London), June 28, 1979, p. 7 *The longest trial in South Africa's history ended after 19 months with the conviction of 16 of 18 members of the Pan Africanist Congress were convicted of attempting to overthrow the white South African government."16 blacks sentenced in S. Africa", by Benjamin Pogrund, Boston Globe, June 28, 1979, p. 5 *An assault force of five helicopters, sent by the black African government of Zimbabwe Rhodesia, attacked suburbs of Lusaka, capital of neighboring Zambia, killing 22 people in suspected Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) houses in effort to kill ZAPU leader Joshua Nkomo."22 Reported Dead in Copter Raid By Rhodesia on Zambian Capital", by John F. Burns, The New York Times, June 27, 1979, p. A1 *The James Bond film Moonraker, adapted from Ian Fleming's 1955 novel of the same name, and starring Roger Moore as Bond, had its world premiere at the Odeon Leicester Square cinema in London, with a general release in the UK the next day and in North America on Friday."The ageless secret agent who found pace to breathe", by Eric Burgess, The Guardian (London), June 25, 1979, p. 8"Moonraker", Internet Movie Database *The longest passenger liner in the world up to that time, SS France, was sold to the Norwegian shipowner Knut Utstein Kloster, who would rename it the SS Norway. The length ship had sailed from 1962 until 1974 and had been sitting in port at Le Havre."Liner France sold for $16m", Sydney Morning Herald, June 28, 1979, p. 1 *Born: **Luka (stage name for Luciana Santos de Lima), popular Brazilian singer; in Porto Alegre **Nanuka Zhorzholiani, Georgian TV journalist; in Tbilisi, Georgian SSR, Soviet Union **Ryan Tedder, American music producer and vocalist for OneRepublic; in Colorado Springs, Colorado *Died: **Ghanaian Army Lieutenant Generals Fred Akuffo, 42, and Akwasi Amankwaa Afrifa, 43, both former heads of state of the West African nation of Ghana as Chairman of the National Liberation Council, were executed by a firing squad three weeks after the coup d'état led by Flight Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings, after being tried and found guilty of corruption. Afrifa ruled Ghana for 15 months from 1969 to 1970, and Akuffo for 11 months from 1978 to 1979. Afrifa had won election eight days earlier as a member of the Ghanaian Parliament. The former leaders and four cabinet members, convicted of corruption by a military tribunal, were taken to a military firing range at a beach outside of Accra for their execution."New Regime in Ghana Executes 2 Ex-Rulers And 4 Senior Officers", The New York Times, June 26, 1979, p. A1 **Major General Robert Kotei, 43, Chief of Staff of the Ghanaian Armed Forces until June 4. **Colonel Roger Felli, 38, Foreign Minister of Ghana until June 5 **Rear Admiral Joy Amedume, Chief of Staff of the Ghanaian Navy until his arrest on June 4, was shot by a firing squad. **Colonel George Boakye, 41, Commander of the Ghanaian Air Force until June 4. ==June 27, 1979 (Wednesday)== *In the first aerial combat between the air forces of Israel and Syria since the 1973 Yom Kippur War, several formations of Syrian Air Force MiG-21 jet fighters challenged Israeli Air Force (IAF) F-15 jets that were striking Palestinian camps in Lebanon near Damour and Sidon, Israel reported that it had shot down at least five Syrian jets and although Syria conceded losing four, it asserted that it had downed four IAF fighters. The last clash between the two nations had been on April 29, 1974, when six Syrian planes were downed in the Golan Heights."Syrians And Israelis Clash in Air Battle", The New York Times, June 28, 1979, p. A1 *Born: Kim Gyu- ri, South Korean film and television actress; in Seoul ==June 28, 1979 (Thursday)== *Greece became the tenth member of the European Economic Community (EEC) as the Hellenic Parliament voted to ratify the Treaty of Accession 1979. The treaty, signed on May 28, made Greece the first new member since 1973 of the "Common Market", a predecessor to the European Union. Of 300 deputies of the Boule, 193 voted in favor, three abstained, and the other 104 declined to attend the session at all."Greek Parliament Backs Market Entry", Hartford (CT) Courant, June 29, 1979, p. 18 *At a meeting in Geneva of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), the representatives of the 13 OPEC nations voted to increase the price of a barrel of oil by 16 percent, to as high as $23.50 a barrel. Since the beginning of 1979, the price of oil had increased by almost 50 percent from $15.50."OPEC Increasing Oil Price 16%, Making Total for Year 50%", The New York Times, June 29, 1979, p. A1 *East Germany's Deputy Prime Minister, Kurt Fichtner was fired along with the Minister for Coal and Energy, Klaus Siebold, in a move approved by the nation's ruling Socialist Unity Party. Their dismissals came days after the government announced that the prices to be charged for energy would be increased by 30 percent for the 1980 winter. Siebold had signed off on shutdowns of electrical power plants for maintenance during one of the coldest winters in the Communist nation's history, and Fichtner's purchasing decisions had left the large power stations with only a one-day reserve of coal on the day before the cold wave struck."Energy shortages lead to cabinet firings", by Werner Volkmer, The Observer (London), reprinted in the Windsor (ON) Star, July 24, 1979, p. 6 *Died: Philippe Cousteau, 37, French oceanographer, cinematographer and co-producer of sea expedition documentary films with his father Jacques Cousteau, was killed in the crash of a seaplane near Lisbon, where the Cousteaus were on a filming expedition."Obituary: Philippe Cousteau, 39, Oceanographer And Cinematographer", by C. Gerald Fraser, The New York Times, June 29, 1979, p. A15 ==June 29, 1979 (Friday)== *The Inter-American Court of Human Rights, located within the Organization of American States in Washington, D.C., began operations with seven judges, led by Chief Justice Rodolfo E. Piza Escalante of Costa Rica. *The Panamanian-registered freighter Skyluck, which had housed more than 2,000 refugees from Vietnam and some from the People's Republic of China for more than four months after arriving in Hong Kong and refusing to leave, drifted out of the harbor after some of the refugees cut the anchor chain. The ship slowly sank after striking rocks on Lamma Island, and police arrested the remaining refugees."Refugees storm ashore through sea blockade", Toronto Star, June 30, 1979"Refugees Run Ship Aground", The New York Times, June 30, 1979, p. A3 *Brazilian mass murderer Luiz Gonzaga Pereira dos Santos killed a family of seven in the town of Princesa Isabel in the Paraíba state. *Born: **Abz Love (stage name for Richard Breen), bestselling English rapper and lead vocalist for the boy band Five; in London. **Marleen Veldhuis, Netherlands swimmer, Olympic and world championship gold medalist who set the world record for fastest time in the 50 metre women's freestyle swim; in Borne, Overijssel **Artur Avila, Brazilian mathematician; in Rio de Janeiro *Died: **Lowell George, 34, American musician, died of a heart attack caused by an adverse reaction to cocaine. **Jane Rose, 66, American comedienne and character actress ==June 30, 1979 (Saturday)== *CSD Berlin, the first annual LGBT Pride parade in Germany, took place, inspired by the annual "Christopher Street Day" celebration that started in 1970 to commemorate the first anniversary of the Stonewall riots that took place on the street of the same name in 1969. *At 11:12 in the morning Atlanta's first subway, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) rapid transit train system, began operations after four years of construction."Atlanta Subway Section Opened; Safety and Ban on Graffiti Vowed", by Howell Raines, The New York Times, July 1, 1979, p. A16 *U.S. businessman William F. Niehous, the general manager of the Owens- Illinois Venezuela glass manufacturing factory, was rescued after more than three years as the hostage of leftist guerrillas, when city police from Ciudad Bolívar fought a gunbattle with his captors. Niehouse had been kidnapped from his home near Caracas on February 27, 1976, by masked guerrillas of a group that identified itself as the Argimiro Gabaldon Revolutionary Command."Abducted American Freed in Venezuela— Businessman, Captive for 3 Years Found Accidentally by Police After Battle With Leftists", The New York Times, July 1, 1979, p. A7 *Valencia CF won Spain's Copa del Rey, defeating Real Madrid, 2 to 0. *Baseball's four nation Inter-American League, founded as a high-level Triple-A minor league, played its final games, and the league folded 13 days after two of its six teams went out of business. The league had begun play on April 11 and the Miami Amigos was ahead of the second place Caracas Metropolitanos by 10 games, finishing with a record of 51 wins and 21 losses. *Born: **Rick Gonzalez, American film and TV actor; in New York City **Matisyahu (stage name for Matthew Paul Miller), American-born Israeli rap music artist; in West Chester, Pennsylvania **Faisal Shahzad, Pakistani-born American terrorist convicted of a thwarted attempt to bomb Times Square in New York in 2010; in Karachi ==References== 1979 *1979-06 *1979-06 |
(;) is a set of attire in which consists of a short jacket typically called () worn under a long Chinese skirt called (). However, when use as a general term, can broadly describe a set of attire which consists of a separated upper garment and a wrap-around lower skirt, or (), in which () means the "upper garment" and the () means the "lower garment". In a broad sense, can include the () and (; ) in its definition. As a set of attire, the was worn by both men and women; it was however primarily worn by women. It is the traditional for the Han Chinese women. The and/or is the most basic set of clothing of Han Chinese women in China and has been an established tradition for thousands of years. Various forms and style of Chinese trousers, referred broadly under the generic term , can also be worn under the . == Terminology == The generic term () can be applied to any style of clothing consisted of a pair of upper and lower garments. The term is composed of the Chinese characters:《》 and 《》, where () refers to the upper garment while the () refers to the lower garment, which can be either the Chinese skirt, , or the Chinese trousers, and . The character is also a generic word for "clothing". Therefore, the , , , as well as the wedding dress called , all belong to the category of as a broad term. The term () is composed of two Chinese characters:《》and《》; when these characters are combined, can literally be translated as "jacket skirt". However, the term is relatively unstable in both original texts and in secondary sources as different regions may use different terms to describe the same clothing. When used as a broad term, refers to a set of attire which consists of a separate upper garment and a as a lower garment. As a specific term, refer to a specific style of wearing a short upper garment called () under a long skirt called (). The word has sometimes been used as a synonym for other clothing items such as () and (). The can also be a short jacket with either short or long sleeves. In addition, the term () also appear in texts and has been described as the precursor of the long jackets () by scholars.thumb|376x376px|Modern illustration of two traditional forms of (), a type of Han Chinese clothing worn primarily by women.|centerThe term () typically refers to a specific way of wearing the on over the lower garment, . The Chinese character《》appears in a Sui dynasty rime dictionary called , published in 601 AD, and can be translated as "padded coat", but it can also refer to a lined upper garment. The Xinhua Dictionary defines as a general term referring to an "upper garment with multiple layers". As such, it is a thick piece of clothing worn mostly during cold seasons. Usually, the is worn outside of the lower garment, which is often a skirt, especially the . The term (), sometimes literally translated as "unlined upper garment and skirt" in English, is also type of clothing style where the upper garment called is generally worn over the lower garment, . The Xinhua Dictionary defines as a general term referring to an "upper garment with a single layer". The Jin dynasty book 《》states that women had been wearing one-piece clothing that has the upper and lower garments connected together since the time of the Yellow Emperor, until the Qin dynasty, when was invented. Historically, the comes in as varying styles, shapes and lengths, and is usually worn outside of the lower garment. However, there are also cases where the is worn under the lower garment, as during the Jin dynasty. A form of which appeared in the Han and Wei period was a new type of gown which had equal front pieces which were straight, called , instead of collar and was fastened with a string; it was also a form of unlined upper garment with straight sleeves and wide cuffs. This was worn by men and women and became popular as it was more convenient for wearing. In addition, the term is sometimes used interchangeably with to refer to short upper garment worn on skirt. The term can also refer to long garments. Of note of importance, the term is not only used to describe the specific types of , but also modern western clothing styles consisting of separate top and bottom garments as well. == Cultural significance == === Heaven and Earth symbolism === In traditional Chinese culture, the symbolism of two-pieces garments hold great importance as it symbolizes the greater order of Heaven and Earth. In the 《》, upper garment represents Heaven () while the lower garment represents the Earth (). It is also why the (and the in the ) has a black upper garment and typically a red (or yellow) lower garment which symbolized the order between Heaven and earth and should never be confused. According to the (), the colour black symbolized the colour of the sky, which was dark before dawn, while the colour yellow represented the earth. The order between Heaven and Earth can also translate into clothing length differences between men and women. For example, in 1537, in an attempt to reverse the trend in the late Ming when women clothing was gradually getting longer, Huo Tao, a Ming dynasty Minister of Rites, expressed: ==== ==== The silhouette of can also be made into (), which looks like an A-line silhouette. The was a trend in the Wei, Jin, Northern, Southern dynasties. However, during the Ming dynasty, silhouette created with the use of reflected an inversion of Heaven and Earth as this form of clothing silhouette contradicts the traditional Chinese principle of Heaven and Earth order. The 《》refers to the as being (); the was eventually banned in the early Hongzhi era (1487-1505) according to Lu Rong. is a general term with negative connotation which is employed for what is considered as being strange clothing style, or for deviant dressing styles, or for aberrance in clothing. Clothing which were considered as typically (i) violates ritual norms and clothing regulations, (ii) are extravagant and luxurious form of clothing, (iii) violates the yin and yang principle, and (iv) are strange and inauspicious form of clothing. == History == As a set of attired consisting of an upper garment and a skirt; the is the eldest type of . According to the chapter 《》of the , the was worn in Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period by the legendary Yellow Emperor, Emperor Shun, and Emperor Yao who wore it in the form of the (): === Shang dynasty === In Shang dynasty, the basic form of was established as the combination of a separate upper and lower garment worn together; which was known as (). In this period, the was a unisex set of attire. The consisted of a narrow, ankle length skirt called () and the upper garment called (), in shape of a knee-length tunic with narrow cuffs; the was tied with a sash and could be . The as a set of attire featured the wearing of over the . === Zhou dynasty === The Zhou dynasty, people continued to wear the as a set of attire. The was similar to the one worn in the Shang dynasty period; however the Zhou-dynasty style was slightly looser and the sleeves could either be broad or narrow. The was and a sash was used around the waist to tie it closed. The length of the , could also vary from knee to ground length. In the Western Zhou dynasty, it was popular to wear as a set of attire consisting of a jacket and skirt. ==== Spring and Autumn Period, and Warring States Period ==== The as a set of attire was also worn by men and women during the Warring States period. Elites women in the Warring States period also wore a blouse or a jacket, which was fastened to the right to form a V-shaped collar and was waist-length, along with a long full skirt. The women's blouse tended to have relatively straight and narrow sleeves. During the Warring States Period and the Spring and Autumn period, the clothing known as , which combined the upper and lower garment into a one-piece robe was also developed. === Qin and Han dynasty === Even though the clothing of the Warring states period were old, they continued to be worn in Qin and Han dynasties, this included the wearing of cross-collared blouse and skirts. The as a set of attire was worn during by elite women and ordinary women. Ordinary women during the Han dynasty wore the with the jacket being covered by the , which came in various colours throughout the year. Ordinary women wore plainer form of ; the skirts were typically plain but the sash which was worn around the waist was decorated. During the Qin and Han dynasties, women wore skirts which was composed of four pieces cloth sewn together; a belt was often attached to the skirt, but the use of a separate belt was sometimes used by women. The popularity of the jacket and skirt combination briefly declined after the fall of the Eastern Han dynasty, but returned into fashion in the Jin and Northern Wei dynasties and continued to be worn until the Qing dynasty. File:Funerary Sculpture of a Noble Lady LACMA M.73.48.122.jpg|A noble lady figure, Western Han dynasty, 206 B.C.-A.D. 25. File:Ruqun han.jpg|A Han Dynasty painting illustrates women wearing , with blouses tucked into skirts File:Dahuting Eastern Han Tombs Mural - 8.jpg|A woman in ruqun, i.e. a black cross-collar upper garment tucked inside a red skirt, Dahuting Eastern Han Tombs Mural. === Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern dynasties === During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasties, both the and the co-existed. The was popular among women during the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasties. In the early Six dynasties period, women wore a style of composed of a and a long . The jacket worn by commoner women was longer than commoner's men. Elite women in the Wei and Jin dynasty wore the combination of wide-cuffed, V-shaped, unlined blouse which was made of pattern fabric and was lined at the neck with a decorative strip of cloth, a long skirt which came in different styles, and apron. However, in the early Six dynasties, most ordinary men did not wear anymore; men, instead wore a set of attire referred as shanku consisting of ku, trousers, under their cross-collared jacket (i.e. ). The men's jacket were either hip-length or knee-length. The jackets can be tied with a belt or with other forms of closure. The (; similar to A-line silhouette) style was also a trend in the Wei, Jin, Northern, Southern dynasties, where skirts large and loose giving an elegant and unrestrained effect. During the Wei and Jin dynasties, women also wore the , which consisted of a long and a , an unlined upper garment. The found in this period were typically large and loose; the had a front and was tied at the waist. A (), which looked similar to an apron, was tied between the and in order to fasten the waist. Styles of can be found in the Dunhuang murals where they are worn by the benefactors, in the pottery figurines unearthed in Luoyang, and in the paintings of Gu Kaizhi. At Luoyang during the Northern Wei dynasty, several variety of clothing styles found on female tomb figures were largely derived from the traditional -style set of attire. One style of was the combination of short jacket (usually belted and tied at the front of the jacket) with wide sleeves which falls to the knee or below knee level with a very high waist, pleated and multicoloured long skirt. Based on a female tomb figure dating from the Eastern Wei, this form of is jacket worn over skirt. A popular form of was the jacket worn under skirt. The -style also first appeared in the Northern and Southern dynasties. === Sui and Tang dynasties === In the Sui dynasty, ordinary men did not wear skirts anymore. In the late sixth century, women's skirts in the Sui dynasty were characterized with high waistline; this kind of high waistline skirt created a silhouette which looked similar to the Empire dresses of Napoleonic France; however, the construction of the assemble differed from the ones worn in Western countries as Han Chinese women assemble consisted of a separate skirt and upper garment which show low décolletage. This trend continued in the early decades of the Tang dynasty when women continued the tend of the Sui and would also wear long, high-waist skirts, low-cut upper garment. During the Sui and Tang dynasty, women wore the traditional in the -style; a style where the skirts were tied higher and higher up the waist until they were eventually tied above the breasts and where short upper garment was worn. In addition to the classical or (crossed collar upper garments), (parallel/straight collar upper garments) were also worn in this period, thus exposing the cleavage of the breasts. Some Tang dynasty women skirts had accordion pleats. Red coloured skirts were popular. There was also a skirt called "Pomegranate skirt" for its red colour, and another skirt called "Turmeric skirt" for its yellow colour. By the Mid-Tang period (around the 8th century), the low cleavage upper garment fell out of fashion; the female beauty ideology changed favouring plump and voluptuous beauty. File:Sui Painted Pottery Attendant 04.jpg|Woman in qixiong ruqun, Sui dynasty. File:Xian May 2007 115.jpg File:Court ladies pounding silk from a painting (捣练图) by Emperor Huizong.jpg|A Tang Dynasty painting illustrates women wearing , with skirts tied above the breasts and short parallel-collar blouses File:Tanghanfu.jpg|Another Tang Dynasty painting illustrating File:A palace concert.jpg|A Tang Dynasty palace concert wearing File:Gu Hongzhong's Night Revels, Detail 2.jpg File:Zhou Fang. Court Ladies Wearing Flowered Headdresses. (46x180) Liaoning Provincial Museum, Shenyang..jpg File:Zhou Fang. Court Ladies Playing Double-sixes. Freer. Detail.jpg File:韋貴妃墓壁畫1.jpg === Song and Liao dynasties === ==== Song dynasty ==== Women continued to wear the Tang dynasty's fashion of wearing the upper garment and skirts tied around their breasts until the Song dynasty. In the Song dynasty, the women's skirts were also lowered from the breast level back to the normal waistline. Pleated skirts were introduced and became the main feature of the upper-class women. Song-style for women consisted of long narrow skirts and jackets which closes to the right. These jackets could be worn over the narrow skirts; this form of existed in both the Liao dynasty and Song. Cross-collared jackets with narrow sleeves could also be worn under a waist-length skirt or under high-waist skirt. File:Song dynasty women.jpg|Commoner women wearing ruqun, Song dynasty. File:Song dynasty sculpture of maids.JPG|Sculpture of maids wearing ruqun, Song dynasty. ==== Liao dynasty ==== In Liao dynasty, the Song-style and the Tang-style clothing (including the ) coexisted together; both Khitan women and Han Chinese women in the Liao wore the Han Chinese style Tang-Song dress. Tang-Song style clothing women clothing in Liao also included a long-sleeved, outer jacket with ample sleeves which could cropped or waist-length, was tied with sash in a bow below the breasts to create an empire silhouette. The outer jacket could also be worn over floor-length dress which was worn a , a short over-skirt which looked like an apron, on top. In Northern Liao mural tomb depictions, women who are dressed in Han style clothing are depicted in Tang dynasty fashion whereas in the Southern Liao murals, women dressed in Han style clothing are wearing Song-style clothing. File:Mural in liao tomb.jpg|Women possibly wearing shanqun (upper garment over skirt) and beizi (Song-style clothing), inner chamber of the Tomb of Zhang Kuangzheng, Liao dynasty. File:Pao-Shan Tomb Wall-Painting of Liao Dynasty (寳山遼墓壁畫：寄錦圗).jpg|Khitan women wearing Tang-style clothing; Baoshan tomb No.2 wall-painting of Liao dynasty. File:KhitanMural.jpg|alt=|Khitan women wearing Song style ruqun. === Yuan dynasty === In the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols never imposed Mongol customs on the ethnic Han, and they did not force the Han Chinese to wear Mongol clothing. Many Han Chinese and other ethnicity readily adopted Mongol clothing in Northern China to show their allegiance to the Yuan rulers; however, in Southern China, Mongol clothing was rarely seen as both men and women continued to dress in Song-style garments. Tang-Song style clothing also continued to be worn in multiple layers by families who showed that they were resisting the rule of the Mongols. The Song style dress also continued to persist among the southern elites of the Yuan dynasty and evidence of Song- style clothing was also found in the unearthed tombs in southern China. The casual clothing for men mainly followed the dress code of the Han people and they wore as a casual clothing item while ordinary women clothing consisted of and . Chinese women also wore cross-collar upper garment which had elbow length sleeves (i.e. cross-collar ) over a long-sleeved blouse under a skirt; the abbreviated wrap skirts were also popular in Yuan. Women jackets closing to the right and closing to the left coexisted in the Yuan dynasty. It was also common for Chinese women in the Yuan dynasty to close their clothing to the left side (instead of the right side). The way of wearing short-length cross-collar upper garment over long narrow skirt was also a Song-style fashion. Long cross-collar upper garment (about the knee-length) over a long skirt could also be worn by Chinese elite women. The consisting of (), a lined jacket, and a long-length was worn by the Han Chinese women as winter clothing; typically the would be worn over the skirt. File:Figure of a Woman Jin-Yuan dynasty China 13th-14th century stoneware (1349972905).jpg|Figure of a Woman Jin-Yuan dynasty China 13th-14th century. File:Figurines, China, Cizhou ware, Yuan dynasty, 1280-1368 AD, stoneware - Östasiatiska museet, Stockholm - DSC09466.JPG|Ruqun and banbi, Yuan dynasty. The jacket is closing to the left which is a common style for Chinese women in the Yuan dynasty. File:太平風會圖08.jpg|Woman wearing shanqun, Yuan dynasty. File:Fresco in the Hall of King Ming-ying, Hung-t'ung County.jpg|Women depicted in the Fresco in the Hall of King Mingying. Han women wore elbow-length sleeves, cross-collar upper garment over a long-sleeved blouse; the abbreviated skirts were popular in Yuan. File:太平風會圖05.jpg|Women wearing Song-style ruqun (jacket over skirt) in the Yuan dynasty, from the painting Street Scenes in Times of Peace (), Yuan dynasty 14th century. === Ming dynasty === thumb|347x347px|A woman wearing a jacket (ao) which closes on the left, an atypical feature, Ming dynasty portrait. In terms of appearance, the Ming dynasty (i.e. the short jacket and skirt) was similar to the Song dynasty's . Compared to the worn in the Tang dynasty, the Ming dynasty was more gentle and elegant in style; it was also less lavish and yet less rigid and strict as the worn in the Song dynasty. One difference from the Song dynasty is the addition of a small short waist skirt which was worn by young maidservants; it is assumed that it was worn as an apron to protect the long skirt under it. The short overskirt was called . Moreover, following the Yuan dynasty, the style of closing the jacket to the left in women's clothing persisted in some geographical areas of the Ming dynasty, or for at least Chinese women who lived in the province of Shanxi. Ming dynasty portrait paintings showing Chinese women dressing in left lapel jackets appeared to be characteristic of ancestral portraits from the province of Shanxi and most likely in the areas neighbouring the province. left|thumb|219x219px|Aoqun with pipa sleeves, Ming dynasty By the Ming Dynasty, the became the most common form of attire for women. The sleeves of the blouse were mostly curved with a narrow sleeve cuff in a style known as (). The collar was of the same colour as the clothing. Often, there was an optional detachable protective () sewn to the collar. The can be white or any dark colour, and is used to protect the collar from being rotten by sweat, therefore to extend the life of the clothing. Towards the start of the Qing Dynasty, the skirt was mostly () or mamianqun. By the late Ming dynasty, the (jacket over skirt) became more prevalent than the (short jacket under skirt); and the ao became longer in length. By the late Ming dynasty, jackets with high collars started to appear. The stand-up collar were closed with interlocking buttons made of gold and silver, called zimukou (). The appearance of interlocking buckle promoted the emergence and the popularity of the stand-up collar and the Chinese jacket with buttons at the front, and laid the foundation of the use of Chinese knot buckles. In women garments of the Ming dynasty, the stand-up collar with gold and silver interlocking buckles became one of the most distinctive and popular form of clothing structure; it became commonly used in women's clothing reflecting the conservative concept of Ming women's chastity by keeping their bodies covered and due to the climate changes during the Ming dynasty (i.e. the average temperature was low in China). File:Mingrenwu63.jpg|A painting by Ming Dynasty painter Tang Yin illustrating women in File:Tangyin7big.jpg|A painting by Ming Dynasty painter Tang Yin illustrating women in File:Mingrenwu65b.jpg|A painting by Ming Dynasty painter Tang Yin illustrating women in File:Chujutu.jpg|Illustration of Ming Dynasty File:Hanfu ming.jpg|A woman (left) wearing an aoqun (i.e. top over skirt), Ming dynasty. File:Minggirl.jpg|Aoqun, Ming dynasty. File:明憲宗元宵行樂圖4.jpg|Group of women wearing aoqun, Ming dynasty File:Ming noble woman.jpg|A ming dynasty woman wearing a chang ao over a skirt (possibly a mamian skirt). A blue pifeng is worn over the outfit. The ao jacket is long and has a high stand-up collar. === Qing dynasty === During the Qing dynasty, the aoqun was the most prominent clothing of Han Chinese women. The ruqun (i.e. short jacket under skirt) continued to be worn in early Qing dynasty, but the later Qing dynasty depictions of ruqun in arts were mostly based on earlier paintings rather than the lived clothing worn by women in this period. In the late Qing, women wore the long jacket ao with the skirt. It was fashionable to wear the ao (袄) with the baizhequn (百摺裙) and the mamianqun. The ao in the Qing dynasty has a front centre closure and then curves crossover to the right before secured with frog buttons. The front closing, collar, hem, and sleeves cuff have edging of contrasting pipings and side slits. The skirts have a flat front and back panels with knife-pleated sides. In Qing, the high collar continued to be used but it was not a common feature in clothing before the 20th century. In the late Qing, the high collar become more popular and was integrated to the jacket and robe of the Chinese and the Manchu becoming a regular garment feature instead of an occasional feature. The high collar remained a defining feature of their jacket even in the first few years of the republic. For the Han Chinese women, the stand-up collar became a defining feature of their long jacket; this long jacket with high collar could be worn over their trousers (shanku) but also over their skirts. In The Chinese and Japanese repository published in 1863 by James Summers, Summers described Chinese women wearing a knee-length upper garment which fits closely at the neck; they wore it together with loose trousers with border around the ankles under a skirt, which opens at the front and has large plaits over the hips. Summers also observed that the sleeves of the women's garment are generally long enough to conceal the hands in cold weather; the sleeves were sometimes very wide and were decorated beautifully with embroidered satin lining which would be turned back to form a border. In Mesny's Chinese Miscellany written in 1897 by William Mesny, it was observed that skirts were worn by Chinese women over their trousers in some regions of China, but that in most areas, skirts were only used when women would go out for paying visits. He also observed that the wearing of trousers was a national custom for Chinese women and that trousers were worn in their homes when they would do house chores. Mesny also observed that men (especially farmers, working men and soldiers) around Shanghai also wore skirts in winter. Another form of ruqun worn in that period is called qungua (), which is composed of gua (褂; a jacket with central closure which closes with buttons) worn with a qun (裙) skirt. The gua jacket was a popular form of jacket in Qing and was worn as a summer jacket instead of the ao which was usually worn in winter. The qungua also referred to one style of Qing dynasty wedding dress. File:Hanfu qing.jpg File:Jiao Bingzhen - Paintings of Ladies - Leaf 2.jpg|Illustration of and during Qing Dynasty File:庄顺皇贵妃.png|A woman wearing aoqun under a pifeng (aka beizi). File:Dinastia qing, stampa del nuovo anno con una donna e un bambino in un giardino, xix sec.JPG|Qing dynasty aoqun, the blue ao (jacket) has a slanted/curved opening. File:Han women during the Manchu Qing dynasty.jpg|Qing dynasty Han Chinese women wearing Manchu-influenced aoqun and qungua. File:Cantonese Han noble lady with her servants in 1900s.png|Cantonese Han noble lady with her servants in 1900s wears Manchu-influenced aoqun. File:Woman's wedding costume from China, Honolulu Museum of Art 10128.1.JPG|Woman's wedding costume from China, an aoqun. c. 1900. File:A BRIDE.jpg|A bride wearing aoqun, === Modern === ==== Republic of China ==== ===== Wenming xinzhuang ===== In the early 1910s and 1920s, young women wore aoqun called Wenming xinzhuang (文明新裝), also known as the "civilized costume" or "civilized attire". It originated from the traditional yishang (衣裳) and the basic style of this clothing is clearly inherited from ancient Han Chinese clothing although the details have changed over time. The Wenming xinzhuang continued the unbroken tradition of Han Chinese women's matching a jacket with a skirt which has been established for thousand of years. The ao of the Wenming xinzhuang was typically cyan and blue in colour while the long skirt was dark in colour, mostly in black; the ao had no complex ornaments as bindings and embroidery was rejected in this period. There was a narrow trim which would bind the hem and the side vents were rectangular in shape. The ao typically had a standing collar and long in shape with its hemline typically reaching below hip height and sometimes even at knee-height. The sleeves were short and left the wrist exposed. The skirt was derived from the baizhequn (百摺裙) and became a dark long skirt with larger pleats. With time, the skirt length eventually shortened to the point where the calves of the wearer was exposed, and the ao had a lower collar and an arc shaped vents started to appear on both sides. This style of clothing eventually faded in the early 1930s. File:Wei shiyi.jpg|Aoqun, 1920. File:Woman in Hakka shirt in Toen 1930s.jpg|Aoqun, 1930s ==== 21st Century: Modern hanfu ==== In the 21st Century, several forms of ruqun, whose design are often based on the previous dynasties traditional ruqun but with modern aesthetics, gained popularity following the Hanfu movement. File:People wearing Hanfu at IDO32 (20200118144419).jpg|Men and women wearing different style of modern ruqun. File:HANFU in Clothing store 2018.jpg|Ruqun sold in clothing store, 2018. File:Woman wearing modern qixiong ruqun (a type of Hanfu) at IDO32 (20200118144012).jpg|Modern qixiong ruqun. File:Jili2.jpg|Modern Ming dynasty aoqun == Construction and Design == As a set of garments, the ruqun consists of an upper and lower garment. The ruqun can be categorized into types based on the waist height of the skirt: * Mid- rise (), * High-rise () and * Qixiong ruqun (齐胸襦裙; qíxiōngrúqún). The ruqun can also be categorized based on the collar style. The collar style of the upper garment can be divided into: * crossed collar (), * parallel collar (), also known as straight collar (直领; Zhiling). Summary of garments Component Romanization Hanzi Definition Upper garment Yi 衣 Open cross-collar upper garment, or refers to any form upper garment. It is unisex. Ru 襦 Open cross- collar upper garment, only worn by women. It typically refers to a short jacket. It is usually waist-length, but longer forms of ru can also be found. The ru can be single-layered or multi-layered (i.e. double layered or padded). Changru 长襦 A long ru jacket; the precursor of the long ao. Ao 袄 Multi-layer open cross-collar shirt or jacket. It was mainly worn as winter clothing. Shan 衫 Lit. translated as "shirt". Single-layer open cross-collar shirt or jacket. It can also be worn over the yi (衣). Changao 長襖 A longer version of the ao Gua 褂 A jacket with a central closure which closes with buttons. They appeared to be made of thinner fabric than the ao and was worn in summer. It was worn as a female wedding jacket. Lower garment Chang/shang 裳 Skirt for men, or may refers to any form of lower garment including skirts and trousers. In the Shang dynasty, the chang could also refer to an ankle-length skirt which was a unisex garment. Qun 裙 Skirt for women. === Women's skirts === Throughout history, Han Chinese women wore many kind of skirts which came in variety of styles; some of which had their own specific names. == Types of ruqun == *Mianfu *Qixiong ruqun *Qungua (裙褂): a type of ruqun worn as a Traditional Chinese Wedding dress in Qing and in modern era. *Tanling ruqun: a type of ruqun with a U-shaped upper garment *Xiuhefu (秀禾服): a type of aoqun worn as a Traditional Chinese Wedding dress in Qing and in modern era. *Xuanduan (玄端): a very formal dark with accessories; equivalent to the Western white tie. == See also == * Han Chinese clothing *List of Han Chinese clothing *Shanku == References == Category:Chinese traditional clothing |
Alfonso XII (Alfonso Francisco de Asís Fernando Pío Juan María de la Concepción Gregorio Pelayo; 28 November 185725 November 1885), also known as El Pacificador or the Peacemaker, was King of Spain from 29 December 1874 to his death in 1885. After the 1868 Glorious revolution that deposed his mother Isabella II from the throne, Alfonso studied in Austria and France. His mother abdicated in his favour in 1870, and he returned to Spain as king in 1874 following a military coup against the First Republic. Alfonso died aged 27 in 1885, and was succeeded by his son, Alfonso XIII, who was born the following year. ==Political background, early life and paternity== Alfonso was born in Madrid as the eldest son of Queen Isabella II on 28 November 1857. His official father, Isabella's husband Francisco de Asís, has been generally viewed as effeminate, impotent or homosexual, leading writers to question his biological paternity. There is speculation that Alfonso's biological father may have been Enrique Puigmoltó y Mayans, a captain of the guard.Juan Sisinio Pérez Garzón, Isabel II: Los Espejos de la Reina (2004) The relationship of the queen with Puigmoltó was so much of a public hearsay at the time that Francisco de Asís initially refused to attend the baptism ceremony of Alfonso (the heir apparent) even if he was eventually forced to do so. These rumours were used as political propaganda against Alfonso by the Carlists, and he came to be widely nicknamed "Puigmoltejo" in reference to his supposed father.Burgo Tajadura, Jaime Ignacio del (2008). Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia, p. 242: "A few months later, on the night of November 28 at 10:15, the queen gave birth to a child, who in time would be Alfonso XII, to whom the tongues, more or less deridingly, gave the name of Puigmoltejo". . Others have assigned the fatherhood to Federico Puig Romero, a colonel who was murdered under unclear circumstances in 1866. His mother's accession created the second cause of instability, the Carlist Wars. The supporters of the Count of Molina as King of Spain rose to have him enthroned. In addition, within the context of the post-Napoleonic restorations and revolutions which engulfed the West both in Europe and the Americas, both the Carlistas and the Isabelino conservatives were opposed to the new Napoleonic constitutional system. Much like in Britain, which subtracted itself from the liberal constitutional process, Spanish conservatives wanted to continue with the Traditional Spanish Organic Laws such as the Fuero Juzgo, the Novísima Recopilación and the Partidas of Alfonso X. This led to the third cause of instability of note, the independence of most of the American possessions, recognized between 1823 and 1850. ==A split nation== When Queen Isabella II and her husband were forced to leave Spain by the Revolution of 1868, Alfonso accompanied them to Paris. From there, he was sent to the Theresianum in Vienna to continue his studies. On 25 June 1870, he was recalled to Paris, where his mother abdicated in his favour, in the presence of a number of Spanish nobles who had tied their fortunes to those of the exiled queen. He assumed the name Alfonso XII, for although no king of united Spain had borne the name "Alfonso", the Spanish monarchy was regarded as continuous with the more ancient monarchy represented by the 11 kings of Asturias, León and Castile also named Alfonso. ==The Republic== After the revolution, the Cortes decided to set up a new dynasty on the throne. Prince Amadeo of Savoy, the younger son of King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy and a distant cousin of Alfonso by common descent from Charles III, was recognized as King of Spain in November 1870. During a tumultuous reign, Amadeo was targeted by assassination attempts and struggled with opposition from both Carlists and republicans while his own faction split. After the Carlists revolted and the Third Carlist War broke out, he abdicated and returned to Italy in early 1873. Following Amadeo's abandonment, the First Spanish Republic was established, including the territories of Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Pacific Archipelagos. The first act of President Estanislao Figueras was to extend the abolition of slavery to Puerto Rico; Cuban slaves would have to wait until 1889. The republicans were not in agreement either, and they had to contend with a war in Cuba and Muslim uprisings in Spanish Morocco. In the midst of these crises, the Carlist War continued and the Carlist party made itself strong in areas with claims over their national and institutional specificity such as Catalonia and the Basque Country. This unrest led to the creation of a group in favour of the Bourbon Restoration, led by the moderate conservative Antonio Cánovas del Castillo. Alfonso was well-educated and cultured, especially compared to his mother. His tutors took great care to have him educated in good schools and to familiarize him with different cultures, languages and government models throughout Europe. During the Franco-Prussian War, Alfonso relocated from Paris to Geneva with his family, and then continued his studies at the Theresianum in Vienna in 1872. Cánovas began to take responsibility for Alfonso's education with the goal of shaping him into the ideal king for the planned Bourbon Restoration, and next sent him to the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, in England. The training he received there was severe but more cosmopolitan than it would have been in Spain, given its atmosphere at the time. On 1 December 1874, Alfonso issued the Sandhurst Manifesto, where he set the ideological basis of the Bourbon Restoration. It was drafted in reply to a birthday greeting from his followers, a manifesto proclaiming himself the sole representative of the Spanish monarchy. At the end of 1874, Brigadier Martínez Campos, who had long been working more or less openly for the king, led some battalions of the central army to Sagunto, rallied the troops sent against him to his own flag, and entered Valencia in the king's name. Thereupon the President resigned, and his power was transferred to the king's plenipotentiary and adviser, Cánovas. The 29 December 1874 military coup of Gen. Martínez Campos in Sagunto ended the failed republic and meant the rise of the young Prince Alfonso. ==Reign== thumb|5 Peseta of Alfonso XII Within a few days after Cánovas del Castillo took power as Premier, the new king, proclaimed on 29 December 1874, arrived at Madrid, passing through Barcelona and Valencia and was acclaimed everywhere (1875). In 1876, a vigorous campaign against the Carlists, in which the young king took part, resulted in the defeat of Don Carlos and the Duke's abandonment of the struggle. Initially led by Cánovas del Castillo as moderate prime minister, what was thought at one time as a coup aimed at placing the military in the political-administrative positions of power, in reality ushered in a civilian regime that lasted until Primo de Rivera's 1923 coup d'état. Cánovas was the real architect of the new regime of the Restoration. In order to eliminate one of the problems of the reign of Isabel II, the single party and its destabilizing consequences, the Liberal Party was allowed to incorporate and participate in national politics, and the 'turnismo' or alternation was to become the new system. Turnismo would be endorsed in the Constitution of 1876 and the Pact of El Pardo (1885). It meant that liberal and conservative prime ministers would succeed each other ending thus the troubles. This led to the end of the Carlist revolts and the victory over the New York-backed Cuban revolutionaries, and led to a huge backing both by insular and peninsular Spaniards of Alfonso. His government continued the operations of the Ministry for Overseas Affairs which began under his mother's reign. The ministry was responsible for the theft of indigenous human remains and artifacts throughout colonized lands from 1863 to 1899. To this day, the majority of the stolen bodies of indigenous peoples, some still displayed in Spanish museums, have yet to be returned to their ancestral lands.Ancede, M. (2020). The Spanish explorer who desecrated graves in the name of science. El Pais. thumb|right|Photograph of Alfonso XII, Alfonso's short reign established the foundations for the final socioeconomic recuperation of Spain after the 1808–1874 crisis. Both European (the coastal regions, such as the Basque Country, Catalonia, and Asturias) and Overseas – Antilles and Pacific were able to grow steadily. Cuba and Puerto Rico prospered to the point that Spain's first train was between Havana and Camagüey, and the first telegraph in Latin America was in Puerto Rico, established by Samuel Morse, whose daughter lived there with her husband. Upon the American invasion of Puerto Rico, ten US dollars were needed to buy one Puerto Rican peso. ==First marriage== On 23 January 1878 at the Basilica of Atocha in Madrid, Alfonso married his first cousin, Princess María de las Mercedes, but she died within six months of the marriage. ==Second marriage and rule== On 29 November 1879 at the Basilica of Atocha in Madrid, Alfonso married his double third cousin, Archduchess Maria Christina of Austria. During the honeymoon, a pastry cook named Otero fired at the young sovereign and his wife as they were driving in Madrid. The children of this marriage were: * María de las Mercedes, Princess of Asturias, (11 September 188017 October 1904), married on 14 February 1901 to Prince Carlos of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, and titular heir from the death of her father until the posthumous birth of her brother * María Teresa, (12 November 188223 September 1912), married to Prince Ferdinand of Bavaria on 12 January 1906 * Alfonso XIII (17 May 188628 February 1941). Born posthumously. He married Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg Alfonso had two sons by Elena Armanda Nicolasa Sanz y Martínez de Arizala (15 December 1849, in Castellón de la Plana – 24 December 1898, in Paris): * Alfonso Sanz y Martínez de Arizala (28 January 1880, in Madrid19 March 1970, in Paris), married in 1922 to María de Guadalupe de Limantour y Mariscal * Fernando Sanz y Martínez de Arizala (28 February 1881, in Madrid8 January 1925, in Pau, France), unmarried and without issue In 1881 Alfonso refused to sanction a law by which the ministers were to remain in office for a fixed term of 18 months. Upon the consequent resignation of Cánovas del Castillo, he summoned Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, the Liberal leader, to form a new cabinet. ==Death and impact== thumb|right|Death of Alfonso XII or The last kiss, by In November 1885, Alfonso died, just short of his 28th birthday, at the Royal Palace of El Pardo near Madrid. He had been suffering from tuberculosis, but the immediate cause of his death was a recurrence of dysentery."Death of the King of Spain", The Times (26 November 1885): 7. In 1902, his widow Maria Cristina initiated a national contest to build a monument in memory of Alfonso. The winning design, by José Grases Riera, was constructed in an artificial lake in Madrid's Parque del Buen Retiro in 1922. Coming to the throne at such an early age Alfonso had served no apprenticeship in the art of ruling. Benevolent and sympathetic in disposition, he won the affection of his people by fearlessly visiting districts ravaged by cholera or devastated by 1884 Andalusian earthquake. His capacity for dealing with men was considerable, and he never allowed himself to become the instrument of any particular party. During his short reign, peace was established both at home and abroad, finances were well regulated, and the various administrative services were placed on a basis that afterwards enabled Spain to pass through the disastrous war with the United States without the threat of a revolution. ==Honours== * Spain: Knight of the Golden Fleece, 1857 * : Grand Cross of the Tower and Sword, 1861 Retrieved 22 September 2018. * French Empire: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, March 1863 * : Knight of St. Hubert, 1865 * : Grand Cross of St. Charles, 7 September 1865Journal de Monaco * : Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold (civil), 20 February 1866 * : Grand Cross of St. Stephen, 1875"A Szent István Rend tagjai" * : Grand Cross of the White Falcon, 1875Staatshandbuch für das Großherzogtum Sachsen / Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach (1885), "Großherzogliche Hausorden" p. 14 * Kingdom of Prussia: Knight of the Black Eagle, 13 June 1875 * Sweden-Norway: Knight of the Seraphim, 23 October 1877 * : Knight of the Elephant, 8 January 1878 * : Knight of the Annunciation, 4 February 1878 * : Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum, 11 September 1879 * : Stranger Knight of the Garter, 24 October 1881Shaw, Wm. A. (1906) The Knights of England, I, London, p. 62 * : Knight of the Rue Crown, 1883 ==Ancestry== ==See also== * Monument to Alfonso XII == Explanatory notes == ==References== ==External links== * Historiaantiqua. Alfonso XII; (Spanish) (2008) Category:1857 births Category:1885 deaths Category:19th-century Spanish monarchs Category:House of Bourbon (Spain) Category:Nobility from Madrid Category:Princes of Asturias Category:Restoration (Spain) Category:People of the Third Carlist War Category:Spanish infantes Category:1870s in Spain Category:1880s in Spain Category:Grand Masters of the Order of the Golden Fleece Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain Category:Grand Masters of the Order of Isabella the Catholic Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint-Charles Category:Collars of the Order of Isabella the Catholic Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic Category:Laureate Cross of Saint Ferdinand Category:Crosses of Military Merit Category:Grand Crosses of Military Merit Category:Crosses of Naval Merit Category:Grand Crosses of Naval Merit Category:Grand Masters of the Royal and Military Order of San Hermenegild Category:Recipients of the Royal and Military Order of Saint Hermenegild Category:Grand Crosses of the Royal and Military Order of San Hermenegild Category:Grand Masters of the Order of Calatrava Category:Knights of Calatrava Category:Grand Masters of the Order of Santiago Category:Knights of Santiago Category:Grand Masters of the Order of Alcántara Category:Knights of the Order of Alcántara Category:Grand Masters of the Order of Montesa Category:Knights of the Order of Montesa Category:Spanish captain generals Category:Captain generals of the Navy Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary Category:Extra Knights Companion of the Garter Category:19th-century deaths from tuberculosis Category:Collège Stanislas de Paris alumni Category:Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst Category:Deaths from dysentery Category:Infectious disease deaths in Spain Category:Burials in the Pantheon of Kings at El Escorial Category:Tuberculosis deaths in Spain Category:Navarrese titular monarchs |
1923–1924 Parliament 1924–1929 Parliament 1929–1931 Parliament 1931–1935 Parliament 1935–1945 Parliament This is a list of Members of Parliament elected at the 1929 general election, held on 30 May. For a complete list of constituency elections results, see Constituency election results in the 1929 United Kingdom general election. border|UK Parliament 1929 Constituency MP Party == A == Aberavon William Cove Labour Aberdare George Hall Labour Aberdeen North William Wedgwood Benn Labour Aberdeen South Sir Frederick Thomson, Bt Conservative Aberdeenshire Central Robert Smith Conservative Aberdeenshire East Robert Boothby Conservative Aberdeenshire West and Kincardine James Scott Liberal Abertillery George Daggar Labour Abingdon Ralph Glyn Conservative Accrington Tom Snowden Labour Acton James Shillaker Labour Aldershot Roundell Palmer Conservative Altrincham Cyril Atkinson Conservative Anglesey Megan Lloyd George Liberal Antrim (Two members) Hon. Hugh O'Neill Conservative Sir Joseph McConnell, Bt Conservative Argyll F. A. Macquisten Conservative Armagh Sir William Allen Conservative Ashford Roderick Kedward Liberal Ashton-under-Lyne Albert Bellamy Labour Aylesbury Michael Beaumont Conservative Ayr District Thomas Moore Conservative Ayrshire North and Bute Sir Aylmer Hunter-Weston Conservative Ayrshire South James Brown Labour == B == Balham and Tooting Sir Alfred Butt Conservative Banbury Albert Edmondson Conservative Banff Murdoch McKenzie Wood Liberal Barkston Ash Rt Hon. George Lane-Fox Conservative Barnard Castle Will Lawther Labour Barnsley John Potts Labour Barnstaple Sir Basil Peto, Bt Conservative Barrow-in-Furness John Bromley Labour Basingstoke Gerard Wallop Conservative Bassetlaw Malcolm MacDonald Labour Bath Hon. Charles Baillie- Hamilton Conservative Batley and Morley Ben Turner Labour Battersea North William Sanders Labour Battersea South William Bennett Labour Bedford Richard Wells Conservative Bedfordshire Mid Milner Gray Liberal Bedwellty Charles Edwards Labour Belfast, East Herbert Dixon Conservative Belfast, North Thomas Somerset Conservative Belfast, South William Stewart Conservative Belfast, West William Edward David Allen Conservative Belper Jack Lees Labour Bermondsey West Alfred Salter Labour Berwick-on-Tweed Alfred Todd Conservative Berwick and Haddington George Sinkinson Labour Bethnal Green North-East Harry Nathan Liberal Bethnal Green South-West Percy Harris Liberal Bewdley Rt Hon. Stanley Baldwin Conservative Birkenhead East Graham White Liberal Birkenhead West William Egan Labour Birmingham Aston John Strachey Labour Birmingham Deritend Fred Longden Labour Co-op Birmingham Duddeston George Francis Sawyer Labour Birmingham Edgbaston Rt Hon. Neville Chamberlain Conservative Birmingham Erdington Charles Simmons Labour Birmingham Handsworth Oliver Locker-Lampson Conservative Birmingham King's Norton Lionel Beaumont-Thomas Conservative Birmingham Ladywood Wilfrid Whiteley Labour Birmingham Moseley Patrick Hannon Conservative Birmingham Sparkbrook Rt Hon. Leo Amery Conservative Birmingham West Rt Hon. Sir Austen Chamberlain Conservative Birmingham Yardley Archibald Gossling Labour Bishop Auckland Hugh Dalton Labour Blackburn (Two members) Mary Hamilton Labour Thomas Gill Labour Blackpool Sir Walter de Frece Conservative Blaydon William Whiteley Labour Bodmin Isaac Foot Liberal Bolton (Two members) Albert Law Labour Michael Brothers Labour Bootle John Kinley Labour Bosworth William Edge Liberal Bothwell Joseph Sullivan Labour Bournemouth Sir Henry Page Croft Conservative Bow and Bromley George Lansbury Labour Bradford Central William Leach Labour Bradford East Rt Hon. Fred Jowett Labour Bradford North Norman Angell Labour Bradford South William Hirst Labour Co-op Brecon and Radnor Peter Freeman Labour Brentford and Chiswick Walter Morden Conservative Bridgwater Reginald Croom-Johnson Conservative Brigg David Quibell Labour Brighton (Two members) Sir Cooper Rawson Conservative Rt Hon. George Tryon Conservative Bristol Central Joseph Alpass Labour Bristol East Walter Baker Labour Bristol North Walter Ayles Labour Bristol South Alexander Walkden Labour Bristol West Cyril Tom Culverwell Conservative Brixton Nigel Colman Conservative Bromley Hon. Cuthbert James Conservative Broxtowe Seymour Cocks Labour Buckingham George Bowyer Conservative Buckrose Albert Braithwaite Conservative Burnley Rt Hon. Arthur Henderson Labour Burslem Andrew MacLaren Labour Burton Rt Hon. John Gretton Conservative Bury Charles Ainsworth Conservative Bury St Edmunds Rt Hon. Walter Guinness Conservative == C == Caerphilly Morgan Jones Labour Caithness and Sutherland Sir Archibald Sinclair, Bt Liberal Camberwell North Charles Ammon Labour Camberwell North-West Hyacinth Morgan Labour Camborne Leif Jones Liberal Cambridge Sir George Newton Conservative Cambridgeshire Richard Briscoe Conservative Cambridge University (Two members) John Withers Conservative Godfrey Wilson Conservative Cannock William Adamson Labour Canterbury Sir William Wayland Conservative Cardiff Central Ernest Bennett Labour Cardiff East James Edmunds Labour Cardiff South Arthur Henderson Labour Cardiganshire Rhys Hopkin Morris Liberal Carlisle George Middleton Labour Carmarthen Daniel Hopkin Labour Carnarvon Rt Hon. David Lloyd George Liberal Carnarvonshire Goronwy Owen Liberal Chatham Frank Markham Labour Chelmsford Charles Howard-Bury Conservative Chelsea Rt Hon. Sir Samuel Hoare, Bt Conservative Cheltenham Sir Walter Preston Conservative Chertsey Philip Richardson Conservative Chester Sir Charles Cayzer, Bt Conservative Chesterfield George Benson Labour Chester-le-Street Jack Lawson Labour Chichester John Courtauld Conservative Chippenham Victor Cazalet Conservative Chislehurst Waldron Smithers Conservative Chorley Douglas Hacking Conservative Cirencester and Tewkesbury William Morrison Conservative City of London (Two members) Sir Vansittart Bowater, Bt Conservative Edward Grenfell Conservative Clapham Sir John Leigh, Bt Conservative Clay Cross Charles Duncan Labour Cleveland William Mansfield Labour Clitheroe William Brass Conservative Coatbridge James C. Welsh Labour Colchester Oswald Lewis Conservative Colne Valley Rt Hon. Philip Snowden Labour Combined English Universities (Two members) Sir Martin Conway Conservative Eleanor Rathbone Independent Combined Scottish Universities (Three members) John Buchan Conservative Sir George Berry Conservative Dugald Cowan Liberal Consett Herbert Dunnico Labour Cornwall North Rt Hon. Sir Donald Maclean Liberal Coventry Philip Noel-Baker Labour Crewe William Bowen Labour Croydon North Glyn Mason Conservative Croydon South Rt Hon. Sir William Mitchell-Thomson, Bt Conservative Cumberland North Fergus Graham Conservative == D == Darlington Arthur Shepherd Labour Dartford John Edmund Mills Labour Darwen Rt Hon. Sir Herbert Samuel Liberal Daventry Rt Hon. Edward FitzRoy Conservative (Speaker) Denbigh Henry Morris-Jones Liberal Deptford Rt Hon. C. W. Bowerman Labour Derby (Two members) Rt Hon. J. H. Thomas Labour William Raynes Labour Derbyshire North-East Frank Lee Labour Derbyshire South David Pole Labour Derbyshire West Edward Cavendish Conservative Devizes Percy Hurd Conservative Dewsbury Benjamin Riley Labour Doncaster Wilfred Paling Labour Don Valley Tom Williams Labour Dorset East Alec Glassey Liberal Dorset North Cecil Hanbury Conservative Dorset South Robert Gascogne-Cecil Conservative Dorset West Philip Colfox Conservative Dover Hon. John Astor Conservative Down (Two members) David Reid Conservative John Simms Conservative Dudley Oliver Baldwin Labour Dulwich Sir Frederick Hall, Bt Conservative Dumbarton Burghs David Kirkwood Labour Dumfriesshire Joseph Hunter Liberal Dunbartonshire Willie Brooke Labour Dundee (Two members) Edwin Scrymgeour Scottish Prohibition Michael Marcus Labour Dunfermline Burghs William McLean Watson Labour Durham Joshua Ritson Labour == E == Ealing Rt Hon. Sir Herbert Nield Conservative Eastbourne Edward Marjoribanks Conservative East Grinstead Sir Henry Cautley, Bt Conservative East Ham North Susan Lawrence Labour East Ham South Alfred Barnes Labour Co-op Ebbw Vale Aneurin Bevan Labour Eccles David Mort Labour Eddisbury R. J. Russell Liberal Edinburgh Central Rt Hon. William Graham Labour Edinburgh East Drummond Shiels Labour Edinburgh North Patrick Ford Conservative Edinburgh South Sir Samuel Chapman Conservative Edinburgh West George Mathers Labour Edmonton Frank Broad Labour Elland Charles Buxton Labour Enfield William Henderson Labour Epping Rt Hon. Winston Churchill Conservative Epsom Archibald Southby Conservative Essex South East Jack Oldfield Labour Evesham Rt Hon. Bolton Eyres-Monsell Conservative Exeter Sir Robert Newman, Bt Independent Eye Edgar Granville Liberal == F == Fareham Sir John Davidson Conservative Farnham Arthur Samuel Conservative Farnworth Guy Rowson Labour Faversham Adam Maitland Conservative Fermanagh and Tyrone (Two members) Joseph Devlin Irish Nationalist Thomas Harbison Irish Nationalist Fife East James Duncan Millar Liberal Fife West Rt Hon. William Adamson Labour Finchley Hon. Edward Cadogan Conservative Finsbury George Gillett Labour Flintshire Frederick Llewellyn-Jones Liberal Forest of Dean David Vaughan Labour Forfarshire Harry Hope Conservative Frome Frederick Gould Labour Fulham East Sir Kenyon Vaughan-Morgan Conservative Fulham West Ernest Spero Labour Fylde Edward Stanley Conservative == G == Gainsborough Harry Crookshank Conservative Galloway Cecil Dudgeon Liberal Gateshead Sir James Melville Labour Gillingham Sir Robert Gower Conservative Glasgow Bridgeton James Maxton Labour Glasgow Camlachie Campbell Stephen Labour Glasgow Cathcart John Train Conservative Glasgow Central Sir William Alexander Conservative Glasgow Gorbals George Buchanan Labour Glasgow Govan Neil Maclean Independent Labour Glasgow Hillhead Rt Hon. Sir Robert Horne Conservative Glasgow Kelvingrove Walter Elliot Conservative Glasgow Maryhill John Clarke Labour Glasgow Partick Adam McKinlay Labour Glasgow Pollok Rt Hon. Sir John Gilmour, Bt Conservative Glasgow St. Rollox James Stewart Labour Glasgow Shettleston Rt Hon. John Wheatley Labour Glasgow Springburn George Hardie Labour Glasgow Tradeston Thomas Henderson Labour Co-op Gloucester Leslie Boyce Conservative Gower David Grenfell Labour Grantham Sir Victor Warrender, Bt Conservative Gravesend Irving Albery Conservative Great Yarmouth Arthur Harbord Liberal Greenock Sir Godfrey Collins Liberal Greenwich Edward Timothy Palmer Labour Grimsby Walter Womersley Conservative Guildford Sir Henry Buckingham Conservative == H == Hackney Central Fred Watkins Labour Hackney North Austin Hudson Conservative Hackney South Herbert Morrison Labour Halifax Arthur Longbottom Labour Hamilton Duncan Graham Labour Hammersmith North James Patrick Gardner Labour Hammersmith South Daniel Chater Labour Co- op Hampstead George Balfour Conservative Hanley Arthur Hollins Labour Harborough Arthur Stuart Conservative Harrow Isidore Salmon Conservative The Hartlepools W. G. Howard Gritten Conservative Harwich Percy Pybus Liberal Hastings Rt Hon. Lord Eustace Percy Conservative Hemel Hempstead Rt Hon. J. C. C. Davidson Conservative Hemsworth John Guest Labour Hendon Rt Hon. Sir Philip Cunliffe-Lister Conservative Henley Robert Henderson Conservative Hereford Frank Owen Liberal Hertford Murray Sueter Conservative Hexham Douglas Clifton Brown Conservative Heywood and Radcliffe Abraham England Liberal High Peak Sir Alfred Law Conservative Hitchin Guy Kindersley Conservative Holborn Stuart Bevan Conservative Holderness Samuel Savery Conservative Holland-with-Boston James Blindell Liberal Honiton Sir Clive Morrison-Bell, Bt Conservative Horncastle Henry Haslam Conservative Hornsey Euan Wallace Conservative Horsham and Worthing Edward Turnour Conservative Houghton-le-Spring Robert Richardson Labour Howdenshire William Carver Conservative Huddersfield James Hudson Labour Huntingdonshire Sidney Peters Liberal Hythe Sir Philip Sassoon, Bt Conservative == I == Ilford Sir George Hamilton Conservative Ilkeston George Oliver Labour Ince Gordon Macdonald Labour Inverness-shire Sir Murdoch Macdonald Liberal Ipswich Sir John Ganzoni, Bt Conservative Isle of Ely James de Rothschild Liberal Isle of Thanet Harold Balfour Conservative Isle of Wight Peter Macdonald Conservative Islington East Ethel Bentham Labour Islington North Robert Young Labour Islington South William Cluse Labour Islington West Frederick Montague Labour == J == Jarrow Robert John Wilson Labour == K == Keighley Hastings Lees-Smith Labour Kennington Leonard Matters Labour Kensington North Fielding West Labour Kensington South Sir William Davison Conservative Kettering Samuel Perry Labour Co-op Kidderminster John Wardlaw- Milne Conservative Kilmarnock Robert Climie Labour King's Lynn Maurice Roche Conservative Kingston upon Hull Central Hon. Joseph Kenworthy Labour Kingston upon Hull East George Muff Labour Kingston upon Hull North West Lambert Ward Conservative Kingston upon Hull South West John Arnott Labour Kingston-upon- Thames Sir Frederick Penny Conservative Kingswinford Charles Sitch Labour Kinross & West Perthshire Katherine Stewart-Murray Conservative Kirkcaldy Burghs Tom Kennedy Labour Knutsford Ernest Makins Conservative == L == Lambeth North George Strauss Labour Lanark Thomas Dickson Labour Lanarkshire North Jennie Lee Labour Lancaster Herwald Ramsbotham Conservative Leeds Central Richard Denman Labour Leeds North Osbert Peake Conservative Leeds North East Sir John Birchall Conservative Leeds South Henry Charleton Labour Leeds South East Sir Henry Slesser Labour Leeds West Thomas Stamford Labour Leek William Bromfield Labour Leicester East Frank Wise Labour Leicester South Charles Waterhouse Conservative Leicester West Frederick Pethick-Lawrence Labour Leigh Joe Tinker Labour Leith Ernest Brown Liberal Leominster Ernest Shepperson Conservative Lewes Tufton Beamish Conservative Lewisham East Sir Assheton Pownall Conservative Lewisham West Sir Philip Dawson Conservative Leyton East Fenner Brockway Labour Leyton West Reginald Sorensen Labour Lichfield James Lovat-Fraser Labour Lincoln Robert Arthur Taylor Labour Linlithgow Manny Shinwell Labour Liverpool East Toxteth Hon. Henry Mond Conservative Liverpool Edge Hill John Hayes Labour Liverpool Everton Derwent Hall Caine Labour Liverpool Exchange Sir James Reynolds, Bt Conservative Liverpool Fairfield Jack Cohen Conservative Liverpool Kirkdale Elijah Sandham Labour Liverpool Scotland Rt Hon. T. P. O'Connor Irish Nationalist Liverpool Walton Reginald Purbrick Conservative Liverpool Wavertree John Tinne Conservative Liverpool West Derby Sir John Sandeman Allen Conservative Liverpool West Toxteth Joseph Gibbins Labour Llandaff and Barry Charles Lloyd Labour Llanelli John Henry Williams Labour London University Ernest Graham-Little Independent Londonderry Ronald Ross Conservative Lonsdale David Lindsay Conservative Loughborough Ernest Winterton Labour Louth Arthur Heneage Conservative Lowestoft Sir Gervais Rentoul Conservative Ludlow George Windsor-Clive Conservative Luton Leslie Burgin Liberal == M == Macclesfield John Remer Conservative Maidstone Carlyon Bellairs Conservative Maldon Edward Ruggles-Brise Conservative Manchester Ardwick Thomas Lowth Labour Manchester Blackley Philip Oliver Liberal Manchester Clayton John Edward Sutton Labour Manchester Exchange Edward Fielden Conservative Manchester Gorton Joseph Compton Labour Manchester Hulme Andrew McElwee Labour Manchester Moss Side Sir Gerald Hurst Conservative Manchester Platting Rt Hon. J. R. Clynes Labour Manchester Rusholme Frank Merriman Conservative Manchester Withington Ernest Simon Liberal Mansfield Charles Brown Labour Melton Lindsay Everard Conservative Merioneth Henry Haydn Jones Liberal Merthyr R. C. Wallhead Labour Middlesbrough East Ellen Wilkinson Labour Middlesbrough West F. Kingsley Griffith Liberal Middleton and Prestwich Nairne Stewart Sandeman Conservative Midlothian North John Colville Conservative Midlothian South and Peebles Joseph Westwood Labour Mitcham Richard Meller Conservative Monmouth Leolin Forestier-Walker Conservative Montgomeryshire Clement Davies Liberal Montrose Burghs Sir Robert Hutchison Liberal Moray & Nairn Hon. James Stuart Conservative Morpeth Ebenezer Edwards Labour Mossley Herbert Gibson Labour Co-op Motherwell James Barr Labour == N == Neath William Jenkins Labour Nelson and Colne Arthur Greenwood Labour Newark The Marquess of Titchfield Conservative Newbury Howard Clifton Brown Conservative Newcastle-under-Lyme Rt Hon. Josiah Wedgwood Labour Newcastle- upon-Tyne Central Rt Hon. Sir C. P. Trevelyan, Bt Labour Newcastle-upon-Tyne East Sir Robert Aske, Bt Liberal Newcastle-upon-Tyne North Sir Nicholas Grattan-Doyle Conservative Newcastle-upon-Tyne West John Palin Labour New Forest and Christchurch Rt Hon. Wilfrid Ashley Conservative Newport James Walker Labour Newton Robert Young Labour Norfolk East Viscount Elmley Liberal Norfolk North Rt Hon. Noel Buxton Labour Norfolk South James Christie Conservative Norfolk South West W. B. Taylor Labour Normanton Frederick Hall Labour Northampton Cecil Malone Labour Northwich Lord Colum Crichton-Stuart Conservative Norwich (Two members) Geoffrey Shakespeare Liberal Walter Smith Labour Norwood Sir Walter Greaves-Lord Conservative Nottingham Central Albert Bennett Conservative Nottingham East Norman Birkett Liberal Nottingham South Holford Knight Labour Nottingham West Arthur Hayday Labour Nuneaton Frank Smith Labour == O == Ogmore Rt Hon. Vernon Hartshorn Labour Oldham (Two members) Gordon Lang Labour James Wilson Labour Orkney and Shetland Sir Robert Hamilton Liberal Ormskirk Samuel Rosbotham Labour Oswestry Bertie Leighton Conservative Oxford Robert Bourne Conservative Oxford University (Two members) Rt Hon. Lord Hugh Cecil Conservative Sir Charles Oman Conservative == P == Paddington North Brendan Bracken Conservative Paddington South Douglas King Conservative Paisley James Welsh Labour Peckham John Beckett Labour Pembrokeshire Gwilym Lloyd George Liberal Penistone Rennie Smith Labour Penrith and Cockermouth Arthur Dixey Conservative Penryn and Falmouth Rt Hon. Sir Tudor Walters Liberal Perth Noel Skelton Conservative Peterborough J. F. Horrabin Labour Petersfield Rt Hon. William Graham Nicholson Conservative Plymouth Devonport Leslie Hore-Belisha Liberal Plymouth Drake James John Hamlyn Moses Labour Plymouth Sutton The Viscountess Astor Conservative Pontefract Tom Smith Labour Pontypool Thomas Griffiths Labour Pontypridd Thomas Mardy Jones Labour Poplar South Samuel March Labour Portsmouth Central Glenvil Hall Labour Portsmouth North Sir Bertram Falle, Bt Conservative Portsmouth South Sir Herbert Cayzer, Bt Conservative Preston (Two members) Rt Hon. Tom Shaw Labour Sir William Jowitt Liberal then Labour Pudsey and Otley Granville Gibson Conservative Putney Samuel Samuel Conservative == Q == Queen's University of Belfast Thomas Sinclair Conservative == R == Reading Somerville Hastings Labour Reigate Sir George K. Cockerill Conservative Renfrewshire, East Rt Hon. Alexander MacRobert Conservative Renfrewshire, West Robert Forgan Labour Rhondda East David Watts- Morgan Labour Rhondda West William John Labour Richmond (Yorkshire) Thomas Dugdale Conservative Richmond upon Thames Sir Newton Moore Conservative Ripon John Hills Conservative Rochdale William Kelly Labour Romford H. T. Muggeridge Labour Ross and Cromarty Rt Hon. Ian Macpherson Liberal Rossendale Arthur Law Labour Rotherham Fred Lindley Labour Rotherhithe Ben Smith Labour Rother Valley Thomas Walter Grundy Labour Rothwell William Lunn Labour Roxburgh and Selkirk The Earl of Dalkeith Conservative Royton Arthur Davies Conservative Rugby David Margesson Conservative Rushcliffe Sir Henry Betterton Conservative Rutland and Stamford Neville Smith-Carington Conservative Rutherglen William Wright Labour Rye Sir George Courthope, Bt Conservative == S == Saffron Walden Rab Butler Conservative St Albans Francis Fremantle Conservative St Helens James Sexton Labour St Ives Rt Hon. Walter Runciman Liberal St Marylebone Rt Hon. Sir Rennell Rodd Conservative St Pancras North James Marley Labour St Pancras South East Herbert Romeril Labour St Pancras South West William Carter Labour Salford North Ben Tillett Labour Salford South Joseph Toole Labour Salford West Alexander Haycock Labour Salisbury Hugh Morrison Conservative Scarborough and Whitby Sidney Herbert Conservative Seaham Rt Hon. Ramsay MacDonald Labour Sedgefield John Herriotts Labour Sevenoaks Rt Hon. Sir Hilton Young Conservative Sheffield Attercliffe Cecil Wilson Labour Sheffield, Brightside Arthur Ponsonby Labour Sheffield, Central Philip Hoffman Labour Sheffield, Ecclesall Sir Samuel Roberts, Bt Conservative Sheffield, Hallam Louis Smith Conservative Sheffield, Hillsborough A. V. Alexander Labour Co-op Sheffield, Park George Lathan Labour Shipley William Mackinder Labour Shoreditch Ernest Thurtle Labour Shrewsbury Arthur Duckworth Conservative Skipton Ernest Roy Bird Conservative Smethwick Sir Oswald Mosley, Bt Labour Southampton (Two members) Tommy Lewis Labour Ralph Morley Labour Southend-on-Sea The Countess of Iveagh Conservative South Molton Rt Hon. George Lambert Liberal Southport Sir Godfrey Dalrymple-White, Bt Conservative South Shields James Chuter Ede Labour Southwark Central Harry Day Labour Southwark North George Isaacs Labour Southwark South East Thomas Naylor Labour Sowerby William John Tout Labour Spelthorne Philip Pilditch Conservative Spennymoor Joseph Batey Labour Spen Valley Rt Hon. Sir John Simon Liberal Stafford Rt Hon. William Ormsby-Gore Conservative Stalybridge and Hyde Hugh Hartley Lawrie Labour Stepney Limehouse Clement Attlee Labour Stepney Mile End John Scurr Labour Stirling and Falkirk Burghs Hugh Murnin Labour Stirlingshire East and Clackmannan MacNeill Weir Labour Stirlingshire West Tom Johnston Labour Stockport (Two members) Arnold Townend Labour Samuel Hammersley Conservative Stockton on Tees Frederick Fox Riley Labour Stoke Newington Sir George Jones Conservative Stoke-on-Trent Lady Mosley Labour Stone Joseph Lamb Conservative Stourbridge Wilfred Wellock Labour Streatham Sir William Lane-Mitchell Conservative Stretford Thomas Robinson Independent Stroud Sir Frank Nelson Conservative Sudbury Rt Hon. Henry Burton Conservative Sunderland (Two members) Marion Phillips Labour Alfred Smith Labour Surrey East James Galbraith Conservative Swansea East David Williams Labour Swansea West Howel Samuel Labour Swindon Rt Hon. Christopher Addison Labour == T == Tamworth Sir Edward Iliffe Conservative Taunton Andrew Gault Conservative Tavistock Wallace Duffield Wright Conservative Thirsk and Malton Robin Turton Conservative Thornbury Derrick Gunston Conservative Tiverton Gilbert Acland-Troyte Conservative Tonbridge Herbert Spender-Clay Conservative Torquay Charles Williams Conservative Totnes Samuel Harvey Conservative Tottenham North Robert Morrison Labour Co-op Tottenham South Frederick Messer Labour Twickenham Rt. Hon. Sir William Joynson-Hicks Conservative Tynemouth Alexander Russell Conservative == U == University of Wales Ernest Evans Liberal Uxbridge John Llewellin Conservative == W == Wakefield George Sherwood Labour Wallasey Robert Burton-Chadwick Conservative Wallsend Margaret Bondfield Labour Walsall John James McShane Labour Walthamstow East Harry Wallace Labour Walthamstow West Valentine McEntee Labour Wandsworth Central Archibald Church Labour Wansbeck George Shield Labour Warrington Charles Dukes Labour Warwick and Leamington Anthony Eden Conservative Watford Dennis Herbert Conservative Waterloo Malcolm Bullock Conservative Wednesbury Alfred Short Labour Wellingborough George Dallas Labour Wells Anthony Muirhead Conservative Wentworth George Harry Hirst Labour West Bromwich Rt Hon. Frederick Roberts Labour Westbury Hon. Richard Long Conservative Western Isles Thomas Ramsay Liberal West Ham Plaistow Will Thorne Labour West Ham Silvertown Jack Jones Labour West Ham Stratford Thomas Groves Labour West Ham Upton Benjamin Gardner Labour Westhoughton Rhys Davies Labour Westminster Abbey Otho Nicholson Conservative Westminster St George's Rt Hon. Sir Laming Worthington-Evans, Bt Conservative Westmorland Hon. Oliver Stanley Conservative Weston-super-Mare Lord Erskine Conservative Whitechapel and St Georges Harry Gosling Labour Whitehaven M. Philips Price Labour Widnes Alexander Gordon Cameron Labour Wigan John Parkinson Labour Willesden East Daniel Somerville Conservative Willesden West Samuel Viant Labour Wimbledon Sir John Power, Bt Conservative Winchester George Hennessy Conservative Windsor Annesley Somerville Conservative Wirral John Grace Conservative Wolverhampton Bilston John Baker Labour Wolverhampton East Geoffrey Mander Liberal Wolverhampton West William Brown Labour Woodbridge Frank Fison Conservative Wood Green Rt Hon. Godfrey Locker-Lampson Conservative Woolwich East Harry Snell Labour Woolwich West Rt Hon. Sir Kingsley Wood Conservative Worcester Crawford Greene Conservative Workington Tom Cape Labour The Wrekin Edith Picton-Turbervill Labour Wrexham Robert Richards Labour Wycombe Sir Alfred Knox Conservative == Y == Yeovil George Davies Conservative York Frederick George Burgess Labour ==By- elections== See the list of United Kingdom by-elections. 1929 General election List UK MPs |
This list of fictional arthropods is subsidiary to the list of fictional animals. It is restricted to notable insect, arachnid and crustacean characters from the world of fiction. ==Literature== Character Species Work Author Notes Aragog Spider Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets J. K. Rowling Aragog was an Acromantula—an enormous, sentient spider capable of speech—who made a unique clicking noise as he moved in search of prey. Hagrid raised him from an egg as a Hogwarts student. In his third year at Hogwarts, Hagrid was caught talking to Aragog in the dungeons by Tom Riddle, who alleged that Aragog was the "Monster of Slytherin" and that Hagrid had opened the Chamber of Secrets. Archy Cockroach archy and mehitabel et seq Don Marquis Archy was a cockroach who had been a free verse poet in a previous life, and took to writing stories and poems on an old typewriter at the newspaper office when everyone in the building had left. Archy would climb up onto the typewriter and hurl himself at the keys, laboriously typing out stories of the daily challenges and travails of a cockroach. Arianwen Spider The Snow Spider Jenny Nimmo Charlotte A. Cavatica Spider Charlotte's Web E. B. White A spider who befriends Wilbur the pig; she at first seems bloodthirsty due to her method of catching food. The Gnat Gnat Alice Through the Looking-Glass Lewis Carroll The Gnat seems to love jokes; however, he doesn't like telling them himself—he prefers others to tell the jokes. The Louse and the Flea Louse, Flea The Louse and the Flea Traditional. Characters in a fairy tale collected by the Brothers Grimm. Doris Bee Doris the Buzzy Bee Madam Octa Spider Cirque du Freak: The Saga of Darren Shan Darren Shan A rare if not extinct species of very large spider used by the vampire, Mr. Crepsley, to perform in his stage act, where he communicates with her telepathically. Her venomous bite is extremely deadly, as shown when she bites Steve Leonard and he almost dies (surviving only thanks to antivenin). Maya Bee Maya the Bee Waldemar Bonsels Main character in a popular series of German children's novels, later adapted into films and TV animated series. Mr. Mosquito Mosquito Ricky Ricotta's Mighty Robot vs. the Mutant Mosquitos from Mercury Dav Pilkey The main antagonist of the book. He hates living on Mercury because the extreme temperatures ruin his everyday activities. In order to deal with these issues, he decides to take over Earth with the help of some mutant mosquitoes he created with his fingernails. Miss Spider Spider Miss Spider David Kirk Miss Spider Spider James and the Giant Peach Roald Dahl Seven flies Fly The Brave Little Tailor Traditional. The plot of this famous fairy tale by the Brothers Grimm is set in motion by the fact that the tailor kills seven flies in one blow. When he brags about this people assume he is talking about giants, causing the king to send him away on a mission to kill a giant that torments the country. Shelob Spider The Lord of the Rings J. R. R. Tolkien A giant spider from J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth legendarium. She appears at the end of the fourth book, second volume (The Two Towers) of The Lord of the Rings. She is said to be a child of Ungoliant. Sergeant Stinkbug Stinkbug Ricky Ricotta's Mighty Robot vs. the Stupid Stinkbugs from Saturn Dav Pilkey The main antagonist of the book. He is the worst litterbug living on Saturn, and he grows to hate living on Saturn because of how polluted it is. He decides to take over Earth so he can pollute a new planet, but this attempt is not successful. Ungoliant Spider The Silmarillion J. R. R. Tolkien Described as an evil spirit in the form of a spider. She is mentioned briefly in The Lord of the Rings, and plays a supporting role in The Silmarillion. Her origins are unclear, as Tolkien's writings only reveal than that she is from "before the world". She is one of a few instances, along with Tom Bombadil and the Cats of Queen Berúthiel. Manticore Arachnid A Song of Ice and Fire George R.R. Martin Is said to possess highly toxic venom and is incredibly aggressive and dangerous species of spider. While small, are shown to be incredibly fast and agile. Also portrayed in the TV series adaptation Game of Thrones ===Comics=== Character Species Work Notes Amedee Fly Urbanus One of Urbanus' pets. He is able to talk and by far the most intelligent character in the series, bordering to genius. Bug Daddy and Chile Bugs Pogo Ferdy the Ant Ant Ferda Mravenec Created by Ondřej Sekora and adapted in an animated TV series in 1984. He is an adventurous, hard working ant who is in love with Miss Ladybird. Gnorm Gnat Gnat Gnorm Gnat A gnat who Davis says plays the "straight man" who sometimes behaves like the character Walter Mitty.Davis, Jim. 20 Years & Still Kicking!: Garfield's Twentieth Anniversary Collection. New York: Ballantine Books, 1998, p. 14. Serenity/Twinkly Herbert/Dr. Blinkbottom Firefly Homestuck Serenity is a small firefly which speaks Morse Code, to inspire her friends. Hawthorne Hermit crab Sherman's Lagoon The scheming hermit crab of the strip. He is rude, abrasive, insulting, stingy, and a borderline criminal. Hawthorne, unlike other hermit crabs, prefers a beer can rather than a seashell. Maya Bee The Adventures of Maya the Bee Miz flea Flea Pogo The Mother Grub Mother Grub Homestuck The Mother Grub is the parental figure of Kanaya, and lays the eggs of the troll species. Reggie and Alf Unspecified insects Pogo Scarrafone Cockroach Pinky An expert in road dustbins. Weber Ladybird Weber A ladybird in paper hat and star of Gommaar Timmermans' comic series Weber. ===Legends=== Character Species Origin Notes Anansi Spider West Africa Ananse tales are some of the best-known in West Africa The stories made up an exclusively oral tradition, and indeed Ananse himself was synonymous with skill and wisdom in speech.See for instance Ashanti linguist staff finial in the Metropolitan Museum of Art which relates to the saying "No one goes to the house of the spider Ananse to teach him wisdom." It was as remembered and told tales that they crossed to the Caribbean and other parts of the New World with captives via the Atlantic slave trade. Arachne Spider Ancient Greece In Greek mythology Arachne was a talented mortal weaver who challenged Athena, goddess of wisdom and crafts, to a weaving contest; this hubris resulted in her being transformed into a spider. Jorōgumo Spider Japan A spider demon who can shapeshift into a seductive woman. ==Media== ===Film=== Character Species Work Notes Alpha Scorpion Scorpion The Black Scorpion A giant black scorpion which kills every other giant scorpion and raids Mexico City. Buzz and Scuzz Horse-fly Racing Stripes Two horse-fly brothers who each have a taste in music. Caterpillar Caterpillar The Adventures of Elmo in Grouchland A yellow caterpillar who helps Elmo whose size is not in potential Dim Rhinoceros Beetle A Bug's Life A large blue beetle and member of P. T. Flea's circus. Katy Caterpillar Katy La Oruga A green caterpillar, who is full of curiosity and up for adventure. Mooch Green bottle fly G-Force A green bottle fly who is a member of the G-Force. Mothra Giant moth Mothra Onibaba Giant Crustacean Pacific Rim Resembles a crustacean and Japanese temple. It is best known for orphaning Mako Mori during the Kaiju attacks. Kumonga Giant spider Son of Godzilla ===Television=== Character Species Work Notes Antales A kaiju-like scorpion Ultraman Leo Banpira A kaiju-like spider Ultraman Nexus Cococinel Ladybird Cococinel Main character in a French-Belgian children's TV series. The Killer Bees Killer bees Saturday Night Live A group of bees in a recurring sketch on the show Maya Bee Maya the Bee Main character in a popular German TV series based on the original novels. Pepe the King Prawn Prawn Muppets Tonight Seymour Spider H.R. Pufnstuf One of Witchiepoo's assistants. Nahoul Bumble Bee Tomorrow's Pioneers the aggressively anti-Semitic bumblebee who acted as co- host for the Hamas-broadcast children's TV series between July and February 2007 when according to the plot he was martyred. Hates cats. ===Animation=== Character Species Work Notes Atom Ant Ant The Atom Ant/Secret Squirrel Show A superhero, created by Hanna-Barbera in 1965. Atom costarred in The Atom Ant/Secret Squirrel Show (sharing top billing with Secret Squirrel). In syndication, Atom Ant aired alongside Precious Pupp and The Hillbilly Bears. B.A.H. Humbug Insect fictional The Stingiest Man in Town Barry B. Benson Honey bee Bee Movie Barry B. Benson (Voiced by Jerry Seinfeld) is "just an ordinary bee" in a hive in Sheep Meadow, Central Park in New York City. Bim Heimlich Caterpillar A Bug's Life An overweight caterpillar who speaks with a German accent and longs to be a butterfly. Bumble Bumblebee Fifi and the Flowertots Bumble, also known as Fuzzbuzz in the United States, is Fifi's best friend who isn't good at landing. Cecil Caterpillar The Secret of NIMH 2: Timmy to the Rescue A caterpillar who helps Timmy and Jenny on their journey. Charotte Honey bee Jewelpet A yellow and brown striped honey bee who is the Challenging Spirit (in the case of Jewelpet Twinkle, she symbolizes the Confusion Removal). She wears a flower-shaped purple jewel necklace and a purple crystal bow on her head. She has fuchsia antennae and her stinger is thistle-colored. Chip and Skip Dung beetle Camp Lazlo Two unintelligent, revolting, clueless and dumb beetle twins. Crazy Joe Hermit crab Shark Tale Voiced by David P. Smith, he is a deranged hermit crab who lives in a dumpster near the Whalewash. Cri-Kee Cricket Mulan A cricket who is a sidekick of Mushu. Digit Cockroach An American Tail Echizen Crab Crab Sabagebu! Eugene H. Krabs Crab SpongeBob SquarePants The greedy, money-loving founder and owner of the Krusty Krab restaurant, where SpongeBob works as a frycook. Francoeur Flea A Monster in Paris Gregory Cricket Dragon Ball Z Jiminy Cricket Cricket Pinocchio The Walt Disney version of "The Talking Cricket" (), a fictional character created by Carlo Collodi for his children's book Pinocchio, which was adapted into an animated film by Disney in 1940. Originally an unnamed, minor character in Collodi's novel Dee Dee, Joey and Marky Cockroaches Oggy and the Cockroaches The three main character cockroaches from the show. Flik Ant A Bug's Life An individualist and would-be inventor. Frank Tarantula The Loud House The school’s pet tarantula. Hal Cockroach WALL-E A cockroach who is WALL-E's friend. Hardcase Tiger beetle Turbo Fast A tiger beetle who envies Turbo's fame and wishes to outrace him, even resorting to cheating. He does not tolerate losing, and even threatens to ravage Turbotown until he wins a race. Hayaku Cricket Turbo Fast A Japanese cricket who pretends to be in love with Turbo in order to beat him. Herbert Flea T.U.F.F. Puppy A tough, strict and good-natures flea who is the leader of T.U.F.F. Herman Beetle Bootle Beetle A beetle with his life represented in flashbacks. Commonly Donald serves as his nemesis. Hopper Grasshopper A Bug's Life The main antagonist of the film who is the ruthless leader of the grasshopper gang. Hova Ant The Ant Bully A worker ant who is assigned to teach Lucas about the ways of the ant. Hutch the Honeybee Honeybee The Adventures of Hutch the Honeybee The son of a Queen bee, Hutch is separated from his mother when his native beehive is destroyed by an attack of wasps. The series follows Hutch as he searches for his missing mother, in the midst of a frequently hostile nature. Jacques Cleaner Shrimp Finding Nemo A French-accented cleaner shrimp who likes to clean the tank. Jeff Spider The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy A giant spider who believes Billy is his father. Maggie Pesky Fly The Buzz on Maggie A 13 year old teenage fly who dreams of becoming a rock star. She attends Buzzdale Academy with her best friend Rayna Cartflight and her arch nemesis Dawn Swatworthy. She has her mother and father named Frieda and Chauncey Pesky, her little sister who is a maggot named Bella Pesky, and has her younger and older brothers named Pupert and Aldrin Pesky. She is voiced by Jessica DiCicco. Ms. Tarantula Redknee tarantula The Bad Guys A sharp-tongued, equally sarcastic expert hacking redknee tarantula also known as "Webs" or "Mata Hairy" and the only female of the gang. Larry the Lobster Lobster SpongeBob SquarePants A muscular red lobster who frequently lifts weights at Goo Lagoon. Pinchy Lobster The Simpsons A lobster Homer buys to fatten up and eat in the episode Lisa Gets an "A". Ray Firefly The Princess and the Frog Ally of Tiana and Prince Naveen. Sebastian Crab The Little Mermaid (full name Horatio Thelonious Ignacious Crustaceous Sebastian), he is a red Jamaican crab, the servant of King Triton. Sheldon J. Plankton Planktonic copepod SpongeBob SquarePants Owner of the Chum Bucket and arch enemy of Mr. Krabs. He is always trying to steal the Krabby Patty Secret Formula but is always unsuccessful. He often thinks and speaks of evil anarchist points of view and wishes to rule the world. He sells chum which is disgusting slop of innards and blood that is often used to attract sharks and other predatory fish. He has a computer wife named Karen, who is actually a "W.I.F.E." (Wired Integrated Female Electroencephalograph). Karen usually gives Plankton ideas to steal the Krabby Patty formula, which he often censors out and takes them as his. Plankton and Karen's marital relationship is often shown as very dysfunctional. His first appearance was in "Plankton!". Spike Bee Cartoon Disney Shorts A small aggressive bee who is frequently an enemy of Donald and Pluto. In many of his appearances he is on a quest to gather food. He is a one-time friend to Donald in the Disney short Let's Stick Together (1952) Tamatoa Coconut Crab Moana A giant crustacean who is the main antagonist to Moana and Maui when they visit Lalotai (The Realm of Monsters). Notable for collecting gold treasure which he sings a song about. Taxi Crab Crab Jungle Junction A crab who runs a smoothie shop The Ants Ant Happy Tree Friends A family of ants are the recurring characters who kills or tortures Sniffles. The Ants get revenge by torturing and killing the anthropomorphic anteater in the most sadistic ways possible, most notably in Crazy Ant-ics, Tongue Twister Trouble, A Hard Act to Swallow, Suck It Up and Tongue in Cheek. Wally B. Bumblebee The Adventures of André & Wally B. Wally B. is a large quadrupedal bee who teases André after the latter woke up. Although Wally B. is a drone bee, he has a stinger that bends once stung. Wanna-Bee Bee T.U.F.F. Puppy Wanna-Bee is a member of F.L.O.P.P. who first appeared in "The Spelling Bee", where he temporarily operated his stand-alone villain career as the Spelling Bee. Wilbur Grasshopper Cartoon Disney Shorts Goofy’s tamed grasshopper. Z Ant Antz An individualistic but meek worker ant. Zorak Mantis Space Ghost/Space Ghost Coast to Coast ==Video games== Character Species Work Notes Buck Bumble Bee Buck Bumble (N64) Contessa Black widow spider Sly 2: Band of Thieves While the majority of her is a black widow spider, she has the upper body of a human and the pincers of a scorpion as well. Charmy Bee Sonic the Hedgehog is a bee who is the "scatter-brained funny-kid" of the Chaotix. He is cheerful, curious, playful, careless, and greatly energetic, often talking about things no one else cares about. Charmy's fooling around makes the rest of the detective agency staff look professional, and he is generally seen as a "cute mascot". Despite an innocent, good-natured and light-hearted personality, he uses his stinging tail on rare occasions that he gets angry. In addition being a playable character in Sonic Heroes and Shadow the Hedgehog, he made cameos in both Mario and Sonic at the Olympic Games installments as a referee. King Zing Bee Donkey Kong Country is the giant king of the Zingers, fought in the Krazy Kremland level in Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest as the game's third boss, and the same level in Donkey Kong Land 2 as the fifth boss. Moskito Mosquito Rayman Moskito is a giant mosquito, fought in the Moskito's Nest level, the last of the Dream Forest's levels, in Rayman as the game's first boss. Murfy Greenbottle Rayman Murfy is a greenbottle who appeared for the first time in the video game Rayman 2: The Great Escape, where he is nicknamed the "flying encyclopaedia". He has a hasty nature and he appears bored with his job. Queen B. Bee Donkey Kong Country Queen B. is the giant queen of the Zingers, fought in the Bumble B Rumble level in Donkey Kong Country as the game's third boss. Queen Bee Bee Mario Queen Bee is the queen of the Honeyhive Galaxy and the Honeyhop Galaxy in Super Mario Galaxy and Super Mario Galaxy 2. She is an extremely large Bee who is the rightful ruler of the Worker Bees. She also appeared in Mario Kart 7 as an unlockable racer, being one of the heaviest characters in the game. Roger Samms Cockroach Bad Mojo An entomologist with his soul and mind transferred into the body of cockroach and is forced to travel through the dangerous dilapidated bar he lives in. Zapper Cricket Zapper: One Wicked Cricket A pretty mean and manipulative cricket, who uses his little grub brother as a TV aerial. ShLep Fly My Singing Monsters` A Dreamythical monster with "Lucky Charms" inside. When its verse plays, it jiggles around. Generating an "Ekpiri Rattle" Sound. ==Other== *Bee – a bee Suzy's Zoo *Buzz Bee – a bee mascot from Honey Nut Cheerios cereal *Bee – a mythical creature *Buzz – a bee mascot for the Georgia Institute of Technology *Flooty – a butterfly in Suzy's Zoo *Emmet – a heraldic beast *Loopy – a bee mascot from Honey Loops cereal *Mundi - a ladybug from Doki *Jollibee – a red bee who is the mascot of the fast-food company of the same name. *Tickle – a ladybug Suzy's Zoo *Zoom Zoom – a grasshopper Suzy's Zoo *Endermite – a silverfish-related arthropod from Minecraft ==See also== *List of films featuring anthropomorphic insects ==References== Arthropods * |
Jay North (born August 3, 1951) is an American actor. His career as a child actor began in the late 1950s with roles in eight TV series, two variety shows and three feature films. At age 7 he became a household name for his role as the well-meaning but mischievous Dennis Mitchell on the CBS situation comedy Dennis the Menace (1959–1963), based on the comic strip created by Hank Ketcham. As a teen North had roles in two Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer feature films: Zebra in the Kitchen and Maya. He also starred in the NBC television series adaptation of the latter film, also titled Maya. As an adult he turned to voice acting for animated television series, voicing the roles of Prince Turhan in the Arabian Knights segment of The Banana Splits Adventure Hour and a teenaged Bamm-Bamm Rubble on The Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm Show. After leaving show business he disclosed the truth about the difficulties he dealt with as a child actor. He began working with fellow former child star Paul Petersen and the organization A Minor Consideration, using his own experiences as a child performer to counsel other children working in the entertainment industry. ==Early life== North was born in Hollywood, the only child of Jay and Dorothy (née Cotton) North. North's father was an alcoholic, and his parents' marriage was stormy. When he was 4, his parents separated, and North never saw his father again. He briefly resided happily in Birmingham, Alabama. His mother worked as the secretary to the West Coast director of the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA). From a young age, North was a fan of television. When he was 6, his mother used her connections at AFTRA to arrange for him to appear on his favorite television program, local Los Angeles children's show Cartoon Express, hosted by Engineer Bill. Prominent Hollywood talent agent Hazel MacMillan was impressed with the photogenic boy, contacting his mother the following day offering to represent him. His mother was aware of the stories of troubled former child stars, and had reservations but eventually gave her approval. ==Career== ===Early years=== thumb|right|North as Laddie on the Wanted: Dead or Alive episode "Eight Cent Reward", 1958 North's first professional acting job was a live appearance on the gameshow Queen for a Day, hosted by Jack Bailey. He continued to work as a child model and actor in commercials, and landed small parts on a number of popular NBC variety shows of the 1950s, such as The George Gobel Show, The Eddie Fisher Show, and The Milton Berle Show, before auditioning for the role that made him a star. In June 1958, Columbia Pictures's television division Screen Gems was holding a nationwide search for a boy to play the title character in their television adaptation of the popular Dennis the Menace comic strip by Hank Ketcham, and 6-year-old North auditioned. After receiving news that his first audition had not gone well, agent Hazel MacMillan pressed the studio to see him again. The studio agreed and was impressed with his second audition. After hundreds of other boys' auditions, North was asked back to screen test with Herbert Anderson, Gloria Henry, and Joseph Kearns. A pilot was filmed later that summer. The season passed, and North heard nothing more from Screen Gems, but continued to work, appearing in a Christmas-themed episode of the CBS Western series Wanted: Dead or Alive titled "Eight Cent Reward". In the episode, he portrayed Laddie Stone, a young boy who pays bounty hunter Josh Randall (Steve McQueen) eight cents to find Santa Claus. Over the next several months, North made television appearances on such shows as 77 Sunset Strip, Rescue 8, Cheyenne, Bronco, Colt .45, and Sugarfoot, and broke into feature films with roles in The Miracle of the Hills and The Big Operator until, in early 1959, almost one year after he had first auditioned, MacMillan contacted North's mother to tell her that her son had been chosen to play the role of Dennis "The Menace" Mitchell. === Dennis the Menace === thumb|North with Dennis the Menace co-stars Herbert Anderson and Gloria Henry, 1959 Dennis the Menace premiered on CBS on Sunday, October 4, 1959, and quickly became a hit with audiences. North was paid per episode, his strawberry red hair was bleached platinum blonde for the role, and the 8-year-old was instructed to "shave" a year off his age when speaking with the press. His mother continued to work at AFTRA full-time, and hired business managers to invest his earnings. In a 1993 interview with Filmfax magazine, North spoke highly of his mother, saying: "I want to make it very clear about one thing. I never supported my mother during [Dennis the Menace]. She earned her own money from AFTRA. She never lived off my earnings. I know that sometimes happens with child actors, but it was not true in my situation." While his mother worked, her sister Marie Hopper and brother-in-law actor-composer Hal Hopper served as his on-set guardians during filming for Dennis The Menace. In addition to filming the series, he appeared as Dennis in commercials for the show's sponsors, Kellogg's cereals, Best Foods mayonnaise, Skippy peanut butter, and Bosco chocolate milk, and regularly traveled around the country with his aunt and uncle on the weekends to promote the show. These obligations, combined with the required three hours a day of school, took their toll on him, and by the end of the first season, the 8-year-old had begun to feel the pressures of being the lead star of a popular show. In late 1960, the second season of the series was ranked among TV's top 20 shows, and his portrayal of Dennis had become a beloved pop culture icon. He made crossover guest appearances as Dennis on such television shows as The Donna Reed Show and The Red Skelton Hour, and in the feature film Pépé. That year, North recorded The Misadventures of Dennis the Menace soundtrack stories on LP, and an LP album of songs titled Jay North - Look who's singing!. With the success of the series, his guardians, Marie and Hal Hopper, had become strict taskmasters and stern disciplinarians. He was not allowed to socialize with other cast members on the set and missed being around children his own age. He ate alone in his dressing room. His only opportunity to relax was the occasional "free day" when he could play baseball with other children or when his uncle would take him to see horror films. His favorite films at that time were The Pit and the Pendulum and Village of the Damned. By late 1961, the series was in its third season, and North was earning per episode. The show remained in the top 20, but North had grown tired and frustrated with the pressures of carrying a hit show and the long work hours. Complicating matters was his relationship with his aunt Marie. Many years later, North revealed that his aunt physically and verbally abused him when he made mistakes on the set or did not perform to her standards. He said if he failed a line, she would take him behind the set and beat him. For years, it was too painful for him to watch reruns. His mother and the rest of the Dennis The Menace cast were unaware of the abuse, and he concealed his unhappiness due to threatened retribution from his aunt. In July , his childhood co-star, Jeannie Russell, who had portrayed Margaret Wade and who became his chiropractor, said "If Jay says she abused him in private, then I'm inclined to believe it. The sheer demands of being in every scene all by itself had to be extremely stressful. Any extra pressure from [his aunt] would have made it unbearable." In 2007, she said: "'The show comes first.' This was the ethic that we were raised in. Had I seen any abuse or any horrible upset on Jay's part, I would have noticed. It would have impacted me. It would have upset me terribly." By the fourth season, North was earning an episode; but by 1962, the 11-year-old had begun to outgrow the character's childish antics. This, combined with the unexpected loss of Joseph Kearns near the end of season three, had changed the dynamic of the show. During his interview with Filmfax, North recalled: "Between the pressures of the business and Joe's dying, I became very serious, very morbid, and very withdrawn from the world. I was the antithesis of the little kid that I played on the television show." By the end of the fourth season, ratings were down, and in early 1963, to his relief, Dennis The Menace was canceled. ===Teen years=== In late 1963, North's mother enrolled him in prep school, but due to his part-time education while filming Dennis The Menace, combined with not having been allowed to socialize with other children, he struggled to keep up with his studies at his new school and was nervous interacting with the other students. North continued to audition, and in 1964, he appeared in an episode of Wagon Train, but found himself typecast as the impish Dennis Mitchell and had trouble finding steady work. In 1999, North told the E! network, "I had to fight the ghost of Dennis the Menace, and I was typecast. I still had the face, and that's what casting directors, producers and directors saw when I would go in to read for a role." In 1965, he landed the lead role in the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer family comedy film Zebra in the Kitchen as Chris Carlyle, a boy who, unhappy with the living conditions he finds at his local zoo, decides to set the animals free, causing chaos throughout the town. Over the next year, he continued to appear in small television roles, guest-starring on the MGM TV series The Man from U.N.C.L.E. and reuniting with his former Dennis the Menace co-star Gale Gordon on The Lucy Show. In 1966, North landed the starring role in another MGM family adventure film, Maya. In the movie, which was filmed on location in India, North played Terry Bowen, a boy who navigates the Indian jungle with a Hindu boy and an elephant and her baby calf, the latter a sacred white elephant. He continued to appear in small guest-starring roles on television shows such as My Three Sons and Jericho, and in 1967, NBC decided to make a television series adaptation of Maya. North agreed to reprise his role and was soon back filming on location in India. The feature film Maya and subsequent television series made North a popular teen idol of the era, featured in numerous teen magazines such as Tiger Beat, 16 Magazine, Teen Datebook, and Flip. While Maya proved popular with teen audiences, the NBC series struggled in its time slot against popular shows of the time, CBS's The Jackie Gleason Show and ABC's The Dating Game and The Newlywed Game, and was cancelled after one season. Years later, North spoke fondly of his experience on the series, saying, "I can say that I'm really proud of my work on Maya, from a professional standpoint. I got to play an adult role and it was a challenge." North had missed a full year of school while filming Maya in India, and after returning home to Hollywood, began a normal life in high school, graduating from Rexford Senior High School in Beverly Hills in 1969. North narrated the surf film, The Fantastic Plastic Machine, in 1969 ===Adult years=== thumb|right|North as Don Baker in a dinner theater production of Butterflies Are Free, After completing filming on the Maya television series, North found work as a voice actor for animated television series, providing the voices of Prince Turhan in the Arabian Knights segment of The Banana Splits Adventure Hour, Terry Dexter in Here Comes the Grump, and a teenaged Bamm-Bamm Rubble on The Pebbles and Bamm- Bamm Show. In 1971, he left Hollywood for Chicago to perform in dinner theater, appearing in several stage productions, including principal roles in Norman, Is That You? and Butterflies Are Free. In January 1972, while appearing in Butterflies Are Free, 20-year-old North met actress Kathleen Brucher, who had a four-year-old son from a previous marriage. After touring with the production for over a year, the two returned to Los Angeles and were married on July 20, 1973, but the marriage lasted less than a year. The young couple separated in April 1974, and their divorce was final on October 21, 1974. In 1974, North appeared in his last starring role in the R-rated coming- of-age suspense thriller The Teacher, opposite Angel Tompkins. Though the film's adult themes were branded "vulgar" and "lurid" by some who still thought of North as his Dennis performance 10 years prior, Los Angeles Times critic Kevin Thomas appreciated North's work in the film, writing, > The plot of The Teacher isn't worth outlining, yet it develops a > relationship between a 28-year-old woman and an 18-year-old high school boy > with sensitivity and credibility unusual for an exploitation film. [...] > Avedis displays much concern for his people and allows Miss Tompkins and > North plenty of room to give fresh, spontaneous performances." Over the next several years, North held onto the hope of being rediscovered by Hollywood and continued to take acting classes, but by early 1977, disillusioned with his career in show business, he left acting and enlisted in the US Navy. In January 1977, he reported to Navy boot camp at NTC Orlando. He was assigned to the , stationed in Norfolk, Virginia, as a seaman recruit bosun's mate, the Navy's lowest rank. He received good evaluations for his work, but was unprepared for the harsh treatment he received from his shipmates and superiors for being a former child star. Within a year, he wanted out of the Navy. He then began his administrative process and was temporarily assigned on board the destroyer tender stationed in Long Beach, California. On August 10, 1979, he left the Dixie and the Navy with an honorable discharge and returned to Los Angeles. In 1980, he appeared in a cameo role in the television movie Scout's Honor, with other former child stars Angela Cartwright from The Danny Thomas Show, Lauren Chapin from Father Knows Best, and Paul Petersen from The Donna Reed Show. In 1982, he landed a week-long stint on the daytime soap General Hospital, but steady work in show business continued to elude him. Financially secure from real estate investments his mother had made with his earnings from Dennis The Menace and frustrated by the direction his career had taken, he retreated from public life for the next several years and worked in the health food industry. In 1984, he optioned the book Burn Judy, Burn for $5,000, hoping to play the lead role of executed killer Steven Judy. In his 1999 interview with E!, North spoke of his desire to play darker roles: "I was ready to play very dramatic, scary type characters. I thought maybe if I played some villains and scared the pants off of people, maybe Hollywood might take me seriously." However, the Steven Judy story never made it to the screen. In January 1986, North landed a small role in the Yugoslavian feature film Divlji Vetar (Wild Wind). Later that year, he read for the role of serial killer Ted Bundy in the television miniseries The Deliberate Stranger, but lost the part to Mark Harmon. Still interested in stories about serial killers, North decided to try his hand at screenwriting. His first script was about a 1984 prison break by six death-row inmates from Virginia's Mecklenburg Correctional Center, but the screenplay was never completed. Throughout the rest of the 1980s, he appeared with other former television stars on news and talk shows such as Good Morning America, Donahue, and Oprah. In October 1988, he acted out his frustrations toward Hollywood in a comedy sketch on an episode of HBO's Not Necessarily the News, spoofing his role as Dennis the Menace. Dressed in overalls, striped t-shirt, and cowlick, 37-year-old North portrayed an angry adult Dennis, taking revenge on "Hollywood pigs" with a telescopic rifle. ==After acting== ===Hoaxes=== On the morning of December 8, 1988, North was at the center of a widely reported hoax. His mother received the news that he had died in a doctor's office that morning. According to a story from United Press International, his body had been found at 12:35am that morning. The article quoted an alleged doctor, Robert Tobias, whom North had actually never met. Around this same time, he also dealt with several impostors. One man, who resembled North in his youth, rented limousines and attended Hollywood parties impersonating him. At the time, North told Knight-Ridder news agency, "I'm not on the 'A' party list. I'm not a hot item, so they don't know what I look like. I really haven't worked a lot in a long time." ===A Minor Consideration=== On January 18, 1990, North received a phone call from Paul Petersen telling him that former child star Rusty Hamer from The Danny Thomas Show had died by suicide. Hamer's death was a turning point for North when childhood friends Petersen (Jeff Stone on The Donna Reed Show) and Jeannie Russell (Margaret Wade on Dennis the Menace), concerned with North's similarities, put him in contact with therapist Stan W. Ziegler, who specialized in troubled former child actors. North later joined Petersen's organization, A Minor Consideration, using his experiences to counsel child stars dealing with the same pressures and difficulties he had faced growing up. ==Personal life== On March 2, 1991, North married his second wife, Rositia. The couple had met on a blind date and separated only 3 months after their wedding. On April 14, 1992, he met caterer Cindy Hackney at a party after a charity event for pediatric AIDS in Gainesville, Florida. On March 3, 1993, they were married, and three months later, still financially well-off as a result of his mother's investments of his earnings as a child star, North left Los Angeles and moved to Hackney's hometown of Lake Butler, Florida, becoming stepfather to her three daughters. This move was a permanent break from the Hollywood area that had troubled him. That year, with the release of the 1993 feature film Dennis the Menace, the media sought what had become of the "original" Dennis. This renewed interest prompted him to publicly disclose the abuse he had experienced as a child star. In May 1997, having come to terms with the physical and emotional abuse he had suffered at the hands of his aunt and uncle, North began attending memorabilia shows to meet with fans. After moving to Florida, he began working as a correctional officer, reportedly working with troubled youth within Florida's juvenile justice system and as of 2011, continued to work for the Florida Department of Corrections. Since the early 1990s, North has made occasional appearances on talk shows, documentaries, cameo appearances as "himself" on The Simpsons, and in the comedy feature film Dickie Roberts: Former Child Star. In 1999, he concluded his E! interview by saying, "I am so happy that I was able to have such a positive impact on people's lives. I'm going to write my autobiography and then I'm just going to live a contented, happy life here in Lake Butler with the people I love, and kind of just vanish into the mists of time." ==Filmography== ===Television=== thumb|right|North as Dennis Mitchell, 1959 *Cartoon Express with Engineer Bill (1957) *Queen for a Day (1958) *The George Gobel Show (1958) *The Eddie Fisher Show (1958) *The Milton Berle Show (1958) *Wanted: Dead or Alive (1958) *77 Sunset Strip (1959) *Rescue 8 (1959) *Cheyenne (1959) *Bronco (1959) *Colt .45 (1959) *Sugarfoot (Bobby in "The Giant Killer") (1959) *The Detectives Starring Robert Taylor (1959) *The Tennessee Ernie Ford Show (1959) *The Ed Sullivan Show (1960) *The Donna Reed Show (1960) *The Red Skelton Hour (1960) *The Dinah Shore Chevy Show (1960) *Art Linkletter's House Party (1961) *Dennis the Menace (1959–1963) *Wagon Train (1964) *The Man from U.N.C.L.E. (1965) *The Lucy Show (1966) *My Three Sons (1966) *Jericho (1966) *Space Ghost (1966) *Maya (1967–1968) *Arabian Knights (1968) *Here Comes the Grump (1969–1971) *The Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm Show (1971) *The Flintstone Comedy Hour (1972) *Lassie (1973) *Fred Flintstone and Friends (1977) *Scout's Honor (1980) *General Hospital (1982) *Our Time (1985) *Not Necessarily the News (1988) *The Simpsons (1999) ===Film=== *The Miracle of the Hills (1959) *The Big Operator (1959) *Pépé (1960) *Zebra in the Kitchen (1965) *Maya (1966) *The Teacher (1974) *Dikiy veter (Wild Wind) (1986) *Dickie Roberts: Former Child Star (2003) ==References== ==Bibliography== * Holmstrom, John (1996). The Moving Picture Boy: An International Encyclopaedia from 1895 to 1995. Norwich, Michael Russell, p. 295\. * Edelson, Edward (1979). Great Kids of the Movies. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, pp. 103–105. ==External links== * * * * Jay North at TV Guide Category:1951 births Category:Male actors from Hollywood, Los Angeles Category:American male child actors Category:American child models Category:American male film actors Category:American prison officers Category:American male television actors Category:American male voice actors Category:Living people Category:Military personnel from California Category:People from Lake Butler, Florida Category:United States Navy sailors Category:20th-century American male actors |
Charles Wilson Killam (July 20, 1871 - May 12, 1961) was an American architect, engineer, and professor at Harvard University. He was widely recognized for his technical knowledge, architectural theory, educational views, and publications. He was also known for his consulting work for the Harvard Business School and Baker Library as well as his extensive restoration work at Mount Vernon. He was a key contributor to the development of Harvard's School of Architecture and to collegiate architectural education throughout the United States. Killam also took an active role in the planning and development of Cambridge, Massachusetts and served on numerous boards and committees. Additionally, he was an advocate for low-cost and public housing as well as an early advocate for architectural education for women. __TOC__ == Early life and education == Charles Wilson Killam was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts on July 20, 1871, and grew up in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Boston. He was the son of Horace Wilson Killam from Wilton, New Hampshire and Georgianna Gage from Watertown, Massachusetts. Killam had three sisters and two brothers. Killam attended Hyde Park Grammar Schools at the Henry Grew School, where he completed the school's course of study and graduated in 1885. After graduating from the Grew School, he attended Hyde Park High School. In 1887, during his second year at the high school and at the age of 16, he dropped out to work. Killam's interest in architecture began at an early age and he pursued his studies at home and while traveling extensively through Europe. His father was a practical draftsman during this period and taught evening classes in elementary, mechanical, and architectural drawing at Hyde Park High School. After leaving high school, Killam furthered his architectural education by taking evening classes, but never graduated from high school. == Peabody and Stearns == After leaving high school in 1887, Killam went to work at the architectural firm of Peabody & Stearns in Boston where he became a draftsman. Robert Swain Peabody, the co-founder of the firm, was an encouraging mentor to Killam and his architectural career. During his 21 years with Peabody & Stearns, Killam advanced his architectural knowledge and furthered his technical expertise in the field. He eventually became the Chief Architectural Engineer for the firm. To further develop his skills, Killam noted how he visited numerous job sites because that was then "the only way to find out, for instance, how to support a terracotta cornice or how to do flashing." Since he was not on the payroll of these jobs, he was able to spend as much or as little time on various aspects of the construction as he wanted. He valued this experience and spent countless hours examining plans in architectural and engineering offices, copying details and specification provisions. Killam stated that his interest covered the whole field of architecture: alt=Photo of Killam's competition design for the Hyde Park YMCA|thumb|229x229px|Killam's design for the Hyde Park YMCA building (1900). In 1900, Killam was awarded second prize in the Boston Society of Architects Rotch Travelling Scholarship, and traveled throughout Europe studying architecture. While at the firm, Killam also entered various design competitions such as for the new Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) building in Hyde Park. Newspapers.com by Ancestry – via The Wikipedia Library. == Harvard University == In 1908, Killam left Peabody & Stearns to begin his academic career as an instructor in architectural construction and engineering at Harvard University. He was appointed to strengthen a recognized weakness in architectural engineering at Harvard and first taught a course in the resistance of materials and elementary structural design to address this weakness. Within a year, Killam was appointed assistant professor of architectural construction and taught at Harvard's new School of Architecture when it was founded by Herbert Langford Warren in 1912. Killam became associate professor in 1915, associate professor of architecture in 1921, and professor in 1924. Killam taught his students the adaptation of modern construction techniques to the older styles of design. He he was critical of designers of the time who misrepresented the structure of their buildings and gave too much power to engineers. He recognized the importance of integrating the teaching of design and construction and was one of the first to advocate for closer collaboration between the two fields. Killam continuously improved Harvard's department of architecture until it became one of the strongest in the United States. His well-known courses in fundamentals of engineering and construction were extremely thorough, complete, and well arranged to meet the needs of architecture students. In 1917, following the death of Warren, Killam was appointed Acting Dean of the School of Architecture. Despite the challenges of the ongoing war and dwindling enrollment, Killam sought to carry forward Warren's principles while placing greater emphasis on construction. Although the curricula in architecture and landscape architecture remained largely unchanged with Killam as Acting Dean, there was a significant shift where landscape architecture students no longer studied the rudiments of architectural design in the same studios with architecture students. Killam held this position until 1922 when George Harold Edgell was appointed as new Dean of the school. One of Killam's students, Edward Durell Stone, had failed Killam's "Theory of Building Construction" course as a freshman at Harvard. Stone's classmate Walter Harrington Kilham Jr. recalled that Stone "couldn’t take it any longer and had decided to quit the school and go over to the rival MIT." Stone had asked Dean Edgell to be exempt from retaking Killam's course but was denied, and, in response, Stone transferred to MIT. John McAndrew, another classmate of Stone, commented that Killam's course was "a very 'tough and rough' course, the only one in which anyone learned anything at all."alt=Portrait of Killam in 1912|left|thumb|317x317px|Killam in 1912. At the time of Killam's retirement from Harvard, Dean Joseph Hudnut stated that "Professor Killam has conducted the work in his field with great distinction. He has greatly augmented the efficiency of the instruction in architecture and his methods have been widely copied in other American schools of architecture." === Educational views === Killam held views on education and the field of architecture that were pioneering for the time. He “welcomed the new styles especially where unusual construction called for applying basic principles of engineering.” He also strongly believed that modern materials and methods of construction should be integrated into styles from the past, particularly the classic and Renaissance forms. While serving as Acting Dean, Killam described Harvard's position on the necessity of courses in history and the fine arts, that the architects of the country should have a broad cultural training before they begin their technical studies. Killam had a curiosity for learning which sustained throughout his life. Whenever there was a new and interesting building or design, he made sure to visit it in person. In the early days of commercial flight, he flew to distant locations to examine various structures. He instilled this curiosity in his teaching by actively encouraged his students to explore their architectural interests and he supported these interests with his own research and materials from outside the classroom: He demanded the same thoroughness of his students that he gave himself and never returned a student's unfinished problem "without his professional correction to the last detail, sharply noted in red ink and colored pencil so that the solution would be clear and direct." He defined the principal function of the architect of the time as "to plan and direct the execution of building projects so as to produce convenient, safe, economical and durable enclosures for our manifold activities." Killam was determined that each student be thoroughly grounded in all methods of building construction, both old and new. In his "Resistance of Materials and Elementary Structural Design" course, Killam demanded that his students gain a sound knowledge of construction by learning how to derive formulae from theory and how to create their own tables and handbooks. His architectural experience convinced him that "a student should not run errands, keep time, or check materials, and that a student does not have any possible time to waste in actual manual labor at the innumerable trades dealing with innumerable materials." alt=Image of Killam sitting at his desk in his office|thumb|341x341px|Killam in his office (1934). Killam was also an advocate and supporter for women's education, particularly in the field of architecture and construction. As early as 1916, Killam lectured at the Cambridge School of Architectural and Landscape Design for Women, which his colleagues Henry Atherton Frost and Bremer Whidden Pond had founded less than a year earlier. He lectured in architectural construction, landscape construction, and criticized graduate theses at the school from 1916 through the 1924 academic year. Killam was dedicated to achieving honest and effective methods of building in architecture. His work helped to combine construction techniques with the art of design in architectural education. Although Killam retired from Harvard before modern architecture was introduced, his goals were eventually recognized within this new approach to teaching architecture. Even after his death, Killam's courses at Harvard were continued to be taught without alteration. His methods were fundamental in the work of the school and was considered one of the most persistent and valuable factors in Harvard's educational system. === Retirement from Harvard === alt=Image of Killam wearing his commencement gown in 1937|thumb|380x380px|Killam in commencement gown (1937). In 1936, Harvard President James B. Conant was in search of a new chairman for the new Graduate School of Design and to lead the school into the era of modernism. Among the candidates, German architect and Bauhaus founder Walter Gropius was the most favored by Conant for the position. Conant sought the opinions of the school's faculty about the possible appointment of Gropius and received overwhelming approval and support. Killam, however, cast the lone outright objection to Gropius's appointment. The engineering aesthetic of the new and modern style of architecture represented by Gropius did not appeal to him. At an address to the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture, Killam made his objection clear stating that the school's primary function was to train architects, not painters, sculptors, or commercial designers for machine-made products. He challenged the economic viability of teaching modern design and firmly rejected the expanded role of the architect that Gropius promoted. With the overwhelming approval of Gropius from the school's faculty, and despite Killam's objections, Conant proceeded to offer Gropius the position in December 1936 and he was commenced the following spring. Killam remained adamantly opposed to the appointment of Gropius as the school's new chairman and professor of design and disliked the prospect of Gropius bringing a new Bauhaus to Harvard. In protest to this new assignment, Killam decided to resign his professorship at Harvard University. In January 1937, after 29 years as Harvard faculty, Killam retired and became professor emeritus. Being too active to accept full time retirement, Killam continued to serve the School of Design as an advisor while actively participating in the faculty councils. After his resignation in 1937, Killam returned to lecture at the Cambridge School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture, which had had formed a partnership with Smith College during his absence. He held this position until the school closed in 1942 and was absorbed by Harvard's Graduate School of Design, at which point he retired for a second time. Throughout his tenure as professor emeritus, Killam continued to work as consultant on architecture and played a key role in the drafting of building and zoning codes. His span as professor of architecture emeritus from 1937 to 1961 was, at the time, the longest in the history of Harvard's School of Architecture and Graduate School of Design. == Cambridge planning and development == In addition to his academic career, Killam was an active member of his community, taking on numerous responsibilities and roles within the city of Cambridge, Massachusetts. He was a resident of Cambridge for nearly 50 years having moved there at the beginning of his academic career at Harvard. He resided at 20 Walker Street in Cambridge before settling at 51 Avon Hill Street in Cambridge where he lived for over 40 years. Killam was actively involved in matters of building and zoning codes, tenement-house legislation, city planning, unemployment relief, and low-cost housing. He was also a significant figure in bringing the Plan E Charter to Cambridge, which provided for a city council-manager form of government. Killam held various leadership positions in the Cambridge community. He served on the first board of directors for the Cambridge Housing Association when it was formed in 1911. – via HathiTrust. He was elected as the director of the Cambridge Chamber of commerce and served as the chairman of the Cambridge Housing authority. Additionally, he served as a member, secretary, president, and chairman of the Cambridge Planning Board, where he contributed to the development of the city and played a crucial role in shaping its growth. His leadership roles in these positions demonstrated his commitment to civic engagement and to the betterment of the city of Cambridge. === Cambridge planning board === In 1924, Killam was appointed to the Cambridge Planning Board by Mayor Edward W. Quinn and served as president and chairman of the board. The board, while headed by Killam, was responsible for work including widening of streets to improve traffic and assisting with the Charles River betterment project to improve the Charles River Basin. – via Killam "[knew] more about Cambridge streets and how to improve traffic conditions than any salaried official in the city." He also took an active part in drafting the city's new zoning ordinance and was adamantly opposed to the construction of a bridge at Dartmouth street crossing over the Charles River. In 1929, despite being "one of the city’s most efficient commissions," the board resigned as a body. The primary reason being that the board was often ignored on important city planning issues, their recommendations were given little consideration, and they received minimal cooperation and support from city officials. A year later in 1930, Richard M. Russell was elected mayor of Cambridge and Killam was appointed to Russel's new Planning Board. – via This board was responsible for work including improving traffic and parking conditions in the city as well as city planning and economic development. Mayor Russell also appointed Killam as first chairman of the newly formed Cambridge Housing Authority in 1935. However, Killam resigned from the Housing Authority in 1936 because of a difference of opinion with other members of the authority regarding plans for the local slum clearance project and that too much money was spent on land rather than economic development. alt=Image of Killam in 1926|left|thumb|357x357px|Killam in 1926. === Plan E charter === Killam also played a key role in developing a new council-manager form of charter, known as Plan E by Cambridge, for the city of Cambridge. This charter includes a weak mayor elected by the City Council from among its members addition to an appointed city manager who handles day-to-day city operations. In 1938, Killam traveled throughout the Midwestern United States to research the advantages and disadvantages of this form of charter. He visited cities such as Milwaukee, Cincinnati, and Cleveland which had recently adopted this form of government. He "visited twenty-one cities and interviewed five mayors, ten city managers, twelve editors, twenty past or present city officials, three labor men, and thirteen officers of citizens’ organizations." During his trip, Killam interviewed notable city leaders such as Harold Hitz Burton, Daniel Hoan, and Charles Phelps Taft II. Upon returning, he strongly recommended that Cambridge adopt this form of Council-Manager city charter and became a key contributor to its development and implementation by Cambridge in 1940. Over 80 years later, Cambridge still operates under this Plan E charter. Later in 1946, Killam's views and foresight on traffic congestion lead him to oppose the construction of a parking garage under the Boston Common explaining that it would cater to drivers and greatly increase congestion within the city. He suggested that instead of investing in underground parking areas or highway developments, it would be more beneficial and cost-effective to focus on expanding the city's rapid transit facilities. – via === Massachusetts state housing and building laws === Killam was member of the committee which drafted the Massachusetts town housing law known as the Tenement House Act for Towns (Chapter 635 of 1912) which was passed in amended form into law by the 133rd Massachusetts General Court and adopted and enforced by towns throughout the state. – via HathiTrust The same committee, with some changes and additions, drafted a law for Massachusetts cities for the following year and was called the Tenement House Act for Cities (Chapter 786 of 1913). It was passed into law by the 134th Massachusetts General Court and adopted and enforced by cities throughout the state. In 1913, Killam was appointed by Massachusetts Governor Eugene Foss to a commission to investigate the regulations throughout the Commonwealth relative to the construction, alteration, and maintenance of buildings and to develop a State building law. – via Google Books This commission also worked to investigate building laws and fire conditions in the State of Massachusetts. In 1915, this commission submitted a report which laid out a new state-wide building code relating to fireproofing districts to be adopted and enforced throughout Massachusetts. Despite the extensive work by the commission, this state building code failed legislative approval by the 136th Massachusetts General Court. In 1930, Killam was appointed to the advisory committee which helped the New England Building Officials Conference write a model code for New England. This model code resulted in a new code for Boston. === Public and low-cost housing === Killam was also an advocate for public and low-cost housing within the city of Cambridge. He believed that such housing projects should prioritize the improvement of living conditions for many people in the future, rather than providing extravagant accommodations for a select few. He argued that eliminating middlemen's profits was crucial in achieving truly low-cost housing. Additionally, Killam believed that housing progress should not be hindered by the inability to immediately provide for the lowest levels of the low-wage group, as this was a relief problem rather than a housing problem. According to Killam, large-scale rental projects were the way forward for successful housing policy. However, he acknowledged that managing such projects would require specialized training and expertise beyond that commonly found in the country. In particular, a manager of a large-scale low-cost housing project must possess skills in dealing with diverse races and social problems, as well as the ability to guide without dictation, and manage a complex team of employees with varied duties. In 1940, Killam wrote a letter to Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge regarding the creation of the United States Housing Administration and low-cost housing projects. Killam argued that the government should pay for the amortization and interest of loans for low-cost housing projects instead of relying on income generated by the projects. He also contended that land should not be overly restricted for development to facilitate slum clearances, and subsidies for low-cost housing projects should be economically feasible. He also stated that technical information and practical experience should inform housing policy, and localities should be provided with information to make their own decisions. Lodge read this letter to the 76th U.S. Congress during its third session. == Consulting, design, and restoration work == Killam's consulting services, structural design, and restoration work were sought by many due to his knowledge and thoroughness in the field. In the early 20th century, Killam designed several residential houses around New England with architects Henry Atherton Frost and Bremer Whidden Pond. Together they designed houses such as the Quincy W. Wales house at 21 Sylvan Avenue in Newton, Massachusetts and the Georgia H. Emery house at 12 Blackberry Lane in the Jaffrey Center Historic District of Jaffrey, New Hampshire. Both houses were featured in House Beautiful. === Harvard Business School === During the 1920s, Killam became the consulting architect and professional advisor for the numerous new buildings being constructed during the expansion of the Harvard Business School. Most notably, Killam was professional advisor for the design competition for the school's new library, and the consulting architect for the school's new Baker Library which had been designed by McKim, Mead & White and completed in 1927. His contributions to the planning and design of the new buildings at the school made him "one of the most devoted workers behind the scenes" for this project. Killam additionally served as supervising architect along with Wallace Brett Donham for the construction of many of the school's other new buildings. – via Internet Archive. === Case method classroom === In 1925, in preparation for the Harvard Business School's expansion, Killam and architecture student Harry J. Korslund designed a 177-seat, horseshoe-shaped classroom with 6-inch tiers that would support the case method of teaching. The case method was a new approach to business education that involved a more interactive and participatory format compared to the traditional lecture format. The Harvard Business School played a central role in developing this method and refining the corresponding classroom design. In 1927 when the school moved to Allston, the case method classroom design by Killam and Korslund was built in the basement of the Baker Library. Although primitive with poor acoustics and lighting and wooden tablet-arm chairs, this case method classroom design was the first deliberate design of a space for business education in the country. – via – via === Mount Vernon === On several occasions between 1932 and 1935, Killam was contracted to advise and perform extensive restoration and structural strengthening work at George Washington's Mount Vernon estate in Virginia. In correspondence with the Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, which considered him a "renowned structural expert," Killam noted that "too much emphasis has been placed upon keeping the externals looking like a prosperous modern estate and too little care and money have been spent in thorough repairs and strengthening." Killam expressed his devotion to the preservation and restoration of the estate through his exchanges with the estate's resident superintendent Harrison Howell Dodge: Killam's work included examining the mansion's structural stress and installing necessary reinforcements, termite-proofing the outer walls with copper, and placing steel beams in the mansion's basement to reinforce its structure which "remain strong and reliable today." Upon completion of his work at the main mansion, Killam claimed the building was "thrice as strong as when originally constructed." In addition to the main mansion, Killam also performed restoration and strengthening work on the other structures on the estate including the barn, quarters, spinning house, banquet hall, gardener's and butler's houses, and the office building. === Dorchester Heights Monument === alt=Photo of the top section of the Dorchester Heights Monument|thumb|212x212px|Dorchester Heights Monument. In 1934–1935, Killam altered and performed structural rehabilitation to the Dorchester Heights Monument. Under the supervision of the Boston Art Commission, Killam undertook the "first documented program to repair the monument" since its completion in 1902. Newspapers.com by Ancestry – via The Wikipedia Library. This monument was originally designed by Peabody & Stearns in 1899 while he was working there. His work to the monument included constructing a new steel and concrete floor below the tower chamber, reinforcing the monument with tie rods and structural framing, and strengthening badly rusted steel beams. In addition he also weatherproofed the structure by adding flashing, protective coatings, and weatherstripping as well as installing windows and doors in the originally open arches. === Other works === In 1930, Killam and architect Eleanor Raymond performed a complete renovation of the Little Theatre at the Gloucester School on Rocky Neck in Gloucester, Massachusetts. Together, they expanded the stage, extended the gallery, and added promenades and porches to the facility. In 1935, Robert E. Greenwood, mayor of Fitchburg, Massachusetts, hired Killam as consulting architect for a new high school. Killam was recommended to the school and planning boards by Professor Henry Vincent Hubbard who was serving as advisor to the school committee at the time. Newspapers.com by Ancestry – via The Wikipedia Library. This new building was to replace the old high school which had burned down in 1934. The new Fitchburg High School was completed in 1937 and designed by Coolidge, Shepley, Bulfinch and Abbott. == Marriage and children == alt=Photo of Killam and his wife Whittemore|thumb|208x208px|Charles and Amy (1892). On August 6, 1894, at the First Baptist Church in Hyde Park, Killam married Amy Edna Whittemore (1871–1942), Newspapers.com by Ancestry – via The Wikipedia Library. a classmate from his early education in Hyde Park. Whittemore was born in 1871 in Londonderry, New Hampshire, but grew up and went to school in Hyde Park with Killam. She was the youngest daughter of Henry Joshua Whittemore, a music teacher at Hyde Park High School, and Esther Miranda Goodwin. Together, Killam and Whittemore had four children: * Muriel Esther Killam (1895–1988) * Horace Goodwin Killam (1896–1989) * Roger Wilson Killam (1898–1987) * Mary Whittemore Killam (1903–1993) While he devoted much of his time to academic pursuits and professional endeavors, he remained a committed family man, having great affection for his wife and four children, and later, his grandchildren and great-grandchildren. == Death == Charles Wilson Killam died in a Providence, Rhode Island hospital on May 19, 1961, at the age of 89. He was living in Rumford, Rhode Island at the time of his death. He was buried at Shawsheen Cemetery in Bedford, Massachusetts alongside his wife, who predeceased him. He was survived by two sisters, his four children, and several grandchildren and great-grandchildren. == Published works == Killam was a prolific and assiduous writer of numerous articles published in professional journals, academic magazines, and periodicals, and authored several texts on architectural construction. These were pioneering in the field of architecture and architectural construction. Despite publication, Killam never regarded his works as being in final form. He would not permit them being published as hardcover books, believing that this would limit the potential for further development of its content. Killam's 1937 textbook, Notes on Architectural Construction, was widely used in architectural schools throughout the United States and became a core part of their curricula, lectures, and instruction. Some of his notable published articles, works, and reports include: * "Bridge Design from the Architect’s Standpoint" – Harvard Engineering Journal. (1909) * "The Charles River Bridges" – Harvard Engineering Journal. (1910) * "The Relation of a State-Wide Building Code to Housing and Town Planning" – Architectural quarterly of Harvard University. (1913) * "Report Relative to the Construction, Alteration and Maintenance of Buildings" (1915) * "Study of Construction in Architectural Education" – The Architectural Forum. (1922) * Harvard University's Baker Library Architectural Competition Program (1924) * "Apartments and Automobiles" – The Cambridge Tribune. (1928) * "Modern Construction and its Possible Determination of Style Forms" – American Institute of Architects: Journal of Proceedings. (1930) * "Modern Design as Influenced by Modern Materials" – The Architectural Forum. (1930) * "Why Architects Tend to Specify Substitutes for Lumber in Buildings of Today" – American Lumberman. (1930) * "Design in its Relation to Construction" – The Journal of the American Institute of Architects. (1935) * "Plea for Beauty" – Architect & Engineer. (1935) * "Low-Cost Housing In The United States" – Harvard Business Review. (1936) * "Architectural Construction Part One: Notes on Architectural Construction" (1937) * "School Training for Architecture: Some Pertinent Thoughts on Education" – Pencil Points. (1937) * "Appropriations for the United States Housing Administration" – United States of America Senate Congressional Record. (1940) * "Are Planners Prepared to Build Our Cities?" – Pencil Points. (1942) * "City Planning And Blighted Areas" – Michigan Society of Architects. (1943) * "The Education of Practicing Architects" – Journal of The American Institute of Architects. (1949) * "Architectural Construction Part Two: Design of Masonry and Foundations" (1950) == Accomplishments and positions held == Throughout his academic and professional career, Killam held various positions of leadership and served on numerous boards and committees. He was also a member of several clubs and institutions, and collaborated closely with many notable and influential architects and academics of his time. The Massachusetts State Association of Architects awarded Killam with their Certificate of Honor in 1946 and wrote the following about him: === Memberships === Throughout his life, Killam was member of numerous clubs, associations, societies, and institutes both academic and professional in nature. Some of which include: * Became member of the American Institute of Architects (AIA) in 1913. * Elected a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects (FAIA) in 1926. * American Society of Civil Engineers * Boston Architectural Club * Boston Society of Architects * National Fire Protection Association * American Concrete Institute * Active member of President Hoover's Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership and the Correlating Committee on Legislation and Administration (1931). * Cambridge Club—Elected director of the club in 1928, vice-president in 1934, and president in 1935. * Director and President of the Cambridge Taxpayers’ League (1932). * Harvard Faculty Club * Elected to a fellowship in the American Academy of Art and Sciences. === Chairmanships === Killam chaired many committees, commissions, and bodies throughout his career. Some notable positions he was chairman for include: * Cambridge Public School Association committee on school plant (1910–1911). * AIA Basic Building Code Committee (1916). * Special commission to revise the building ordinance of Cambridge (1917). * Chairman of the Faculty of Architecture at Harvard (1917). * Chairman of the Council of the School of Architecture at Harvard (1918). * Boston Society of Architects committee of materials and methods (1930). * Served as both chairman and director Cambridge Industrial Association Municipal Affairs Committee (1932). * AIA committee on structural service (1940). * Vice-chairman of the AIA committee on building costs and committee on cost of materials (1940). * AIA committee on the technical services of the American Institute of Architects (1941). === Committees === Some of the other notable committees Killam was a member of include: * Council and executive committee of the Harvard University School of Engineering (1912–1913). * Cambridge Unemployment Relief Committee (1933). * American Standards Association committee on methods of testing wood (1940). === Representative === Killam also acted as a representative for the AIA and other groups on various committees, some of which include: * One of fourteen delegates of the Boston AIA Chapter—Joseph Everett Chandler, Ralph Adams Cram, Henry H. Kendall, and Arthur W. Rice were other notable delegates of the chapter. * Represented the AIA on the following committees: ** U.S. Forest Service and American Society for Testing Materials committee on standardization of methods of testing wood (called the American Engineering Standards Committee) (1922). ** Committee of technical groups and government agencies engaged in the preparation and promulgation of codes and standards relating to the design and construction of buildings (1933). ** Joint Committee on Standard Specifications for Concrete and Reinforced Concrete (1940). ** Central Agency Committee, cooperating with The Producers' Council Inc., and the Federal Home Loan Bank Board (1940). === Appointments and other positions held === Killam was appointed to many positions by various academic and political individuals and held numerous other positions at the city, state, and national level. Some of these appointments and other positions include: * Appointed associate of the Harvard University Engineering Journal Board (1912–1913). * Appointed to the jury for the national "Better Homes in America" design competition sponsored by General Electric and The Architectural Forum (1935). Ralph T. Walker, Franklin O. Adams, and Eliel Saarinen were also jurors. * Judge for the Jordan Marsh Company Architects’ Contest along with Helen Storrow and William Emerson (1935). * Director of the Program of Cooperation between the Federal Home Loan Bank Board and AIA to construct well-designed, well-built, well-equipped, low-cost housing (1940). == Notes == == References == == External links == * 2022 FAIA Directory of Fellows (Charles W. Killam found in the Chronological Directory on p. 117 and the Alphabetical Directory on p. 394). * Collections and Records of Charles W. Killam at the Fred W. Smith National Library for the Study of George Washington. * Charles Wilson Killam works at WorldCat library catalog.. Category:1871 births Category:1961 deaths Category:20th-century American academics Category:Academics from Massachusetts Category:American civil engineers Category:American Society of Civil Engineers Category:Architects from Boston Category:Architects from Cambridge, Massachusetts Category:Architectural theoreticians Category:Architecture academics Category:Architecture educators Category:Engineering educators Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Category:Fellows of the American Institute of Architects Category:Harvard University faculty Category:Harvard University staff Category:People from Boston Category:People from Cambridge, Massachusetts Category:People from Charlestown, Boston Category:People in building engineering Category:Harvard Graduate School of Design faculty Category:Smith College faculty Category:Peabody and Stearns people Category:Burials at Shawsheen Cemetery |
Isaac Allerton Sr. (c. 1586 – 1658/9), and his family, were passengers in 1620 on the historic voyage of the ship Mayflower. Allerton was a signatory to the Mayflower Compact. In Plymouth Colony he was active in colony governmental affairs and business and later in trans-Atlantic trading. Problems with the latter regarding colony expenditures caused him to be censured by the colony government and ousted from the colony. He later became a well-to-do businessman elsewhere and in his later years resided in Connecticut.Robert Charles Anderson, Pilgrim Village Families Sketches: Isaac Allerton, (a collaboration of American Ancestors and New England Historic Genealogical Society) ==English ancestry== 175px|thumb|left|Coat of Arms of Isaac Allerton Based on a deposition given in 1639, Allerton was born in Suffolk, England about 1586–88, although clues to his ancestry have long been quite elusive. Some records from colonial Dutch New Amsterdam (New York) note he was from the English county of Suffolk. Allerton's son Bartholomew did return to England from Plymouth and served as a minister in Suffolk which may indicate a connection to that county. In 1659 the will of Bartholomew was proved, and at that time he was residing in Bramfield, co. Suffolk but no other records relating to the Allertons, a quite rare name, have ever been found in Suffolk.Charles Edward Banks, The English Ancestry and Homes of the Pilgrim Fathers (New York: Grafton Press, 1929), p. 30A Clue to the Parentage of Isaac Allerton, By Leslie Mahler, The Mayflower Quarterly, v. 75, no. 1, March 2009 p. 54Caleb H. Johnson, The Mayflower and her passengers (Indiana: Xlibris Corp., 2006), p. 59 Author and genealogist Leslie Mahler, writing in The Mayflower Quarterly of March 2009, notes that an Isaac Allerton, who appears to be the Mayflower passenger, is mentioned in the 1609 apprenticeship registers for the Blacksmiths Company in London. This record indicates Isaac to have been the son of Bartholomew Allerton, tailor of Ipswich, Suffolk. The apprentice record as translated from Latin (Isack Allerton fil Bartholomei Allerton..): "21 June 1609, Isaac Allerton, son of Bartholomew Allerton late of Ipswich, county Suffolk, tailor has bound himself apprentice by indenture to James Gly, Citizen and Black Smith of London for seven years from the Feast of the Nativity of St. John the Baptist last." ==Life in Leiden== In Leiden in 1611, Allerton stated he was from London, (England). Also living in Leiden in 1611 was Allerton's sister Sarah (Allerton) Vincent, widow prior to 1611 of John Vincent. Isaac and his wife, Mary, and Sarah and her second husband Degory Priest, had a double wedding in Leiden on November 4, 1611. In the records of the time, Sarah is noted to have been "of London". Also in Leiden at this time was John Allerton, who may well have been a relative of Isaac's or Isaac's brother, but this has never been proven for certain. Allerton became betrothed to Mary Norris in Leiden by October 7, 1611. He lived in Pieterskerkhof near St. Peter's Church. In 1614 he became a citizen of Leiden. While in Leiden in 1619 Allerton worked as a tailor; John Hooke, who would travel with Allerton on the Mayflower, was his apprentice.Charles Edward Banks, The English Ancestry and Homes of the Pilgrim Fathers (New York: Grafton Press, 1929), p. 29 ==The Mayflower voyage== The Allerton family boarded the Mayflower consisting of Allerton's wife Mary, three children and an apprentice, John Hooke. The Mayflower departed Plymouth, England on September 6/16, 1620. The small, 100-foot ship had 102 passengers and a crew of about 30–40 in extremely cramped conditions. By the second month out, the ship was being buffeted by strong westerly gales, causing the ship's timbers to be badly shaken with caulking failing to keep out sea water, and with passengers, even in their berths, lying wet and ill. This, combined with a lack of proper rations and unsanitary conditions for several months, attributed to what would be fatal for many, especially the majority of women and children. On the way there were two deaths, a crew member and a passenger, but the worst was yet to come after arriving at their destination when, in the space of several months, almost half the passengers perished in cold, harsh, unfamiliar New England winter.Stratton, p. 413 On November 9/19, 1620, after about three months at sea, including a month of delays in England, they spotted land, which was the Cape Cod Hook, now called Provincetown Harbor. And after several days of trying to get south to their planned destination of the Colony of Virginia, strong winter seas forced them to return to the harbor at Cape Cod hook, where they anchored on November 11/21. The Mayflower Compact was signed that day. Issac Allerton was one of the signers.George Ernest Bowman, The Mayflower Compact and its signers, (Boston: Massachusetts Society of Mayflower Descendants, 1920). Photocopies of the 1622, 1646 and 1669 versions of the document pp. 7–19. ==Life in Plymouth Colony== Of Isaac Allerton and his first wife, William Bradford recorded: "Mr. Allerton's wife died with the first, and his servant John Hooke.William Bradford, History of Plymouth Plantation by William Bradford, the second Governor of Plymouth (Boston:1856), p. 451 His son Bartle is married in England but I know not how many children he hath. His daughter Remember is married at Salem and hath three or four children living. His daughter Mary is married here and hath four children. Himself married again with the daughter of Mr. Brewster and hath one son living by her, but she is long since dead. And he is married again and hath left this place long ago."William Bradford, second governor of the Colony. History of Plymouth Plantation Reprinted from the Massachusetts Historical Collections, ed. Charles Deane, member of the Mass. Historical Society, (Boston:1856)Robert S. Wakefield, F.A.S.G. and Margaret Harris Stover, CG., Mayflower Families through Five Generations: Descendants of the Pilgrims who landed at Plymouth, Massachusetts December 1620, Vol. 17: Family of Isaac Allerton p. 1 The colony government chose John Carver as their first governor. Allerton was his assistant from 1621 to 1624, and afterwards serving on the colony civil affairs council. After the early death of John Carver in April 1621, William Bradford was elected governor in Carver's place.David Lindsay, Mayflower Bastard: A Stranger amongst the Pilgrims (New York: St. Martins Press, 2002), pp. 45, 68Robert S. Wakefield, F.A.S.G. and Margaret Harris Stover, CG., Mayflower Families through Five Generations: Descendants of the Pilgrims who landed at Plymouth, Massachusetts December 1620, vol. 17: Family of Isaac Allerton p. 1Nathaniel Philbrick, Mayflower: A story of Courage, Community and War (New York: Viking, 2006), p. 103 In 1626 Allerton became involved in the colony's finances. With the dissolving of the Merchant Adventurers there was a great need for the colonist to pay their debts. William Bradford, Allerton and others took on the colony's debt to the Merchant Adventurers with the provision that they be given a monopoly in the fur trade.David Lindsay, Mayflower Bastard: A Stranger amongst the Pilgrims (New York: St. Martins Press, 2002), p. 68Nathaniel Philbrick, Mayflower: A story of Courage, Community and War (New York: Viking, 2006), p. 168 Isaac Allerton traveled to London in 1626 to negotiate a new agreement with the Merchant Adventurers group which had given much money for the trip and the maintenance of the colony. In the 1627 division of cattle (equal to a census) the Allerton family is listed with wife Fear and children Bartholomew, Remember, Mary and Sarah.Caleb H. Johnson, The Mayflower and her passengers (Indiana: Xlibris Corp., 2006), p. 271. About 1628 a young man came to work as an apprentice under Allerton. This was Mayflower passenger Richard More, who then was about age 15 then and a world away from his parents in England.David Lindsay, Mayflower Bastard: A Stranger amongst the Pilgrims (New York: St. Martins Press, 2002), p. 73. Richard had been part of a historic incident in which he and three siblings were placed aboard the Mayflower in 1620 by their putative father, Samuel More, without their mother's knowledge, after her admission of adultery.Anthony R. Wagner, The Origin of the Mayflower Children: Jasper, Richard and Ellen More, The New England Historical and Genealogical Register (July 1960) vol. 114 p. 164-167 All three of Richard's siblings perished the first winter in America, and he alone survived. Richard worked under Allerton for the usual seven years, during which time he learned to be a sailor, working largely in the fishing and coastal cargo-transport business, and in Allerton's business development in Maine. By 1635, Richard was back in London, but the reason for the trip is unknown. His name appears on the manifest of the Blessing in 1635.Manifest of the Blessing 1635 Later, More was an Atlantic ship captain.David Lindsay, Mayflower Bastard: A Stranger amongst the Pilgrims (New York: St. Martins Press 2002), pp. 73-73 Allerton returned from England in 1628. He made a payment to the Merchant Adventurers investment group thus reducing the colony's debt to them. The debt was still a tremendous amount of money estimated into the thousands of pounds. He had obtained a land grant at Kennebec (in present-day Maine), provided by the Council for New England. The Kennebec grant was officially authorized in January 1629, and the Plymouth colonists began to build a fortified trading structure at Cushnoc on the Kennebec River, with Edward Winslow as overseer in charge of the operation.David Lindsay, Mayflower Bastard: A Stranger amongst the Pilgrims (New York: St. Martins Press 2002), p. 72 Allerton was not dealing honestly with the colony and was mixing their money with his from the proceeds of the furs and other goods. And as a result of Allerton's mismanagement and Bradford's lack of business skill, the colony's debts were not only not being paid off but, in fact, increased. Also, Allerton started his own trading post at Kennebec at the same time as the colony was trading there and became a competitor. As a result, it took many years for the colony to repay its debt to the merchant adventurers and they only did so by selling off some of their land.William Bradford, History of Plymouth Plantation by William Bradford, the second Governor of Plymouth (Boston:1856), p. 379Nathaniel Philbrick, Mayflower: A story of Courage, Community and War (New York: Viking, 2006), pp. 168-169 Allerton also brought some unscrupulous persons from England to the colony. One was John Lyford, intended as a pastor for the Plymouth church and another was Thomas Morton, his clerk. Morton was eventually deported twice for his transgressions but came back because William Brewster was his father-in-law.David Lindsay, Mayflower Bastard: A Stranger amongst the Pilgrims (New York: St. Martins Press, 2002), p. 80 This pattern of incompetence continued when, upon his return in 1630, it was revealed that Allerton had also failed to bring much needed supplies.David Lindsay, Mayflower Bastard: A Stranger amongst the Pilgrims (New York: St. Martins Press, 2002), pp. 80-81 Plymouth had built a trading posts at Pentagoet and in 1630 Allerton built his own trading post there (near Castine) putting Edward Ashley in charge. This man was also disreputable and eventually replaced with another agent in mid-1631 after a Pentagoet local gave a disposition in Plymouth. Although Allerton had begun honestly handling the colony's business dealing he wound up enriching himself greatly at the colony's expense and was finally removed from his position. In September 1631 Allerton moved from Plymouth and settled at Marblehead Neck in Salem Harbor.David Lindsay, Mayflower Bastard: A Stranger amongst the Pilgrims (New York: St. Martins Press, 2002), p. 83 Under the year 1631 in colony records William Bradford wrote "Mr. Allerton doth wholly desert them (the people of Plymouth Colony) having brought them into the briars, he leaves them to get out as they can … and sets up a trading house behind Penobscot to cut off trade from there also."Robert S. Wakefield, F.A.S.G. and Margaret Harris Stover, CG., Mayflower Families through Five Generations: Descendants of the Pilgrims who landed at Plymouth, Mass. December 1620, Vol. 17: Family of Isaac Allerton p. 1 By 1633 Allerton had set up yet another trading post in Machias, but lost it with the Treaty of Saint-German-en-Laye of 1632, when England ceded most of the Maine coast to France.William Bradford, History of Plymouth Plantation by William Bradford, the second Governor of Plymouth (Boston:,1856), p. 292 Charles La Tour arrived, killing some of Allerton's men and bringing goods and also prisoners to Port Royal to be ransomed.David Lindsay, Mayflower Bastard: A Stranger amongst the Pilgrims (New York: St. Martins Press, 2002), p. 84 In 1634, more misfortune came to the colony with disease killing many people, among them were Allerton's wife Fear, daughter of William Brewster, as well as her sister Patience, wife of Thomas Prence, who would later be governor of the Plymouth Colony.Jacob Bailey Moore, Memoirs of American Governors (Washington 1846 pub. For subscribers) vol. 1, iv p. 139David Lindsay, Mayflower Bastard: A Stranger amongst the Pilgrims (New York: St. Martins Press, 2002), pp. 84-85 ==New Amsterdam and New Haven== Allerton was finally banished, along with some of his unscrupulous friends from Massachusetts Bay. He then moved to the New Haven Colony. One of Allerton's contacts in London was William Vassall, who had come to Massachusetts in 1630 but shortly returned to England to fight for the rights of those who had not joined the church in Massachusetts. In mid-1635 Vassall returned to Massachusetts with his family on the ship Blessing. Vassall's daughter Judith married Resolved White who was William's eldest son. In 1640 Vassall proposed to Allerton to go to a Caribbean island in which he had an investment in sugar cane.David Lindsay, Mayflower Bastard: A Stranger amongst the Pilgrims (New York: St. Martins Press, 2002), pp. 85, 88, 89 227n3 & 7 By the 1640s, Allerton had simultaneous residences in New Haven and in New Amsterdam, the capital of the Dutch colony of New Netherland (which has become Lower Manhattan in New York City), where he owned property and became influential. He was appointed to the Eight Men, an early citizens advisory board in 1643 by then Director of New Netherland Willem Kieft. By 1646 Allerton lived in New Haven. He died in February 1658/9. ==Marriages== Isaac Allerton was married three times: # Mary Norris of Newbury, England. They married in Leiden, Holland November 4, 1611. She died in Plymouth February 25, 1620/1. # Fear Brewster in Plymouth Colony ca. 1625/26. She died in Plymouth before December 12, 1634. She was a daughter of William and Mary Brewster. # Joanna Swinnerton, probably in New Haven CT before February 17, 1644/5. She was still living in New Haven as of May 19, 1684. ==Children== From Mary Norris: *Bartholomew Allerton. Born Leiden, Holland ca. 1612/13. He moved back to England, marrying (1) Margaret __ and (2) Sarah Fairfax. He had at least four children and died at Bramfield, Suffolk in 1658. *Remember Allerton. Born Leiden ca. 1614/15. She married Moses Maverick before May 6, 1635, and had seven children. She died in Marblehead between September 12, 1652, and October 22, 1656. *Mary Allerton. Born Leiden ca. 1616/17. She married Thomas Cushman in Plymouth about 1636 and had eight children. She died, the last of the Mayflower passengers, on November 28, 1699. *(child) buried at St. Pancras/St. Peters, Leiden February 5, 1620. *(son) was stillborn aboard Mayflower at Plymouth Harbor December 22, 1620. From Fear Brewster: *Sarah Allerton. Born Plymouth ca. 1626/27. Most probably died young - before 1651. *Col. Isaac Allerton Jr. Born Plymouth between May 22, 1627 and 1630. He graduated from Harvard in 1650. He married (1) Elizabeth ____ about 1652 and had two children. She died after June 11, 1655. He married (2) Elizabeth (Willoughby) (Oversee) Colclough about 1663 and had three children. He died in Westmoreland County, Virginia about 1702. He had 21 grandchildren total. ==Burial and will== Isaac Allerton died in February 1658/9 between the 1st (appeared in court) and 12th (date of inventory). He was buried in February. His first wife Mary is believed to have been buried in an unmarked grave, as with many who died the first winter, in Coles Hill Burial Ground, Plymouth, possibly early in 1621. She is named on the Pilgrim Memorial Tomb on Coles Hill as "Mary, first wife of Isaac Allerton." The inventory of Isaac Allerton, late of Newhaven, taken 12 Feb. 1658/9 was presented in the New Haven court 5 April 1659, his son Isaac being away at the time. Isaac produced his father's will on 5 July 1659 and was appointed to settle the estate, but he relinquished the trust. The will is little more than memoranda of debts due him and owned by him, but names his wife and son Isaac Allerton as trustees and they were to receive "what is overpluss." It mentions "brother Breuster." ==Assistant on Pearl Street in New Amsterdam – George "Joris" Woolsey== George "Joris" Woolsey, the progenitor of the Woolsey family in North America, was in the employ of Allerton at his shop on Pearl Street in Manhattan. ==Servant in the company of the Isaac Allerton family on the Mayflower== John Hooke was about thirteen years old and an apprentice/servant to Isaac Allerton. He was born about 1607 in Norwich, Co. Norfolk to John and Alice (Thompson) Hooke who were married on August 9, 1605 at St Peter Mancroft in Norwich. The Hooke family later moved to Leiden in Holland as members of the Separatist Church. On January 8, 1619 John was apprenticed to Isaac Allerton who was at the time a Leiden tailor. The apprenticeship was to last for twelve years. On the Mayflower, Bradford referred to him as "a servant boy, John Hooke." Isaac Allerton's wife Mary and their servant John Hooke both died the first winter in Plymouth.Caleb H. Johnson, The Mayflower and her passengers (Indiana: Xlibris Corp., 2006), p. 159Stratton, pp. 179, 406, 408Charles Edward Banks, The English Ancestry and Homes of the Pilgrim Fathers (New York: Grafton Press, 1929), p. 60 ==References== ==Sources== *The Mayflower Society ==External links== *Isaac Allerton at MayflowerHistory.com *Last Will and Testament of Isaac Allerton at The Plymouth Colony Archive Project * Category:1580s births Category:1659 deaths Category:Mayflower passengers Category:English emigrants to British North America Category:People of New Netherland Category:Burials in Connecticut |
The discography for American musician B. J. Thomas includes releases from five decades, between the 1960s and the 2010s. Thomas is best remembered for his hit songs during the 1960s and 1970s, which appeared on the pop, country and Christian music charts. His popular recordings include the Burt Bacharach and Hal David song "Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head", the Larry Butler and Chips Moman song "(Hey Won't You Play) Another Somebody Done Somebody Wrong Song", and the original version of the Mark James song "Hooked on a Feeling". == Albums == Year Title Peak chart positions Label US US Country CAN 1966 I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry Scepter Records Tomorrow Never Comes 1967 Sings for Lovers and Losers 1968 On My Way 133 1969 Young and in Love Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head 12 10 1970 Greatest Hits Volume 1 90 Everybody's Out of Town 72 71 Most of All 67 44 1971 Greatest Hits Volume 2 92 1972 Country 209 Billy Joe Thomas 145 1973 Songs 221 Paramount 1974 Longhorns & Londonbridges 1975 Reunion 59 2 40 ABC Records Help Me Make It (To My Rockin' Chair) 26 1976 Home Where I Belong Myrrh 1977 B. J. Thomas 114 39 MCA 1978 Everybody Loves a Rain Song 1979 Happy Man Myrrh You Gave Me Love (When Nobody Gave Me a Prayer) 1980 The Best of B. J. Thomas For the Best MCA/Songbird In Concert 1981 Amazing Grace Myrrh Some Love Songs Never Die MCA 1982 As We Know Him Miracle Myrrh Peace in the Valley 1983 The Best of B. J. Thomas Volume 2 Love Shines Priority New Looks 193 13 Columbia The Great American Dream 27 1984 Shining 40 1985 Throwin' Rocks at the Moon All Is Calm, All Is Bright 1986 Night Life 1989 Midnight Minute Reprise Records 1992 Back Against the Wall 1993 Wind Beneath My Wings Sony Music Special Products Still Standing Here Silver City Records 1994 Back/Forward DISA Records Now and Then J & B Records 1995 Precious Memories Warner Bros. Scenes of Christmas Cross Three Records 1997 I Believe Warner Bros. Christmas Is Coming Home Warner Resound 2000 You Call That a Mountain Kardina Records 2002 Greatest & Latest Purple Pyramid Records 2005 That Christmas Feeling Madacy 2006 We Praise: Glorify Thy Name Braun Media We Praise: Just as I Am 2007 Home for Christmas Lifestyles Love to Burn B. J. Thomas Music 2010 Once I Loved Universal Music 2012 The Complete Scepter Singles Real Gone Music 2013 The Living Room Sessions 39 Wrinkled Records 2014 O Holy Night Wrinkled Records 2017 New Looks from an Old Lover: The Complete Columbia Singles Real Gone Music *AShining also peaked at No. 17 on the RPM Country Albums chart in Canada. == Singles == Note: Singles without indicated B-sides may have been only released as promotional copies with stereo and mono versions of the same song. Year Titles (A-side, B-side) Both sides from same album except where indicated Peak chart positions Album US AC US US Country US Christian (CHR)[Powell, Mark Allan (2002). "B. J. Thomas". Encyclopedia of Contemporary Christian Music (First printing ed.). Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers. p. 949.] CAN AC CAN CAN Country AUS 1966 "I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry" b/w "Candy Baby" (from Tomorrow Never Comes) — 8 — — — 2 — — I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry "Mama" b/w "Wendy" — 22 — — — 12 — — "Billy and Sue" b/w "Never Tell" — 34 — — — 23 — — The Very Best of B. J. Thomas "Bring Back the Time" b/w "I Don't Have a Mind of My Own" (from Tomorrow Never Comes) — 75 — — — 53 — — I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry "You'll Never Walk Alone" b/w "Chains of Love" — — — — — — — — The Very Best of B. J. Thomas "Tomorrow Never Comes" b/w "Your Tears Leave Me Cold" (non-album track) — 80 — — — 89 — — Tomorrow Never Comes "Plain Jane" b/w "My Home Town" — 129 — — — — — — 1967 "I Can't Help It (If I'm Still in Love with You)" b/w "Baby Cried" (from Tomorrow Never Comes) — 94 — — — — — — B. J. Thomas Sings for Lovers and Losers "Treasure of Love" b/w "Just the Wisdom of a Fool" — — — — — — — — "Human" b/w "Just the Wisdom of a Fool" (from B. J. Thomas Sings for Lovers and Losers) — — — — — — — — non-album tracks "The Girl Can't Help It" b/w "Walkin' Back" (from Tomorrow Never Comes) — — — — — — — — 1968 "The Eyes of a New York Woman" b/w "I May Never Get To Heaven" (non-album track) — 28 — — — 29 — — On My Way "Hooked on a Feeling" b/w "I've Been Down This Road Before" — 5 — — — 3 — — 1969 "It's Only Love" b/w "You Don't Love Me Anymore" (non-album track) 37 45 — — — 24 — — Young and in Love "Pass the Apple Eve" b/w "Fairy Tale of Time" (non-album track) — 97 — — — 78 — — "Skip a Rope" b/w "You Don't Love Me Anymore" (non-album track) — — — — — — — — "Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head" b/w "Never Had It So Good" (from Young and in Love) 1 1 — — 1 1 — 29 Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head 1970 "Everybody's Out of Town" b/w "Living Again" (from Young and in Love) 3 26 — — — 18 — 21 Everybody's Out of Town "I Just Can't Help Believing" b/w "Send My Picture To Scranton, PA" 1 9 — — — 18 — 31 "Most of All" b/w "The Mask" (from Everybody's Out of Town) 2 38 — — 13 20 — 98 Most of All 1971 "No Love at All" b/w "Have a Heart" (non-album track) 4 16 — — 12 16 — 96 "Mighty Clouds of Joy" b/w "Life" 8 34 — — 25 26 — — Greatest Hits Volume Two "Long Ago Tomorrow" b/w "Burnin' a Hole in My Mind" (non-album track) 13 61 — — — 57 — — 1972 "Rock and Roll Lullaby" b/w "Are We Losing Touch" 1 15 — — 8 7 — 41 Billy Joe Thomas "That's What Friends Are for" b/w "I Get Enthused" 38 74 — — — — — — "Happier Than the Morning Sun" b/w "We Have Got to Get Our Ship Together" 31 100 — — — — — — 1973 "Sweet Cherry Wine" b/w "Roads" — — — — — — — — "Songs" b/w "Goodbye's a Long, Long, Time" 41 — — — — — — — Songs "Early Morning Hush" b/w "Sunday Sunrise" — — — — — — — — 1974 "Play Something Sweet" b/w "Talkin' Confidentially" (from Songs) — — — — — — — — Longhorns & Londonbridges 1975 "(Hey Won't You Play) Another Somebody Done Somebody Wrong Song" b/w "City Boys" 1 1 1 — 1 3 2 10 Reunion "Help Me Make It (To My Rockin' Chair)" b/w "We Are Happy Together" 5 64 37 — 9 67 — — Help Me Make It (To My Rockin' Chair) 1977 "Home Where I Belong" b/w "Hallelujah" — — 98 21 — — — — Home Where I Belong "Without a Doubt" B-side unknown — — — — — — — — "Don't Worry Baby" b/w "My Love" 2 17 — — 1 12 — — B. J. Thomas "Still The Lovin' Is Fun" b/w "Play Me a Little Traveling Music" 8 77 — — 13 86 — — 1978 "I Want To Be More Like Jesus" B-side unknown — — — — — — — — Happy Man "Everybody Loves a Rain Song" b/w "Dusty Roads" 2 43 25 — 11 43 34 — Everybody Loves A Rain Song "Sweet Young America" b/w "Aloha" — — — — — — — — 1979 "We Could Have Been the Closest of Friends" b/w "In My Heart" — — 86 — — — — — non-album tracks "God Bless the Children" b/w "On This Christmas Night" 38 — — — — — — — On This Christmas Night (Various artists) "Happy Man" — — — 5 — — — — Happy Man "What a Difference You've Made" — — — 6 — — — — "He's Got It All in Control" — — — 18 — — — — "From the Start" B-side of the above four tracks unknown — — — 20 — — — — 1980 "Jesus on My Mind" b/w "Using Things and Loving People" — — — 1 — — — — You Gave Me Love (When Nobody Gave Me a Prayer) "The Faith of a Little Child" B-side unknown — — — 7 — — — — "Walkin' on a Cloud" 30 — — — — — — — For the Best "Nothin' Could Be Better" — — — 19 — — — — "Everything Always Works Out for the Best" b/w "No Limit" — — — 10 — — — — 1981 "Uncloudy Day" b/w "Amazing Grace" — — — — — — — — Amazing Grace "Some Love Songs Never Die" b/w "There Ain't No Love" 34 — 27 — — — — — Some Love Songs Never Die "I Recall a Gypsy Woman" b/w "The Lovin' Kind" — — 22 — — — 47 — 1982 "Satan, You're a Liar" B-side unknown — — — 6 — — — — Miracle "But Love Me" b/w "I Really Got the Feeling" 27 — — — — — — — As We Know Him "I'm in Tune (Finding How Good Life Can Be)" — — — — — — — — Miracle 1983 "Whatever Happened to Old-Fashioned Love" b/w "I Just Sing" 13 93 1 — — — 1 39 New Looks "New Looks from an Old Lover" b/w "You Keep the Man in Me Happy" — — 1 — — — 6 — "Pray for Me" B-side unknown — — — 4 — — — — Love Shines "Two Car Garage" b/w "Beautiful World" 44 — 3 — — — 1 91 The Great American Dream 1984 "Odessa Beggarman" — — — 35 — — — — The Best of B. J. Thomas Volume II "The Whole World's in Love When You're Lonely" b/w "We're Here to Love" — — 10 — — — 15 — Shining "The Girl Most Likely To" b/w "From This Moment On" — — 17 — — — 5 — 1985 "The Part of Me That Needs You Most" b/w "Northern Lights" — — 61 — — — 57 — Throwin' Rocks at the Moon 1986 "America Is" b/w "Broken Toys" — — 62 — — — — — "Night Life" b/w "Make the World Go Away" — — 59 — — — — — Night Life 1988 "As Long As We Got Each Other" (with Dusty Springfield) 7 — — — — — — — Midnight Minute 1989 "Don't Leave Love (Out There All Alone)" b/w "One Woman" 39 — — — — — — — 2000 "You Call That a Mountain" — — 66 — — — — — You Call That a Mountain 2013 "I Just Can't Help Believing" (with Vince Gill) — — — — — — — — The Living Room Sessions 2017 "We Are Houston" (with The Music Row Choir) — === Guest singles === Year Single Artist Chart positions Album US Country CAN Country 1984 "Rock and Roll Shoes" Ray Charles 14 15 Friendship == Music videos == Year Video 1983 "Two Car Garage" 2000 "What's Forever For?" == Other album appearances == * "Hallowed Be Thy Name" from The Lord's Prayer (1980) * "Suspicious Minds" from Remembering Elvis: Louisiana Hayrides & Tribute (1999) * "Let There Be Peace on Earth" from Inspirations – George Foreman (2003) * "Tomorrow Never Comes" from Ernest Tubb's Special Guests (2004) * "Raindrops Keep Falling on My Head" from Good Times Again – Glen Campbell (2007) * "Raindrops Keep Falling on My Head" from Even More One Hit Wonders – Lynn Anderson (2008) * "100% Chance of Pain" from Partners, Vol. 2 – T.G. Sheppard (2012) * "Sunny" from Duets with My American Idols – Oleg Frish (2014) == References == == External links == * Category:Discographies of American artists Category:Christian music discographies Category:Country music discographies Category:Pop music discographies Category:Rock music discographies |
James Greenleaf (June 9, 1765 - September 17, 1843) was a late 18th and early 19th century American land speculator responsible for the development of Washington, D.C. after the city was designated as the nation's capital following passage of the Residence Act in 1790. A member of a prominent and wealthy Boston family, he married a Dutch noblewoman, who he later abandoned and then divorced, and served briefly as consul at the United States embassy in Amsterdam. After his return to the United States, Greenleaf engaged in land speculation in Washington, D.C., New York state, and other areas. His land business collapsed in 1797, and he spent a year in debtor's prison. He married a wealthy Pennsylvania heiress after his release, and spent the remainder of his life in genteel poverty, fending off lawsuits. ==Early life and education== Greenleaf was born on June 9, 1765, in Boston, Massachusetts to William and Mary (Brown) Greenleaf. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 211. Accessed October 29, 2012. Greenleaf, p. 101. Accessed October 29, 2012. He was the 12th of 15 children. His father William Greenleaf was a merchant who was appointed Sheriff of Suffolk County, Massachusetts during the American Revolutionary War.Roberts, et al., p. 407. Accessed October 29, 2012. Greenleaf was a member of the committee of correspondence, which communicated secretly with other cities regarding British policy and military actions and was a core base of support for the American Revolution. Greenleaf, p. 91. Accessed October 29, 2012. In July 1776, following the signing of the Declaration of Independence, Greenleaf announced American independence from the balcony of the Old State House in Boston. Among the crowd assembled for the announcement in Boston were John Quincy Adams and William Cranch. Adams was later elected President of the United States; Cranch was appointed as Chief Justice of the U.S. Circuit Court for the District of Columbia and the second Reporter of Decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court. The Greenleafs were Huguenots who fled France for England, seeking to escape religious persecution. They anglicized their family name of Feuillevert to Greenleaf. Greenleaf's great grandfather Edmund was born in 1574, in Ipswich in Suffolk, England. His great grandfather Stephen was born there in 1628. The entire family emigrated to Newbury, Massachusetts in 1635. Greenleaf, p. 71, 78-70. Accessed October 29, 2012. The Greenleaf family was among the best connected in early American history. Greenleaf's sister Rebecca married Noah Webster, who compiled the first American dictionary. Another of his sisters married Nathaniel Appleton, the minister and trustee of Harvard University. His sister Margaret married Thomas Dawes, a member of the Massachusetts Governor's Council, and his sister Abigail married William Cranch. The family's descendants also played a large role in American literature. The poet John Greenleaf Whittier was descended from James' great-grandfather Stephen. The 20th century poet T. S. Eliot was a descendant of Abigail Greenleaf Cranch.Snyder, p. 87. However, little is known about Greenleaf's early life or education. In 1781, when he was 16, his father retired from business and the Greenleaf family moved to New Bedford, Massachusetts. ==Career== In 1788, Greenleaf left Massachusetts and moved to Philadelphia, where Noah Webster introduced him to businessman James Watson.Kendall, p. 142. The two men established an import business, Watson & Greenleaf, with offices in Philadelphia and New York City.Clark, Records of the Columbia Historical Society, p. 214. Accessed October 30, 2012. After his business was incorporated, Greenleaf traveled to the Netherlands in the mid to late 1780s, where he tried to sell American bonds.Livermore, p. 164, fn. 66. According to John Quincy Adams, who was in Amsterdam at the same time, Greenleaf rented a magnificent mansion and immediately began circulating in high society in the city. Greenleaf was in Amsterdam from January 31, 1789, through August 1793, where he conducted business with Daniel Crommelin & Sons, a major Dutch investment banking house marketing American bonds.Livermore, p. 164-165, fn. 66. He sold nearly two million bonds during this time and $160,000 worth of stock in the Bank of the United States, a central bank established by the U.S. federal government.Livermore, p. 165, fn. 66. He amassed a fortune worth $1 million, a very large sum at the time.Roberts and Schmidt, p. 15.Berg, p. 206.Historian Joshua Kendall estimates his net worth at the time as $1.3 million, or about $400 million in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars. See: Kendall, p. 165. ===Washington, D.C. land speculation=== Greenleaf arrived in Washington, D.C. on September 17, 1793 and was present at the laying of the cornerstone of the United States Capitol the following day, on September 18, 1793 at which time Greenleaf met President George Washington.Morris, p. 118. Greenleaf quickly ingratiated himself with several of Washington's closest friends, including Tobias Lear, who served as Washington's secretary from 1785 to June 1793.Syrett and Cooke, p. 16, fn. 2. Greenleaf provided seed money for Lear's mercantile venture, Tobias Lear & Co., in 1793.Bryan, p. 221. Greenleaf also associated with Thomas Johnson, who Washington had appointed as one of three commissioners of the District of Columbia. Greenleaf purchased of Johnson's land in Frederick County, Maryland for $14,000 in September 1793.Arnebeck, "Tracking the Speculators ...", p. 116. The Residence Act of 1790, which established the site for the nation's capital, provided for the appointment of three commissioners by the President without the need for Senate confirmation to govern the Washington, D.C. survey its land, purchase property from private landowners, and construct federal buildings.Pinheiro, p. 212. On September 23, 1793, Greenleaf purchased 3,000 city lots from the commissioners.Clark, Records of the Columbia Historical Society, p. 216. Accessed October 30, 2012. The city offered him the lots at $66.50 each,Royster, p. 358.Warren and Brownson, p. 56. a significant discount from the going price of $200 to $300 per lot. To secure this below market price, Greenleaf was required to construct 70 homes on the lots before 1800, not sell any of the land before 1796, and lend the commissioners $2,200 a month until certain public buildings were constructed.Bowling, p. 104. To raise money to improve the lots, Greenleaf executed a power of attorney on November 2, 1793, with Sylvanus Bourne, the American vice consul in Amsterdam. Bourne, who served as vice consul in Amsterdam under Greenleaf, was empowered to sell lots or obtain mortgages on them. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 82. Accessed October 29, 2012. On November 19, 1793, Greenleaf moved into the Pearl Street home of Noah Webster in New York City.Kendall, p. 172. The September 23 agreement with the commissioners was superseded by a subsequent agreement on December 24, 1793, with Greenleaf and his new business partner, Robert Morris. Morris was a Philadelphia merchant and one of 56 signatories to the Declaration of Independence and also to the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution. He was Chairman of the Pennsylvania Committee of Safety during the Revolutionary War, a delegate to the Second Continental Congress, and was appointed Superintendent of Finance for the U.S. Next to General George Washington, Morris was considered "the most powerful man in America."Rappleye, p. 252. At the time he became Greenleaf's business partner, Morris also was one of Pennsylvania's original U.S. senators (his term ended in 1795). ===Morris and Nicholson partnership=== Greenleaf first approached his existing business partner, James Watson, with an offer to finance the purchase of the lots and the construction on them. Watson declined, and Greenleaf dissolved their partnership.Clark, Records of the Columbia Historical Society, p. 217. Accessed October 30, 2012. Greenleaf then turned to Morris, then the richest man in America and a speculator in millions of acres of land. Morris was already one of the most important land speculators in the Northeast. He purchased the western portion of the Phelps and Gorham Purchase.Under its royal provincial charter of October 7, 1691, Massachusetts had a legal claim to all land to its west extending as far west as Lake Erie). To settle this claim, the states of New York and Massachusetts signed the Treaty of Hartford of 1786 in which the title to the land was awarded to New York. However, Massachusetts had the right to sell the land, not New York. In April 1788, Oliver Phelps and Nathaniel Gorham agreed to purchase a section of this land, known as the Phelps and Gorham Purchase, for £300,000. They held bonds issued by the state worth £1.5 million, but the bonds had devalued by four fifths since their issuance. Phelps and Gorham purchased of land from the Iroquois in 1788, which included all land south and west of the northern tip of Lake Seneca, south to the Pennsylvania border and west to Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. Phelps and Gorham were only able to obtain title from the Iroquois to of land between Lake Seneca and about the 78 degrees west latitude.an area of western New York consisting of about —in March 1791 for $366,333.33.Chernow, p. 61. This area became known as Morris Reserve. Morris quickly sold of the reserve to The Pulteney Association in March 1791 for £75,000 for a profit of $216,128.Chernow, p. 54-55. This tract became known as the "Pulteney Tract". Morris' association with Greenleaf started in February 1792, when Morris sold of the Morris Reserve to Greenleaf, Watson, and Andrew Craigie for £15,000 ($37,500).Chernow, p. 71. Morris sold another to the Holland Land Company between December 1792 and July 1793 for £112,500, and his son sold to the Holland Land Company for $500,000.Chernow, p. 64-65. Morris sold another (known as "the Triangle Tract") to an investor group in January 1793.In September 1797, Morris secured title to all these lands from the Iroquois by negotiating the Treaty of Big Tree. He in turn passed the title on to the various purchasers of his land. Fixico, p. 76. By 1794, Morris was also an investor in the Virginia Yazoo Company, which was leveraging its political influence to purchase vast tracts of land from the state of Georgia (in what is the modern state of Mississippi) at low prices for land speculation.Markham, p. 103. Greenleaf and Morris purchased 6,000 lots under the same conditions as the September agreement.Abbot, et al., p. 16. At least 1,500 of these lots were required to be in the northeast quadrant of Washington, D.C., but Greenleaf could take his pick of lots anywhere else in the city for the remainder. The monthly loan to the commissioners also increased to $2,660 per commissioner per month. An additional clause required that the 6,000 lots include 428.5 lots on Buzzard Point owned by Notley Young, a plantation owner in Prince George's County, Maryland, and 220 lots on Buzzard Point owned by Daniel Carroll, a Founding Father and Maryland landowner whose plantation became part of the District of Columbia. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 68, 71. Accessed November 24, 2012. The contract also included provisions identical to those in the September 23 contract, which required no down payment, did not require the first payment until May 1, 1794, required only annual payments of one-sixth of the total amount of the purchase price annually thereafter, and did not impose any interest. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 67. Accessed November 24, 2012. With these transactions, Greenleaf and his co-investors controlled about half the federal government's sellable land in Washington, D.C.Kendall, p. 171. The December 24 contract with the city provided that Greenleaf and Morris could bring in a third partner, although the requirement to construct buildings was not binding on this partner.Clark, Records of the Columbia Historical Society, p. 218. Accessed October 30, 2012. The partner they brought in was John Nicholson, who had served as comptroller general of Pennsylvania from 1782 to 1794. In 1792, Nicholson negotiated the purchase from the federal government of the tract known as the Erie Triangle. Along with an agent of the Holland Land Company, Aaron Burr, Robert Morris, and other individual and institutional investors, he formed the Pennsylvania Population Company. This organization, in turn, purchased all 390 parcels of land in the Erie Triangle. Nicholson was impeached in 1794 for his role in the company.Munger, p. 143. ===Financial strains and New York land speculation=== Greenleaf continued to expand his land holdings, purchasing of Anacostia River waterfront from various owners in December 1793, and near Alexandria, Virginia, in 1794. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 72. Accessed November 24, 2012. He also purchased 239.25 lots east of Georgetown from local landowners Uriah Forrest and Benjamin Stoddert. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 71. Accessed November 24, 2012.Arnebeck, "Tracking the Speculators ...", p. 118. Another 1,000 lots of Notley Young's land were transferred to Greenleaf on April 24, 1794. Greenleaf relied on his brother-in-law, Nathaniel Appleton, for assistance with his land purchases. But when Appleton fell ill in September 1794, Greenleaf summoned his brother- in-law and friend William Cranch to Washington, D.C. to act as his sales agent.Brown and Thornton, p. 125.Clark, Records of the Columbia Historical Society, p. 221. Accessed October 30, 2012. Greenleaf bought out Watson's 25% interest in the Morris Reserve tract but was forced to sell his shares in the land to Oliver Phelps before the end of 1794.Higgins, p. 131. Greenleaf's construction activities meant that, by 1794, he owned one third of the buildings for sale in Washington, D.C. Among the buildings he began constructing in that year were the four townhouses that became known as Wheat Row.Evelyn, Dickson, and Ackerman, p. 89. To finance these land acquisitions and construction activities, Greenleaf turned to Dutch financiers. Sources differ on whether Greenleaf traveled to the Netherlands in 1794 or stayed in Philadelphia and New York City during the year.Royster, p. 539. Whichever is the case, he was able to convince the Dutch government to pass legislation appointing agents and advocates for his business affairs. They began offering mortgages on the 6,000 Washington, D.C. lots. The guardians were authorized to accept mortgages not exceeding two million guilders ($8 million). But by July 1795, only 20,000 guilders ($80,000) had been raised. Greenleaf's friend Sylvanus Bourne attempted to find mortgages in Rotterdam,but was unsuccessful. Seeking a million guilders in loans, he secured just 150,000 guilders ($60,000).Clark, Records of the Columbia Historical Society, p. 219. Accessed October 30, 2012. ===Land deal with Aaron Burr=== Greenleaf continued to be active in land speculation in New York state in addition to his speculation elsewhere in the U.S. In 1791, New York merchant Alexander Macomb purchased from New York state, a tract known as "Macomb's Purchase". Macomb sold to William Constable for £50,000 (in dollars). Six months later, Constable sold to banker Samuel Ward for £100,000 pounds (in dollars).Schneider, p. 90. Constable and Ward agreed to sell to the British land speculator John Julius Angerstein. But New York state barred non-citizens from owning property in the state, so Constable and Ward argued that if the law was not changed they would buy the land back from Angerstein. The problem was that neither Constable nor Ward had the funds to do so. William Stephens Smith, son-in-law of President John Adams, held power of attorney for Angerstein, and in September 1794 he convinced Aaron Burr to buy Historian Arnold Rogow estimates the purchase at . of Angerstein's land for £24,000. Smith, in an obvious conflict of interest, assured Burr that he would provide half the sale price. But Smith withdrew from the purchase, leaving Burr to come up with the entire amount. Burr could not afford to do so. Either Ward or Burr (sources are unclear) sought out Greenleaf for financial assistance.Barlow, p. 3.Rogow, p. 171. On November 25, 1794,Defebaugh, p. 390. Greenleaf agreed to contribute £12,000 (about $500,000 in 2012 inflation-adjusted dollars) to help Burr purchase Angerstein's land. Constable and Ward conveyed the deed to Greenleaf in December 1794.Desjardins, Pharoux, and Gallucci, p. 370, fn. 54. But Greenleaf was deep in debt. He purchased a cargo of tea from Rhode Island merchant John Brown, whose family funded and lent its name to Brown University. Greenleaf paid for the cargo partly in cash, and took out a mortgage with Philip Livingston in 1795 on the Angerstein land to pay for the remainder. But the purchase agreement with Constable and Ward/Angerstein barred the land from being mortgaged. Greenleaf then defaulted on his agreement to help Burr. Burr was facing the loss of his own £12,000 as well as the Angerstein property. Angerstein was unhappy as well, upset that Ward had sold and that Greenleaf had mortgaged the property. Angerstein hired attorney Alexander Hamilton, who had just resigned as Secretary of the Treasury, to press his case. A series of suits and countersuits lasting years followed, causing increasingly bad feelings between Burr and Hamilton. Burr dueled with Hamilton over other issues on July 11, 1804, killing Hamilton. Greenleaf was unable to make his mortgage payments on the Angerstein land, and Livingston foreclosed in December 1798. Brown bought the mortgage for $33,000. These became known as Brown's Tract. ===U.S. consul to the Netherlands=== On March 2, 1793, Greenleaf was named consul at the United States embassy in Amsterdam.Whelan, Frank. "Land Rich to Dirt Poor: James Greenleaf Gambled and Lost in Early D.C." Allentown Morning Call. July 4, 1999. Accessed October 29, 2012.Smith and Goebel, p. 151, fn. 72. He served only about six weeks, returning to the U.S. on April 29, 1793.Arnebeck, Through a Fiery Trial, p. 172. In October 1794, Greenleaf moved out of Webster's home in New York City after hosting a raucous party in the Webster home in October, leading Webster to demand that he move.Kendall, p. 177. ===Land deal with Law=== Greenleaf returned to Washington, D.C. in December 1794, where he became acquainted with Thomas Law, a wealthy British merchant who had just arrived in America. Law was son of Edmund Law, the Bishop of Carlisle. Law's brother John Law was Bishop of Clonfert and Kilmacduagh and Bishop of Killala and Achonry, and in 1795 was named Bishop of Elphin. His brother Edward Law served as Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales from 1802 to 1818. Another brother, George Henry Law, became Bishop of Chester in 1812 and Bishop of Bath and Wells in 1824. Thomas Law spent years working for the East India Company in India, where he made a fortune in trade.See, generally, Clark, Thomas Law: A Biographical Sketch, 1900. Law arrived in Washington, D.C. in the summer of 1794,Bryan, p. 244. Accessed November 2, 2012. and he met Greenleaf in November or December of that year. Law was deeply impressed with Greenleaf, Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 94. Accessed October 29, 2012. On December 4, 1794,Dowd, p. 10. and Greenleaf sold 500 city lots to Law for £50,000 (or $133,000). The price per lot was $297.60, a 372 percent increase over the $80 per lot which Greenleaf, Morris, and Nicholson had paid for them a year earlier. ===North American Land Company founding=== Although Greenleaf continued purchasing land by promising that Dutch loans would be forthcoming, the prospect of Dutch money came to an end in January 1795. A coalition of states, the "First Coalition", formed in 1793 to invade Revolutionary France and bring down the French First Republic. One of the largest of the First Coalition armies gathered along the Franco-Belgian border. Initial success by the First Coalition turned to stalemate, and France counterattacked by invading Belgium and the Netherlands in March 1794 in what became known as the Flanders Campaign. A majority of the Dutch people supported the French invasion, believing it would end of the authoritarian Orangist government.Schama, p. 77, 131, 187. As the French approached Amsterdam, a pro-French republican revolution overthrew William V of Orange on January 18, 1795.Schama, p. 191, 195. The Amsterdam banking and investment community was suddenly no longer in a position to back any distant investments.Sakolski, p. 165. Just when Greenleaf or his lenders learned of the Dutch revolution is unclear, but the war in Europe already placed Morris and Nicholson in deep financial trouble by 1794.Mann, p. 201. Many European companies and individuals which owed Morris money had declared bankruptcy, leaving Greenleaf with severe cash flow challenges.Mann, p. 202. On February 20, 1795, Greenleaf, Morris, and Nicholson formed the North American Land Company (NALC) to finance their land speculation business. According to one historian of American land speculation, the NALC was the "largest land trust ever known in America".Sakolski, p. 38. The three partners turned over to the company land throughout the U.S. totaling more than , most of it valued at about 50 cents an acre. In addition to land in Washington, D.C., there were in Georgia,Sakolski, p. 143. in Kentucky, in North Carolina, in Pennsylvania, in South Carolina, and in Virginia.Oberholtzer, p. 312-313. NALC was authorized to issue 30,000 shares, each worth $100. To encourage investors to purchase shares, the three partners guaranteed that a 6% dividend would be paid annually. To ensure that there was enough money to issue the dividend, each partner put 3,000 of their own NALC shares in escrow.Any inability to pay the dividend would result in the sale of these shares to make up the difference. Any income would first go into the escrow account to restore it to the agreed- upon level before any distribution could be made to shareholders. Greenleaf, Morris, and Nicholson were entitled to receive a 2.5 percent commission on any land the company sold. Greenleaf was named secretary of the new company. ===North American Land Company collapse=== thumb|Share certificate issued by the North American Land Company in 1795. NALC encountered financial difficulty almost immediately. Only of land was turned over to it, which meant it could issue only 22,365 shares. This meant only 7,455 shares were put in escrow instead of the required 9,000. Rather than paying creditors with cash, NALC paid them with 8,477 shares in 1795 and 1796.Livermore, p. 168. On May 15, 1795, Washington, D.C. commissioners demanded their first payment from Greenleaf, Morris, and Nicholson for the 6,000 lots purchased in 1793. But Greenleaf had misappropriated some of the company's income to pay his own debts. Without the Dutch mortgage income and missing funds, there was no money to make the payment to the commissioners. Greenleaf also had co-signed for loans taken out by Morris and Nicholson. When these men defaulted, creditors sought Greenleaf to make good on all the debts, and he could not.Mann, p. 200. On July 10, 1795, Morris and Nicholson bought out Greenleaf's interest in the December 24, 1793, agreement. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 70. Accessed November 24, 2012. The commissioners began legal proceedings to regain title to the 6,000 lots owned by NALC and the 1,115.25 lots owned by Greenleaf personally. The worsening financial problems of Greenleaf, Morris, and Nicholson led to increasingly strained relations among the three men. Nicholson, particularly bitter, began making public accusations against Greenleaf in print. Morris attempted to mediate between the two men, but his efforts failed. In an attempt to resolve his financial problems, Greenleaf sold his shares in NALC to Nicholson and Morris on May 28, 1796, for $1.5 million. Unfortunately, Morris and Nicholson funded their purchase by giving Greenleaf personal notes and endorsed each other's notes. Morris and Nicholson, both nearly bankrupt, agreed to pay one quarter of the purchase price annually for the next four years. Under the agreement, Greenleaf's shares were not to be transferred to Morris and Nicholson until the fourth annual payment was received. Although Greenleaf had a net worth of $5 million (about $1.5 billion in inflation-adjusted 2010 dollars) in 1796, he was having trouble raising the cash to meet his obligations. Land sales were not occurring fast enough or at prices high enough to allow him to meet his debt payments. He offered Alexander Hamilton $1 million in July 1796 if Hamilton would lend his name and reputation to Greenleaf's attempt to raise money, but Hamilton refused.Kendall, p. 178. On September 30, 1796, Greenleaf placed 7,455 of his NALC shares in a trust known as the "391 trust" because it was recorded on page 391 of the firm's accounting book. The 391 trust was created to generate income from the 6% dividend to pay a loan given to Greenleaf by Edward Fox. A trustee was assigned to hold on to the shares. The same day, Greenleaf put 2,545 shares into another trust (the "381 trust"), as a guarantee against nonpayment of the dividend by Morris and Nicholson.Livermore, p. 166. Morris and Nicholson's made the first payment to Greenleaf for the one-third interest in the NALC by turning over title to several hundred lots in Washington, D.C. On March 8, 1797, Greenleaf executed the 381 trust.Greenleaf executed another trust on October 11, 1796, transferring real estate and notes owed to him to this trust as security for payment of yet another debt. On March 23, 1797, the trustee of the third trust executed assigned certain real estate and notes under the October 11 trust to Henry Pratt and others. When the NALC did not issue its 6% dividend, Greenleaf transferred a third of the shares in the 391 trust to the trustees.Originally, there was just a single trustee for the 391 trust, George Simpson. Simpson later brought in other trustees, including Henry Pratt. The Pratt trustees purchased $4,725 in notes issued by Morris and Nicholson in order to shore up their trust and, perhaps, to help keep Morris and Nicholson out of bankruptcy. The total number of shares transferred to the "381 trust" trustees was now 6,119.Livermore, p. 169. On June 26, 1797, Greenleaf, Morris, Nicholson, and the trustees of the 381 and 391 trusts executed a new agreement creating an aggregate fund. Morris and Nicholson turned over all their Washington, D.C. real estate and all their NALC shares to the fund. The aggregate fund, which now held the vast bulk of NALC's shares, was created to administer NALC for the benefit of the 381 and 391 trusts. The fund was also to pay the debts owed to Washington, D.C. commissioners, Daniel Carroll, and $900,000 in debt incurred by Greenleaf.At least $831,500 of the Greenleaf debt was a result of Greenleaf pledging himself as security for notes issued by Morris and Nicholson. When they defaulted on them, creditors sought relief from Greenleaf.The facts about the various trusts is set out in Exceptions to the Auditor's Report in the Matter of the 381 Trust, 10 Court of Common Pleas, Phila. 297 (1877), 297-299. Accessed November 24, 2012. Greenleaf later purchased 541 NALC shares on the open market and was again elected secretary of the company. Morris attempted to keep NALC afloat. He sent agents throughout Europe to try to find investors, but found few takers.Mann, p. 200-201. With poor business practices dragging down NALC, Morris and Nicholson acting as personal guarantors of each other's notes, and many of these notes coming due, neither man was able to pay them. Creditors began selling the notes publicly, often at steeply discounted prices. By 1798, Morris and Nicholson's $10 million in personal notes were trading at one eighth their face value. NALC also discovered that some of titles to the of land it owned were not clearly established, which prohibited it from being used as security. In other cases, NALC found it had been swindled, and the rich land it thought it owned turned out to be barren and worthless. ===Debtor's prison=== Greenleaf's funds were exhausted and he unable to pay even a single debt by 1797. He was sentenced to serve time in the Philadelphia Debtors' Prison. Although the exact date that he entered debtor's prison in 1797 is not known, he was definitely incarcerated by October 18, 1797. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City. Accessed November 24, 2012. His debt was eventually discharged, and he was released on August 30, 1798, having served less than a year. Morris and Nicholson were able to avoid debtor's prison for a time. Both men fled to their homes in Philadelphia. At the time, individuals serving notice of a court suit had to deliver the notice personally. So long as both men remained inside their homes, they could not be served, and could avoid being sued. For several years, creditors' agents camped out on Morris and Nicholson's doorsteps and in their gardens. Eventually both men were finally served, and both were sentenced to debtor's prison. Morris entered prison on February 16, 1798, and Nicholson in the summer of 1799.Sakolski, p. 166. Nicholson died in prison on December 5, 1800.Aaseng, p. 34. Morris was released on August 26, 1801, but died penniless and broken in 1806. ===Resolution of the North American Land Company=== The North American Land Company remained in existence until 1872.Livermore, p. 169. Morris and Nicholson honestly believed that, if their cash flow problems were resolved, they could make payments on the property they owned and their shares would be returned to them. But this proved incorrect. On October 23, 1807, all stock in the company was sold at seven cents on the dollar to accountants managing the aggregate fund. By 1856, the company had produced just over $92,000 in income. Morris and Nicholson's heirs sued to recover the stock and gain access to the income; in 1880, each estate was awarded $9,962.49. From 1797 to 1843, Greenleaf was a party, plaintiff, or defendant in six lawsuits, which proceeded to the U.S. Supreme Court. He successfully defended himself in all six of the cases. In another seven suits regarding the aggregate fund, which also went to the Supreme Court, Greenleaf was either completely or partially successful. Supreme Court cases naming Greenleaf directly include: *Knox v. Greenleaf, 4 U.S. 360 (1802) *O'Neale v. Thornton, 10 U.S. 53 (1810) *Fletcher v. Peck, 10 U.S. 87 (1810) *Pratt and Others v. Carroll, 12 U.S. 471 (1814)North American Land Company's Estate. Lawrence's Appeal. Phillips's Appeal, 83 Pennsylvania State Reports 493 (Pa. State Sup. Ct., 1877), 493-516. Accessed November 24, 2012. *Pratt v. Law & Campbell, 13 U.S. 456 (1815) *Greenleaf v. Cook, 15 U.S. 13 (1817) *Bayley v. Greenleaf, 20 U.S. 46 (1822) *Greenleaf v. Queen, 26 U.S. 138 (1828) *Greenleaf's Lessee v. Birth, 30 U.S. 132 (1831) *Greenleaf v. Birth, 34 U.S. 292 (1835) *Potomac Steamboat Co. v. Upper Potomac Steamboat Co., 109 U.S. 672 (1884) Yet another case, Morris v. United States, 174 U.S. 196 (1899), involved a suit against the estate of Robert Morris, and helped resolve a long-running boundary dispute in Washington, D.C. The case discusses Greenleaf, Nicholson, and Morris' involvement in selling lots on Water Street in the city. ===Return to Washington, D.C.=== As early as 1816 or 1817, Greenleaf made known to his wife, who was residing in their Allentown, Pennsylvania residence, his desire to return to Washington, D.C. full-time. Ann Greenleaf, however, expressed her unwillingness to leave Allentown. In an 1817 letter to her friend and trustee, William Tilghman, she wrote: > It would be unkind of me to say to Mr. Greenleaf, that I never shall be > reconciled to a residence in Washington, D.C., and I believe that he does > not suspect that such are my sentiments, but I say to you my dear Sir > unhesitatingly, that I dislike Washington...I love retirement, particularly > the retirement of Allentown. Ann did ultimately accompany her husband to Washington, D.C. for short periods. They spent Christmas 1821 in the city, and during the winter of 1826 they rented a home owned by William H. Crawford on 14th Street NW just north of Thomas Circle. They also spent the summer of 1828 in the city, living at Washington House at 222 North Capitol Street. During the first two decades of the new century, Greenleaf repaired many of his personal relationships. By 1830, he had reconciled with most of his family. He spent Christmas 1830 at the Washington, D.C. home of his brother-in-law, William Cranch. During this stay, he also reunited with Noah Webster for the first time in years.Kendall, p. 278. Although he was not estranged from his wife, Greenleaf moved permanently to Washington, D.C. in 1831. For the remainder of his life, he listed his primary residence as Washington, D.C. while Ann continued to live in the couple's mansion in Allentown. In 1831, or shortly before, Greenleaf constructed a two story wooden house on the corner of 1st and C Streets NE (lots 17 and 18) in Washington, D.C., just around the corner from William Cranch's home. His property included a stable with two horses and some cows. He grew mulberry trees, a widower acted as his housekeeper and cook, and her son-in-law worked as his gardener. Greenleaf also owned a small farm of perhaps an acre or less at 6th Street and Virginia Avenue, SW. The site was later the location of the Jefferson School, designed by local architect Adolf Cluss, and sheltered Major General William Tecumseh Sherman and some of his officers after the Second Battle of Bull Run in 1862. It was razed around 1870. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 209. Accessed November 24, 2012.Lessoff and Mauch, p. 177. The final years of Greenleaf's life were spent quietly. His few financial needs were met by his wife and by speaking fees. By the late 1830s, he had paid off or otherwise resolved almost all his debts and had extensive land holdings, though little of it was developed. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 212. Accessed November 24, 2012. He associated with childhood friends John Quincy Adams, William Cranch, and Cranch's wife Nancy, who was Greenleaf's sister, and attended the Unitarian Church. He otherwise had few friends and did not socialize much, preferring to spend most of his time sleeping, eating, and reading in the library on the ground floor of his home. He continued, however, to make occasional visits to Allentown to see his wife. In the final few years of his life, Greenleaf's assistant was Bushrod Robinson, later a lieutenant in the Union Army and a local businessman and Washington, D.C. socialite. At the time he knew Greenleaf, Robinson was still in his early 20s. Robinson described Greenleaf as tall, about , blond haired, clean shaven, courteous, and a great lover of children and books. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 214. Accessed November 24, 2012. (Greenleaf owned 2,612 books, which was an extremely large library for the day.) ==Death== On September 1, 1843, or thereabouts, Greenleaf fell ill. His health did not decline too much, however, and the illness seemed minor. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 211. Accessed November 24, 2012. When Greenleaf's sister, Nancy Cranch, died on September 16, 1843, however, he went into a state of shock on learning of her death. Greenleaf's health deteriorated rapidly over the next few hours, and he died in the early morning hours of September 17, 1843, at age 78. Greenleaf was interred in Congressional Cemetery in Washington, D.C. Ann Greenleaf continued to live in her Allentown mansion for the next eight years. Blind in the last few years of her life,Roberts, Stoudt, Krick, and Dietrich, p. 408. she died in Allentown on September 21, 1851. She was originally buried in the family vault in the Christ Church cemetery in Allentown.Roberts, Stoudt, Krick, and Dietrich, p. 43. Accessed December 3, 2012. Her remains were later moved to North Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia. ==Personal life== ===First marriage=== thumb|upright=1.1|Greenleaf's first wife, Baroness Antonia Scholten van Aschat, c. 1795 In 1788, Greenleaf married Dutch Baroness Antonia Cornelia Elbertine Scholten van Aschat et Oud-Haarlem.Noah and Rebecca Webster named their daughter Emily Scholten in her honor. Kendall, p. 158. She was a member of a powerful Dutch banking family, and noble-born.Arnebeck, Tracking the Speculators ... , p. 114. Greenleaf said that, in 1796, he and the baroness made love soon after his arrival in Amsterdam. He made it clear that neither had seduced the other. When he returned to the U.S., he learned she was pregnant. He claims he immediately returned to Amsterdam to marry her, and was told that she had miscarried. The van Aschat family convinced him to marry her anyway, and he did so in 1788. Greenleaf said that his wife's maid soon revealed that there had been no pregnancy. By this time, the baroness was pregnant, and she gave birth to a son. Greenleaf says his wife later tried to commit suicide after which he separated from her. During his brief marriage, Greenleaf communicated to Noah Webster how unhappy he was with the baroness.Micklethwait, p. 127. Greenleaf returned to the U.S., and a judge in Rhode Island granted him a divorce on September 3, 1796.Arnebeck, "Tracking the Speculators ...", p. 140, fn. 2. Greenleaf's contemporaries and modern historians dispute his account of his marriage and divorce. Historian Allen Clark, who in the late 19th century interviewed Greenleaf's contemporaries, dismissed the account of deception and said that the couple fell in love and, after a three-month romance, married.Clark, Records of the Columbia Historical Society, p. 215. Accessed October 30, 2012. But Greenleaf's critics in the 1820s and 1830s said Greenleaf seduced the baroness to gain access to Dutch banking circles and capital for real estate investing. There also is dispute about their divorce. Historians Joseph Smith and Julius Goebel claim the baroness divorced Greenleaf, not the other way around.Smith and Goebel, p. 385, fn. 5. Accessed October 29, 2012. James and Antonia had two children before their marriage ended: William Christian James Greenleaf, born September 6, 1790, and Marie Josephine Wilhelmina Matilda Greenleaf (no date of birth known).Friedenberg, p. 344. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 90. Accessed October 29, 2012. Greenleaf's land and financial speculations ruptured his relationships with his family, most of whom he had persuaded to invest in them. It also left impoverished the family of William Cranch, who married Greenleaf's sister, and many Bostonians.Nagel, p. 133. But by early 1795, Greenleaf mended his personal relationship with his old business partner, James Watson, and with other business associates in New York City. He also was reconciled with his sister Rebecca. Having been ejected from Noah Webster's home, Greenleaf moved to PhiladelphiaMicklethwait, p. 129. possibly because it was considered the halfway point between Washington, D.C. and New York City. On March 9, 1795, Greenleaf purchased the Landsdowne estate of John Penn, the last colonial governor of Pennsylvania, for $37,000. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 76-77. Accessed November 24, 2012. Penn built a luxurious mansion on the estate in or around 1773, and died February 9, 1795.Kornwolf, p. 1217. Then, on April 15, 1795, Greenleaf purchased General Philemon Dickinson's house on Chestnut Street, on a corner opposite Robert Morris' home, in Philadelphia for $28,000. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 76. Accessed November 24, 2012. Greenleaf held lavish parties at both homes. Greenleaf did not live long in Philadelphia. His house there was seized by the county sheriff for nonpayment of debts at some point during 1797 and sold at auction for $55,100. Dickinson foreclosed on Greenleaf's other home for nonpayment of the mortgage on November 29, 1797, but Dickinson repurchased it at auction for $15,733. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 77. Accessed November 24, 2012. By late 1797, Greenleaf was on the verge of bankruptcy. But there was no national bankruptcy law. Congress did not pass one until the Bankruptcy Act of 1800,Landau and Krueger, p. 210. so Greenleaf was forced to apply for bankruptcy in each state where he had conducted business. He first applied for bankruptcy in Pennsylvania on March 10, 1798, although his debts were not settled and his case was not discharged there until March 1804. He then applied for bankruptcy in Maryland on February 9, 1799, and his case was discharged on August 30. In 1802, Greenleaf applied for bankruptcy under the new federal bankruptcy law. His federal case was discharged on March 17, 1804. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 172. Accessed November 24, 2012. ===Second marriage=== While Greenleaf was in bankruptcy court, he married his second wife, Ann Penn Allen (nicknamed "Nancy"), on April 26, 1800.Clark, Records of the Columbia Historical Society, p. 223. Accessed December 2, 2012. Allen was known to Greenleaf as early as 1795; Thomas Law mentioned her in a letter about Greenleaf that year. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 101. Accessed November 24, 2012. She came from a wealthy and famous family; her father was James Allen, a prominent businessman and political figure in Allentown. Her grandfather was William Allen, former Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania and founder of Allentown. Her mother was Elizabeth Lawrence, daughter of Tench Francis Sr., a prominent lawyer in colonial Maryland and Pennsylvania, and her uncle was Sir Philip Francis, the Irish-born British politician and political pamphleteer who authored the Letters of Junius. Ann was also heir to her father's large estate. To protect herself from Greenleaf's creditors, Ann established a trust for all her property before her marriage. William Tilghman, who in 1805 would become Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, and John Lawrence were appointed the trustees. ===Life in Allentown=== After their marriage, Greenleaf and his wife divided their time between homes in Allentown and Philadelphia. In 1802, Ann gave birth to a daughter, Mary Livingston Greenleaf. Mary married her cousin, the merchant Walter C. Livingston of New York (son of Henry W. Livingston), on July 28, 1828. A second daughter, Margaret Tilghman Greenleaf, was born the following year. Margaret married Charles Augustus Dale of Allentown in July 1832. Mary had eight children, but only one of them married (and this daughter had no children of her own).Roberts, Stoudt, Krick, and Dietrich, p. 42-43. Accessed December 3, 2012. Margaret's marriage to Dale was a short one. Her parents forbade her to marry, but she eloped. The couple returned to Allentown, where Ann Greenleaf all but imprisoned her daughter in the Greenleaf home and refused Dale entry. Dale forced his way into the Greenleaf home, and James had him arrested. The disgrace of imprisonment proved too much for Dale, who committed suicide after his short imprisonment. Margaret, who was pregnant with Dale's child, gave birth to a son, Allen, in 1833. Allen Dale accidentally drowned in the Delaware and Raritan Canal in 1895. Margaret died in 1898. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 204-205. Accessed November 24, 2012. The primary Greenleaf home from 1800 to 1807 was a large mansion in Allentown located at the corner of 5th and Hamilton Streets. It was situated in a small park full of trees, and the Greenleafs entertained lavishly and frequently there. A replica by Gilbert Stuart of the Lansdowne portrait of George Washington hung in the mansion. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 205-206. Accessed November 24, 2012. Although Greenleaf lived comfortably on his wife's income, in 1810 he purchased small amounts of land in and around the city, subdivided it, developed it, and sold it. Because of this development, many of the streets in Allentown bear the names of Greenleaf's relatives and associates: Law, Livingston, Morris, Pratt, Priscilla, Tilghman, and Webster. Greenleaf also helped promoted the construction of a bridge across the Lehigh River. From 1807 to 1828, Greenleaf listed his primary residence as Philadelphia. Although he continued to reside in Allentown until 1826, Greenleaf spent most of his time in Philadelphia. Washington, D.C., continued to draw Greenleaf. Greenleaf spent much of the last 40 years of his life defending himself from lawsuits, Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 184. Accessed November 24, 2012. and he returned to Washington regularly to defend himself in these cases. Greenleaf made his first trip back to Washington on August 17, 1799, and returned repeatedly to the city between 1800 and 1828. He usually stayed two weeks, advertising in the National Intelligencer his arrivals and departures. He usually stayed at either Davis' Hotel on Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Captain Wharton's boarding house on F Street NW, or Miss Heyer's boarding house on New Jersey Avenue SE (near Thomas Law's home). ==Legacy== Greenleaf Point in Washington, D.C., is named for James Greenleaf.Clark, Records of the Columbia Historical Society, p. 215-216. Accessed October 30, 2012. Little of Greenleaf Point was developed by the time Greenleaf was forced into bankruptcy. The city grew not on Greenleaf Point, as he anticipated, but around the White House, around the United States Capitol, and between the White House and Georgetown.Pitch, p. 25-26. By 1800, Greenleaf Point was still almost completely undeveloped. The only finished road through the area was New Jersey Avenue, on which two large buildings were constructed. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 124. Accessed November 24, 2012. Twenty half- finished structures, begun by Greenleaf, clustered around high land on South Capitol Street. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 123. Accessed November 24, 2012. The city's first Methodist church meeting was held in one of the "20 Buildings" in 1802. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 129. Accessed November 24, 2012. By 1824, however, the 20 Buildings were in ruins. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 134. Accessed November 24, 2012. Another historic structure erected by Greenleaf was what is now known as the Thomas Law House, built in 1795 on 6th Street SW. Thomas Law and his new wife Elizabeth Parke Custis Law lived there from March through August 1796 after their marriage, and while waiting for their own house to be completed. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 139. Accessed November 24, 2012. This structure still stands in 2012, and has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1973. It is one of the few early Federal-style houses still standing. Greenleaf also at one time owned the land on which the Washington Arsenal and the District of Columbia Penitentiary were later built. This was the site where George Atzerodt, David Herold, Lewis Powell, and Mary Surratt were hanged on July 7, 1865, for their role in assassinating President Abraham Lincoln. Both sites are now part of Fort Lesley J. McNair. Greenleaf School, a former D.C. public school located on 4th Street SW between M and N Streets SW, was indirectly named for him. Clark, Greenleaf and Law in the Federal City, p. 120-121. Accessed November 24, 2012. In 1871, an existing red brick schoolhouse at that location was renamed the "Greenleaf Building" a name "suggested by [its] location" in the Greenleaf part of Washington. That building was replaced in 1896, but in later school documents, as early as 1909, it was referred to as the "James Greenleaf School". The school was razed in 1960. Greenleaf also played important roles in American politics and literature. He bankrolled Noah Webster's newspaper, American Minerva. This newspaper played an important role in supporting the Federalist political movement in the 1790s.Daniel, p. 165. Greenleaf also provided critical financial support to Noah Webster during Webster's financially distressed early years. Without such support, Webster would have been unable to continue writing or sustain his interest in his dictionary.Snyder, p. 101. Although James Greenleaf is not well-remembered two centuries after he was most active in business, historians Thomas P. Abernethy and Wendell H. Stephenson nevertheless call Greenleaf "the most important land speculator that the United States has produced."Abernethy and Stevenson, p. 149. ==References== ==Bibliography== *Aaseng, Nathan. Business Builders in Real Estate. Minneapolis: Oliver Press, 2002. *Abbot, William Wright; Chase, Philander D.; Hoth, David R.; Patrick, Christian Sternberg; and Twohig, Dorothy, eds. The Papers of George Washington, Presidential Series: January 1-April 30, 1794. Charlottesville, Va.: University Press of Virginia, 2009. *Abernethy, Thomas P. and Stephenson, Wendell Holmes. The South in the New Nation: 1789-1819. Baton Rouge, La.: Louisiana State University Press, 1976. *Arnebeck, Bob. Through a Fiery Trial: Building Washington, 1790-1800. Lanham, Md.: Madison Books, 1991. *Arnebeck, Bob. "Tracking the Speculators: Greenleaf and Nicholson in the Federal City." Washington History. 3:1 (Spring/Summer 1991), 112-125. *Barlow, Jane A. 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==Introduction== All the figures shown here have been sourced from the International Data Base (IDB) Division of the United States Census Bureau. Every individual value has been rounded to the nearest thousand, to assure data coherence, particularly when adding up (sub)totals. Although data from specific statistical offices may be more accurate, the information provided here has the advantage of being homogeneous. Population estimates, as long as they are based on recent censuses, can be more easily projected into the near future than many macroeconomic indicators, such as GDP, which are much more sensitive to political and/or economic crises. This means that demographic estimates for the next five (or even ten) years can be more accurate than the projected evolution of GDP over the same time period (which may also be distorted by inflation). However, no projected population figures can be considered exact. As the IDB states, "figures beyond the years 2020-2025 should be taken with caution", as the "census way towards those years has yet to be paved". Thus projections can be said to be looking through a kind of "cloudy glass"Britannica Book of the year 2003, Encyclopædia Britannica Publishers, Chicago, 2002, page 779. or a "misty window": realistically, the projections are "guesstimates". To make things complicated, not all countries carry out censuses regularly, especially some of the poorer, faster-growing sub-Saharan African nations (whose evolution may be more interesting, from a demographer's point of view, than the "stagnated" populations of countries like Germany or Italy). As is well known from the statistics, the population of many sub-Saharan nations, as well as other nations like Egypt, Iraq, and Pakistan, with their low level of family planning, are growing much faster than in the aging European nations or Japan. On the other hand, some other countries, like the small Asian state of Bhutan, have only recently had a thorough census for the first time: In Bhutan's case in particular, before its national 2005 population survey,Bhutan on the CityPopulation website.Bhutan on www.geohive.comBhutan on Statoids.com the IDB estimated its population at over 2 million; this was drastically reduced when the new census results were finally included in its database. Besides, the IDB usually takes some time before including new data, as happened in the case of Indonesia. That country was reported by the IDB to have an inflated population of some 242 million by mid-2005, because it had not still processed the final results of the 2000 Indonesian census.1971, 1980, 1990 and 2000 Indonesian censuses (and 1995 intercensus count), on the Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS, Statistics Indonesia) website.Indonesia on CityPopulation.Indonesia on GeoHive.com Indonesia on Statoids There was a similar discrepancy with the relatively recent Ethiopian 2007 census,Ethiopia on CityPopulationEthiopia on GeoHive which gave a preliminary result of "only" 73,918,505 inhabitants. The largest absolute potential discrepancies are naturally related to the most populous nations. However, smaller states, such as Tuvalu, can have large relative discrepancies. For instance, the 2002 census in that Oceanian island, which gave a final population of 9,561Central Statistics Division - Government of Tuvalu - Census of Population and Housing and sample Surveys, on the Pacific Regional Information System (PRISM), within the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) website. shows that IDB estimates can be significantly off. ==Preliminary notes== The national 1 July, mid-year population estimates (usually based on past national censuses) supplied in these tables are given in thousands. The table columns can be sorted by clicking on their respective heading. The retrospective figures use the present-day names and world political division: for example, the table gives data for each of the 15 republics of the former Soviet Union, as if they had already been independent in 1950. The opposite is the case for Germany, which had been divided since the end of the Second World War but was reunified on October 3, 1990. Other issues concerning some countries or territories are as follows: * Burma is the traditional English name for (the Union of) Myanmar, as used by the United States Census Bureau. * The Democratic Republic of the Congo, formerly known as Zaire from 1971 to 1997, is referred to as Congo (Kinshasa) in the IDB database (to differentiate it from the Republic of the Congo whose capital is the city of Brazzaville). * The population figures for France include the four overseas departments of French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Réunion, but exclude Saint Barthélemy and the French part of Saint Martin, which split from Guadeloupe in 2007. * The former British colony of Hong Kong and former Portuguese colony of Macau continue to have their own figures, even though they returned to Chinese sovereignty in 1997 and 1999 respectively. The Chinese government considers both these present-day Special Administrative Regions (SARs) as separate entities from a statistical point of view, and their censuses are still carried out on different dates from mainland China. * About half the population of the British Caribbean colony of Montserrat (in the Lesser Antilles) was evacuated in 1995, following a volcanic eruption that severely damaged its capital, the town of Plymouth. * Although no figures are given for the Palestinian territories as a whole, data is supplied for both the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. * The Serbian population refers only to that of the "residual" Yugoslav republic under that name, after secession of Montenegro (Crna Gora) and, more recently, Kosovo (the latter being recognized as an independent state by the United States government on 18 February 2008, the U.S. Census Bureau reflects the resulting demographic change; nevertheless, many countries have not recognized this declaration of independence). Finally, the Eastern and Western Europe subtotals follow the former Cold War's Iron Curtain division of Europe. ==Formulas used to calculate demographic growth== To the right of each year column (except for the initial 1950 one), a percentage figure is shown, which gives the average annual growth for the previous five-year period. Thus, the figures after the 1960 column show the percentage annual growth for the 1955-60 period; the figures after the 1980 column calculate the same value for 1975–80; and so on. The formulas used for the annual growth rates are the standard ones, used both by the United Nations Statistics Division and by National Census Offices worldwide. They are compound growth rates, and have the general form: \left ( \sqrt[y_f-y_i]{\frac{p_f}{p_i}} -1 \right ) \times 100 where p_i and p_f stand for the initial and final population, respectively, within a stated time period. Similarly y_i and y_f are the dates of the initial and final years. In the calculations shown here, all the periods are of five years, and so yi \+ 5 = yf, so the formula simplifies to \left ( \sqrt[5]{\frac{p_f}{p_i}} -1 \right ) \times 100. ==Estimates between the years 1950 and 1980 (in thousands)== Country (or dependent territory) 1950 1955 % 1960 % 1965 % 1970 % 1975 % 1980 % align=left 8,151 8,892 1.76 9,830 2.03 10,998 2.27 12,431 2.48 14,133 2.60 15,045 1.26 align=left 1,228 1,393 2.56 1,624 3.12 1,884 3.02 2,157 2.74 2,402 2.17 2,672 2.16 align=left 8,893 9,842 2.05 10,910 2.08 11,964 1.86 13,932 3.09 16,141 2.99 18,807 3.10 align=left 20 20 0.72 21 0.20 25 4.23 28 2.08 30 1.68 33 1.80 align=left 7 7 0.04 9 6.28 14 10.17 20 7.49 27 6.32 34 4.81 align=left 4,118 4,424 1.44 4,798 1.64 5,135 1.37 5,606 1.77 6,051 1.54 7,206 3.56 align=left 6 6 0.80 6 0.79 6 0.75 7 0.80 7 0.68 7 0.64 align=left 46 52 2.19 55 1.32 60 1.70 66 2.05 69 0.73 69 0.15 align=left 17,151 18,928 1.99 20,617 1.72 22,284 1.57 23,963 1.46 26,082 1.71 28,370 1.70 align=left 1,356 1,566 2.92 1,869 3.61 2,206 3.37 2,520 2.70 2,835 2.38 3,134 2.03 align=left 50 54 1.62 58 1.21 60 0.63 60 0.01 60 0.06 60 0.23 align=left 8,268 9,278 2.33 10,362 2.24 11,440 2.00 12,661 2.05 13,772 1.70 14,616 1.20 align=left 6,936 6,947 0.03 7,048 0.29 7,271 0.63 7,468 0.53 7,579 0.30 7,550 -0.08 align=left 2,886 3,314 2.81 3,882 3.21 4,567 3.31 5,169 2.51 5,697 1.96 6,199 1.70 align=left 71 88 4.33 113 5.19 140 4.40 171 4.12 190 2.12 210 2.09 align=left 115 131 2.55 157 3.76 192 4.09 220 2.78 259 3.34 348 6.08 align=left 45,646 49,589 1.67 54,593 1.94 60,285 2.00 67,332 2.24 76,153 2.49 87,938 2.92 align=left 211 228 1.53 233 0.44 235 0.23 239 0.32 248 0.69 252 0.39 align=left 7,723 7,781 0.15 8,168 0.98 8,591 1.01 9,028 1.00 9,361 0.73 9,644 0.60 align=left 8,640 8,869 0.52 9,119 0.56 9,449 0.71 9,638 0.40 9,795 0.32 9,847 0.11 align=left 66 77 3.17 92 3.62 107 3.09 123 2.68 136 2.13 145 1.27 align=left 1,673 1,847 1.99 2,056 2.17 2,311 2.37 2,620 2.54 2,996 2.72 3,459 2.91 align=left 39 42 1.30 45 1.36 49 2.01 53 1.43 54 0.46 55 0.33 align=left 164 187 2.61 213 2.63 255 3.69 310 4.01 373 3.80 447 3.66 align=left 2,767 3,075 2.14 3,435 2.24 3,854 2.33 4,347 2.44 4,915 2.49 5,442 2.06 align=left 2,663 2,975 2.24 3,241 1.73 3,494 1.52 3,704 1.17 3,981 1.45 4,093 0.56 align=left 431 462 1.39 497 1.50 539 1.61 584 1.65 705 3.83 901 5.03 align=left 53,444 61,652 2.90 71,412 2.98 82,602 2.95 94,931 2.82 107,328 2.49 121,064 2.44 align=left 7 7 1.13 8 2.26 9 2.64 10 3.17 11 1.40 11 0.87 align=left 45 61 6.28 84 6.37 103 4.28 128 4.49 157 4.14 186 3.46 align=left 7,251 7,500 0.68 7,868 0.96 8,202 0.84 8,490 0.69 8,721 0.54 8,844 0.28 align=left 4,377 4,615 1.07 4,866 1.07 5,032 0.67 5,304 1.06 5,674 1.36 6,319 2.18 align=left 2,363 2,577 1.75 2,816 1.79 3,171 2.41 3,522 2.12 3,677 0.86 4,298 3.17 align=left 4,472 5,049 2.46 5,762 2.68 6,602 2.76 7,395 2.29 7,500 0.28 6,889 -1.69 align=left 4,888 5,211 1.29 5,609 1.48 6,104 1.71 6,727 1.96 7,522 2.26 8,756 3.09 align=left 14,012 16,051 2.75 18,267 2.62 20,072 1.90 21,750 1.62 23,210 1.31 24,594 1.17 align=left 147 170 2.93 197 3.07 232 3.32 269 3.02 281 0.85 297 1.12 align=left 7 7 2.04 8 1.95 9 2.37 11 3.17 15 7.03 18 3.85 align=left 1,260 1,349 1.37 1,468 1.71 1,628 2.09 1,840 2.48 2,058 2.27 2,349 2.68 align=left 2,608 2,806 1.47 3,043 1.64 3,345 1.91 3,728 2.19 4,145 2.14 4,523 1.76 align=left 6,091 6,744 2.06 7,586 2.38 8,510 2.33 9,369 1.94 10,208 1.73 10,999 1.50 align=left 562,580 607,047 1.53 651,340 1.42 716,667 1.93 822,116 2.78 920,295 2.28 987,822 1.43 align=left 11,592 13,589 3.23 15,953 3.26 18,647 3.17 21,430 2.82 24,125 2.40 26,632 2.00 align=left 149 164 2.03 183 2.24 207 2.44 237 2.81 276 3.07 340 4.27 align=left 15 17 2.18 18 1.95 20 1.30 21 1.78 20 -1.58 19 -1.30 align=left 867 1,032 3.54 1,249 3.88 1,488 3.57 1,736 3.13 1,992 2.79 2,300 2.91 align=left 3,838 3,956 0.61 4,037 0.40 4,134 0.48 4,206 0.35 4,256 0.23 4,384 0.59 align=left 5,785 6,382 1.98 7,028 1.95 7,810 2.13 8,543 1.81 9,291 1.69 9,653 0.77 align=left 102 112 2.04 124 2.04 134 1.59 145 1.56 150 0.60 148 -0.16 align=left 495 533 1.52 579 1.68 601 0.72 628 0.90 627 -0.03 631 0.12 align=left 8,926 9,366 0.97 9,660 0.62 9,777 0.24 9,796 0.04 10,043 0.50 10,289 0.49 align=left 13,569 14,953 1.96 16,611 2.13 18,856 2.57 21,781 2.93 25,033 2.82 29,011 2.99 align=left 4,272 4,440 0.77 4,582 0.63 4,759 0.76 4,929 0.71 5,060 0.53 5,124 0.25 align=left 80 91 2.67 112 4.26 143 5.00 180 4.83 227 4.72 327 7.61 align=left 52 57 1.93 60 1.13 64 1.29 70 1.81 74 1.16 74 -0.01 align=left 2,353 2,738 3.07 3,232 3.38 3,806 3.33 4,423 3.05 5,049 2.68 5,697 2.45 align=left 3,370 3,843 2.66 4,416 2.82 5,118 2.99 5,940 3.02 6,872 2.96 7,921 2.88 align=left 21,198 23,856 2.39 26,847 2.39 30,266 2.43 33,575 2.10 36,953 1.94 42,635 2.90 align=left 1,940 2,222 2.75 2,582 3.05 3,018 3.17 3,604 3.61 4,073 2.48 4,571 2.33 align=left 212 226 1.35 244 1.54 253 0.72 271 1.36 214 -4.64 257 3.72 align=left 1,403 1,499 1.34 1,615 1.50 1,747 1.58 2,161 4.35 2,422 2.30 2,569 1.19 align=left 1,096 1,155 1.05 1,211 0.96 1,288 1.24 1,364 1.14 1,433 0.99 1,483 0.69 align=left 278 312 2.34 352 2.48 400 2.57 456 2.64 521 2.73 612 3.26 align=left 20,175 21,991 1.74 24,169 1.91 26,741 2.04 29,469 1.96 32,976 2.27 36,037 1.79 align=left 32 33 0.69 35 1.26 38 1.29 39 0.85 41 1.13 44 1.26 align=left 31 36 3.12 42 3.12 49 3.12 57 3.12 67 3.11 78 3.08 align=left 288 333 2.94 394 3.44 464 3.33 522 2.37 577 2.03 635 1.95 align=left 4,009 4,235 1.10 4,430 0.90 4,564 0.60 4,607 0.19 4,712 0.45 4,780 0.29 align=left 42,540 44,243 0.79 46,612 1.05 49,834 1.35 51,955 0.84 53,998 0.77 55,164 0.43 align=left 63 72 2.97 82 2.44 95 3.15 115 3.78 134 3.15 151 2.54 align=left 416 429 0.62 447 0.79 475 1.24 515 1.64 648 4.70 714 1.97 align=left 272 307 2.46 352 2.81 412 3.20 485 3.30 566 3.14 653 2.90 align=left 3,516 3,828 1.71 4,147 1.62 4,465 1.49 4,695 1.01 4,898 0.85 5,046 0.60 align=left 68,375 70,196 0.53 72,481 0.64 75,639 0.86 77,784 0.56 78,683 0.23 78,298 -0.10 align=left 5,298 6,049 2.69 6,959 2.84 8,010 2.85 8,789 1.87 10,100 2.82 11,153 2.00 align=left 23 24 0.58 25 0.49 26 0.88 27 0.72 30 2.05 29 -0.15 align=left 7,567 7,966 1.03 8,328 0.89 8,551 0.53 8,793 0.56 9,047 0.57 9,643 1.28 align=left 23 27 3.59 33 4.09 40 3.83 47 3.44 50 1.32 51 0.25 align=left 76 85 2.22 91 1.27 94 0.69 96 0.45 96 0.09 91 -1.21 align=left 60 69 2.78 67 -0.53 75 2.07 87 3.14 103 3.38 107 0.92 align=left 2,969 3,488 3.27 4,100 3.29 4,746 2.97 5,265 2.10 5,911 2.34 6,650 2.38 align=left 46 47 0.36 47 0.33 51 1.31 54 1.25 54 0.16 54 -0.13 align=left 2,586 2,787 1.51 3,027 1.66 3,314 1.83 3,644 1.91 4,019 1.98 4,448 2.05 align=left 574 592 0.64 617 0.82 604 -0.42 621 0.53 681 1.89 789 2.99 align=left 428 492 2.79 572 3.06 641 2.31 715 2.23 768 1.45 760 -0.23 align=left 3,098 3,365 1.67 3,697 1.90 4,094 2.06 4,541 2.09 4,974 1.84 5,508 2.06 align=left 1,432 1,663 3.03 1,952 3.26 2,330 3.60 2,761 3.46 2,858 0.69 3,403 3.55 align=left 2,238 2,491 2.17 3,076 4.31 3,598 3.19 3,960 1.93 4,396 2.12 5,064 2.87 align=left 9,339 9,826 1.02 9,984 0.32 10,153 0.34 10,338 0.36 10,532 0.37 10,712 0.34 align=left 143 159 2.03 176 2.16 193 1.80 205 1.20 219 1.33 229 0.91 align=left 369,881 404,268 1.79 445,394 1.96 494,964 2.13 553,889 2.28 618,923 2.25 684,888 2.05 align=left 82,979 90,255 1.70 100,146 2.10 110,754 2.03 122,292 2.00 135,214 2.03 150,322 2.14 align=left 16,358 18,739 2.76 21,600 2.88 25,040 3.00 28,995 2.98 33,468 2.91 39,709 3.48 align=left 5,164 5,904 2.71 6,823 2.94 7,971 3.16 9,414 3.38 11,118 3.38 13,233 3.54 align=left 2,964 2,917 -0.32 2,833 -0.58 2,877 0.31 2,951 0.51 3,178 1.49 3,402 1.37 align=left 55 52 -1.40 48 -1.34 49 0.52 53 1.43 60 2.44 65 1.54 align=left 1,287 1,771 6.60 2,139 3.84 2,573 3.77 2,895 2.39 3,342 2.91 3,721 2.17 align=left 47,106 48,634 0.64 50,198 0.64 51,988 0.70 53,662 0.64 55,572 0.70 56,452 0.31 align=left 2,861 3,165 2.04 3,577 2.48 4,357 4.03 5,580 5.07 7,031 4.73 8,594 4.09 align=left 1,385 1,489 1.46 1,632 1.85 1,778 1.72 1,944 1.81 2,105 1.61 2,229 1.15 align=left 83,806 89,816 1.39 94,092 0.93 98,883 1.00 104,345 1.08 111,574 1.35 116,808 0.92 align=left 57 60 1.04 63 1.02 67 1.04 70 0.80 73 0.94 76 0.88 align=left 562 689 4.17 853 4.36 1,069 4.62 1,516 7.25 1,822 3.75 2,190 3.75 align=left 6,694 7,977 3.57 9,983 4.59 11,903 3.58 13,107 1.95 14,158 1.55 15,000 1.16 align=left 6,122 7,034 2.82 8,157 3.01 9,550 3.20 11,248 3.33 13,434 3.62 16,331 3.98 align=left 34 37 1.99 41 1.99 45 1.90 49 1.78 54 1.71 58 1.57 align=left 762 854 2.32 947 2.10 1,079 2.63 1,220 2.49 1,370 2.35 1,522 2.13 align=left 145 187 5.21 293 9.38 477 10.26 748 9.44 1,007 6.14 1,370 6.35 align=left 1,739 1,902 1.80 2,172 2.69 2,574 3.45 2,964 2.87 3,301 2.18 3,632 1.93 align=left 1,886 2,078 1.95 2,310 2.14 2,566 2.12 2,845 2.09 3,162 2.13 3,294 0.82 align=left 1,937 2,003 0.67 2,116 1.10 2,254 1.28 2,362 0.94 2,462 0.84 2,525 0.51 align=left 1,365 1,561 2.73 1,787 2.73 2,058 2.87 2,384 2.98 2,693 2.47 2,902 1.51 align=left 727 787 1.60 859 1.78 953 2.10 1,068 2.30 1,196 2.30 1,359 2.59 align=left 824 929 2.41 1,055 2.59 1,209 2.76 1,397 2.93 1,617 2.97 1,858 2.81 align=left 962 1,123 3.15 1,338 3.57 1,624 3.95 2,000 4.25 2,569 5.14 3,061 3.57 align=left 14 15 1.72 17 2.25 19 2.65 22 2.42 24 2.10 26 1.38 align=left 2,554 2,615 0.47 2,765 1.13 2,960 1.37 3,138 1.18 3,306 1.05 3,436 0.78 align=left 296 305 0.61 314 0.60 332 1.09 340 0.46 359 1.14 365 0.30 align=left 206 193 -1.27 187 -0.70 224 3.77 262 3.15 255 -0.54 256 0.11 align=left 4,621 5,003 1.60 5,482 1.85 6,071 2.06 6,766 2.19 7,604 2.36 8,692 2.71 align=left 2,817 3,089 1.86 3,451 2.24 3,915 2.55 4,509 2.87 5,318 3.36 6,258 3.31 align=left 6,434 7,312 2.59 8,429 2.88 9,648 2.74 10,911 2.49 12,131 2.14 13,461 2.10 align=left 80 81 0.21 93 2.86 98 1.17 115 3.22 133 2.97 153 2.88 align=left 3,688 4,072 2.00 4,495 2.00 4,978 2.06 5,547 2.19 6,218 2.31 6,869 2.01 align=left 312 315 0.15 329 0.88 320 -0.58 326 0.40 328 0.14 365 2.11 align=left 11 13 3.32 16 3.32 18 3.32 22 4.05 27 4.00 31 3.03 align=left 1,006 1,054 0.93 1,118 1.19 1,196 1.35 1,290 1.53 1,405 1.72 1,545 1.93 align=left 482 572 3.50 664 3.02 756 2.64 830 1.89 886 1.31 964 1.71 align=left 28,486 32,930 2.94 38,579 3.22 45,143 3.19 52,776 3.17 60,679 2.83 68,348 2.41 align=left 2,337 2,623 2.34 2,999 2.72 3,334 2.14 3,595 1.52 3,847 1.36 3,997 0.77 align=left 19 19 0.17 21 2.57 23 1.59 24 1.12 26 1.13 27 1.11 align=left 779 845 1.63 955 2.49 1,091 2.69 1,248 2.73 1,446 2.99 1,656 2.75 align=left 396 432 1.76 462 1.35 492 1.25 515 0.94 550 1.31 561 0.40 align=left 14 13 -1.08 13 -0.99 12 -0.62 12 -0.32 13 0.90 12 -0.59 align=left 9,344 10,782 2.90 12,424 2.88 14,067 2.51 15,910 2.49 17,688 2.14 19,488 1.96 align=left 6,251 6,782 1.64 7,473 1.96 8,302 2.13 9,305 2.31 10,433 2.32 12,103 3.01 align=left 19,488 21,050 1.55 22,840 1.64 24,938 1.77 27,393 1.90 30,330 2.06 33,337 1.91 align=left 464 522 2.39 591 2.51 671 2.58 765 2.65 916 3.66 1,059 2.94 align=left 4 4 1.38 5 4.01 6 4.44 7 3.80 8 1.17 8 1.66 align=left 8,990 9,480 1.07 10,035 1.15 10,863 1.60 11,919 1.87 13,156 1.99 14,666 2.20 align=left 10,121 10,759 1.23 11,494 1.33 12,302 1.37 13,043 1.18 13,665 0.94 14,156 0.71 align=left 56 65 3.36 79 3.94 91 2.77 113 4.39 134 3.50 140 0.94 align=left 1,909 2,137 2.28 2,372 2.11 2,641 2.17 2,829 1.38 3,118 1.97 3,171 0.33 align=left 1,098 1,278 3.07 1,493 3.17 1,751 3.24 2,053 3.24 2,395 3.13 2,804 3.20 align=left 3,272 3,560 1.70 3,913 1.91 4,344 2.11 4,841 2.19 5,420 2.28 6,094 2.37 align=left 31,797 35,955 2.49 41,551 2.94 48,068 2.96 55,591 2.95 64,428 2.99 74,829 3.04 align=left 9,472 8,864 -1.32 10,448 3.34 11,965 2.75 14,062 3.28 16,015 2.63 17,391 1.66 align=left 1,225 1,341 1.82 1,367 0.39 1,470 1.47 1,575 1.39 1,685 1.35 1,793 1.25 align=left 7 8 3.52 9 3.47 11 3.38 13 3.38 15 3.86 17 2.49 align=left 3,266 3,428 0.97 3,582 0.88 3,724 0.78 3,878 0.82 4,008 0.66 4,086 0.39 align=left 489 540 2.02 602 2.17 682 2.55 784 2.81 921 3.28 1,186 5.20 align=left 40,383 45,536 2.43 51,719 2.58 59,047 2.69 67,492 2.71 76,457 2.53 85,220 2.19 align=left 8 9 2.72 10 2.72 11 2.72 13 2.06 13 1.35 14 0.73 align=left 1,018 1,055 0.72 1,115 1.11 1,212 1.68 1,033 -3.15 1,201 3.06 1,361 2.53 align=left 893 1,011 2.52 1,148 2.57 1,326 2.93 1,532 2.92 1,750 2.70 1,960 2.30 align=left 1,413 1,546 1.81 1,719 2.15 1,941 2.46 2,214 2.67 2,505 2.50 2,847 2.60 align=left 1,476 1,684 2.67 1,910 2.55 2,171 2.59 2,477 2.68 2,849 2.83 3,172 2.17 align=left 7,633 8,672 2.59 9,932 2.75 11,468 2.92 13,193 2.84 15,162 2.82 17,296 2.67 align=left 21,132 24,336 2.86 28,026 2.86 32,391 2.94 37,253 2.84 42,406 2.63 48,290 2.63 align=left 24,825 27,221 1.86 29,590 1.68 31,263 1.11 32,527 0.80 33,970 0.87 35,579 0.93 align=left 8,443 8,693 0.58 9,037 0.78 9,129 0.20 9,045 -0.19 9,412 0.80 9,778 0.77 align=left 2,219 2,251 0.29 2,359 0.94 2,597 1.95 2,722 0.94 2,936 1.52 3,210 1.80 align=left 26 36 6.94 46 5.13 71 9.21 113 9.99 165 7.85 230 6.85 align=left 827 904 1.81 1,003 2.09 1,124 2.32 1,273 2.52 1,456 2.72 1,676 2.86 align=left 16,312 17,326 1.21 18,404 1.22 19,028 0.67 20,253 1.26 21,246 0.96 22,131 0.82 align=left 101,937 111,126 1.74 119,632 1.49 126,542 1.13 130,246 0.58 134,294 0.61 139,039 0.70 align=left 2,440 2,699 2.04 3,032 2.36 3,265 1.49 3,770 2.92 4,357 2.94 5,140 3.36 align=left 3 3 0.62 3 0.63 3 1.12 3 1.00 3 1.05 3 2.90 align=left 6 6 0.05 6 0.21 6 0.24 6 1.07 7 1.33 7 1.30 align=left 45 50 2.31 52 0.56 49 -0.87 47 -1.17 45 -0.62 44 -0.51 align=left 80 86 1.66 88 0.43 95 1.42 103 1.77 113 1.82 123 1.73 align=left 3 4 4.07 5 4.08 5 2.50 6 2.40 7 2.91 8 3.80 align=left 5 5 0.40 5 0.98 6 0.63 6 1.52 6 1.41 6 0.40 align=left 67 76 2.58 82 1.43 86 0.98 88 0.57 93 1.06 99 1.25 align=left 82 94 2.77 111 3.23 128 2.93 143 2.28 151 1.17 160 1.06 align=left 13 14 1.59 16 2.19 18 2.49 20 1.96 20 0.57 22 1.69 align=left 60 61 0.17 64 1.03 69 1.62 74 1.40 82 2.08 95 2.88 align=left 3,860 4,244 1.91 4,719 2.15 5,328 2.46 6,110 2.78 7,208 3.36 10,022 6.81 align=left 2,654 2,927 1.98 3,270 2.24 3,744 2.75 4,318 2.89 4,990 2.93 5,612 2.38 align=left 5,957 6,314 1.17 6,659 1.07 6,959 0.88 7,249 0.82 7,432 0.50 7,588 0.42 align=left 33 36 1.74 42 3.04 48 2.78 55 2.52 60 1.96 64 1.41 align=left 2,088 2,233 1.36 2,397 1.43 2,582 1.50 2,790 1.56 3,031 1.67 3,336 1.93 align=left 1,023 1,306 5.02 1,647 4.75 1,887 2.76 2,075 1.91 2,263 1.75 2,414 1.30 align=left 3 3 1.73 3 1.72 5 8.64 7 9.63 11 9.89 13 3.64 align=left 3,464 3,727 1.48 3,995 1.40 4,370 1.81 4,524 0.69 4,730 0.89 4,966 0.98 align=left 1,468 1,518 0.67 1,558 0.53 1,621 0.79 1,676 0.68 1,723 0.55 1,834 1.26 align=left 107 115 1.43 127 1.99 144 2.50 164 2.65 194 3.44 231 3.64 align=left 2,438 2,674 1.86 2,956 2.03 3,283 2.12 3,667 2.24 4,128 2.40 5,794 7.02 align=left 13,596 15,369 2.48 17,417 2.53 19,899 2.70 22,740 2.71 25,816 2.57 29,252 2.53 align=left 20,846 21,552 0.67 24,785 2.83 28,706 2.98 32,242 2.35 35,282 1.82 38,125 1.56 align=left 2,707 2,757 0.37 2,809 0.37 2,862 0.37 2,915 0.37 3,396 3.10 4,668 6.57 align=left 28,063 29,319 0.88 30,642 0.89 32,085 0.92 33,877 1.09 35,564 0.98 37,489 1.06 align=left 7,534 8,694 2.91 9,914 2.66 11,261 2.58 12,619 2.30 13,780 1.78 15,056 1.79 align=left 6,468 7,391 2.71 8,447 2.71 9,653 2.71 11,031 2.71 12,708 2.87 14,784 3.07 align=left 209 241 2.93 285 3.41 337 3.42 373 2.06 363 -0.52 355 -0.48 align=left 7,015 7,263 0.70 7,481 0.59 7,734 0.67 8,043 0.79 8,193 0.37 8,311 0.29 align=left 4,695 4,981 1.19 5,363 1.49 5,944 2.08 6,268 1.07 6,404 0.43 6,386 -0.06 align=left 3,496 3,938 2.41 4,531 2.84 5,323 3.27 6,253 3.27 7,398 3.42 8,740 3.39 align=left 7,982 9,486 3.51 11,210 3.39 12,978 2.97 14,599 2.38 16,123 2.01 17,849 2.06 align=left 1,531 1,781 3.08 2,081 3.16 2,511 3.83 2,939 3.20 3,449 3.25 3,967 2.84 align=left 7,935 8,971 2.48 10,260 2.72 11,871 2.96 13,807 3.07 16,148 3.18 18,654 2.93 align=left 20,042 23,452 3.19 27,513 3.25 32,062 3.11 37,091 2.96 42,273 2.65 47,026 2.15 align=left 436 473 1.63 509 1.51 554 1.69 598 1.55 677 2.51 558 -3.81 align=left 1,172 1,299 2.07 1,456 2.32 1,648 2.51 1,965 3.57 2,267 2.91 2,626 2.98 align=left 46 55 3.55 64 3.19 75 3.08 84 2.30 90 1.43 92 0.58 align=left 633 721 2.66 842 3.14 940 2.23 956 0.33 1,007 1.06 1,091 1.61 align=left 3,518 3,847 1.80 4,150 1.53 4,566 1.93 5,099 2.23 5,704 2.27 6,444 2.47 align=left 21,122 24,145 2.71 28,218 3.17 31,951 2.52 35,759 2.28 40,530 2.54 45,048 2.14 align=left 1,205 1,348 2.28 1,585 3.29 1,883 3.50 2,182 2.99 2,524 2.96 2,876 2.64 align=left 6 6 0.49 6 2.10 6 0.15 6 -0.53 7 2.86 8 2.91 align=left 5 5 1.19 6 1.19 6 1.14 6 0.86 7 1.33 8 3.72 align=left 5,522 6,318 2.73 7,262 2.83 8,390 2.93 9,716 2.98 10,761 2.06 12,020 2.24 align=left 36,775 39,369 1.37 42,645 1.61 45,235 1.19 47,236 0.87 48,974 0.73 50,047 0.43 align=left 72 83 2.95 104 4.49 144 6.89 250 11.64 523 15.95 1,001 13.87 align=left 50,128 50,947 0.32 52,373 0.55 54,351 0.74 55,633 0.47 56,216 0.21 56,315 0.04 align=left 151,869 165,070 1.68 179,980 1.74 193,527 1.46 203,985 1.06 215,466 1.10 227,225 1.07 align=left 27 28 0.52 33 3.32 44 6.00 64 7.85 95 8.28 100 1.07 align=left 2,195 2,354 1.41 2,531 1.47 2,694 1.25 2,824 0.95 2,844 0.14 2,931 0.60 align=left 6,293 7,233 2.82 8,532 3.36 10,206 3.65 11,941 3.19 13,988 3.22 15,994 2.72 align=left 53 59 2.43 67 2.43 75 2.34 86 2.85 100 3.14 117 3.22 align=left 5,010 6,171 4.26 7,557 4.14 9,068 3.71 10,759 3.48 12,675 3.33 14,768 3.10 align=left 25,349 27,739 1.82 31,657 2.68 37,259 3.31 42,577 2.70 48,076 2.46 53,716 2.24 align=left 7 8 1.26 8 1.26 9 1.02 9 0.95 9 0.23 11 4.18 Western Sahara 10 16 11.87 28 11.87 50 12.33 90 12.38 73 -4.16 125 11.47 align=left 4,778 5,266 1.97 5,872 2.20 6,511 2.09 7,099 1.74 7,935 2.25 9,133 2.85 align=left 2,554 2,870 2.36 3,255 2.55 3,695 2.57 4,241 2.80 4,849 2.71 5,541 2.71 align=left 2,854 3,410 3.62 4,011 3.31 4,686 3.16 5,515 3.31 6,342 2.83 7,170 2.49 World 2,557,629 2,782,099 1.70 3,043,002 1.81 3,350,426 1.94 3,712,698 2.07 4,089,084 1.95 4,451,363 1.71 ==Estimates between the years 1985 and 2015 (in thousands)== Country (or dependent territory) 1985 % 1990 % 1995 % 2000 % 2005 % 2010 % 2015 % align=left 13,120 -2.70 13,569 0.67 19,446 7.46 22,462 2.93 26,335 3.23 29,121 2.03 32,565 2.26 align=left 2,957 2.05 3,245 1.88 3,159 -0.54 3,159 0.00 3,025 -0.86 2,987 -0.25 3,030 0.28 align=left 22,009 3.19 25,191 2.74 28,322 2.37 30,639 1.58 32,918 1.45 35,950 1.78 39,543 1.92 align=left 39 3.57 48 4.09 54 2.69 58 1.39 57 -0.28 56 -0.53 55 -0.41 align=left 45 5.84 53 3.41 64 3.70 66 0.58 77 3.18 85 2.12 86 0.25 align=left 8,390 3.09 9,486 2.48 11,000 3.01 12,683 2.89 14,770 3.09 17,043 2.90 19,626 2.86 align=left 7 1.35 9 3.84 10 3.20 12 3.02 14 2.80 15 2.40 17 2.14 align=left 65 -1.24 65 -0.07 69 1.38 76 1.86 82 1.53 87 1.31 93 1.28 align=left 1.57 33,036 1.50 35,274 1.32 37,336 1.14 39,182 0.97 41,344 1.08 43,432 0.99 align=left 3,465 2.02 3,530 0.37 3,131 -2.37 3,101 -0.19 3,085 -0.10 3,072 -0.08 3,057 -0.10 align=left 15,696 1.44 16,957 1.56 17,976 1.17 19,054 1.17 20,233 1.21 21,516 1.24 22,752 1.12 align=left 7,560 0.03 7,723 0.43 8,048 0.83 8,114 0.16 8,315 0.49 8,448 0.32 8,666 0.51 align=left 6,846 2.00 7,498 1.84 8,051 1.43 8,464 1.00 8,826 0.84 9,302 1.06 9,781 1.01 align=left 229 1.70 246 1.44 266 1.59 283 1.28 297 0.98 311 0.91 325 0.90 align=left 424 4.02 506 3.62 583 2.85 655 2.38 916 6.94 1,181 5.20 1,347 2.68 align=left 102,309 3.07 112,213 1.87 121,443 1.59 132,151 1.70 144,139 1.75 156,119 1.61 168,958 1.59 align=left 258 0.42 263 0.39 268 0.41 274 0.45 281 0.46 286 0.40 291 0.34 align=left 9,982 0.69 10,201 0.43 10,205 0.01 10,034 -0.34 9,807 -0.46 9,681 -0.26 9,590 -0.19 align=left 9,859 0.02 9,970 0.22 10,156 0.37 10,264 0.21 10,470 0.40 10,866 0.75 11,324 0.83 align=left 166 2.77 191 2.89 218 2.62 249 2.69 282 2.55 315 2.26 348 2.01 align=left 4,031 3.11 4,706 3.15 5,647 3.71 6,620 3.23 7,778 3.28 9,057 3.09 10,449 2.90 align=left 57 0.53 58 0.56 61 0.86 64 0.90 66 0.89 69 0.70 71 0.56 align=left 530 3.48 615 3.04 567 -1.63 606 1.36 655 1.57 700 1.34 742 1.17 align=left 5,935 1.75 6,574 2.07 7,375 2.33 8,196 2.13 9,073 2.06 9,948 1.86 10,801 1.66 align=left 4,227 0.65 4,315 0.41 3,547 -3.85 3,806 1.42 3,894 0.46 3,885 -0.04 3,868 -0.09 align=left 1,080 3.70 1,265 3.21 1,478 3.16 1,680 2.60 1,841 1.84 2,030 1.98 2,183 1.47 align=left 135,734 2.31 149,410 1.94 161,912 1.62 174,316 1.49 186,021 1.31 195,835 1.03 204,260 0.85 align=left 14 3.69 16 3.54 20 3.97 23 3.38 26 2.82 30 2.76 34 2.45 align=left 218 3.30 253 3.03 288 2.63 326 2.47 362 2.11 396 1.81 430 1.69 align=left 8,944 0.23 8,895 -0.11 8,285 -1.41 7,909 -0.92 7,612 -0.76 7,392 -0.58 7,187 -0.56 align=left 7,171 2.56 8,362 3.12 9,903 3.44 11,588 3.19 13,904 3.71 16,242 3.16 18,932 3.11 align=left 4,915 2.72 5,509 2.31 5,800 1.03 6,716 2.98 7,789 3.01 9,121 3.21 10,743 3.33 align=left 7,842 2.62 9,368 3.62 11,235 3.70 12,352 1.91 13,298 1.49 14,454 1.68 15,709 1.68 align=left 10,227 3.15 11,984 3.22 13,828 2.90 15,818 2.73 18,132 2.77 20,823 2.81 23,740 2.66 align=left 25,942 1.07 27,791 1.39 29,691 1.33 31,100 0.93 32,387 0.81 33,760 0.83 35,100 0.78 align=left 317 1.34 340 1.40 386 2.55 431 2.22 471 1.81 509 1.57 546 1.43 align=left 21 4.06 27 4.80 33 4.27 39 3.42 45 2.90 51 2.52 57 2.24 align=left 2,715 2.93 3,085 2.59 3,545 2.82 3,980 2.34 4,364 1.86 4,845 2.12 5,392 2.16 align=left 5,067 2.30 5,842 2.89 6,770 2.99 7,943 3.25 9,401 3.43 10,544 2.32 11,632 1.98 align=left 11,953 1.68 13,008 1.71 14,173 1.73 15,175 1.38 15,980 1.04 16,760 0.96 17,509 0.88 align=left 1,061,876 1.46 1,153,164 1.66 1,221,056 1.15 1,268,302 0.76 1,302,285 0.53 1,336,681 0.52 1,367,486 0.46 align=left 29,748 2.24 33,148 2.19 36,532 1.96 38,911 1.27 41,488 1.29 44,206 1.28 46,737 1.12 align=left 383 2.42 431 2.37 483 2.32 546 2.46 624 2.71 707 2.53 781 2.04 align=left 18 -0.58 19 1.01 19 -0.09 17 -2.29 14 -3.57 12 -3.31 10 -3.05 align=left 2,645 2.84 3,024 2.71 3,445 2.64 3,883 2.42 4,209 1.63 4,517 1.42 4,815 1.29 align=left 4,458 0.34 4,509 0.23 4,497 -0.05 4,411 -0.38 4,496 0.38 4,487 -0.04 4,465 -0.10 align=left 10,065 0.84 10,507 0.86 10,848 0.64 11,072 0.41 11,199 0.23 11,099 -0.18 11,032 -0.12 align=left 154 0.77 146 -1.10 142 -0.53 134 -1.10 137 0.31 144 1.06 149 0.69 align=left 680 1.51 746 1.87 848 2.61 920 1.65 1,011 1.91 1,103 1.76 1,190 1.52 align=left 10,311 0.04 10,310 0.00 10,324 0.03 10,269 -0.11 10,267 0.00 10,551 0.55 10,645 0.18 align=left 33,348 2.83 39,152 3.26 46,705 3.59 52,446 2.35 60,699 2.97 69,852 2.85 79,376 2.59 align=left 5,114 -0.04 5,141 0.11 5,233 0.35 5,338 0.40 5,433 0.35 5,516 0.30 5,582 0.24 align=left 383 3.18 500 5.49 554 2.07 670 3.89 667 -0.09 741 2.13 829 2.27 align=left 74 -0.21 71 -0.86 72 0.40 71 -0.17 73 0.37 73 0.19 74 0.22 align=left 6,379 2.29 7,084 2.12 7,759 1.84 8,469 1.77 9,165 1.59 9,824 1.40 10,479 1.301 align=left 9,062 2.73 10,319 2.63 11,266 1.77 12,446 2.01 13,663 1.88 14,791 1.60 15,869 1.42 align=left 50,053 3.26 54,908 1.87 58,946 1.43 65,159 2.02 72,544 2.17 80,472 2.10 88,488 1.92 align=left 4,672 0.44 5,110 1.81 5,480 1.41 5,850 1.32 5,957 0.36 6,053 0.32 6,142 0.29 align=left 326 4.90 372 2.68 427 2.81 492 2.89 568 2.91 651 2.78 741 2.63 align=left 2,942 2.75 3,138 1.30 3,566 2.58 4,198 3.32 5,070 3.85 5,793 2.70 6,528 2.42 align=left 1,539 0.74 1,570 0.40 1,447 -1.62 1,380 -0.94 1,332 -0.71 1,303 -0.44 1,266 -0.58 align=left 722 3.37 882 4.09 1,004 2.63 1,144 2.65 1,259 1.94 1,355 1.47 1,436 1.18 align=left 40,684 2.46 47,555 3.17 55,726 3.22 64,366 2.92 74,355 2.93 86,043 2.96 99,466 2.94 align=left 46 0.96 48 0.81 44 -1.70 46 1.02 49 1.07 50 0.31 51 0.46 align=left 91 3.29 109 3.68 106 -0.49 108 0.33 109 0.07 108 -0.17 106 -0.36 align=left 699 1.95 740 1.14 773 0.87 805 0.83 837 0.77 876 0.93 910 0.75 align=left 4,902 0.51 4,987 0.34 5,105 0.47 5,169 0.25 5,239 0.27 5,355 0.44 5,477 0.45 align=left 56,561 0.50 58,256 0.59 59,824 0.53 61,256 0.47 63,060 0.58 64,941 0.59 66,554 0.49 align=left 176 3.06 200 2.61 217 1.68 236 1.70 254 1.47 269 1.16 283 1.01 align=left 834 3.14 939 2.40 1,070 2.65 1,237 2.95 1,396 2.45 1,546 2.06 1,706 1.99 align=left 773 3.44 952 4.25 1,162 4.08 1,357 3.15 1,548 2.67 1,756 2.55 1,968 2.31 align=left 5,193 0.58 5,432 0.90 5,042 -1.48 4,819 -0.90 4,791 -0.12 4,903 0.47 4,932 0.12 align=left 77,685 -0.16 79,381 0.43 81,654 0.57 82,184 0.13 82,440 0.06 81,645 -0.19 80,855 -0.19 align=left 13,573 4.01 15,549 2.76 17,322 2.18 18,982 1.85 21,107 2.15 23,572 2.23 26,328 2.24 align=left 29 -0.13 30 0.32 27 -1.66 28 0.38 29 0.86 29 0.29 30 0.26 align=left 9,924 0.58 10,130 0.41 10,458 0.64 10,560 0.19 10,669 0.21 10,750 0.15 10,776 0.05 align=left 54 1.15 56 0.92 57 0.20 57 0.25 58 0.31 58 -0.05 58 0.03 align=left 94 0.63 95 0.24 98 0.74 102 0.78 105 0.58 108 0.61 111 0.53 align=left 121 2.45 135 2.15 145 1.46 156 1.50 159 0.39 160 0.13 162 0.29 align=left 7,581 2.66 8,966 3.41 10,028 2.26 11,086 2.02 12,183 1.91 13,551 2.15 14,919 1.94 align=left 56 0.67 63 2.57 61 -0.53 62 0.32 64 0.38 65 0.51 67 0.40 align=left 5,227 3.28 6,119 3.20 7,446 4.00 8,351 2.32 9,154 1.85 10,325 2.44 11,781 2.67 align=left 886 2.33 996 2.39 1,144 2.80 1,279 2.27 1,415 2.03 1,566 2.05 1,727 1.98 align=left 763 0.08 772 0.24 769 -0.07 785 0.41 775 -0.26 746 -0.76 736 -0.29 align=left 6,120 2.13 6,798 2.12 7,571 2.18 8,413 2.13 9,205 1.82 9,649 0.95 10,111 0.94 align=left 4,078 3.69 4,795 3.29 5,551 2.97 6,360 2.76 7,194 2.49 7,990 2.12 8,747 1.83 align=left 5,457 1.51 5,688 0.84 6,223 1.81 6,656 1.36 6,905 0.74 7,030 0.36 7,142 0.32 align=left 10,649 -0.12 10,372 -0.53 10,281 -0.18 10,148 -0.26 10,058 -0.18 9,993 -0.13 9,898 -0.19 align=left 242 1.13 255 1.08 268 0.99 282 0.99 297 1.09 318 1.39 332 0.87 align=left 759,613 2.09 838,159 1.99 920,585 1.89 1,006,301 1.80 1,090,974 1.63 1,173,109 1.46 1,251,696 1.31 align=left 166,070 2.01 181,600 1.80 197,604 1.70 214,091 1.62 229,245 1.38 243,423 1.21 255,994 1.01 align=left 48,619 4.13 58,101 3.63 64,218 2.02 68,632 1.34 72,283 1.04 76,924 1.25 81,825 1.24 align=left 15,694 3.47 18,140 2.94 19,658 1.62 23,129 3.30 27,538 3.55 30,527 2.08 37,057 3.95 align=left 3,541 0.80 3,509 -0.18 3,614 0.60 3,823 1.13 4,200 1.90 4,623 1.94 4,893 1.14 align=left 65 0.10 69 1.34 73 1.01 76 0.92 80 1.01 84 1.05 88 0.86 align=left 4,050 1.71 4,460 1.95 5,335 3.65 6,098 2.71 6,726 1.98 7,369 1.84 8,050 1.78 align=left 56,719 0.09 56,714 0.00 57,295 0.20 57,785 0.17 59,038 0.43 60,749 0.57 61,856 0.36 align=left 10,332 3.75 12,491 3.87 14,846 3.51 16,885 2.61 18,921 2.30 21,059 2.16 23,296 2.04 align=left 2,319 0.79 2,348 0.25 2,470 1.02 2,616 1.16 2,737 0.91 2,848 0.80 2,951 0.71 align=left 120,755 0.67 123,538 0.46 125,328 0.29 126,776 0.23 127,716 0.15 127,580 -0.02 126,920 -0.10 align=left 80 1.05 84 0.99 85 0.33 88 0.56 89 0.25 94 1.08 98 0.83 align=left 2,669 4.04 3,321 4.47 4,249 5.05 4,786 2.40 5,363 2.31 6,501 3.92 8,118 4.54 align=left 15,999 1.30 16,776 0.95 16,390 -0.46 15,688 -0.87 16,123 0.55 17,085 1.17 18,158 1.22 align=left 19,763 3.89 23,361 3.40 27,164 3.06 30,606 2.42 35,247 2.86 40,844 2.99 45,926 2.37 align=left 63 1.52 72 2.82 77 1.43 86 2.15 93 1.70 100 1.45 106 1.22 align=left 1,683 2.03 1,862 2.05 2,029 1.73 1,701 -3.47 1,768 0.78 1,816 0.53 1,871 0.61 align=left 1,733 4.81 2,132 4.23 1,665 -4.82 1,973 3.45 2,257 2.73 2,544 2.42 2,789 1.86 align=left 4,062 2.27 4,484 2.00 4,621 0.60 4,938 1.34 5,165 0.90 5,411 0.94 5,665 0.92 align=left 3,658 2.12 4,211 2.86 4,847 2.85 5,398 2.18 5,837 1.58 6,369 1.76 6,912 1.65 align=left 2,607 0.64 2,664 0.43 2,481 -1.41 2,369 -0.92 2,259 -0.94 2,116 -1.31 1,987 -1.25 align=left 3,177 1.83 3,452 1.67 3,673 1.25 3,835 0.87 4,139 1.54 4,493 1.65 6,185 6.60 align=left 1,552 2.69 1,704 1.88 1,848 1.64 1,917 0.73 1,923 0.06 1,920 -0.03 1,948 0.29 align=left 2,162 3.08 2,139 -0.22 1,901 -2.34 2,601 6.48 2,931 2.41 3,686 4.69 4,196 2.63 align=left 3,661 3.64 4,099 2.29 4,584 2.26 5,025 1.85 5,571 2.08 6,111 1.87 6,412 0.97 align=left 27 1.40 29 1.39 31 1.41 33 1.18 35 1.27 37 0.71 38 0.81 align=left 3,588 0.87 3,684 0.53 3,510 -0.96 3,490 -0.12 3,327 -0.95 3,089 -1.47 2,885 -1.36 align=left 368 0.15 383 0.85 410 1.35 439 1.37 468 1.29 510 1.73 571 2.29 align=left 306 3.64 352 2.84 402 2.67 432 1.47 475 1.89 568 3.68 593 0.86 align=left 10,029 2.90 11,633 3.01 13,533 3.07 15,713 3.03 18,132 2.91 20,847 2.83 23,813 2.70 align=left 7,321 3.19 9,360 5.04 9,809 0.94 11,130 2.56 12,864 2.94 15,183 3.37 17,965 3.42 align=left 15,650 3.06 17,883 2.70 20,340 2.61 23,152 2.62 25,969 2.32 28,275 1.72 30,514 1.54 align=left 178 3.01 217 4.09 261 3.77 300 2.86 337 2.31 396 3.31 394 -0.12 align=left 7,623 2.11 8,487 2.17 9,489 2.26 10,788 2.60 12,528 3.04 14,583 3.09 16,956 3.06 align=left 348 -0.95 360 0.69 377 0.97 390 0.68 399 0.44 407 0.41 414 0.35 align=left 39 4.50 46 3.69 50 1.61 54 1.35 60 2.17 66 2.19 73 1.85 align=left 1,724 2.21 1,925 2.24 2,235 3.03 2,501 2.28 2,838 2.56 3,206 2.46 3,597 2.33 align=left 1,021 1.15 1,062 0.79 1,124 1.13 1,186 1.09 1,243 0.94 1,295 0.81 1,340 0.70 align=left 76,601 2.31 84,635 2.01 92,584 1.81 99,776 1.51 106,577 1.33 114,062 1.37 121,737 1.31 align=left 4,149 0.75 4,375 1.07 4,356 -0.09 4,181 -0.82 3,949 -1.14 3,732 -1.12 3,547 -1.01 align=left 29 1.20 30 1.24 31 0.62 32 0.60 32 -0.48 31 -0.33 31 -0.03 align=left 1,860 2.35 2,122 2.67 2,307 1.69 2,461 1.30 2,603 1.13 2,784 1.35 2,993 1.46 align=left 561 0.02 584 0.80 671 2.83 733 1.78 700 -0.92 667 -0.95 648 -0.60 align=left 12 -0.77 11 -1.07 11 -0.87 4 -17.39 5 2.77 6 2.47 6 0.48 align=left 21,644 2.12 24,000 2.09 26,148 1.73 28,114 1.46 29,901 1.24 31,628 1.13 33,323 1.05 align=left 13,294 1.89 12,990 -0.46 15,889 4.11 17,997 2.52 20,069 2.20 22,418 2.24 25,304 2.45 align=left 36,766 1.98 40,464 1.94 43,994 1.69 47,439 1.52 50,573 1.29 53,415 1.10 56,321 1.07 align=left 1,205 2.62 1,471 4.08 1,682 2.72 1,894 2.40 2,029 1.39 2,129 0.97 2,213 0.78 align=left 9 2.01 10 2.18 10 0.69 10 0.08 11 0.31 10 -1.54 10 0.58 align=left 16,570 2.47 18,919 2.69 21,877 2.95 24,819 2.56 27,094 1.77 28,952 1.34 31,552 1.73 align=left 14,505 0.49 14,966 0.63 15,477 0.67 15,931 0.58 16,300 0.46 16,574 0.33 16,948 0.45 align=left 153 1.82 169 2.05 192 2.57 212 1.95 233 1.93 253 1.66 272 1.48 align=left 3,324 0.95 3,414 0.53 3,643 1.30 3,803 0.86 4,049 1.26 4,253 0.99 4,439 0.86 align=left 3,181 2.56 3,644 2.76 4,402 3.85 4,867 2.03 5,268 1.60 5,605 1.25 5,908 1.06 align=left 6,870 2.43 7,826 2.64 9,111 3.09 10,726 3.32 12,783 3.57 15,271 3.62 18,046 3.40 align=left 84,898 2.56 96,685 2.63 109,753 2.57 123,946 2.46 141,190 2.64 160,342 2.58 181,563 2.52 align=left 18,831 1.60 20,452 1.67 22,108 1.57 22,785 0.61 23,621 0.72 24,326 0.59 24,984 0.53 align=left 1,845 0.58 1,862 0.18 1,955 0.98 2,015 0.61 2,046 0.30 2,073 0.26 2,097 0.23 align=left 22 4.83 45 15.54 58 5.38 70 4.02 71 0.27 54 -5.40 53 -0.44 align=left 4,153 0.32 4,243 0.43 4,360 0.55 4,493 0.60 4,625 0.58 4,892 1.13 5,208 1.26 align=left 1,498 4.78 1,795 3.69 2,139 3.57 2,433 2.61 2,697 2.09 2,968 1.93 3,287 2.06 align=left 102,079 3.68 118,817 3.08 134,186 2.46 152,430 2.58 169,279 2.12 184,405 1.73 199,086 1.54 align=left 14 0.73 16 1.95 18 2.61 20 2.41 21 0.84 21 0.54 22 0.37 align=left 1,578 3.00 1,899 3.77 2,508 5.72 3,111 4.40 3,599 2.96 4,120 2.74 4,656 2.48 align=left 2,168 2.04 2,394 2.00 2,639 1.97 2,900 1.91 3,156 1.70 3,411 1.57 3,658 1.40 align=left 3,229 2.55 3,683 2.67 4,216 2.74 4,813 2.68 5,440 2.48 6,065 2.20 6,673 1.93 align=left 3,634 2.76 4,201 2.94 4,826 2.81 5,419 2.34 5,926 1.81 6,376 1.48 6,784 1.25 align=left 19,380 2.30 21,565 2.16 23,864 2.05 25,797 1.57 27,443 1.24 28,948 1.07 30,445 1.01 align=left 54,589 2.48 61,481 2.41 68,472 2.18 76,452 2.23 84,965 2.13 93,137 1.85 100,999 1.63 align=left 37,226 0.91 38,120 0.48 38,601 0.25 38,655 0.03 38,557 -0.05 38,617 0.03 38,563 -0.03 align=left 9,898 0.24 9,923 0.05 10,066 0.29 10,336 0.53 10,567 0.44 10,736 0.32 10,826 0.17 align=left 3,383 1.05 3,537 0.90 3,684 0.81 3,811 0.68 3,822 0.06 3,722 -0.53 3,599 -0.67 align=left 343 8.37 434 4.83 510 3.30 640 4.65 973 8.73 1,720 12.07 2,195 5.00 align=left 1,927 2.83 2,221 2.89 2,570 2.95 2,940 2.73 3,473 3.39 4,238 4.06 4,756 2.33 align=left 22,522 0.35 22,866 0.30 22,688 -0.16 22,448 -0.21 22,198 -0.22 21,960 -0.22 21,667 -0.27 align=left 143,938 0.69 147,973 0.55 148,759 0.11 147,054 -0.23 143,320 -0.51 142,527 -0.11 142,424 -0.01 align=left 5,987 3.10 7,000 3.18 5,473 -4.80 8,399 8.94 9,612 2.73 11,056 2.84 12,662 2.75 align=left 4 6.17 6 5.11 7 4.02 8 2.99 8 1.26 8 -0.47 8 -0.46 align=left 8 4.19 7 -3.40 7 0.78 8 0.80 8 0.68 8 0.51 8 0.32 align=left 43 -0.30 42 -0.60 44 0.70 46 1.14 48 0.97 50 0.82 52 0.80 align=left 132 1.36 138 0.98 147 1.27 154 0.91 158 0.53 161 0.45 164 0.37 align=left 16 15.22 31 14.31 33 1.72 29 -2.80 28 -0.34 31 1.62 32 0.99 align=left 7 0.56 7 0.52 7 0.26 7 0.02 7 -0.66 6 -0.84 6 -0.98 align=left 104 1.14 108 0.67 109 0.26 108 -0.17 107 -0.33 105 -0.35 103 -0.31 align=left 161 0.21 163 0.26 169 0.73 177 0.85 185 0.92 193 0.80 198 0.59 align=left 23 1.03 24 0.77 25 1.18 28 1.71 30 1.80 32 1.23 34 0.96 align=left 105 2.06 116 2.16 128 1.86 141 2.05 158 2.29 176 2.22 195 1.99 align=left 13,331 5.87 16,061 3.80 18,756 3.15 21,312 2.59 23,643 2.10 25,732 1.71 27,753 1.52 align=left 6,379 2.60 7,348 2.87 8,379 2.66 9,470 2.48 10,805 2.67 12,324 2.67 13,976 2.55 align=left 7,720 0.35 7,787 0.17 7,692 -0.25 7,605 -0.23 7,503 -0.27 7,345 -0.42 7,177 -0.46 align=left 68 0.99 71 1.06 75 1.14 80 1.10 84 1.17 89 1.04 93 0.91 align=left 3,704 2.12 4,229 2.69 3,882 -1.70 3,810 -0.38 4,709 4.33 5,246 2.19 5,880 2.31 align=left 2,750 2.64 3,048 2.07 3,567 3.20 4,064 2.64 4,606 2.54 5,141 2.22 5,675 2.00 align=left 20 9.24 30 8.68 32 1.74 31 -0.73 34 1.81 38 2.38 41 1.54 align=left 5,145 0.71 5,263 0.45 5,362 0.37 5,401 0.14 5,408 0.03 5,427 0.07 5,446 0.07 align=left 1,915 0.87 1,992 0.79 2,003 0.12 2,011 0.08 2,012 0.01 2,004 -0.08 1,984 -0.20 align=left 273 3.41 322 3.31 376 3.15 434 2.95 496 2.71 560 2.44 623 2.17 align=left 6,459 2.20 6,693 0.71 6,401 -0.89 7,501 3.22 8,791 3.22 9,768 2.13 10,617 1.68 align=left 34,255 3.21 38,504 2.37 42,148 1.82 44,914 1.28 48,105 1.38 51,123 1.22 53,676 0.98 align=left 40,807 1.37 42,870 0.99 45,106 1.02 46,839 0.76 48,006 0.49 48,637 0.26 49,116 0.20 align=left 5,320 2.65 4,960 -1.39 5,193 0.92 6,297 3.93 7,634 3.93 9,585 4.66 12,043 4.67 align=left 38,535 0.55 39,351 0.42 39,765 0.21 40,590 0.41 43,705 1.49 46,506 1.25 48,147 0.70 align=left 15,848 1.03 16,862 1.25 17,942 1.25 19,042 1.20 20,103 1.09 21,084 0.96 22,054 0.90 align=left 17,507 3.44 21,130 3.83 24,517 3.02 27,068 2.00 29,884 2.00 32,997 2.00 36,109 1.82 align=left 395 2.18 417 1.07 428 0.55 465 1.64 504 1.65 546 1.62 580 1.21 align=left 8,357 0.11 8,601 0.58 8,878 0.64 8,925 0.10 9,083 0.35 9,433 0.76 9,802 0.77 align=left 6,568 0.56 6,844 0.83 7,165 0.92 7,278 0.31 7,449 0.47 7,770 0.85 8,122 0.89 align=left 10,479 3.70 12,534 3.65 14,487 2.94 16,515 2.65 18,615 2.42 21,766 3.18 17,065 -4.75 align=left 19,338 1.62 20,279 0.95 21,291 0.98 22,185 0.83 22,728 0.48 23,127 0.35 23,416 0.25 align=left 4,569 2.87 5,273 2.91 5,679 1.49 6,230 1.87 6,815 1.81 7,488 1.90 8,192 1.81 align=left 21,485 2.87 24,805 2.92 29,065 3.22 33,194 2.69 38,487 3.00 44,289 2.85 51,046 2.88 align=left 51,759 1.94 56,097 1.62 59,818 1.29 62,902 1.01 65,113 0.69 66,721 0.49 67,977 0.37 align=left 649 3.09 740 2.66 868 3.24 768 -2.43 985 5.11 1,088 2.02 1,232 2.5 align=left 3,130 3.57 3,721 3.52 4,203 2.47 4,992 3.50 5,715 2.74 6,588 2.88 7,553 2.77 align=left 95 0.55 97 0.39 98 0.24 101 0.55 104 0.63 106 0.45 107 0.16 align=left 1,190 1.74 1,256 1.09 1,265 0.14 1,252 -0.20 1,237 -0.24 1,229 -0.13 1,223 -0.10 align=left 7,364 2.71 8,208 2.19 8,947 1.74 9,508 1.22 10,013 1.04 10,526 1.00 11,038 0.95 align=left 50,989 2.51 56,545 2.09 61,296 1.63 65,970 1.48 70,465 1.33 74,687 1.17 79,415 1.24 align=left 3,241 2.42 3,659 2.46 4,079 2.20 4,386 1.46 4,665 1.24 4,941 1.16 5,232 1.15 align=left 10 4.53 12 4.33 15 5.35 20 5.22 28 7.44 44 9.39 51 3.08 align=left 9 1.81 10 2.37 10 1.22 11 0.59 11 0.26 11 0.59 11 0.75 align=left 13,811 2.82 16,549 3.68 19,641 3.48 22,917 3.13 26,917 3.27 31,508 3.20 37,102 3.32 align=left 50,945 0.36 51,623 0.26 51,248 -0.15 49,014 -0.89 47,003 -0.83 45,769 -0.53 44,430 -0.59 align=left 1,364 6.39 1,827 6.02 2,458 6.12 3,220 5.54 4,087 4.89 4,976 4.02 5,780 3.04 align=left 56,585 0.10 57,411 0.29 58,187 0.27 59,140 0.33 60,488 0.45 62,349 0.61 64,089 0.55 align=left 237,924 0.92 249,623 0.96 266,279 1.30 282,163 1.17 295,517 0.93 309,348 0.92 321,369 0.77 align=left 101 0.22 104 0.63 108 0.73 109 0.15 108 -0.14 107 -0.30 104 -0.51 align=left 3,019 0.60 3,086 0.44 3,151 0.42 3,220 0.44 3,265 0.28 3,302 0.22 3,342 0.25 align=left 18,216 2.64 20,531 2.42 23,068 2.36 25,042 1.66 26,540 1.17 27,866 0.98 29,200 0.94 align=left 135 2.90 154 2.69 173 2.31 192 2.10 218 2.62 246 2.40 273 2.11 align=left 16,998 2.85 19,326 2.60 21,550 2.20 23,493 1.74 25,270 1.47 27,224 1.50 29,276 1.46 align=left 60,094 2.27 67,259 2.28 73,784 1.87 79,178 1.42 84,425 1.29 89,572 1.19 94,349 1.04 align=left 14 3.78 14 0.72 15 0.79 15 0.91 16 0.58 16 0.33 16 0.35 Western Sahara 180 7.65 218 3.92 264 3.95 337 4.97 416 4.32 492 3.42 571 3.04 align=left 10,540 2.91 12,417 3.33 14,832 3.62 17,236 3.05 20,003 3.02 23,210 3.02 26,738 2.87 align=left 6,536 3.36 7,604 3.07 8,691 2.71 9,984 2.81 11,373 2.64 13,042 2.78 15,067 2.93 align=left 8,561 3.61 10,157 3.48 11,160 1.90 11,821 1.16 11,640 -0.31 11,652 0.02 14,230 4.08 World 4,856,463 1.76 5,288,956 1.72 5,699,203 1.51 6,088,572 1.33 6,473,045 1.23 6,866,333 1.19 7,256,491 1.11 ==Estimates between the years 2020 and 2050 (in thousands)== Country (or dependent territory) 2020 % 2025 % 2030 % 2035 % 2040 % 2045 % 2050 % align=left 36,644 2.39 41,118 2.33 45,665 2.12 50,195 1.91 54,717 1.74 59,256 1.61 63,796 1.49 align=left 3,075 0.30 3,105 0.20 3,103 -0.01 3,063 -0.26 2,994 -0.45 2,913 -0.55 2,825 -0.61 align=left 42,973 1.68 45,842 1.30 48,149 0.99 50,118 0.80 52,030 0.75 53,894 0.71 55,445 0.57 align=left 54 -0.21 54 -0.17 53 -0.32 52 -0.45 51 -0.45 50 -0.29 50 -0.06 align=left 86 0.01 86 -0.12 85 -0.21 83 -0.30 82 -0.46 79 -0.69 75 -0.93 align=left 22,485 2.76 25,674 2.69 29,155 2.58 32,910 2.45 36,948 2.34 41,280 2.24 45,889 2.14 align=left 19 1.96 20 1.77 22 1.58 23 1.41 25 1.24 26 1.09 27 0.96 align=left 99 1.21 104 1.13 110 0.99 114 0.82 118 0.65 121 0.52 123 0.41 align=left 45,379 0.88 47,165 0.77 48,796 0.68 50,273 0.60 51,574 0.51 52,663 0.42 53,512 0.32 align=left 3,022 -0.23 2,962 -0.40 2,884 -0.53 2,796 -0.62 2,699 -0.71 2,590 -0.82 2,469 -0.95 align=left 120 1.26 127 1.10 133 0.93 138 0.80 143 0.69 147 0.61 151 0.55 align=left 23,939 1.02 25,054 0.91 26,056 0.79 26,932 0.66 27,702 0.57 28,390 0.49 29,013 0.44 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49,857 1.47 53,188 1.30 56,279 1.14 59,130 0.99 align=left 610 1.01 637 0.88 662 0.76 683 0.64 700 0.48 712 0.33 718 0.19 align=left 10,203 0.80 10,588 0.74 10,914 0.61 11,190 0.50 11,458 0.47 11,734 0.48 12,012 0.47 align=left 8,404 0.69 8,666 0.61 8,894 0.52 9,085 0.43 9,248 0.36 9,398 0.32 9,540 0.30 align=left 22,347 5.54 24,538 1.89 26,090 1.23 27,563 1.10 28,938 0.98 30,173 0.84 31,226 0.69 align=left 23,604 0.16 23,643 0.03 23,508 -0.11 23,149 -0.31 22,550 -0.52 21,759 -0.71 20,835 -0.86 align=left 8,874 1.61 9,511 1.40 10,104 1.22 10,668 1.09 11,203 0.98 11,697 0.87 12,133 0.73 align=left 58,553 2.80 68,905 2.71 76,071 2.60 85,946 2.47 96,400 2.32 107,301 2.17 118,587 2.02 align=left 68,978 0.29 69,589 0.18 69,751 0.05 69,447 -0.09 68,696 -0.22 67,546 -0.34 66,064 -0.44 align=left 1,384 2.36 1,540 2.15 1,690 1.88 1,829 1.60 1,958 1.37 2,079 1.20 2,192 1.07 align=left 8,609 2.65 9,742 2.50 10,953 2.37 12,246 2.26 13,622 2.15 15,074 2.05 16,584 1.93 align=left 107 -0.08 105 -0.27 103 -0.47 99 -0.71 94 -1.03 88 -1.44 79 -1.93 align=left 1,209 -0.22 1,184 -0.42 1,152 -0.55 1,118 -0.60 1,086 -0.58 1,055 -0.58 1,024 -0.59 align=left 11,495 0.81 11,850 0.61 12,087 0.40 12,223 0.22 12,285 0.10 12,277 -0.01 12,181 -0.16 align=left 82,018 0.65 84,545 0.61 86,671 0.50 88,279 0.37 89,283 0.23 89,626 0.08 89,291 -0.07 align=left 5,929 1.13 6,011 0.98 6,027 0.77 6,210 0.60 6,364 0.49 6,498 0.42 6,608 0.34 align=left 56 2.15 62 1.85 67 1.61 72 1.43 76 1.28 81 1.13 85 0.95 align=left 12 0.86 12 0.83 13 0.68 13 0.54 13 0.47 14 0.44 14 0.42 align=left 43,518 3.24 50,693 3.10 58,489 2.90 66,782 2.69 75,460 2.47 84,402 2.27 93,477 2.06 align=left 43,923 -0.23 42,888 -0.48 41,699 -0.56 40,538 -0.56 39,428 -0.55 38,325 -0.57 37,149 -0.62 align=left 6,496 2.36 7,064 1.69 7,484 1.16 7,773 0.76 7,949 0.45 8,025 0.19 8,019 -0.01 align=left 65,762 0.52 67,244 0.45 68,451 0.36 69,394 0.27 70,149 0.22 70,743 0.17 71,154 0.12 align=left 334,504 0.80 347,335 0.76 359,403 0.69 370,339 0.60 380,220 0.53 389,395 0.48 398,329 0.45 align=left 101 -0.67 96 -0.86 91 -1.07 86 -1.25 80 -1.37 75 -1.44 69 -1.43 align=left 3,388 0.27 3,432 0.26 3,467 0.20 3,486 0.11 3,501 0.09 3,504 0.02 3,496 -0.05 align=left 30,566 0.92 31,824 0.81 32,855 0.64 33,653 0.48 34,279 0.37 34,768 0.28 35,117 0.20 align=left 299 1.85 324 1.63 348 1.46 372 1.31 394 1.17 415 1.02 433 0.88 align=left 31,276 1.33 33,189 1.19 34,958 1.04 36,544 0.89 37,942 0.75 39,174 0.64 40,256 0.55 align=left 98,722 0.91 102,459 0.75 105,478 0.58 107,843 0.44 109,602 0.32 110,718 0.20 111,174 0.08 align=left 16 0.31 17 0.21 17 0.08 17 -0.06 16 -0.15 16 -0.19 16 -0.22 Western Sahara 653 2.70 736 2.44 822 2.23 909 2.04 998 1.87 1,086 1.71 1,174 1.57 align=left 29,885 2.25 32,823 1.89 35,660 1.67 38,437 1.51 41,142 1.37 43,710 1.22 46,081 1.06 align=left 17,427 2.95 20,105 2.90 23,137 2.85 26,546 2.79 30,339 2.71 34,497 2.60 38,993 2.48 align=left 15,832 2.16 17,371 1.87 18,820 1.62 20,282 1.51 21,840 1.49 23,492 1.47 25,199 1.41 World 7,643,403 1.04 8,006,581 0.93 8,340,607 0.82 8,646,305 0.72 8,925,950 0.64 9,180,224 0.54 9,408,142 0.49 ;Source * United States Census Bureau - International Data Base (IDB), July 2015 edition (retrieved on October 20, 2015). The current version of the International Data Base website gives updated population estimates for the years 1950-2100 for all countries (except the United States: 1950-2060), as well as the World total for the years 1950-2060. ==See also== *List of countries and dependencies by population *List of countries by past and projected GDP (PPP) *List of countries by population in 2000 *List of countries by population in 2005 *List of countries by population in 2010 *List of countries by population in 2015 *World population ==References== ==External links== *The United Nations Division of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division provides official UN estimates and projections of country populations *City population provides demographic data not only for cities, but also for countries (and their primary administrative divisions), sometimes going back to the 1980s. *GeoHive page with historic, current and future population by country, also based on the United States Census Bureau International Data Base. *Population statistics has a collection of demographic statistics from every country and territory, some of them going back centuries. *Statoids gives historical and present-day census data about countries and territories, and figures for their first (and even second) level administrative divisions. * includes present-day national population projections, going back to the 1990s in some cases. *International Futures (IFs) is an integrated global modeling system that forecasts demographic, economic, energy, agricultural, socio-political, and environmental subsystems for 183 countries interacting in the global system. Category:Lists of countries by population Category:Population geography |
The Diocese of Latina-Terracina-Sezze-Priverno () is a Latin Church ecclesiastical territory or diocese of the Catholic Church in Lazio, Italy. It was established under this name in 1986. It is the continuation of the Diocese of Terracina, Priverno e Sezze, whose existence was confirmed by Pope Honorius III in 1217, as a joining of the Diocese of Terracina with the Diocese of Priverno and the Diocese of Sezze under a single bishop. It is immediately exempt to the Holy See."Diocese of Latina-Terracina-Sezze-Priverno" Catholic- Hierarchy.org. David M. Cheney. Retrieved March 20, 2016."Diocese of Latina–Terracina–Sezze–Priverno" GCatholic.org. Gabriel Chow. Retrieved March 20. 2016. ==History== According to a local tradition, the first bishop of Terracina was St. Epaphroditus, who is claimed to have been one of Jesus' original seventy-two disciples, mentioned by Paul of Tarsus in one of his epistles.Ughelli I, p. 1283-1284. The report is italicized by Gams, p. 731, column 2, as unreliable, and is labeled "ex trad." Lanzoni, p. 154 also rejects the tradition, labelling it a modern myth: "Certo è che la nostra diocesi laziale ignorò fino ai tempi moderni che quel discepolo di s. Paolo fosse stato il suo primo vescovo." In the "Epistle to the Philippians", chapter 2, Paul mentions that Epaphroditus had been sent to Rome as a delegate of the Church of Philippi, that he had become deathly ill but survived, and that Paul was sending him back to Philippi. The most ancient Christian record of the city is that of the martyrdom of St. Julianus, priest, and St. Cæsareus, deacon, who were cast into the sea under the emperor Trajan. The early date is rejected by Francesco Lanzoni, along with many hagiographical details.Lanzoni, p. 149: "La Passione di s. Cesario e gli Acta Nerei, rispetto al tempo del martire terracinese, non hanno valore probativo; quindi non è necessario credere che il martire risalga a tanto remota antichità." In the third century, a Quartus is recorded by the "Passion of S. Caesareo" as a sacerdos, and martyr along with Caesareo; he is also mentioned as a martyr along with Quintus of Capua. There is no reason to think that Quartus was a bishop.Lanzoni, p. 154: "Ora, senza una ragione al mondo, per il semplice ricordo di Quartus nella Passione di s. Cesario, egli e il suo compagno furono introdotti nel catalogo vescovile di Terracina." The first bishop whose date is known with certainty is Sabinus. He was present at the Lateran synod of Pope Miltiades in November 313.Lanzoni, p. 154. J.D. Mansi (ed.), Sacrorum Conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio, editio novissima, Tomus II (Florence: A. Zatta 1759), p. 437. It is claimed that an African priest, Silvianus, a fugitive during the Vandal persecution was bishop of Terracina about 443. The catalogue of Hieronymianus notes under 10 February: "iuxta Terracina in Campania natale Silvani episcopi et confessoris."Lanzoni, pp. 154-156. Cf. The story of his African origins first appears in an anonymous local historian of Terracina belonging to the 17th and 18th centuries. It is rejected by Francesco Lanzoni as being without foundation. He also rejects the date of 444, preferring to place Silvianus in the 4th century.Lanzoni, p. 155: "I due pervengono in Terracinti e, morto il vescovo Giovanni nel 443, i terracinesi eleggono per proprio prelato il profugo Silvano, che visse solo nove mesi († 10 febbr. 444), e dopo di lui nominano il padre suo Eleuterio che muore il 6 agosto 444. Ma questo racconto del primo storico di Terracina non ha alcun fondamento." Agnellus, Bishop of Fundi, whose city had been destroyed, was appointed cardinalis sacerdos of the diocese of Terracina by Pope Gregory I.Kehr II, p. 115, nos. 5, 6, and 7. Lanzoni, pp. 156, no. 5; 163, no 3. The sees of PipernoKehr II, p. 123, places the union of Piperno and Terracina in the 11th century, but admits that there is no evidence: "Sed saec. XI — unionis certum tempus nequit adsignari — Pipernas episcopatus Terracinensi unitur...." (Privernum) and SezzeKehr II, p. 127: "...at saec. XI, nescimus a quo pontifice, ecclesiae Terracinensi unita est." (Setia), situated on the side of the Lepinian hills, were united to Terracina, perhaps by Pope Alexander III, or even earlier.In his bull of confirmation of 1217 (Ughelli I, p. 1294), Pope Honorius III, while referencing a transaction made for the benefit of Bishop Hugo by Pope Alexander III, remarks, "Praeterea praedictorum praedecessorum nostrorum vestigia subsequentes, Pipernensem et Ecclesias eidem Tarracinensi Ecclesiae in perpetuum unitas manere decernimus, cum omnibus juribis earum, rebus, ac pertinentiis...." The union of the three dioceses was confirmed by Pope Honorius III on 18 January 1217, during the episcopate of Simeone.Ughelli I, pp. 1293-1295. On 16 July 1725, with the Bull "Regis Pacifici", Pope Benedict XIII restored the See of Piperno and Sezze, declaring them united aeque principaliter to the diocese of Terracina. Bishop Francesco Antonio Mondelli (1805) was exiled in 1809, for refusing to take the oath of loyalty to Napoleon, following the arrest, deposition and deportation of Pope Pius VII. He was deported first to the fortress of Chambéry in Savoy, and then to Trevoux in France.Cappelletti VI, p. 605. The Cistercian Abbey of Fossa Nuova is within the territory of this see. The diocese is immediately subject to the Holy See (Papacy).Umberto Benigni (1912), "Diocese of Terracina, Sezze, and Piperno." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 14. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. Retrieved 27 May 2020. ===Chapters and cathedrals=== The cathedral of Terracina, dedicated to S. Cesareo, was built in the 11th and 12th centuries,Carlo Tedeschi (2016), "Le epigrafi del portale e del portico della cattedrale di Terracina," in: Arte medievale, Periodico annuale IV serie, anno VI (Sapienza Università di Roma 2016), pp. 45-50. ISSN 0393-7267 on foundations of an ancient Roman temple, dedicated to Apollo,Ughelli I, p. 1283. or to the Goddess Roma and Augustus. It was served and administered by a corporation, the Chapter, composed of twelve Canons, presided over by the Archpriest. Since the cathedral served as a parish church, the Archdeacon had the "cure of souls" (responsibility for the spiritual welfare of the parishioners).Ughelli I, p. 1283. The cathedral of Latina, dedicated to S. Marco, was begun in 1932 as a parish church, at the same time that Latina was established as a city and the capital of its prefecture. The former Pontine Marshes, which had finally been drained after more than fifty years of work, were opened to agriculture, and the state sponsored a large-scale immigration from the Veneto, whose principal patron saint was Mark the Evangelist of Venice. The new parish church was dedicated on 23 November 1933, by Cardinal Enrico Gasparri, suburbicarian Bishop of Velletri. It was elevated to the status of a cathedral on 30 September 1986.Diocesi di Latina-Terracina-Sezze-Priverno, "Cattedrale di San Marco;" retrieved: 25 May 2020. The original church at Sezze was dedicated to S. Luke, the mythological founder of the Christian community at Setina. There was a Romanesque church, which was seriously damaged in a fire in 1150. The latest known bishop of Sezze was Bishop Landus in 1178.Gams, p. 732, column 1. The Romanesque church was replaced, and a new church dedicated on 18 August 1364, by the Franciscan Bishop Giovanni of Terracina, Priverno e Sezze. It was dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Pope Benedict XIII granted the old cathedral the title of "minor basilica".Diocesi di Latina-Terracina-Sezze-Priverno, "Concattedrali;" retrieved: 26 May 2020. By the papal bull of 29 April 1725, the church of S. Maria was reestablished as a cathedral and united aeque principaliter with the diocese of Terracina. The cathedral was staffed and administered by a Chapter, consisting of three dignities and twelve Canons.Ritzler-Sefrin, Hierarchia catholica V, p. 371, note 1. This was confirmed in the bull of 16 August 1725. The cathedral of Piperno was dedicated to the Virgin Mary. The old cathedral was destroyed in a fire in 1159, and Pope Lucius III dedicated a new cathedral in the summer of 1183.Diocesi di Latina-Terracina-Sezze-Priverno, "Concattedrali;" retrieved: 26 May 2020. Philippus Jaffé & S. Loewenfeld, Regesta pontificum Romanorum, Tomus II, editio secunda (Leipzig: Veit 1888), p. 455. This is known only from a copy of an inscription which is no longer extant: "Annus millenus centenus bis quadragenus ǁ Tertius aetatis Christi cum, Luci, dedisti ǁ Principium nostrae ecclesiae per te benedictae ǁ Stabit in aeternum felix struit ordo Pipernum ǁ Tempus erat vernum voluit sic esse supernum." The cathedral was staffed and administered by a Chapter, consisting of an Archpriest and twelve Canons.Ritzler-Sefrin, Hierarchia catholica V, p. 371, note 1. ===Diocesan reorganization=== Pope Leo XIII had determined that all of the dioceses of Lazio should belong to one and the same ecclesiastical province. His successor Pope Pius X, however, decided to split the province into two, Upper Lazio and Lower Lazio (to which Terracina belonged), while the suburbicarian bishops would belong to a separate conference under the direction of the Vicar of the city of Rome.Acta Apostolicae Sedis 59 (Città del Vaticano 1967), pp. 985-986. The city of Latina, however, which was the largest in Lazio except for Rome itself, belonged to the diocese of Velletri, one of the suburbicarian bishoprics. The Second Vatican Council, in order to ensure that all Catholics received proper spiritual attention, decreed the reorganization of the diocesan structure of Italy and the consolidation of small and struggling dioceses, in particular those with financial and personnel problems.In its decree Christus Dominus, section 22, it stated: "Concerning diocesan boundaries, therefore, this sacred synod decrees that, to the extent required by the good of souls, a fitting revision of diocesan boundaries be undertaken prudently and as soon as possible. This can be done by dividing dismembering or uniting them, or by changing their boundaries, or by determining a better place for the episcopal see or, finally, especially in the case of dioceses having larger cities, by providing them with a new internal organization.... At the same time the natural population units of people, together with the civil jurisdictions and social institutions that compose their organic structure, should be preserved as far as possible as units. For this reason, obviously, the territory of each diocese should be continuous." It also decreed that the natural population units of people, together with the civil jurisdictions and social institutions that compose their organic structure, should be preserved as far as possible as units. It was their wish that all of Lazio was to belong to one ecclesiastical province. Latina was recognized as an anomaly in terms of ecclesiastical organization. Therefore, on 12 September 1967, with the approval of Pope Paul VI, the Consistorial Congregation ordered that the part of the territory of Lazio that belonged to the district of which Latina was the capital was to be transferred from the diocese of Velletri to the diocese of Terracina, bringing a substantial increase in territory and population to the diocese of Terracina.Acta Apostolicae Sedis 59 (Città del Vaticano 1967), pp. 986-987. On the same day, in a separate decree, the name of the diocese was changed to "Terracinensis-Latiniensis, Privernensis et Setinus".Acta Apostolicae Sedis 59 (Città del Vaticano 1967), pp. 987-988. On 18 February 1984, the Vatican and the Italian State signed a new and revised concordat. Based on the revisions, a set of Normae was issued on 15 November 1984, which was accompanied in the next year, on 3 June 1985, by enabling legislation. According to the agreement, the practice of having one bishop govern two separate dioceses at the same time, aeque personaliter, was abolished. This applied to the dioceses of Terracina-Latina and Priverno e Sezza. The Vatican therefore continued consultations which had begun under Pope John XXIII for the merging of dioceses. On 30 September 1986, Pope John Paul II ordered that the dioceses of Terracina-Latina and Priverno e Sezza be merged into one diocese with one bishop, with the Latin title Dioecesis Latinensis-Terracinensis-Setina-Privernensis. The seat of the diocese was to be in Latina, the largest city and capital of the province, and the cathedral of Latina, San Marco, was to serve as the cathedral of the merged dioceses. The cathedrals in Terracina, Sezze, and Priverno were to become co-cathedrals, and the cathedral Chapters were each to be a Capitulum Concathedralis. There was to be only one diocesan Tribunal, in Latina, and likewise one seminary, one College of Consultors, and one Priests' Council. The territory of the new diocese was to include the territory of the former dioceses of Latina, Terracina, Sezze, and Priverno.Acta Apostolicae Sedis 79 (Città del Vaticano 1987), pp. 797-800. ===Diocesan synods=== A diocesan synod was an irregularly held, but important, meeting of the bishop of a diocese and his clergy. Its purpose was (1) to proclaim generally the various decrees already issued by the bishop; (2) to discuss and ratify measures on which the bishop chose to consult with his clergy; (3) to publish statutes and decrees of the diocesan synod, of the provincial synod, and of the Holy See. John Paul II, Constitutio Apostolica de Synodis Dioecesanis Agendis (March 19, 1997): Acta Apostolicae Sedis 89 (1997), pp. 706-727. In 1640, Bishop Cesare Ventimiglia (1615–1645) presided over a diocesan synod. In 1764. Bishop Francesco Odoardi (1758–1775) held a diocesan synod at Priverno. In 1784, from 30 May to 1 June, Bishop Benedetto Pucilli (1775–1786) held a diocesan synod in the cathedral of Terracina, the decrees of which were published in Rome in 1885 by the Salamonian press.J.D. Mansi (ed.), Sacrorum Conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio, editio novissima, Tomus 36ter (Arnhem-Leipzig: H. Welter 1924), p. 241. A diocesan synod of the diocese of Terracina Priverno e Sezze was held by Bishop Salvatore Baccarini (1922–1930) in 1929.Diocesi di Latina-Terracina- Sezze-Priverno, Il Libro del Primo Sinodo della Chiesa Pontina 2005–2012 (Latina 2012), p. 7. Bishop Giuseppe Petrocchi (1998–2013) presided over the first diocesan synod of the reorganized and renamed diocese of Latina- Terracina-Sezze-Priverno from 2005 to 2012. An extensive report of the consultations, Perché la nostra Chiesa sia "Più-Una", was published.Diocesi di Latina-Terracina-Sezze-Priverno, Il Libro del Primo Sinodo della Chiesa Pontina 2005–2012 (Latina 2012), passim. ==Bishops== ===Diocese of Terracina=== :... *Sabinus (attested 313)Lanzoni, p. 154. :... *Martyrius (attested 496–502)Martyrius is also mentioned in papal letters which may belong as early as 492. Pope Gelasius wrote to Bishop Martyrius (it seems) in 494 or 495 (Kehr, p. 114, no. 1). Martyrius was present at the first Roman synod of Pope Symmachus on 1 March 499, the third Roman synod of 23 October 501, and the fourth Roman synod of Symmachus on 6 November 502. J.D. Mansi (ed.), Sacrorum Conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio, editio novissima, Tomus VIII (Florence: A. Zatta 1762), pp. 234, 252, 263, 268. Lanzoni, p. 156, no. 3. :... *Petrus (attested 591–592)Pope Gregory I complained in two letters to Bishop Petrus of his maltreatment of the Jewish community of Terracina, who had left the vicinity for a festival, and were now being kept out by him, and ordered Bishop Petrus to allow them their festival according to their custom. However, Pope Gregory ordered Bishop Petrus to deprive the Jews of their celebration, if their singing in their synagogue disturbed any neighboring church. Kehr II, p. 114, nos. 2 and 3. Lanzoni, p. 156, no. 4. *Agnellus (attested 592–598)In November 592, Pope Gregory I wrote to Bishop Agnellus of Fondi, appointing him cardinalis sacerdos of the vacant diocese of Terracina. He also wrote to the clergy of Terracina, ordering them to obey Bishop Agnellus. After the death of Bishop Bacauda of Formiae in 597, Pope Gregory appointed Bishop Agnellus to conduct and apostolic visitation of the diocese of Formiae. Kehr II, p. 115, nos. 5, 6, and 7. Lanzoni, p. 156, no. 5. :... *Sabbatinus (attested 963–964)Sabbatinus: Schwartz, p. 272. *Benedictus (attested 969)On 26 May 969, Bishop Benedictus was present at the Roman synod of Pope John XIII. Ughelli I, p. 1291. Schwartz, p. 272. :... *Joannes (attested 986–994))Bishop Joannes made the vow that the inhabitants of the city should offer each year 6,000 eels to the monastery of Monte Cassino. Schwartz, p. 272. :... *Adeodatus (attested 1015)Bishop Adeodatus was present at the Roman synod of Pope Benedict IX in 1015. Ughelli I, p. 1291. *Joannes *Theodaldus (attested 1042)I. Giorgi, "Documenti Terracinesi," in: *Joannes :... *Ambrosius, O.S.B. (attested 1064–1071)A native of Milan, Ambrosius was a Benedictine of Montecassino, and an ecclesiastical reformer. Schwartz, p. 272. :... *Petrus (attested 1092–1095)Petrus: I. Giorgi, "Documenti Terracinesi," in: Schwartz, p. 273. *Benedictus (attested 1098–1105)Benedictus entered into an agreement with Abbot Petrus of Montecassino; he consecrated the church of S. Stephanus at Montecassino in 1103. Schwartz, p. 273. *Gregorius, O.S.B. (attested 1112–1126)Gregorius was a Benedictine monk of Montecassino, called "Columna Ecclesiae" by Peter the Deacon. He was a writer of hagiographies, hymns, and homilies. He attended the Lateran synod of Pope Paschal II on 23 March 1112. On 21 July 1126, he subscribed a bull for the benefit of the archbishop of Pisa. Ughelli I, pp. 1291-1292. Ughelli's claim that Bishop Gregorius attended the Council of Guastalla in 1106 cannot be verified; cf. Schwartz, p. 273. :... *Hugo (attested 1168–1179)It was during Bishop Hugo's administration that Pope Alexander III (1159–1181) united Terracina with the dioceses of Pipernum and Setia (Piperno e Sezze). Bishop Hugo was present at the Third Lateran Council in March 1179. Ughelli I, pp. 1292, 1294; cf. Kehr II, p. 119, no. 9. :... *Filegarius (attested 1196–1199)According to a citation by Contatore from the Chronicon Fossae Novae, a Bishop "Tedelgarius" of Terracina took part in the dedication of the church of S. Maria de flumine de Ceccano in 1196. He is also recorded in a document of 1199. *Simeon (attested 1203–1217–1224)Simeon: Eubel I, p. 478 with note 1. ===Diocese of Terracina, Priverno e Sezze=== United: 17 January 1217 with the Diocese of Priverno and the Diocese of Sezze ====1217 to 1500==== *Simeon (continued)Simeon was still in office on 5 February 1224. Cappelletti, p. 544. *Gregorius (attested 1227–1238)Bishop Gregorius was already in office in 1227, according to Gams, p. 732. On 23 October 1238, Pope Gregory IX appointed Marcus de Ferentino, a chaplain of the Bishop of Ostia, as coadjutor bishop for Bishop Gregorius. Gregory was still in office on 20 March 1238. Cappelletti, pp. 544-545. Eubel I, p. 472 with note 2. *Docibilis (attested 1248)Bishop Docibilis granted the Archpriest and Canons of Terracina the church of S. Donato and the adjacent hospitium, with all of their lands, vines, and gardens. Ughelli I, p. 1296. Cappelletti VI, p. 547. *Petrus (attested 1257–1259)Ughelli I, p. 1296. Cappelletti VI, p. 547. Gams, p. 732, column 1. *Franciscus Canis (attested 1263–1273)Franciscus was the son of Guttifredus Canis. On the death of Bishop Petrus, the cathedral Chapter met, with the license of Pope Urban IV, and decided to follow the canonical "Way of Compromise", appointing two Canons to place in the hands of Cardinal Jordanus Pirunti of Ss. Cosmas e Damiano the duty of selecting the next bishop. The cardinal chose Bishop Franciscus of Bitetto, and his choice was ratified by Pope Urban on 28 August 1263. Ughelli I, pp. 1296-1297 (who conflates material about the two Franciscus). Eubel I, pp. 138, 478 with note 3. *Franciscus, O.Min. (1273–1295)Bishop Franciscus, O.Min, was present at the burial of Thomas Aquinas, O.P. at the monastery of Fossa Nova in 1274. Franciscus was transferred to the diocese of Avellino on 8 April 1295. Lucas Wadding, Annales Minorum IV, editio secunda (Rome: Typis Rochi Bernabò 1732), p. 411, no. xxxv. Eubel I, pp. 122; 478, note 3. *Theobaldus, O.Min. (1295–1296)Bishop Theobaldus had been Bishop of Stabiae. He was appointed Bishop of Terracina by Pope Boniface VIII on the same day that Bishop Franciscus was transferred to Avellino, 8 April 1295. Theobaldus was transferred to the diocese of Assisi on 13 February 1296, having served in Terracina for only ten months. Antoine Thomas, Les registres de Boniface VIII Tomus I, fasc. 1 (Paris: Ernest Thorin 1884), p. 29, no. 68. Eubel I, pp. 113, 462, 478. *Albertus (1296–1300)Albertus was appointed Bishop of Terracina by Boniface VIII on 13 February 1296, as Bishop Theobaldus was transferred to Assisi. Albertus was transferred to the diocese of Capua on 3 June 1300. Ughelli I, p. 1297. Eubel I, pp. 165, 478. *Joannes (1300–1318)Joannes was a Canon of the cathedral of Bologna. He was appointed Bishop of Terracina on the same day that Bishop Albert was transferred to Capua, 3 June 1300. Les registres de Boniface VIII p. 724, no. 3624. Eubel I, p. 478. *Andreas (1319–1326)Andreas had been Bishop-elect of Teramo when he was named Bishop of Terracina by Pope John XXII on 20 April 1319. Bishop Andreas was papal Vicar of the city of Rome from 1322 to 1325. He died at the papal Court in Avignon. Ughelli I, p. 1297. Eubel I, p. 478 with note 7. *Sergius Peronti (1326–1348)Sergius Perumptus was a Canon of the cathedral of Terracina, and in orders of a subdeacon. He had been coadjutor for Bishop Andreas, who was on papal service. He was appointed Bishop of Terracina by Pope John XXII, who had reserved the right of appointment to himself, on 21 May 1326. He required a dispensation super defectu natalium (illegitimacy), and another to receive major Holy Orders at one time, without observing canonical requirements of service in grade. He died in 1348, before November. Cappelletti VI, p. 553. G. Mollat, Jean XXII. Lettres communes, Tome sixième (Paris: Fontemoing 1912), p. 201, nos. 25427, 25430. Eubel I, p. 478 with note 8. *Petrus (1348–1352) *Jacobus de Perusio, O.E.S.A. (1352–1362) *Giovanni Ferreri, O.Min. (1362–1369)Bishop Giovanni consecrated the cathedral; *Stefano Armandi (1369–1381?)Ughelli I, p. 1297, states that he was still in office in 1396. *Rogerius ( ? –1390) Roman ObedienceRogerius was an appointee of Pope Boniface IX (1389–1404). His successor was appointed by Boniface IX on 25 May 1390. Eubel I, p. 478. *Nicolaus (1390–1402) Roman ObedienceNicolaus (Pocciarelli) was transferred to Segni, his home town, on 18 August 1402, by Boniface IX. Ughelli I, p. 1298. Eubel I, pp. 451, 498. *Marinus de Santa Agatha (1402–1404) Roman ObedienceHe is given the sobriquet "Magnus Merula" by the monk Michael. Marinus was a Canon of the cathedral of Fermo and a papal "scriptor apostolicus". He was an intimate of Pope Boniface IX, who appointed him Bishop of Terracina on 18 September 1402. He was transferred to the diocese of Gaeta on 14 May 1404. Pope Gregory XII is said to have deposed him. Ughelli I, p. 1298. Eubel I, pp. 258, 478. *Antonius (de Rossi) (1404–1411)Antonius (de Rossi or de Rocci) had been Bishop of Guardialfiera (1392–1400), Bishop of Gravina (1400–1402), and then Bishop of Isola (1402). He was appointed Bishop of Isernia by Boniface IX on 2 October 1402. He was transferred to Terracina by Pope Innocent VII on 12 July 1404. At the Council of Pisa, on 5 June 1409, Innocent VII's successor, Gregory XII, was deposed as a perjurer and heretic. Bishop Antonio chose to continue in his obedience, and accepted the position of Vicar General in spiritual matters in the province of Campania Marittima. He was therefore deposed on 9 March 1411 by Pope John XXIII (Cossa). He died in 1425. Ughelli I, p. 1298. Eubel I, pp. 268, 269, 285, 287, 478. *Antonius da Zagarolo, O.F.M. (1411–1422)Fra Antonio was appointed Bishop of Terracina on 9 March 1411 by Pope John XXIII. He was transferred to the diocese of Gaeta on 20 May 1422. He died in 1427. Eubel I, pp. 258, 478. *Andrea Gacci (1422–1425)Gacci had been a Canon of the cathedral of Palestrina. He was appointed by Pope Martin V on 20 May 1422. He died in 1425. Eubel II, p. 478. *Giovanni de Normannis (1425–1427)Giovanni, who had been a Canon of the Basilica of the XII Apostles in Rome, was appointed Bishop of Terracina by Pope Martin V on 21 May 1425. Bishop Giovanni was transferred to the diocese of Gaeta on 15 October 1427. He died in 1440. Eubel I, pp. 258, 478. *Nicola de Aspra (1430–1448)Nicholas was transferred to the diocese of Segni. Ughelli I, p. 1298. Eubel I, p. 478. *Alessandro Trani (1448)Alessandro Trani: Gams, p. 738, column 2. Eubel II, p. 248. *Alexander de Gaetano (1449–1455)Alexander held the degree of Doctor in utroque iure. He was appointed Bishop of Terracina by Pope Nicholas V on 15 January 1449. He died in 1455. Ughelli wrongly states that he died in 1458, being unaware of the existence of Franciscus de Licata. Ughelli I, p. 1298. Eubel Hierarchia catholica II, p. 248. *Franciscus de Benedictus de Licata (15 Dec 1455 – 1458 Died) *Corrado Marcellini (1458–1490)A native of Rome, Marcellini had been a Canon of the Basilica of the XII Apostles in Rome, and rose to be its Prior. He was named Bishop of Montefeltro on 12 August 1458 (according to Eubel, which seems unlikely, since Pope Calixtus III died on 6 August and there was no pope on August 12), and was still bishop-elect when transferred to the diocese of Terracina on 6 October 1458 by Pope Pius II. He died in Rome in 1490. Ughelli I, p. 1298. Cappelletti VI, p. 554. Eubel II, pp. 153, 248. *Francesco Rosa (1490–1500)Francesco (not Antonio, as in Ughelli, p. 1298) was a native of Terracina, and held the degree of Doctor of Law. He was named Bishop of Foligno on 20 November 1486, by Pope Innocent VIII. He was transferred to Terracina on 3 March 1490. He died in 1500. Cappelletti VI, pp. 554-555. Eubel II, pp. 156, 248. ====1500 to 1800==== *Juan Gálvez (1500–1507)Juan Galvez was a native of Seville, Spain. He was born in 1439. He was a Doctor in utroque iure, and a protege of Cardinal Oliviero Carafa. He was appointed President of the Apostolic Camera, the fifth-highest position in that department. He was a writer of papal bulls (scriptor apostolicarum bullarum), for whose services substantial fees were due from the intended recipients; he rose to be Master of the Registry of papal bulls. He was named Bishop of Terracina by Pope Julius II on 18 December 1500. He died, according to his tombstone, on 6 August 1507. Ughelli I, p. 1299. Eubel II, p. 248 with note 3. *Oliviero Carafa (1507–1510 Resigned) AdministratorCardinal Carafa, who was Dean of the College of Cardinals was Administrator of the diocese from 20 August 1507 to 13 May 1510, when he resigned, upon the appointment of a regular bishop. Eubel, Hierarchia catholica III, p. 310. *Zaccaria de Moris (1510–1517)Mori was Provost of the church of S. Lucia de Urbe. He was named Bishop of Terracina by Pope Julius II on 13 May 1510. The date of his death is unknown. He was still alive on 4 May 1515, when he subscribed the decrees of the Fifth Lateran Council. Ughelli I, p. 1299. Cappelletti VI, p. 555. Eubel III, p. 310. *Andrea Cibo (Cybo) (1517–1522)Andrea Cybo was the son of Domenico d'Andrea Cibo, governor of the Marche (1460) and Bianchetta, the natural sister of Pope Innocent VIII (Cybo]]. Andrea's brother Alaone belonged to the Knights of Jerusalem, and Alalone's son was Consul of Genoa in Rome (1520); Andrea's brother Mario was a lieutenant in the papal guards. Andrea was named Bishop of Terracina by Pope Leo X on 20 April 1517. He died in 1522. Eubel III, p. 310. *Giovanni de Copis (1522–1527)De Copis was a native of Brabant. He was Abbreviator and then Corrector of Apostolic Letters. He was a Referendary of the Tribune of the Two Signatures. He was provided as Bishop of Terracina on 29 October 1522. He died on 15 August 1527, according to his tombstone. Ughelli I, p. 1299. Eubel III, p. 310. *Antonio Bonsi (1528–1533)Bonsi was a Florentine, the son of the noble Domenico Bonsi. He held the degree of Doctor in utroque iure, and was a Florentine ambassador )Orator). While on a mission to the papal court in 1528, he was named Bishop of Terracina by Pope Clement VII on 3 January 1528. Ughelli I, p. 1299-1300. He served as papal ambassador to France, to negotiate the marriage of Prince Henry and Catherine de Medicis; he died in Rome in 1533, following his return from France. Ughelli I, pp. 1299-1300. Cappelletti VI, p. 555. Eubel III, p. 310. *Cinzio Filonardi (1533–1534)Cinzio Filonardi was a native of Bauco, a castllo in the diocese of Veroli. He was the son of Vellio Filonardi and Rita della Sgurgola, and the brother of Cardinal Ennio Filonardi. He served as pro- Legate of Perugia. He was appointed Bishop of Terracina on 7 November 1553 by Pope Julius III. He died in the first week of November 1524, at the age of 43, having served less than a year in office. Ughelli I, p. 1300. Cappelletti VI, p. 555. Eubel III, p. 310. :Cipriano de Caris (1534 Died)De Caris served for only forty days, according to Orlandi. Eubel III, p. 310, states that Filonardi died in November 1534, and that Argoli was appointed on 13 November 1534; this leaves no room for De Caris. An addition to Ughelli I, p. 1300, states that De Caris was appointed on 13 November and that Argoli was appointed on 23 November, likewise leaving no room for Orlandi's forty-day reign. *Alessandro Argoli (1534–1540)Argoli, whose family was from Tagliacozzo in the Abruzzi, had previously been titular bishop of Sidon. He was the papal Majordomo (Prefect of the Apostolic Palace) of Pope Paul III. He was appointed Bishop of Terracina on 13 November 1534. He was also First Custodian of the Holy House of Loreto. He died in 1540. Ughelli I, p. 1300. Cappelletti VI, p. 555. Eubel III, p. 310. *Ottaviano Maria Sforza (1540–1545)Ottaviano Sforza was the illegitimate son of Duke Gian Galeazzo of Milan. He may have been born in 1475, or 2 May 1477. He was appointed Bishop of Lodi on 27 October 1497 by Pope Alexander VI (Eubel II, p. 173), at the age of 22 (or 20), but being too young for consecration, he was only Administrator of the diocese. When the French captured the Duchy of Milan in 1499, Ottaviano was expelled, not returning until 1512, and an Apostolic Administrator was named. Still only bishop-elect, he resigned the diocese, and was transferred to Arezzo by Pope Leo X on 19 November 1519 (Eubel III, pp. 116; 220, note 2). He was named Bishop of Terracina on 24 November 1540 by Pope Paul III, and on 20 May 1541 was additionally given the title of Patriarch of Alexandria, which he retained until his death in 1545 (Eubel III, pp. 102; 220, with note 3). *Ottaviano Raverta (1545–1562)Raverta was a native of Milan, and the nephew of his predecessor, for whom he had been acting as coadjutor with the right of succession. Raverta was named Bishop of Terracina on 27 November 1545, by Pope Paul III. He was nuncio in Switzerland (1553–1560) and Spain (1560, 1561). Ughelli says he died in Spain in 1562, disappointed that he did not become a cardinal, due to the death of Pope Paul IV. Ughelli I, p. 1300. Eubel III, p. 310. *Francesco Beltramini (1564–1575)A native of Colle Val d'Elsa in Tuscany, Beltramini held the degree of Doctor in utroque iure, and was a familiaris of Pope Pius IV, who appointed him Bishop of Terracina on 21 June 1564. He was nominated papal nuncio to France from October 1565 to March 1566, but his nunciature was not acceptable to the French government. He died in Terracina in 1575. Henry Biaudet, Les nonciatures apostoliques permanents, jusqu'en 1648, (Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedakatemia 1910), p. 253. Ludwig Pastor, History of the Popes, tr. R. Kerr, Volume XVI (London: Routledge 1928), p. 202 n. 2. Ughelli I, p. 1300. Eubel III, p. 310. *Beltramino Beltramini (1575–1582)Beltramino was the brother of Francesco Beltramini. He was named Bishop of Terracina on 5 December 1575. He died, according to his tombstone, on 8 May 1582. Ughelli I, p. 1300. Eubel III, p. 310. *Luca Cardino (1582–1594)A native of Reggio Lepidi, Cardino was appointed Bishop of Terracina on 20 August 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII. He was known for his charity toward the poor. He died on 14 October 1594, at the age of sixty-three, according to his tombstone inscription. Cappelletti VI, pp. 556-557. Eubel III, p. 310. *Fabrizio Perugini (1595–1608)"Perugini" seems not to be a surname, but a local origin designation. Fabrizio was appointed Bishop of Terracina e Sezze on 24 April 1595. He died in January 1608. Ughelli I, p. 1300. Cappelletti, pp. 557-558. Eubel, Hierarchia catholica III, p. 310. Gauchat, Hierarchia catholica IV, p. 330. *Pomponio de Magistris (28 Jan 1608 – 1614)De Magistris: Gauchat, p. 330 with note 3. *Cesare Ventimiglia (1615–1645)A native of Benevento, Ventimiglia held the degree of Doctor in utroque iure, and was a protonotary apostolic. He became an advocate, practicing before the Roman Rota, and was a Referendary of the Tribunal of the Two Signatures. He was then appointed Auditor in the papal Nunciature in Spain, under Archbishop Decio Carafa. He was appointed Bishop of Terracina by Pope Paul V on 12 January 1615. As bishop, he restored and extended the episcopal palace in Sezze (1642). He died in Sezze on 23 December 1645. Ughelli I, pp. 1300-1301. Cappelletti VI, p. 557. Gauchat, p. 330, with note 4. *Alessandro Tassi (25 Jun 1646 – 21 Nov 1647)Tassi: Gauchat, p. 330 with note 5. *Francesco Maria Ghislieri (1 Feb 1649 –1664)On 1 September 1664, Ghislieri was appointed Bishop of Imola by Pope Alexander VII. Gauchat, p. 331 with note 6. *Pompeo Angelotti (15 Dec 1664 – 2 Mar 1667)Angelotti: Gauchat, p. 331 with note 7. *Ercole Domenico Monanni (1667–1710)Monanni was born in Monterchio in Tuscany in 1631. He held the degree of Doctor in utroque iure from the University of Pisa. He was Vicar General of the diocese of Velletri for Cardinal Francesco Barberini, and a Canon of the cathedral Chapter. He was appointed Bishop of Terracina on 22 August 1667 by Pope Clement IX. He died in Terracina in June 1710. Ughelli I, p. 1301 (who states that he was born in Monterchio in Florentine territory). Cappelletti VI, p. 559. Gauchat, Hierarchia catholica IV, p. 330. Ritzler-Sefrin, Hierarchia catholica V, p. 371 with note 3. *Bernardo Maria Conti, O.S.B. (1 Dec 1710 – 3 Jun 1720 Resigned)Bernardo M. Conti was brother of Pope Innocent XIII and a cardinal (from 16 June 1721). Cappelletti VI, p. 559. Ritzler-Sefrin V, p. 372 with note 4. *Giovanni Battista Conventati, C.O. (3 Jul 1720 – 27 Nov 1726 Resigned)Conventati: Ritzler-Sefrin V, p. 372 with note 5. *Gioacchino Maria Oldi, O. Carm. (1726–1749)Oldi was born in Crema in 1671. He was a master in theology (1705). He served as titular Provincial of Saxony of his Order. He was appointed Bishop of Narni on 11 February 1718, and resigned on 27 January 1725. He was appointed titular bishop of Kastoria (Greece) on 3 March 1725, and named suffragan bishop of Ostia e Velletri by Pope Benedict XIII. He was appointed Bishop of Terracina on 9 December 1726. He died on 3 November 1749. Ritzler-Sefrin V, pp. 148 with note 2; 280 with note 7; 372 with note 6. *Callisto Maria (Vincenzo Antonio) Palombella, O.S.M. (1 Dec 1749 – 3 May 1758)Palombella: Cappelletti VI, p. 603. Ritzler-Sefrin, Hierarchia catholica VI, p. 397 with note 2. *Francesco Alessandro Odoardi (11 Sep 1758 – 18 Jan 1775)Ritzler-Sefrin VI, p. 397 with note 3. *Benedetto Pucilli (29 May 1775 – 7 Apr 1786)Ritzler-Sefrin VI, p. 397 with note 4. *Angelo Antonio Anselmi (18 Dec 1786 –1792)Anselmi was appointed Bishop of San Severino (Marche) on 26 March 1792. Ritzler-Sefrin VI, p. 397 with note 5. ====1800 to 1966==== *Michele Argelati, O.S.M. (1800–1805)A native of Florence, Argelati was a priest of the Order of the Servants of Mary. He was a master of theology, and was parish priest of the church of S. Nicola in Arcione in Rome, next to the Servite convent of S. Nicola in Arcione. He was named titular bishop of Hippos (Palestine) on 1 June 1795, and appointed auxiliary bishop of Velletri. On 11 August 1800, he was transferred to the diocese of Terracina-Priverno-Sezze by Pope Pius VII. He died on 22 March 1805. Ritzler-Sefrin, Hierarchia catholica VII, p. 362. *Francesco Antonio Mondelli (23 Sep 1805 – 26 Sep 1814 Appointed Bishop of Città di Castello) *Francesco Saverio (François-Xavier) Pereira (15 Mar 1815 – 2 Oct 1818 Appointed Bishop of Rieti) *Francesco Albertini (29 Mar 1819 – 24 Nov 1819 Died) *Carlo Cavalieri Manassi (21 Feb 1820 – 19 Aug 1826 Died) *Luigi Frezza (2 Oct 1826 – 15 Dec 1828 Appointed Titular Archbishop of Chalcedon) *Bernardino Panzacchi (20 Jan 1834 – 24 Dec 1834 Died) *Guglielmo Aretini-Sillani (6 Apr 1835 – 4 Dec 1853 Resigned) *Nicola Bedini (19 Dec 1853 – 29 Sep 1862 Resigned) *Bernardino Trionfetti, O.F.M. (25 Sep 1862 – 23 Feb 1880 Resigned)Trionfetti was born at Monte Franco (archdiocese of Spoleto) in 1803. He had previously been Minister General of the Order of Friars Minor (Franciscans) from 1856 to 1862. He was appointed Bishop of Terracina on 25 September 1862 by Pope Pius IX. He resigned the diocese on 23 February 1880, and retired to a Franciscan convent. He died in 1884. Annuario Pontificio 1863 (Roma 1863), p. 215. *Flaviano Simoneschi (27 Feb 1880 – 2 Jul 1883 Resigned) *Tommaso Mesmer (9 Aug 1883 – 12 Dec 1892 Died) *Paolo Emio Bergamaschi (12 Jun 1893 – 19 Jun 1899 Appointed Bishop of Troia) *Domenico Ambrosi (18 Sep 1899 – 17 Aug 1921 Died) *Salvatore Baccarini, C. R. (7 Mar 1922 – 30 Jun 1930 Appointed Archbishop of Capua) *Pio Leonardo Navarra, O.F.M. Conv. (29 Jan 1932 – 2 Feb 1951 Resigned) *Emilio Pizzoni (27 Mar 1951 – 6 Sep 1966 Resigned) ===Diocese of Terracina-Latina, Priverno e Sezze=== *Arrigo Pintonello (12 Sep 1967 – 25 Jun 1971 Resigned) *Enrico Romolo Compagnone, O.C.D. (9 Mar 1972 – 22 Dec 1983 Retired) *Domenico Pecile (22 Dec 1983 – 27 Jun 1998 Retired) ===Diocese of Latina-Terracina-Sezze-Priverno=== Name Changed: 30 September 1986 *Giuseppe Petrocchi (27 Jun 1998 – 8 Jun 2013 Appointed Archbishop of L'Aquila) *Mariano Crociata (19 Nov 2013 – )CV of Bishop Crociata: Diocesi di Latina, "Vescovo: Biografia"; retrieved: 18 May 2020. ==References== == Books == * * * * * * * * * * ===Studies=== * * *Kehr, Paul Fridolin (1907). Italia pontificia. vol. II: Latium. Berlin 1909. pp. 113–130. *Lanzoni, Francesco (1927), Le diocesi d'Italia dalle origini al principio del secolo VII (an. 604), Faenza 1927, pp. 516–517; 545–547. *Schwartz, Gerhard (1913), Die Besetzung der Bistümer Reichsitaliens unter den sächsischen und salischen Kaisern : mit den Listen der Bischöfe, 951-1122, Leipzig-Berlin 1913, pp. 272–273. * Category:Apostolic sees Latina Category:Latina, Lazio Category:Terracina Latina |
Naples has played an important and vibrant role over the centuries not just in the music of Italy, but in the general history of western European musical traditions. This influence extends from the early music conservatories in the 16th century through the music of Alessandro Scarlatti during the Baroque period and the comic operas of Pergolesi, Piccinni and, eventually, Rossini and Mozart. The vitality of Neapolitan popular music from the late 19th century has made such songs as'O Sole mio and Funiculì Funiculà a permanent part of our musical consciousness. ==Classical music== left|thumb| The San Carlo theater (building on right in photo) in Naples. In the mid-16th century, the Spanish throne established church-run conservatories in its vice-realm of Naples. These institutions were on the premises of four churches in the city of Naples: Santa Maria di Loreto, Pietà dei Turchini, Sant'Onofrio a Capuana, and I Poveri di Gesù Cristo. At the time, these institutions were called "conservatories" because they "conserved"—that is, they sheltered and educated—orphans. Since music was such an integral part of the training of the children, by the early 17th century "conservatory" had come to mean "music school" and became used in that meaning in other European languages. On 11 May 1770 and a fourteen-year-old Wolgang Amadeus Mozart arrived in ancient Suessa and then in Capua to rest in two stages during the journey to Naples. It was in Sessa Aurunca that he also composed a part of Symphony number 11. The Neapolitan conservatories enjoyed a considerable reputation throughout Europe as training grounds not only for young children to be trained in church music, but, eventually, as a feeder system into the world of commercial music and opera once those areas opened up in the early 17th century. This primed Naples to become one of the most important centers of musical training in Europe. By the 18th century, Naples was nicknamed the "conservatory of Europe" and was home and workshop to composers such as Alessandro Scarlatti, Pergolesi, Niccolò Piccinni, Domenico Cimarosa, Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti, etc. Naples was also the birthplace of the popular Neapolitan opera buffa and the site of the San Carlo Theater, built in 1737 and one of the finest musical theaters in the world. right|thumb|Within the courtyard of San Pietro a Maiella, the Naples Music Conservatory Under the short French rule of Murat in the early 19th century, the original four conservatories were consolidated into a single institution, which was relocated in 1826 to the premises of the ex-monastery, San Pietro a Maiella. The conservatory still bears the inscription "Royal Academy of Music" over the entrance and is still an important music school in Italy. It houses an impressive library of manuscripts pertaining to the lives and musical production of the composers who have lived and worked in Naples. ==Canzone Napoletana== Canzone Napoletana is what most people think of when they think of Neapolitan music. It consists of a large body of composed popular music—such songs as 'O sole mio, Torna a Surriento, Funiculì funiculà, etc. The Neapolitan song became a formal institution in the 1830s through the vehicle of an annual song writing competition for the yearly Festival of Piedigrotta, dedicated to the Madonna of Piedigrotta, a well-known church in the Mergellina area of Naples. The winner of the first festival was a song entitled Te voglio bene assaie; it was composed by the prominent opera composer, Gaetano Donizetti. The festival ran regularly until 1950 when it was abandoned. A subsequent Festival of Neapolitan Song on Italian state radio enjoyed some success in the 1950s but was eventually abandoned as well. The period since 1950 has produced such songs as Malafemmena by Totò, Maruzzella by Renato Carosone, Indifferentemente by Mario Trevi and Carmela by Sergio Bruni. Although separated by some decades from the earlier classics of this genre, they have now become "classics" in their own right. (See main article for more information.) ==Neapolitan folk music== By definition, this is largely anonymous music. It features traditional folk percussion instruments such as the putipù--consisting of a membrane stretched across a resonating chamber, like a drum. A handle attached to the membrane compresses air rhythmically within the chamber; the air then spurts out of the not-quite- hermetic seal that fastens the membrane to the wooden body of the instrument to produce a "burping" sound; :triccaballacca-—a clapper, consisting of three percussive mallets mounted on a base, the outer two of which are hinged at the base and are moved in to strike the central piece; the rhythmic sound is produced by the clicking of wood on wood and the simultaneous sound of the small metal disks—called "jingles", mounted on the instrument; :the tambourine (called tammorra in Neapolitan dialect)--a circular frame with a single drum head stretched across one side of the instrument. There are generally small metal "jingles" mounted around the perimeter of the instrument, that sound as the tammorra is struck by the knuckles or the open hand. Often combining dance, music, and drama, the subject matter and approach to vocalizing are quite distinct from the composed stylings of the better-known Neapolitan song. ===Mandolin=== There are various kinds of mandolins in use in Italy; they bear the names of cities or regions such as the "Roman", the "Lombard", the "Genovese", and the "Neapolitan" mandolin. (see also: mandolin). They may differ in size, shape, number of strings and tuning. The traditional Neapolitan mandolin is tear-shaped with a bowl back and a uniquely cut and shaped front (sounding board); it has eight strings paired into the four violin tunings of g, d', a', and e'. The strings are played with a plectrum, producing the rapid and characteristic tremolo sound as the plectrum moves rapidly over unison strings. In that configuration, the Neapolitan mandolin started to be manufactured widely in Naples in the mid-18th century. In spite of the modern vision of the mandolin as a quaint vehicle for older, traditional popular music such as the Canzone Napoletana, the instrument has a classical history. Students of the mandolin at the Naples Conservatory are required to perform selections from a large repertoire of music composed especially for the instrument by, among others, Vivaldi, Beethoven and Paganini. Stereotypically, the instrument is commonly used in conjunction with a guitar; the mandolin-guitar duo is the traditional instrumentation for the posteggiatori, the street musicians who wander from restaurant to restaurant and serenade for tips. There is in Naples a mandolin academy that attempts to combat that stereotype by promoting other music, classical and modern, for the instrument ==The Sceneggiata== Little-known abroad, but extremely popular in Naples, is the local stage musical form called the Sceneggiata. Around the start of the 20th century, they were performed in the U.S. in areas populated by Italian immigrants. The form has been called "a musical soap opera" and generally revolves around domestic grief, the agony of leaving home, personal deceit and treachery, betrayal in love, and life in the world of petty crime. It is always sung and spoken in Neapolitan dialect. Action stops every few minutes for someone to break out in song. As a rule, many of the plots were flimsy after-the-fact vehicles to promote particular songs. The sceneggiata started shortly after World War I, was extremely popular in the 1920s, then faded, but has been enjoying somewhat of a comeback with newer generations of performers since the 1960s. The most populars performers of the genre are the Neapolitans, Mario Merola, Pino Mauro and Mario Trevi. The most popular sceneggiata ever written is Zappatore, (meaning, exactly, "clodbuster," one who works the land and breaks up the soil for farming) written to feature a song of that name in 1929 by Bovio and Albano. It then became a stage production and was even made into a film on various occasions, the first one actually from a film company in Little Italy in New York City. ==The Cantautore== (Literally, "singer-songwriter".) This music has been extremely popular throughout Italy for decades and its popularity continues to grow. As the name implies, this genre involves songwriters who sing their own music, inevitably songs of social protest or, at least, social relevance. Modern Neapolitan performers include Pino Daniele (probably the best-known Neapolitan cantautore, both in Naples and elsewhere), Edoardo Bennato, Nino D'Angelo, Daniele Sepe, Rita Marcotulli, Nando Citarella and Ciro Ricci. Sepe is quite influential and is known for using protest songs from all over the world and for his skills as a percussionist, flautist and saxophonist. Well-known songs in this genre include Napule è and Terra mia, both by Pino Daniele. ==Globalized music== Like all popular music—and even classical music (for example, The Silk Road Ensemble of cellist Yo-Yo Ma)—very recent Neapolitan popular music has incorporated influences from a wide variety of sources, from American jazz and rock to middle-eastern and African music. One example of African influence is the recent CD Oggi o dimane by the well-known Neapolitan singer and actor Massimo Ranieri. Essentially, it is a collection of well- known Neapolitan songs composed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, such as Marechiaro and Rundinella, backed by north African string and percussion instruments. Also, the English term "musical" (or, occasionally, the Italian commedia musicale—a translation of "musical comedy") has come to be used over the last few decades in Italy, in general, and Naples, in particular, to describe a kind of musical drama not native to Italy, a form that employs the American idiom of jazz-pop-and rock-based music and rhythms to move a story along in a combination of songs and dialogue. Obviously, the term is used to refer to original American musicals, but now is used, as well, for original productions in Italian and Neapolitan dialect. The first Italian "musical" was Carosello Napoletano, first a stage production and then a 1953 film directed by Ettore Giannini and featuring a young Sophia Loren in the cast. More recent Neapolitan musicals have been C'era una volta...Scugnizzi, based on the lives of Neapolitan street kids ("Scugnizzi) and Napoli 1799, about the republican revolution of 1799 that briefly overthrew the Bourbon monarchy. ==Venues== right|thumb| The Teatro Mediterraneo at the Overseas Fair Grounds. The most famous place, of course, to hear music in Naples is the San Carlo opera house. Lesser-known is the smaller theater in the adjacent Royal Palace, a stage often used by the Neapolitan ballet company. Besides being the home of the opera, San Carlo is the most frequent venue several times a year for large visiting orchestras. The nearby Teatro Mercadante, a charming old theater from the late 1790s—and along with San Carlo one of the official royal theaters of the day—has reopened after many decades of sporadic use. With the resurrection of the mammoth overseas fair grounds, the Mostra d'Oltremare (originally built in the 1930s) in the nearby community of Fuorigrotta, the Teatro Mediterraneo on those premises is now, as well, a frequent stage for all types of musical performances. The fair grounds site has the added advantage of containing, as well, the newly reopened outdoor amphitheater, the arena. It hosts summer performances of various kinds, including, most prominently, grand opera such as Verdi's Aida. There is a large program of chamber music in Naples, hosted by the Alessandro Scarlatti Association, usually staged in the Teatro delle Palme off of Via dei Mille in the Chaia section of Naples. As well, smaller groups and musical productions avail themselves of a half-dozen or so theaters around town that also double as cinemas. Additionally, the Naples music conservatory has recently refurbished and opened an auditorium on the premises and puts on regularly scheduled concerts of various kinds of music, often featuring conservatory students and faculty. left|thumb| Piazza del Plebiscito in Naples The largest public venue for music, parades, political rallies, installation art, New Year's celebrations, etc. is Piazza Plebiscito, the spacious open square on the west side of the Royal Palace. Other outdoor venues include the Communal Gardens, a half-mile long park along the sea-side. Also, after decades of neglect, the Trianon theater has now reopened as a theater of Neapolitan Song. It has an impressive program of traditional Neapolitan plays and musicals, an art gallery, very good acoustics, and will soon have a permanent multimedia exhibit dedicated to Enrico Caruso. The theater is located, appropriately, in a traditional part of town, Piazza Calenda, at the extreme eastern edge of the old historic center of Naples. ==See also== *Music of Campania == Bibliografia == * Marcello Sorce Keller, "Io te voglio bene assaje: a Famous Neapolitan Song Traditionally Attributed to Gaetano Donizetti", The Music Review, XLV (1984), no. 3- 4, 251- 264. * Marcello Sorce Keller, “Continuing Opera with Other Means: Opera, Neapolitan song, and popular music among Italian immigrants overseas”, Forum Italicum, Vol. XLIX(2015), No 3, 1- 20. ==External links== These are the websites of some of the places in Naples that host musical activities: * San Carlo Theater * Alessandro Scarlatti Association * Naples Music Conservatory * Mostra d'Oltremare (Overseas Fair Grounds) *Giuseppe Macedonio - sito ufficiale * Bellini Theater * Napoli is burning, an example of new neapolitan hip-hop * Trianon Theater * Academy of Fine Arts *Pietà dei Turchini Center for Ancient Music *Also see Concerts today in Naples Category:Music in Naples |
Robert Howe (; c. 1732 – December 14, 1786) was a Continental Army general from the Province of North Carolina during the American Revolutionary War. The descendant of a prominent family in North Carolina, Howe was one of five generals, and the only major general, in the Continental Army from that state. He also played a role in the colonial and state governments of North Carolina, serving in the legislative bodies of both. Howe served in the colonial militia during the French and Indian War and commanded Fort Johnston at the mouth of the Cape Fear River. He also served as a colonel of Royal Governor William Tryon's artillery during the War of the Regulation. Howe suffered greatly when Tryon, a personal friend, became Governor of New York, and he staunchly opposed Tryon's successor. He became active in organizing efforts within North Carolina and among the American colonies between 1773 and 1775 and was an active member of the North Carolina Provincial Congress. At the outset of the Revolutionary War, Howe was promoted to brigadier general and was heavily involved in actions in the Southern Department, commanding the Continental Army and Patriot militia forces in defeat in the First Battle of Savannah. Howe's career as a military commander was contentious and consumed primarily by conflict with political and military leaders in Georgia and South Carolina. In 1778, he fought a duel with Christopher Gadsden of South Carolina which was spurred in part by Howe's conflict with South Carolina's state government. Political and personal confrontations, combined with Howe's reputation as a womanizer among those who disfavored him, eventually led to the Continental Congress stripping him of his command over the Southern Department. He was then sent to New York, where he served under General George Washington in the Hudson Highlands, although Howe did not have a successful or significant career in that theater. He sat as a senior officer on the court-martial board that sentenced to death John André, a British officer accused of assisting Benedict Arnold in the latter's plot to change allegiance and deliver West Point to the British. Howe himself was accused of attempting to defect to the British, but the accusations were cast aside at the time as having been based in a British attempt to cause further discord in the Continental Army. Howe also played a role in putting down several late-war mutinies by members of the Pennsylvania and New Jersey Lines in New Jersey and Philadelphia and returned home to North Carolina in 1783. He again became active in state politics, but died in December 1786 while en route to a session of the North Carolina House of Commons. ==Early life and family== thumb|right|alt=A map of the Cape Fear River showing Wilmington and Brunswick Town in 1770|A portion of John Collet's 1770 map of North Carolina depicting the environs of the lower Cape Fear, including Howe's plantation at top right, located near Barren Inlet Howe was born in 1732 to Job Howe (also spelled "Howes"), the grandson of Governor James Moore, who presided over the southern portion of the Province of Carolina. Job was also a descendant of Governor John Yeamans. Howe's mother may have been Job's first wife Martha, who was the daughter of colonial North Carolina jurist Frederick Jones., cf , where Jane, Job's third wife, is attributed as his mother, and , where Howe's mother is called Sarah. Job Howe's ancestors had been planters and political figures in South Carolina during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Prior to Howe's birth, his family left Charleston to settle on the banks of the Cape Fear River in the Province of North Carolina. Howe's father was a member of the extended Moore family, formerly of South Carolina, who settled the lower Cape Fear River and collectively owned more than of farmland on it by the 1730s. Job Howe died in 1748, leaving his estate and the wealth of his parents to Robert. Robert had two brothers and two sisters, all of whom were mentioned in Job's will. As a young boy, Howe may have been sent to England to obtain an education, although several sources doubt that Howe made the journey. At some point between 1751 and 1754, after completing his education, Howe married Sarah Grange, who was heiress to a large fortune. Howe had numerous affairs, fathering an unknown number of children in and out of wedlock, including a son, Robert; two daughters, Mary and Ann; and up to four additional daughters whose mothers' names are not recorded. Howe was widely considered a womanizer by contemporaries; by 1772 he became estranged from Grange, and the two separated. In the year of their formal separation, Howe recorded a deed for the support of his wife. Loyalist sympathizer and diarist Janet Schaw described Howe prior to the revolution: Howe inherited a large amount of assets from his grandmother and, upon the death of his father, became the owner of "Howe's Point" a plantation on the Cape Fear River, as well as a rice plantation near what was formerly known as Barren Inlet (now called Mason Inlet). The site of the former plantation is located on the mainland directly across from Figure Eight Island. Howe also owned a plantation called "Mount Misery" in what was Bladen County. His grandmother had provided Howe with slaves and money with which Howe was intended to build his fortune. ==Colonial political and military service== Around 1755, Howe captained a militia company in Bladen County, and was appointed a justice of the peace for that county in 1756. Howe was elected to the Province of North Carolina House of Burgesses from Bladen County in 1760 and served until 1762. In 1764, the Assembly created Brunswick County, and Howe was both appointed its justice of the peace and re-elected to the Assembly from the new county. Howe would be re-elected six more times from Brunswick County. In 1765, Howe worked with other colonial leaders such as Hugh Waddell, Abner Nash, and Cornelius Harnett to found the Wilmington Sons of Liberty organization, which was active in protesting the Stamp Act 1765 that taxed most printed materials. At the time, the members of the Sons of Liberty did not consider their resistance to be rebellion, as it was based on the idea that government officials who performed acts in opposition to the will of the people were not acting with full authority. After the resolution of the Stamp Act Crisis, Howe was made an officer of the provincial exchequer. Despite the Cape Fear River area being the epicenter of Stamp Act protests in North Carolina, Howe took no substantial part in the active confrontations with Governor William Tryon, due in large part to their personal friendship and the patronage provided by the Governor for Howe's political ambitions. During the French and Indian War, Howe served alongside provincial soldiers from Virginia. In 1766, he was commissioned as a captain of militia and was given command of Fort Johnston, located at the entrance of the Cape Fear River in present-day Southport, North Carolina. Howe served in this capacity between 1766 and 1767, and again between 1769 and 1773. Although satisfied with this position, Howe ultimately desired to obtain a commission in the regular British Army, which was traditionally a prerequisite for the commander of Fort Johnston. Howe was never granted this commission, despite Tryon's support. In the 1768 session of the colonial assembly, Howe played a prominent role by introducing a bill to remedy a currency shortage in the colony. His bill would have led to the acceptance of commodities as legal tender in the province, but it was not passed. The Regulator movement was in part based on the grievances farmers in the North Carolina backcountry had about back taxes and pressure from private creditors, both of which Howe's 1768 bill had attempted to address. Despite his efforts to reform the province's policies, Howe was made a colonel of artillery by Governor Tryon and served under the Governor against armed protesters in the piedmont during the War of the Regulation. Howe was among the Governor's entourage when he confronted the Regulators in Hillsborough in 1768, and in 1771, at the Battle of Alamance, Howe served in a dual role as a commander of artillery and quartermaster general. In early 1773, when Josiah Quincy II visited North Carolina to foster cooperation between Southern activists and those in Boston, he investigated the causes of the War of the Regulation to which he had been sympathetic. Howe served as Quincy's guide and with the assistance of Cornelius Harnett and William Hooper convinced Quincy that the Regulator movement had been unjustified and wrong to take up arms against Tryon. Quincy found Howe to be a "most happy compound of the man of sense, the sword, the Senate, and the buck ... a favorite of the man of sense and the female world", continuing to say that "[Howe] has faults and vice – but alas who is without them." More importantly, however, Quincy's visit with Howe, Hooper, and Harnett engendered a desire among those present to open up inter-colonial lines of communication in order to coordinate responses to future impositions by the British government. Howe's private fortunes were never stable, and between 1766 and 1775, he was forced to mortgage land and sell slaves to generate funds. In 1770, Howe was able to purchase Kendal Plantation on the Cape Fear River, a rice plantation, but in 1775, he mortgaged it for around £214. While the causes of Howe's financial misfortunes are unknown, several contemporary critics held that the cause was Howe's need to keep up appearances among the ruling elite, while Josiah Martin, Tryon's successor as Royal Governor, believed Howe's misfortunes were evidence of his potential for malfeasance with the public money. In particular, Martin believed that Howe was intentionally under-staffing Fort Johnston in order to pocket excess funds the colonial assembly had appropriated for the garrison there, which was a common form of embezzlement among previous commanders and other royal officials. Howe, as a legislator and public official, had a poor working relationship with Martin, and Martin deprived him of his appointed offices – the captaincy of Fort Johnston and his position with the provincial exchequer – shortly after the new governor's arrival. A legislative confrontation in 1770 over the Provincial Assembly's attempts to pass a law authorizing attachment of real property in North Carolina owned by persons living in England placed Howe in direct confrontation with Martin, who preferred a requirement that colonial subjects seek relief from courts in England rather than in North Carolina. Martin believed that Howe's virulent opposition to the new governor's policies was driven by Howe's anger at being deprived of his valuable appointed positions. ==Revolutionary political and militia service== In December 1773, the North Carolina colonial assembly created a committee of correspondence, to which Howe, as well as Richard Caswell, John Harvey, John Ashe, Joseph Hewes, and Samuel Johnston were appointed. That committee was tasked with corresponding with other colonies to coordinate plans of resistance to British attempts to tax or otherwise burden the colonists. Beginning in 1774, Howe was a member of the Wilmington and Brunswick County Committees of Safety, and in August of that year, served as a member of a committee that organized the collection of corn, flour, and pork to be sent to Boston. At the time, the Port of Boston had been closed by one of the Intolerable Acts, specifically the Boston Port Act, which was in reaction to the Boston Tea Party and other protests against the Tea Act. When the First Provincial Congress convened on August 25, 1774, Howe served as a member of that body representing Brunswick County. The First Provincial Congress quickly passed a bill banning the exportation of all pitch, tobacco, tar, and other trade goods to England and banned the importation of British tea into North Carolina. Also in 1774, Howe penned several documents expressing what would become known as Patriot or "whig" sympathies, including an address demanding reforms from Royal Governor Josiah Martin. On April 7, 1775, Howe delivered an address to the colonial assembly formally rebuffing Governor Martin's demands that the extra-legal Second Provincial Congress be dissolved. Howe's response as adopted by the assembly led to Martin proroguing the colonial legislative body. In 1775, when Howe received news of the Battles of Lexington and Concord, the first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War, he began to drill the local militia, using the unusual combination of drums and fiddles as opposed to the standard fifes and drums. On July 15, 1775, Howe led 500 militiamen from Brunswick Town on a raid on the governor's mansion with the intent of kidnapping Governor Martin. The plot failed when Martin made an early-morning escape from Fort Johnston, fleeing to on July 19. Howe ordered the militia to put the fort's structures to the torch, starting with the home of its commanding officer and Howe's successor, Captain John Collet, who had previously been accused of corruption by the Committee of Safety. After fleeing, Martin made a proclamation on August 8, 1775, that attributed the growing unrest in North Carolina to what he termed "'the basest and most scandalous Seditious and inflammatory falsehoods'" propagated by the Committee of Safety in Wilmington. Howe once again represented Brunswick County in the Third Provincial Congress in Hillsborough beginning on August 20, 1775, and was appointed to the committee charged with developing a test oath for members of the legislative body. The oath declared allegiance to the King of England but denied the power of Parliament to tax to American colonies. During the Fourth North Carolina Provincial Congress in 1776, Howe was noted to have proclaimed that "'Independence seems to be the word. I know not one of the dissenting voice.'" ==Continental Army service== ===Burning of Norfolk=== On September 1, 1775, the Third North Carolina Provincial Congress appointed Howe to lead the newly created Second North Carolina Regiment of the Continental Army as its colonel. Initially, Howe headquartered his command in New Bern during the fall of 1775 and was charged by the Provincial Congress with protecting the northern half of North Carolina up to the border with Virginia. At the time, British forces under the command of John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, the last Royal Governor of the Colony of Virginia, were ravaging the tidewater region of Virginia. Howe, of his own initiative, brought his North Carolina troops into Virginia, arriving shortly after the Battle of Great Bridge. Howe then directed the occupation of Norfolk, Virginia, which had recently been abandoned by Loyalist forces, and assumed command of the various North Carolina and Virginia units there. The region around Norfolk was being occupied by Loyalist militia units under Dunmore's command. Howe, as senior officer chosen over the more junior William Woodford of Virginia, engaged in contentious negotiations over access to supplies with the captains of British ships anchored off Norfolk, which were by that time overcrowded with Loyalist refugees. The situation deteriorated, and Norfolk was burned on January 1, 1776, in an action started by British marines and a bombardment by Royal Navy vessels and completed by Patriot forces. The fire raged on for two more days, and Howe ordered most of the buildings that remained standing to be razed before he withdrew, to further render the location useless to the British. During Howe's time in command at Norfolk, Woodford described the North Carolinian as a "brave, prudent & spirited commander". On December 22, 1775, Howe was formally thanked by the Virginia Convention, and on April 27, 1776, he received the same honor from the Fourth North Carolina Provincial Congress. ===Charleston, 1776–1777=== In March 1776, Howe was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General by the Second Continental Congress along with fellow North Carolinian James Moore. Howe and Moore were two of five North Carolinians to be given a general's commission in the Continental Army. Initially, Howe was given command of all Continental forces in Virginia, but soon both he and Moore were ordered to South Carolina. Howe arrived first, as the presence of the British Army and Royal Navy under the command of General Henry Clinton at the mouth of the Cape Fear River delayed Moore's descent. When Clinton arrived off the coast of North Carolina, he issued a proclamation offering a pardon to anyone who had taken up arms against the crown with the explicit exception of Howe and fellow revolutionary Cornelius Harnett, then serving as president of the North Carolina Provincial Council, the executive body in the revolutionary state. Howe's plantation, Kendal, was sacked by the British during their maneuvers around Wilmington. Upon arriving in Charleston, Howe acted as an adjutant to Major General Charles Lee, who had been appointed Commander of the Southern Department of the Continental Army. Howe directly commanded the South Carolina militia during the First Siege of Charleston in June 1776 and was assigned command over the defenses of the city proper. Lee was recalled to the North to assist General George Washington, and in his absence, James Moore was appointed Commander of the Southern Department. Howe was left in command of Charleston and Savannah, Georgia in Lee's absence, and in September 1776, he became embroiled in a controversy involving the provincial assembly of South Carolina allowing its officers to recruit soldiers from North Carolina's continental line units. Howe pleaded with the Provincial Congress of North Carolina to allow South Carolina to recruit within the former state's borders because of the greater number of white males in that state. Eventually, North Carolina acceded to that request but only after ordering Howe to reclaim the North Carolinians who had already been lured away by the South Carolinians. The South Carolina Council took offense and demanded that Howe pay the recruitment bonuses for the men if he wished to have them back. With James Moore's death on April 15, 1777, Howe assumed command of the Southern Department. ===Florida and political conflict 1777–1778=== Howe's style of command was quick to cause discontent, and on August 20, 1777, the South Carolina Assembly protested against Howe's right to command soldiers within the borders of South Carolina. He was nonetheless promoted to the rank of major general on October 20, 1777, the only North Carolinian to reach that rank in the Continental Army. Howe often deferred to the civil leadership of the various states that made up his command, often referring conflicts with state officials to the Continental Congress to resolve. Of particular note was an early conflict with Georgia's state government, which insisted that the governor of that state retain command of the state's militia during military engagements. When asked for an official opinion, Congress sided with Howe, who believed that command of the militia should be relinquished to him during such engagements. Complicating matters, however, was the fact that Congressional funding for military expenditures was given over to the states rather than the army officers, forcing Howe to rely on state governments for funding. In 1778, he was ordered to act on a plan developed by General Charles Lee to assault British West Florida – a plan that Howe disfavored. A previous expedition in 1777, in which Howe did not directly participate, had ended quickly in failure. Congress overrode Howe's concerns about the expedition and directed him to proceed in conjunction with Georgia's militia into Florida. The combined Army's progress into Florida was made slow by a lack of provisions and particularly by a lack of slaves who Howe requested be made available to build roads and perform pioneering functions for the march southward. On June 29, 1778, Howe captured Fort Tonyn on the St. Marys River, which forms a portion of the border between Georgia and Florida. Georgia Governor John Houstoun refused to give up command of his militia to the Continental Army general and declined to participate in Howe's council. To make matters worse, when South Carolina militia units arrived in Georgia under the command of Colonel Andrew Williamson, their commander also refused to allow Howe to command that state's militia units. Shortly after this minor incursion, the British received reinforcements and pressed toward Savannah. By July 14, 1778, Howe was forced to pull his units back north and returned to Charleston. The general received much of the blame for the expedition's failure, as Georgia officials were quick to cast aspersions on the Continental command, which was compounded by Congress' failure to understand Howe's inability to control the Georgia militia despite their prior determination of his command authority over militia units. ===Duel with Christopher Gadsden, 1778=== Howe's squabbles with local political and militia leaders were not his sole difficulties. On August 30, 1778, Howe engaged in a pistol duel with Christopher Gadsden of South Carolina over an offense Gadsden perceived stemming from his resignation in 1777 while under Howe's command. This controversy, like many in which Howe was involved, centered on the conflict between the Continental Army and state governments' desires to retain local control over their officers and soldiers. Gadsden responded to the perceived offense by drafting and circulating a letter attacking Howe's intelligence and ability as a commander and questioning Howe's legal authority to issue orders to South Carolina Continentals. Howe took offense and demanded satisfaction from Gadsden on August 17, 1778. During the duel, Colonel Charles Pinckney, father of South Carolina Governor Charles Pinckney, served as Howe's second, while Colonel Barnard Elliot served as second to Gadsden. Howe, shooting first, missed his shot at eight paces, although the ball grazed Gadsden's ear. Gadsden then intentionally fired above his own left shoulder and demanded Howe fire again, a demand Howe refused. At the conclusion of the duel, the participants made amends and parted ways. The affair did not end privately, as the South Carolinian and American Gazette published a full story covering the duel on September 3, 1778, and in the same month, the ill-fated Major John André, the British officer who would later serve as a facilitator for Benedict Arnold's change of allegiance, published an 18-stanza satirical poem about the duel set to the tune of Yankee Doodle. ===Removal from command and the Battle of Savannah, 1778=== thumb|right|alt=A map published in 1891 depicting the Battle of Savannah|An 1891 copy of a 1778 map depicting the First Battle of Savannah After allegations circulated in South Carolina about Howe's dalliances with a woman, the Continental Congress finally removed him from command of the Southern Department on September 25, 1778, replacing him with Major General Benjamin Lincoln. Howe remained with the Southern army and commanded it from Savannah. While awaiting Lincoln's arrival in Savannah with reinforcements, Howe set up defenses around that city, preparing for an imminent attack. Governor Houstoun sparred again with Howe, refusing to grant him more than meager militia support. During the First Battle of Savannah on December 29, 1778, the British landed near the city, and under the command of Archibald Campbell, managed to flank Howe's army, which was drawn up in the open for battle, by taking a path through a marshy area Howe believed was impassable. Howe had previously ordered a scout to look for any paths through the swamp, but Campbell's route, which was shown to the British commander by a slave, remained unknown to the Patriots. Howe's position was otherwise strong and defensible, but the appearance of the British in the Patriot rear caused a panic. The militia under Howe's command fled instantly, and more than 500 Patriots and Continental Army soldiers were killed or captured. The ensuing defeat gave Savannah to the British, for which Howe received much blame. On January 3, 1779, Howe formally relinquished his command to Lincoln. Howe's failure at Savannah led to criticism from Georgia state officials, who believed he had abandoned the state to the British, as well as from fellow Continental Army generals, such as William Moultrie, who criticized Howe for even attempting to resist the British while being so greatly outnumbered. During his testimony before a later court–martial, Howe claimed that he knew about the pathway through the swamp taken by the British, but stated that he did not defend it because he believed the chance of an attack along the path was "so remote". This contradicted earlier testimony from Georgia militia officer George Walton, who stated that Howe did not know about the path prior to the battle and that Howe told Walton that he was mistaken in believing a path through the swamps existed. ===Hudson Valley and Connecticut, 1779=== thumb|right|alt=A depiction of the military execution of John Andre, who is blindfolded and hanging from a gallows|The execution of John André after Howe and other senior officers found him guilty of espionage After Lincoln's arrival, Howe was ordered to join the Continental Army in the North, which he rejoined on May 19, 1779. Suffering from injuries caused by a fall, Howe was unable to undertake any duties for a month after his arrival. Initially, Howe was charged with defending Connecticut from British raids, such as those conducted by his former mentor, William Tryon, and Tryon's adjutant, Edmund Fanning. Howe's headquarters were in Ridgefield, Connecticut. On June 18, 1779, shortly after the Battle of Stony Point, Howe was ordered to assist General Israel Putnam in assaulting a British fortification at Verplanck's Point, which sat across the Hudson River from Stony Point. Howe was charged with commanding the artillery barrage and infantry assault of that position, but was given too few field pieces, entrenching tools, provisions, and little ammunition to make a serious attempt at taking the fortification. He advised Washington that an assault would be unfeasible and called off the siege with Washington's consent. Historians have noted that Howe's inability to take the British fortifications damaged his career and that he was never again given a major command. Contemporaries such as General William Irvine criticized Howe as "having a talent ... of finding many supposed obstructions, and barely plausible pretences for his delay" in assaulting Verplanck's Point. After Stony Point, Howe was assigned first to the command of the left wing of Washington's army composed of Massachusetts brigades under Generals John Nixon and John Glover, with his command again in Ridgefield, Connecticut. While military action was infrequent in Howe's region of control, he was integral in the recruitment and cultivation of a substantial spy network which provided the Patriots with information about British positions on Manhattan and along the Long Island Sound. ===West Point and Benedict Arnold conspiracy, 1779–1780=== As part of his command duties, Howe was chosen by Washington as president of the court–martial convened to determine the propriety of General Benedict Arnold's conduct while serving as the commandant of Philadelphia in 1778 and 1779. During that time, Arnold was alleged to have conducted business with British merchants and to have undertaken private business transactions that were inappropriate given his position, among other improprieties. The tribunal, which met at Howe's headquarters in Middletown, Connecticut, adjourned for several months due to a threatened British attack but reconvened in December 1779 and closed in January 1780. During the interlude in the fall of 1779, Howe was ordered by Washington to move into position to attack the British in conjunction with an expected combined French naval and land-based assault, although the French assault in New York never materialized. The court-martial rendered its decision on January 26, 1780, finding Arnold guilty of breaching the articles of war by permitting a vessel from an enemy port into Philadelphia and recommended that he be reprimanded by Washington. Howe was made commandant of the Continental Army fortifications at West Point on February 21, 1780. He held that command immediately prior to Benedict Arnold's conspiracy to turn over control of that stronghold to the British. Arnold and several supporters in Congress had eventually convinced Washington to give him command of the fortifications on August 3, 1780. Howe remained active in the upper Hudson River valley during the remainder of the war, particularly in overseeing his network of spies in the area, including double agent Joshua Hett Smith, who would later play a key role in Arnold's treason and prosecution. During this time, evidence arose implicating Howe in discussions with the British, though the evidence was dismissed by Washington as merely rumors stirred up by British General Henry Clinton. Howe served on the court- martial board that convicted of espionage and sentenced to death Major John André, the British officer tasked with facilitating Arnold's conspiracy. ===Pennsylvania mutinies and war's end, 1781–1783=== In 1781, Howe assisted in putting down the Pompton Mutiny in New Jersey, which was inspired by the slightly earlier Pennsylvania Line Mutiny. Washington ordered Howe to surround the camp and arrange for the court-martial and execution of two of its ringleaders. In the fall of 1781, Howe requested permission to go with Washington to Virginia for what was anticipated to be the final campaign against the British, but Washington refused. Instead, Howe was required to appear before a court–martial in Philadelphia which was opened to inquire into Howe's actions in the defense of Savannah in 1778. The tribunal, led by Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, opened on December 7, 1781, and closed on January 23, 1782, acquitting Howe of any wrongdoing at Savannah with "the Highest Honor". Assistant Adjutant General John Carlisle ordered Howe to convene a court–martial to investigate the conduct of General Alexander McDougall in the spring of 1782. McDougall was a personal friend of Howe's, but the tribunal convicted him of the minor offense of releasing confidential details from a council of war meeting in 1776 to persons who were not permitted to have such information. Again in 1783, Howe was called on to put down the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, which had caused the Continental Congress to flee Philadelphia. ==Post-war career and death== After putting down the second Pennsylvania mutiny in 1783, Howe participated in the establishment of the Society of the Cincinnati and was the second officer to sign the national charter, with his signature appearing directly below that of von Steuben. Howe thereafter returned to his North Carolina plantation, Kendal, which was upriver from the more famous Orton Plantation owned by Howe's distant relatives. Also in 1783, Howe became a founding member of the North Carolina Society of the Cincinnati and was a signatory to its "Institution" or charter. During much of 1783 and 1784, Howe returned frequently to Philadelphia, New York, and other cities in the northeast in an attempt to settle accounts and obtain back payments he claimed he was owed by Congress. He was again forced to mortgage his plantation but eventually received a monetary settlement from Congress of $7,000 in 1785. During 1785, Howe was appointed by the Congress of the Confederation to establish treaties with several western Indian tribes but did not actually travel with commissioners George Rogers Clark, Richard Butler, and Samuel Holden Parsons, who finalized the Treaty of Fort Finney without Howe in 1786. Howe assisted Benjamin Smith in planning for the construction of Bald Head Light and actively worked to assist former Loyalists who sought to return to their prior lives in North Carolina by defending them against the judiciary of the state. In the summer of 1786, he was elected a member of the North Carolina House of Commons. On his way to a meeting of the legislative body, Howe fell ill, and died on December 14, 1786, in Bladen County. Howe's remains were buried on property he owned in what later became Columbus County, North Carolina, although the exact location of his burial has not been discovered. A cenotaph was placed in Southport's Old Smithville Burying Ground honoring him and wife Sara. ==Legacy== Howe has been remembered primarily in a negative light based on his lack of military successes and reputation, although North Carolina historian Hugh Rankin noted in a biographical sketch that "his opportunities came at times when he did not have proper field strength to gain favorable recognition." During the 1903 session of the United States House of Representatives, Congressman John Dillard Bellamy introduced a bill to erect an equestrian statue of Howe in Wilmington in order to commemorate the general's service; this bill was not passed. Note that the article incorrectly cites the date as 1908. In 1940, the State of North Carolina cast and erected a highway historical marker to commemorate Howe's service. The marker stands on North Carolina Highway 133 in Belville, North Carolina. The 1955 film The Scarlet Coat featured a performance by actor John McIntire as Howe during the height of the Benedict Arnold conspiracy. ===Evidence of attempted treason=== Several scholars have raised questions regarding Howe's actions as the unofficial spymaster of the Hudson Valley, all of which center on evidence that suggests Howe attempted to bargain with the British in exchange for a commission as an officer in the regular British Army, similar to the bargain struck by Benedict Arnold in 1780. As early as 1776, after Howe was appointed a brigadier general, a Loyalist merchant named Henry Kelly advised Secretary of State for the Colonies George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville that Howe could be easily tempted to join the British, and further claimed that Howe could offer a great deal to the British in their war effort. In 1780, after Benedict Arnold's attempted treason had been exposed, Captain Beesly Edgar Joel, a British defector and former officer in the British Army, claimed that another officer besides Arnold had attempted to defect, and after interrogation Joel named Howe as that officer. Joel cited Edmund Fanning, William Tryon's secretary, as the source for his information. Joel further described Howe's method of communicating with the British, which was by means of a frequently imprisoned-and-exchanged prisoner who would convey messages between the parties. While neither Washington or the Congressional Board of War believed Joel's story due to their suspicion of Joel as a British spy, Joel was later commissioned by Thomas Jefferson and the Virginia government to lead a Patriot militia unit against Loyalists in that state. Furthermore, William Smith, a New York Loyalist and the brother of Howe's agent and Arnold's co-conspirator Joshua Hett Smith, noted in his diary on April 29, 1780, that his brother, Thomas Smith, had been informed that a commissary had come over to the British with "information" from the Patriots in much the same manner as Joel had described. On September 28, 1780, William Smith told Henry Clinton that he believed "Bob" Howe would be willing to turn on the Patriots. Later historians, including Douglas Southall Freeman, have frequently dismissed allegations that Howe attempted to defect, believing them to have been fabrications used by Joel to ingratiate himself with the Patriot government. The only full-length book treatment of Howe's life discusses the allegations of attempted treason in a single page. On the other hand, Freeman's judgment was based primarily on Washington's assessment of the allegations, but Washington did not have access to the potentially corroborating evidence in William Smith's diary. Another possibility is that Howe had merely attempted to spread word among the British of his possible treason in order to conceal his management of the vast spy network at his control; this tactic was utilized by other spymasters in Continental employ such as Philip Schuyler. Philip Ranlet, an American historian who studied Howe's career and motivations, has contrasted Schuyler's otherwise shining reputation with Howe's record of failures and draws the conclusion that Howe likely was attempting to defect. To date, no firm evidence exists which either absolves Howe or proves him guilty of attempted treason. ==References== ===Notes=== ===Bibliography=== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Category:1732 births Category:1786 deaths Category:Continental Army generals Category:Continental Army officers from North Carolina Category:American duellists Category:American slave owners Category:Members of the North Carolina House of Representatives Category:People from New Hanover County, North Carolina Category:People of colonial North Carolina Category:Burials in North Carolina Category:Members of the North Carolina Provincial Congresses Category:Members of the North Carolina House of Burgesses Category:18th- century American politicians |
Jesus and the woman taken in adultery (or the ) is a passage (pericope) found in John 7:53–8:11 of the New Testament. In the passage, Jesus was teaching in the Second Temple after coming from the Mount of Olives. A group of scribes and Pharisees confronts Jesus, interrupting his teaching. They bring in a woman, accusing her of committing adultery, claiming she was caught in the very act. They tell Jesus that the punishment for someone like her should be stoning, as prescribed by Mosaic Law. Jesus begins to write something on the ground using his finger; when the woman's accusers continue their challenge, he states that the one who is without sin is the one who should cast the first stone at her. The accusers and congregants depart, realizing not one of them is without sin either, leaving Jesus alone with the woman. Jesus asks the woman if anyone has condemned her and she answers no. Jesus says that he, too, does not condemn her, and tells her to go and sin no more. There is now a broad academic consensus that the passage is a later interpolation added after the earliest known manuscripts of the Gospel of John. Although it is included in most modern translations (one notable exception being the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures) it is typically noted as a later interpolation, as it is by Novum Testamentum Graece NA28. This has been the view of "most NT scholars, including most evangelical NT scholars, for well over a century" (written in 2009). The passage appears to have been included in some texts by the 4th century, and became generally accepted by the 5th century. ==The passage== John 7:53–8:11 in the New Revised Standard Version: ==Interpretation== This episode, and its message of mercy and forgiveness balanced with a call to holy living, have endured in Christian thought. Both "let him who is without sin, cast the first stone"E.g., Britni Danielle, "Cast the First Stone: Why Are We So Judgmental? ", Clutch, 21 February 2011 and "go, and sin no more"E.g., Mudiga Affe, Gbenga Adeniji, and Etim Ekpimah, "Go and sin no more, priest tells Bode George ", The Punch, 27 February 2011. have found their way into common usage. The English idiomatic phrase to "cast the first stone" is derived from this passage. The passage has been taken as confirmation of Jesus's ability to write, otherwise only suggested by implication in the Gospels, but the word in John 8:8 could mean "draw" as well as "write".An uncommon usage, evidently not found in the LXX, but supported in Liddell & Scott's Greek-English Lexicon (8th ed., NY, 1897) s.v. γραμμα, page 317 col. 2, citing (among others) Herodotus (repeatedly) including 2:73 ("I have not seen one except in an illustration") & 4:36 ("drawing a map"). See also, Chris Keith, The Pericope Adulterae, the Gospel of John, and the Literacy of Jesus (2009, Leiden, Neth., Brill) page 19. ==History of textual criticism== The first to systematically apply the critical marks of the Alexandrian critics was Origen: Early textual critics familiar with the use and meaning of these marks in classical Greek works like Homer, interpreted the signs to mean that the section (John 7:53–8:11) was an interpolation and not an original part of the Gospel. During the 16th century, Western European scholars – both Catholic and Protestant – sought to recover the most correct Greek text of the New Testament, rather than relying on the Vulgate Latin translation. At this time, it was noticed that a number of early manuscripts containing the Gospel of John lacked John 7:53–8:11 inclusive; and also that some manuscripts containing the verses marked them with critical signs, usually a lemniscus or asterisk. It was also noted that, in the lectionary of the Greek church, the Gospel-reading for Pentecost runs from John 7:37 to 8:12, but skips over the twelve verses of this pericope. Beginning with Karl Lachmann (in Germany, 1840), reservations about the became more strongly argued in the modern period, and these opinions were carried into the English world by Samuel Davidson (1848–51), Samuel Prideaux Tregelles (1862),S. P. Tregelles, An Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scripture (London 1856), pp. 465–468. and others; the argument against the verses being given body and final expression in F. J. A. Hort (1886). Those opposing the authenticity of the verses as part of John are represented in the 20th century by men like Henry Cadbury (1917), Ernest Cadman Colwell (1935), and Bruce M. Metzger (1971).Bruce M. Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament, Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, Stuttgart 2001, pp. 187–189. According to 19th-century text critics Henry Alford and F. H. A. Scrivener the passage was added by John in a second edition of the Gospel along with 5:3.4 and the 21st chapter. On the other hand, a number of scholars have strongly defended the Johannine authorship of these verses. This group of critics is typified by such scholars as Frederick Nolan (1865), and John Burgon (1886), and Herman C. Hoskier (1920). More recently it has been defended by David Otis Fuller (1975), and is included in the Greek New Testaments compiled by Wilbur Pickering (1980/2014), Hodges & Farstad (1982/1985), and Robinson & Pierpont (2005). Rather than endorsing Augustine's theory that some men had removed the passage due to a concern that it would be used by their wives as a pretext to commit adultery, Burgon proposed (but did not develop in detail) a theory that the passage had been lost due to a misunderstanding of a feature in the lection-system of the early church. Almost all modern critical translations that include the pericope adulterae do so at John 7:53–8:11. Exceptions include the New English Bible and Revised English Bible, which relocate the pericope after the end of the Gospel. Most others enclose the pericope in brackets, or add a footnote mentioning the absence of the passage in the oldest witnesses (e.g., NRSV, NJB, NIV, GNT, NASB, ESV).NIV: "[The earliest manuscripts and many other ancient witnesses do not have John 7:53—8:11. A few manuscripts include these verses, wholly or in part, after John 7:36, John 21:25, Luke 21:38 or Luke 24:53.]" https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%207%3A53-8%3A11&version;=NIVNRSV: "John 8:11 The most ancient authorities lack 7.53—8.11; other authorities add the passage here or after 7.36 or after 21.25 or after Luke 21.38, with variations of text; some mark the passage as doubtful." https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%207%3A53-8%3A11&version;=NRSVNABRE: "7:53–8:11 The story of the woman caught in adultery is a later insertion here, missing from all early Greek manuscripts. A Western text-type insertion, attested mainly in Old Latin translations, it is found in different places in different manuscripts: here, or after Jn 7:36 or at the end of this gospel, or after Lk 21:38, or at the end of that gospel. There are many non-Johannine features in the language, and there are also many doubtful readings within the passage. The style and motifs are similar to those of Luke, and it fits better with the general situation at the end of Lk 21, but it was probably inserted here because of the allusion to Jer 17:13 (cf. note on Jn 8:6) and the statement, "I do not judge anyone," in Jn 8:15. The Catholic Church accepts this passage as canonical scripture." https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John+7%3A53-8%3A11&version;=NABRENCB: "John 7:53 This story is missing in a number of ancient manuscripts and is inserted at other points in others; it does not seem to be from the author of the fourth Gospel, for it is written in quite a different style. However, it has been accepted by the Church as the work of an inspired author. We are struck by the portrait of Jesus found herein: his silence, his sober gesture, his refusal to use religion as a pretext to spy on and judge others, and his courage to proclaim his own truth. It is pointless to ask what he wrote on the ground. Let us dwell on what he considered the Law to be: it condemns sin not so that people may judge one another but so that they may feel the need to be saved by God. And it is to this salvation that he bears witness." https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John+7%3A53-8%3A11&version;=NCBESV: "John 7:53 Some manuscripts do not include 7:53–8:11; others add the passage here or after 7:36 or after 21:25 or after Luke 21:38, with variations in the text" https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John+7%3A53-8%3A11&version;=ESVNASB: "John 7:53 Later mss add the story of the adulterous woman, numbering it as John 7:53-8:11" https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John+7%3A53-8%3A11&version;=NASBNIV, NRSV, NABRE, NCB, NASB, and ESV put the whole passage between single or double square brackets as a mark of inauthenticity. Since the passage is accepted as canonical by Catholics, however, some Catholic editions of these critical translations will remove the brackets while retaining the footnote explanation of their uncertainty (e.g. RSV-CE/2CE and ESV-CE); others, like the NRSV-CE, nevertheless retain the brackets. == Textual history == According to Eusebius of Caesarea (in his Ecclesiastical History, composed in the early 300s), Papias () refers to a story of Jesus and a woman "accused of many sins" as being found in the Gospel of the Hebrews, which might refer to this passage or to one like it. (3rd German edition, translated by George Ogg), at p. 121. (6th German edition, translated by George Ogg), at p. 138. In the Syriac , composed in the mid-200s, the author, in the course of instructing bishops to exercise a measure of clemency, states that a bishop who does not receive a repentant person would be doing wrong – "for you do not obey our Savior and our God, to do as He also did with her that had sinned, whom the elders set before Him, and leaving the judgment in His hands, departed. But He, the searcher of hearts, asked her and said to her, 'Have the elders condemned thee, my daughter?' She said to Him, 'No, Lord.' And He said unto her, 'Go your way; neither do I condemn thee.' In Him therefore, our Savior and King and God, be your pattern, O bishops." The Constitutions of the Holy Apostles Book II.24, composed , echoes the , alongside a utilization of Luke 7:47.The Early Church Fathers Volume 7 by Philip Schaff (public domain) pp. 388–390, 408 Further, Didymus the Blind (c. 313–398) states that "We find in certain gospels" an episode in which a woman was accused of a sin, and was about to be stoned, but Jesus intervened "and said to those who were about to cast stones, 'He who has not sinned, let him take a stone and throw it. If anyone is conscious in himself not to have sinned, let him take a stone and smite her.' And no one dared," and so forth. Codex Fuldensis, which was produced in AD 546, and which, in the Gospels, features an unusual arrangement of the text that was found in an earlier document, contains the adulterae pericope, in the form in which it was written in the Vulgate. More significantly, Codex Fuldensis also preserves the chapter-headings of its earlier source-document (thought by some researchers to echo the Diatessaron produced by Tatian in the 170's), and the title of chapter 120 refers specifically to the woman taken in adultery. The important codices L and Delta do not contain the , but between John 7:52 and 8:12, each contains a distinct blank space, as a sort of memorial left by the scribe to signify remembrance of the absent passage. Pacian of Barcelona (bishop from 365 to 391), in the course of making a rhetorical challenge, opposes cruelty as he sarcastically endorses it: "O Novatians, why do you delay to ask an eye for an eye? [...] Kill the thief. Stone the petulant. Choose not to read in the Gospel that the Lord spared even the adulteress who confessed, when none had condemned her." Pacian was a contemporary of the scribes who made Codex Sinaiticus. The writer known as Ambrosiaster, , mentioned the occasion when Jesus "spared her who had been apprehended in adultery." The unknown author of the composition "Apologia David" (thought by some analysts to be Ambrose, but more probably not) mentioned that people could be initially taken aback by the passage in which "we see an adulteress presented to Christ and sent away without condemnation." Later in the same composition he referred to this episode as a "lection" in the Gospels, indicating that it was part of the annual cycle of readings used in the church-services. Peter Chrysologus, writing in Ravenna , clearly cited the in his Sermon 115. Sedulius and Gelasius also clearly used the passage. Prosper of Aquitaine, and Quodvultdeus of Carthage, in the mid-400s, utilized the passage. A text called the Second Epistle of Pope Callistus, section 6,Clontz, T.E. and J., "The Comprehensive New Testament", Cornerstone Publications (2008), p. 571, contains a quote that may be from John 8:11 – "Let him see to it that he sin no more, that the sentence of the Gospel may abide in him: "Go, and sin no more."" However this text also appears to quote from eighth-century writings and therefore is most likely spurious.The Early church Fathers Volume 8: The Twelve Patriarchs, Excerpts and Epistles, The Clementia, Apocrypha, Decretals, Memoirs of Edessa and Syriac Documents, Remains of the First by Philip Schaff (public domain) pp. 607, 618 In the Codex Vaticanus, which was produced in the early 300s, perhaps in Egypt (or in Caesarea, by copyists using exemplars from Egypt), the text is marked at the end of John chapter 7 with an umlaut in the margin, indicating that an alternative reading was known at this point. This codex also has an umlaut alongside blank space following the end of the Gospel of John, which may convey that whoever added the umlaut was aware of additional text following the end of John 21 – which is where the is found in the f-1 group of manuscripts. The Latin Vulgate Gospel of John, produced by Jerome in 383, was based on the Greek manuscripts which Jerome considered ancient exemplars at that time and which contained the passage. Jerome, writing around 417, reports that the was found in its usual place in "many Greek and Latin manuscripts" in Rome and the Latin West. This is confirmed by some Latin Fathers of the 300s and 400s, including Ambrose of Milan, and Augustine of Hippo. The latter claimed that the passage may have been improperly excluded from some manuscripts in order to avoid the impression that Christ had sanctioned adultery: The pericope does not occur in the Greek Gospel manuscripts from Egypt. The Pericope Adulterae is not in 𝔓66 or in 𝔓75, both of which have been assigned to the late 100s or early 200s, nor in two important manuscripts produced in the early or mid 300s, Sinaiticus and Vaticanus. The first surviving Greek manuscript to contain the pericope is the Latin-Greek diglot Codex Bezae, produced in the 400s or 500s (but displaying a form of text which has affinities with "Western" readings used in the 100s and 200s). Codex Bezae is also the earliest surviving Latin manuscript to contain it. Out of 23 Old Latin manuscripts of John 7–8, seventeen contain at least part of the pericope, and represent at least three transmission-streams in which it was included. However, in 1941 a large collection of the Greek writings of Didymus the Blind (313–398 AD) was discovered in Egypt, in which Didymus states that "We find in certain gospels" an episode in which a woman was accused of a sin, and was about to be stoned, but Jesus intervened "and said to those who were about to cast stones, 'He who has not sinned, let him take a stone and throw it. If anyone is conscious in himself not to have sinned, let him take a stone and smite her.' And no one dared," and so forth. As Didymus was referring to the Gospels typically used in the churches in his time, this reference appears to establish that the passage was accepted as authentic and commonly present in many Greek manuscripts known in Alexandria and elsewhere from the 300s onwards. The subject of Jesus's writing on the ground was fairly common in art, especially from the Renaissance onwards, with examples by artists including those a painting by Pieter Bruegel and a drawing by Rembrandt. There was a medieval tradition, originating in a comment attributed to Ambrose, that the words written were ("earth accuses earth"; a reference to the end of verse Genesis 3:19: "for dust you are and to dust you will return"), which is shown in some depictions in art, for example, the Codex Egberti. This is very probably a matter of guesswork based on Jeremiah 17:13. There have been other theories about what Jesus would have written. ==Manuscripts== Both the (NA28) and the United Bible Societies (UBS4) provide critical text for the pericope, but mark this off with double square brackets, indicating that the is regarded as a later addition to the text. Describing its use of double brackets UBS4 states that they "enclose passages that are regarded as later additions to the text, but are of evident antiquity and importance." Various manuscripts treat, or include, the passage in a variety of ways. These can be categorised into those that exclude it entirely, those that exclude only a shortened version of the passage (including 7:53-8:2 but excluding 8:3-11), those that include only a shortened version of the passage (8:3–11), those that include the passage in full, those that question the passage, those that question only the shorter passage, those that relocate it to a different place within the Gospel of John, and those that mark it as having been added by a later hand. #Exclude the passage: Papyri 66 (c. 200 or 4th centuryOrsini, "I papiri Bodmer: scritture e libri", 77) and 75 (early 3rd century or 4th centuryOrsini, "I papiri Bodmer: scritture e libri", 77); Codices Sinaiticus and Vaticanus (4th century), also apparently Alexandrinus and Ephraemi (5th), Codices Washingtonianus and Borgianus also from the 5th century, Regius from the 8th (but with a blank space expressing the copyist's awareness of the passage), Athous Lavrensis (c. 800), Petropolitanus Purpureus, Macedoniensis, Sangallensis (with a distinct blank space) and Koridethi from the 9th century and Monacensis from the 10th; Uncials 0141 and 0211; Minuscules 3, 12, 15, 19, 21, 22, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 39, 44, 49, 63, 72, 77, 87, 96, 106, 108, 123, 124, 131, 134, 139, 151, 154, 157, 168, 169, 209, 213, 228, 249, 261, 269, 297, 303, 306, 315, 316, 317, 318, 333, 370, 388, 391, 392, 397, 401, 416, 423, 428, 430, 431, 445, 496, 499, 501, 523, 537, 542, 554, 565, 578, 584, 649, 684, 703, 713, 719, 723, 727, 729, 730, 731, 732, 733, 734, 736, 740, 741, 742, 743, 744, 749, 768, 770, 772, 773, 776, 777, 780, 794, 799, 800, 817, 818, 819, 820, 821, 827, 828, 831, 833, 834, 835, 836, 841, 843, 849, 850, 854, 855, 857, 862, 863, 865, 869, 896, 989, 1077, 1080, 1141 1178, 1230, 1241, 1242, 1253, 1256, 1261, 1262, 1326, 1333, 1357, 1593, 2106, 2193, 2244, 2768, 2862, 2900, 2901, 2907, 2957, 2965 and 2985; the majority of lectionaries; some Old Latin, the majority of the Syriac, the Sahidic dialect of the Coptic, the Garima Gospels and other Ethiopic witnesses, the Gothic, some Armenian, Georgian mss. of Adysh (9th century); Arabic mss of Diatessaron (2nd century); apparently Clement of Alexandria (died 215), other Church Fathers namely Tertullian (died 220), Origen (died 254), Cyprian (died 258), John Chrysostom (died 407), Nonnus (died 431), Cyril of Alexandria (died 444) and Cosmas (died 550). # Shorter passage excluded (includes 7:53-8:2 but excludes 8:3-11): 228, 759, 1458, 1663, and 2533. # Shorter passage included (8:3–11): ℓ 4, ℓ 67, ℓ 69, ℓ 70, ℓ 71, ℓ 75, ℓ 81, ℓ 89, ℓ 90, ℓ 98, ℓ 101, ℓ 107, ℓ 125, ℓ 126, ℓ 139, ℓ 146, ℓ 185, ℓ 211, ℓ 217, ℓ 229, ℓ 267, ℓ 280, ℓ 282, ℓ 287, ℓ 376, ℓ 381, ℓ 386, ℓ 390, ℓ 396, ℓ 398, ℓ 402, ℓ 405, ℓ 409, ℓ 417, ℓ 422, ℓ 430, ℓ 431, ℓ 435 (8:2–11), ℓ 462, ℓ 464, ℓ 465, ℓ 520 (8:2–11). #Include passage: Codex Bezae (5th century), 9th century Codices Boreelianus, Seidelianus I, Seidelianus II, Cyprius, Campianus, Nanianus, also Tischendorfianus IV from the 10th, Codex Petropolitanus; Minuscule 28, 318, 700, 892, 1009, 1010, 1071, 1079, 1195, 1216, 1344, 1365, 1546, 1646, 2148, 2174; the Byzantine majority text; ℓ 79, ℓ 100 (John 8:1–11), ℓ 118, ℓ 130 (8:1–11), ℓ 221, ℓ 274, ℓ 281, ℓ 411, ℓ 421, ℓ 429 (8:1–11), ℓ 442 (8:1–11), ℓ 445 (8:1–11), ℓ 459; the majority of the Old Latin, the Vulgate, Western witnesses to the Diatessaron (Codex Fuldensis), some Syriac, the Bohairic dialect of the Coptic, some Armenian, Didascalia (3rd century), Didymus the Blind (4th century), Ambrosiaster (4th century), Ambrose (died 397), Jerome (died 420), Augustine (died 430). #Question pericope (marked with asterisks (※), obeli (÷), dash (–) or (<)): Codex Vaticanus 354 (S) and the Minuscules 18, 24, 35, 83, 95 (questionable scholion), 109, 125, 141, 148, 156, 161, 164, 165, 166, 167, 178, 179, 200, 201, 202, 285, 338, 348, 363, 367, 376, 386, 392, 407, 478, 479, 510, 532, 547, 553, 645, 655, 656, 661, 662, 685, 699, 757, 758, 763, 769, 781, 789, 797, 801, 824, 825, 829, 844, 845, 867, 897, 922, 1073, 1092 (later hand), 1187, 1189, 1280, 1443, 1445, 2099, and 2253 include entire pericope from 7:53; the menologion of Lectionary 185 includes 8:1ff; Codex Basilensis (E) includes 8:2ff; Codex Tischendorfianus III (Λ) and Petropolitanus (П) also the menologia of Lectionaries ℓ 86, ℓ 211, ℓ 1579 and ℓ 1761 include 8:3ff. Minuscule 807 is a manuscript with a Catena, but only in John 7:53–8:11 without catena. It is a characteristic of late Byzantine manuscripts conforming to the sub-type Family K, that this pericope is marked with obeli; although Maurice Robinson argues that these marks are intended to remind lectors that these verses are to be omitted from the Gospel lection for Pentecost, not to question the authenticity of the passage. # Shorter passage questioned (8:3–11, marked with asterisks (※), obeli (÷) or (<)): 4, 8, 14, 443, 689, 707, 781, 873, 1517. (8:2-11) Codex Basilensis A. N. III. 12 (E) (8th century), #Relocate passage: Family 1, minuscules 20, 37, 135, 207, 301, 347, and nearly all Armenian translations place the pericope after John 21:25; Family 13 place it after Luke 21:38; a corrector to Minuscule 1333 added 8:3–11 after Luke 24:53; and Minuscule 225 includes the pericope after John 7:36. Minuscule 129, 135, 259, 470, 564, 1076, 1078, and 1356 place John 8:3–11 after John 21:25. 788 and Minuscule 826 placed pericope after Luke 21:38. 115, 552, 1349, and 2620 placed pericope after John 8:12. #Added by a later hand: Codex Ebnerianus, 19, 284, 431, 391, 461, 470, 501 (8:3-11), 578, 794, 1141, 1357, 1593, 2174, 2244, 2860. The was never read as a part of the lesson for the Pentecost cycle, but John 8:3–8:11 was reserved for the festivals of such saints as Theodora, 18 September, or Pelagia, 8 October.F. H. A. Scrivener, A Plain Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament (1894), vol. II, p. 367. ==Authorship== ===Arguments against Johannine authorship=== Bishop J. B. Lightfoot wrote that absence of the passage from the earliest manuscripts, combined with the occurrence of stylistic characteristics atypical of John, together implied that the passage was an interpolation. Nevertheless, he considered the story to be authentic history."The passages which touch Christian sentiment, or history, or morals, and which are affected by textual differences, though less rare than the former, are still very few. Of these, the pericope of the woman taken in adultery holds the first place of importance. In this case a deference to the most ancient authorities, as well as a consideration of internal evidence, might seem to involve immediate loss. The best solution may be to place the passage in brackets, for the purpose of showing, not, indeed, that it contains an untrue narrative (for, whencesoever it comes, it seems to bear on its face the highest credentials of authentic history), but that evidence external and internal is against its being regarded as an integral portion of the original Gospel of St. John." J.B. Lightfoot, R.C. Trench, C.J. Ellicott, The Revision of the English Version of the NT, intro. P. Schaff, (Harper & Bro. NY, 1873) Online at CCEL (Christian Classic Ethereal Library) As a result, based on Eusebius' mention that the writings of Papias contained a story "about a woman falsely accused before the Lord of many sins" (H.E. 3.39), he argued that this section originally was part of Papias' Interpretations of the Sayings of the Lord, and included it in his collection of Papias' fragments. Bart D. Ehrman concurs in Misquoting Jesus, adding that the passage contains many words and phrases otherwise alien to John's writing. The evangelical Bible scholar Daniel B. Wallace agrees with Ehrman. There are several excerpts from Papias that confirm this: Fragment 1: > And he relates another story of a woman, who was accused of many sins before > the Lord, which is contained in the Gospel according to the Hebrews. These > things we have thought it necessary to observe in addition to what has been > already stated. Eusebius of Caesarea, Church History, 3.39.16 Fragment 2: > And there was at that time in Menbij [Hierapolis] a distinguished master who > had many treatises, and he wrote five treatises on the Gospel. And he > mentions in his treatise on the Gospel of John, that in the book of John the > Evangelist, he speaks of a woman who was adulterous, so when they presented > her to Christ our Lord, to whom be glory, He told the Jews who brought her > to Him, “Whoever of you knows that he is innocent of what she has done, let > him testify against her with what he has.” So when He told them that, none > of them responded with anything and they left.Agapius of Hierapolis, > Universal History, Year 12 of Trajan [110AD] Fragment 3: > The story of that adulterous woman, which other Christians have written in > their gospel, was written about by a certain Papias, a student of John, who > was declared a heretic and condemned. Eusebius wrote about this. There are > laws and that matter which Pilate, the king of the Jews, wrote of. And it is > said that he wrote in Hebrew with Latin and Greek above it.Vardan Areveltsi, > Explanations of Holy Scripture However, Michael W. Holmes says that it is not certain "that Papias knew the story in precisely this form, inasmuch as it now appears that at least two independent stories about Jesus and a sinful woman circulated among Christians in the first two centuries of the church, so that the traditional form found in many New Testament manuscripts may well represent a conflation of two independent shorter, earlier versions of the incident."Michael W. Holmes in The Apostolic Fathers in English (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006), p. 304 Kyle R. Hughes has argued that one of these earlier versions is in fact very similar in style, form, and content to the Lukan special material (the so- called "L" source), suggesting that the core of this tradition is in fact rooted in very early Christian (though not Johannine) memory.Kyle R. Hughes, "The Lukan Special Material and the Tradition History of the Pericope Adulterae," Novum Testamentum 55.3 (2013): 232–251 ===Arguments for Johannine authorship=== There is clear reference to the pericope adulterae in the primitive Christian church in the Syriac Didascalia Apostolorum. (II,24,6; ed. Funk I, 93.) Zane C. Hodges and Arthur L. Farstad argue for Johannine authorship of the pericope."If it is not an original part of the Fourth Gospel, its writer would have to be viewed as a skilled Johannine imitator, and its placement in this context as the shrewdest piece of interpolation in literary history!" The Greek New Testament According to the Majority Text with Apparatus: Second Edition, by Zane C. Hodges (Editor), Arthur L. Farstad (Editor) Publisher: Thomas Nelson; They suggest there are points of similarity between the pericope's style and the style of the rest of the gospel. They claim that the details of the encounter fit very well into the context of the surrounding verses. They argue that the pericope's appearance in the majority of manuscripts, if not in the oldest ones, is evidence of its authenticity. == Status in the Bible == According to , "the question of the [Pericope Adulterae]'s canonicity does not follow automatically from a literary historical judgment about its origin." The Catholic Church regards it as canonical, following the precepts of the Council of Trent. Many Protestants, however, reject it as non-canonical. From a Protestant point of view, Baum argues that its canonicity can be "determined according to the same historical and content-related criteria that the ancient church applied during the development of the canon of Scriptures." He further argues, however, that it should be separated from the Gospel of John.. == Art and culture == The story is the subject of several paintings, including: * Christ and the Woman Taken in Adultery by Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1565) * The Woman Taken in Adultery by Rembrandt (1644) * Christ and the Woman Taken in Adultery by Mattia Preti (c.1650) * Christ and the Woman Taken in Adultery by Peter Paul Rubens (1899) * Christ and the Woman Taken in Adultery by Max Beckmann (1917) * Christ with the Adulteress by Han van Meegeren (1942), but sold as an original Vermeer Variations of the story are told in the 1986 science fiction novel Speaker for the Dead by Orson Scott Card, as part of Letters to an Incipient Heretic by the character San Angelo. In September 2020, the Chinese textbook(Professional Ethics and Law) was alleged to inaccurately recount the story with a changed narrative in which Jesus stones the woman, while claiming to be a sinner: The publisher claims that this was an inauthentic, unauthorized publication of its textbook. ==See also== * List of New Testament verses not included in modern English translations == Notes == ==References== ==External links== * (NIV) * (KJV) * Pericope Adulterae in Manuscript Comparator — allows two or more New Testament manuscript editions' readings of the passage to be compared in side by side and unified views (similar to diff output) *The Pericope de Adultera Homepage Site dedicated to proving that the passage is authentic, with links to a wide range of scholarly published material on both sides about all aspects of this text, and dozens of new articles. *New Testament Virtual Manuscript Room, the manuscript portal provided by the Institute for New Testament Textual Research. This page provides direct access to the primary source material to confirm the evidence presented in the section Manuscript Evidence. *Jesus and the Adulteress, a detailed study by Wieland Willker. *Concerning the Story of the Adulteress in the Eighth Chapter of John, list marginal notes from several versions, extended discussion taken from Samuel P. Tregelles, lists extended excerpts from An Account of the Printed Text of the Greek New Testament (London, 1854), F.H.A. Scrivener, A Plain Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament (4th edition. London, 1894), Bruce Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament (Stuttgart, 1971), Raymond E. Brown, The Gospel According to John (i–xii), in the Anchor Bible series (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1966). *The Woman Taken In Adultery (John 7:53–8:11), in defense of the pericope de adultera by Edward F. Hills, taken from chapter 6 of his book, The King James Version Defended, 4th edition (Des Moines: Christian Research Press, 1984). *Chris Keith, The Initial Location of the Pericope Adulterae in Fourfold Tradition *David Robert Palmer, John 5:3b and the Pericope Adulterae *John David Punch, THE PERICOPE ADULTERAE: THEORIES OF INSERTION & OMISSION Category:Biblical criticism Category:Doctrines and teachings of Jesus Category:Gospel episodes Category:Gospel of John Category:Women in the New Testament Category:Adultery Category:Second Temple |
The Polish minority in Ukraine officially numbers about 144,130 (according to the 2001 census),Results of the 2001 census with languages spoken (Розподіл населення окремих національностей за іншими мовами, крім рідної, якими володіють), Ukrainian Statistical Bureau (Державний комітет статистики України). Retrieved 21 August 2011. of whom 21,094 (14.6%) speak Polish as their first language. The history of Polish settlement in current territory of Ukraine dates back to 1030–31. In Late Middle Ages, following the extinction of the Rurik dynasty in 1323, the Kingdom of Poland extended east in 1340 to include the lands of Przemyśl and in 1366, Kamianets-Podilskyi (Kamieniec Podolski). The settlement of Poles became common there after the Polish–Lithuanian peace treaty signed in 1366 between Casimir III the Great of Poland, and Liubartas of Lithuania. == History == === Early medieval times === In early medieval times the western territory of what is now Ukraine (Eastern Galicia) was known as Red Ruthenia. It was settled by tribes of Western Slavs – Lendians. According to the Nestor – Primary Chronicle tribe of Lendians were 'Lachy' (Lechites) and their Duke Wlodzislav took part in dealing with Byzantine empire together with the Rus.Russian text of the chronicle of Nestor in PDF It is first attested in AD 981, when Vladimir the Great of Kievan Rus conquered the Red Ruthenian strongholds in his military campaign on the border with the land of Lendians. Nestor reports in his chronicle that: "Vladimir marched upon the Lyakhs (k Lyakbotri) and took their cities: Peremyshl (modern Przemyśl), Cherven (modern Czermno), and other towns.""Powieść minionych lat", tłum. F. Sielicki, Wrocław – Warszawa – Kraków 1999 ("Primary Chronicle" in Polish translation) In the following century, the area was taken by Boleslav the Brave of Poland in 1018, then retrieved by Kievan Rus' in 1031 and recaptured by Poland in 1069. From 1080 until 1349 this region was part of Kievan Rus or the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia. During this time Polish settlers helped to economically develop the region and they formed a significant element in the courts of the Galician rulers.Poles in Ukraine. Entry: Encyclopedia of Ukraine, pp. 86–94 Toronto: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, University of Toronto PressA further better neutral reference is needed here. Following the extinction of the Rurikid dynasty and the end of the Galician-Volhynian kingdom, this region was seized by the Polish Crown, and included in the Polish–Lithuanian peace treaty signed in 1366 by Casimir III of Poland, with Liubartas of Lithuania.A. Buko, "The archaeology of early medieval Poland", Brill, 2008, pp. 307-308H. H. Fisher, "America and the New Poland (1928)", Read Books, 2007, p. 15N. Davies, God's playground: a history of Poland in two volumes, Oxford University Press, 2005, pp. 71, 135 A Roman Catholic Archdiocese was established in the old Galician capital of Halych in 1375, and was transferred to Lviv in 1412. Native nobles (boyars) who refused to declare allegiance to the Polish kingdom were dispossessed of their lands, which were granted to arriving nobles from Poland. Large numbers of settlers came to Galician lands from Lesser Poland; Polish nobles were given land grants, Polish peasants settled in the countryside and Polish, German and Armenian merchants and craftsmen settled in the towns. Over time, many but not all of the remaining native nobility (particularly the wealthy ones with much land) as well as the townspeople assimilated into Polish culture, while the Polish peasant settlers assimilated into the native culture. In Ukrainian lands further east, near the Kyiv region, the first Polish settlers were prisoners of war who were captured by Yaroslav the Wise during his war against Poland in 1030–1031 and settled on lands near Kyiv, where they became farmers and assimilated into the local population. More Polish settlers arrived in the 12th century, resulting in the establishment of a Roman Catholic mission in Kyiv. ===During the Time of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth=== To mitigate the depopulation stemming from the Crimean–Nogai slave raids, Polish kings, in particular Stephen Báthory and Sigismund III Vasa, sponsored large-scale Polish colonization of central and eastern Ukrainian regions in the 16th and 17th centuries. Polish magnates were given large tracts of sparsely settled lands, while Polish petty gentry managed the estates and served as soldiers. Serfs were enticed to move into these territories by a temporary 20 year exemption from serfdom. Although most serfs were from western Ukrainian lands, a significant number of Polish serfs from central Poland also settled these estates. The latter tended to assimilate into Ukrainian society and some of them even took part in Cossack uprisings against the landlords. Polish magnates from Ukraine, such as members of the family Potocki and Zolkiewski, played a significant political and social role within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, as did Polonized native magnates such as the family Wisniowiecki. They were amongst the wealthiest nobles in Poland; the Wisniowiecki estate included 38,000 households with a population of 230,000 subjects. Polish rule involved expansion of Jesuit schools and large scale construction or ornate castles and estates that included libraries, art collections and archives that in many cases were the equal in importance to those in Poland itself. Prominent Poles from lands that are currently Ukraine include the historian and poet Józef Bartłomiej Zimorowic, Polish baroque poet Kasper Twardowski, and Roman Catholic Bishop of Kyiv, as well as writer, Andrzej Chryzostom Załuski. Also Polish Kings Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki, John III Sobieski and Stanisław Leszczyński were born in present-day Western Ukraine. Following the successful uprising of Bohdan Khmelnytsky against the Polish crown in the mid 17th century, Ukrainian lands east of the Dnipro River, the Cossack Hetmanate, became briefly independent and then became an autonomous part of Russia. In this area, many of the Polish nobles were expelled and Polish political influence was curtailed. Regions west of the river, however, remained part of Poland-Lithuania for approximately another 150 years, retained their Polish orientation and were the stage of ongoing Polish colonization. By the late 18th century, approximately 240,000 people of the Volhynian, Podilian and Kyiv regions, or 11% of the population, were Roman Catholics, most of whom were Poles. Approximately half of this number had arrived in the early 18th century. ===Within the Cossack Hetmanate=== In the mid seventeenth century the Cossack Hetmanate east of the Dnipro River successfully rebelled against the Polish- Lithuanian Commonwealth, and after a brief period of independence became an autonomous area under the Russian Empire. In this region some Poles and Polonized Ukrainian nobles who had joined the Cossacks remained and in some cases even obtained high positions in the local administration. Most of the Polish nobles, however, were expelled and their political influence eliminated. Polish influence upon the local Ukrainian culture remained strong until the mid 18th century, however. The Polish language was the administrative language of the Hetmanate and the language of command for the Hetmanate's military forces. The Hetmanate's most prominent schools, the Kyiv Academy and Chernihiv Collegium, used Polish and Latin as languages of instruction.Timothy Snyder. (2002). The Reconstruction of Nations. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 116 Polish was taught in schools and Kyiv and Chernihiv hosted Polish printing-houses. === During the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries === At the end of the 18th century, resulting from joint Partitions of Poland with Austria-Hungary and the German Empire, Russia absorbed lands west of Kyiv while Austria absorbed the region of eastern Galicia. The Cossack Hetmanate was eliminated and its lands fully integrated within the Russian Empire. thumb|Map showing percentage of population who are of Polish origin in Austria-Hungary and Russia, 1897–1900 ==== Within the Russian Empire ==== At the time of the partition, approximately ten percent of the population of the territories annexed by Russia was Polish. Poles included wealthy magnates with large estates, poorer nobles who worked as administrators or soldiers, and peasants. Long after this region ceased being a part of Poland, Poles continued to play an important role in both the province and in the city of Kyiv. Until the failed Polish insurrection of 1830–1831, Polish continued to be the administrative language in education, government and the courts. In 1812 there were over 43,000 Polish noblemen in Kyiv Governorate, compared to only approximately 1,000 "Russian" nobles. Typically the nobles spent their winters in the city of Kyiv, where they held Polish balls and fairs.Michael F. Hamm. (1995). Kyiv: A Portrait, 1800–1917. Princeton: Princeton University Press p. 225 Throughout the Tsarist period Poles wielded considerable influence. Polish landlords owned approximately 46 percent of all private property in Ukraine west of the Dnipro River. Until the mid-18th century Kyiv (Polish Kijów) was Polish in culture,Timothy Snyder. (2003). The Reconstruction of Nations. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 119–122 although Poles made up no more than ten percent of Kyiv's population and 25% of its voters. During the 1830s Polish was the language of Kyiv's educational system, and until Polish enrollment in Kyiv's university of St. Vladimir was restricted in the 1860s they made up the majority of that school's student body. The Russian government's cancellation of Kyiv city's autonomy and its placement under the rule of bureaucrats appointed from St. Petersburg was largely motivated by fear of Polish insurrection in the city. Warsaw factories and fine Warsaw shops had branches in Kyiv. Józef Zawadzki, founder of Kyiv's stock exchange, served as the city's mayor in the 1890s. In 1909, 9.8 percent of the city of Kyiv's population (44,400 people) were Poles. Kieven Poles tended to be friendly towards the Ukrainian national movement in the city, and some took part in Ukrainian organizations.Michael F. Hamm. (1995). Kyiv: A Portrait, 1800–1917. Princeton: Princeton University Press pp. 54–55 Henryk Józewski, a Pole from Kyiv, served in the government of the Ukrainian People's Republic under his friend Symon Petliura and later as governor of Volhynia under Poland.Timothy Snyder. (2005) Sketches from a Secret War: A Polish Artist's Mission to Liberate Soviet Ukraine. New Haven: Yale University Press. =====Polish assimilation===== Under the Russian Empire, Polish society tended to stratify. The Polish magnates prospered under the Russian Empire, at the expense of the serfs and of the poorer Polish nobility whom they pushed from the land. The wealthy magnates tended to oppose the Polish insurrections, identified with their Russian landlord peers, and often moved to St. Petersburg. The Polish national movement in Ukrainian lands thus tended to be led by members of the middle and poorer gentry, who formed secret societies in places with large Polish populations, such as Kyiv, Zhytomyr and Berdychiv. As a result of an anti-Russian insurrection in 1830, the Polish middle and poorer nobility were stripped of their legal noble status by the Russian government. These Polish nobles, legally reduced to the status of peasants, often assimilated into the Ukrainian language and culture. Many of the poorer Polish nobles who became Ukrainianized in language, culture and political loyalty constituted an important element of the growing Ukrainian national movement. Ukrainian-speaking Poles from the Russian empire include Ukrainian political theorist Vyacheslav Lypynsky, historian and nineteenth century leader of the Ukrainian national awakening Volodymyr Antonovych (Włodzimierz Antonowicz), and painter Kazimir Malevich. Due to assimilation, whereas at the time of the annexation of Ukrainian lands by Russia in 1795 10% of the population were Poles, in spite of ongoing migration of Poles from central Poland into Ukrainian lands, by the end of the nineteenth century only three percent of the total population of these territories reported that Polish was their first language. ====Poles in Austria-Hungary (Eastern Galicia)==== Approximately 21% of the population of Ukrainian territory annexed by Austria-Hungary were Poles.Timothy Snyder. (2003). The Reconstruction of Nations. New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 123 In 1890, 68% of Poles in this region were peasants, 16 percent worked in industry, 8.5 percent worked in transport or trade, and 7.5 percent had administrative, professional or service jobs.Paul Robert Magocsi. (1996) A History of Ukraine. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp.429–430 The Austrians began their rule by implementing policies that limited the control of Polish nobles and magnates over peasants; the Polish nobles and magnates, however, then took over the local bureaucracy and succeeded in establishing control over most municipal governments, as well as the regional assembly. These ethnic Polish authorities promoted Polish colonization of lands in eastern Galicia; by 1890, one third of the Poles living in eastern Galicia had moved there from western areas. Approximately 35,000 Poles moved into these territories between 1891 and 1900 alone. Between 1852 and 1912, the Polish-controlled local administration provided 237,000 hectares of land to Poles moving to eastern Galicia from western Galicia, and only 38,000 hectares of land to Ukrainians. As a result of such policies, despite larger Ukrainian family sizes the percentage of the population who were ethnic Poles grew significantly, to over 25% by 1910. Under Austrian rule Lviv became a leading center of the Polish national revival. Lviv was home to the Polish Ossolineum, with the second largest collection of Polish books in the world, the Polish Academy of Arts, the Polish Historical Society, the Polish Theater and Polish Archdiocese.Paul Robert Magocsi. (2005). Galicia: a Multicultured Land. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp.12–15 Poles in Austria-Hungarian-ruled Ukraine generally belonged to three groups politically: Polish conservative landowners; Polish liberal nationalists (the National Democrats, or Endeks), and socialist groups. Of these, only the latter group cooperated with Ukrainians, whereas the other two were extremely hostile towards Ukrainian political or cultural aspirations. Thus, in contrast to the situation in Russian-ruled Ukraine, where relations between Poles and Ukrainians were friendly and where Poles were often active in the Ukrainian national movement, in Austrian-ruled Ukraine relations between Poles and Ukrainians were generally quite antagonistic. When Ukrainian historian Mykhailo Hrushevskyi moved from Kyiv to Lviv in 1894 he was surprised to see that Poles there were hostile to the Ukrainian cause.Timothy Snyder. (2003). The Reconstruction of Nations. New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 128 ===During the First World War and Revolution=== ====Within the Russian Empire==== During the first world war over 40,000 Polish refugees fleeing the central powers settled in Kyiv. After the Revolution, the mainstream Polish political organization, the Polish Democratic Center Party, supported the Ukrainian national movement's post- revolutionary government, the Ukrainian Central Rada. One of the Polish Democratic Center Party leaders, Mieczysław Mickiewicz, was appointed the head of the Ukrainian government's Ministry of Polish Affairs. In November 1917 a Polish University College was established in Kyiv. The advance of the Bolshevik armies, the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1921, and the incorporation of these Ukrainian lands into the USSR, led to a massive exodus of Poles, particularly landowners and intelligentsia, from Ukraine into Poland. Some of these emigrants, such as Henryk Józewski, obtained important positions within the Polish government. ====In what is now Western Ukraine==== After the dissolution of Austria-Hungary in November 1918, the region's Poles found themselves within the West Ukrainian People's Republic. Poles constituted approximately 25% of this region's population (1,351,000 people) but were the majority within this country's capital, Lviv. Within several weeks, the Poles of Lviv successfully rebelled against the West Ukrainian government. The rest of the territory would be captured during an offensive of the Polish–Ukrainian War by the Polish Armed Forces entering these lands from Poland, in July 1919.Vasyl Kuchabsky, Gus Fagan. (2009). Western Ukraine in Conflict with Poland and Bolshevism, 1918–1923. Toronto: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press at the University of Toronto, pp. 241–242 === History after World War I === The lands that are currently western Ukraine were part of the Second Polish Republic during the Interwar period. In this territory, the population of Poles ranged from 17% in the Wołyń Voivodeship (1921–1939) to 58% in the Lwów Voivodeship. Altogether, Poles in these lands made around 35% of total population, around 3 million people. This large Polish population dramatically decreased in the late 1930s and 1940s after the Soviet occupation of eastern Poland (see: Soviet invasion of Poland), as a result of Soviet mass deportation of Poles to Siberia and other eastern regions of the USSR as well as a campaign of ethnic cleansing, carried out by the nationalist Ukrainian Insurgent Army (see: Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia). After the Soviet Union recaptured Ukraine, Joseph Stalin and Soviet Ukrainian First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev pursued increasingly repressive policies towards Poles to force them to relocate to the Polish People's Republic.Applebaum, Anne (2012). Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe 1944–1956. New York USA: Doubleday. p. 129. In the Ukrainian SSR east of the Zbruch river, in 1926 there were 476.435 Poles, which was 1.6% of total population of Soviet Ukraine. Of these, 48.8% listed Ukrainian as their native language. In the Ukrainian SSR there was a Polish Autonomous District#Marchlewszczyzna, near Zhytomyr, created in 1926, but it was disbanded in 1935 and its Polish inhabitants were either murdered or deported to Kazakhstan. Actually, the former Polish Autonomous District is a territory with largest ethnic Poles concentration in Ukraine, the former Polish Autonomous District capital Dovbysh population is predominantly Polish and Catholic. In the 1937-8 Polish Operation of the NKVD, 55,928 people were arrested in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, of which 47,327 were shot and 8,601 were sent to gulags.Petrov, Nikita, and Arsenii Roginskii. "The “Polish Operation” of the NKVD, 1937–8." Stalin's Terror. Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2003. 153–172. Not all of those arrested were Polish.Martin, Terry. "The origins of Soviet ethnic cleansing." The Journal of Modern History 70.4 (1998): 813–861. The Polish population in the Ukrainian SSR fell from 417,613 in 1937 to 357,710 in 1939.Morris, James. "The Polish terror: spy mania and ethnic cleansing in the great terror." Europe-Asia Studies 56.5 (2004): 751–766. thumb|Map showing percentage of population who are of Polish origin in Ukrainian SSR, 1926 That number has been steadily decreasing over the past half a century; the censuses of Soviet Ukraine gave the following numbers: 1959 – 363,000; 1970 – 295,000; 1979 – 258,000 and 1989 – 219,000. This decline can be explained due to policies of Sovietization, which aimed to destroy Polish culture on Soviet Ukraine. As most Poles from the Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union were transported to Poland (primarily Regained Territories), there were actually relatively few Poles left on the former southeastern territories of the Second Polish Republic incorporated into Soviet Union. The majority of Poles in Ukraine assimilated into the Ukrainian culture. By 1959, 69% spoke the Ukrainian language, 19 percent spoke Polish and 12 percent spoke Russian. ==Poles in contemporary Ukraine== thumb|Map showing percentage of population who are of Polish origin in Ukraine, 2001 The situation of Polish minority has improved when Ukraine regained independence, the policy of Sovietization ended and various Polish non-governmental organizations were allowed to operate. On October 13, 1990 Poland and Ukraine agreed to the "Declaration on the foundations and general directions in the development of Polish–Ukrainian relations". Article 3 of this declaration said that neither country has any territorial claims against the other, and will not bring any in the future. Both countries promised to respect the rights of national minorities in the land and to improve the situation of minorities in their countries. This declaration re-affirmed the historic and ethnic ties between Poland and Ukraine, containing a reference to "the ethnic and cultural kinship of the Polish and Ukrainian peoples". Under the "Declaration of rights of nationalities of Ukraine" (approved November 7, 1991) Poles, as minorities, were guaranteed political, economic, social, and cultural rights. The Polish minority in Ukraine were and have been active supporters of Ukrainian independence; they supported Viktor Yushchenko over Viktor Yanukovych virtually as a bloc in the disputed 2004 election. The number of Poles in Ukraine declined after Ukraine's independence, with a total number of 144,130 counted in the census of 2001. Most Poles who remained in Ukraine were and are concentrated in Zhytomyr Oblast (about 49,000), Khmelnytskyi Oblast (about 20,000), and Lviv Oblast (about 19,000). However, the official 2001 census numbers are highly controversial and questioned by many (for example, the Union of Poles in Ukraine, Roman Catholic Church in Ukraine and even Polish Consulate General in Lviv) who allege that the real number of Poles and Polish descendants living in Ukraine is up to 2 million people. ==Cultural heritage== Polish cultural heritage in Ukraine includes: File:LubienWielkiPalac3.JPG|Brunicki Palace in Velykyi Liubin (17th century) File:6.Вишнівець .Вишнівецький палац.JPG|Wiśniowiecki Palace in Vyshnivets (18th century) File:CzerwonogrodPalacPotockich.JPG|Potocki Palace in Chervonograd (18th century) File:05-243-0076 Tulchyn Palace RB.jpg|Potocki Palace in Tulchyn (18th century) File:Південний фасад маєтку в Маліївцях.JPG|Orłowski Palace in Maliivtsi (18th century) File:Вороновиця - Палац Грохольських DSC 1711.JPG|Grocholski Palace in Voronovytsia (18th century) File:Strusiv-palats-14101945.jpg|Lanckoroński Palace in Strusiv (18th century) File:Chernyatin palaz-1.jpg|Witosławski Palace in Cherniatyn (19th century) File:Палац графа Бадені в Коропці.JPG|Mysłowski Palace in Koropets (19th century) File:OdessaPalacBelinyBrzozowskiego2.JPG|Belina-Brzozowski Palace in Odesa (19th century) File:Дворец Потоцких.jpg|Potocki Palace in Lviv (19th century) File:2 Bibliotechna Street, Lviv (12).jpg|Baworowscy Library in Lviv File:Lviv - Ossolineum.JPG|Ossolineum edifice in Lviv File:Ансамбль колегіуму - Костел Св. Ігнатія Лойоли 1.JPG|Krzemieniec Lyceum in Kremenets File:Міський театр (філармонія).jpg|City Theatre in Zhytomyr (19th century) File:Львівська опера Театр опери та балету Свободи пр., 28 ALX 99761 01.jpg|Grand Theatre in Lviv (19th century) File:Кафедральний костел святих Апостолів Петра і Павла 17.jpg|Sts. Peter and Paul Cathedral in Kamianets- Podilskyi (16th century) File:Lviv Jesuit Church RB.jpg|Jesuit Church in Lviv (17th century) File:Olyka Kolegiata Troyits'kiy Kostel 01 2 (YDS 6707).jpg|Church of the Holy Trinity in Olyka (17th century) File:Berdychiv Monastery 2 RB.jpg|Church of the Virgin Mary in Berdychiv (18th century) File:Sambir Mitskevicha Str. 5a Kostel of St.Stanislav 01 (YDS 9709).jpg|Saint Stanislav church in Sambir (18th century) File:Lwów - k. Dominikan 2.JPG|Dominican Church in Lviv (18th century) File:Катедра.JPG|Dominican Church in Ternopil (18th century) File:6 Market Square, Lviv (01).jpg|Residence of King John III Sobieski in Lviv File:Будинок-музей Ю.Словацького.JPG|Childhood home of Juliusz Słowacki in Kremenets File:Krasevsky Uzef Ignacy Zhytomyr dim.jpg|House of Józef Ignacy Kraszewski in Zhytomyr File:Zalishchyky, Kasprowicz House.jpg|House of Jan Kasprowicz in Zalishchyky File:Drohobycz dom brunona schulza 2008.jpg|House of Bruno Schulz in Drohobych File:4 Lepkoho Street, Lviv (02).jpg|Childhood home of Stanisław Lem in Lviv == See also == * Poland–Ukraine relations * Ukrainians in Poland * Polish minority in Soviet Union * Demographics of Ukraine * Soviet repressions of Polish citizens (1939–1946) * Association of the Polish Culture of the Lviv Land == Footnotes == == References == * Piotr Eberhardt, Polacy na Ukrainie: Liczebność i rozmieszczenie ludności polskiej według ostatnich spisów powszechnych * Stephen R. Burant. International Relations in a Regional Context: Poland and Its Eastern Neighbours. Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine. Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 45, No. 3. (1993), pp. 395–418. == External links == * Losy ludności polskiej na Ukrainie Sowieckiej Category:Ethnic groups in Ukraine Ukraine |
Edvin Loach and Saltmarshe is a civil parish in north-east Herefordshire, England, and is approximately north-east from the city and county town of Hereford. The nearest town is Bromyard, to the south-west. Within the parish is a George Gilbert Scott built parish church in the virtually depopulated settlement of Edvin Loach, and the repurposed site of the demolished Saltmarshe Castle. ==History== In the Domesday Book the manor is listed as part of the Doddingtree hundred, which covered areas of today's Herefordshire and Worcestershire. The 1086 manor was owned by Herbert who received it from the 1066 lord of the manor, Wulfheah. Herbert held lordship under Osbern son of Richard, who in 1086 was the tenant-in-chief to William I. Manor occupation consisted of one villager, five smallholders (middle level of serf owning about five acres of land, below and with less land than a villager), and two slaves, on a ploughland area defined by one lord's and three men's plough teams.Edvin (Loach), Open Domesday. Retrieved 2 May 2022Morgan, Vanessa (2011), Worcestershire Family History Guidebook, The History Press, Stroud, Gloucestershire, p.20 Edvin Loach, combined with Edvin Ralph (Edwyn Ralph), was attested as the manor of Gedesfenna in 1123, Yedefen in 1176 pipe rolls, Iadefen in 1212, and Yedefen Loges in 1242 when it was owned by the 13th- century 'de Loges' family, particularly John de Loges in 1212, with Edvin Ralph being held by a Ralph in 1176 and 1242. 'Loges' refers to a place name in France. In 1291 tax returns the manor is Yeddefenne Radh. Saltmarsh derives from the Old English 'salt' with 'mersc' meaning "salty or brackish marsh". In the 1170 the manor was written as Saltemers, in 1167 pipe rolls as Saltmareis, and in 1347 Episcopal Registers as Salso Marisco. The manor in the Domesday Book is listed as "Edevent", and "Gedeuen" from the Old English meaning 'fen or marshland of a man called Gedda'.Mills, Anthony David (2003); A Dictionary of British Place Names, Oxford University Press, revised edition (2011), pp.172, 404. Ekwall, Eilert (1936); The Concise Oxfordshire Dictionary of English Place-names, Oxford University Press, 4th ed. (1960), p.161, 403 John de Loges, who held one of the two manors at Edvin Loach with a half a knight's fee, was succeeded in about 1280 by William de Loges, and by 1287 and 1308, the heirs of William. However, it wasn't until 1346 that ownership of the manor is definitively attributed, this to Hugh de Hawkesley. In 1393 the manor was conveyed with a carucate (area) of land to Roger Mortimer of Tedstone Wafer, with Hugh de Hawkesley acting as trustee. After the death of Roger Mortimer in 1402, the manor became tied with Kyre Wyard (Kyre Magna) manor in Worcestershire, until 1520 when both were sold. Edvin Loach was acquired by Lord de la Warr, whose son, Sir Thomas de la Warr, sold it to Sir Humphrey Coningsby in 1528, who also held the manor of North Piddle, whereby both manors were passed down in the Coningsby family until 1657–8, when Edvin Loach was sold to Sampson Wise. In 1625 the parish (as opposed to the manor), then in Worcestershire, had been united with the nearby parish of Tedstone Wafre. Despite no deeds being available for the manor until 1782, Edvin Loach, with other manors such as Orleton, were transferred to Ferdinando Gorges of Eye, but returned to the Coningsby's through the marriage of Gorges' daughter to Thomas Coningsby (1656 – 1729), who was created Earl of Coningsby in 1719. Edvin Loach was probably passed down to Margaret, the daughter to Thomas' second wife Lady Frances Jones, daughter to Richard Jones, 1st Earl of Ranelagh. Margaret died (1761), without issue; her younger sister, Frances, inherited and married Sir Charles Hanbury Williams, their daughter, also a Frances, marrying William Capell, 4th Earl of Essex. This Frances (Lady Hanbury-Williams), died in 1781, whereupon the inheritance passed to her grandson George Capel (1757 – 1839), who assumed the name Capell-Coningsby. The manor was in the possession of George Capell-Coningsby in 1782, before succeeding as the fifth Earl of Essex (ninth creation). Shortly after George Capell-Coningsby inherited the manor in 1799, he sold it to William Higginson of Saltmarshe who passed it to "his great-nephew Edmund Barneby, who took the name Higginson in 1825 and died childless in 1871". Edmund then passed the estate to his nephew William Barneby, who was succeeded by his son William Theodore Barneby in 1895."Edvin Loach" in A History of the County of Worcester, Volume 4, ed. William Page and J W Willis-Bund (London, 1924), pp. 272-275. Retrieved 3 May 2022"Edvin Loach", Noake's Guide to Worcestershire (1868) pp.140-41. Retrieved 3 May 2022 The second manor at Edvin Loach is possibly linked, in about 1280, to the land of Miles Pichard. Between 1300 and 1304 Edmund Mortimer of Wigmore bought the estate from Pichard, after which it descended with the manor of Bromsgrove, and then in 1431 to John Holland, 2nd Duke of Exeter (1395 – 1447), who had married Anne (died 20 or 24 September 1432), the widow of Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March. The estates of the earldom of March, including this second manor, probably passed to Edward IV. In 1556 a Thomas Baskerville leased the estate to a James Jones. Edvin Loach and Stoke Bliss became a joint ownership which descended to Thomas Baskerville, son to John Baskerville, who conveyed parts of the manors in 1621 to Thomas Collins and William Fox. The same year Thomas Baskerville conveyed Edvin Loach, other parts of Stoke Bliss, with Netherwood, to an Edward Reed, who in turn in 1648 conveyed it to a James Pecock. ===19th century=== By the 1850s Edvin Loach had historically formed an exclave (detached portion) of Worcestershire, surrounded by Herefordshire, and in the upper division of Doddingtree hundred and the eastern division of the county. It was part of the Bromyard Union—poor relief and joint parish workhouse provision set up under the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834. It was in the Frome rural deanery and the Salop (Shropshire) archdeaconry of the Hereford bishopric. The parish church, dedicated to St Mary, was described as an "old stone building" with a bell turret, chancel and porch, of Saxon in part. The ecclesiastical living was a rectory, with of glebe—an area of land used to support the parish church and priest—and a residence which was in the gift of Edmund Higginson, the principal landowner. The 1851 population was 69 in a parish area of of "clayey soil". Listed in the parish was the rector and two farmers. Letters were processed through Bromyard, which was the nearest money order office. By 1861, parish population was 53."Edvin Loach", History, Topography, and Directory, of Herefordshire, Edward Cassey & Co. 1858, p.73. Retrieved 6 May 2022Post Office Directory of Herefordshire 1856, p.27Worcestershire Family History Guidebook, Vanessa Morgan, 2011, p20 The History Press, Stroud, Gloucestershire. thumb|left|Edvin Loach in Kelly's Directory 1913 By the 1870s the old St Mary's church was not then used for divine service, but was reported as being "carefully preserved", its architecture of "great interest to antiquarians". This church had been superseded for worship by an adjacent new St Mary's, built by Sir George Gilbert Scott, at the expense of Edmund Higginson, described as a ""handsome stone edifice, with apsidal chancel, nave, and spire". The church register dates to 1589. The living was at that time united with that of Tedstone Wafer, in the gift of William Barneby of Saltmarshe Castle and Clater Park, who was also lord of the manor and principal landowner. The soil was described as of clay with a subsoil of sandstone. Chief crops grown were pasture, corn, and some hops. By1871 the population had dropped to 46. The Bromyard post and money order office, was now also a telegraph office. The rector, and now three farmers were listedPost Office Directory of Worcestershire, 1876, p.965 In the 1880s the parish was still in Worcestershire and surrounded by Herefordshire. William Barneby, lord of the manor and chief landowner, was now the Deputy Lieutenant of Herefordshire and a Justice of the Peace. Population in 1881 was 44. The children of the parish attended the High Lane School at Tedstone Wafer. The old St Mary's church had an additional description noting the "remarkable amount of herring-bone masonry [and that] over the entrance door is a rude tympanium [and] the windows are of very early date, and there is an ancient font with Norman work on the base". The careful preservation is still reported.Kelley's Directory of Herefordshire 1885, p.1146 Edvin Loach was transferred from Worcestershire to Herefordshire in 1893, under the provisions of the Divided Parishes Act of 1882. The St Mary's church register was reported as dating to 1570 or 1589, with seating accommodating 80. By 1895 Edvin Loach ecclesiastical parish had transferred to the rural deanery of Burford (east division) and the archdeaconry of Ludlow within the Hereford Diocese. Although the civil parish was now in Herefordshire, those entitled to vote for parliamentary elections did so for the West Worcestershire constituency. A Local Government Board Order of 1884 had transferred land, as Combe's Wood, from Edvin Loach to neighbouring Collington. By 1895 the lord of the manor and principal landowner was now William Theodore Barneby M.A. of Saltmarshe Castle, who was still holding his position in 1913. Population in 1891 was 48. By 1913 the ecclesiastical parish was within the Bromyard rural deanery and archdeaconry and diocese of Hereford, and part of Tedstone Wafer was still annexed to Edvin Loach. The civil parish population in 1891 was 27; the ecclesiastical parish, 91. The parliamentary electorate still voted in the West Worcestershire constituency. Occupational listings still only mention the rector and farmers.Kelley's Directory of Herefordshire & Shropshire, 1895, Part 1: Herefodshire, p.51Kelley's Directory of Worcestershire, 1896, p.88Kelley's Directory of Herefordshire, 1913, pp.59-60 ==Geography== Edvin Loach and Saltmarshe parish boundary is of irregular footprint, but approximately, at its greatest distance, north to south, east to west, and covers an area of approximately ."Edvin Loach and Saltmarshe", Citypopulation.de. Retrieved 2 May 2022 Adjacent parishes are Collington at the north-west, Tedstone Wafer at the north and north-east, Norton at the east and south, and Edwyn Ralph at the west. The parish is rural, of three farms, fields, managed woodland and coppices, water courses, lakes and ponds, and residential properties. Flowing north to south at the east of the parish is a tributary stream to the River Frome, to the south, which forms parts of the eastern borders with Norton in the south, and farther upstream, Tedstone Wafer. There are three minor roads within the parish. In the northern part of the parish is the east to west through road, externally from the B2414 Tenbury road in Edwyn Ralf at the west, to Tedstone Wafer at the east. From this road, a road at the centre of the parish runs south to the Norton parish border; at the south from this runs a road east past St Mary's Church and then south to Norton. All other routes are bridleways, farm tracks, property entrances and footpaths.Extracted from "Edvin Loach and Saltmarshe", GetOutside, Ordnance Survey. Retrieved 2 May 2022Extracted from "Edvin Loach and Saltmarshe", OpenStreetMap. Retrieved 2 May 2022Extracted from Edvin Loach and Saltmarshe, Grid Reference Finder. Retrieved 2 May 2022Extracted from "Edvin Loach and Saltmarshe", Google Maps. Retrieved 3 May 2022 ==Governance== Edvin Loach and Saltmarshe is represented in the lowest tier of UK governance by the seven-member, five-parish North Bromyard Group Parish Council, which also represents the parishes of Upper Sapey, Wolferlow, Tedstone Wafre and Tedstone Delamere, and is part of the Eastern Area Meeting Group of the Herefordshire four-parts Parish Council Area Meeting Groups. As Herefordshire is a unitary authority—no district council between parish and county councils—the parish sends one councilor representing the Bromyard Bringsty Ward, to Herefordshire County Council.North Bromyard Group Parish Council, Herefordshire Council. Retrieved 4 May 2022North Bromyard Group Parish Council, official website. Retrieved 4 May 2022"Edvin Loach and Saltmarshe Parish Council", Parish Councils. Retrieved 4 May 2022"Parish Council Area Meeting Groups", Herefordshire Association of Local Councils. Retrieved 4 May 2022Bromyard Bringsty, Citypopulation.de. Retrieved 2 May 2022 Edvin Loach and Saltmarshe is represented in the UK parliament as part of the North Herefordshire constituency, held by the Conservative Party since 2010 by Bill Wiggin. In 1974 Edvin Loach and Saltmarshe became part of the now defunct Malvern Hills District of the county of Hereford and Worcester, instituted under the 1972 Local Government Act.Statutory Instruments (1976), Legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved 19 April 2022 Until Brexit, on 31 January 2019, the parish was represented in the European Parliament as part of the West Midlands constituency. ==Community== There are no bus routes that pass through the parish. The closest rail connections are at Leominster railway station, to the west, Hereford to the south-west, both on the Crewe to Newport Welsh Marches Line, and Worcester Foregate, Worcestershire Parkway and Worcester Shrub Hill railway stations at Worcester, 12 miles east with links on the Cotswold, Cross Country and West Midlands Trains lines. The nearest hospitals are Bromyard community hospital, to the south, with the nearest major hospital, Hereford County Hospital, 15 miles south-west at Hereford, both part of the Wye Valley NHS Trust, and the Worcestershire Royal Hospital to the east.Bromyard Community Hospital. Retrieved 24 April 2022"About Wye Valley NHS Trust", Wye Valley NHS Trust. Retrieved 24 April 2022Worcestershire Royal Hospital. Retrieved 24 April 2022 For religion St Mary's parish church falls under the parish of Greater Whitbourne, in the Deanery of Bromyard in the Diocese of Hereford."Edvin Loach w Tedstone Wafer: St Mary", Diocese of Hereford. Retrieved 4 May 2022"Edvin Loach: St Mary", A Church Near You, Church of England. Retrieved 14 May 2022 The nearest catchment area primary schools are Brockhampton Primary School, the closest, on Bromyard Downs (road) at Brockhampton, and St. Peter's Primary School at Bromyard; the nearest secondary is Queen Elizabeth High School at Bromyard. In latest Ofsted inspections Brockhampton Primary was rated Grade 2 'Good' (2017); St. Peter's Grade 2 'Good' (2018); and Queen Elizabeth High School Grade 2 'Good' (2017).Brockhampton Primary School. Retrieved 24 April 2022 St. Peter's Primary School. Retrieved 4 May 2022 Queen Elizabeth High School. Retrieved 19 April 2022 Brockhampton Primary School, Ofsted inspection 2017. Retrieved 4 May 2022 St. Peter's Primary School, Ofsted inspection 2018. Retrieved 4 May 2022 Queen Elizabeth High School, Ofsted inspection 2017. Retrieved 4 May 2022 At the south-east of the parish is the bungalow estate of Saltmarshe Castle Residential Park, built over the site of the former country house estate of Saltmarshe Castle. ==Landmarks== There are nine Grade II and one Grade II* listed buildings in Edvin Loach and Saltmarshe, including a house, a cottage, a farmhouse, three barns, a lodge, a turret, a church and a ruin of a further church."Listed Buildings in Edvin Loach and Saltmarshe, Herefordshire", British Listed Buildings. Retrieved 4 May 2022 Hope Farmhouse (), is a Grade II* listed 16th-century farmhouse, rebuilt partly in brick in the 18th century. The house is of two storeys and six bays with sash windows, and a gable-ended slate roof. The earlier south end is timber-framed with roughcast facing; the north end, brick. The central east entrance has a first floor gabled projection as extension to the upper level, supported to the ground by oak posts. The interior contains a 17th-century staircase. In 2014 the house was on sale for an estimated £550k. At south-east from the farmhouse are two Grade II barns and a cattle shed range (long building or row of buildings). The barns and range are all 17th century, timber framed with brick nogging, and gable ended roofs of tile and asbestos. The west part of the range is a cart shed with a roof dormer door and an open stone rubble ground floor, with a larger barn attached to the east side which has a north facing slatted double door running from ground to eaves. Attached to this, running south, is a part 18th- or 19th-century cattle shed wing of course-worked rubble."Hope Farmhouse", Google Street View, April 2009. Retrieved 5 May 2022"A look inside Grade II listed Hope Farm in Bromyard", BusinessLive. Retrieved 4 May 2022Jones, Alison; "£550k Hope Farm in Bromyard", Birmingham Live, 17 November 2014. Retrieved 5 May 2022"Barns at Hope Farm", Google Street View, April 2009. Retrieved 4 May 2022 thumb|right|St Mary's nave and tower arch St Mary's Grade II parish church (), at the south of the parish, was designed in late 13th-century style by George Gilbert Scott and built between 1858 and 1860 at the expense of Edmund Higginson of Saltmarshe Castle. Of local sandstone with limestone keystones, it comprises a buttressed west tower, south porch, a nave with chancel as part of a singular structure, with a chancel apse with lancet stained glass windows at the east, and a vestry attached to the north of the chancel. The nave is supported by two buttresses each side. The first (bell) floor of the tower has twin-light lancet windows as abat-sons, and above, a broach spire with gabled dormer window each side. The interior contains a " wide pointed wooden arch" between the nave and chancel, plastered walls and tiled floors. The tower pointed arch is supported by large free-standing columns, with foliate details on each corner of the capitals, inset from the nave walls. Furnishings mostly date to 1860, including pews, the octagonal font, a stone polygonal pulpit, a wooden communion rail, and wooden priests stalls at the south of the chancel. The chancel windows, dating to 1869, show the Crucifixion, Resurrection and Ascension. In December 1997 three of St Mary's bell were stolen; in 2004 two of the bells were recovered in Wiltshire."Edvin Loach: St Mary", A Church Near You, Church of England. Retrieved 5 May 2022"Stolen bells found in estate agent's", BBC News, 10 February 2004. Retrieved 5 May 2022 In St Mary's graveyard at , east from the church apse (), are the roofless (since the 1890s), sandstone rubble ruins of the old Edvin Loach church, which dates from the 11th century. The remains comprise only parts of the external coursework stone walls of the nave, and a probably 16th-century tower. The north wall has embedded herringbone masonry, which might be a survival of an even earlier church. The Norman Romanesque south doorway of grey Tufa limestone, has, above its "massive lintel", a relieving semi-circular arch and tympanum. A surviving window opening at the east is late Norman; the east wall and parts of the north and south walls were rebuilt in the 12th century. Broken remains of a Romanesque font existed before 1986."Old Church, Edvin Loach, Herefordshire", The Corpus of Romanesque Sculpture in Britain & Ireland. Retrieved 3 May 2022Taylor, Joan; Taylor, Harold; "Edvin Loach" in 'Pre-Norman churches of the border', Celt and Saxon: Studies in the Early British Order, p.233, Cambridge University Press (1964). Retrieved 5 May 2022 The old and new church are on the site of a previous Motte-and-bailey castle, as earthworks and buried remains, these at the highest part of the parish——today a scheduled monument. The circular mound motte is of a maximum diameter of and rises to a flat top width of , and is surrounded by a wide ditch, particularly visible at the south-west. The square bailey on which the old church and its churchyard burial ground sits, is of width."Motte and bailey castle and St Mary's Old Church", Heritage England. Retrieved 5 May 2022"Motte and bailey castle and St Mary's Old Church", 'Ancient Monuments UK. Retrieved 3 May 2022"Edvin Loach Motte And Bailey Castle", Historic England Research Records, Heritage Gateway. Retrieved 5 May 2022"Edvin Loach Ringwork", Gatehouse Gazetteer. Retrieved 5 May 2022 A two- storey lodge (), at the edge of Saltmarshe Castle Residential Park on the B4203 road at the border with neighboring Norton parish, is a former gatehouse lodge of the 1955 demolished Saltmarshe Castle and its estate. It dates to the mid-19th century, of polygonal footprint, walls of stonework coursing with crenellated parapet, and two-light sash windows within stone mullions with squared hood moulds."North Lodge, Saltmarshe Castle", Google Street View, April 2009. Retrieved 4 May 2022 Steeples (), at the southern border with Norton, is a 17th-century tile-roofed stone rubble house, orientated north to south, with a timber-framed cross wing each end. The larger southern wing is 16th century, with brick nogging infil; the smaller northern wing 17th century. The house is of two storeys with casement windows. At north from Steeples on the same road is Finches Cottage (), a 17th-century house, previously listed as a barn in 1973, timber-framed with brick nogging infill, tile-roofed with two dormer windows, an end-attached brick (listed as stone), chimney stack at the east, and a central gabled porch at the south. A modern brick gable extension is added centrally to the north side."Steeples", Google Street View, April 2009. Retrieved 5 May 2022"Finches Cottage", Google Street View, April 2009. Retrieved 5 May 2022 ==References== ==External links== * Category:Civil parishes in Herefordshire |
The 1989 World Tour was the fourth concert tour by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift, launched in support of her fifth studio album, 1989 (2014). Swift announced the tour's first dates in North America, Europe, Japan, and Oceania in November and December 2014. She announced additional dates for Singapore and China in June 2015, and a final announcement of the third show in Melbourne was made the following month. The tour took seven months to plan and three months to rehearse. As with her previous tours, Swift was highly involved in the 1989 World Tour's planning and stage design. She aimed to create an intimate experience for concertgoers, which she found challenging for shows held in stadiums. Most songs on the set list were from 1989; additional songs from Swift's older albums were re-interpreted with a more synth-oriented production to align with 1989's soundscape. At different shows, she performed a "surprise song" from her back catalog. The tour began on May 5, 2015, in Tokyo, Japan, and concluded on December 12, 2015, in Melbourne, Australia, spanning 85 shows. For many of the shows, Swift invited special guests onstage with her, including musicians, actors, athletes, and models, whom the media called her "squad". The world's highest-grossing tour of 2015, the 1989 World Tour sold over 2.278 million tickets and grossed over $250.7 million. It was acclaimed by critics, who praised Swift's stage presence and connection with the audience. Meanwhile, her appearances with an array of special guests attracted commentary regarding her new image as a pop star—having previously been known as a country singer-songwriter—and the sense of authenticity that she had maintained. On December 20, 2015, Swift released the concert film The 1989 World Tour Live in partnership with Apple Music. Filmed at the November 28, 2015 show at ANZ Stadium in Sydney, Australia, the film features additional behind-the-scenes footage of special guests from other shows throughout North America and Europe. == Background and development == Taylor Swift released her fifth studio album 1989 on October 27, 2014. The synth-pop album was her first to be marketed as pop music, departing from her image as a country artist. It was a commercial success, selling over one million copies within its first week of release in the United States. On November 3, 2014, via her Twitter account, Swift announced the first details of her world tour in support of 1989. Australian singer Vance Joy was announced as an opening act, and the ticket sale for the North American leg was confirmed for November 14. In a November 2014 interview with Time magazine, Swift said that the set list would primarily consist of songs from 1989. She included new versions of songs from her older catalog to maintain the cohesive, synth-heavy production of 1989 while also keeping the "live feel" of her performances. Swift, as always, was heavily involved in the tour's planning and production design. She acknowledged the challenge of playing in stadiums, expressing her goal for "those people in the very top row [to] feel like they got an intimate, personal experience". In an interview with KIIS-FM in December 2014, she revealed that she knew what the stage would look like, as well as knowing that "all the fans seem to be saying that they really don't want any song [from 1989] left off the setlist". Swift first announced the North American and European dates in November 2014. The tour was set to kick off in Bossier City, Louisiana on May 20, 2015, and conclude in Tampa, Florida on October 31, 2015. Additional shows were added across the U.S., Canada, England, Scotland, Germany, and the Netherlands. One month after announcing the first dates, Swift added further shows in Japan, and Australia. The opening show of the tour would be in Japan in May 2015, and the shows in Australia would take place in November and December 2015. In June 2015, Swift announced more shows in China and Singapore in November 2015. The following month, Swift announced a third show in Melbourne, Australia, which would serve as the closing show of the 1989 World Tour on December 12, 2015. Opening acts were Vance Joy, Shawn Mendes, Haim, and James Bay. The tour required seven months of planning and three months of music rehearsals, including four weeks of stage rehearsals and 10 days of two-a-day dress rehearsals. Swift traveled for the tour with 26 semi-trailer trucks and 11 buses carrying 146 people from city to city. Additionally, about 125 to 150 people were hired in each city to help with the load-in and stage setup, which took between six and eight hours for arenas and an additional day in stadiums. Swift chose two designs for the trucks' vinyl wrap, with 13 trucks per design. Concertgoers were given light- up bracelets that were programmed to change color throughout the show, a practice that was later implemented in Swift's Reputation Stadium Tour (2018) and the Eras Tour (2023). == Concert synopsis == The shows on the 1989 World Tour features a nearly identical set list spanning the majority of the 1989 album, with the exception of "Wonderland" (a deluxe bonus track). Different shows have different guest star appearances intertwined between Swift's performances. The concert begins with black-and-white projections of street scenes, which subsequently serves as the backdrop to the performance of "Welcome to New York". Swift then emerges from beneath the stage to sing the song, followed by "New Romantics" surrounded by a dozen male dancers. Next, Swift sings "Blank Space" before erupting into a call-and-response climax where she strikes a golf club against a black lacquer cane whilst also shouting the name of the city where the concert is being held. Swift proceeds with an industrial rock-oriented version of "I Knew You Were Trouble", which she performs as shirtless male dancers delivered a sensual choreography. After the performance of "I Wish You Would", Swift appears in a glowing pink polka- dot dress to perform "How You Get the Girl", accompanied by a choreography inspired by the 1952 musical Singin' in the Rain that is performed by the dancers twirling neon umbrellas. The show continues with "I Know Places", during which Swift wears thigh-high black boots and garters. The song's intense lyrics and production are accompanied by a performance of Swift being chased by the masked dancers through multiple mobile doors as she sings "They are the hunters / We are the foxes." After the song ends, Swift performs "All You Had to Do Was Stay", followed by either "You Are in Love" or a different surprise song at several shows. "All You Had to Do Was Stay" is excluded from the set list for several shows. Swift introduces "Clean" by sharing lessons she had learned in her personal life with her audience. After "Clean", Swift performs a synth-oriented version of "Love Story" while standing on an elevated platform that whisks around the stadium. Swift proceeds with "Style", during which she performs while strutting down the runway-styled stage in a sparkling dress, and "This Love". For the performance of "Bad Blood", Swift dresses in a top-to-toe black leather suit. She then delivers an intense metal version of "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together" on an electric guitar. Afterwards, Swift emerges from beneath the stage again to perform a mashup of "Enchanted" and "Wildest Dreams" on a grand piano. She follows with "Out of the Woods" in a sparkling bodysuit as giant paper planes fly overhead. The show concludes with "Shake It Off", during which Swift and the dancers perform on a spinning platform above the crowd with fireworks and confetti. ===Adjustments and special guests=== For different shows, Swift replaced "You Are in Love" with "Wonderland", another 1989 deluxe album track, or songs from her earlier albums. These included "Should've Said No" (from 2006's Taylor Swift); "You Belong with Me", "Fifteen" and "Fearless" (from 2008's Fearless); "Mean", "Sparks Fly" and "Mine" (from 2010's Speak Now); "Holy Ground", "All Too Well", and "Red" (from 2012's Red). During the second show in Santa Clara, California on August 15, 2015, Swift dedicated "Never Grow Up" (from Speak Now) to her godson, the second child of her friend, actress Jaime King. A feature of the 1989 World Tour that attracted attention was the array of unannounced special guests that Swift invited onstage with her. Swift explained during an interview with Apple Music's Beats 1 Radio that since her fans could have expected what the show would look like through social media posts prior to attending, she wanted to incorporate an element of surprise: "They know the set list, they know the costumes, they've looked it up. That presented me with an interesting issue. I love the element of surprise… so going into this tour, having people pop on stage that you didn't expect to see." Though Swift had invited musicians onstage with her during previous tours, this time, she invited singers, models, athletes, and actors—public figures across "every type of field". A notable example was the show at London's Hyde Park in July 2015, during which she was joined onstage by models Martha Hunt, Kendall Jenner, Karlie Kloss, Gigi Hadid, and Cara Delevingne, who were subsequently noted by the media as members of Swift's "squad" and her representation of her newly-established feminist identity. While some of the guests were scheduled beforehand, others were improvised; Swift asked singer John Legend to join her onstage only 40 minutes prior to showtime, after spotting him in the audience. As the tour continued, special guests ranged from Hollywood actress Julia Roberts to counterculture figure Joan Baez. Nick Levine from the BBC observed that while these special guests were well appreciated by Swift's fans, their appearances gave the impression to others that Swift did so to prove her star power of her new image as a pop star, having abandoned her previous image as a country artist. In doing so, Swift's sense of authenticity began to slip, despite her global stardom. Kristy Fairclough, a professor in popular culture and film, commented: "Her shifting aesthetic and allegiances appear confusing in an overall narrative that presents Taylor Swift as the centre of the cultural universe." Fairclough asserted that while Swift had presented herself as an underdog and outsider from her contemporaries, which had garnered her a devoted fan base, she began to appear as "a profoundly unsympathetic underdog" for being a "globally famous, attractive, thin, white, very wealthy woman". When the tour ended, Swift acknowledged that "people might need a break from [her]". New York magazine listed Swift's "squad" as one of the defining moments of music in the 2010s decade. == Critical reception == The 1989 World Tour was met with universal acclaim; praise centered on the elaborate stage production and Swift's stage presence. Vice Eric Sundermann appreciated Swift's ability to connect with her audiences, saying: "She has built a career on making music that’s suited for the fabric of our lives, so it makes sense that her show is engineered to be the best night of your life." Jon Caramanica, writing for The New York Times, acknowledged Swift's comfortable performance onstage. Rolling Stone critic Rob Sheffield appreciated the reworked versions of Swift's older songs and felt that she was pushing for an even more spectacular show than her much-praised previous Red Tour (2013–14): "Taking the easy way would have been 100 percent good enough. It just wasn’t what she wanted to do. Instead, she wanted to push a little harder and make a gloriously epic pop mess like this." In a similarly enthusiastic review, Kevin Coffrey from the Omaha World-Herald observed how the stage production complemented the songs: "Her show is on a level unlike anything I've ever seen." Paige Allen from The Sun Chronicle was positive towards Swift's performance but felt that she could have carried the show without opening acts and special guests. Hunter Hauk of The Dallas Morning News also deemed the opening acts "forgettable" but was impressed by Swift's natural performance onstage. In a review of the Glasgow show, David Pollock from The Independent lauded Swift's energetic performance and described the show as a "resonantly feminist show which emphasises a fun, heartfelt message over polemic". Reviewing the tour's Sydney show, Bernard Zuel from the Sydney Morning Herald gave it four-and-a-half stars. Zuel lauded the show as "one of the most spectacular stadium shows" he had ever seen and praised Swift's stage presence for creating a lively and euphoric energy. Reviewing the same show, Elle Hunt of The Guardian gave it five out of five stars, asserting that the show was a reminder of Swift's emotional engagement through her songs as her greatest asset that "has won her enormous global fandom". In 2017, Rolling Stone included the 1989 World Tour in their list of the "50 Greatest Concerts of the Last 50 Years". == Commercial reception == === Ticket sales === Pre-sales for European shows of the 1989 World Tour started on November 4, and public on-sale started on November 7; tickets for London were sold later on November 10. The first round of pre-sales on selected North American shows started on November 7, and general sales for the public in North America started from November 14, 2014; Australia started from December 12, 2014; Japan started from the following day; Singapore and Shanghai started from June 30, 2015. Swift was the sixth-most-searched artist on Ticketmaster in 2014. In St. Louis, Swift was originally scheduled to perform on October 13 and 14, 2015, but one of the St. Louis shows was dropped, and the other was rescheduled to September 28, 2015, with tickets going on sale on January 30, 2015. However, tickets for the St. Louis show sold out within minutes, resulting in a second date being added on September 29 at the same venue. Due to massive demand, Swift added more dates to the European leg, one for Cologne and one for Dublin. Swift added one more Dublin show after six minutes when the first show sold out, and tickets for both concerts sold out within 55 minutes. In Australia, tickets for the first show on December 11, 2015, in Melbourne, at AAMI Park were sold out in less than an hour. Soon afterwards, Swift announced extra dates for Melbourne and Adelaide. Due to popular demand, in July 2015, Swift added a third Melbourne show after the first two shows were sold out. Swift became the first female artist to play three shows at AAMI Park. In January 2015, Forbes reported that the 1989 World Tour was one of the most expensive concert tours of 2015 on the secondary market. === Boxscore === The tour topped the Billboard Hot Tours chart with Swift's first five shows from the North American run (May 20–June 6, 2015, excluding Baton Rouge), which generated $16.8 million from 149,708 ticket sales. It topped the Billboard Hot Tours chart for the second week, earning $15.2 million, with a total of 129,962 tickets sold from three shows in Charlotte and Philadelphia. By August 1, 2015, the 1989 World Tour had grossed $86.2 million, at 20 performances in North America, with 771,460 tickets sold at seven arenas and nine stadiums. On September 9, Billboard reported that the tour had grossed over $130 million, with 1.1 million tickets sold. The 1989 World Tour surpassed the Red Tour as Swift's highest-grossing by October 2015, when Billboard reported that the tour had grossed over $173 million. The tour also returned to number one on the Hot Tours chart, becoming Swift's sixth time atop the chart in 2015, thanks to ticket sales totaling $13.6 million from the shows in Toronto, St. Louis and Des Moines. On Billboard list of the "Top 25 Boxscores" published in December 2015, Swift scored seven entries with the 1989 World Tour shows, the highest number of entries among all touring acts. After concluding in Melbourne, the tour grossed over $250 million and became the world's highest-grossing tour in 2015, as reported by Pollstar. It was also the highest-grossing North American tour of 2015. The 1989 World Tour grossed nearly $200 million in North America alone, breaking the previous all-time high of $162 million set by the Rolling Stones in 2005. Two shows in Tokyo ranked at number nine on Pollstar list of "2015 Year-End Top 100 International Boxoffice". Other shows appearing on the list were the shows in Melbourne, Sydney, Shanghai, and Brisbane. The 1989 World Tour also scored 24 entries on another list by Pollstar—"2015 Year-End Top 200 Concert Grossed [in North America]"—with her highest position (number five) being the two shows in East Rutherford and her lowest (number 160) being the two shows in Denver. Overall, the tour broke a string of attendance and grossing records, including the record for most sold-out shows by an artist in Staples Center history (16 shows across Swift's career), commemorated in a banner presented by Kobe Bryant. ==Concert film== The tour was supported by a concert film, titled The 1989 World Tour – Live. It was released on December 20, 2015, exclusively via Apple Music. Directed by Jonas Åkerlund, the film was filmed at the Sydney, Australia, concert from the 1989 World Tour, held at ANZ Stadium on November 28, 2015, where Swift performed in front of over 76,000 people. Prior to the show, concertgoers were informed that it would be filmed for a commercial purpose. On December 13, 2015, Swift announced she had partnered with Apple Music to release The 1989 World Tour – Live on the 20th of the same month. It contains over two hours of concert, interview, and never-before-seen backstage and rehearsal footage with some of the musical and surprise guests from previous shows. Scenes from The 1989 World Tour – Live were compiled for the music video for "New Romantics", the seventh and final single from the album. == Awards and nominations == List of awards and nominations received by the 1989 World Tour Award Year Category Result Teen Choice Awards 2015 Choice Summer Tour Billboard Touring Awards Top Tour Top Draw Capital Loves 2015 Best Live Show MTV Europe Music Award Best US Act Best Live Performance Pollstar Awards 2016 Tour of the Year Alt URL Best Design iHeartRadio Music Awards Best Tour == Set list == This set list is from the May 5, 2015 show in Tokyo. It is not representative of all shows throughout the tour. # "Welcome To New York" # "New Romantics" # "Blank Space" # "I Knew You Were Trouble" # "I Wish You Would" # "How You Get the Girl" # "I Know Places" # "All You Had to Do Was Stay" # "You Are in Love" # "Clean" # "Love Story" # "Style" # "This Love" # "Bad Blood" # "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together" # "Enchanted" / "Wildest Dreams" # "Out of the Woods" ;Encore # * "Shake It Off" ===Surprise songs=== The following songs were performed by Swift in place of "You Are In Love": * "Wonderland" (from 1989): During the shows in Las Vegas, Bossier City, Pittsburgh, and the second performance in Cologne * "Holy Ground" (from Red): During the second show in Dublin * "You Belong with Me" (from Fearless): During the second shows in East Rutherford, Washington, Denver, Columbus, Los Angeles, Adelaide, and Shanghai; the first shows in Toronto, Nashville, Kansas City, St. Louis, Foxborough, and Singapore; and the shows in Des Moines and Salt Lake City * "Fifteen" (from Fearless): During the first shows in Chicago, Omaha, Denver, Saint Paul, and Edmonton; the second shows in Melbourne, Toronto, St. Louis, Foxborough, Nashville, Kansas City, and Glendale; the third show in Los Angeles; and the shows in Indianapolis, Lexington, Arlington, Fargo, Miami, Greensboro, Atlanta, and Tampa * "Mean" (from Speak Now): During the second shows in Chicago and Saint Paul, the fifth show in Los Angeles, and the shows in Seattle and Houston * "Sparks Fly" (from Speak Now): During the show in Vancouver * "Fearless" (from Fearless): During the second show in Edmonton, the first show in Omaha, and the show in San Diego * "Should've Said No" (from Taylor Swift): During the first show in Santa Clara * "Never Grow Up" (from Speak Now): During the second show in Santa Clara * "Ronan" (non-album song): During the first show in Glendale * "All Too Well" (from Red): During the first show in Los Angeles * "Red" (from Red): During the first show in Columbus * "Mine" (from Speak Now): During the show in Brisbane * "Long Live" (from Speak Now): During the third show in Melbourne ===Special guests=== Below is the complete list of special guests who appeared onstage or performed with Swift on the 1989 World Tour. * May 15, 2015 – Las Vegas: "Tenerife Sea" with Ed Sheeran * May 30, 2015 – Detroit: "Radioactive" with Dan Reynolds of Imagine Dragons; Martha Hunt & Gigi Hadid. * June 6, 2015 – Pittsburgh: "Pontoon" with Little Big Town. * June 12, 2015 – Philadelphia: "Cool Kids" with Echosmith; Cara Delevingne & Mariska Hargitay. * June 13, 2015 – Philadelphia: "Fight Song" with Rachel Platten; Mariska Hargitay. * June 27, 2015 – London: Gigi Hadid, Kendall Jenner, Serena Williams, Martha Hunt, Karlie Kloss and Cara Delevingne. * July 10, 2015 – East Rutherford: "Can't Feel My Face" with The Weeknd; Heidi Klum and United States women's national soccer team; Lily Aldridge, Lena Dunham, Gigi Hadid and Hailee Steinfeld. * July 11, 2015 – East Rutherford: "Jealous" with Nick Jonas; Gigi Hadid, Martha Hunt, Lily Aldridge, Candice Swanepoel, Behati Prinsloo, Karlie Kloss, and Uzo Aduba. * July 13, 2015 – Washington, D.C.: "Royals" with Lorde. * July 14, 2015 – Washington, D.C.: "Want to Want Me" with Jason Derulo. * July 18, 2015 – Chicago: "Honey, I'm Good." with Andy Grammer; Serayah. * July 19, 2015 – Chicago: "Take Your Time" with Sam Hunt; Andreja Pejić & Lily Donaldson. * July 24, 2015 – Foxborough: "Shut Up and Dance" with Walk the Moon. * July 25, 2015 – Foxborough: "Classic" with MKTO. * August 1, 2015 – Vancouver: "Am I Wrong" with Nico & Vinz. * August 8, 2015 – Seattle: "Trap Queen" with Fetty Wap; Ciara and Russell Wilson. * August 14, 2015 – Santa Clara: "Worth It" with Fifth Harmony. * August 15, 2015 – Santa Clara: "Black Magic" with Little Mix; Joan Baez and Julia Roberts. * August 21, 2015 – Los Angeles: "Counting Stars" with Ryan Tedder of OneRepublic; Kobe Bryant presenting Swift with a banner hung on the Staples Center rafters in honor of Swift's 16 sold out shows, the most of any recording artist at the arena. * August 22, 2015 – Los Angeles: "White Horse" with Uzo Aduba; Chris Rock, Matt LeBlanc and Sean O'Pry; "Doubt" and "Family Affair" with Mary J. Blige. * August 24, 2015 – Los Angeles: "Goodbye Earl" with Natalie Maines of the Dixie Chicks; Ellen DeGeneres; "You Oughta Know" with Alanis Morissette. * August 25, 2015 – Los Angeles: "Dreams" with Beck and St. Vincent; "All of Me" with John Legend. * August 26, 2015 – Los Angeles: "Good for You" with Selena Gomez; "Smelly Cat" with Lisa Kudrow; "Mirrors" with Justin Timberlake. * August 29, 2015 – San Diego: "Cheerleader" with OMI; "Complicated" with Avril Lavigne. * September 9, 2015 – Houston: "See You Again" with Wiz Khalifa. * September 16, 2015 – Indianapolis: "If I Die Young" with The Band Perry. * September 18, 2015 – Columbus: "Cool Kids" with Sydney Sierota of Echosmith. * September 21, 2015 – Kansas City: "Every Mile a Memory" with Dierks Bentley. * September 25, 2015 – Nashville: "Love Me Like You Mean It" with Kelsea Ballerini; "I Don't Want to Miss a Thing" with Steven Tyler of Aerosmith; "When You Say Nothing at All" with Alison Krauss. * September 26, 2015 – Nashville: "Bleeding Love" with Leona Lewis; "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction" with Mick Jagger of The Rolling Stones. * September 29, 2015 – St. Louis: "The Fix" with Nelly, and "Hot in Herre" with Nelly and Haim. To celebrate Haim's last night on the tour, Swift invited them to join her onstage as back-up dancers for Nelly. * October 2, 2015 – Toronto: "John Cougar, John Deere, John 3:16" and "Somebody Like You" with Keith Urban. * October 3, 2015 – Toronto: "Boom Clap" with Charli XCX. * October 17, 2015 – Arlington: "Love Me like You Do" with Ellie Goulding. * October 21, 2015 – Greensboro: "Little Red Wagon" with Miranda Lambert. * October 24, 2015 – Atlanta: "Talking Body" with Tove Lo. * October 27, 2015 – Miami: Dwyane Wade presenting Swift a "13" numbered jersey in honor of Swift's lucky number and his 13th season with the Miami Heat; "Give Me Everything" with Pitbull; "Livin' la Vida Loca" with Ricky Martin. * October 31, 2015 – Tampa: "Here" with Alessia Cara; "Let It Go" with Idina Menzel. During "Style", before "Let It Go" was performed, Swift wore an Olaf costume while Menzel wore her in-voice character Elsa, both from Frozen, in honor of Halloween. == Shows == Complete list of tour dates, showing attendance and revenueBox score data: * * * Box score: * * * Box score: * * * * * * * Date (2015) City Country Venue Opening acts Attendance (Tickets sold / Available) Revenue May 5 Tokyo Japan Tokyo Dome rowspan="2" 100,320 / 100,320 $10,586,828 May 6 May 15 Las Vegas United States City of Rock colspan="3" May 20 Bossier City CenturyLink Center Vance Joy 12,459 / 12,459 $1,458,197 May 22 Baton Rouge LSU Tiger Stadium Vance Joy Shawn Mendes 50,227 / 50,227 $4,119,670 May 30 Detroit Ford Field 50,703 / 50,703 $5,999,690 June 2 Louisville KFC Yum! Center Vance Joy 16,242 / 16,242 $1,863,281 June 3 Cleveland Quicken Loans Arena 15,503 / 15,503 $1,732,041 June 6 Pittsburgh Heinz Field Vance Joy Shawn Mendes 54,801 / 54,801 $5,836,926 June 8 Charlotte Time Warner Cable Arena Vance Joy 15,024 / 15,024 $1,627,798 June 9 Raleigh PNC Arena 13,886 / 13,886 $1,653,762 June 12 Philadelphia Lincoln Financial Field Vance Joy Shawn Mendes 101,052 / 101,052 $11,987,816 June 13 June 19 Cologne Germany Lanxess Arena James Bay 29,020 / 29,020 $2,054,690 June 20 June 21 Amsterdam Netherlands Ziggo Dome 11,166 / 11,166 $800,829 June 23 Glasgow Scotland SSE Hydro Vance Joy 11,021 / 11,021 $1,119,300 June 24 Manchester England Manchester Arena 14,773 / 14,773 $1,478,760 June 27 London Hyde Park colspan="3" June 29 Dublin Ireland 3Arena Vance Joy 25,188 / 25,188 $1,975,510 June 30 July 6 Ottawa Canada Canadian Tire Centre 13,480 / 13,480 $1,325,480 July 7 Montreal Bell Centre 14,770 / 14,770 $1,499,040 July 10 East Rutherford United States MetLife Stadium Vance Joy Shawn Mendes Haim 110,105 / 110,105 $13,423,858 July 11 July 13 Washington, D.C. Nationals Park 85,014 / 85,014 $9,730,596 July 14 July 18 Chicago Soldier Field 110,109 / 110,109 $11,469,887 July 19 July 24 Foxborough Gillette Stadium 116,849 / 116,849 $12,533,166 July 25 August 1 Vancouver Canada BC Place Vance Joy Shawn Mendes 41,463 / 41,463 $4,081,820 August 4 Edmonton Rexall Place Vance Joy 26,534 / 26,534 $2,387,080 August 5 August 8 Seattle United States CenturyLink Field Vance Joy Shawn Mendes 55,711 / 55,711 $6,050,643 August 14 Santa Clara Levi's Stadium 102,139 / 102,139 $13,031,146 August 15 August 17 Glendale Gila River Arena Vance Joy 26,520 / 26,520 $3,029,628 August 18 August 21 Los Angeles Staples Center Vance Joy Haim 70,563 / 70,563 $8,961,681 August 22 August 24 August 25 August 26 August 29 San Diego Petco Park Vance Joy Shawn Mendes 44,710 / 44,710 $5,475,237 September 4 Salt Lake City EnergySolutions Arena Vance Joy 14,131 / 14,131 $1,589,686 September 5 Denver Pepsi Center 27,126 / 27,126 $2,868,991 September 6 September 9 Houston Minute Maid Park Vance Joy Shawn Mendes 40,122 / 40,122 $5,202,196 September 11 Saint Paul Xcel Energy Center Vance Joy 45,126 / 45,126 $5,514,863 September 12 September 13 September 16 Indianapolis Bankers Life Fieldhouse 14,010 / 14,010 $1,550,268 September 17 Columbus Nationwide Arena 29,936 / 29,936 $3,369,693 September 18 September 21 Kansas City Sprint Center 27,857 / 27,857 $2,967,558 September 22 September 25 Nashville Bridgestone Arena Vance Joy Haim 28,917 / 28,917 $3,354,844 September 26 September 28 St. Louis Scottrade Center 29,688 / 29,688 $3,452,940 September 29 October 2 Toronto Canada Rogers Centre Vance Joy Shawn Mendes 99,283 / 99,283 $8,670,990 October 3 October 8 Des Moines United States Wells Fargo Arena Vance Joy 13,969 / 13,969 $1,566,321 October 9 Omaha CenturyLink Center Omaha 29,622 / 29,622 $3,121,421 October 10 October 12 Fargo Fargodome 21,067 / 21,067 $2,219,188 October 17 Arlington AT&T; Stadium Vance Joy Shawn Mendes 62,630 / 62,630 $7,396,733 October 20 Lexington Rupp Arena Vance Joy 17,084 / 17,084 $1,870,471 October 21 Greensboro Greensboro Coliseum 15,079 / 15,079 $1,662,171 October 24 Atlanta Georgia Dome Vance Joy Shawn Mendes 56,046 / 56,046 $6,034,846 October 27 Miami American Airlines Arena Vance Joy 14,044 / 14,044 $1,527,919 October 31 Tampa Raymond James Stadium Vance Joy Shawn Mendes 56,987 / 56,987 $6,202,515 November 7 Singapore Singapore Indoor Stadium rowspan="5" 17,726 / 17,726 $3,217,569 November 8 November 10 Shanghai China Mercedes-Benz Arena 37,758 / 37,758 $5,917,348 November 11 November 12 November 28 Sydney Australia ANZ Stadium Vance Joy 75,980 / 75,980 $6,571,683 December 5 Brisbane Suncorp Stadium 46,881 / 46,881 $4,759,471 December 7 Adelaide Adelaide Entertainment Centre 20,090 / 20,090 $2,407,499 December 8 December 10 Melbourne AAMI Park 98,136 / 98,136 $10,421,553 December 11 December 12 Total for all shows 2,278,647 / 2,278,647 (100%) $250,733,097 == Notes == == Personnel == Adapted from The 1989 World Tour Book Show * Erica Worden – tour manager * Tree Paine – publicist * Arthur Kemish – production manager * Chris Rowe – audio * Dewey Shepard – stage manager * Donna Edmondson – hair and make-up * Jemma Muradian – hair stylist * Lorrie Turk – make-up artist * Scott Coraci – video engineer * Tyce Diorio – choreographer * Tricia Miranda – assistant choreographer Band * Taylor Swift – lead vocals, guitar, electric guitar, piano, keyboard * David Cook – musical director, keyboards * Matt Billingslea – drums, electronic percussion * Amos Heller – bass, synth bass, vocals * Eliotte Henderson – background vocalist * Kamilah Marshall – background vocalist * Michael Meadows – guitars, keyboards, vocals * Melanie Nyema – background vocalist * Paul Sidoti – guitar, vocals * Clare Turton-Derrico – background vocalist * Dane Laboyrie – trumpet * Brendan Champion – trombone * James Mackay – tenor saxophone * Jimmy Garden – baritone saxophone Dancers * Christian Henderson * Jacob Kodish * Christian Owens * Maho Udo * Austin Spacy * Mark Villaver * Nolan Padilla * Remi Bakkar * Richard Cutler * Giuseppe Giofrè * Robert Green Wardrobe * Floyd Williamd * Joseph Cassell * Jessica Jones * Shannon Summers * Tyler Green * Todd Cantrell * Pamela Lewis Executive producers * Taylor Swift * Andrea Swift * Robert Allen * Austin Fish Production designers * Taylor Swift * Baz Halpin * Chris Nyfield == See also == * List of highest-grossing concert tours == References == == External links == * Category:2015 concert tours Category:Taylor Swift concert tours Category:Concert tours of North America Category:Concert tours of the United States Category:Concert tours of Canada Category:Concert tours of Europe Category:Concert tours of the United Kingdom Category:Concert tours of Germany Category:Concert tours of Ireland Category:Concert tours of Oceania Category:Concert tours of Australia Category:Concert tours of Asia Category:Concert tours of Japan Category:Films directed by Jonas Åkerlund Category:Concert tours of Singapore Category:Concert tours of China Category:Concert tours of the Netherlands |
Jonathan Sayeed (born 20 March 1948) is an Anglo-Indian British politician who was a Conservative Member of Parliament in the United Kingdom from 1983 to 1992 and from 1997 to 2005. He was the only member of the Conservative front bench who consistently, openly and publicly opposed the invasion of Iraq in 2003. Though he was reselected by the Mid Bedfordshire Conservative Association to contest his seat in the House of Commons shortly before the 2005 general election, he was forced to retire owing to ill health. He was criticised by the Committee on Standards and Privileges for being "at the least negligent, at the worst careless" in respect of a company in which he had an interest, but no evidence was found that he had directly received any improper payments. In the investigation by Sir Thomas Legg into MPs' expenses, he was one of the minority of MPs who were completely cleared of any misuse of their second home allowances. == Early life == Jonathan Sayeed is the son of the late M M Sayeed, a chartered electrical engineer from India, and L S Sayeed. Sayeed was educated at Woolverstone Hall School in Suffolk.St Albans & Harpenden News from The Herts Advertiser MP for Mid-Bedfordshire - Jonathan Sayeed He joined the Royal Navy in 1965, when he was 17. He spent two years at Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, and then studied at the Royal Naval Engineering College, Manadon, for a BSc in Electrical and Electronic Engineering. He left the Navy in 1973, at the age of 24.The Fifth Fuel, issue No. 41, spring 2002 (this was found on a cached version of ). The Fifth Fuel is the newsletter of the Association for the Conservation of Energy (ACE) ==Career in business== After leaving the Royal Navy, Sayeed joined Marks and Spencer PLC as a management trainee.There are some contradictions about dates here. BBC Election '97 states "Royal Navy and Royal Naval Reserve 1965-73. Management Trainee, Marks & Spencer 1974-75." The Herts Advertiser states that he has held directorships in various international companies since 1974. BBC Vote 2001 states that he was founder director, Wade Emerson & Co Ltd 1974-82. [Clearly he was not a company director at the same time that he was a management trainee at Marks and Spencer. It is likely that he was a management trainee in 1973-74, not 1974-75.] Since 1974 "he worked as a shipping and insurance consultant", and held directorships in various international companies: * Founder director, Wade Emerson & Co Ltd 1974–82. * Chairman and chief executive, Calmady Insurance Services Ltd 1982–83. * Chairman, Ranelagh Ltd 1992–96. * Non-executive director, Love Lane Investments Ltd (Holding Company) 1992–96. * Chairman, Training Division Corporate Services Group PLC 1996–97. * Chairman Ranelagh International Ltd 2005- * Chairman Patient Pak Holdings Ltd 2008- Patient Pak Ltd 2008- ==Private life== Whilst he was MP for Mid Bedfordshire, Sayeed lived in Westminster, and also had a house in Houghton Conquest.Nomination Papers for 2001 General Election. He was a member of the Reform Club and is a member of the Carlton Club. His interests include golf (Secretary, Lords and Commons Golfing Society 2004 and winner, 1998 and 1999, of the Parliamentary Handicap), sailing (Royal Naval Sailing Association and Royal Temple YC), tennis, skiing, classical music (Chairman of the Parliament Choir 2002–2003), books and architecture. ==MP for Bristol East, 1983-1992== Sayeed was twice an unsuccessful candidate for the Greater London Council before entering Parliament at his first attempt. He was elected MP for Bristol East at the 1983 general election, where he defeated Tony Benn. The constituency was created for that general election, partly from the Bristol South East constituency, where Benn had been MP for much of the previous 32 years. For the Conservatives, this was one of "the three great prizes" of the election, as Benn was said to be "the man they most love to hate". At the 1987 general election, Sayeed more than doubled his majority. Due to his election in 1983 he became the first MP of Indian or Asian descent elected since the 1920s, due to his father being Indian and was one of the first ethnic minority MPs elected in the 20th century.https://www.bristol247.com/news-and- features/features/bristol-centenary-women-voting-standing-parliament/ Sayeed served on the select committees for Defence and the Environment; was chairman of the Shipping and Shipbuilding Committee; and deputy chairman of the All- Party Maritime Group. In 1988, he secured an Urban Development Corporation for Bristol despite the opposition of the then Environment Secretary, Nicholas Ridley.This was created under the following Statutory Instruments: * Bristol Development Corporation (Area and Constitution) Order 1988S.I. 1989/91 * Bristol Development Corporation (Area and Constitution) (Amendment) Order 1988S.I. 1989/92 * Bristol Development Corporation (Planning Functions) Order 1989 S.I. 1989/93 Sayeed started to climb the ministerial ladder in 1991, when he was appointed parliamentary private secretary to Lord Belstead as Paymaster General. However, in 1992 his career took a step backward when he lost his seat to Labour at the general election. ==Out of Parliament, 1992-97== In 1996, Sayeed sold his public affairs company, and was appointed chairman of the training division of Corporate Services Group plc.This company has a website www.corporateservicesgroup.co.uk In May 1997, he stood down as chairman after being elected Member of Parliament for Mid Bedfordshire. ==MP for Mid Bedfordshire 1997-2005== He returned to Parliament as MP for Mid Bedfordshire at the 1997 general election, having defeated the incumbent MP, Sir Nicholas Lyell, the Attorney General, for the nomination, and held the seat until 2005. ===Hague election campaign=== Sayeed's offices at 28 Stafford Place were the headquarters for William Hague's successful bid to become Conservative leader in 1997."After the axis defeat" . The Spectator, 28 June 1997 ===Career progress=== Sayeed served on the Broadcasting Select Committee, and was appointed by the Speaker of the House of Commons to the Chairman's Panel. This small group of senior MPs comprises chairmen of the Committees that debate legislation. In the 1999-2000 session of Parliament, Lord Weatherill and Sayeed introduced a private member's bill which was passed into law. This was the Census (Amendment) Bill.House of Commons Information Office Factsheet L3 p220, Peele, Gillian, Governing the UK: British Politics in the 21st Century (Modern Governments), Wiley, 44th edition, 2004; Sayeed was chairman of European Standing Committee C, was joint-chairmen (together with Labour MP Bill O'Brien) of the Standing Committee on Regional Affairs.p218-9, Trench, Alan, The State of the Nations 2001: The Second Year of Devolution in the United Kingdom, pub Imprint Academic, 2001, Sayeed achieved his first frontbench post in 2001, when he was appointed shadow minister for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs,List of frontbenchers who have resigned over Iraq at www.dodonline.co.uk working under the Shadow Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Secretary, Peter Ainsworth.Ainsworth: Our task is to revive the countryside, article on Conservative Party website on speech by Peter Ainsworth at the Conservative Party Conference in Blackpool on 9 October 2001. "Among his first roles has been to lead for the Conservatives on the Home Energy Conservation Bill, for which he declared his party's support strongly at Second Reading. In Committee he made plain that this support was entirely conditional upon the continued inclusion of firm targets in the final text." The Association for the Conservation of Energy (ACE) praised his efforts saying: "In a few months in post Mr Sayeed has proved himself to be a doughty fighter for strong policies backing energy conservation." Sayeed continued as shadow minister after a reshuffle by the Conservative leader The Rt Hon Iain Duncan Smith in July 2002.Office of the Leader of the Opposition: July 2002 ===War on terrorism and the Iraq war=== Following the 11 September terrorist attacks against the United States, the UK Parliament was recalled, and a solemn five-hour emergency sitting of the House of Commons debated the crisis. Jonathan Sayeed said that military might alone would not be enough to deal with the problem. "There has to be some understanding why there is such hatred for so many institutions within the United States. Unless we deal with some of the deep-seated causes, then more terrorists will come to the fore." However, the Prime Minister was adamant that there should be no "moral ambiguity" about the events in the US, that the entitlement to dislike the US could never justify the actions carried out. In early 2003, the British Prime Minister Tony Blair supported American plans for the invasion of Iraq. British armed forces were deployed to participate in the invasion. The British Conservative leader Iain Duncan Smith supported British government policy on this. :Every Conservative MP has been instructed by pager message not to voice doubts about a possible war to journalists, but to share them privately with Mr Duncan Smith or the chief whip, David Maclean. Despite this warning, several Tories, including one on the front bench, have openly dissented from the party line. Jonathan Sayeed, a shadow Environment minister, told the Commons last week that he had heard no convincing case for war. "Every television company will broadcast to the world, including the Arab world, harrowing pictures of the human catastrophe that warfare leaves in its wake, and the closer war comes to Baghdad the greater will be the innocent casualties.""On the brink of war: Tory dissent - Even voices of the right express", The Independent on Sunday, 26 January 2003 An article by Sayeed was published in The Guardian on 24 January 2003: entitled An undemocratic war. He wrote: "I believe that although a war against Iraq may become necessary, I am not convinced that it is necessary now, and that more should be done to avert war."Sayeed J "An undemocratic war". The Guardian, 24 January 2003 Three members of the Conservative front bench and one Conservative whip resigned their posts so that they could vote against the war: * John Baron - shadow minister for Health * Humfrey Malins - shadow minister for Home Affairs * Jonathan Sayeed - shadow minister for EnvironmentHouse of Commons: Weekly Information Bulletin 22 March 2003 * John Randall - WhipTempest M "Parliament gives Blair go-ahead for war". The Guardian, 18 March 2003 ===Views=== Whilst he was MP for Bristol East, Sayeed called for the establishment of charity-run hostels for the homeless on derelict council land. Economically, Sayeed was on the right of the Conservative party, opposing British entry into the single European currency. He had strong views on defence. On social matters, he was on the more liberal wing of the party, with the exception of gay rights in the Armed Forces, on which he opposed the lifting of the ban on homosexuals serving. As an MP, he was considered a well informed and thoughtful contributor to debates on foreign policy in the Middle East and on economic, defence and social matters. Sayeed urged for new roads to regenerate towns and inner-cities. He campaigned against a proposed 17-tonne lorry ban, against illegal sites for travellers, and against 'unnecessary' development of the Bedfordshire countryside. He successfully persuaded the UK government to propose amendments to the Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty and, despite opposition from the then Secretary of State for the Environment Nicholas Ridley, persuaded the Conservative government to permit an Urban Development Corporation in Bristol. In 2004 he proposed the end of male primogeniture for the British Monarchy though such a principle would not have been applied to the Prince of Wales or Prince William. ===Return to business=== For much of the time when Sayeed was MP for Mid-Bedfordshire, the chairman of the local constituency party was Alexandra Messervy. Messervy also became one of Sayeed's part-time paid assistants in the House of Commons. In June 2001 Messervy set up a travel company called The English Manner Ltd. Appendix 1: Memorandum from the Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards Select Committee on Standards and Privileges Third Report, 3 February 2005 The business of this company was to provide luxury travel holidays to the UK for Americans; the holidays included lessons in English etiquette from members of the English upper classes and access to exclusive events and institutions."The English Manner website promised unique travel experiences, courses in etiquette and seminars in social graces. The organiser, Mrs Messervy, promised 'once-in-a-lifetime trips to recreate a classic English country house party by enabling guests to stay with members of the aristocracy in castles and stately homes throughout Britain'. She also promised 'tutorials led by the British political, cultural and artistic elite'." "Tours scandal Tory MP Sayeed steps down". The Guardian, 14 March 2005, Mrs Messervy had a 60% shareholding, Sayeed had 30%, and 10% was owned by Mrs Genie Ford (who ran operations in the US). Conduct of Mr Jonathan Sayeed Select Committee on Standards and Privileges Third Report, 3 February 2005 "Sayeed survives de-selection". The Independent, 18 February 2005 In May–June 2003 or 2004, Ashley Green succeeded Alexandra Messervy as the local constituency party chairman.There is a reference to Ashley Green being chairman in October 2004 in a story in the 17 October 2004 edition of Bedfordshire on Sunday, quoted in October 2004 - Hunting 16-31.10.04. In summer 2004, The Sunday Times claimed "The English Manner Ltd charges clients up to £500 per day for access to the Palace of Westminster through Jonathan Sayeed". This was completely denied by the company, a denial that was supported by evidence. On a number of occasions Sayeed provided entertainment in the House of Commons for individuals (some of whom were long-standing friends of Mr Sayeed) on holidays arranged by The English Manner. However, there is no evidence that Sayeed received any direct financial benefit for this. There was a meeting of the local constituency party's executive council on 13 September 2004 to discuss the allegations in the Sunday Times article. It is claimed that at the meeting, Messervy announced that a local donor, Martin Randall, had agreed to give the party some £10,000, so long as "Jonathan is still the candidate at the general election." (Martin Randall was chairman of a double-glazing company called Crystal Clear, to which Sayeed was a consultant.)"Now Sayeed faces criticism over £10,000 local 'donation'" The Independent, 22 October 2004 The Conservative whip was temporarily suspended from Sayeed from 3 February to 7 March 2005 after the House of Commons Committee on Standards and Privileges recommended that he be suspended from the service of the House for 10 working days. The Committee found that a company in which he had an interest had appeared to derive financial benefit from its offering tours of Parliament and ran the risk of damaging the reputation of Parliament. Sayeed said that the suspension was "unjust and wrong" but he made an "unreserved" apology to MPs in the Commons chamber: "I accept that a complaint was brought because of ineffectual internal controls in a company in which I had an interest and that as an MP I was negligent in not checking the actions of that company. For that I unreservedly apologise to the House." He told colleagues he had disposed of his shares in The English Manner and resigned as a consultant to it. He said: "I can assure the House that I have never used my access to the House or its facilities for direct or indirect commercial benefit and I have never solicited or received any payment for any tour or entertainment within the Palace of Westminster." On 17 February 2005, the Mid-Bedfordshire Conservative Association held a meeting at the Rufus Centre in Flitwick to consider Jonathan Sayeed's future. The meeting decided by a majority of 173 to 126, that Sayeed should remain the Conservative candidate in the forthcoming general election. After the vote, Constituency association president Sir Stanley Odell resigned in protest.Carlin B "MP is suspended by Howard over Commons tours" The Daily Telegraph, 4 February 2005Carlin B "Tory constituency president quits after members keep MP". The Daily Telegraph, 18 February 2005 One constituency party member, Geoffrey Beckwith, said: "I think the membership was strongly against the motion. Mr Sayeed has behaved impeccably. This is just a storm in a teacup. I think the chairman of the party [Ashley Green] might now have to look to his own position.""Tour guide Tory MP escapes censure by constituency party". The Independent, 18 February 2005 On 21 February 2005, the constituency party chairman's wife, Mrs Valmai A Green, and another member, wrote to the Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards, enclosing a letter Sayeed had sent to members of the Mid-Bedfordshire Conservative Association, and asking if Sayeed should have used House of Commons stationery and facilities for this. "The Committee issued a second report on 17 March 2005 criticising Sayeed for failing to apologise for his conduct as the first report had ordered, for sending out a circular on House of Commons stationery to members of the Mid Bedfordshire Conservative Association asking for their support in his reselection, and misuse of allowances to pay for work on his home. Following this report, the Conservative Party removed the whip from Sayeed permanently." Under Conservative Party rules, a sitting MP can only be an approved party candidate in a parliamentary election if he/she is in receipt of the party whip. While this article refers to Howard Flight MP and not Jonathan Sayeed, it is quoted here as a reliable source for what Conservative Party rules are with respect of sitting MPs who wish to stand for re-election as Conservative candidates when the Conservative whip has been removed, as happened in the cases of both Mr Flight and Mr Sayeed. This enables the Conservative Party leader to overrule local constituency Conservative Party branches who want to retain their sitting MP as candidate. In March 2005, Sayeed was criticised by the House of Commons Committee on Standards and Privileges for his use of allowances and Parliament's stationery. He was ordered to pay back £12,500 which was spent on his Bedfordshire home – the money is allocated for London expenses only. This money was subsequently repaid to Sayeed following his producing the receipts for the correct property. Similarly treated was a further £9,500 in expenses investigated by the Standards and Privileges Committee. In the investigation by Sir Thomas Legg of the validity of payments of the Additional Costs (or 'Second Homes') Allowance (ACA) made to Members of Parliament during 2004–05 to 2008-09 Jonathan Sayeed was one of the minority of MPs who were completely cleared of any impropriety or misuse of their allowances.Members Estimate Committee - Report, Review of past ACA Payments, Annex: Individual conclusions and recommendations. House of Commons, Session 2009-10. Of 808 politicians listed, Mr Sayeed was one of 329 who were listed as having "no issues".Legg, Sir Thomas (1 February 2010). ACA Review: Report by Appendix 1 to House of Commons, Session 2009-10, Members Estimate Committee - Report, Review of past ACA Payments. Sir Thomas Legg's report does not mention Sayeed. "On 14 March 2005, it was announced that Jonathan Sayeed would not be contesting the May 2005 general election, on grounds of ill health." Jonathan Sayeed was one of two Conservative MPs who had the party whip withdrawn at the time of the election.Keele University 2005 General Election: List of Retiring MPs The other was Howard Flight, who was deselected over comments he made on Conservative spending plans. == Since 2005 == He retired from Parliament at the general election of 2005, and is currently a chairman of various companies. In 2009, the Advertising Standards Authority upheld ten complaints against his company PatientPak, accusing the company's marketing campaign of "scaremongering" when advertising its patient hygiene kit as "essential to protect against hospital superbugs". On 19 July 2005, the House of Commons Committee on Standards and Privileges concluded that, in making ACA claims in respect of an ineligible property, Mr Sayeed did not properly observe the administrative rules relating to the allowance, and therefore breached the Code of Conduct in this respect. The committee explained this conclusion writing, "We agree with the Commissioner and deplore Mr Sayeed's failure to take the steps necessary to satisfy himself that such important matters were being dealt with properly. Had he still been a Member, we would have given serious consideration to a further period of suspension."Conduct of Mr Jonathan Sayeed, First Report of Session 2005–06, House of Commons Committee on Standards and Privileges, House of Commons, 19 July 2005, HC 419. == References == == External links == * Category:1948 births Category:Living people Category:Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies Category:UK MPs 1983–1987 Category:UK MPs 1987–1992 Category:UK MPs 1997–2001 Category:UK MPs 2001–2005 Category:English people of Indian descent Category:Royal Navy officers Category:English electrical engineers Category:People from Houghton Conquest Category:Royal Naval Reserve personnel Category:Graduates of Britannia Royal Naval College Category:20th-century Royal Navy personnel |
Herbert Sutcliffe (24 November 1894 – 22 January 1978) was an English professional cricketer who represented Yorkshire and England as an opening batsman. Apart from one match in 1945, his first-class career spanned the period between the two world wars. His first-class debut was delayed by the First World War until 1919 and his career was effectively terminated in August 1939 when he was called up for military service in the imminent Second World War. He was the first cricketer to score 16 centuries in Test match cricket. He is most famous for being the partner of Jack Hobbs and the partnership between the two, Hobbs and Sutcliffe, is widely regarded as the greatest partnership of all time. A right-handed batsman, Sutcliffe was noted for his concentration and determination, qualities which made him invaluable to his teams in adverse batting conditions; and he is remembered as one of the game's finest "bad wicket batsmen". His fame rests mainly in the great opening partnership he formed with Jack Hobbs for England between 1924 and 1930. He also formed notable opening partnerships at Yorkshire with Percy Holmes and, in his last few seasons, the young Len Hutton. During Sutcliffe's career, Yorkshire won the County Championship 12 times. Sutcliffe played in 54 Test matches for England and on three occasions he toured Australia, where he enjoyed outstanding success. His last tour in 1932–33 included the controversial "bodyline" series, in which Sutcliffe is perceived to have been one of Douglas Jardine's main supporters. Although close friends have stated that Sutcliffe did not approve of bodyline, he always acted out of fierce loyalty to his team captain and was committed to his team's cause. In statistical terms, Sutcliffe was one of the most successful Test batsmen ever; his completed career batting average was 60.73 which is the highest by any English batsman and the fifth-highest worldwide (of Test batsmen with 20 completed innings) behind only Don Bradman, Adam Voges, Graeme Pollock and George Headley. Sutcliffe became a successful businessman early in his first- class career by using the money he earned as a player to establish a sportswear shop in Leeds. When his playing career ended, he served on the club committee at Yorkshire for 21 years and for three years was an England Test selector. Among the honours accorded him have been the commemoration of a special set of gates in his name at Headingley, home of Yorkshire County Cricket Club, and his induction into the ICC Cricket Hall of Fame. ==Early years== ===Childhood=== Herbert Sutcliffe was born in Summerbridge, Nidderdale, West Riding of Yorkshire on 24 November 1894 at his parents' home, a cottage in Gabblegate (now called East View). His parents were Willie and Jane Sutcliffe. Herbert was the second of three sons, his brothers being Arthur and Bob. Willie Sutcliffe, who worked at a sawmill in nearby Dacre Banks, was a keen club cricketer.Hill, p.14. When Herbert was still a baby the family moved to Pudsey, where Willie's father was the landlord of the King's Arms. Willie worked in the pub and played cricket for the well-known Pudsey St Lawrence Cricket Club. He also played rugby football, and an injury sustained during a rugby match led to his premature death in 1898. Jane Sutcliffe moved the family back to Nidderdale, where they lived in Darley, the boys enrolling at Darley School, and she remarried. Jane developed consumption, and she died in January 1904 at the age of 37, when Herbert was nine. Jane's second husband was a bootmaker called Tom Waller but he was not allowed custody of the brothers who moved back to Pudsey to be cared for by the Sutcliffe family. Willie Sutcliffe had three sisters, Sarah, Carrie and Harriet, who ran a bakery. They became the legal guardians of Arthur, Herbert and Bob, respectively.Hill, p.15. As the three aunts were devoted members of the local Congregational Church, the three boys received religious instruction there and Herbert became a lifelong committed Christian. He was a Sunday School teacher as a young man and first came to notice as a cricketer when he played for a church team. The boys lived in the family house which contained the bakery and slept in a loft above the bakehouse itself.Hill, p.16. Herbert left school in 1908 when he was 13, and was apprenticed to a boot and shoe company as a "clicker" who fastened boot soles to uppers. In 1911, his prowess at cricket earned him an offer of clerical employment in a local textile mill, where he learnt bookkeeping, a skill that served him well when he launched his own business career. ===Development as a cricketer=== Sutcliffe became seriously interested in cricket at the age of eight, soon after he returned to Pudsey during his mother's final illness. He formed an ambition to follow his father and two uncles and play for Pudsey St Lawrence. His first club was a Wesleyan church team in the neighbouring village of Stanningley, where he was first seen as a bowler rather than a batsman. In one match in 1907, he took all 10 wickets in an innings. In 1908, now aged 13, he began playing for Pudsey St Lawrence's second team. The following year, Sutcliffe made his first-team debut. Two of his team-mates were Major Booth and Henry Hutton, father of Len Hutton.Hill, p.18. In 1911, now aged 16, Sutcliffe switched his allegiance to the rival Pudsey Britannia club where, he is quoted as saying, "my batting improved by leaps and bounds". This move came about because of the offer of clerical employment at the textile mill, which was owned by Ernest Walker who was also the Britannia club captain. Sutcliffe later said that Walker allowed him more time for cricket practice than he could get from his bootmaking job.Hill, p.19. The following season, Sutcliffe's progress was noted by Yorkshire County Cricket Club and he was invited to take part in the county team practice sessions at Headingley. He was welcomed by the great George Herbert Hirst, who gave him much encouragement and advice. Soon afterwards, he was invited to play for the Yorkshire 2nd XI team.Hill, p.20. Sutcliffe was coached at Headingley by Hirst and the club's 2nd XI coach, Steve Doughty, who placed great emphasis on the importance of pad play (the use of the pads to intercept the ball and prevent it hitting the wicket when this would not risk being out leg before wicket). Although Doughty's approach was criticised by Sutcliffe's colleagues at Pudsey Britannia, Sutcliffe himself had no regrets about the time he spent mastering the technique and later explained that swing bowling had been so well developed by bowlers in every county team that it was impossible for any batsman to keep his wicket by relying on his bat alone. The long-term benefit he derived was a very strong defence that he later used to great effect on treacherous pitches. By 1914, Sutcliffe had become the most accomplished player in the Bradford League in which Pudsey Britannia played. He was playing both for Yorkshire 2nd XI and Pudsey Britannia at this time. In August, just as the First World War was beginning, he appeared for the 2nd XI at Beverley against an East Riding XI and opened the batting for the first time as a Yorkshire player. He made a half-century in the second innings and the Cricket Argus commented that "he was confident and stylish in... his best performance for the second eleven". The Argus went on to say that Sutcliffe, with youth on his side, "looks every inch a cricketer (with) a variety of good strokes".Hill, p.21. In the Bradford League, Sutcliffe scored a then-record 727 runs in the season, which was beaten in 1916 by his future England opening partner Jack Hobbs.Hill, p.22. ===Military service and demobilisation=== Sutcliffe was called up in 1915 and served first with the Royal Army Ordnance Corps, stationed at York, and then with the Sherwood Foresters. He was later commissioned into the Green Howards, now part of the Yorkshire Regiment, as a Second Lieutenant, but he did not see active service and was not posted to France until after the Armistice was signed.Hill, p.33. Sutcliffe played cricket during the war for the Officer Cadet Battalion in Scotland, captaining his team in matches against Glasgow University and other Scottish teams. He still managed to play in the Bradford League on occasion, but he said that he sometimes did so under an assumed name after taking unofficial leave. Sutcliffe was demobilised in 1919 and took a job as a colliery checkweighman at Allerton Bywater in Yorkshire. He was contracted to play for the colliery's cricket team in the Yorkshire Council league, but he was selected at the beginning of the 1919 season to play again for Yorkshire 2nd XI. However he retained the colliery job until he opened his sportswear shop in 1924.Hill, p.35. ===First-class debut=== thumb|upright|Herbert Sutcliffe in the early years of his first-class career. The war had delayed the start of Sutcliffe's first-class career with Yorkshire and he was 24 when his chance finally came. In May 1919, he played for the county's 2nd XI against a full-strength 1st XI and did very well, scoring 51 not out. He received a good report in the Yorkshire Post and never played for the 2nd XI again. Yorkshire's first County Championship fixture after the war took place on 26 and 27 May at Bristol against Gloucestershire and Sutcliffe, batting at number 6, made his first- class debut. Yorkshire batted first, after losing the toss, and Sutcliffe made 11 in a total of 277 (Roy Kilner 112). Despite that seemingly modest score, Yorkshire won by an innings and 63 runs as Gloucestershire were bowled out twice for 125 and 89. ==1919 to 1927== Sutcliffe kept his place in the Yorkshire team and continued to bat in the middle of the order for a month until, in the match against Nottinghamshire at Bramall Lane on 27 and 28 June, Wilfred Rhodes decided to drop down the order for the 2nd innings and Sutcliffe went in first with Percy Holmes. After some indifferent scores, he completed his maiden first-class century on 23 and 24 July against Northamptonshire at Northampton when he and Holmes put on 279 for the first wicket, Sutcliffe scoring 145 and Holmes 133. Further success resulted in Holmes and Sutcliffe being awarded their county caps in August 1919.Hill, pp.39–40. Sutcliffe created a debut season recordFrindall, p.180. by scoring 1,839 runs at an average of 44.85 with 5 centuries and a highest score of 174 against Kent at Crabble Athletic Ground in Dover. Holmes and Sutcliffe scored 5 centuries each in 1919 and they shared in 5 century partnerships. Their performances were key to Yorkshire winning the championship that season for the 10th time in all. As a result of their success in 1919, Percy Holmes and Herbert Sutcliffe were both awarded a Wisden Cricketer of the Year title in 1920. In the accompanying review, Wisden commented on Sutcliffe's pre-war development and the benefits that both he and Holmes derived from Steve Doughty's coaching. Sutcliffe's "fine driving" was commended but it was noted that "he may not yet be quite so strong in defence". By his 1919 standards, Sutcliffe had two quiet years in 1920 and 1921. He was well down the national averages in 1920 with 1,393 runs at 33.16 with 4 centuries and a highest score of 131. In 1921, he did not score a century and made 1,235 runs at 30.12. In 1922, as Yorkshire regained the County Championship title under new captain Geoffrey Wilson, Sutcliffe lived up to his early promise by scoring 2,020 runs at 46.97 with a highest score of 232 against Surrey at the Oval. He scored 11 half-centuries but only 2 centuries. Sutcliffe was one of seven Yorkshire players who were ever-present, playing in all 30 matches. Sutcliffe's career advanced in 1923 when he made his first appearances in the North v South and Gentlemen v Players fixtures and in a Test Trial. His overall record in 1923 was 2,220 runs at 41.11 with 3 centuries, 15 fifties and a highest score of 139 against Somerset. The Yorkshire cricket historian Alfred Pullin wrote: "it was recognised long before the season ended that Sutcliffe had established his claim to be considered one of England's first-wicket batsmen".Hill, p.52. In the 1924 season, Yorkshire completed a hat-trick of championshipsWebber, p.61. under Geoffrey Wilson and Sutcliffe enjoyed probably his best season to date, scoring 2,142 runs at 48.68 with 6 centuries including a highest score of 255 not out against Essex. He made his Test debut on Saturday, 14 June 1924, playing for England against South Africa at Edgbaston and opening the innings with Jack Hobbs. In this First Test, which England won by an innings, they recorded their first century partnership for England by putting on 136 before Sutcliffe was out for 64. In the Second Test at Lord's, Hobbs and Sutcliffe scored 268 before Sutcliffe was out for 122, his maiden Test century; Hobbs went on to make 211 and England again won by an innings. In the whole series, Sutcliffe scored 303 runs at 75.75. left|thumb|upright|Herbert Sutcliffe during practice at Sydney Cricket Ground in 1924 As early as July, Sutcliffe was one of ten players named to tour Australia in the winter of 1924–25 under the leadership of Arthur Gilligan. At first, Hobbs declined the tour but then changed his mind when it was decided his wife would accompany him. The importance of this to Sutcliffe was that his partnership with Hobbs could continue at the very highest level of cricket where the presence of Hobbs was ultimately the key factor in Sutcliffe's major success on the tour, which established him as a world-class player.Hill, pp.61–62. Sutcliffe said he had some initial difficulty in adjusting to Australian conditions, specifically the strong light which affected his timing. He also reckoned that the pitches were a good four yards faster than in England. His remedy was to play straight and by hitting the ball back down the pitch. He said later that he sacrificed many of his best shots, but "it paid off in the end".Hill, p.64. This is shown by his overall performance as, although England lost the series 4–1, Sutcliffe scored 734 runs in the five Tests at an average of 81.55 with 4 centuries, 2 half-centuries and a highest score of 176. In the whole tour, he scored 1,250 runs at 69.44 with 5 centuries and a highest score of 188. In 1925, as Yorkshire won a 4th successive championship, Sutcliffe scored 2,308 runs at 53.67 with 7 centuries and a highest score of 235 against Middlesex at Headingley.Hill, p.206. During 1925 and 1926, Sutcliffe's skill was a primary factor in Yorkshire having the longest unbeaten run in county cricket: i.e., 70 matches without loss until early 1927. After three defeats in 1927, Yorkshire went a further 58 games without loss until 1929.Wisden (1925), p.92; Wisden (1927), pp.126–127; Wisden (1928), pp.92–93. The first four Tests of the 1926 England v Australia series were scheduled for just three days and were all curtailed by poor weather. The final Test at the Oval was timeless to ensure a finish. It has become one of the most famous matches in cricket history, not because England regained the Ashes for the first time since 1912 but for the manner it which it was achieved as Hobbs and Sutcliffe produced their most famous partnership in treacherous batting conditions.Hill, pp.88–94. Australia had a narrow first innings lead of 22 and, at close of play on the second day (a Monday), Hobbs and Sutcliffe had taken the England second innings score to 49–0, a lead of 27. Heavy rain fell overnight and next day, as the sun shone, the pitch soon developed into a "sticky wicket" on which it was generally assumed that England would be bowled out cheaply and so lose both the match and the series. But, in spite of the very difficult batting conditions, Hobbs and Sutcliffe put up a great defence of their wickets and gradually increased their partnership to 172 before Hobbs was out for exactly 100. Sutcliffe went on to make 161 and, in the end, England won the game comfortably, by 289 runs, and regained the Ashes. The tributes paid to Hobbs and Sutcliffe after this partnership are extensive. Pelham Warner perhaps encapsulated them all when he wrote: "Hobbs and Sutcliffe won it for us by their incomparable batting. They did not fail us at a time of most desperate crisis. Never has English cricket known a more dauntless pair".Warner, Two Wars, p.45. In the 1926 County Championship, Yorkshire lost the title despite being unbeaten to their close rivals Lancashire by a very narrow margin.Webber, p.63. Sutcliffe was 2nd in the national batting averages behind Hobbs, scoring 2,528 runs at 66.52 with 8 centuries and a highest score of exactly 200 against Leicestershire. In the 1927 County Championship, Yorkshire finished 3rd but it was another great season for both Holmes and Sutcliffe who scored over 4,500 runs and 12 centuries between them. Sutcliffe scored 2,414 runs at 56.13 with 6 centuries and a highest score of 227 for England versus The Rest. In the autumn of 1927, the Yorkshire committee decided to appoint Sutcliffe as team captain in succession to Arthur Lupton, who had retired. He would thus have become the first professional to captain the side since 1882 but, as Wisden records, "objection was taken to this action by two different parties". There were those who supported the view that no professional should be captain; and significant opposition also came from a large number of members who argued that, if a professional were to be appointed, it should be Wilfred Rhodes rather than Sutcliffe. Sutcliffe himself was en route to South Africa while most of the furore developed and had to rely on telegrams for his news. When first advised of the appointment, he sent a reply that spoke of the great honour and his desire to serve Yorkshire and England. But he was better apprised of the controversy when he arrived in Cape Town and finally sent a message that he was declining the offer but willing to serve under any other captain.Arlott, On Cricket, p.270. ==1928 to 1932== During the five years 1928 to 1932, Sutcliffe played 181 matches (254 innings) in which he was not out 36 times, scoring 15,529 runs for a total average of 70.35. Sutcliffe made his only tour of South Africa in 1927–28, playing in 14 matches and scoring 1,030 runs at 51.50 with 2 centuries and a highest score of 102. He was able to open the England innings with Holmes, Hobbs having declined the tour, and made his score of 102 in the first innings of the First Test at the Old Wanderers ground in Johannesburg, England winning by 10 wickets. In 1928, Sutcliffe scored 3,000 runs in a season for the first time, a feat he repeated in 1931 and 1932, becoming the first player to achieve it three times.Hill, p.217. Only Patsy Hendren and Wally Hammond have equalled the feat.Wright, p.78. Sutcliffe's 1928 tally was 3,002 at 76.97 with a highest score of 228 among 13 centuries and 13 half- centuries. He played in all three Tests against West Indies in 1928. This was West Indies' inaugural Test series and their batsmen struggled against a strong England attack so that England was able to win all three Tests by an innings. But Sutcliffe was very impressed by the fast bowling of Learie Constantine, George Francis and Herman Griffith and said of them during the Lord's Test that he had "never played finer fast bowling".Warner, Two Wars, p.62. Under the leadership of Percy Chapman, Sutcliffe toured Australia again in 1928–29 with Hobbs as his opening partner. England won the first two Tests before Hobbs and Sutcliffe played major roles in one of the most famous Test matches ever at Melbourne. Australia won the toss and batted first, making 397 thanks to centuries by Alan Kippax and Jack Ryder. England scored 417 with 200 by Hammond and 58 by Sutcliffe. Australia then scored 351 with 107 by their captain Bill Woodfull and a maiden Test century by Don Bradman. This left England needing 332 to win. Australia had ended the 5th day of a timeless match on 347–8 and the pitch was showing increasing signs of wear. Overnight, a storm broke and soaked the pitch which, as the sun shone on it through the morning, became what Bradman later described as "the worst sticky I ever saw".Hill, pp.95–96. Even Wisden admitted that it "may fittingly be described as a beastly wicket". Play on the sixth day did not begin until 12:51 and Australia's last two wickets quickly fell with just 4 runs added to their overnight total. Clem Hill reckoned that the state of the pitch was such that "odds of ten to one against an England success would be generous" and Hugh Trumble reportedly told Jack Hobbs that 70 would be a good total. Wisden recorded that "then it was that the wonderful skill of these two (Hobbs and Sutcliffe) showed itself so prominently for, with the ball turning and getting up almost straight, they put on 105 for the first wicket... the two batsmen rendered England splendid service by an historic stand and made victory probable". Having survived the last 5 minutes before lunch, they added 75 in the afternoon session when "the ball was turning and at other times getting up almost straight". Hobbs had nearly been dismissed early on when a catch was dropped but the two batsmen played with "remarkable footwork, masterly defence and unerring skill in a difficult situation". Hobbs was out when the score had reached 105 and then Sutcliffe added another 94 in partnership with Douglas Jardine as the wicket eased and close of play was safely reached with the total at 171–1 (Sutcliffe 83 not out). Next morning, with conditions much more favourable, Sutcliffe batted on until he was finally out for 135 with the total on 318–4 and only 14 more needed. There was a slight scare as three more wickets fell, including Chapman who was caught at cover when trying for the winning hit. But the runs were obtained and England had won a famous victory against the odds by 3 wickets. Sutcliffe later said that he considered this to have been his finest innings ever.Hill, p.99. Jardine later wrote about the number of times Hobbs and Sutcliffe were hit "all over the body" during their stand and made the point that, if a batsman is to make runs on an Australian sticky wicket, then being hit by the ball is inevitable.Jardine, p.48. In 1929, Sutcliffe scored 5 centuries against the South African tourists.Hill, p.207. The first was 113 for Yorkshire in a drawn match at Bramall Lane He then scored four in the Test series, including two in the same match in the Fifth Test at the Oval. His season aggregate was 2,189 runs at 52.11 with 9 centuries and a highest score of 150 against Northamptonshire. In 1930, Sutcliffe was the leading Englishman in the first-class batting averages behind Don Bradman (i.e., of batsmen with 10 completed innings). In a summer of hot, thundery weather that produced some exceptionally bad pitches, Sutcliffe averaged 87.61 in the four Tests he played in, scoring 161 in the Fifth Test at the Oval.Hill, p.100. Sutcliffe's first-class aggregate in 1930 was 2,312 runs at 64.22 with 6 centuries and a highest score of 173 against Sussex. During the winter of 1930–31, Hobbs and Sutcliffe went on a private tour of India and Ceylon that was organised by the Maharajkumar of Vizianagram (popularly known as "Vizzy"). There is debate in some quarters about the status of matches played on this tour, which are not recognised as first-class by Wisden in contrast to certain other publications. The scores were printed in The Cricketer Spring Annual in 1932 and presented as first-class but escaped general notice at the time and were largely ignored until some statisticians took an interest in them in the 1970s. It is known that neither Hobbs nor Sutcliffe thought they were first-class matches; they regarded them as exhibition games arranged for Vizzy's personal entertainment.Hill, p.197. Nevertheless, Sutcliffe scored 532 runs and 2 centuries in the disputed matches and this has impacted his first-class statistical record with two versions in circulation. In all first-class cricket in the 1931 season, Sutcliffe scored four centuries in consecutive innings and averaged 96.96, topping the first-class averages for the first time. He totalled 3,006 runs with a highest score of 230 among 13 centuries. Yorkshire historian Jim Kilburn commented on Sutcliffe's general consistency as "almost past believing" while Sutcliffe himself reckoned that his accomplishments in 1931, which was a wet summer, were the best of his entire career.Hill, p.117. When Yorkshire played Gloucestershire at Park Avenue, Bradford, in July 1932, Sutcliffe completed his 100th century. He was the first Yorkshire player and the seventh overall to achieve the feat. Having scored 83 in the first innings, he reached his target with 132 in the second. Yorkshire won the match by 133 runs. Yorkshire honoured the occasion by presenting Sutcliffe with a cheque for 100 guineas, repeating Surrey's reward paid to Jack Hobbs when he scored his 100th century.Hill, p.123. In Yorkshire's match against Essex at Leyton, Holmes and Sutcliffe set a world record partnership for any wicket of 555. This remained the world record for any wicket till 1945–46 and it was not until 1976–77 that it was beaten for the first wicket. It remains the record partnership for any wicket in England. Sutcliffe's share of the stand was 313, his career highest score. Yorkshire batted first and, at the end of the first day, the score stood at 423–0, with Holmes on 180 and Sutcliffe on 231, already beating their previous best stand of 347 against Hampshire in 1920.Hill, p.130. Bill Bowes and Hedley Verity then proceeded to bowl Essex out twice and Yorkshire won by an innings and 313 runs. Sutcliffe scored 3,336 runs in 1932, the highest season total of his career and it included his highest individual score of 313, made in the world record stand at Leyton. He averaged 74.13 with 14 centuries and 9 half-centuries. He became the third batsman after K S Ranjitsinhji and C B Fry to score 1,000 runs in a month twice in the same season, making 1,193 in June and 1,006 in August.Frindall, p.182. His total of 3,336 is the sixth highest season aggregate behind Denis Compton (3,816 in 1947), Bill Edrich (3,539 in 1947), Tom Hayward (3,518 in 1906), Len Hutton (3,429 in 1949) and Frank Woolley (3,352 in 1928). His fourteen centuries in the season have been bettered only by Compton (18 in 1947), Jack Hobbs (16 in 1925) and Wally Hammond (15 in 1938).Wright, p.77. ==1932–33: the "bodyline" tour== In the winter of 1932–33, Sutcliffe was a key member of the England team that toured Australia and New Zealand under the captaincy of Douglas Jardine, taking part in all five Tests of the infamous "bodyline" series. Wisden in its tour summary stated unequivocally that "Jardine, while nothing like the batsman in Australia of four years earlier, captained the side superbly" but he "had one great difficulty which he never successfully overcame". The difficulty was to find a suitable partner for Sutcliffe as opening batsman and Wisden continues by remarking on several experiments tried by Jardine throughout the tour but ends by saying that "no real successor to Hobbs was discovered". Sutcliffe, who was by now England's senior professional, was part of the England selection committee on the tour along with Jardine, Pelham Warner (team manager), Bob Wyatt (vice-captain) and Wally Hammond.Warner, Two Wars, pp.135–136. Sutcliffe enjoyed only mixed success with the bat but he did make his career highest Test score of 194 in the First Test at Sydney, which England won by 10 wickets. Overall, he scored 1,318 first-class runs on the Australian leg of the tour at 73.22 with 5 centuries, the highest score being his 194 at Sydney. He was the only English batsman to reach 1,000 runs on this tour.Hill, p.163. Surprisingly, he had no success in New Zealand where, in 3 appearances, he made just 27 runs. thumb|right|A ball from Bill O'Reilly hits the stumps but the bails are not disturbed and Herbert Sutcliffe is not out. First Test at Sydney, 1932–33. Australia won the toss at Sydney and decided to bat. Without Bradman, who was ill, they struggled against the pace of Harold Larwood and Bill Voce but, thanks to a brilliant innings of 187 not out by Stan McCabe, they made a creditable 360. England's batsmen had no such troubles and steadily built a total of 524 to claim a first innings lead of 164. Sutcliffe opened with Wyatt and they began with a stand of 112. Wyatt was dismissed for 38 and Sutcliffe then put on 188 for the second wicket with Hammond, who was out at 300–2 for 112. Next man in was Iftikhar Ali Khan Pataudi and he joined Sutcliffe in a third wicket century partnership of 123 before Sutcliffe was finally out for 194 after batting for over 7 hours across the second and third days of the match. The last seven wickets fell for the addition of only 101 more runs. With Larwood taking his second five-wicket haul, Australia could only make 164 to tie the scores and at least make England bat again. Australia was 164–9 at close of play on the fourth day so all that was required on the last day was for Voce to dismiss Bill O'Reilly off the third ball of the morning, without adding to the total, and then Sutcliffe himself to score the solitary run needed to complete an emphatic 10 wicket victory. Wisden recorded that "there were less than a hundred people present to see the finish". When he had scored 43, he played a ball bowled by O'Reilly onto his stumps but the impact did not shift the bails and so he was not out.Warner, Two Wars, p.134. Wisden said that "Sutcliffe gave a typical exhibition, being wonderfully sure in defence and certain in his off-driving". There was some criticism of Sutcliffe for scoring slowly at one point in the second half of his innings but Jardine has confirmed that Sutcliffe was playing under his instructions which "right nobly did Sutcliffe carry them out to the letter".Jardine, p.67. Australia, with Bradman back in their team, won the Second Test at Melbourne by 111 runs. Having been dismissed for 228 in the first innings, they fought back to reduce England to just 169, in which Sutcliffe made the top score of 52. In the second innings, Bradman effectively won the match for Australia by scoring a resilient 103 not out even though his team was dismissed for just 191. Sutcliffe was again England's highest scorer, making 33 of a poor 139 as O'Reilly and Bert Ironmonger took the wickets. thumb|upright|Douglas Jardine. Sutcliffe "backed him to the hilt" on the bodyline tour. Sutcliffe failed twice in the Third Test at Adelaide, the most controversial match of the tour as it was the one in which the bodyline furore reached its climax. England won by 338 runs but the match was overshadowed by the injuries sustained by Woodfull and Australian wicket-keeper Bert Oldfield and the subsequent heated telegrams and diplomatic row. England won the Fourth Test at Brisbane by 6 wickets. This time, Sutcliffe opened with Jardine and they put on 114 in the first innings. Sutcliffe scored 86, another top score. England held a narrow lead on first innings and then dismissed Australia for 175. Sutcliffe was out for 2 in the second innings but Leyland held the innings steady and ensured that England won both the match and the series. The Fifth Test at Sydney was therefore academic but England nevertheless won by 8 wickets, Sutcliffe scoring 56 in his only innings. According to Bob Wyatt, Sutcliffe "backed Jardine to the hilt" on the subject of bowling "bodyline" aka "fast leg theory".Hill, pp.153–156. Wyatt said that: "Herbert never hesitated in his views about our bowling strategy. He did not see anything wrong about pursuing the tactics". Les Ames agreed with Wyatt's view and said that, though the majority of the England players were morally opposed to Jardine's tactics, Sutcliffe took the pragmatic view that "the ball is there, it's short, so hook it". Sutcliffe himself was an outstanding player of the hook shot but Ames was unsure about how he would have coped with Larwood's accuracy if he had been playing against him. According to Bill O'Reilly, Sutcliffe was the strongest advocate of bodyline and he sometimes acted like an "unofficial captain", even initiating the tactics on his own responsibility. However, a close friend of Sutcliffe insisted that Sutcliffe "was always behind authority" and was absolutely loyal to his captain, but his private views about bodyline were another matter. ==1933 to 1939== In 1933, Sutcliffe could not repeat his outstanding form of the 1932 season but he still scored a considerable 2,211 runs at 47.04, although it was his lowest tally in a dry summer since 1921. He completed 7 centuries with a highest score of 205 against Warwickshire at Edgbaston. Sutcliffe scored 304 runs at 50.66 in four Tests against Australia in 1934. His first-class aggregate for the 1934 season was 2,023 runs at 49.34 with 4 centuries and a highest score of 203 against Surrey at the Oval. In 1935, Sutcliffe's Test career ended when he missed the Third Test against South Africa due to a leg injury and then never recovered his place when he was fit again. Wisden's view was that England wished to try out younger players but it pointed out that Sutcliffe "remains a prolific runscorer".Hill, p.164. Sutcliffe's record in Test cricket is outstanding. As shown by the adjacent graph, he is the only English batsman who has averaged more than 60 runs per innings in a completed career and his statistical record compares favourably with anyone except Don Bradman. Uniquely, Sutcliffe's batting average never dropped below 60 throughout his entire Test career and Javed Miandad is the only other player whose average never dropped below 50 in a career of at least 20 innings. The demands of Test cricket behind him, Sutcliffe played in 29 of Yorkshire's 30 County Championship matches in 1936 but his average fell to 33.30, his worst seasonal performance since the early 1920s. His form rallied somewhat in the last three seasons of his career and he formed another outstanding opening partnership with Len Hutton who matured into a Test-class batsman in 1937. Sutcliffe and Hutton put on 315 for the first wicket against Leicestershire at Hull in 1937, Sutcliffe scoring 189 and Hutton 153. Sutcliffe faced Australian opposition for the final time in 1938 when he appeared in two matches against the tourists, one in July for Yorkshire at Bramall Lane and the other in September at North Marine Road in a Scarborough Festival match when he played for H D G Leveson Gower's XI. Yorkshire completed another hat-trick of County Championships in 1939 and, although he was now 44 and certainly a "veteran", Sutcliffe enjoyed a remarkable sequence of four consecutive centuries in May and June which showed any doubters that he was still one of the best opening batsmen around.Hill, p.209. Sutcliffe was to play one more first-class match in 1945, but his career effectively ended in August 1939 when he played for Yorkshire against Hampshire at Dean Park Cricket Ground, Bournemouth, on Saturday, 26 August and Monday, 28 August. Yorkshire won by an innings and 11 runs in just two days. Sutcliffe and Hutton put on 56 before Hutton was out for 37 and Sutcliffe went on to score 51 before he was out at 117–2, leg before wicket to George Heath, who thus took his wicket for the second time in 1939. ==Into retirement== As a reservist in the British Army, Sutcliffe was the first Yorkshire player to be called up, in August 1939, as the Second World War became imminent. He missed Yorkshire's final match of the season against Sussex at Hove, which ended on 1 September, the day the Wehrmacht invaded Poland. He rejoined the Royal Army Ordnance Corps and attained the rank of major.Hill, p.181. He did not leave Great Britain during his army service which ended in November 1942. Now aged 48, he was discharged from the army on medical grounds having undergone two operations that year for sinus trouble and a shoulder injury. For the remainder of the war, he divided his time between his sportswear business and charity fundraising.Hill, p.184. Like most top-class players, Sutcliffe occasionally played in charity matches during the war, including three to raise money for the Red Cross in 1940. In one of these, he played for a Yorkshire XI against a Bradford League XI at Park Avenue and scored 127, which was his last-ever century. The League team included Eddie Paynter, Manny Martindale and Learie Constantine, who scored a brilliant century in what Sutcliffe described as "a gem of an innings".Hill, p.182. Although Alan Gibson described Sutcliffe as "a good public speaker",Gibson, p.155. Sutcliffe himself seems to have been modest about this ability. During the war, he was asked to share a charity event platform with Sir Compton Mackenzie in Bradford. Mackenzie gave a brilliant speech that was well received and Sutcliffe said to him: "Oh, my, how I wish I could speak like you". Mackenzie, who was a keen cricket fan, replied: "You don't wish nearly as much that you could speak like me as I wish I could bat like you".Wright, pp.110–111. Sutcliffe had already stated his intention to retire from first-class cricket but nevertheless he returned in August 1945 at the age of 50 for one final match after the war in Europe ended. He captained the Yorkshire team in a match against a Royal Air Force team at North Marine Road in the renewed Scarborough Festival. The match was drawn after being affected by the weather. Sutcliffe batted once, going in at number 5, and scored just 8 runs before being dismissed leg before wicket (lbw) by Bill Edrich. In 1949, Sutcliffe was accorded honorary membership of MCC and joined what was then a select company of English professionals including George Hirst, Wilfred Rhodes and Jack Hobbs.Hill, p.186. Sutcliffe continued to be involved in cricket and his Wisden obituary says: "His repayment to the game which had given him so much was service on the Yorkshire committee, as an England selector, and as sponsor for many good causes in cricket".Wisden obituary. In a tribute that was published with the obituary, Brian Sellers said: "We served together on the county committee for over 21 years". Sutcliffe was a Test selector for three years from 1959 through 1961, during which England played home series against India, South Africa and Australia.Hill, pp.187–188. In February 1963, Yorkshire appointed Sutcliffe a life member of the club and then, in July 1965, his old captain Sir William Worsley, now president of the club, formally opened the Sutcliffe Gates in the St Michael's Lane approach to the Headingley ground. Similar in design to the Hobbs Gates at the Oval, they carry the inscription:Hill, p.190. > In honour of a great Yorkshire and England cricketer Sutcliffe retained his interest in cricket for the rest of his life. One of his final public appearances was in 1977 when, in his wheelchair and only a few months before he died, he was photographed at Headingley alongside Len Hutton and Geoff Boycott just after Boycott had emulated Sutcliffe and Hutton by becoming the third Yorkshire batsman to score 100 centuries in his first- class career.Hill, p.192. Wisden summarised his career thus: > Herbert Sutcliffe was one of the great cricketers and he brought to cricket > as to all his undertakings an assurance and capacity for concentration that > positively commanded success. His technical talent matched his character and > his achievements were therefore on the highest plane. On 30 September 2009, Herbert Sutcliffe was inducted into the ICC Cricket Hall of Fame. ==Style and technique== ===Sutcliffe's approach to cricket=== Sutcliffe's approach was essentially to do everything possible to help his team to win the match. His philosophy was that the game was there to be won and not merely to be played. He was determined to keep his wicket intact and, according to Fred Trueman, "he was a terrible man to get out" and "was at his best in a crisis".Hill, p.7: foreword by Fred Trueman. Sutcliffe's professionalism was reflected in his preparation and off-field demeanour. He took great pride in his appearance and Trueman says he was "always spick and span". Neville Cardus described him thus: "...shiny of hair, black as the raven's, with flannels of fluttering silk, and the confident air of super- Pudsey breeding. A deviation from type, a 'sport' in the evolutionary process!"Cardus, pp.1–10. Sutcliffe was "unfailingly courteous as a man" and, along with his England colleague Hobbs, "committed to advancing the cause of the professional cricketer".Hill, p.9. According to Stuart Surridge, "our profession as a respected one started with Jack and Herbert (who) gave us a new status". One of the main reasons why Yorkshire were prepared to offer the captaincy to Sutcliffe in 1927 was because he was not perceived to be the typical professional. Sutcliffe set high standards for himself and was determined to get on in life, as well as cricket, and make a lot of money. Wally Hammond, who eventually did turn amateur and captained England, was another example. Sutcliffe took pains to modify his accent and, as Neville Cardus commented, Sutcliffe eventually spoke "not with the accents of Yorkshire but of Teddington".Birley, pp.226–227. Cardus remarked on the Savile Row suits worn by Sutcliffe and Hammond: "The county cricketer has in certain instances become a man of bourgeois profession". But Bill Bowes, an ex-grammar school boy who had benefited from educational reforms that were unavailable to Sutcliffe and the older professionals, regarded Sutcliffe as a hero. Writing about Sutcliffe, Bowes pointed out that Sutcliffe was "no ordinary man" and stressed that "professionalism was very important to him". Cardus wrote: > [Of his batting] Sutcliffe had style... But it was his eternal vigilance, > his keen eye and a mind that could move and anticipate, which were his > assets, plus his Yorkshire realism and his Yorkshire tenacity of character. > Immaculate in flannels, his hair burnished by the sun, the cynosure of all > the women's and girls' eyes, a cricketer of manners, symbol of the new urban > social consciousness, none the less he could be fitted into the Yorkshire > scheme and body and atmosphere, after all. In his Wisden obituary, the editor wrote that "...neither Pudsey nor any other nursery could have claimed Herbert Sutcliffe as a typical product. He was a Yorkshireman in his loyalty and training, but he was cosmopolitan in approach and outlook. His manner fitted Lord's as expressively as it fitted Leeds". Trevor Bailey, writing in the 1981 Wisden about cricketers' hairstyles, said that Sutcliffe's was "black patent-leather glinting in the sun, complete with the straightest of partings".Wright, p.205. For his part, Sutcliffe explained to Bowes that "Lord Hawke had lifted professional cricket from knee to shoulder level and even Lord Hawke always wanted it back again". But Hawke never could get it back because professionalism had evolved as society had changed and the likes of Sutcliffe and Hammond were establishing a respectability for their job, as noted by Stuart Surridge, that enabled them and some of their successors to join the establishment. ===Batting=== right|thumb|400px|Herbert Sutcliffe's Test career performance graph. The red bars indicate Sutcliffe's Test match innings, while the blue line shows the average of his ten most recent innings at that point. The blue dots indicate innings in which he finished not-out. Sutcliffe's greatest qualities as an opening batsman were perhaps his even temperament and his penchant for big occasions. It is significant that his Test batting average was substantially better than his overall first-class one. He is especially remembered for his partnerships with Hobbs for England and with Holmes for Yorkshire. One of the main factors in these partnerships was mutual understanding, especially when it came to their judgment of singles, and Sutcliffe was involved in relatively few run outs when batting with either Hobbs or Holmes. John Arlott wrote that Sutcliffe was a batsman of "immense application and thought". Arlott listed his main qualities as sound defence, powerful offside driving and "arguably the best hooker of his age". But above all, says Arlott, Sutcliffe was "cool, beyond disturbance, the master of survival and the ultimate pragmatist of cricket".Arlott, Portrait of the Master, p.96. Douglas Jardine touched on this point when, describing Sutcliffe's tiredness at the end of the bodyline series, he added that he "feels inclined to think that Sutcliffe rather enjoys appearing to be in difficulties: he so rarely fails to surmount them".Jardine, p.139. Sutcliffe was noted for his courage when facing the world's fastest bowlers, such as Harold Larwood who paid this tribute to Sutcliffe after his death: > Herbert Sutcliffe needed some getting out. He was a great battler for > England and for Yorkshire. He never gave his wicket away unless he was > satisfied he had made enough already. With Percy Holmes he formed just about > the finest opening partnership I bowled against. I got him out cheaply a few > times, but he scored a few hundreds against my bowling, so I reckon we ended > up just about square. Ian Peebles wrote of him: > Where he was unexcelled was in the courage, determination and concentration > he brought to the job in hand. Never flustered, and certainly never > intimidated, he was at his best on the big or testing occasion. Sutcliffe told Fred Trueman that, although some batsmen can play fast bowling and some can't, "if everybody told the truth, no one really likes it". Trueman speaks of Sutcliffe's unselfish attitude when batting as "he didn't hog the limelight". Rather, he was a "severely practical performer (who) had to cut out the frills as an opening batsman". Sutcliffe's job was to "lay the foundations" of the innings; his main qualifications were having "the ideal temperament" and being "a magnificent judge of line and length". Sutcliffe lacked the "polished elegance of Hobbs" as he was "essentially a practical batsman with a superb judgment of length, pace and direction".Barclay, pp.235–236. He stood with the face of the bat very open (i.e., to the bowler) so that he could present its full width to the ball every delivery. He was noted as a firm striker off the front foot who also had efficient use of the pull and hook shots. The 1933 edition of Wisden Cricketers' Almanack said of Sutcliffe, in respect of the record partnership with Percy Holmes in 1932, that "like practically all great batsmen, he was generally at much pains to play himself in, and at all times his cricket – even when well set – proved rather more restrained than the situation warranted". The report goes on to say that Sutcliffe "undoubtedly felt a heavy responsibility rested upon him" but concluded by remarking on "how he could hit when he considered he might set about run-getting in light-hearted fashion".Wright, p.242. As with all great players, much of Sutcliffe's success was down to hard work. In a contribution to the 1932 edition of Wisden, Lord Hawke said of Sutcliffe that "nobody I know trained, and trains, harder or more conscientiously than Sutcliffe. I ascribe much of his success to that fact". In an evaluation of Jack Hobbs, Simon Wilde wrote that, amongst English batsmen, until Wally Hammond came to the fore in the late 1920s:Wilde, p.106. > Second in line was undoubtedly the cool, methodical Sutcliffe, Hobbs's > trusted opening partner for England, whose average of 66.85 in Ashes matches > is the second-highest amongst batsmen with 1,000 runs, 23 points behind > Bradman's and 12 ahead of Hobbs's. In his first series against Australia, in > 1924–25, Sutcliffe outscored Hobbs, but Hobbs returned home and reaffirmed > his position with a record-breaking season in England. Sutcliffe, who began > his days as a stylist, later made the most of his abilities with powers of > defence and concentration rarely, if ever, seen before (Bradman said > Sutcliffe had the best temperament of any cricketer he saw). But Sutcliffe > himself conceded that he did not possess the gifts of Hobbs, Hammond or > Hutton. The late R. C. Robertson-Glasgow had written of Sutcliffe a tribute that Wisden appended to Sutcliffe's obituary: > [He] was the serenest batsman I have known. Whatever may have passed under > that calm brow – anger, joy, disagreement, surprise, relief, triumph – no > outward sign was betrayed on the field of play. When I first saw him, in > 1919, he was a debonair and powerful stylist. As you bowled opening overs to > the later Sutcliffe you noticed the entire development of every defensive > art; the depressingly straight bat, the astute use of pads (as with Hobbs), > the sharp detection of which out-swinger could be left; above all, the > consistently safe playing down of a rising or turning ball on leg stump, or > thighs. A. A. Thomson wrote of him:A. A. Thomson, Cricketers of My Times, Stanley Paul, 1967, p.126. > The fact is that for the whole inter-war period he was England's and > Yorkshire's anchor-man, a personality as dependable as fallible human nature > will allow, This does not mean that he was slow or stodgy... He lacked the > polished artistry of Hobbs or the sheer princely quality of Hammond or the > delightful impertinence of Holmes, but he lacked nothing else... His spirit > warmed to the fight like that of an ancient warrior. His manner was suave; > his hair immaculate; his voice quiet; but he revealed his truest self, after > his 161 in the 1926 Oval Test, surely the most truly Sutcliffian innings of > his life, when he said: 'Yes, Mr. Warner, I love a dogfight...' ===Bowling and fielding=== Although Sutcliffe as a boy was thought to have potential as a bowler, he specialised in batting to the extent that he only bowled 993 deliveries, with 31 maiden overs, in his entire first-class career. He bowled a straightforward right-arm medium pace with little success, his best figures being 3–15 while his career average was a very high 40.21. As a fielder, Sutcliffe generally played in the outfield, where he was a quick retriever of the ball and had a very good throwing arm. As a young man he could throw a cricket ball over 100 yards.Hill, p.34. He was usually a safe catcher and, in his career, took 23 catches in 54 Tests and 474 in 754 first- class matches. ==Famous partnerships== ===Holmes and Sutcliffe=== thumb|upright|Percy Holmes (left) with Herbert Sutcliffe at Leyton in 1932 when they put on 555 for the first wicket. The 1919 season saw the beginning of a famous Yorkshire opening partnership that endured for 15 seasons until Percy Holmes retired. Holmes and Sutcliffe were eulogised as Yorkshire's "heavenly twins". A flavour of the Holmes-Sutcliffe partnership was captured by The Cricketer in a profile written in 1921:Hill, p.45. > There is usually a hum of expectancy when Holmes and Sutcliffe appear, their > faces wreathed in smiles, and chatting happily together. They seem to be > sharing some all-absorbing joke. Holmes, proudly wearing his Yorkshire cap, > walks with quick, short steps, shoulders erect and head in the air, doing > his best to look as tall as (John) Tunnicliffe. Sutcliffe has dark, glossy > hair and usually disdains the valued White Rose cap when batting. He strolls > casually along by the side of Percy, keeping his weather eye open for the > wicket-keeper's end and the honour of taking the first ball. Holmes and Sutcliffe shared 74 century stands in all first-class matches including 69 for Yorkshire. 19 of these exceeded 200 and 4 were over 300, including their world record stand of 555 at Leyton in 1932. Yorkshire won the title 8 times in the seasons that Holmes and Sutcliffe opened the innings together.Hill, p.43. ===Hobbs and Sutcliffe=== In September 1922, Sutcliffe played in a Scarborough Festival match for C I Thornton's XI against MCC and, for the first time, was paired with Jack Hobbs in an opening partnership. They put on 120 in their only innings until Hobbs was out for 45; Sutcliffe went on to make 111. Following his successful season with Yorkshire in 1922, Sutcliffe was in contention for a place on the England tour of South Africa in the winter of 1922–23, especially as Jack Hobbs declined to tour. The selectors evidently felt that Sutcliffe was not yet ready but they were, "as events would prove, wise to delay his promotion" as it ensured that Sutcliffe would have Hobbs as his "influential guide on the international stage".Hill, p.51. Percy Holmes was also overlooked and England's openers in the 1922–23 series were Andy Sandham, Frank Mann and Jack Russell. upright|thumb|Jack Hobbs (left) and Herbert Sutcliffe opening an innings for England. The partnership of Jack Hobbs and Herbert Sutcliffe, opening the innings together for England from 1924 to 1930, is the most famous in cricket history.Birley, p.226. With partnerships of 136 and 268 in their first two Test matches together, they were a success from the start and The Cricketer said:Hill, p.54. > Hobbs is undoubtedly the sauciest run-stealer in the world today. In > Sutcliffe, he has found the ideal partner in the felony, for the > Yorkshireman unhesitatingly responds to his calls, showing absolute > confidence in Hobbs' judgement. England wicket-keeper Les Ames, himself a top-class batsman, commented on their running together between the wickets by emphasising the placement of the stroke, which was so correct that they could "just play and run". Ames said they were not fast runners and that "Herbert only strolled".Hill, p.56. Sutcliffe readily acknowledged his debt to his "influential guide" by naming his eldest son after him and writing, in a booklet published in 1927, that he doubted if Hobbs had an equal and that, as a batsman, "he stands alone (and is) the best I have ever seen". Sutcliffe expressed the view that if W G Grace was as good as Jack Hobbs, "then he must have been wonderful".Hill, p.59. He said that Hobbs' earliest advice to him had been simply: "Play your own game". Sutcliffe commented: "Four words – they counted for so much. They told me all I wanted to know".Hill, p.60. Ian Peebles wrote that Sutcliffe's association with Hobbs "is judged, by results and all-round efficiency in all conditions", the greatest of all first-wicket partnerships and "will probably never be excelled". Peebles said that there lay between the two an "extraordinary understanding, manifested in their perfect and unhesitating judgment of the short single". The last Test match in which Hobbs and Sutcliffe played together was the final one at The Oval, Hobbs' home ground, in the 1930 series against Australia. But the partnership was revived at the 1931 Scarborough Festival when they produced two double-century stands, first for the Players against the Gentlemen and then for H D G Leveson-Gower's XI against the New Zealand tourists. Their last partnership was for the Players at Lord's in 1932, an innings in which Hobbs carried his bat for 161 not out.Hill, p.103. Hobbs' biographer Ronald Mason summarised the association of Hobbs and Sutcliffe thus:Mason, p.193. > Behind them were nine years of wonderful attainment, 26 opening partnerships > of 100 or more; a legendary technique and repute unequalled by any other > pair; the lean, active quizzical Hobbs and the neat, wiry imperturbable > Sutcliffe, who set a standard that can serve as a guide, but defied all > attempts at emulation. Hobbs and Sutcliffe made 15 century opening partnerships for England in Test matches, including 11 against Australia, and 11 in other first-class matches.Hill, pp.211–214. ===Sutcliffe and Hutton=== Sutcliffe and Len Hutton opened the Yorkshire innings in one championship match in 1934 and then, with Sutcliffe's Test career ending the following year, became the regular Yorkshire pairing until 1939 when the outbreak of war effectively ended Sutcliffe's career. Especially given that he was from Pudsey, Hutton was often portrayed as Sutcliffe's protégé but Hutton maintained that it was the coaching of George Hirst that did most to develop his career. He said of Sutcliffe: "You do learn a lot from watching a player of Herbert's class. It was an enriching and invaluable experience to bat with him".Hill, p.169. Sutcliffe's view of Hutton was that he was "a marvel – the discovery of a generation". Hutton said that his shyness and the fact that he was twenty years younger than Sutcliffe made it difficult for him to approach his partner when he needed help, which he more readily got from Bill Bowes and Hedley Verity. About Sutcliffe he said: "I did not find it easy to talk to him".Hill, p.170. The master–apprentice relationship changed after Hutton scored a world record 364 for England against Australia at The Oval in 1938. Future Yorkshire captain Ronnie Burnet reckoned that Sutcliffe had been the dominant partner until then and their scores would be something like 60 to 40 in Sutcliffe's favour. After Hutton made his record, his confidence increased and Burnet said the ratio was reversed "to 70:30 in Len's favour". Burnet said that Hutton was "tearing attacks apart in 1939 and Herbert was by then playing second fiddle".Hill, p.174. Comparisons of the two Pudsey masters have been inevitable but there were essential differences in style. Bill Bowes said that Sutcliffe readily acknowledged the superior ability of Jack Hobbs, Wally Hammond and Len Hutton but what Sutcliffe did have were the concentration and willpower to make the best of his abilities in any given situation. Hutton pinpointed the key difference by explaining that, when Sutcliffe was taking guard, "his weight was on the (front) left foot, enabling him to play the hook shot so well" whereas Hutton put his weight onto his (back) right foot. Hence Sutcliffe more easily moved back while Hutton developed a forward style. Another view, expressed by Sutcliffe's son Billy, who also played with Hutton for Yorkshire, was that Sutcliffe was "probably better in a crisis", as his numerous successes on bad or "sticky" wickets would suggest.Hill, p.177. Sutcliffe and Hutton made 16 century opening partnerships together, 15 of them for Yorkshire. Their highest was 315, which they achieved twice.Hill, pp.213–214. ==Noted opponents== As a specialist opening batsman, Sutcliffe's rivals on the field were the opposing bowlers and especially fast bowlers, though he encountered many outstanding spin bowlers too on turning or sticky wickets. By the time Sutcliffe began his Test career, the formidable fast bowling partnership of Jack Gregory and Ted McDonald had ended, though Sutcliffe faced Gregory in Test matches and was opposed to McDonald in "Roses matches" between Yorkshire and Lancashire. Gregory by 1924–25 was no longer able to "frighten batsmen with sheer speed" but he still commanded respect and Jack Hobbs specifically told Sutcliffe to exercise caution against Gregory at the start of an innings.Hill, p.67. Sutcliffe regarded McDonald as "one of the best bowlers I ever met". He commented on McDonald's trick of "resting" by making himself seem tired and then "hurling himself into (a very fast delivery) like a demon". As Sutcliffe said, he never knew which ball would be the fast one and McDonald was a dangerous opponent.Hill, p.145. But Sutcliffe was quoted as saying that he had "never played finer fast bowling" than that of the West Indians Learie Constantine, George Francis, Herman Griffith and Manny Martindale. Among the best English bowlers he faced in county cricket were some of his colleagues in England teams, such as Harold Larwood, Maurice Tate and Tich Freeman. One of the toughest competitors he faced was the Australian leg spinner Clarrie Grimmett, "a tiny gnome of a man", who bowled with a roundarm action and made his Test debut at the age of 34, taking 11 wickets in his first match.Hill, p.71. Grimmett bowled "like a miser" and "begrudged every run", whereas his leg spin partner Arthur Mailey was the type of bowler who would "buy" his wickets by conceding runs and then, having boosted the batsman's confidence, snaring him with a "wrong 'un" (i.e., a googly).Hill, p.89. On Sutcliffe's first tour of Australia, he commented that he "was troubled most of the time by Arthur Mailey" but eventually he learned how to "differentiate between Mailey's leg breaks and his wrong 'uns".Hill, p.65. ==Records== *Fastest in world to reach 1,000 Test runs (later equalled by Everton Weekes) by achieving the feat in the 12th innings of his career. ==Personal and business life== Sutcliffe married Emily ("Emmie") Pease at Pudsey Parish Church in September 1921. She had been a personal secretary to Richard Ingham, a mill owner who had introduced Sutcliffe to Pudsey St Lawrence. They had three children, two sons called Billy and John; and a daughter called Barbara.Hill, p.79. Billy Sutcliffe, whose middle name was Hobbs, played for Yorkshire between 1948 and 1957, captaining the team in the last two seasons of his career. At the end of the 1924–25 tour of Australia, Sutcliffe and his Yorkshire colleague George Macaulay went into business together as a sports outfitting company with shops in Leeds and Wakefield. However, Macaulay withdrew from the business after a year and it became a Sutcliffe family concern until it folded in the 1990s. The business thrived while Sutcliffe was playing cricket and established itself as one of the leading sports goods retailers in the north of England. Sutcliffe ceased to have an active role in 1948 when he handed over the management to his son Billy.Hill, p.78. Sutcliffe became the northern area representative, and eventually a director, of a paper manufacturer called Thomas Owen which was later amalgamated into Wiggins Teape. This firm also employed Douglas Jardine as company secretary, while Maurice Leyland, Bill Edrich and Len Hutton were other area representatives. Sutcliffe developed severe arthritis in his old age, the disease crippling him to the extent that he needed a wheelchair. He suffered personal tragedy in April 1974 when his wife Emmie, then aged 74, died as result of severe burns following a fire at the family home in Ilkley. He was finally admitted to a Cross Hills nursing home in North Yorkshire where he died in January 1978 at the age of 83.Hill, pp.190–195. ==Footnotes== • a) Note that there are different versions of Sutcliffe's first-class career totals as a result of his participation in the 1930–31 Indian season. See Variations in first-class cricket statistics for more information. ==References== ==Bibliography== * John Arlott, Arlott on Cricket (ed. David Rayvern Allen), Collins, 1984 * John Arlott, Portrait of the Master, Penguin, 1982 * Barclays World of Cricket, 3rd edition, (ed. E. W. Swanton), Willow Books, 1986. Article on Sutcliffe written by Ian Peebles. * Derek Birley, A Social History of English Cricket, Aurum, 1999 * Neville Cardus, Close of Play, Sportsmans Book Club edition, 1957, "Sutcliffe and Yorkshire", pp. 1–10 * Bill Frindall, The Wisden Book of Cricket Records, Queen Anne Press, 1986, * Alan Gibson, The Cricket Captains of England, Cassell, 1979 * Alan Hill, Herbert Sutcliffe: Cricket Maestro, Simon & Schuster, 1991; Stadia, 2007 (2nd edition) * Douglas Jardine, In Quest of the Ashes, Methuen, 2005 * Ronald Mason, Jack Hobbs, Sportsman's Book Club, 1961 * Pelham Warner, Lords: 1787–1945, Harrap, 1946 * Pelham Warner, Cricket Between Two Wars, Sporting Handbooks, 1946 * Roy Webber, The County Cricket Championship, Sportsman's Book Club, 1958 * Simon Wilde, Number One: The World's Best Batsmen and Bowlers, Gollancz, 1998, * Wisden Cricketers' Almanack, various editions from 1920 to 1946 * Graeme Wright, A Wisden Collection, Wisden, 2004 ==External links== * * Notes by the Editor – Wisden Cricketers' Almanack 1928 (online archive) * Herbert Sutcliffe's obituary – Wisden Cricketers' Almanack 1979 (online archive) Category:1894 births Category:1978 deaths Category:British Army personnel of World War I Category:England cricket team selectors Category:England Test cricketers Category:English cricketers Category:English cricketers of 1919 to 1945 Category:Green Howards officers Category:People from Nidderdale Category:Players cricketers Category:Wisden Cricketers of the Year Category:Yorkshire cricketers Category:Marylebone Cricket Club cricketers Category:North v South cricketers Category:Cricketers from Pudsey Category:H. D. G. Leveson Gower's XI cricketers Category:Lord Hawke's XI cricketers Category:C. I. Thornton's XI cricketers Category:Royal Army Ordnance Corps officers Category:Sherwood Foresters soldiers Category:British Army personnel of World War II Category:Military personnel from Yorkshire Category:Marylebone Cricket Club Australian Touring Team cricketers Category:Marylebone Cricket Club South African Touring Team cricketers |
Same-sex marriage has been legal in Switzerland since 1 July 2022. Legislation to open marriage to same-sex couples passed the Swiss Parliament in December 2020. The law was challenged in a referendum on 26 September 2021 by opponents of same-sex marriage and was approved with the support of 64% of voters and a majority in all 26 cantons. The law went into force on 1 July 2022. A provision of the law permitting same-sex marriages performed abroad to be recognised in Switzerland took effect on 1 January 2022. Switzerland allowed registered partnerships for same-sex couples from 1 January 2007, following a 2005 referendum. These partnerships provided most, but not all, of the rights and benefits of marriage. After the introduction of same-sex marriage on 1 July 2022, registered partnerships were no longer available. ==Registered partnerships== thumb|300px|right|Results of the 2005 registered partnership referendum by canton, 5 June 2005 In a nationwide referendum on 5 June 2005, Swiss voters approved a registered partnership law by 58%, granting same-sex couples the same rights and protections as married couples in terms of next of kin status, taxation, social security, insurance, and shared possession of a dwelling. However, same-sex couples would not have the same rights in terms of joint adoption of children, access to fertility treatments, and facilitated Swiss naturalisation of the foreign partner. Swiss law provides a faster route to citizenship for the spouse of a Swiss citizen, but did not recognise same- sex marriages conducted in foreign countries, instead classing them as registered partnerships. The official title of the same-sex union is eingetragene Partnerschaft in German, partenariat enregistré in French, unione domestica registrata in Italian, and partenadi registrà in Romansh. The bill was passed by the National Council, 118 to 50, on 3 December 2003, and by the Council of States on 3 June 2004 by 33 votes to 5, with minor changes. The National Council approved it again on 18 June, by a vote of 112 to 51, but the conservative Federal Democratic Union collected signatures to force a referendum. Subsequently, the Swiss people voted 58% in favor of the bill on 5 June 2005. The law came into effect on 1 January 2007. Switzerland was the first nation to pass a same-sex union law by referendum. At the end of August 2008, the Federal Supreme Court ruled that long-term same-sex partners were entitled to the same vested benefits from the pension of the deceased as equivalent opposite-sex partners have. A shared apartment is not necessary.sda: Auch Homosexuelle können Pensionskasse erben, NZZ online, 4. September 2008 (über das Urteil 9 C 874/2007 vom 20. August 2008; keine BGE- Publikation). The ability to enter into a registered partnership was closed off on 1 July 2022. No further partnerships are granted in Switzerland, and couples may retain their status as registered partners or convert their union into a recognized marriage. ===Adoption and parenting=== Article 27 of the partnership law treats the matter of the partner's child(ren). The law states that the partner of the biological or adoptive parent must provide financial support for their partner's child and also possesses the full legal authority to represent the child in every matter as being the parent's partner. It also states that in the case of the dissolution of the partnership, the ex-partner has the right to keep close ties with the child. Article 27: «Partner's children» This gives couples a real role in being parents. In 2010, Swiss LGBT organisations started a petition, "Same Chances For All Families", demanding more adoption rights. On 30 September 2011, the National Council considered the petition but ultimately voted 83–97 against it. Le National ne veut pas voir les couples homosexuels adopter , Swissinfo, accessed on 15 December 2012 However, the debate and close vote provided a view on how attitudes on the issue had changed, as for example, Maja Ingold, MP for the Evangelical People's Party, spoke for more recognition of gay and lesbian parents, although her party had campaigned against the registered partnership law in 2005. It became clear that, while there was no majority for full joint adoption, allowing adoption of the partner's child (i.e. stepchild adoption) could gather majority support in Parliament. The Council of States accepted the petition and the Legal Affairs Committee approved a motion from MP Claude Janiak backing the right to full joint adoption regardless of marital status or sexual orientation. In November 2011, the committee voted unanimously in favour, including members of the conservative Swiss People's Party. Coup de pouce des Sénateurs à l'adoption , 360, accessed on 15 December 2012 In February 2012, the Federal Council responded by informing the Council of States that they were in favour of stepchild adoption but against full joint adoption rights. On 14 March 2012, the Council of States approved (21–19) the full extension of adoption rights to same-sex couples regardless of marital status or sexual orientation. Le Conseil des Etats accepte l'adoption des couples homosexuels , Le Matin As the National Council had originally voted against it in September 2011, the bill had to be voted on again by the chamber, which did so on 13 December 2012, as it voted 113–64 to grant a person in a registered partnership the right to adopt biological or adopted children that their partner had before the start of the partnership.Swiss lawmakers vote to allow some gays to adopt , France24, 15 December 2012 However, the motion granting full adoption rights approved by the Council of States was rejected by the National Council.Rainbow families: Gays granted more adoption rights , Swissinfo, 15 December 2012 On 4 March 2013, the new version approved by the National Council on 13 December was accepted by the Council of States by a majority of 26–16.Motion CAJ-CE. Droit de l'adoption. Mêmes chances pour toutes les familles , Council of States, retrieved on 21 April 2013 In November 2014, taking into account the parliamentary votes, the Federal Council approved allowing the adoption of the partner's child as part of a larger adoption reform. The bill would permit registered partners and cohabiting couples, both same-sex and different-sex, to petition to adopt, and would also lower the minimum age to adopt from 35 to 28. The legislation had to be approved by Parliament, though opponents had already announced they would force an optional referendum. For such a referendum to occur, citizens opposing the law had to gather 50,000 signatures within 100 days. In January 2016, the Council of States' Legal Affairs Committee voted 7 to 3 with one abstention to approve the bill. On 8 March 2016, the Council of States voted 25–14 in favor. Federal Councillor Simonetta Sommaruga expressed her support for the bill and argued that it was necessary to legally protect children already raised by same-sex couples. On 13 May 2016, the National Council's Legal Affairs Committee voted 15–9 to approve the bill. The following day, it was approved by the National Council in a 113–64 vote. Differing texts caused the two chambers to agree on a final, slightly modified version of the bill that was passed in Parliament on 17 June 2016 by a vote of 125–68 with 3 abstentions. Following the final vote in Parliament, a referendum committee was established including members of several different political parties with the aim of forcing a referendum on the bill. No major party supported the committee. Le référendum contre la réforme du droit d'adoption n'aboutira pas On 4 October 2016, it was confirmed that the referendum would not take place as only 20,000 signatures had been collected. Echec du référendum contre l'homoparentalité The law took effect on 1 January 2018. ===Statistics=== The first same-sex partnership was registered on 2 January 2007 in the Italian- speaking canton of Ticino. By the end of 2021, 12,133 same-sex partnerships had taken place in Switzerland. Registered partnerships in Switzerland by year 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 Total Female 573 271 284 221 246 267 230 270 261 227 306 275 225 265 221 4,172 Male 1,431 660 588 499 426 428 463 450 440 502 483 425 419 386 361 7,921 Total 2,004 931 872 720 672 695 693 720 701 729 789 700 674 651 582 12,133 Most partnerships were performed in the canton of Zürich at 3,725, followed by Vaud (1,322), Bern (1,255), Geneva (1,104), Aargau (644), Basel-Stadt (485), St. Gallen (421), Lucerne (409), Basel-Landschaft (402), Ticino (332), Fribourg (325), Valais (289), Solothurn (275), Thurgau (250), Neuchâtel (174), Zug (157), Schwyz (130), Graubünden (129), Schaffhausen (88), Jura (55), Appenzell Ausserrhoden (46), Glarus (29), Nidwalden (28), Obwalden (24), Uri (22), and Appenzell Innerrhoden (13). ==Cantonal laws== ===Cohabitation=== Certain Swiss cantonal constitutions recognise and guarantee the right to cohabit and to found a family outside of marriage for both different-sex and same-sex couples; these include among others the constitutions of Vaud, Constitution du canton de Vaud Zürich, Verfassung des Kantons Zürich Appenzell Ausserrhoden, Verfassung des Kantons Appenzell Ausserrhoden Basel-Stadt, Verfassung des Kantons Basel-Stadt Bern, Verfassung des Kantons Bern Geneva, Constitution de la République et canton de Genève Zug, Verfassung des Kantons Zug Schaffhausen, Verfassung des Kantons Schaffhausen and Fribourg. Verfassung des Kantons Freiburg ===Registered partnerships=== The canton of Geneva has had a partnership law on a cantonal level since 2001. It grants unmarried couples, both same-sex and opposite-sex, many of the same rights, responsibilities and protections as married couples. However, it does not allow benefits in taxation, social security, or health insurance premiums (unlike the federal law). The law is based on the French civil solidarity pact. In autumn 2016, the Department of Public Instruction of Geneva introduced new forms in schools allowing same-sex parents to be recognized; the previous forms with boxes for "father" and "mother" were replaced with two boxes listing "parents". On 22 September 2002, the canton of Zürich passed a same-sex partnership law by referendum (62.7% in favor) that goes further than Geneva's law, but requires couples to live together for six months before registering. In July 2004, the Grand Council of Neuchâtel passed a law recognizing unmarried couples, with 65 votes to 38. Le pacs gagne du terrain Registered partnerships for same-sex couples are recognized in the Constitution of the canton of Fribourg. In May 2004, voters approved the Constitution with 58.03% in favor and 41.97% against. It took effect on 1 January 2005. Article 14(2) states: "The right to register a partnership for same-sex couples is guaranteed". ===Marriage=== On 6 June 2016, the Cantonal Council of Zürich rejected by a vote of 110–52 a proposal that would have defined marriage as "a union between one man and one woman" in the Constitution of Zürich. The proposal, introduced by the Federal Democratic Union (EDU/UDF), sought to constitutionally ban same-sex marriage in the canton. EDU and most members of the Swiss People's Party were in favor of the measure, while all other parties, including the Christian Democratic People's Party and the Evangelical People's Party, were opposed. The EDU subsequently gathered 6,000 signatures to force a cantonal referendum on the issue. The referendum took place on 27 November 2016, where the proposal was overwhelmingly rejected; 80.9% voted against it, while 19.1% voted in favor. Keine Definition der Ehe zwischen Mann und Frau in der Verfassung Voters in Zürich's Aussersihl and Industriequartier districts voted "No" by more than 92%. Mariage pour tous: "non" à la contre-attaque de l'UDF zurichoise All municipalities rejected the proposal. ==Same-sex marriage== In 2012, Parliament requested that the executive Swiss Federal Council examine how to update family law to reflect changes in society.12.3607 Postulat: Code civil. Pour un droit de la famille moderne et cohérent , Swiss Parliament In March 2015, the council released its governmental report about marriage and new rights for families, raising the possibility of the introduction of registered partnerships for straight couples and marriage for gay and lesbian couples. Rapport du Conseil fédéral - Modernisation du droit de la famille , Federal Department of Justice and Police, retrieved on 27 May 2015 Federal Councillor Simonetta Sommaruga, in charge of the Federal Department of Justice and Police, also stated she hoped that gay and lesbian couples would soon be allowed to marry. Sommaruga espère que les homosexuels pourront bientôt se marier , L'Hebdo, retrieved on 27 May 2015 ===Political parties and support=== Same-sex marriage is supported by the Green Party (GPS/PES), Green Party - Equality Policy the Conservative Democratic Party (BDP/PBD), the Social Democratic Party (SP/PS), the Green Liberal Party (glp/pvl), the Swiss Party of Labour (PdA/PST-POP),Les positions du PST/POP par rapport aux votations du 28 février 2016 Dans son programme électoral de 2015, le PST/POP revendique le droit de mariage pour tous les couples. The Liberals (FDP/PLR), the Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP/PDC), and Solidarity. The Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC), the Evangelical People's Party (EVP/PEV), the Ticino League and the Federal Democratic Union (EDU/UDF) are mostly opposed. In 2017, the CVP president, Gerhard Pfister, said he believed that around two-thirds of CVP lawmakers opposed same-sex marriage. However, a 2019 survey showed that about 83% of CVP candidates running in the October 2019 federal election were in favour of same-sex marriage. The same survey showed that 48% of SVP candidates were in favour. In April 2018, the women's wing of The Liberals voted by 56 votes to 2 to support same-sex marriage. FDP-Frauen für "Ehe für alle", Luzerner Zeitung, 21 April 2018 On 26 January 2019, the national Swiss People's Party adopted a new party programme. A proposal to strike the party's opposition to same-sex marriage was rejected by the delegates with a vote of 166 to 126. During a 2019 public consultation on the legalisation of same-sex marriage, the governments of Geneva, Vaud, Zürich, Bern, Basel-Stadt, Basel- Landschaft, Aargau, Luzern, Valais, Schaffhausen, Graubünden, Ticino, Fribourg, Neuchâtel, St. Gallen, Solothurn, Jura, Glarus, Appenzell Ausserrhoden, Zug, Uri and Thurgau expressed support for the opening of marriage to same-sex couples, while the governments of Schwyz, Nidwalden, Appenzell Innerrhoden and Obwalden expressed opposition. Several organisations and associations also came out in support, including LGBT and feminist groups, Operation Libero, the National Ethics Committee, ProFamilia CH, the Swiss Psychological Society, and religious groups such as the Old Catholic Church, the Protestant Church of Switzerland and the Swiss Federation of Jewish Communities. Opposition was found mainly among pro-life and religious groups, including the Episcopal Conference of Switzerland. On 15 August 2019, Gottfried Locher, president of the Protestant Church of Switzerland, declared his personal support for same-sex marriage. In November 2019, the Protestant Church voted to support the opening of marriage to same-sex couples. This followed a June 2019 statement from the church, "We are created by God. We cannot choose our sexual orientation. We perceive it as an expression of creative fullness." ===Popular initiative "For the couple and the family"=== In 2011, the Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP/PDC) began gathering signatures for a popular initiative entitled "For the couple and the family - No to the penalty of marriage" (; ; ; ). This initiative sought to amend article 14 of the Swiss Federal Constitution to equalise fiscal rights and social security benefits between married couples and unmarried cohabiting couples. However, the text would have also introduced a definition of marriage for the first time, specifically the "sole union between a man and a woman". Under Swiss law, cohabiting unmarried couples are entitled to two full pensions. However, the pension of married couples is limited to 150% of the maximum pension per person, meaning that if both partners earn relatively well during their working life, they receive only one and a half times the maximum pension instead of two full pensions. In November 2012, signature gathering ended and the initiative was submitted. The Federal Council reviewed the initiative and decided to support it, formally asking Parliament in October 2013 to recommend that voters approve the initiative.Schweiz: Ehe-Verbot für Schwule und Lesben geplant , 25 October 2013, queer.de On 10 December 2014, the National Council discussed the initiative. The Greens proposed to amend the bill stating that "any forms of unions" could not be penalised and the Green Liberals proposed to amend the bill so that "marriage and all the other forms of union defined by the law" could not be penalised. 13.085 n Pour le couple et la famille - Non à la pénalisation du mariage. Initiative populaire , Swiss Parliament, retrieved on 16 January 2015 The debate opposed mainly the Swiss People's Party and the Christian Democrats to the Green Liberals, the Greens, the Social Democrats and the Conservative Democrats. The Liberals were mostly divided on the issue. The Swiss People's Party and the Christian Democrats stated their opposition to "any form of homophobia". On the other hand, the opposing parties highlighted the discrimination that would be introduced by the initiative and called for a future definition of marriage that would include same-sex couples. Some MPs called the Christian Democrats a "retrograde" party. Sur l'imposition des couples, le PDC est taxé de rétrograde , Tribune de Genève, retrieved 16 January 2015 After having rejected both counter-propositions from the Greens and the Green Liberals, the National Council finally approved a suggestion from the Commission for Economic Affairs and Taxation, which retained the spirit of the initiative but removed the definition of marriage as exclusively between a man and a woman. This counter-proposition was approved 102–86, thus rejecting the popular initiative and recommending to the Swiss electorate to reject the initiative and accept the counter-proposition. Vote n° 49.11275 , Swiss Parliament, retrieved on 16 January 2015 The Council of States approved the counter- proposition on 4 March 2015 in a 24–19 vote. Conseil des États - Procès-verbal de vote 13.085-2 , Swiss Parliament, retrieved on 5 March 2015 The debate in the upper house also mainly focused on the definition of marriage, though the idea of equal fiscal rights and equal social security benefits between married couples and unmarried cohabiting couples was unopposed. Le Conseil des États en bref (4 mars 2015) , Swiss Parliament, retrieved on 5 March 2015 A few Liberal members changed their mind, and the counter-proposition was rejected in the Council of States in a later vote. A subsequent conciliation conference in June 2015 of both chambers of Parliament decided to recommend rejecting the original initiative.Einigungskonferenz sagt Nein zur CVP-Initative [sic], 13 June 2015, queer.ch On 19 June 2015, the formal order of Parliament recommending voters to reject the initiative was published.Arrêté fédéral concernant l'initiative populaire «Pour le couple et la famille – Non à la pénalisation du mariage» , admin.ch On 17 November 2015, the Federal Council also recommended rejecting the initiative. It had supported the initiative two years earlier, but now was obliged to change its position because Parliament was opposed.Bundesrat gegen CVP-Initiative , 18 November 2015, queer.chBundesrat lanciert Abstimmungskampf zur Volksinitiative gegen die «Heiratsstrafe» , 17 November 2015, admin.ch ====Referendum==== The Christian Democrats' proposal was put to a referendum on 28 February 2016,Kriminelle Ausländer, Gotthard und Heiratsstrafe , 7 October 2014, NZZ with voters deciding whether to define marriage as a "durable cohabitation of a man and a woman" that "must not be disadvantaged in comparison of other lifestyles", Bundesbeschluss über die Volksinitiative «Für Ehe und Familie – gegen die Heiratsstrafe» , retrieved on 10 October 2015 thus prohibiting same-sex marriage in the Swiss Federal Constitution. Amongst parliamentary parties, the Christian Democrats (apart from the Young Christian Democrats of Zürich and Geneva, which had declared opposition to the initiative of their parent party),JCVP Kanton Zürich: Nein zur Ehedefinition , 6. November 2015, queer.ch Le PDC genevois ne défendra pas son initiative , Le Courrier, retrieved on 28 February 2016 the national-conservative Swiss People's Party and the conservative Evangelical People's Party campaigned for a "Yes" vote. Meanwhile, the Social Democrats, the Liberals, the Greens, the Conservative Democrats and the Green Liberals opposed the text and campaigned for a "No" vote, along with Amnesty International Switzerland, Economiesuisse, the Swiss Federation of Trade Unions and Operation Libero. A month before the vote, various polls showed 67% support (22 January 2016) and 53% support (17 February 2016). Les Suisses plutôt défavorables au texte UDC, selon le 2ème sondage SSR , SRG SSR, retrieved on 28 February 2016 On 28 February 2016, the initiative was rejected by 50.8% of voters, with in favor and against, a margin of votes. The majority of the cantons approved the initiative (16.5 to 6.5), with the cantons of Geneva, Vaud, Bern, Zürich, Grisons, Basel-Stadt, Basel-Landschaft and Appenzell Ausserrhoden opposing the initiative. Initiative populaire du 05.11.2012 «Pour le couple et la famille - Non à la pénalisation du mariage» During the referendum campaign, the Swiss Government informed voters that about 80,000 married couples were paying more tax than unmarried cohabiting couples, but later admitted that the true figure was almost half a million. The Christian Democratic Party filed a complaint in June 2018. On 10 April 2019, the referendum was declared invalid by the Federal Supreme Court, which ordered a re-vote. Days later, it was reported that a majority of the parliamentary bloc of the Christian Democratic Party opposed the initiative in its current form and wanted the definition of marriage to be removed. According to the Tages-Anzeiger, the party was hoping that the Parliament would propose an alternative measure to eliminate the tax discrimination against married couples, so the party could withdraw its initiative without losing face. It was subsequently reported that the referendum would not be rerun as the Federal Council could either set a date for a new referendum, or establish a new law to go through the Federal Parliament. In the latter scenario, the Christian Democrats would have had the opportunity to withdraw their initiative, which was the party's preferred option. The vice-president of the party, Charles Juillard, said, "The party is ready to withdraw its initiative if the Federal Council puts an end to the tax penalty of marriage and the discrimination of spouses vis-à-vis the AVS [Old- age and survivors' insurance]." In early January 2020, the party chose to withdraw its initiative and announced it would begin collecting signatures for a second popular initiative. This initiative would again seek to equalise fiscal rights and social security benefits between married couples and unmarried cohabiting couples, but, unlike the previous one, it would not introduce a specific definition of marriage. ===Parliamentary initiative "Marriage for All"=== ==== Parliamentary deliberations ==== The first legislative proposal to legalise same-sex marriage was introduced by Greens MP Ruth Genner in December 1998. The National Council tabled the measure in December 1999. In December 2013, the Green Liberal Party submitted a parliamentary initiative, "Marriage for All", for a constitutional amendment to legalise same-sex marriage.13.468 Initiative parlementaire: Mariage civil pour tous , Swiss Parliament On 20 February 2015, the Committee for Legal Affairs of the National Council voted to proceed with the initiative, by 12 votes to 9 with 1 abstention. Entrée en matière sur le projet de loi sur les avoirs de potentats , National Council, retrieved 20 February 2015 A petition supporting the measure was launched in May 2015. The signatures were submitted to the Legal Affairs Committee of the Council of States before it discussed the proposal, hoping to persuade the committee members to support it. On 1 September 2015, the committee voted by 7 votes to 5 to proceed with the initiative. The National Council's Legal Affairs Committee was then tasked to draft an act within two years (per Article 111 of the Constitution), i.e. by 2017. However, due to the complexity of the legal reform, it proposed on 11 May 2017 to extend the initiative's deadline by another two years (i.e. by 2019) and ask the government administration for further study of the issue.Committee report , Swiss Parliament A minority consisting of the Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC) wanted to block the initiative. On 16 June 2017, the National Council voted by 118–71 in favour of the committee's proposal to extend the deadline to 2019. The Legal Affairs Committee published its report on 17 May 2018, the International Day Against Homophobia. The committee recommended amending the Swiss Civil Code to remove the heterosexual definition of marriage and insert a gender-neutral definition. It also recommended amendments to the 1953 civil registration law, which defined marriage as being between a man and a woman, as well as to other laws, including laws relating to naturalisation. Suisse: Mariage gay et naturalisation traités en parallèle According to the committee and the Federal Department of Justice and Police, the proposal would automatically legalise joint adoption by married same-sex couples. As such, the committee recommended no changes to adoption law, which allows married couples to adopt without explicitly defining the term "marriage".«Ehe für alle» bringt volles Adoptionsrecht , Luzerner Zeitung, 3 June 2018 On 6 July 2018, the committee voted against rejecting the initiative altogether, by 18–1, and subsequently voted to recommend the Federal Parliament to approve the initiative by 14 votes to 11. The committee concluded that the legalisation of same-sex marriage did not require amending the Swiss Federal Constitution, and that it could be achieved through changes to statutory law. Therefore, the Swiss electorate would not necessarily be called to vote on the initiative (though opponents could still force a referendum on the issue, which would require a simple majority of those voting to succeed). Despite opposition from LGBT groups, UN MARIAGE PAS SI ÉGALITAIRE DANS LES PLANS DU PARLEMENT the committee decided not to include the right of lesbian couples to access assisted reproductive technology so that the initiative would have a higher chance of approval. L'IDÉE D'UN MARIAGE GAY PROGRESSE EN SUISSE , Le Matin, 6 July 2018 Nationalratskommission will «Ehe für alle» , Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 6 July 2018 Die «Ehe für alle» könnte schon 2021 Realität sein , Basler Zeitung, 4 July 2018 In early July 2018, Operation Libero began collecting signatures in favour of same-sex marriage to persuade Parliament to legalise it, collecting 30,000 signatures within a week. On 14 February 2019, the committee approved the bill to allow same-sex marriage by 19 to 4 with one abstention. It was sent out for public consultation. The bill would end registered partnerships, and couples would be able to convert their partnership into marriage.Le mariage homo patine sur le don du sperme , 14 February 2019, Tribune de Genève"Ehe für alle" ist einen Schritt weiter , 14 February 2019, Liechtensteiner VaterlandEhe für alle: Schlanke Kernvorlage mit Zugang zur Samenspende als Variante , 14 February 2019, Swiss Parliament The consultation started on 14 March and lasted until 21 June 2019. It showed wide support for the legalisation of same-sex marriage among all main political parties, with the exception of the Swiss People's Party, and among 22 of the 26 cantonal governments. In January 2020, the Federal Council expressed its support for the same-sex marriage bill. On 11 June 2020, the National Council approved the bill with amendments allowing access to fertility treatments for lesbian couples in a 132–52 vote. The bill was supported by the Social Democrats, the Liberals, the Greens, the Green Liberals and the Conservative Democrats, while the Swiss People's Party was mostly opposed. The Christian Democrats announced they would support the bill if access to fertility treatments for lesbian couples was excluded. The bill passed the Council of States on 1 December 2020 with some minor amendments concerning fertility treatments, by a vote of 22–15 with 7 abstentions. It narrowly defeated, 22 to 20, a motion that would have required a constitutional amendment (which would have delayed the bill by years and mandated a referendum requiring a double majority of the people and the cantons). On 9 December, the National Council approved the changes made by the Council of States by 133 votes to 57 with 1 abstention. The final vote in both chambers took place on 18 December 2020. The Council of States approved the bill by 24 votes to 11 with 7 abstentions, and the National Council approved it by 136 votes to 48 with 9 abstentions. 18 December 2020 vote in the National Council (final vote) Party Voted for Voted against Abstained Absent (Did not vote) Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC) Social Democratic Party (SP/PS) - - FDP.The Liberals (FDP/PLR) - - - Green Party (GPS/PES) - - - Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP/PDC) Green Liberal Party (glp/pvl) - - Conservative Democratic Party (BDP/PBD) - - - Evangelical People's Party (EVP/PEV) - - - Ticino League (Lega) - - - Solidarity (solidaritéS) - - - Swiss Party of Labour (PdA/PST-POP) - - - Federal Democratic Union (EDU/UDF) - - - Total 48 9 7 18 December 2020 vote in the Council of States (final vote) Party Voted for Voted against Abstained Absent (Did not vote) Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP/PDC) FDP.The Liberals (FDP/PLR) - Social Democratic Party (SP/PS) - - - Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC) - - Green Party (GPS/PES) - - Independent - - - Total 11 7 4 ==== Referendum ==== thumb|right|300px|Results of the 2021 same-sex marriage referendum by canton, 26 September 2021 In Switzerland's system of semi-direct democracy, a statute is subject to a popular referendum if opponents collect 50,000 signatures demanding one within three months. The right-wing Federal Democratic Union (EDU/UDF), supported by politicians from the Swiss People's Party and the Christian Democratic People's Party, collected 61,027 signatures with the slogan "Yes to marriage and family, no to marriage for everyone". The Federal Chancellery validated the signatures on 27 April. In response to the announcement that opponents had gathered the necessary signatures, Operation Libero collected more than 100,000 signatures in support of same-sex marriage by late April 2021. The referendum, in which passage of the bill required a simple majority of the popular vote, took place on Sunday, 26 September 2021. 64.1% of voters and all cantons supported the amendment. The vote made Switzerland the 30th country to introduce same-sex marriage, and one of the last in Western Europe. Federal Councillor Karin Keller-Sutter announced in a press conference later that Sunday evening that the legislation adopted in the referendum would enter into force on 1 July 2022. The first weddings of same- sex couples took place on that date. The legislation amended article 94 of the Swiss Civil Code to read: * in German: * in French: * in Italian: * in Romansh: :(To be able to marry, the prospective spouses must have reached 18 years of age and have the capacity of judgement) Provisions of the same-sex marriage law relating to the recognition of foreign marriages came into force on 1 January 2022. Same-sex couples who have married abroad will now have their union recognized as a marriage rather than a registered partnership. ===Marriage statistics=== 749 same-sex marriages were performed in Switzerland in 2022, with most being performed in Zürich, the Lake Geneva area and the Bern-Mittelland region. Year Marriages between women Marriages between men Same-sex marriages Conversions from partnerships 2022 355 394 749 2,234 === Religious performance === In 2019, the Protestant Church of Switzerland voted to support the opening of civil marriage for same-sex couples, with its executive council voting 45–10 in favor. A majority of member churches allow same-sex marriages to be blessed in their places of worship, including those of the cantons of Aargau, Appenzell, Basel-Landschaft, Basel-Stadt, Fribourg, Geneva, Glarus, Graubünden, Lucerne, Neuchâtel, Nidwalden, Obwalden, St. Gallen, Schaffhausen, Schwyz, Thurgau, Ticino, Valais, Vaud, Zürich, and Zug. Pastors are under no obligation to bless same-sex unions if this would contravene their personal beliefs. The Reformed Churches of the Canton Bern-Jura-Solothurn will allow its clergy to officiate at same-sex marriages from mid-2023. Some other member churches, including the Evangelical-Reformed Church of the Canton of Solothurn, the Evangelical Free Church of Geneva and the Evangelical Reformed Church of Uri do not allow their clergy to officiate at same-sex weddings. In August 2020, the Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland voted to allow its priests to perform same-sex marriages in its churches.Luzerner Zeitung.de: Christkatholische Kirche will gleichgeschlechtliche Paare vor dem Altar trauen (german) , August 2020 The measure went into force on 1 July 2022, the same day same-sex marriage became legal in Switzerland. The church has also allowed its priests to bless same-sex partnerships since 2007. The Catholic Church opposes same-sex marriage. In June 2019, the Swiss Union of Catholic Women voted to support the introduction of civil same-sex marriage. In May 2021, the Catholic News Agency reported that Catholic churches in Zürich had joined churches in many German cities in blessing same-sex couples, in ceremonies known as "blessing services for lovers" (). The Swiss Federation of Jewish Communities, an umbrella organisation representing a majority of Switzerland's Jewish communities, voted to support civil same-sex marriage in 2019 as a matter of "personal freedom and individual autonomy", while also stating that a religious marriage under Jewish law could only be between heterosexual couples. Reform Jewish organisations also support civil same-sex marriages. ==Public opinion== According to an Ifop poll conducted in May 2013, 63% of the Swiss public supported allowing same-sex couples to marry and adopt children. Enquête sur la droitisation des opinions publiques européennes After the Legal Affairs Committee's decision to approve same-sex marriage, two opinion polls released on 22 February 2015 showed support of 54% (Léger for Blick) Mehrheit der Schweizer für Ehe zwischen Homosexuellen , blick.ch, retrieved on 22 February 2015 and 71% (gfs group for the SonntagsZeitung) 71 Prozent der Schweizer für Homo-Ehe , sonntagszeitung.ch, retrieved on 22 February 20152015 for allowing same-sex couples to marry and adopt children. A poll carried out between April and May 2016 showed that 69% of the Swiss population supported same-sex marriage, 25% opposed and 6% were unsure. 94% of Green voters, 59% of voters from the Swiss People's Party and 63% of Christian Democratic voters supported it. LARGE CONSENSUS POUR LES DROITS DES LGBT Les Suisses pour l'introduction du mariage pour tous, selon un sondage A poll by Tamedia conducted on 5 and 6 December 2017 found that 45% of the Swiss population supported both same-sex marriage and adoption, 27% supported only same-sex marriage, 3% supported only same-sex adoption and 24% were against both. The poll thus found a 72% majority in favour of same-sex marriage. Green, Social Democratic and Green Liberal voters were the most supportive: 88% in favour, 9% against and 3% undecided. 76% of Liberal voters supported the legalisation of same-sex marriage, while 22% opposed it, and 66% of Christian Democratic voters and 56% of Swiss People's Party voters supported same-sex marriage. A Pew Research Center poll, conducted between April and August 2017 and published in May 2018, showed that 75% of Swiss people supported same-sex marriage, 24% were opposed and 1% did not know or refused to answer.Religion and society , Pew Research Center, 29 May 2018 When divided by religion, 89% of religiously unaffiliated people, 80% of non-practicing Christians and 58% of church-attending Christians supported same-sex marriage.Being Christian in Western Europe , Pew Research Center, 29 May 2018 Opposition was 16% among 18–34-year-olds.Eastern and Western Europeans Differ on Importance of Religion, Views of Minorities, and Key Social Issues , Pew Research Center, 2017 A public consultation held between March and June 2019 showed wide societal and political support for same-sex marriage in Switzerland. 83% of the participants to the consultation expressed support, and 63% expressed support for sperm donation and access to artificial insemination for lesbian couples. A February 2020 survey, conducted by the gfs group and requested by Pink Cross, found an 81% majority in favour of same-sex marriage (63% "strongly" supporting and 18% "somewhat" supporting), whereas 18% were opposed (10% "strongly" and 8% "somewhat") and 1% was undecided. By party, 96% of Greens, 92% of Social Democrats and Green Liberals, 77% of Liberals and 67% of Swiss People's Party voters supported same-sex marriage. Adoption was supported by 67% of respondents and access to fertility treatments for lesbian couples by 66%. In November 2020, another poll conducted by the gfs group found that 82% of respondents "strongly" or "somewhat" supported same-sex marriage, 17% were opposed and 1% were undecided; 72% supported adoption and 70% supported access to fertility treatments for lesbian couples. ==See also== *LGBT rights in Switzerland *Recognition of same-sex unions in Europe ==Notes== ==References== ==External links== *Bundesgesetz über die eingetragene Partnerschaft gleichgeschlechtlicher Paare (Partnerschaftsgesetz, PartG), Fedlex (in German) *Loi fédérale sur le partenariat enregistré entre personnes du même sexe (Loi sur le partenariat, LPart), Fedlex (in French) *Legge federale sull'unione domestica registrata di coppie omosessuali (Legge sull'unione domestica registrata, LUD), Fedlex (in Italian) * History of the same-sex marriage legislation in the Federal Assembly of Switzerland Category:LGBT rights in Switzerland Switzerland Category:2022 in LGBT history Category:2022 in Switzerland |
Joseph Siffert (; 7 July 1936 – 24 October 1971) was a Swiss racing driver. Affectionately known as "Seppi" to his family and friends, Siffert was born in Fribourg, Switzerland, the son of a dairy owner. He initially made his name in racing on two wheels, winning the Swiss 350 cc motorcycle championship in 1959, before switching to four wheels with a Formula Junior Stanguellini. Siffert graduated to Formula One as a privateer in 1962, with a four-cylinder Lotus-Climax. He later moved to Swiss team Scuderia Filipinetti, and in 1964 joined Rob Walker's private British Rob Walker Racing Team. Early successes included victories in the non-Championship 1964 and 1965 Mediterranean Grands Prix, both times beating Jim Clark by a very narrow margin. He won two races in Formula One for the Rob Walker Racing Team and BRM. He died at the 1971 World Championship Victory Race, having his car roll over after a crash caused by a mechanical failure and being caught under the burning vehicle. Siffert was married twice and to his second wife Simone during the height of his career in the late 1960s and at the time of his death. They had two children together, Véronique and Philippe. == Life and career == === Early life === Siffert was born in 1936 in the town of Fribourg, Switzerland, 35 km (22 mi) from Bern to a poor family. Aged 12, Siffert and his father went to Bern to see the 1948 Swiss Grand Prix at the Bremgarten circuit, and it was at this event where Siffert wanted to be a racing driver. === Formula One === In 1968, Siffert drove into the F1 history books by winning the 1968 British Grand Prix at Brands Hatch in Rob Walker Racing Team's Lotus 49B, beating Chris Amon's Ferrari into second place after a race-long battle. This is regarded as the last GP victory by a genuine privateer. In 1971 as a BRM team driver he scored his second Formula One Championship race victory at the Austrian Grand Prix held at the Österreichring. === Sports cars === While Siffert's status in F1 grew slowly, his fame came as a leading driver for the factory Porsche effort in its quest for the World Sportscar Championship. In 1968, Siffert and Hans Herrmann won the 24 Hours of Daytona and the 12 Hours of Sebring in a Porsche 907, marking the first major outright wins for the company, apart from a few earlier victories on twisty tracks. thumb|right|Siffert in the Porsche 908.03 at the 1970 1,000 km Nürburgring thumb|right|Siffert at the wheel of a Porsche 908 Later on, Siffert's driving displays in the Porsche 917 earned him several major wins in Europe. In addition, Siffert was chosen by Porsche to help launch its CanAm development programme, driving a Porsche 917PA spyder in 1969 and finishing fourth in the championship despite few entries. In 1970 he teamed up with Brian Redman to drive a Porsche 908/3 to victory at the Targa Florio. That same year, Porsche bankrolled Siffert's seat in a works March Engineering F1 since the German company did not wish to lose one of their prize drivers to rival Ferrari. His association with March in F1 was disastrous, so he was pleased to join rival Porsche racer Pedro Rodriguez at BRM the following season. === Death === Siffert was killed in the non- championship World Championship Victory Race at Brands Hatch, Kent, England, the scene of his first victory in 1968. The suspension of his BRM had been damaged in a lap one incident with Ronnie Peterson, and broke later. This was not admitted by BRM until much later when it was accidentally divulged by a BRM ex-mechanic. The BRM crashed and immediately caught fire. Siffert could not free himself from the burning car. In the subsequent Royal Automobile Club (the UK organising and regulatory representative of the FIA at the time) investigation, it was discovered that Siffert had only suffered a leg fracture in the initial crash but because three fire extinguishers failed to work properly no rescuers could reach Siffert for five minutes and he died of smoke inhalation. A fire marshall stated that if the fire extinguishers worked correctly then they could have reached Siffert within 20 seconds. This accident led to a rapid overhaul of safety, both in-car and on circuit. On- board fire extinguishers (using BCF—bromochlorodifluoromethane, an aircraft product) became mandatory and also piped air for the drivers, direct into their helmets. His funeral in Switzerland was attended by 50,000 people and a Gulf-Porsche 917 of Team John Wyer led the hearse and procession through the streets of Fribourg. Benoit was a period Formula 1 sports reporter and knew Siffert well. He was also present at Siffert's tragic last Brands Hatch race in 1971. The night before the race, Benoit took pictures of Siffert, his wife Simone and his mother Maria as well as a friend Jean Tinguely at an evening victory celebration. He then also took the last picture of Siffert alive as he sat waiting in his BRM in the pole position on the starting line five minutes before the start of the race. === Legacy === In the final round of the 2007–08 A1GP season, at Brands Hatch, the A1 Team Switzerland car carried the message Jo 'Seppi' Siffert - 40th Anniversary - Brands Hatch. This commemorated his 1968 British Grand Prix victory at Brands Hatch. thumb|Jo Siffert memorial bust outside Palexpo complexe (Geneva Feb.1997) ==Racing record== ===Career summary=== Season Series Team Races Wins Poles F/Laps Podiums Points Position 1962 Formula One Ecurie Filipinetti 3 0 0 0 0 0 NC 1963 Formula One Siffert Racing Team 9 0 0 0 0 1 14th 1964 Formula One Siffert Racing Team 8 0 0 0 0 7 10th 1964 R.R.C. Walker Racing Team 2 0 0 0 1 7 10th 1964 Trophées de France Siffert Racing Team 1 0 0 0 0 0 NC 1965 Formula One R.R.C. Walker Racing Team 10 0 0 0 0 5 12th 1965 24 Hours of Le Mans J.H. Simone 1 0 0 0 0 N/A DNF 1966 Formula One R.R.C. Walker Racing Team 8 0 0 0 0 3 14th 1966 British Formula Two Joakim Bonnier 1 0 0 0 0 0 NC 1966 24 Hours of Le Mans Porsche System Engineering 1 1 0 ? 1 N/A 1st 1967 Formula One Rob Walker/Jack Durlacher Racing Team 10 0 0 0 0 6 12th 1967 European Formula Two BMW AG München 3 0 0 0 0 0 NC 1967 24 Hours of Le Mans Porsche System Engineering 1 1 0 ? 1 N/A 1st 1968 Formula One Rob Walker/Jack Durlacher Racing Team 12 1 1 3 1 12 7th 1968 European Formula Two Bayerische Motoren Werke 2 0 0 0 0 0 NC 1968 24 Hours of Le Mans Porsche System Engineering 1 0 0 0 0 N/A DNF 1968 24 Hours of Daytona 1 1 ? ? 1 N/A 1st 1969 Formula One Rob Walker/Jack Durlacher Racing Team 11 0 0 0 2 15 9th 1969 Can-Am Porsche-Audi 8 0 0 0 1 56 4th 1969 European Formula Two Bayerische Motoren Werke 3 0 1 0 1 0 NC 1969 24 Hours of Le Mans Hart Ski Racing 1 0 0 0 0 N/A NC 1969 24 Hours of Daytona Porsche System Engineering 1 0 0 0 0 N/A NC 1970 Formula One March Engineering 12 0 0 0 0 0 NC 1970 European Formula Two Bayerische Motoren Werke 4 0 0 0 1 0 NC 1970 Can-Am J.W. Automotive 1 0 0 0 1 15 17th 1970 24 Hours of Le Mans 1 0 0 0 0 N/A DNF 1971 Formula One Yardley Team BRM 11 1 1 1 2 19 5th 1971 Can-Am STP-Jo Siffert 6 0 0 0 3 68 4th 1971 European Formula Two Jo Siffert - Chevron Racing Team 2 0 0 0 0 0 NC 1971 24 Hours of Le Mans J.W. Automotive 1 0 0 0 0 N/A DNF Graded drivers not eligible for European Formula Two Championship points ===Complete Formula One World Championship results=== (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Entrant Chassis Engine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Pts 1962 Ecurie Nationale Suisse Lotus 21 Climax FPF 1.5 L4 NED MON NC 0 1962 Ecurie Filipinetti Lotus 21 Climax FPF 1.5 L4 BEL GER NC 0 1962 Ecurie Filipinetti Lotus 24 BRM P56 1.5 V8 FRA GBR ITA USA RSA NC 0 1963 Siffert Racing Team Lotus 24 BRM P56 1.5 V8 MON BEL NED FRA GBR GER ITA USA MEX RSA 14th 1 1964 Siffert Racing Team Lotus 24 BRM P56 1.5 V8 MON 10th 7 1964 Siffert Racing Team Brabham BT11 BRM P56 1.5 V8 NED BEL FRA GBR GER AUT ITA 10th 7 1964 R.R.C. Walker Racing Team Brabham BT11 BRM P56 1.5 V8 USA MEX 10th 7 1965 R.R.C. Walker Racing Team Brabham BT11 BRM P56 1.5 V8 RSA MON BEL FRA GBR NED GER ITA USA MEX 12th 5 1966 R.R.C. Walker Racing Team Brabham BT11 BRM P60 2.0 V8 MON 14th 3 1966 R.R.C. Walker Racing Team Cooper T81 Maserati 9/F1 3.0 V12 BEL FRA GBR NED GER ITA USA MEX 14th 3 1967 Rob Walker/Jack Durlacher Racing Team Cooper T81 Maserati 9/F1 3.0 V12 RSA MON NED BEL FRA GBR GER CAN ITA USA MEX 12th 6 1968 Rob Walker/Jack Durlacher Racing Team Cooper T81 Maserati 9/F1 3.0 V12 RSA 7th 12 1968 Rob Walker/Jack Durlacher Racing Team Lotus 49 Ford Cosworth DFV 3.0 V8 ESP MON BEL NED FRA 7th 12 1968 Rob Walker/Jack Durlacher Racing Team Lotus 49B Ford Cosworth DFV 3.0 V8 GBR GER ITA CAN USA MEX 7th 12 1969 Rob Walker/Jack Durlacher Racing Team Lotus 49B Ford Cosworth DFV 3.0 V8 RSA ESP MON NED FRA GBR GER ITA CAN USA MEX 9th 15 1970 March Engineering March 701 Ford Cosworth DFV 3.0 V8 RSA ESP MON BEL NED FRA GBR GER AUT ITA CAN USA MEX NC 0 1971 Yardley Team BRM BRM P153 BRM P142 3.0 V12 RSA 5th 19 1971 Yardley Team BRM BRM P160 BRM P142 3.0 V12 ESP MON NED FRA GBR GER AUT ITA CAN USA 5th 19 ;Notes * – Formula Two cars occupied fifth to tenth positions in the 1969 German Grand Prix, however drivers of these cars were not eligible for championship points. The points for fifth and sixth were awarded to the drivers of the eleventh and twelfth placed cars. ===Complete Formula One Non- Championship results=== (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Entrant Chassis Engine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1962 Ecurie Nationale Suisse Lotus 22 Ford 105E 1.5 L4 CAP BRX LOM LAV GLV 1962 Ecurie Nationale Suisse Lotus 21 Climax FPF 1.5 L4 PAU AIN INT NAP MAL CLP 1962 Scuderia Filipinetti Lotus 21 Climax FPF 1.5 L4 RMS MED DAN OUL MEX RAN NAT 1962 Scuderia Filipinetti Lotus 24 BRM P56 1.5 V8 SOL KAN 1963 Ecurie Filipinetti Lotus 24 BRM P56 1.5 V8 LOM GLV PAU IMO SYR AIN INT 1963 Siffert Racing Team Lotus 24 BRM P56 1.5 V8 ROM SOL KAN MED AUT OUL RAN 1964 Siffert Racing Team Lotus 24 BRM P56 1.5 V8 DMT NWT SYR AIN INT 1964 Siffert Racing Team Brabham BT11 BRM P56 1.5 V8 SOL MED RAN 1965 R.R.C. Walker Racing Team Brabham BT11 BRM P56 1.5 V8 ROC SYR SMT INT MED RAN 1966 R.R.C. Walker Racing Team Brabham BT11 BRM P56 1.5 V8 RSA 1966 R.R.C. Walker Racing Team Cooper T81 Maserati 9/F1 3.0 V12 SYR 1966 R.R.C. Walker Racing Team Cooper T80 Maserati 9/F1 3.0 V12 INT OUL 1967 Rob Walker/Jack Durlacher Racing Team Cooper T81 Maserati 9/F1 3.0 V12 ROC SPC INT SYR OUL 1967 Bayerische Motoren Werke Lola T100 BMW M12 2.0 L4 ESP 1968 Rob Walker/Jack Durlacher Racing Team Lotus 49 Ford Cosworth DFV 3.0 V8 ROC INT OUL 1969 Rob Walker/Jack Durlacher Racing Team Lotus 49B Ford Cosworth DFV 3.0 V8 ROC INT MAD OUL 1971 Jo Siffert Automobiles March 701 Ford Cosworth DFV 3.0 V8 ARG ROC 1971 Yardley Team BRM BRM P160 BRM P142 3.0 V12 QUE INT RIN OUL VIC 1971 Yardley Team BRM BRM P153 BRM P142 3.0 V12 SPR ===Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results=== Year Team Co-Drivers Car Class Laps 1965 J.H. Simone Jochen Neerpasch Maserati Tipo 65 P +5.0 3 DNF DNF 1966 Porsche System Engineering Colin Davis Porsche 906/6L Carrera 6 P 2.0 339 4th 1st 1967 Porsche System Engineering Hans Herrmann Porsche 907/6L P 2.0 358 5th 1st 1968 Porsche System Engineering Hans Herrmann Porsche 908 P 3.0 59 DNF DNF 1969 Hart Ski Racing Brian Redman Porsche 908/2L P 3.0 60 DNF DNF 1970 John Wyer Automotive Engineering Ltd. Brian Redman Porsche 917K S 5.0 156 DNF DNF 1971 John Wyer Automotive Engineering Ltd. Derek Bell Porsche 917LH S 5.0 DNF DNF ===Complete European Formula Two Championship results=== (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Entrant Chassis Engine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Pts Bayerische Motoren Werke Lola T100 BMW M11 SNE SIL NÜR HOC TUL JAR ZAN PER BRH VAL NC 0 Bayerische Motoren Werke Lola T102 BMW M11 HOC THR JAR PAL TUL ZAN PER HOC VAL NC 0 Bayerische Motoren Werke Lola T102 BMW M11 THR HOC NÜR JAR TUL NC 0 Bayerische Motoren Werke BMW 269 BMW M11 PER VAL NC 0 Bayerische Motoren Werke BMW 270 BMW M11 THR HOC BAR ROU PER TUL IMO HOC NC 0 Jo Siffert - Chevron Racing Team Chevron B18 Cosworth FVA HOC THR NÜR JAR PAL ROU MAN TUL ALB VAL VAL NC 0 Graded drivers not eligible for European Formula Two Championship points == Other results== *Targa Florio: 1st, 1970 *Coppa Cittá di Enna: 1st, 1968 *12 hours of Sebring: 1st, 1968 *24 hours of Daytona: 1st, 1968 *6 Hours of Nürburgring: 1st, 1968, 1969 *6 Hours of Spa- Francorchamps: 1st, 1969, 1970 *1000 km of Zeltweg: 1st, 1968, 1969, 1970 *1000 km of Monza: 1st, 1969 *1000 km of Buenos Aires: 1st, 1971 *6 Hours of Watkins Glen: 1st, 1969 *1000 km of Brands Hatch: 1st, 1968 ==References== ==Sources== * F1 Results include information from the following sources: * * * ==External links== * Official Jo Siffert web site (German and French) by Philippe Siffert, Jo's son * Jo Siffert fan page authorized by Simone Siffert, Jo's second wife * Biography at der Blick (German) Category:1936 births Category:1971 deaths Category:12 Hours of Reims drivers Category:24 Hours of Daytona drivers Category:24 Hours of Le Mans drivers Category:BRM Formula One drivers Category:Deaths by smoke inhalation Category:Formula One race winners Category:March Formula One drivers Category:Sportspeople from Fribourg Category:Racing drivers who died while racing Category:Rob Walker Racing Team Formula One drivers Category:Scuderia Filipinetti Formula One drivers Category:Siffert Racing Formula One drivers Category:Sport deaths in England Category:Swiss motorcycle racers Category:Swiss racing drivers Category:Swiss Formula One drivers Category:World Sportscar Championship drivers Category:12 Hours of Sebring drivers Category:Porsche Motorsports drivers |
The textile industry is primarily concerned with the design, production and distribution of textiles: yarn, cloth and clothing. The raw material may be natural, or synthetic using products of the chemical industry. ==Industry process== ===Cotton manufacturing=== Cotton is the world's most important natural fibre. In the year 2007, the global yield was 25 million tons from 35 million hectares cultivated in more than 50 countries. There are five stages of cotton manufacturing: * Cultivating and Harvesting * Preparatory Processes * Spinning — giving yarn * Weaving — giving fabrics * Finishing — giving textiles ===Synthetic fibres=== Artificial fibres can be made by extruding a polymer, through a spinneret (polymers) into a medium where it hardens. Wet spinning (rayon) uses a coagulating medium. In dry spinning (acetate and triacetate), the polymer is contained in a solvent that evaporates in the heated exit chamber. In melt spinning (nylons and polyesters) the extruded polymer is cooled in gas or air and then sets. _Some examples of synthetic fibers are; polyester, rayon, acrylic fibers and microfibers._ All these fibres will be of great length, often kilometres long. Synthetic fibers are more durable than most natural fibers and will readily pick-up different dyes . Artificial fibres can be processed as long fibres or batched and cut so they can be processed like natural fibre. ===Natural fibres=== Sheep, goats, rabbits, silkworms, and other animals, as well as minerals like asbestos, are sources of natural fibers (cotton, flax, sisal). These vegetable fibers can originate from the seed (cotton), the stem (bast fibres: flax, hemp, jute), or the leaf (sisal). All of these sources require a number of steps, each of which has a distinct name, before a clean, even staple is produced. All of these fibers, with the exception of silk, are short, only a few centimeters long, and have a rough surface that allows them to adhere to other like staples . ==History== ===Cottage stage=== There are some indications that weaving was already known in the Palaeolithic. An indistinct textile impression has been found at Pavlov, Moravia. Neolithic textiles were found in pile dwellings excavations in Switzerland and at El Fayum, Egypt at a site which dates to about 5000 BC. In Roman times, wool, linen and leather clothed the European population, and silk, imported along the Silk Road from China, was an extravagant luxury. The use of flax fiber in the manufacturing of cloth in Northern Europe dates back to Neolithic times. During the late medieval period, cotton began to be imported into Northern Europe. Without any knowledge of what it came from, other than that it was a plant, noting its similarities to wool, people in the region could only imagine that cotton must be produced by plant-borne sheep. John Mandeville, writing in 1350, stated as fact the now-preposterous belief: "There grew in India a wonderful tree which bore tiny lambs on the edges of its branches. These branches were so pliable that they bent down to allow the lambs to feed when they are hungry." This aspect is retained in the name for cotton in many European languages, such as German Baumwolle, which translates as "tree wool". By the end of the 16th century, cotton was cultivated throughout the warmer regions of Asia and the Americas. The main steps in the production of cloth are producing the fibre, preparing it, converting it to yarn, converting yarn to cloth, and then finishing the cloth. The cloth is then taken to the manufacturer of garments. The preparation of the fibres differs the most, depending on the fibre used. Flax requires retting and dressing, while wool requires carding and washing. The spinning and weaving processes are very similar between fibers, however. Spinning evolved from twisting the fibers by hand, to using a drop spindle, to using a spinning wheel. Spindles or parts of them have been found in archaeological sites and may represent one of the first pieces of technology available.Cotton: Origin, History, Technology, and Production By C. Wayne Smith, Joe Tom Cotton. Page viii. Published 1999. John Wiley and Sons. Technology & Industrial Arts. 864 pages. The spinning wheel was most likely invented in the Islamic world by the 11th century. ===India=== The textile industry in India traditionally, after agriculture, is the only industry that has generated huge employment for both skilled and unskilled labour in textiles. The textile industry continues to be the second-largest employment generating sector in India. It offers direct employment to over 35 million in the country. According to the Ministry of Textiles, the share of textiles in total exports during April–July 2010 was 11.04%. During 2009–2010, the Indian textile industry was pegged at 55 billion, 64% of which services domestic demand. In 2010, there were 2,500 textile weaving factories and 4,135 textile finishing factories in all of India. According to AT Kearney’s ‘Retail Apparel Index’, India was ranked as the fourth most promising market for apparel retailers in 2009. India is first in global jute production and shares 63% of the global textile and garment market. India is second in global textile manufacturing and also second in silk and cotton production. 100% FDI is allowed via automatic route in textile sector. Rieter, Trutzschler, Saurer, Soktas, Zambiati, Bilsar, Monti, CMT, E-land, Nisshinbo, Marks & Spencer, Zara, Promod, Benetton, and Levi’s are some of the foreign textile companies invested or working in India.SECTORS - Make In India ===Britain=== The key British industry at the beginning of the 18th century was the production of textiles made with wool from the large sheep-farming areas in the Midlands and across the country (created as a result of land-clearance and enclosure). This was a labour-intensive activity providing employment throughout Britain, with major centres being the West Country; Norwich and environs; and the West Riding of Yorkshire. The export trade in woolen goods accounted for more than a quarter of British exports during most of the 18th century, doubling between 1701 and 1770. The British textile industry drove the Industrial revolution, triggering advancements in technology, stimulating the coal and iron industries, boosting raw material imports, and improving transportation, which made Britain the global leader of industrialization, trade, and scientific innovation. Exports by the cotton industry - centered in Lancashire - had grown tenfold during this time, but still accounted for only a tenth of the value of the woolen trade. Before the 17th century, the manufacture of goods was performed on a limited scale by individual workers, usually on their own premises (such as weavers' cottages). Goods were transported around the country by clothiers who visited the village with their trains of packhorses. Some of the cloth was made into clothes for people living in the same area, and a large amount of cloth was exported. River navigations were constructed, and some contour-following canals. In the early 18th century, artisans were inventing ways to become more productive. Silk, wool, fustian, and linen were being eclipsed by cotton, which was becoming the most important textile. This set the foundations for the changes.Industrial Revolution and the Standard of Living: The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics , Library of Economics and Liberty ===Catalonia=== The cotton industry in Catalonia was the first industry in Spain to industrialise and led, by the mid 19th century, to Catalonia becoming the main industrial region of Spain, a position it maintained until well into the 20th century. Catalonia is the one Mediterranean exception to the tendency of early industrialisation to be concentrated in northern Europe. The industry began in the early 18th century in Barcelona, when printed cloth chintz (Catalan: indianes) was produced as an import substitution. The market quickly expanded to the American colonies from where dyes and (later) cotton raw materials could be sourced. Spinning was a late addition to the industry and took off after English spinning technology was introduced at the turn of the 19th century. Industrialisation of the industry occurred in the 1830s after adoption of the factory system, and the removal of restrictions by Britain on the emigration of expert labour (1825) and of machinery (1842). Steam power was introduced but the cost of imported coal and steam engines, led to the extensive use of hydraulic power from the late 1860s. ===Industrial revolution=== The woven fabric portion of the textile industry grew out of the industrial revolution in the 18th century as mass production of yarn and cloth became a mainstream industry. In 1734 in Bury, Lancashire John Kay invented the flying shuttle -- one of the first of a series of inventions associated with the cotton woven fabric industry. The flying shuttle increased the width of cotton cloth and speed of production of a single weaver at a loom. Resistance by workers to the perceived threat to jobs delayed the widespread introduction of this technology, even though the higher rate of production generated an increased demand for spun cotton. thumb|Shuttles In 1761, the Duke of Bridgewater's canal connected Manchester to the coal fields of Worsley and in 1762, Matthew Boulton opened the Soho Foundry engineering works in Handsworth, Birmingham. His partnership with Scottish engineer James Watt resulted, in 1775, in the commercial production of the more efficient Watt steam engine which used a separate condenser. In 1764, James Hargreaves is credited as inventor of the spinning jenny which multiplied the spun thread production capacity of a single worker -- initially eightfold and subsequently much further. OthersGreat Industries of Great Britain, Volume I, published by Cassell Petter and Galpin, (London, Paris, New York, c1880). credit the invention to Thomas Highs. Industrial unrest and a failure to patent the invention until 1770 forced Hargreaves from Blackburn, but his lack of protection of the idea allowed the concept to be exploited by others. As a result, there were over 20,000 spinning jennies in use by the time of his death. Also in 1764, Thorp Mill, the first water-powered cotton mill in the world was constructed at Royton, Lancashire, and was used for carding cotton. With the spinning and weaving process now mechanized, cotton mills cropped up all over the North West of England. The stocking frame invented in 1589 for silk became viable when in 1759, Jedediah Strutt introduced an attachment for the frame which produced what became known as the Derby Rib, that produced a knit and purl stitch. This allowed stockings to be manufactured in silk and later in cotton. In 1768, Hammond modified the stocking frame to weave weft-knitted openworks or nets by crossing over the loops, using a mobile tickler bar- this led in 1781 to Thomas Frost's square net. Cotton had been too coarse for lace, but by 1805 Houldsworths of Manchester were producing reliable 300 count cotton thread. ===19th-century developments=== With the Cartwright Loom, the Spinning Mule and the Boulton & Watt steam engine, the pieces were in place to build a mechanised woven fabric textile industry. From this point there were no new inventions, but a continuous improvement in technology as the mill-owner strove to reduce cost and improve quality. Developments in the transport infrastructure; that is the canals and after 1831 the railways facilitated the import of raw materials and export of finished cloth. Firstly, the use of water power to drive mills was supplemented by steam driven water pumps, and then superseded completely by the steam engines. For example, Samuel Greg joined his uncle's firm of textile merchants, and, on taking over the company in 1782, he sought out a site to establish a mill.Quarry Bank Mill was built on the River Bollin at Styal in Cheshire. It was initially powered by a water wheel, but installed steam engines in 1810. Quarry Bank Mill in Cheshire still exists as a well-preserved museum, having been in use from its construction in 1784 until 1959. It also illustrates how the mill owners exploited child labour, taking orphans from nearby Manchester to work the cotton. It shows that these children were housed, clothed, fed and provided with some education. In 1830, the average power of a mill engine was 48 hp, but Quarry Bank mill installed a new 100 hp water wheel. William Fairbairn addressed the problem of line-shafting and was responsible for improving the efficiency of the mill. In 1815 he replaced the wooden turning shafts that drove the machines at 50rpm, to wrought iron shafting working at 250 rpm, these were a third of the weight of the previous ones and absorbed less power. thumb|A Roberts loom in a weaving shed in 1835. Note the wrought iron shafting, fixed to the cast iron columns Secondly, in 1830, using an 1822 patent, Richard Roberts manufactured the first loom with a cast iron frame, the Roberts Loom. In 1842 James Bullough and William Kenworthy, made the Lancashire Loom, a semiautomatic power loom: although it is self-acting, it has to be stopped to recharge empty shuttles. It was the mainstay of the Lancashire cotton industry for a century, until the Northrop Loom (invented in 1894, with an automatic weft replenishment function) gained ascendancy. thumb|Roberts self-acting mule with quadrant gearing Thirdly, also in 1830, Richard Roberts patented the first self-acting mule. Stalybridge mule spinners strike was in 1824; this stimulated research into the problem of applying power to the winding stroke of the mule. The draw while spinning had been assisted by power, but the push of the wind had been done manually by the spinner, the mule could be operated by semiskilled labor. Before 1830, the spinner would operate a partially powered mule with a maximum of 400 spindles; after, self-acting mules with up to 1300 spindles could be built. Number of looms in the UK Year 1803 1820 1829 1833 1857 Looms 2400 14650 55500 100000 250000 The industrial revolution changed the nature of work and society The three key drivers in these changes were textile manufacturing, iron founding and steam power.Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848, Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd. Joseph E Inikori. Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England, Cambridge University Press. Read itRehabilitating the Industrial Revolution by Julie Lorenzen, Central Michigan University. Retrieved November 2006. The geographical focus of textile manufacture in Britain was Manchester and the small towns of the Pennines and southern Lancashire. Textile production in England peaked in 1926, and as mills were decommissioned, many of the scrapped mules and looms were bought up and reinstated in India. ===20th century=== thumb|Textile factory workers in Poland, 1950s Major changes came to the textile industry during the 20th century, with continuing technological innovations in machinery, synthetic fibre, logistics, and globalization of the business. The business model that had dominated the industry for centuries was to change radically. Cotton and wool producers were not the only source for fibres, as chemical companies created new synthetic fibres that had superior qualities for many uses, such as rayon, invented in 1910, and DuPont's nylon, invented in 1935 as in inexpensive silk substitute, and used for products ranging from women's stockings to tooth brushes and military parachutes. The variety of synthetic fibres used in manufacturing fibre grew steadily throughout the 20th century. In the 1920s, the computer was invented; in the 1940s, acetate, modacrylic, metal fibres, and saran were developed; acrylic, polyester, and spandex were introduced in the 1950s. Polyester became hugely popular in the apparel market, and by the late 1970s, more polyester was sold in the United States than cotton. By the late 1980s, the apparel segment was no longer the largest market for fibre products, with industrial and home furnishings together representing a larger proportion of the fibre market. Industry integration and global manufacturing led to many small firms closing for good during the 1970s and 1980s in the United States; during those decades, 95 percent of the looms in North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia shut down, and Alabama and Virginia also saw many factories close. The largest exporters of textiles in 2013 were China ($274 billion), India ($40 billion), Italy ($36 billion), Germany ($35 billion), Bangladesh ($28 billion) and Pakistan ($27 Billion). ===Pakistan=== The textile sector accounts for 70% of Pakistan's exports. The industry's contribution in the nation's exports account for 8.5% of the total GDP. Textile exports stood at $4.4 billion in 2017-2018. The industry employs a large section of the labour force in the country. Pakistan is the 4th largest producer of cotton with the third largest spinning capacity in Asia. It contributes 5% to the global spinning capacity. At present, there are 1,221 ginning units, 442 spinning units and 124 large spinning units in addition to 425 small units which produce textiles. Pakistan is the third largest consumer of cotton. Exports of $3.5 billion were recorded in 2017- 2018(6.5% of the total exported cotton on the world) In 1950, textile manufacturing emerged as the central of Pakistan industrialisation. Between 1947 and 2000, the number of textile Mills increased from 3 to 600. In the same time, spindles increased in number from 177,000 to 805 million. The textile industry provides 45% of the bank redit in Pakistan. ===Bangladesh=== Many Western multinationals use labor in Bangladesh, which is one of the cheapest in the world: 30 euros per month compared to 150 or 200 in China. Four days is enough for the CEO of one of the top five global textile brands to earn what a Bangladeshi garment worker will earn in her lifetime. In April 2013, at least 1,135 textile workers died in the collapse of their factory. Other fatal accidents due to unsanitary factories have affected Bangladesh: in 2005 a factory collapsed and caused the death of 64 people. In 2006, a series of fires killed 85 people and injured 207 others. In 2010, some 30 people died of asphyxiation and burns in two serious fires. In 2006, tens of thousands of workers mobilized in one of the country's largest strike movements, affecting almost all of the 4,000 factories. The Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and Exporters Association (BGMEA) uses police forces to crack down. Three workers were killed, and hundreds more were wounded by bullets, or imprisoned. In 2010, after a new strike movement, nearly 1,000 people were injured among workers as a result of the repression. ===Ethiopia=== Employees of Ethiopian garment factories, who work for brands such as Guess, H&M; or Calvin Klein, receive a monthly salary of 26 dollars per month. These very low wages have led to low productivity, frequent strikes and high turnover. Some factories have replaced all their employees on average every 12 months, according to the 2019 report of the Stern Centre for Business and Human Rights at New York University. The report states:" Rather than the docile and cheap labour force promoted in Ethiopia, foreign-based suppliers have met employees who are unhappy with their pay and living conditions and who want to protest more and more by stopping work or even quitting. In their eagerness to create a "made in Ethiopia" brand, the government, global brands and foreign manufacturers did not anticipate that the base salary was simply too low for workers to make a living from. » ==Commerce and regulation== The Multi Fibre Arrangement (MFA) governed the world trade in textiles and garments from 1974 through 2004, imposing quotas on the amount developing countries could export to developed countries. It expired on 1 January 2005. The MFA was introduced in 1974 as a short-term measure intended to allow developed countries to adjust to imports from the developing world. Developing countries have a natural advantage in textile production because it is labor-intensive and they have low labor costs. According to a World Bank/International Monetary Fund (IMF) study, the system has cost the developing world 27 million jobs and $40 billion a year in lost exports.Presentation by H.E. K.M. Chandrasekhar, Chairman ITCB, EC Conference on the Future of Textiles and Clothing after 2004, Brussels, 5 – 6 May 2003. However, the Arrangement was not negative for all developing countries. For example, the European Union (EU) imposed no restrictions or duties on imports from the very poor countries, such as Bangladesh, leading to a massive expansion of the industry there. At the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) Uruguay Round, it was decided to bring the textile trade under the jurisdiction of the World Trade Organization (WTO). The WTO Agreement on Textiles and Clothing provided for the gradual dismantling of the quotas that existed under the MFA. This process was completed on 1 January 2005. However, large tariffs remain in place on many textile products. thumb|Women work in a textile factory outside Dhaka, Bangladesh. Bangladesh was expected to suffer the most from the ending of the MFA, as it was expected to face more competition, particularly from China. However, this was not the case. It turns out that even in the face of other economic giants, Bangladesh's labor is “cheaper than anywhere else in the world.” While some smaller factories were documented making pay cuts and layoffs, most downsizing was essentially speculative – the orders for goods kept coming even after the MFA expired. In fact, Bangladesh's exports increased in value by about $500 million in 2006.Haider, Mahtab. “Defying predictions, Bangladesh’s garment factories thrive.” The Christian Science Monitor. 7 Feb 2006. 11 Feb 2007. ==Regulatory standards== For textiles, like for many other products, there are certain national and international standards and regulations that need to be complied with to ensure quality, safety and sustainability. The following standards amongst others apply to textiles: * CPSIA, e.g. Standard for the Flammability of Clothing Textiles * ASTM Textile Standards * REACH Regulations for Textiles * China Product Standard for Textiles ==See also== *Drapers and cloth merchants *Textile industry in Bangladesh *List of textile fibres ==Notes== ==References== ===Citations=== ===Sources=== * * Copeland, Melvin Thomas. The cotton manufacturing industry of the United States (Harvard University Press, 1912) online * Cameron, Edward H. Samuel Slater, Father of American Manufactures (1960) scholarly biography * Conrad Jr., James L. "'Drive That Branch': Samuel Slater, the Power Loom, and the Writing of America's Textile History," Technology and Culture, Vol. 36, No. 1 (January 1995), pp. 1–28 in JSTOR * * Griffiths, T., Hunt, P.A., and O’Brien, P. K. "Inventive activity in the British textile industry", Journal of Economic History, 52 (1992), pp. 881–906. * Griffiths, Trevor; Hunt, Philip; O’Brien, Patrick. "Scottish, Irish, and imperial connections: Parliament, the three kingdoms, and the mechanization of cotton spinning in eighteenth-century Britain," Economic History Review, Aug 2008, Vol. 61 Issue 3, pp 625–650 * * Smelser; Neil J. Social Change in the Industrial Revolution: An Application of Theory to the British Cotton Industry (1959) * Tucker, Barbara M. "The Merchant, the Manufacturer, and the Factory Manager: The Case of Samuel Slater," Business History Review, Vol. 55, No. 3 (Autumn, 1981), pp. 297–313 in JSTOR * Tucker, Barbara M. Samuel Slater and the Origins of the American Textile Industry, 1790-1860 (1984) * * Woytinsky, W. S., and E. S. Woytinsky. World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks (1953) pp. 1051–98; with many tables and maps on the worldwide textile industry in 19508 Category:Industries (economics) |
The Joshua Tree Tour was a concert tour by Irish rock band U2. Staged in support of their 1987 album The Joshua Tree, the tour visited arenas and stadiums across North America and Europe from April to December 1987. The tour was depicted on the video and live album Live from Paris, and on the 1988 album and documentary film Rattle and Hum. ==Itinerary== thumb|Fans waiting for U2 outside Hartford Civic Center May 1987 This tour's opening night was 2 April at Arizona State University's Activity Center in Tempe, Arizona. The day before the opening night, Bono fell onto a spotlight he was carrying during a rendition of "Bullet the Blue Sky", cutting open his chin. Bono had partially lost his voice as a result. He asked the audience to help him sing the majority of the set, which they were happy to do. At the time, it was explained by their publicists in a press release that it was due to the week of rehearsals the band held at A.S.U.'s Activity Center and he had over rehearsed his voice. He had fully regained his voice for the second of the two shows at the arena on 4 April. The first leg took place in American indoor arenas during April and May. The first leg finished with 5 concerts at the Brendan Byrne Arena in East Rutherford between 11 and 16 May. The second leg in European arenas and outdoor stadiums ran from late May through to early August, starting at the Stadio Flaminio in Rome on 27 May. The final show of the European leg is at Páirc Uí Chaoimh in Cork on 8 August.McGee (2008), p. 109. The third leg returned to American and Canadian arenas and stadiums in the autumn. The tour ended on 20 December back where it started in Tempe, Arizona, but this time at Sun Devil Stadium. On 30 April, the band played the Pontiac Silverdome, their first headlining stadium show in the United States. While the show's reviews were positive, they said that a video screen is necessary for people at the back. U2 production manager, Willie Williams, recalls the debate within the band about the use of screens and whether they would divide the audience's attention between the stage and the screen.McGee (2008), p. 104. A video screen was installed behind the lighting tower at the 20 September show at the RFK Stadium in Washington, D.C., so the back half of the stadium could better see the band, and screens were used at most stadium shows for the rest of the tour.McGee (2008), p. 110. The Joshua Tree Tour sold out stadiums around the world, the first time the band had consistently played venues of that size. The Joshua Tree and its singles had become huge hits and the band had reached a new height in their popularity. Tickets for shows were often very hard to get, especially on the first American leg when they only played in arenas. That first leg was also organised around multiple-night stands in centres of U2 fandom along the two U.S. coasts, with only a very few dates in the middle of the country. These multiple-night stands also featured an unusual set list twist. All but the last night would begin in conventional concert fashion with the rousing pair of "Where the Streets Have No Name" into "I Will Follow", but the last night in each city would begin with the house lights fully up and the band performing the early 1960s classic "Stand by Me", with guitarist the Edge singing one verse, all intended as a friendly, informal opening. The house lights would then stay up for "Pride (In the Name of Love)", only going off at the end of it; the rest of the set list would be consequently scrambled from the norm. The new level of fame, exposure and the frantic nature of the tour put the U2 organisation under a large amount of stress. ==Cover performances== At Wembley Stadium in London, Bono sang The Beatles' "Help!", dedicating it to those in the audience who were dreading another five years of the recently re-elected Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher. As another sign of the group's confidence, they also covered The Beatles' heretofore untouchable "Helter Skelter", declaring "This is a song Charles Manson stole from the Beatles; we're stealin' it back." Other notable covers from the tour included Eddie Cochran's "C'mon Everybody", Peggy Seeger's "The Ballad of Springhill", Neil Young's "Southern Man", Curtis Mayfield's "People Get Ready" (during which Bono would invite a fan to play guitar on the song) and numerous Bob Dylan covers including "Maggie's Farm" and "I Shall Be Released". On 20 April, following a performance of I Shall Be Released in Los Angeles, the band surprised the audience by bringing out Dylan himself for a performance of Knockin' on Heaven's Door. During the performance, Bono jokingly said, "I usually make up my own words to Bob Dylan songs. He says he doesn't mind." Dylan replied in kind, saying "I do it too." Bono often would sing excerpts of other songs, notably ones by The Rolling Stones and Lou Reed's Walk on the Wild Side, near the end of the song Bad as he had done during the Live Aid performance and would do on later tours. U2 covered Ben E. King's "Stand By Me" at their 25 September, '87 show at Philadelphia's old JFK Stadium, accompanied by a guest performance from Bruce Springsteen. The band performed "Christmas (Baby Please Come Home)" at their final concert in Tempe, Arizona on 20 December 1987. The band had recorded the track for the compilation album A Very Special Christmas months earlier on the European leg of their tour. ==Filming for Rattle and Hum documentary== The band filmed and recorded various shows from the tour for the documentary and album Rattle and Hum. The band filmed the black-and-white footage at Denver's McNichols Sports Arena on 7 and 8 November 1987. They chose the city following the success of their Live at Red Rocks: Under a Blood Red Sky video, which was filmed at Red Rocks Amphitheatre in 1983. "We thought lightning might strike twice", said guitarist The Edge. Seven songs from the second show were used in the film, none from the first.McGee (2008), p. 112 Hours before the second Denver show, an IRA bomb killed eleven people at a Remembrance Day ceremony in the Northern Irish town of Enniskillen (see Remembrance Day Bombing). Bono addressed the event angrily during the band's performance of Sunday Bloody Sunday, which was included in the film. Bono's reference to the number of people killed in the incident was later edited for the film to reflect the actual number. The band also gave a brief, free performance in San Francisco, California three days later on 11 November 1987, billed as the "Save the Yuppies" concert, from which the performance of "All Along the Watchtower" was taken for the film and album. During the performance of "Sunday Bloody Sunday", Bono observed a fan holding a sign with the letters "SF" and "U2" on it. Believing the "SF" in the sign to refer to Sinn Féin, Bono reacted angrily to the fan and the sign, apparently not realizing that the "SF" more likely stood for San Francisco. Also during the performance, Bono spray painted "Stop the Traffic, Rock and Roll" on the Vaillancourt Fountain in Justin Herman Plaza, which was captured in the film. The act angered some, including then- mayor Dianne Feinstein. At least part of the band's second concert in Fort Worth, Texas was filmed and featured in the film, as the band performed an early version of the then-unreleased song "When Love Comes to Town" with blues performer B.B. King. The band would go on to tour with King on their Lovetown Tour two years later. Colour outdoor concert footage was taken from the band's Tempe, Arizona shows on 19 December 1987 and 20 December 1987. The initial plan was that the colour outdoor footage would have been taken during 2 shows in Buenos Aires, but during the tour planning this became impossible due to heavy costs to transport all the equipment.McGee (2008) The shows were the final two of the tour, having been held in the same city in which the tour opened. ==Support acts== A number of opening acts were used for the tour. Lone Justice was still given emphasis in this role, as they had been on the Unforgettable Fire Tour, but it was not enough to give them a successful career. Other openers included The Pretenders, Big Audio Dynamite, UB40, Little Steven, BoDeans, Mason Ruffner, World Party, Stevie Ray Vaughan, Spear of Destiny, The Waterboys, Hurrah!, Los Lobos, Buckwheat Zydeco, The Pogues, The Alarm, The Silencers, Primus, and Lou Reed. On 1 November in Indianapolis, U2 appeared as their own support act, disguised as "The Dalton Brothers", playing between sets by the BoDeans and Los Lobos. They were dressed in Western outfits and wigs while Bono spoke with a twangy southern accent. Playing their own country-influenced song, "Lucille", and Hank Williams' "Lost Highway", only some of the audience in the front few rows recognised them. "The Dalton Brothers" also appeared at concerts in Los Angeles and Hampton, Virginia. B.B. King was the opening act for both final shows of the tour on 19 and 20 December at Sun Devil Stadium in Tempe, Arizona, and in Fort Worth same year. ==Injuries== During rehearsals on 1 April 1987, the day before the opening show in Tempe, Arizona, Bono fell onto a spotlight he was carrying during a rendition of "Bullet the Blue Sky", cutting open his chin. He was taken to a hospital and the wound was stitched up.McGee (2008), p. 102. Bono later said, "I was lost in the music and at the start of any tour you're just getting to know the physicality of the stage... and you're overestimating your own physicality. You think you're made of metal and you're not. Cuts and bruises, that's what I remember from The Joshua Tree." Bono sustained a second injury on 20 September 1987 during a concert at RFK Stadium in Washington, D.C., on the third leg of the tour. He fell off the rain-slicked stage and dislocated his arm. He completed the performance and had his arm popped back into place after its conclusion. His arm was in a sling for twelve shows between 22 September and 20 October, which is visible at some points during the 1988 film Rattle and Hum.McGee (2008), pp. 110, 112 ==Commercial performance== On the first North American leg of the tour, the band grossed US$7,501,329 from 465,452 tickets sold across 29 shows. For the Las Vegas show, 1,063 tickets remained unsold, equating to a 99.77% sellout for the 1st American leg.de la Parra (1996), p. 102. The 79 North American shows on the tour sold 2,035,539 tickets and grossed US$35 million. In total, the tour grossed US$40 million and drew 3 million attendees. ==Set list== This set list is representative of the tour's average setlist as conducted by Setlist.fm, which represents all concerts for the duration of the tour. # "Where the Streets Have No Name" # "I Will Follow" # "I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For" # "Trip Through Your Wires" # "MLK" # "The Unforgettable Fire" # "Exit" # "Sunday Bloody Sunday" # "In God's Country" # "Gloria" # "Help!" (The Beatles cover) # "People Get Ready" (The Impressions cover) # "Bad" # "October" # "New Year's Day" # "Pride (In the Name of Love)" ;Encore # "Bullet the Blue Sky" # "Running to Stand Still" # "With or Without You" # "40" ==Tour dates== Date City Country Venue Opening acts Attendance Revenue Leg 1: North Americade la Parra (2003), pp. 79–102North American 1st leg boxscore data: * * * * * * 2 April 1987 Tempe United States Arizona State University Activity Center Lone Justice 25,113 / 25,113 $389,251 4 April 1987 5 April 1987 Tucson Tucson Community Center 8,032 / 8,032 $124,496 7 April 1987 Houston The Summit 27,251 / 27,251 $368,974 8 April 1987 10 April 1987 Las Cruces Pan American Center 12,500 / 12,500 $185,580 12 April 1987 Paradise Thomas & Mack Center 8,637 / 9,700 $138,192 13 April 1987 San Diego San Diego Sports Arena 27,937 / 27,937 $450,384 14 April 1987 17 April 1987 Los Angeles Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena 74,176 / 74,176 $1,298,080 18 April 1987 20 April 1987 21 April 1987 22 April 1987 24 April 1987 Daly City Cow Palace 25,785 / 25,785 $425,453 25 April 1987 29 April 1987 Rosemont Rosemont Horizon 16,854 / 16,854 $270,923 30 April 1987 Pontiac Pontiac Silverdome 51,718 / 51,718 $853,347 2 May 1987 Worcester Centrum in Worcester 37,482 / 37,482 $601,739 3 May 1987 4 May 1987 7 May 1987 Hartford Hartford Civic Center 47,327 / 47,327 $773,632 8 May 1987 9 May 1987 11 May 1987 East Rutherford Brendan Byrne Arena 102,640 / 102,640 $1,621,278 12 May 1987 13 May 1987 15 May 1987 16 May 1987 Leg 2: Europede la Parra (2003), pp. 103–110 27 May 1987 Rome Italy Stadio Flaminio The Pretenders Big Audio Dynamite Lone Justice rowspan=30 rowspan=30 29 May 1987 Modena Stadio Alberto Braglia 30 May 1987 2 June 1987 London England Wembley Arena Hurrah! 3 June 1987 Birmingham National Exhibition Centre 6 June 1987 Gothenburg Sweden Eriksberg The Pretenders Big Audio Dynamite Lone Justice 12 June 1987 London England Wembley Stadium The Pretenders Spear of Destiny World Party 13 June 1987 Lou Reed The Pogues Lone Justice 15 June 1987 Paris France Le Zénith Lone Justice 17 June 1987 Cologne West Germany Müngersdorfer Stadium The Pretenders Lou Reed Big Audio Dynamite 21 June 1987 Basel Switzerland St. Jakob Stadium 24 June 1987 Belfast Northern Ireland King's Hall Lou Reed 27 June 1987 Dublin Ireland Croke Park Lou Reed The Pogues The Dubliners Light a Big Fire 28 June 1987 Christy Moore The Pretenders Lou Reed Hothouse Flowers 1 July 1987 Leeds England Elland Road The Pretenders The Mission The Fall 4 July 1987 Paris France Hippodrome de Vincennes UB40 The Pogues 8 July 1987 Brussels Belgium Forest National In Tua Nua 10 July 1987 Rotterdam Netherlands Feijenoord Stadion The Pretenders In Tua Nua 11 July 1987 The Pretenders Big Audio Dynamite In Tua Nua 15 July 1987 Madrid Spain Santiago Bernabéu Stadium The Pretenders UB40 Big Audio Dynamite 18 July 1987 Montpellier France Espace Richter The Pretenders UB40 World Party 21 July 1987 Munich West Germany Olympiahalle In Tua Nua 22 July 1987 25 July 1987 Cardiff Wales Cardiff Arms Park The Pretenders The Alarm The Silencers 29 July 1987 Glasgow Scotland Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre Hoodoo Gurus 30 July 1987 Hue and Cry 1 August 1987 Edinburgh Murrayfield Stadium The Pogues The Mission Love and Money Runrig 3 August 1987 Birmingham England National Exhibition Centre Hoodoo Gurus 4 August 1987 8 August 1987 Cork Ireland Páirc Uí Chaoimh UB40 The Subterraneans The Dubliners Leg 3: North Americade la Parra (2003), pp. 111–121North American 2nd leg boxscore data: * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 10 September 1987 Uniondale United States Nassau Coliseum rowspan="20" 34,899 / 34,899 $648,603 11 September 1987 12 September 1987 Philadelphia The Spectrum 17,622 / 17,622 $323,509 14 September 1987 East Rutherford Giants Stadium 54,780 / 54,780 $1,040,820 17 September 1987 Boston Boston Garden 31,018 / 31,018 $589,342 18 September 1987 20 September 1987 Washington, D.C. Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium 51,016 / 53,056 $969,304 22 September 1987 Foxborough Sullivan Stadium 55,378 / 55,378 $1,051,137 23 September 1987 New Haven New Haven Veterans Memorial Coliseum 10,535 / 10,535 $177,960 25 September 1987 Philadelphia John F. Kennedy Stadium 86,145 / 86,145 $1,593,683 28 September 1987 New York City Madison Square Garden 39,510 / 39,510 $744,838 29 September 1987 1 October 1987 Montreal Canada Olympic Stadium 66,117 / 66,117 $1,243,660 3 October 1987 Toronto CNE Stadium 62,846 / 62,846 $1,194,194 6 October 1987 Cleveland United States Cleveland Municipal Stadium 50,081 / 50,081 $901,458 7 October 1987 Buffalo Buffalo Memorial Auditorium 17,065 / 17,065 $298,638 9 October 1987 Syracuse Carrier Dome 39,157 / 39,157 $685,248 11 October 1987 Rochester Silver Stadium 30,500 / 30,500 $564,250 13 October 1987 Pittsburgh Three Rivers Stadium 20 October 1987 Iowa City Carver–Hawkeye Arena 15,846 / 15,846 $261,469 22 October 1987 Champaign Assembly Hall BoDeans 16,193 / 16,193 $275,281 23 October 1987 Lexington Rupp Arena rowspan="6" 22,815 / 22,815 $387,855 25 October 1987 St. Louis St. Louis Arena 18,237 / 18,237 $317,153 26 October 1987 Kansas City Kemper Arena 17,168 / 17,168 $297,535 28 October 1987 Rosemont Rosemont Horizon 51,998 / 51,998 $941,471 29 October 1987 30 October 1987 1 November 1987 Indianapolis Hoosier Dome Los Lobos The Dalton Brothers 38,441/ 38,441 $634,277 3 November 1987 Saint Paul St. Paul Civic Center rowspan="6" 35,152 / 35,152 $615,160 4 November 1987 7 November 1987 Denver McNichols Arena 34,000 / 34,000 $605,779 8 November 1987 11 November 1987 San Francisco Justin Herman Plaza 12 November 1987 Vancouver Canada BC Place Stadium 54,204 / 54,204 $1,012,878 14 November 1987 Oakland United States Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum The Pretenders BoDeans 103,260 / 119,000 $2,013,570 15 November 1987 rowspan="2" 17 November 1987 Los Angeles Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum 132,925 / 142,000 $2,590,457 18 November 1987 The Pretenders The Dalton Brothers BoDeans 22 November 1987 Austin Frank Erwin Center 17,202 / 17,202 $280,467 23 November 1987 Fort Worth Tarrant County Convention Center B.B. King 27,560 / 27,560 $435,676 24 November 1987 26 November 1987 Baton Rouge LSU Assembly Center rowspan="7" 15,042 / 15,042 $249,025 28 November 1987 Murfreesboro Charles M. Murphy Athletic Center 11,619 / 11,619 $203,333 3 December 1987 Miami Orange Bowl 5 December 1987 Tampa Tampa Stadium 58,865 / 58,865 $1,089,003 8 December 1987 Atlanta The Omni 32,734 / 32,734 $572,845 9 December 1987 11 December 1987 Hampton Hampton Coliseum 21,088 / 21,088 $358,496 12 December 1987 BoDeans 19 December 1987 Tempe Sun Devil Stadium B.B. King 110,450 / 110,450 $552,340 20 December 1987 Total 1,946,920 / 1,974,838 $33,312,043 == See also == * List of highest-attended concerts * List of highest-grossing concert tours ==References== ;Footnotes ;Bibliography * * ==External links== * U2.com * The Joshua Tree Tour on U2Gigs Category:U2 concert tours Category:1987 concert tours |
==Events== ===Pre-1600=== *763 BC - Assyrians record a solar eclipse that is later used to fix the chronology of Mesopotamian history. * 844 - Louis II is crowned as king of Italy at Rome by pope Sergius II. * 923 - Battle of Soissons: King Robert I of France is killed and King Charles the Simple is arrested by the supporters of Duke Rudolph of Burgundy. *1184 - The naval Battle of Fimreite is won by the Birkebeiner pretender Sverre Sigurdsson. Sigurdsson takes the Norwegian throne and King Magnus V of Norway is killed. *1215 - King John of England puts his seal to Magna Carta. *1219 - Northern Crusades: Danish victory at the Battle of Lindanise (modern-day Tallinn) establishes the Danish Duchy of Estonia. *1246 - With the death of Frederick II, Duke of Austria, the Babenberg dynasty ends in Austria. *1300 - The city of Bilbao is founded. *1312 - At the Battle of Rozgony, King Charles I of Hungary wins a decisive victory over the family of Palatine Amade Aba. *1389 - Battle of Kosovo: The Ottoman Empire defeats Serbs and Bosnians. *1410 - In a decisive battle at Onon River, the Mongol forces of Oljei Temur were decimated by the Chinese armies of the Yongle Emperor. * 1410 - Ottoman Interregnum: Süleyman Çelebi defeats his brother Musa Çelebi outside the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. *1502 - Christopher Columbus lands on the island of Martinique on his fourth voyage. *1520 - Pope Leo X threatens to excommunicate Martin Luther in Exsurge Domine. ===1601–1900=== *1607 - Virginia Colonists finished building James's Fort, to defend against Spanish and Indian attacks. *1648 - Margaret Jones is hanged in Boston for witchcraft in the first such execution for the Massachusetts Bay Colony. *1667 - The first human blood transfusion is administered by Dr. Jean-Baptiste Denys. *1670 - The first stone of Fort Ricasoli is laid down in Malta. *1752 - Benjamin Franklin proves that lightning is electricity (traditional date, the exact date is unknown). *1776 - Delaware Separation Day: Delaware votes to suspend government under the British Crown and separate officially from Pennsylvania. *1800 - The Provisional Army of the United States is dissolved. *1804 - New Hampshire approves the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratifying the document. *1808 - Joseph Bonaparte becomes King of Spain. *1836 - Arkansas is admitted as the 25th U.S. state. *1844 - Charles Goodyear receives a patent for vulcanization, a process to strengthen rubber. *1846 - The Oregon Treaty extends the border between the United States and British North America, established by the Treaty of 1818, westward to the Pacific Ocean. *1859 - Ambiguity in the Oregon Treaty leads to the "Northwestern Boundary Dispute" between American and British/Canadian settlers. *1864 - American Civil War: The Second Battle of Petersburg begins. * 1864 - Arlington National Cemetery is established when of the Arlington estate (formerly owned by the family of Confederate General Robert E. Lee) are officially set aside as a military cemetery by U.S. Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton.; *1877 - Henry Ossian Flipper becomes the first African American cadet to graduate from the United States Military Academy. *1878 - Eadweard Muybridge takes a series of photographs to prove that all four feet of a horse leave the ground when it runs; the study becomes the basis of motion pictures. *1888 - Crown Prince Wilhelm becomes Kaiser Wilhelm II; he will be the last Emperor of the German Empire. Due to the death of his predecessors Wilhelm I and Frederick III, 1888 is the Year of the Three Emperors. *1896 - One of the deadliest tsunamis in Japan's history kills more than 22,000 people. ===1901–present=== *1904 - A fire aboard the steamboat in New York City's East River kills 1,000. *1916 - United States President Woodrow Wilson signs a bill incorporating the Boy Scouts of America, making them the only American youth organization with a federal charter. *1919 - John Alcock and Arthur Brown complete the first nonstop transatlantic flight when they reach Clifden, County Galway, Ireland. *1920 - Following the 1920 Schleswig plebiscites, Northern Schleswig is transferred from Germany to Denmark. *1921 - Bessie Coleman earns her pilot's license, becoming the first female pilot of African-American descent. *1934 - The United States Great Smoky Mountains National Park is founded. *1936 - First flight of the Vickers Wellington bomber. *1937 - A German expedition led by Karl Wien loses sixteen members in an avalanche on Nanga Parbat. It is the worst single disaster to occur on an 8000m peak. *1940 - World War II: Operation Aerial begins: Allied troops start to evacuate France, following Germany's takeover of Paris and most of the nation. *1944 - World War II: The United States invades Saipan, capital of Japan's South Seas Mandate. * 1944 - In the Saskatchewan general election, the CCF, led by Tommy Douglas, is elected and forms the first socialist government in North America. *1970 - Charles Manson goes on trial for the Sharon Tate murders. *1972 - Red Army Faction co-founder Ulrike Meinhof is captured by police in Langenhagen. * 1972 - Cathay Pacific Flight 700Z is destroyed by a bomb over Pleiku, Vietnam (then South Vietnam) kills 81 people. *1977 - After the death of dictator Francisco Franco in 1975, the first democratic elections took place in Spain. *1978 - King Hussein of Jordan marries Jordanian-American Lisa Halaby, who takes the name Queen Noor. *1985 - Rembrandt's painting Danaë is attacked by a man (later judged insane) who throws sulfuric acid on the canvas and cuts it twice with a knife. *1991 - In the Philippines, Mount Pinatubo erupts in the second largest volcanic eruption of the 20th century, killing over 800 people. *1992 - The United States Supreme Court rules in United States v. Álvarez-Machaín that it is permissible for the United States to forcibly extradite suspects in foreign countries and bring them to the United States for trial, without approval from those other countries. *1996 - The Troubles: The Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) detonates a powerful truck bomb in the middle of Manchester, England, devastating the city centre and injuring 200 people. *2001 - Leaders of China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan formed the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. *2007 - The Nokkakivi Amusement Park is opened in Lievestuore, Laukaa, Finland.MTV3: Suomen kuudes huvipuisto avautui (in Finnish) *2012 - Nik Wallenda becomes the first person to successfully tightrope walk directly over Niagara Falls. *2013 - A bomb explodes on a bus in the Pakistani city of Quetta, killing at least 25 people and wounding 22 others. *2022 - Microsoft retires its ubiquitous Internet Explorer after 26 years in favor of its new browser, Microsoft Edge. ==Births== ===Pre-1600=== *1330 - Edward, the Black Prince of England (d. 1376) *1479 - Lisa del Giocondo, Italian model, subject of the Mona Lisa (d. 1542) *1519 - Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1536) *1542 - Richard Grenville, English captain and explorer (d. 1591) *1549 - Elizabeth Knollys, English noblewoman (d. 1605) *1553 - Archduke Ernest of Austria (d. 1595) ===1601–1900=== *1605 - Thomas Randolph, English poet and playwright (d. 1635) *1623 - Cornelis de Witt, Dutch politician (d. 1672) *1624 - Hiob Ludolf, German orientalist and philologist (d. 1704) *1640 - Bernard Lamy, French mathematician and theologian (d. 1715) *1645 - Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin, English politician (d. 1712) *1749 - Georg Joseph Vogler, German organist, composer, and theorist (d. 1814) *1754 - Juan José Elhuyar, Spanish chemist and mineralogist (d. 1796) *1755 - Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, French chemist and entomologist (d. 1809) *1763 - Franz Danzi, German cellist, composer, and conductor (d. 1826) * 1763 - Kobayashi Issa, Japanese priest and poet (d. 1827) *1765 - Henry Thomas Colebrooke, English orientalist (d. 1837) *1767 - Rachel Jackson, American wife of Andrew Jackson (d. 1828) *1777 - David Daniel Davis, Welsh physician and academic (d. 1841) *1789 - Josiah Henson, American minister, author, and activist (d. 1883) *1790 - Charles-Amédée Kohler, Swiss chocolatier (d. 1874) *1792 - Thomas Mitchell, Scottish-Australian colonel and explorer (d. 1855) *1801 - Benjamin Wright Raymond, American merchant and politician, 3rd Mayor of Chicago (d. 1883) *1805 - William B. Ogden, American businessman and politician, 1st Mayor of Chicago (d. 1877) *1809 - François-Xavier Garneau, Canadian poet and historian (d. 1866) *1835 - Adah Isaacs Menken, American actress, painter, and poet (d. 1868) *1843 - Edvard Grieg, Norwegian pianist and composer (d. 1907) *1848 - Gheevarghese Mar Gregorios of Parumala, Indian bishop and saint (d. 1902) *1872 - Thomas William Burgess, English swimmer and water polo player (d. 1950) *1875 - Herman Smith-Johannsen, Norwegian-Canadian skier (d. 1987) *1878 - Margaret Abbott, Indian-American golfer (d. 1955) *1881 - Kesago Nakajima, Japanese lieutenant general in the Imperial Japanese Army (d. 1945) *1884 - Harry Langdon, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1944) *1886 - Frank Clement, British racing driver (d. 1970) *1888 - Ramón López Velarde, Mexican poet and author (d. 1921) *1890 - Georg Wüst, German oceanographer and academic (d. 1977) *1894 - Robert Russell Bennett, American composer and conductor (d. 1981) * 1894 - Nikolai Chebotaryov, Ukrainian-Russian mathematician and theorist (d. 1947) *1898 - Hubertus Strughold, German- American physiologist and academic (d. 1986) *1900 - Gotthard Günther, German philosopher and academic (d. 1984) * 1900 - Otto Luening, German-American composer and conductor (d. 1996) ===1901–present=== *1901 - Elmar Lohk, Russian-Estonian architect (d. 1963) *1902 - Erik Erikson, German-American psychologist and psychoanalyst (d. 1994) *1906 - Gordon Welchman, English- American mathematician and author (d. 1985) * 1906 - Léon Degrelle, Belgian SS officer (d. 1994) *1907 - James Robertson Justice, English actor and educator (d. 1975) *1909 - Elena Nikolaidi, Greek-American soprano and educator (d. 2002) *1910 - David Rose, English-American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1990) *1911 - Wilbert Awdry, English author, created The Railway Series, the basis for Thomas The Tank Engine (d. 1997) *1913 - Tom Adair, American songwriter, composer, and screenwriter (d. 1988) *1914 - Yuri Andropov, Russian politician (d. 1984) * 1914 - Saul Steinberg, Romanian-American cartoonist (d. 1999) * 1914 - Hilda Terry, American cartoonist (d. 2006) *1915 - Nini Theilade, Danish ballet dancer, choreographer, and educator (d. 2018) * 1915 - Thomas Huckle Weller, American biologist and virologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2008) *1916 - Olga Erteszek, Polish-American fashion designer (d. 1989) * 1916 - Horacio Salgán, Argentinian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2016) * 1916 - Herbert A. Simon, American political scientist and economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2001) *1917 - John Fenn, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2010) * 1917 - Michalis Genitsaris, Greek singer-songwriter (d. 2005) * 1917 - Lash LaRue, American actor and producer (d. 1996) *1918 - François Tombalbaye, Chadian politician, 1st President of Chad (d. 1975) *1920 - Keith Andrews, American race car driver (d. 1957) * 1920 - Alla Kazanskaya, Russian actress (d. 2008) * 1920 - Sam Sniderman, Canadian businessman, founded Sam the Record Man (d. 2012) * 1920 - Alberto Sordi, Italian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2003) *1921 - Erroll Garner, American pianist and composer (d. 1977) *1922 - Jaki Byard, American pianist and composer (d. 1999) *1923 - Erland Josephson, Swedish actor and director (d. 2012) * 1923 - Ninian Stephen, English-Australian lieutenant, judge, and politician, 20th Governor-General of Australia (d. 2017) *1924 - Hédi Fried, Swedish author and psychologist (d. 2022) * 1924 - Ezer Weizman, Israeli general and politician, 7th President of Israel (d. 2005) *1925 - Richard Baker, English journalist and author (d. 2018) * 1925 - Attilâ İlhan, Turkish poet, author, and critic (d. 2005) *1926 - Alfred Duraiappah, Sri Lankan Tamil lawyer and politician (d. 1975) *1927 - Ross Andru, American illustrator (d. 1993) * 1927 - Ibn-e-Insha, Indian-Pakistani poet and author (d. 1978) * 1927 - Hugo Pratt, Italian author and illustrator (d. 1995) *1930 - Miguel Méndez, American author and academic (d. 2013) * 1930 - Marcel Pronovost, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2015) *1931 - Joseph Gilbert, English air marshal *1932 - David Alliance, Baron Alliance, Iranian-English businessman and politician * 1932 - Mario Cuomo, American lawyer and politician, 52nd Governor of New York (d. 2015) * 1932 - Zia Fariduddin Dagar, Indian singer (d. 2013) * 1932 - Bernie Faloney, American- Canadian football player and sportscaster (d. 1999) *1933 - Mohammad-Ali Rajai, Iranian politician, 2nd President of Iran (d. 1981) * 1933 - Predrag Koraksić Corax, Serbian political caricaturist *1934 - Ruby Nash Garnett, American R&B; singer *1936 - William Levada, American cardinal (d. 2019) *1937 - Pierre Billon, Swiss-Canadian author and screenwriter * 1937 - Waylon Jennings, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2002) *1938 - Billy Williams, American baseball player and coach *1939 - Ward Connerly, American activist and businessman, founded the American Civil Rights Institute *1941 - Neal Adams, American illustrator (d. 2022) * 1941 - Harry Nilsson, American singer-songwriter (d. 1994) *1942 - Ian Greenberg, Canadian broadcaster, founded Astral Media * 1942 - John E. McLaughlin, American diplomat * 1942 - Peter Norman, Australian sprinter (d. 2006) *1943 - Johnny Hallyday, French singer and actor (d. 2017) * 1943 - Poul Nyrup Rasmussen, Danish politician, 38th Prime Minister of Denmark *1944 - Robert D. Keppel, American police officer and academic (d. 2021) *1945 - Miriam Defensor Santiago, Filipino judge and politician (d. 2016) * 1945 - Robert Sarah, Guinean cardinal * 1945 - Lawrence Wilkerson, American colonel *1946 - Noddy Holder, English rock singer-songwriter, musician, and actor * 1946 - John Horner, American paleontologist and academic * 1946 - Demis Roussos, Egyptian-Greek singer- songwriter and bass player (d. 2015) *1947 - John Hoagland, American photographer and journalist (d. 1984) *1948 - Mike Holmgren, American football player and coach * 1948 - Alan Huckle, English politician and diplomat, Governor of Anguilla * 1948 - Henry McLeish, Scottish footballer, academic, and politician, 2nd First Minister of Scotland *1949 - Dusty Baker, American baseball player and manager * 1949 - Simon Callow, English actor and director * 1949 - Russell Hitchcock, Australian singer-songwriter * 1949 - Jim Varney, American actor, comedian, and screenwriter (d. 2000) *1950 - Uğur Erdener, Turkish ophthalmologist and professor * 1950 - Juliana Azumah-Mensah, Ghanaian nurse and politician * 1950 - Deney Terrio, American choreographer and television host * 1950 - Lakshmi Mittal, Indian-English businessman *1951 - Jane Amsterdam, American magazine and newspaper editor (Manhattan, inc., New York Post) * 1951 - Vance A. Larson, American painter (d. 2000) * 1951 - John Redwood, English politician, Secretary of State for Wales * 1951 - Steve Walsh, American rock singer-songwriter and musician *1952 - Satya Pal Jain, Indian lawyer and politician, Additional Solicitor General of India *1953 - Vilma Bardauskienė, Lithuanian long jumper * 1953 - Marc Brickman, American lighting and production designer * 1953 - Eje Elgh, Swedish racing driver and sportscaster * 1953 - Xi Jinping, Chinese engineer and politician, General Secretary of the Communist Party and President of China * 1953 - Raphael Wallfisch, English cellist and educator *1954 - Jim Belushi, American actor * 1954 - Terri Gibbs, American country music singer and keyboard player * 1954 - Paul Rusesabagina, Rwandan humanitarian * 1954 - Zdeňka Šilhavá, Czech discus thrower and shot putter * 1954 - Beverley Whitfield, Australian swimmer (d. 1996) *1955 - Polly Draper, American actress, producer, and screenwriter * 1955 - Julie Hagerty, American model and actress *1956 - Yevgeny Kiselyov, Russian-Ukrainian journalist * 1956 - Lance Parrish, American baseball player, coach, and manager *1957 - Brett Butler, American baseball player and coach *1958 - Wade Boggs, American baseball player * 1958 - Riccardo Paletti, Italian racing driver (d. 1982) *1959 - Alan Brazil, Scottish footballer and sportscaster * 1959 - Eileen Davidson, American model and actress *1960 - Michèle Laroque, French actress, producer, and screenwriter * 1960 - Marieke van Doorn, Dutch field hockey player and coach *1961 - Dave McAuley, Northern Irish boxer and sportscaster * 1961 - Scott Norton, American wrestler *1962 - Brad Armstrong, American wrestler (d. 2012) * 1962 - Chris Morris, English actor, satirist, director, and producer * 1962 - Andrea Rost, Hungarian soprano *1963 - Mario Gosselin, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster * 1963 - Helen Hunt, American actress, director, and producer * 1963 - Lourdes Valera, Venezuelan actress (d. 2012) *1964 - Courteney Cox, American actress and producer * 1964 - Michael Laudrup, Danish footballer and manager *1965 - Annelies Bredael, Belgian rower * 1965 - Karim Massimov, Kazakhstani politician, 7th Prime Minister of Kazakhstan * 1965 - Adam Smith, American lawyer and politician *1966 - Raimonds Vējonis, Latvian politician, 9th President of Latvia *1968 - Károly Güttler, Hungarian swimmer *1969 - Jesse Bélanger, Canadian ice hockey player * 1969 - Ice Cube, American rapper, producer, and actor * 1969 - Idalis DeLeón, American singer and actress * 1969 - Nasos Galakteros, Greek basketball player * 1969 - Oliver Kahn, German footballer and sportscaster * 1969 - Maurice Odumbe, Kenyan cricketer * 1969 - Cédric Pioline, French tennis player *1970 - Christian Bauman, American soldier and author * 1970 - David Bayssari, Australian rugby league player * 1970 - Gaëlle Méchaly, French soprano * 1970 - Leah Remini, American actress and producer * 1970 - Žan Tabak, Croatian basketball player and coach *1971 - Christos Myriounis, Greek basketball player * 1971 - Jake Busey, American actor, musician, and film producer *1972 - Justin Leonard, American golfer * 1972 - Andy Pettitte, American baseball player *1973 - Tore Andre Flo, Norwegian footballer and coach * 1973 - Neil Patrick Harris, American actor and singer * 1973 - Pia Miranda, Australian actress * 1973 - Greg Vaughan, American actor and model *1976 - Jiří Ryba, Czech decathlete *1977 - Michael Doleac, American basketball player and manager *1978 - Wilfred Bouma, Dutch footballer * 1978 - Zach Day, American baseball player *1979 - Yulia Nestsiarenka, Belarusian sprinter * 1979 - Christian Rahn, German footballer * 1979 - Charles Zwolsman Jr., Dutch racing driver *1980 - David Lyons, Australian rugby player *1981 - John Paintsil, Ghanaian footballer *1982 - Mike Delany, New Zealand rugby player * 1982 - Abdur Razzak, Bangladeshi cricketer *1983 - Laura Imbruglia, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1983 - Josh McGuire, Canadian fencer *1984 - Luke Hodge, Australian footballer * 1984 - Eva Hrdinová, Czech tennis player * 1984 - Tim Lincecum, American baseball player * 1984 - Edison Toloza, Colombian footballer *1985 - Ashley Nicole Black, American comedian, actress, and writer *1986 - James Maloney, Australian rugby league player * 1986 - Trevor Plouffe, American baseball player *1989 - Bayley, American wrestler * 1989 - Víctor Cabedo, Spanish cyclist (d. 2012) * 1989 - Bryan Clauson, American race car driver (d. 2016) *1992 - Michał Kopczyński, Polish footballer * 1992 - Mohamed Salah, Egyptian footballer * 1992 - Dafne Schippers, Dutch heptathlete and sprinter *1993 - Cooper Kupp, American football player * 1993 - Irfan Hadžić, Bosnian footballer *1994 - Inaki Williams, Basque footballer *1996 - Tia-Adana Belle, Barbadian athlete *1996 - Aurora, Norwegian singer-songwriter *1997 - Madison Kocian, American gymnast ==Deaths== ===Pre-1600=== * 923 - Robert I of France (b. 866) * 948 - Romanos I Lekapenos, Byzantine Emperor (b. c. 870) * 952 - Murong Yanchao, Chinese general * 960 - Eadburh of Winchester, English princess and saint * 970 - Adalbert, bishop of Passau * 991 - Theophanu, Byzantine wife of Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 960) *1073 - Emperor Go- Sanjō of Japan (b. 1034) *1184 - Magnus Erlingsson, King of Norway (b. 1156) *1189 - Minamoto no Yoshitsune, Japanese general (b. 1159) *1246 - Frederick II, Duke of Austria (b. 1219) *1337 - Angelo da Clareno, Italian Franciscan and leader of a group of Fraticelli (b. 1247) *1341 - Andronikos III Palaiologos, Byzantine emperor (b. 1297) *1381 - John Cavendish, English lawyer and judge (b. 1346) * 1381 - Wat Tyler, English rebel leader (b. 1341) *1383 - John VI Kantakouzenos, Byzantine emperor (b. 1292) * 1383 - Matthew Kantakouzenos, Byzantine emperor *1389 - Lazar of Serbia (b. 1329) * 1389 - Murad I, Ottoman Sultan (b. 1319)"Murad I". Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2014. Web. 19 Dec. 2014. * 1389 - Miloš Obilić, Serbian knight. *1416 - John, Duke of Berry (b. 1340) *1467 - Philip III, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1396) *1521 - Tamás Bakócz, Hungarian cardinal (b. 1442) ===1601–1900=== *1614 - Henry Howard, 1st Earl of Northampton, English courtier and politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (b. 1540) *1724 - Henry Sacheverell, English minister and politician (b. 1674) *1768 - James Short, Scottish mathematician and optician (b. 1710) *1772 - Louis-Claude Daquin, French organist and composer (b. 1694) *1844 - Thomas Campbell, Scottish poet and academic (b. 1777) *1849 - James K. Polk, American lawyer and politician, 11th President of the United States (b. 1795) *1858 - Ary Scheffer, Dutch-French painter and academic (b. 1795) *1881 - Franjo Krežma, Croatian violinist and composer (b. 1862)Krežma, Franjo at Hrvatska Enciklopedija *1888 - Frederick III, German Emperor (b. 1831) *1889 - Mihai Eminescu, Romanian journalist, author, and poet (b. 1850) *1890 - Unryū Kyūkichi, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 10th Yokozuna (b. 1822) ===1901–present=== *1917 - Kristian Birkeland, Norwegian physicist and academic (b. 1867) *1934 - Alfred Bruneau, French cellist and composer (b. 1857) *1938 - Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, German painter and illustrator (b. 1880) *1941 - Otfrid Foerster, German neurologist and physician (b. 1873) * 1941 - Evelyn Underhill, English mystic and author (b. 1875) *1945 - Count Albert von Mensdorff-Pouilly-Dietrichstein, Austrian diplomat *1961 - Giulio Cabianca, Italian racing driver (b. 1923) * 1961 - Peyami Safa, Turkish journalist and author (b. 1899) *1962 - Alfred Cortot, Swiss pianist and conductor (b. 1877) *1967 - Tatu Kolehmainen, Finnish runner (b. 1885) *1968 - Sam Crawford, American baseball player, coach, and umpire (b. 1880) * 1968 - Wes Montgomery, American guitarist and songwriter (b. 1925) *1971 - Wendell Meredith Stanley, American biochemist and virologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1904) *1976 - Jimmy Dykes, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1896) *1984 - Meredith Willson, American playwright, composer, and conductor (b. 1902) *1985 - Andy Stanfield, American sprinter (b. 1927) *1989 - Maurice Bellemare, Canadian lawyer and politician (b. 1912) * 1989 - Ray McAnally, Irish actor (b. 1926) *1991 - Happy Chandler, American businessman and politician, 49th Governor of Kentucky (b. 1898) * 1991 - Arthur Lewis, Saint Lucian economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1915) *1992 - Chuck Menville, American animator, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1940) * 1992 - Brett Whiteley, Australian painter (b. 1939) *1993 - John Connally, American commander, lawyer, and politician, 61st United States Secretary of the Treasury (b. 1917) * 1993 - James Hunt, English racing driver and sportscaster (b. 1947) *1994 - Manos Hatzidakis, Greek composer and theorist (b. 1925) *1995 - John Vincent Atanasoff, American physicist and inventor, invented the Atanasoff–Berry computer (b. 1903) *1996 - Ella Fitzgerald, American singer and actress (b. 1917) * 1996 - Sir Fitzroy Maclean, 1st Baronet, Scottish general and politician (b. 1911) * 1996 - Dick Murdoch, American wrestler (b. 1946) *1999 - Omer Côté, Canadian lawyer and politician (b. 1906) *2000 - Jules Roy, French author, poet, and playwright (b. 1907) *2001 - Henri Alekan, French cinematographer (b. 1909) *2002 - Choi Hong Hi, South Korean general and martial artist, founded Taekwondo (b. 1918) *2003 - Hume Cronyn, Canadian- American actor (b. 1911) *2004 - Ahmet Piriştina, Turkish politician and mayor of İzmir (b. 1952) *2005 - Suzanne Flon, French actress (b. 1918) *2006 - Raymond Devos, Belgian-French comedian and clown (b. 1922) * 2006 - Herb Pearson, New Zealand cricketer (b. 1910) *2008 - Ray Getliffe, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1914) *2011 - Bill Haast, American herpetologist and academic (b. 1910) *2012 - Phillip D. Cagan, American economist and author (b. 1927) * 2012 - Barry MacKay, American tennis player and sportscaster (b. 1935) * 2012 - Israel Nogueda Otero, Mexican economist and politician, 10th Governor of Guerrero (b. 1935) * 2012 - Jerry Tubbs, American football player and coach (b. 1935) *2013 - Heinz Flohe, German footballer and manager (b. 1948) * 2013 - José Froilán González, Argentinian racing driver (b. 1922) * 2013 - Dennis O'Rourke, Australian director and producer (b. 1945) * 2013 - Kenneth G. Wilson, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1936) *2014 - Jacques Bergerac, French actor and businessman (b. 1927) * 2014 - Casey Kasem, American radio host, producer, and voice actor, co-created American Top 40 (b. 1932) * 2014 - Daniel Keyes, American short story writer and novelist (b. 1927) * 2014 - Moise Safra, Brazilian businessman and philanthropist, co- founded Banco Safra (b. 1934) *2015 - Kirk Kerkorian, American businessman, founded the Tracinda Corporation (b. 1917) *2016 - Lois Duncan, American author (b. 1934) *2018 - Matt "Guitar" Murphy, American Blues guitarist (b. 1929) *2019 - Franco Zeffirelli, Italian film director (b. 1923) ==Holidays and observances== *Arbor Day (Costa Rica) *Christian feast day: **Abraham of Clermont (or of St Cyriacus) **Alice (or Adelaide) of Schaerbeek **Augustine of Hippo (Eastern Orthodox Church) **Blessed Albertina Berkenbrock **Blessed Clement Vismara **Edburga of Winchester **Evelyn Underhill (Church of England and The Episcopal Church) **Germaine Cousin **Landelin (of Crespin or of Lobbes) **Trillo **Vitus (Guy), Modestus and Crescentia **June 15 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) *Day of Valdemar and Reunion Day (Flag Day) (Denmark) *Engineer's Day (Italy) *Global Wind Day (international) *National Beer Day (United Kingdom) *National Salvation Day (Azerbaijan) == References == ==External links== * * * Category:Days of the year Category:June |
thumb|300px|Niñopa in procession in Xochimilco The Niñopa or Niñopan is the most venerated image of the Child Jesus in the Mexico City borough of Xochimilco. It was created over 430 years ago in the San Bernardino monastery, as part of evangelization efforts. Since then it has been in the possession of the community. Rather than being kept in the parish church it is in the custody of a sponsor or mayordomo, whose family is in charge of the many festivities and traditions associated with the image for a year. These include taking care of the image proper along with taking the image to church and to visit the sick. It also includes sponsoring many parties especially on certain dates such as Candlemas and Day of the Child on April 30. ==The image and names== The Niñopa is the most venerated of Xochimilco’s various important Child Jesus images which include the Niño Dormidito, the Niño de Belén, the Niño Tamalerito, the Niño Grande and the Niño de San Juan. The image dates from 1573 and has since been in the possession of the town of Xochimilco. The image is fifty-one cm tall and weighs 598 grams. It was designed to be placed seated or lying down. Its right hand is raised as an act of benediction. It has light brown eyes of crystal with black eyelashes. Its nose is small and rounded. The ears are also small but not well defined. The mouth is slightly open as if about to speak, with the upper lip a more intense red than the lower. The skin is white and somewhat pink. As the image is over 430 years old, it must be handled with care to keep it from deteriorating. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH) has recommended that the image be dressed only in light clothing with no metal such as zippers or hooks in order to conserve the surface. They also recommend that all photographs be taken without flash and without kissing the image directly, only the clothing. The image has been called by several variations of the name including “Niñopa,” “Niño-pa” and “Niñopan.” According to the municipal historian, Rodolfo Cordero, the name is “Niño-pa” and derives from “niño” (child) and a shortening of “padre” (father) to “pa” with a meaning of Father Child. The alternative “Niñopan” is the Spanish niño (child) with the Nahuatl “pan” (place) meaning “child of the place.” The historian notes that the denotation of “Niñopan” has grown in popularity, surpassing “Niñopa”. Other names include Niño Peregrino (Pilgrim Child) and Niño del Pueblo (Child of the Town/People). Others state that the real name is “Niñopan” and that “Niñopa” is a mistaken interpretation to mean “Niño Patron” (as in patron saint, which it is not) or Niño Padre, but the image represents the Son of God, not God the Father. Another name for the Niñopa is the Niño Consentido (Well-Cared-For Child). ==History== thumb|300px|Chinelos in procession with the Niñopa The story of its origin was that it was brought from Valencia, Spain, by Martin Cortés, arriving in Xochimilco in 1586, made of the wood of an orange tree. Before he died, Cortés gifted his Child Jesus images, making each recipient mayordomos. When one of these died, who was Martín Cerón de Alvarado (grandson of Hernán Cortés), a chest in Michoacán was opened to find the Niñopa, which still smelled of oranges. In reality, it was created in Xochimilco from a local wood most likely by an indigenous craftsman in the workshops of the San Bernardino monastery. Bernardino de Sahagún wrote that the indigenous of the Xochimilco area made offerings of corn to a child image of the god Huitzilopochtli on December 26. The Franciscans who evangelized the region also made note of this tradition. The evangelists created Child Jesus images to substitute for this tradition, including the Niñopa. There are two possible reasons why this image is venerated. It is possible that the image belonged to the last indigenous ruler of Xochimilco Martín Cortés de Alvarado as his will states that he left several Child Jesus images to the town including one that fits the description of the Niñopa. The second is that the infant Jesus is figured prominently in various oil paintings on the altarpieces from the 16th and 17th centuries in the San Bernardino church and in the former monastery of Santa María Tepepan. ==Mayordomos== The traditions surrounding the image have not changed much in the over 400 years even though Xochimilco has transformed from a rural area to an urban one. As it is associated with popular religious expression and because of this, it does not reside in a church but rather with a family. It is part of popular religious expression and not official Church doctrine. Because of this, the image does not reside in a church but rather in the home of a family. He is “laid down to sleep” each night in a basket made for him, in his underclothes and wrapped in a blanket. Each morning, he is “awoken” to Las Mañanitas before he is dressed. Each evening it attends Mass before heading back to the home of the mayordomo. Since 1995, the image has been taken once a year for a “check up” with the “pediatrician,” which is annual examination, including X-ray and maintenance work done by INAH. The image is hosted by a sponsor or “mayordomo” each year in the family home, often in a room built especially for the purpose. This area is open to the public with all free to come and go. It is believed that those who become a mayordomo of the image receive blessings and prosperity. The waiting list to host the image extends past 2040 and families have waited as much as fifty years. If the person on the waiting list dies beforehand, the privilege is inherited by another member of the family. Families who have hosted the image receive a life-sized copy. thumb|El Niñopa, image of the highly venerated Child Jesus in Xochimilco, Mexico City. 2022. In addition to the care of the physical image, the mayordomo is in charge for the many festivities and traditions that surround it. Almost every day, the image leaves to attend Mass and to visit families, the sick and hospitals. This is done with fanfare, accompanied by musicians, Chinelo dancers, mariachis, tunas called “estudiantinas” in Mexico, fireworks, traditional foods such as mole, mixiote and various types tamales and more. This is even the case when the image is taken for its yearly “check up,” brought to INAH in Coyoacán from Xochimilco. The reason for this is that the image represents the life that God gives and the purpose is to take care of this life. While there are festivities around the image almost every day of the year, some are private and some public. The most important include Las Posadas (December 16–24), Three King’s Day (January 6), Candlemas (February 2) and Day of the Child (April 30) . === Candlemas Change of Caretakers === The most important of these is February 2, Candlemas, when the mayordomo family of the image changes for the year. This events draws thousands of spectators, many carrying photos and posters of the Niñopa, from both Xochimilco and outside. The crowd was estimated at 4,000 in 2007. The festivities on February 2 is part of a tradition where families take their images of the Child Jesus to church, especially dressed for the occasion, to be blessed. After the mass for Candlemas, the bishop takes the Niñopa from the outgoing mayordomos and transfers it to the new ones. Everyone at the event is fed traditional food such as mole, rice, pork and tamales. This ceremony is also associated with the blessing of seeds for good harvests as well as the blessing of candles to be lit in case of illness or death the duality of life and death, a pre Hispanic element. Candlemas marks the beginning of the growing season for the chinampas of Xochimilco. The ceremony includes baskets of seeds such as corn, beans, lentils, wheat and more. While agriculture is no longer the main economic activity, these seeds represent abundance. Because of the large quantity of clothes and other items, it takes up to two trucks to move the image from one house to another. 2011 was the first time that the Archbishop of Mexico (Norberto Rivera Carrera) participated in the event. The image receives gifts year round but especially on Three Kings’ Day on January 6 and on the International Day of the Child on April 30. Most of these gifts are later distributed among children from poor families. On April 30, the festivities occur at the house of the mayordomo, who offers food to guests. Visitors leave offerings of toys, flowers and fruit. In the streets, the mayordomos also place various castillos with fireworks and amusement rides. During the Las Posadas, the Niñopa leaves the house of the mayordomo each day to a different Xochimilco neighborhood, accompanied by an image of the Virgin Mary, Chinelos, music and many followers. It goes to the designated house, owned by the “posadero.” The house and the surrounded street are elaborately decorated with paper ornaments, lamps, flowers and Christmas gifts. Hundreds of people attend to sing and otherwise take part. At noon, the posadero and the rest of the procession accompany the Niñopa to church. After they return there is more singing, music, Chinelos and food. There are no social class distinctions at this event and no alcohol is served. A fireworks frame called a “castillo” (castle) is burned and at the end of the day, dozens of piñatas are broken and a dance begins for the evening. This repeats each day of the Las Posadas until December 24, when the Niñopa is laid in a manger to sleep in the San Bernardino parish. ==Stories about the image== Because of its age and the uncertainty of its origin, there have been a number of stories surrounding the image. One of the disproven ones include that there is a pre Hispanic image inside and the image is not original. The last stems from a story that the original Niñopa was lost in a canal in the San Antonio Molotlan neighborhood in 1940. Its origin from Spain and orange tree wood was disproven in the 1970s, when the image was dropped and a finger broke. This allowed examination of the wood, which was determined of a tree locally called “chocolín” and made at the workshops of the San Bernardino de Siena monastery in the 16th or 17th century. One persistent story is that the image comes to life. Many of these revolve around the image playing with its toys at night and even wandering outside. Evidence for this, say believers, is that toys are often strewn about, laughter is heard from the image’s room, the image has dirty clothes in the morning and small footprints have been found in the yard of the house in which it is cared for. It is said that the color in his cheeks disappears when he is angry and is more red when his is happy. He is even said to smile more. It is also claimed that the Niñopa travels into the dreams of petitioners, especially sick children. Most stories revolve around miracles attributed to the image. These include curing disease, bringing peace to fighting families, helping with finances, finding work and more. The Niñopa has received penitents from other countries as well, including a woman from the U.S. who claimed to have been cured of terminal cancer after seeing the image on television. One story states that a mayordomo planted lilies which were destroyed by a hailstorm. The money from the crop was destined for festivities for the image. Without money, he asked the image’s forgiveness and arranged for various masses in the Niñopa’s honor. After this, the damaged lilies began to grow again. ==See also== * Child Jesus images in Mexico * List of statues of Jesus ==References== Category:Catholic Church in Mexico Category:Iconography of Jesus Category:Statues of the infant Jesus |
Marian Adam Rejewski (; 16 August 1905 – 13 February 1980) was a Polish mathematician and cryptologist who in late 1932 reconstructed the sight-unseen Nazi German military Enigma cipher machine, aided by limited documents obtained by French military intelligence. Over the next nearly seven years, Rejewski and fellow mathematician-cryptologists Jerzy Różycki and Henryk Zygalski developed and used techniques and equipment to decrypt the German machine ciphers, even as the Germans introduced modifications to their equipment and encryption procedures. Five weeks before the outbreak of World War II in Europe, the Poles shared their technological achievements with the French and British at a conference in Warsaw, thus enabling Britain to begin reading German Enigma-encrypted messages, seven years after Rejewski's original reconstruction of the machine. The intelligence that was gained by the British from Enigma decrypts formed part of what was code-named Ultra and contributed—perhaps decisively—to the defeat of Nazi Germany. In 1929, while studying mathematics at Poznań University, Rejewski attended a secret cryptology course conducted by the Polish General Staff's Cipher Bureau (Biuro Szyfrów), which he joined in September 1932. The Bureau had had no success in reading Enigma-enciphered messages and set Rejewski to work on the problem in late 1932; he deduced the machine's secret internal wiring after only a few weeks. Rejewski and his two colleagues then developed successive techniques for the regular decryption of Enigma messages. His own contributions included the cryptologic card catalog, derived using the cyclometer that he had invented, and the cryptologic bomb. Five weeks before the Nazi German invasion of Poland in 1939, Rejewski and colleagues presented their achievements to French and British intelligence representatives summoned to Warsaw. Shortly after the outbreak of war, the Polish cryptologists were evacuated to France, where they continued breaking Enigma-enciphered messages. They and their support staff were again compelled to evacuate after the fall of France in June 1940, and they resumed work undercover a few months later in Vichy France. After the French "Free Zone" was occupied by Nazi Germany in November 1942, Rejewski and Zygalski fled via Spain, Portugal, and Gibraltar to Britain. There they enlisted in the Polish Armed Forces and were put to work solving low-grade German ciphers. In the aftermath of World War II, Rejewski reunited with his family in Poland and worked as an accountant. For two decades, he remained silent about his prewar and wartime cryptologic work to avoid adverse attention from the country's Soviet-dominated government; he broke his silence in 1967 when he provided to the Polish Military Historical Institute his memoirs of his work in the Cipher Bureau. He died at age 74 of a heart attack and was interred with military honors at Warsaw's Powązki Military Cemetery. ==Early life== thumb|Rejewski's birthplace Marian Rejewski was born 16 August 1905 in Bromberg in the Prussian Province of Posen (now Bydgoszcz, Poland) to Józef and Matylda, née Thoms.Information on Marian Rejewski's military service record, reproduced in After completing secondary school, he studied mathematics at Poznań University's Mathematics Institute, housed in Poznań Castle. In 1929, shortly before graduating from university, Rejewski began attending a secret cryptology course which opened on 15 January,The exact opening date is pinpointed in a 29 January 1929 letter of appreciation to Professor Krygowski from the Chief of the Polish General Staff, Gen. Tadeusz Piskor. . organized for select German-speaking mathematics students by the Polish General Staff's Cipher Bureau with the help of the Mathematics Institute's Professor Zdzisław Krygowski. The course was conducted off-campus at a military facility and, as Rejewski would discover in France in 1939, "was entirely and literally based" on a 1925 book by French colonel , Cours de cryptographie (Cryptography Course). Rejewski and fellow students Henryk Zygalski and Jerzy Różycki were among the few who could keep up with the course while balancing the demands of their normal studies. On 1 March 1929 Rejewski graduated with a Master of Philosophy degree in mathematics.Information on Marian Rejewski's Master of Philosophy diploma, 1 March 1929, reproduced in A few weeks after graduating, and without having completed the Cipher Bureau's cryptology course, he began the first year of a two-year actuarial statistics course at Göttingen, Germany. He did not complete the statistics course, because while home for the summer of 1930, he accepted an offer, from Professor Krygowski, of a mathematics teaching assistantship at Poznań University. He also began working part-time for the Cipher Bureau, which by then had set up an outpost at Poznań to decrypt intercepted German radio messages. Rejewski worked some twelve hours a week near the Mathematics Institute in an underground vault referred to puckishly as the "Black Chamber". The Poznań branch of the Cipher Bureau was disbanded in the summer of 1932. In Warsaw, on 1 September 1932, Rejewski, Zygalski, and Różycki joined the Cipher Bureau as civilian employees working at the General Staff building (the Saxon Palace). Their first assignment was to solve a four- letter code used by the (German Navy). Progress was initially slow, but sped up after a test exchange—consisting of a six-group signal, followed by a four- group response—was intercepted. The cryptologists guessed correctly that the first signal was the question, "When was Frederick the Great born?" followed by the response, "1712." On 20 June 1934 Rejewski married Irena Maria Lewandowska, daughter of a prosperous dentist. The couple eventually had two children: a son, Andrzej (Andrew), born in 1936; and a daughter, Janina (Joan), born in 1939. Janina would later become a mathematician like her father. ==Enigma machine== The Enigma machine was an electromechanical device, equipped with a 26-letter keyboard and 26 lamps, corresponding to the letters of the alphabet. Inside was a set of wired drums (rotors and a reflector) that scrambled the input. The machine used a plugboard to swap pairs of letters, and the encipherment varied from one key press to the next. For two operators to communicate, both Enigma machines had to be set up in the same way. The large number of possibilities for setting the rotors and the plugboard combined to form an astronomical number of configurations, and the settings were changed daily, so the machine code had to be "broken" anew each day. Before 1932, the Cipher Bureau had succeeded in solving an earlier Enigma machine that functioned without a plugboard, but had been unsuccessful with the Enigma I, a new standard German cipher machine that was coming into widespread use. In late October or early November 1932, the head of the Cipher Bureau's German section, Captain Maksymilian Ciężki, tasked Rejewski to work alone on the German Enigma I machine for a couple of hours per day; Rejewski was not to tell his colleagues what he was doing. ==Solving the wiring== To decrypt Enigma messages, three pieces of information were needed: (1) a general understanding of how Enigma functioned; (2) the wiring of the rotors; and (3) the daily settings (the sequence and orientations of the rotors, and the plug connections on the plugboard). Rejewski had only the first at his disposal, based on information already acquired by the Cipher Bureau. First Rejewski tackled the problem of discovering the wiring of the rotors. To do this, according to historian David Kahn, he pioneered the use of pure mathematics in cryptanalysis. Previous methods had largely exploited linguistic patterns and the statistics of natural-language texts—letter- frequency analysis. Rejewski applied techniques from group theory—theorems about permutations—in his attack on Enigma. These mathematical techniques, combined with material supplied by Gustave Bertrand, chief of French radio intelligence, enabled him to reconstruct the internal wirings of the machine's rotors and nonrotating reflector. "The solution", writes Kahn, "was Rejewski's own stunning achievement, one that elevates him to the pantheon of the greatest cryptanalysts of all time." Rejewski used a mathematical theorem—that two permutations are conjugate if and only if they have the same cycle structure—that mathematics professor and Cryptologia co-editor Cipher A. Deavours describes as "the theorem that won World War II".Cipher A. Deavours, in an afterword to . Before receiving the French intelligence material, Rejewski had made a careful study of Enigma messages, particularly of the first six letters of messages intercepted on a single day. For security, each message was encrypted using different starting positions of the rotors, as selected by the operator. This message setting was three letters long. To convey it to the receiving operator, the sending operator began the message by sending the message setting in a disguised form—a six-letter indicator. The indicator was formed using the Enigma with its rotors set to a common global setting for that day, termed the ground setting, which was shared by all operators. The particular way that the indicator was constructed introduced a weakness into the cipher. For example, suppose the operator chose the message setting for a message. The operator would first set the Enigma's rotors to the ground setting, which might be on that particular day, and then encrypt the message setting on the Enigma twice; that is, the operator would enter (which might come out to something like ). The operator would then reposition the rotors at , and encrypt the actual message. A receiving operator could reverse the process to recover first the message setting, then the message itself. The repetition of the message setting was apparently meant as an error check to detect garbles, but it had the unforeseen effect of greatly weakening the cipher. Due to the indicator's repetition of the message setting, Rejewski knew that, in the plaintext of the indicator, the first and fourth letters were the same, the second and fifth were the same, and the third and sixth were the same. These relations could be exploited to break into the cipher. Rejewski studied these related pairs of letters. For example, if there were four messages that had the following indicators on the same day: , , , , then by looking at the first and fourth letters of each set, he knew that certain pairs of letters were related. was related to , was related to , was related to , and was related to : (,), (,), (,), and (,). If he had enough different messages to work with, he could build entire sequences of relationships: the letter was related to , which was related to , which was related to , which was related to (see diagram). This was a "cycle of 4", since it took four jumps until it got back to the start letter. Another cycle on the same day might be \rightarrow\rightarrow\rightarrow, or a "cycle of 3". If there were enough messages on a given day, all the letters of the alphabet might be covered by a number of different cycles of various sizes. The cycles would be consistent for one day, and then would change to a different set of cycles the next day. Similar analysis could be done on the 2nd and 5th letters, and the 3rd and 6th, identifying the cycles in each case and the number of steps in each cycle. Enigma operators also had a tendency to choose predictable letter combinations as indicators, such as girlfriends' initials or a pattern of keys that they saw on the Enigma keyboard. These became known to the allies as "Cillies" ("Sillies" misspelled). Using the data thus gained from the study of cycles and the use of predictable indicators, Rejewski was able to deduce six permutations corresponding to the encipherment at six consecutive positions of the Enigma machine. These permutations could be described by six equations with various unknowns, representing the wiring within the entry drum, rotors, reflector, and plugboard. ===French help=== At this point, Rejewski ran into difficulties due to the large number of unknowns in the set of equations that he had developed. He would later comment in 1980 that it was still not known whether such a set of six equations was solvable without further data. But he was assisted by cryptographic documents that Section D of French military intelligence (the Deuxième Bureau), under future General Gustave Bertrand, had obtained and passed on to the Polish Cipher Bureau. The documents, procured from a spy in the German Cryptographic Service, Hans-Thilo Schmidt, included the Enigma settings for the months of September and October 1932. About 9 or 10 December 1932, the documents were given to Rejewski. They enabled him to reduce the number of unknowns and solve the wirings of the rotors and reflector. There was another obstacle to overcome, however. The military Enigma had been modified from the commercial Enigma, of which Rejewski had had an actual example to study. In the commercial machine, the keys were connected to the entry drum in German keyboard order ("QWERTZU..."). However, in the military Enigma, the connections had instead been wired in alphabetical order: "ABCDEF..." This new wiring sequence foiled British cryptologists working on Enigma, who dismissed the "ABCDEF..." wiring as too obvious. Rejewski, perhaps guided by an intuition about a German fondness for order, simply guessed that the wiring was the normal alphabetic ordering. He later recalled that, after he had made this assumption, "from my pencil, as by magic, began to issue numbers designating the connections in rotor N. Thus the connections in one rotor, the right-hand rotor, were finally known." The settings provided by French Intelligence covered two months that straddled a changeover period for the rotor ordering. A different rotor happened to be in the right-hand position for the second month, and so the wirings of two rotors could be recovered by the same method. Rejewski later recalled: "Finding the [wiring] in the third [rotor], and especially... in the [reflector], now presented no great difficulties. Likewise there were no difficulties with determining the correct torsion of the [rotors'] side walls with respect to each other, or the moments when the left and middle drums turned." By year's end 1932, the wirings of all three rotors and the reflector had been recovered. A sample message in an Enigma instruction manual, providing a plaintext and its corresponding ciphertext produced using a stated daily key and message key, helped clarify some remaining details. There has been speculation as to whether the rotor wirings could have been solved without the documents supplied by French Intelligence. Rejewski recalled in 1980 that another way had been found that could have been used to solve the wirings, but that the method was "imperfect and tedious" and relied on chance. In 2005, mathematician John Lawrence claimed that it would have taken four years for this method to have had a reasonable likelihood of success.; Rejewski had earlier written that "the conclusion is that the intelligence material furnished to us should be regarded as having been decisive to solution of the machine." ==Solving daily settings== After Rejewski had determined the wiring in the remaining rotors, he was joined in early 1933 by Różycki and Zygalski in devising methods and equipment to break Enigma ciphers routinely. Rejewski later recalled: > Now we had the machine, but we didn't have the keys and we couldn't very > well require Bertrand to keep on supplying us with the keys every month ... > The situation had reversed itself: before, we'd had the keys but we hadn't > had the machine—we solved the machine; now we had the machine but we didn't > have the keys. We had to work out methods to find the daily keys. ===Early methods=== A number of methods and devices had to be invented in response to continual improvements in German operating procedure and to the Enigma machine itself. The earliest method for reconstructing daily keys was the "grill", based on the fact that the plugboard's connections exchanged only six pairs of letters, leaving fourteen letters unchanged. Next was Różycki's "clock" method, which sometimes made it possible to determine which rotor was at the right-hand side of the Enigma machine on a given day. After 1 October 1936, German procedure changed, and the number of plugboard connections became variable, ranging between five and eight. As a result, the grill method became considerably less effective. However, a method using a card catalog had been devised around 1934 or 1935, and was independent of the number of plug connections. The catalog was constructed using Rejewski's "cyclometer", a special-purpose device for creating a catalog of permutations. Once the catalog was complete, the permutation could be looked up in the catalog, yielding the Enigma rotor settings for that day. The cyclometer comprised two sets of Enigma rotors, and was used to determine the length and number of cycles of the permutations that could be generated by the Enigma machine. Even with the cyclometer, preparing the catalog was a long and difficult task. Each position of the Enigma machine (there were 17,576 positions) had to be examined for each possible sequence of rotors (there were 6 possible sequences); therefore, the catalog comprised 105,456 entries. Preparation of the catalog took over a year, but when it was ready about 1935, it made obtaining daily keys a matter of 12–20 minutes. However, on 1 or 2 November 1937, the Germans replaced the reflector in their Enigma machines, which meant that the entire catalog had to be recalculated from scratch. Nonetheless, by January 1938 the Cipher Bureau's German section was reading a remarkable 75% of Enigma intercepts, and according to Rejewski, with a minimal increase in personnel this could have been increased to 90%. ===Bomba and sheets=== In 1937 Rejewski, along with the German section of the Cipher Bureau, transferred to a secret facility near Pyry in the Kabaty Woods south of Warsaw. On 15 September 1938, the Germans introduced new rules for enciphering message keys (a new "indicator procedure"), making the Poles' earlier techniques obsolete. The Polish cryptanalysts rapidly responded with new techniques. One was Rejewski's , an electrically powered aggregate of six Enigmas, which solved the daily keys within about two hours. Six bombas were built and were ready for use by mid-November 1938. The bomba exploited the fact that the plugboard connections did not affect all the letters; therefore, when another change to German operating procedure occurred on 1 January 1939, increasing the number of plugboard connections, the usefulness of the bombas was greatly reduced. The British bombe, the main tool that would be used to break Enigma messages during World War II, would be named after, and likely inspired by, the Polish bomba, though the cryptologic methods embodied in the two machines were different. Around the same time as Rejewski's bomba, a manual method was invented by Henryk Zygalski, that of "perforated sheets" ("Zygalski sheets"), which was independent of the number of plugboard connections. Rejewski describes the construction of the Zygalski mechanism and its manipulation: However, application of both the bomba and Zygalski sheets was complicated by yet another change to the Enigma machine on 15 December 1938. The Germans had supplied Enigma operators with an additional two rotors to supplement the original three, and this increased the complexity of decryption tenfold. Building ten times as many bombas (60 would now be needed) was beyond the Cipher Bureau's ability—that many bombas would have cost fifteen times its entire annual equipment budget. Two and a half weeks later, effective 1 January 1939, the Germans increased the number of plug connections to 7–10, which, writes Rejewski, "to a great degree, decreased the usefulness of the bombs." Zygalski's perforated ("Zygalski") sheets, writes Rejewski, "like the card-catalog method, was independent of the number of plug connections. But the manufacture of these sheets, [...] in our [...] circumstances, was very time-consuming, so that by 15 December 1938, only one-third of the whole job had been done. [T]he Germans' [introduction of rotors] IV and V [...] increased the labor of making the sheets tenfold [since 60, or ten times as many, sets of sheets were now needed], considerably exceeding our [...] capacities." ===Allies informed=== [[File:bp-polish-codebreakers- plaque.jpg|thumb|2002 plaque, Bletchley Park, "commemorat[ing] the work of Marian Rejewski, Jerzy Różycki, and Henryk Zygalski, mathematicians of the Polish intelligence service, in first breaking the Enigma code [sic: it was a cipher]. Their work greatly assisted the Bletchley Park code breakers and contributed to the Allied victory in World War II."]] As it became clear that war was imminent and that Polish financial resources were insufficient to keep pace with the evolution of Enigma encryption (e.g., due to the prohibitive expense of an additional 54 bombas and due to the Poles' difficulty in producing in timely fashion the full 60 series of 26 "Zygalski sheets", cited in .), the Polish General Staff and government decided to initiate their Western allies into the secrets of Enigma decryption. The Polish methods were revealed to French and British intelligence representatives in a meeting at Pyry, south of Warsaw, on 25 July 1939. France was represented by Gustave Bertrand and Air Force cryptologist Captain Henri Braquenié; Britain, by Government Code and Cypher School chief Alastair Denniston, veteran cryptologist Alfred Dillwyn Knox, and Commander Humphrey Sandwith, head of the section that had developed and controlled the Royal Navy's intercept and direction-finding stations. The Polish hosts included Cipher Bureau chief Gwido Langer, the Bureau's German-Section chief Maksymilian Ciężki, the Bureau's General-Staff-Intelligence supervisor Stefan Mayer, and the three cryptologists Rejewski, Różycki and Zygalski.; ; The Poles' gift of Enigma decryption to their Western allies, five weeks before the outbreak of World War II, came not a moment too soon. Knowledge that the cipher was crackable was a morale boost to Allied cryptologists. The British were able to manufacture at least two complete sets of perforated sheets—they sent one to PC Bruno, outside Paris, in mid-December 1939—and began reading Enigma within months of the outbreak of war. Without the Polish assistance, British cryptologists would, at the very least, have been considerably delayed in reading Enigma. Hugh Sebag-Montefiore concludes that substantial breaks into German Army and Air Force Enigma ciphers by the British would have occurred only after November 1941 at the earliest, after an Enigma machine and key lists had been captured, and similarly into Naval Enigma only after late 1942. Intelligence gained from solving high-level German ciphers—intelligence codenamed Ultra by the British and Americans—came chiefly from Enigma decrypts. While the exact contribution of Ultra intelligence to Allied victory is disputed, Kozaczuk and Straszak note that "it is widely believed that Ultra saved the world at least two years of war and possibly prevented Hitler from winning." The English historian Sir Harry Hinsley, who worked at Bletchley Park, similarly assessed it as having "shortened the war by not less than two years and probably by four years". The availability of Ultra was due to the earlier Polish breaking of Enigma; Gordon Welchman, head of Bletchley Park's Hut 6 (which solved German Army and Air Force Enigma ciphers), writes: "Hut 6 Ultra would never have gotten off the ground if we had not learned from the Poles, in the nick of time, the details both of the German military version of the commercial Enigma machine, and of the operating procedures that were in use." ==In France and Britain== ===PC Bruno=== On 5 September 1939 the Cipher Bureau began preparations to evacuate key personnel and equipment from Warsaw. Soon a special evacuation train, the Echelon F, transported them eastward, then south. By the time the Cipher Bureau was ordered to cross the border into allied Romania on 17 September, they had destroyed all sensitive documents and equipment and were down to a single very crowded truck. The vehicle was confiscated at the border by a Romanian officer, who separated the military from the civilian personnel. Taking advantage of the confusion, the three mathematicians ignored the Romanian's instructions. They anticipated that in an internment camp they might be identified by the Romanian security police, in which the German Abwehr and SD had informers. The mathematicians went to the nearest railroad station, exchanged money, bought tickets, and boarded the first train headed south. After a dozen or so hours, they reached Bucharest, at the other end of Romania. There they went to the British embassy. Told by the British to "come back in a few days", they next tried the French embassy, introducing themselves as "friends of Bolek" (Bertrand's Polish code name) and asking to speak with a French military officer. A French Army colonel telephoned Paris and then issued instructions for the three Poles to be assisted in evacuating to Paris. On 20 October 1939 the three Polish cryptologists resumed work on German ciphers at a joint French–Polish–(anti- fascist) Spanish radio-intelligence unit stationed at Gretz-Armainvilliers, forty kilometers northeast of Paris, and housed in the Château de Vignolles (code-named PC Bruno). As late as 3–7 December 1939, when Lt. Col. Langer and French Air Force Capt. Henri Braquenié visited London and Bletchley Park, the British asked that the Polish cryptologists be made available to them in Britain. Langer, however, took the position that they must remain where the Polish Army in exile was forming—on French soil. On 17 January 1940 the Poles found the first Enigma key to be solved in France, one for 28 October 1939. The PC Bruno staff collaborated by teleprinter with counterparts at Bletchley Park in England. For their mutual communications security, the Polish, French, and British cryptologic agencies used the Enigma machine itself. Bruno closed its Enigma-encrypted messages to Britain with an ironic "Heil Hitler!" In the first months of 1940, Alan Turing—principal designer of the British cryptological Bombe, elaborated from the Polish bomba—would visit Bruno to confer about Enigma decryption with the three Polish cryptologists. On 24 June 1940, after Germany's victory in the Battle of France, Gustave Bertrand flew Bruno's international personnel—including fifteen Poles, and seven Spaniards who worked on Italian ciphers—in three planes to Algeria. ===Cadix=== Some three months later, in September 1940, they returned to work covertly in unoccupied southern, Vichy France. Rejewski's cover was as Pierre Ranaud, a lycée professor from Nantes. A radio-intelligence station was set up at the Château des Fouzes, code-named Cadix, near Uzès. Cadix began operations on 1 October. Rejewski and his colleagues solved German telegraph ciphers, and also the Swiss version of the Enigma machine (which had no plugboard). Rejewski may have had little or no involvement in working on German Enigma at Cadix. In early July 1941, Rejewski and Zygalski were asked to try solving messages enciphered on the secret Polish Lacida cipher machine, which was used for secure communications between Cadix and the Polish General Staff in London. Lacida was a rotor machine based on the same cryptographic principle as Enigma, yet had never been subjected to rigorous security analysis. The two cryptologists created consternation by breaking the first message within a couple of hours; further messages were solved in a similar way. The youngest of the three Polish mathematicians who had worked together since 1929—Jerzy Różycki—died in the sinking of a French passenger ship on 9 January 1942, as he was returning to Cadix from a stint in Algeria. By summer 1942 work at Cadix was becoming dangerous, and plans for evacuation were drawn up. Vichy France was liable to be occupied by German troops, and Cadix's radio transmissions were increasingly at risk of detection by the German Funkabwehr, a unit tasked with locating enemy radio transmitters. Indeed, on 6 November a pickup truck equipped with a circular antenna arrived at the gate of the Château des Fouzes where the cryptologists were operating. The visitors, however, did not enter, and merely investigated nearby farms, badly frightening their occupants. Nonetheless, at Bertrand's suggestion French intelligence ordered the evacuation of Cadix. The order was carried out on 9 November, the day after the Allied "Operation Torch" landings in North Africa. Three days later, on 12 November, the Germans occupied the chateau. ===Escaping France=== The Poles were split into groups of two and three. On 11 November 1942 Rejewski and Zygalski were sent to Nice, in the Italian-occupied zone. After coming under suspicion there, they had to flee again, moving or hiding constantly. Their trek took them to Cannes, Antibes, back to Nice, then on to Marseilles, Toulouse, Narbonne, Perpignan, and Ax-les-Thermes, near the Spanish border. On 29 January 1943, accompanied by a local guide, Rejewski, and Zygalski, bound for Spain, began a climb over the Pyrenees, avoiding German and Vichy patrols. Near midnight, close to the Spanish border, the guide pulled out a pistol and demanded that they hand over their remaining money. After being robbed, Rejewski and Zygalski succeeded in reaching the Spanish side of the border, only to be arrested within hours by security police. They were sent first to a prison in La Seu d'Urgell, then on 24 March transferred to a prison at Lerida. On 4 May 1943, after having spent over three months in Spanish prisons, on intervention by the Polish Red Cross the pair were released and sent to Madrid. Leaving there on 21 July, they made it to Portugal; from there, aboard HMS Scottish, to Gibraltar; and then by air to RAF Hendon in north London, arriving on 3 August 1943. ===Britain=== thumb|Marian Rejewski, second lieutenant (signals), Polish Army in Britain, in late 1943 or in 1944, 11 or 12 years after he first broke Enigma Rejewski and Zygalski were inducted as privates into the Polish Armed Forces on 16 August 1943 and were posted to a Polish Army facility in Boxmoor, cracking German SS and SD hand ciphers. The ciphers were usually based on the Doppelkassettenverfahren ("double Playfair") system, which the two cryptologists had already worked on in France. British cryptologist Alan Stripp suggests that "Setting them to work on the Doppelkassetten system was like using racehorses to pull wagons." On 10 October 1943, Rejewski and Zygalski were commissioned second lieutenants; on 1 January 1945 Rejewski, and presumably also Zygalski, were promoted to lieutenant. When Gustave Bertrand fled to England in June 1944, he and his wife were provided with a house in Boxmoor, a short walk from the Polish radio station and cryptology office, where it seems likely that his collaboration with Rejewski and Zygalski continued. Enigma decryption, however, had become an exclusively British and American domain; the Polish mathematicians who had laid the foundations for Allied Enigma decryption were now excluded from making further contributions in this area. By that time, at Bletchley Park, "very few even knew about the Polish contribution" because of the strict secrecy and the "need-to-know" principle. ==Back in Poland== After the Germans suppressed the 1944 Warsaw Uprising, they sent Rejewski's wife and children west, along with other Warsaw survivors; the family eventually found refuge with her parents in Bydgoszcz. Rejewski was discharged from the Polish Army in Britain on 15 November 1946. Six days later, he returned to Poland to be reunited with his wife and family. On his return, he was urged by his old Poznań University professor, Zdzisław Krygowski, to take a university mathematics post at Poznań or Szczecin, in western Poland. Rejewski could have looked forward to rapid advancement because of personnel shortages as a result of the war. However, he was still recovering from rheumatism, which he had contracted in the Spanish prisons. Soon after his return to Poland, in the summer of 1947, his 11-year-old son Andrzej died of polio after only five days' illness. After his son's death, Rejewski did not want to part, even briefly, with his wife and daughter, so they lived in Bydgoszcz with his in-laws. He took a position in Bydgoszcz as director of the sales department at a cable-manufacturing company, Kabel Polski (Polish Cable). thumb|2005 Polish prepaid postcard, on centennial of Rejewski's birth Between 1949 and 1958 Rejewski was repeatedly investigated by the Polish Office of Public Security, who suspected he was a former member of the Polish Armed Forces in the West. He retired in 1967, and moved with his family back to Warsaw in 1969, to an apartment he had acquired 30 years earlier with financial help from his father-in-law. Rejewski had written a "Report of Cryptologic Work on the German Enigma Machine Cipher" in 1942. Before his 1967 retirement, he began writing his "Memoirs of My Work in the Cipher Bureau of Section II of the [Polish] General Staff", which were purchased by the , in Warsaw. Rejewski had often wondered what use Alan Turing (who in early 1940 had visited the Polish cryptologists at PC Bruno outside Paris) and the British at Bletchley Park had ultimately made of the Polish discoveries and inventions. For nearly three decades after the war, little was publicly known due to a ban imposed in 1945 by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. In a 1967 book Władysław Kozaczuk, associated with the Military Historical Institute, disclosed Poland's breaking of the German Enigma ciphers. Until 1974, the scant information published concerning Enigma decryption attracted little attention. Ladislas Farago's 1971 best-seller The Game of the Foxes presented a garbled account of Ultra's origins: "Commander Denniston went clandestinely to a secluded Polish castle [sic] on the eve of the war [to pick up an Enigma, 'the Wehrmacht's top system' during World War II]. Dilly Knox later solved its keying [sic]..." Still, this was marginally closer to the truth than many British and American best-seller accounts that would follow after 1974. Their authors were at a disadvantage: they did not know that the founder of Enigma decryption, Rejewski, was still alive and alert, and that it was reckless to fabricate stories out of whole cloth. With Gustave Bertrand's 1973 publication of his Enigma, substantial information about the origins of Ultra began to seep out; and with F. W. Winterbotham's 1974 best-seller, The Ultra Secret, the dam began to burst. Still, many aspiring authors were not averse to filling gaps in their information with whole-cloth fabrications. Rejewski fought a gallant (if, into the 21st century, not entirely successful) fight to get the truth before the public. He published a number of papers on his cryptologic work and contributed generously to articles, books, and television programs. He was interviewed by scholars, journalists, and television crews from Poland, East Germany, the United States, Britain, Sweden, Belgium, the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and Brazil. Rejewski maintained a lively correspondence with his wartime French host, General Gustave Bertrand, and at the General's bidding he began translating Bertrand's Enigma into Polish. In 1976, at the request of the Józef Piłsudski Institute of America, Rejewski broke enciphered correspondence of Józef Piłsudski and his fellow Polish Socialist conspirators from 1904. On 12 August 1978 he received from a grateful Polish people the Officer's Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta. Rejewski, who had been suffering from heart disease, died of a heart attack on 13 February 1980, aged 74, after returning home from a shopping trip. He was buried with military honors at Warsaw's Powązki Military Cemetery. ==Recognition== On 21 July 2000, Poland's President Aleksander Kwaśniewski posthumously awarded Poland's second-highest civilian decoration, the Grand Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta, to Marian Rejewski and Henryk Zygalski. In July 2005 Rejewski's daughter, Janina Sylwestrzak, received on his behalf the War Medal 1939–1945 from the British Chief of the Defence Staff. On 1 August 2012 Marian Rejewski posthumously received the Knowlton Award of the U.S. Military Intelligence Corps Association; his daughter Janina accepted the award at his home town, Bydgoszcz, on 4 September 2012. Rejewski had been nominated for the Award by NATO Allied Command Counterintelligence. In 2009, the Polish Post issued a series of four commemorative stamps, one of which pictured Rejewski and fellow mathematician-cryptologists Jerzy Różycki and Henryk Zygalski. On 5 August 2014 the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) honored Rejewski, Różycki, and Zygalski with its prestigious Milestone Award, which recognizes achievements that have changed the world. A three-sided bronze monument was dedicated in 2007 in front of the Imperial Castle in Poznań. Each side bears the name of one of the three Polish mathematicians who broke the Enigma cipher. Rejewski and colleagues were the heroes of Sekret Enigmy (The Enigma Secret), a thriller movie about the Poles' solution of the German Enigma cipher. Late 1980 also saw a Polish TV series with a similar theme, Tajemnice Enigmy ("The Secrets of Enigma"). In 2021 the Enigma Cipher Centre, an educational and scientific institution dedicated to the Polish mathematicians who broke the Enigma cipher, including Marian Rejewski, opened in Poznań. ==See also== * List of cryptographers * List of Poles * Polish contribution to World War II * Timeline of Polish science and technology ==Notes== ==References== ===Citations=== ===Bibliography=== :The main source used for this article was . * * * * * * * * * * * * (Kozaczuk's Polish- language book that was later elaborated into the English-language .) * . (The standard reference on the Polish part in the Enigma-decryption epic. This English-language book is substantially revised from the Polish-language , with additional documentation, including many substantive chapter notes and papers by, and interviews with, Marian Rejewski.) * * * * * * , 117 pp., PRO HW 25/2 * * * ; has afterwords by I. J. Good and Cipher A. Deavours; also appears as * * * * . Covers much the same ground as . * Rejewski, Marian, interview (transcribed by Christopher Kasparek) in Woytak, Richard (1999), Werble historii [History's Drumroll], edited by and with introduction by Stanisław Krasucki, illustrated with 36 photographs, Bydgoszcz, Poland, Związek Powstańców Warszawskich w Bydgoszczy [Association of Warsaw Insurgents in Bydgoszcz], , pp. 123–143. A more complete transcript of the interview, highlights of which earlier appeared in , and as Appendix B to Kozaczuk, Władysław, Enigma, pp. 229–240. * * * * * * * ==Further reading== * ==External links== * The Breaking of Enigma by the Polish Mathematicians by Tony Sale * How Mathematicians Helped Win WWII – National Security Agency * Enigma documents * Marian Rejewski and the First Break into Enigma * Plaque location Category:1905 births Category:1980 deaths Category:20th-century Polish inventors Category:20th-century Polish mathematicians Category:Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań alumni Category:Cipher Bureau (Poland) Category:Enigma machine Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Polonia Restituta Category:People from Bydgoszcz Category:People from the Province of Posen Category:Polish cryptographers Category:Polish Army officers Category:Polish military personnel of World War II Category:Pre-computer cryptographers |
"Don't Phunk with My Heart" (censored as "Don't Mess with My Heart") is a song recorded by American group the Black Eyed Peas for their fourth studio album Monkey Business (2005). It was written by band members will.i.am and Fergie with Printz Board, George Pajon, Jr. and Full Force; will.i.am also produced and engineered the song. The song is a hip hop song in which the lyrics, according to will.i.am, tell of a situation between a couple when one tries to end the relationship and the other is in disbelief. It features compositional samples of songs derived from two Bollywood films of the 1970s, Apradh (1972) and Don (1978), as well as interpolations of Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam's 1985 single "I Wonder If I Take You Home" and Gucci Crew II's 1988 single "Sally (That Girl)", which effectively credited Kalyanji–Anandji, Indeewar and Full Force as songwriters. The song was released as the lead single from Monkey Business on April 5, 2005, by A&M; Records and Interscope Records. "Don't Phunk with My Heart" was received positively by most contemporary music critics, with many of them naming it one of the album's highlights. It was also met with a positive commercial response, peaking at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100-becoming the group's highest-peaking single on the chart at the time-and at number one in Australia, the Czech Republic, Finland, and New Zealand. At the 48th Annual Grammy Awards (2006), it won Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group, while receiving a nomination for Best Rap Song. The song's accompanying music video is a parody of game shows, most notably The Price Is Right, The Dating Game, and Love Connection. ==Background== "Don't Phunk with My Heart" is one of two songs on Monkey Business that was written by will.i.am and Fergie of the Black Eyed Peas. Additional writers include George Pajon, Jr. and Printz Board. The song contains samples of several songs: "I Wonder If I Take You Home", written and composed by Full Force, and "Ae Naujawan Sab Kuchh Yahan" and "Yeh Mera Dil Pyaar Ka Diwana", both recorded by Asha Bhosle, composed by Kalyanji Anandji, and with lyrics written by Indeewar. The former of the latter two was featured in the Hindi film Apradh (1972) while the latter was featured in the Hindi film Don (1978). Black Eyed Peas member will.i.am, in addition to co-writing the song, produced the track on his own while working with Neil Tucker and Tal Herzberg on engineering it. Co-writer Pajon, Jr. contributed guitars while Keith Harris played the drums. "Don't Phunk with My Heart" features a prominent use of several string instruments, which include the electric violin and Mellotron strings, played by Charlie Baccarat and song co-writer Board. It was then mixed by Mark "Spike" Stent and programmed by Herzberg using Pro Tools technology. The song was recorded at Metropolis Studios in Chiswick, London, England and The Record Plant in Los Angeles, California. "Don't Phunk with My Heart" serves as the first single taken from Monkey Business (2005). Interscope Records solicited the song to mainstream radios on April 11, 2005, in the United States. ==Composition== "Don't Phunk with My Heart" is a hip-hop dance song that runs for 4 minutes and 4 seconds. According to the digital music sheet published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group, it is written in a key of F minor. The song is set in common time and runs through a freely moving tempo of 132 beats per minute. will.i.am described the song to be the lyrical sequel to the band's 2003 single "Shut Up" (Elephunk, 2003). He explained: "When you're on bad terms with a significant other, you don't want to break up. You tell her things and at the time you really mean them. But she's saying, stop f****ing with me." Jason King of The Village Voice called the song a "sassy gender duel" between will.i.am and Fergie, while commenting that it is reminiscent of "Shut Up". ==Critical reception== Nicholas Taylor of PopMatters called "Don't Phunk with My Heart" a "standout" in regard to "complex and engaging hip-hop music, a mix of rap, soul, jazz, and funk that will constantly surprise and delight." However, he stated that "Pump It" would have been a better choice for the first single, writing that it "continually impresses and grooves and better melds raps with beats", while noting "Don't Phunk with My Heart" to get repetitive and clunky. Taylor further explains the song's cons, writing that it suffers from "unimpressive rapping" and "a distinct lack of substance". John Bush of Allmusic listed it as one of the album's best tracks. Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club calls it a continuation of the "summertime vibe of dumb fun". Robert Christgau listed the song as a track pick. Azeem Ahmad of musicOMH predicted the album Monkey Business to be a success if "Don't Phunk with My Heart" was an indication of its sound. The staff at Boston.com felt the song was "OK" compared to "My Style", a different album track. Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times called it "a much more wholesome hip-hop hit", comparing it to Ying Yang Twins' 2005 single "Wait (The Whisper Song)". The Black Eyed Peas were nominated for two 2006 Grammy Awards for the song and won for "Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group". The song also won the BMI Award, which was awarded to the Kalyanji Anandji brothers, for their compositions of "Ye Mera Dil" and "Ae Nujawan" used as a basis for the song. The award was collected by Anandji Virji Shah, the surviving member of the duo. ==Chart performance== In the United States, "Don't Phunk with My Heart" entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number ninety-seven following its release. The song then jumped sixty-six places to number thirty-one in the following week due to digital sales. It continued to rise up the chart until June 25, 2005, when it peaked at number three due to an increase in digital sales, becoming the week's "greatest digital gainer". "Don't Phunk with My Heart" also reached the top ten on the Billboard Mainstream Top 40. The song sold over 500,000 digital copies in the United States, earning a gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). In the United Kingdom, "Don't Phunk with My Heart" entered and debuted at number three on the UK Singles Chart on May 22, 2005 (for the week ending May 28, 2005). It lasted four weeks inside the top ten and sixteen weeks total on the chart. According to the Official Charts Company, the song sold 210,000 copies there. The song fared similarly in Ireland, where it debuted and peaked at number four on the singles chart. On May 23, 2005, "Don't Phunk with My Heart" debuted and peaked at number one on the Australian Singles Chart. It lost the position the following week but retook the position on June 12 and maintained the top spot for two more weeks. The song has shipped over 70,000 copies in Australia, earning a platinum certification by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). In New Zealand, the song entered the singles chart at number thirty-six on May 16, 2005. The following week, it rose to number one, where it stayed for three consecutive weeks. The song shipped 15,000 copies in New Zealand, earning a platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ). "Don't Phunk with My Heart" appeared on the Norwegian Singles Chart on May 24, 2005, at number five. It maintained that position for three weeks before rising to number four on June 14, 2005, where it continued to stay for three more weeks. The song remained on the chart for six more weeks and shipped over 5,000 copies, earning a gold certification by IFPI Norway. Across the rest of Europe, "Don't Phunk with My Heart" achieved top-five positions in Austria, Denmark, Finland, Flanders, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, and Switzerland and reached the top ten in France, Germany, Sweden, and Wallonia. ==Music video== The video for the song is a parody of game shows, most notably The Price Is Right, The Dating Game, and Love Connection. will.i.am, apl.de.ap and Taboo attempt to win the heart of Fergie, a beautiful girl, by being chosen to go on a date with her by spinning a wheel to decide where they will go, then being teleported to the site. will.i.am takes Fergie on a horse-ride, apl takes her dancing and Taboo takes her to a restaurant, but each date ends badly with Voodoo Thursday sabotaging the boys' attempts. He makes will.i.am's horse buck him off, he makes apl twitch when Fergie tries to kiss him, and he programs Taboo to grab another girl's butt. In the end, Fergie has to choose whom to end up with. Voodoo then spins the wheel, it comes up "knock boots". When the time comes for Fergie to choose, Voodoo whispers something to Fergie, and they are teleported away. The members of The Black Eyed Peas all appear in the video, some in multiple roles. will.i.am plays himself, the host Voodoo Thursday, and the drummer in the live band. apl plays himself, the guitarist, and the announcer, Fergie plays herself and Taboo plays himself and the pianist/keyboardist in the live band. A brief instrumental clip of the song can be heard on various episodes of The Hills as their cue for possible drama coming up. ==Track listings== US promotional CD (AMRR-11406-2 1N02) UK CD single (9882330) European CD single (988 232-9) European enhanced maxi-single (988 232-8) ==Credits and personnel== Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Monkey Business, A&M; Records, will.i.am Music Group, Interscope Records. Recording and sample * Recorded at Metropolis Studios in Chiswick, London, England and The Record Plant in Los Angeles, California. * Contains elements of "I Wonder If I Take You Home", written by Full Force under Careers-BMG Music (BMI) * Contains elements of "Ae Naujawan Sab Kuchh Yahan", written by Kalyanji Anandji and Indeewar under Saregma India Ltd. (IRPS) * Contains elements of "Yeh Mera Dil Yaar Ka Diwana", written by Kalyanji Anandji and Indeewar under Saregma India Ltd. (IRPS) Personnel * Songwriting – William Adams, Stacy Ferguson, Printz Board, George Pajon, Jr., Full Force, Kalyanji Anandji, Indeewar * Vocals – will.i.am, Fergie and Taboo * Production – will.i.am * Drums – Keith Harris * Guitar – George Pajon, Jr. * Keyboards – Printz Board * String arrangement – Ron Fair * Electric violin – Charlie Baccarat * Pro Tools programming – Tal Herzberg * Engineering – will.i.am, Neil Tucker, Tal Herzberg * Mixing – Mark "Spike" Stent ==Charts== ===Weekly charts=== Chart (2005) Peak position Canada CHR/Pop Top 30 (Radio & Records) 1 Czech Republic (IFPI) 1 Europe (Eurochart Hot 100) 2 Greece (IFPI) 4 ===Year-end charts=== Chart (2005) Position Australia (ARIA) 10 Australian Urban (ARIA) 7 Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40) 49 Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders) 36 Belgium (Ultratop 50 Wallonia) 63 CIS (TopHit) 40 Europe (Eurochart Hot 100) 29 France (SNEP) 51 Germany (Official German Charts) 79 Hungary (Rádiós Top 40) 23 Italy (FIMI) Click on Scarica l'allegato. 26 Netherlands (Dutch Top 40) 16 Netherlands (Single Top 100) 51 New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ) 7 Romania (Romanian Top 100) 28 Sweden (Sverigetopplistan) 25 Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade) 40 UK Singles (OCC) 25 US Billboard Hot 100 13 Venezuela (Record Report) 7 ==Certifications== ==Release history== Release dates and formats for "Don't Phunk with My Heart" Region Date Format(s) Label(s) United States April 5, 2005 Digital download April 11, 2005 Contemporary hit radio May 10, 2005 12-inch vinyl Australia May 16, 2005 CD Universal Music France Maxi CD Polydor United Kingdom Germany May 17, 2005 Maxi CD Universal Music France May 18, 2005 CD Polydor Japan May 27, 2005 Universal Music ==Cover versions== Russian metalcore band Amatory released a cover version of the song, as "Don't Fuck with My Heart". It appears on their covers EP Discovery. ==References== ==External links== * "Don't Phunk with My Heart" lyrics Category:2005 singles Category:2005 songs Category:A&M; Records singles Category:Black Eyed Peas songs Category:Interscope Records singles Category:Music videos directed by The Malloys Category:Number-one singles in Australia Category:Number-one singles in the Czech Republic Category:Number-one singles in Finland Category:Number-one singles in New Zealand Category:Songs written by Fergie (singer) Category:Songs written by George Pajon Category:Songs written by will.i.am |
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